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HOOVER INSTITUTION
on War, Revolution, and Peace
fQUNDtD Br HERBERT HOOVER
• •+YWr%^fauxv!^>v**za '
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
edition,
published
in three volumes,
1768— 1 771.
SECOND
,,
tt
ten „
I777—»784.
THIRD
»»
t»
eighteen „
1788—1797.
FOURTH
tt
„
twenty „
1801— 1 8 10.
FIFTH
»>
tt
twenty „
1815— 1817.
SIXTH
>»
„
twenty „
1823—1824.
SEVENTH
•t
•t
twenty-one „
1830— 1842.
EIGHTH
n
•t
twenty -two ,,
1853— 1860.
NINTH
»
>t
twenty-five n
1875—1889.
TENTH
n
ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes,
190a— 1903.
ELEVENTH
tt
published in twenty-nine volumes.
1910—1911.
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
edition,
published
in three volumes,
1768—1771.
SECOND
tt
„
ten „
1777— 1784.
THIRD
»»
tt
eighteen „
1788—1707.
FOURTH
•t
tt
twenty „
1801— 1810.
FIFTH
»t
tt
twenty „
1815—1817.
SIXTH
ft
tt
twenty „
1823—1824.
SEVENTH
tt
>t
twenty-one „
1830— 1842.
EIGHTH
tt
tt
twenty-two „
1853— 1860.
NINTH
tt
t>
twenty-five „
1875—1889.
TENTH
n
ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes,
100a— 1903.
ELEVENTH
tt
published in twenty-ninc volumes,
1910— 191 1.
M "1 *
■^CITiCi ; H
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME VI
CHATELET to CONSTANTINE
NEW YORK
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY
1910
'•A > i
* p . ..
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
TbeEncydopwfca Bntannka Comptny, .
.-,; i 1
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME VI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,* WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED,
A. Bo.*
A.B.G.*
A.B.B.
A.C.B*.
A.C.C.
A.C.MCG.
A. CS.
A.D.
A.B.B.
A.P.L.
A.O.
A. Co.*
A.H.*
A.Hk*
A.H.J.G.
A. J. 0.
Botany;
Const: Botany.
-Church,
Augusts Boudinhon, D.D., D.C.L.
Professor of Canon Law in the Catholic Univcnity of Paris. Editor of the Canonist* i Concordat;
eontemporain. Author of Biens figliu 4t prints canoniques; Ac. I Consistory.
Alice B. Gommx.
Hon. Member of the Folk-lore Society. Author of Dictionary of Traditional Games
of Groat Britain and Ireland; Children's Singing Games.
Alfred Barton Rendu. M.A., D.Sc.. F.R.S., F.L.S.
Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of Text Book en Classifi-
cation of Flowering Plants; Ac
Arthur Christopher Bensok, C.V.O., M.A., F.R.Hbt.S.
See the biographical article: Benson. Edward White.
Albert Curtis Clark, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and University Reader in Latin.
Editor of Cicero's Speeches (Clarendon Press).
Arthur Cushhan McGhteit, D.D., Ph.D., M.A.
Professor of Church History in Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of
A History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; Ac
Algernon Charles Swinburne.
See the biographical article: Swinburne, A. C
Austin Dobson.
See the biographical article: Dobson, Henry Austin.
Rev. Andrew Ewbane Burn, M.A., D.D.
Vicar of Halifax and Prebendary of Lichfield. Author of An Introduction to the \ CtardL
Creeds and the To Denm; Niceta of Remesiana; &c '
Arthur Francis Leach. M.A. |
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. .Charity Commissioner lor England and Wales. \
(in part).
. Congrtvt,
[ciswtorlwsi, 4th Earl of.
■{■
Formerly Assistant Secretary of the Board of Education.
College, Oxford, 1874-18*1. Sunhope Priaeman, 1872.
of All Sools'
Major Arthur George Fredebxce Griffiths (d. 1008). f
H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate-A
Secrets qf the Prison House; Ac L
Rxv. Alexander Gordon, M.A.
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.
fChtmnlts;
Albert Hauck, D.Th.. Ph.D.. DJuris.
Professor of Church History in the University of Ldprig. Director of the Collection
of Ecclesiastical Archaeology. Member of the Royal Saxon Society of Arts and .
Sciences. Formerly Professor : - * u - "- J f ! — -* ■*-■ ■*-" ' -*- J- *
• in the University of Erlangen. Editor of the 3rd
edition of Herzog-Hauck's RealencyhlopddiejAr protestantische Theologie und Kirche.
Author of Kirckengeschichle De ut schla nds ; TertuUians Leben und Schriften; Ac.
Augustine Henry, M.A., F.L.S.
Reader in Forestry, Cambridge University. Formerly Official in Chinese Imperial .
Maritime Customs. Explorer of the Flora of the interior of China, Formosa and '
Hainan.
Abel Hendy Jones Greemdge, M.A., D.Lttt. (Oxon.) (d. 1905).
Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College. Oxford, and of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of infamia in Roman Lew; Handhooh of Greek Constitutional.
History; Roman Public Life; History of Rome. Joint-author of Sources of Reman
History, i$J~7Q *£.
Rev. Alexander James Grieve, M.A., B.D. (Lond.).
Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent
CoBege, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member oP
l»frs«s* Educational Service.
1 A complete Qst, showing all individual contributors, appears to the final volume.
Church History (in part).
Flora.
E (in pari).
d INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
CbXm: Geography and
Statistics;
Colombia: Geography ami
Statistics.
A. J. L. Andrew Jackson Lamoureux.
Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the Rio News
(Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901
JL LO. AUGUSTE LONCNON.
Professor at the College dc France. Director of the Ecole des Haute* Etudes. ,
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute. Author of Geographic
delaGauleauVPsibcle.
JL W. C Arthur WniiAM Clayden, M.A.
Christ's College, Cambridge. Principal of the Royal Albert Memorial College, -
Exeter. Author of Cloud Studies; The Clouds of Venus; &c
A. W. Po. Alfred William Pollard. M.A.
Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King's College,
London. Hon. Secretary, Bibliographical Society. Editor of Boohs about Boohs '
and Btbliographica. Joint-editor of the Library. Chief Editor of die " Globe"
Chaucer.
A. W, R. Alexander Wooo Rehton, M.A., LL.B. f
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Law 1
of England. I
C. Earl of Crewe. f
See the biographical article: Ciewb, Earl OF. \
C. A. HftcH. Charles Alexander Macmunn, M.A., M.D., F.CS. f Coiom* of Animafe
Formerly Physician and Pathologist to Wolverhampton General Hospital Author A ^ F-Z., . '
of Outlines of Clinical Chemistry; The Spectroscope tn Medicine; Ac. I ^*unstry.
C B.* Charles Bemont, D.Litt. (Onm.). J Chroakb;
See the biographical article: Bemont. C I ComilHim.
C BL Rev. Charles Bigg, M.A„ D.D. (1840-1908). t
Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Oxford, 1001-1906. Examining J Clement of Aknadrfe
Chaplain to Bishop of London. Author of Neoptatonism; The Christian PleJonists') /JTa^rt
of Alexandria; &c Editor of St Augustine's Confessions; De Imitation*, *c , J, K m F°pi'
C R.* Charles Evbritt, M.A.. F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. /Chemistry;
Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. \ Ctrftlt (in pari).
C.E.A. C E. Akers. f
Formerly Times Correspondent in Buenos Aire** Author el A History of South < Chile: History (in pari).
America, 1854-1904. I
C. H. Hft. Carlton Huntley Hayes. D.D. f
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member J flfnUrt VL*
of the American Historical Association. Author of An Introduction to the Sources 1 rum-t VUL* antinomy
relating to the Barbarian Invasions. I """"— '*"•• •■»*»?«•
0* J* H« Charles John Holmes, M.A. f
Director, Keeper and Secretary of the National Portrait Gallery. Stade Professor 1 China: Chinese Art (Sculptwt);
of Fine Art, Oxford, 1904-1910. . Author of Constable; Constable and his Influence | Conftt&bJe, John. '
on Landscape Painting; Notes on the Science of Picture Mahing; Ac I
C. K. K. Sot Charles Malcolm Kennedy, K.C.M.G., C.B. (1 831-1008). r
Head of Commercial Department, Foreign Office, 1873-1893. Lecturer on Inter- I
national Law, University College, Bristol. Commissioner in the Levant, 1 870-1871 : < COflUMfelal TrSttlSfl.
at Paris, 1872-1886. Plenipotentiary, Treaty of the Hague, 1 88a. Author of |
Diplomacy and International Law.
0. It Christian Pfister, D. is L. fChfldebtrt; Chllperle;
Professor at the Sorbonnc, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of < Clotaire; Clotilda. Stint:
Btudes sue le regno de Robert le Pieux; Ac I Owls.
0. R. B* Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Lrrr., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography, i ffommbllS. ChrbtOfihar.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author ir ' VW " MM,, "» ^""r* 1 '
Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modem Geography; Ac
-1
0.4. Hon. Carl Schurz, LL.D. f_ w
See the biographical article: Schurs, Carl. • \ Oaf, Henry.
0. W. R. OL Charles Wallwyn Radcufte Cooke. f
President, National Association of English Gdcr-makers. M.P. for Walworth, < Cider,
1885-1892, and for Hereford, 1893-1900. Author of A Booh about Oder and Perry. I
C W. W. Sir Charles William Wilson, K.C.B., K.C.M.O., F.R.S. (1836-1907).
Majoc-GeneraJ, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary
Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Bourn 1 "
Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com-
irector-General of the C
_. _ ilitary
LordOivJibc
mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General
of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of
Cfileim (in part).
D. F. T. Dovald Francis Tovey. , m_ M .M«.H
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising the] JJSw
Classical Concerto; The Goldberg Variations; and analyses of many other classical 1 aMltt J
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
rii
0LO.&
O.H.
D.Mn.
B.B.F.
B.C.B.
B.G.Q
E.E.H.
B.O.
B.G.J.E.
B.Gr.
B.H.B.
B.K.G.
B.HS.
Ed. at.
B.V.
B.W.C.
r.co.
F.G.M.B.
P.O. P.
P.H*
P.H.B.
p.j.j^a.
David George Hogarth, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1903; Assiut. 1906-1907. Director, British School at
Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
David Hanhay.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Sheet History of Royal Nary,
1217-1688', Life of Emilio Outdo*; Ac
(in P«t)\
Colophon;
rChloggfa;
I Church, Sir Richard;
Coastguard;
LCodrinfton,SlrEdwarC
Rev. Ducald Macfadyen, M.A. f
Minuter of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the Loodoa < Concordance.
Missionary Society. Author of Constructive Congregational Idoals. I
Edward Baonall Poulton, M.A., D.Sc, LLD.. F.R.S.
Hope Professor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Jesus College,
Oxford. Author of Tko Colours of Animals; Essays on Eootnlion; Darwin and the
Original Species; Ac
Right Rev. Edwabd Cutrbebt Butler, O.S.B., Dim. (Dublin).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.
Edmund Crosby Quiccin, M.A. i
Fellow and Lecturer in Modern Languages and Monro Lecturer in Celtic, Gonvule H
and Caius College, Cambridge.
Edwabd Everett Hale
See the biographical article: Hale, E. E.
Edmund Gosse, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Gossa, E.
E. G. J. Moywa, F.R.G.S.
New College, Oxford.
Colours of
Cistercians; Clan, Saint;
dam, Poet; Clnnjr.
Columba, Saint
{otika,
{Cfioriamblc Verse; Clanvowe;
Coffins, wmiam;
Coaaoieaee, Hendrlk;
Constable, Henry.
•f Chile: History (in part).
/Chios {in 'part);
ICUhsoron;
dough, A. H.
Ernest Arthur Gardner. M.A.
See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy.
Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A.
Lecturer in Palaeography in the University of Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant
Librarian, and formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge.
Edmund Kerchever Chambers.
Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Sometime Scholar of Corpus Christ!
College, Oxford. Chancellor's English Essayist, 1891 . Author of The Medieval Stage. '
Editor of the " Red Letter " Shakespeare; Donne's Poms; Vaughan's Poem; &c
Edward Manson. f
Barrister-at- Law, Middle Temple. Joint-editor of Journal of Comparative Legislation; < Company.
Law of Trading Companies; Practical Guide to Company Law; Ac. I
Eduard Meyer, D.Lrrr. (Oxon.), Ph.D., LL.D.
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Member of the Royal
Prussian Academy. Author of Geschichle des Alterthunsi Forschungen tnr alien'
Gesckuhte; &c -
Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, •
Great Ormond Street. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students,
Rev. Edmund Venables, M.A., D.D. (1810-1805).
Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of England.
Ettrick William Creak. C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S,
Cleft Palate and Hare Ufv
{
Cloister.
rick William Creak. C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. f
Captain, R.N. Formerly Superintendent of Comp a sses, Hydrographic Department, \ Co&pass {in pari).
Admiralty. Author of many papers on magnetic subjects. t
Formerly Fellow of University College. Oxford.
Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c
Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th. (Giessen),
Fellow of the British Academy. Former!] ~
Author of The Ancient Armenian
Francis Edward Wentworth-Sheilds, MJnst.C.E.
Docks Engineer, London & South- Western Railway.
Frederick Georce Meeson Beck, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.
'Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst.
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medidne for Women.
Formerly Hunteriaa Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.
Frederick Hibth, Ph.D.
Professor of Chinese in Columbia University, New York. Author of China and the
Roman Orient; The Ancient History of China to the End of the Ghon Dynasty; Ac.
Francis H. Butler, M.A.
Associate of the Royal School of Mines.
Rev. Frederick John Tervts-Smtth, M.A., F.R.S.. F.R.A.S.
Msaard Lecturer in Experimental Mechanics and Engineering, Trinity College, •
Oxford. Fc<merlyUmversiry Lecturer in Mechanics.
Conseeiatlom.
{
rcimbrl;
History (in part).
- Compass {in part).
Chronograph*
■.ittdi**.
Tiii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. K. FKHDRICH WlLHELM EOUARD KEUTGEN, Ph.D.
Professor of History in the University of Hamburg. Formerly Protestor of Medieval
and Modern History in the University of Jena. Author of Die House umd Engfond
im 14. Johrhundert; Untersuckungen fber den Vrsfpmg der deutschen Stadtoerfassung;
Urhnnden %ur stadtischen Verfassungsgeschichte; AmUr und ZUnfte; Sec
F. LL 0. Francis Llewellyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D. (Leipzig), F.S.A. f
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, J
Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Sumy and Archaeological Reports of the ]
Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial German Archaeological Institute. I
F. 9. II Col. Frederic Natusch Maude, C.B. f
Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War end thai
World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign, I
F. R. a Fianx R. Cana. J Congo;
Authoro( South Africofr<mtheGreatTnhtolhe Union. \ Congo Frat State (in part).
F. W. R.* Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S. fchmaharvl- Chmanmsa*
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. « Xt-.HI. »«#■»»»■■■»
President of the Geologists' Association. 1887-1889- I C™****'
0. Lord Grmthorpe. / q^ (• ^^
See the biographical article: Grimthorfe, ist Barok. \ "■" ** *""'•
0. A. B. Georoe A. Boulenger, F.R.S. f cuhOd*
In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -) Jf~| *
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. I WML
Q, C. W. George Charles Williamson, Litt.D. f „ . _,
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard I ClOUa^ FTEBOOB;
Cosway, R.A.; George EnrUkeart; Portrait Drawings; &c Editor of new edition ] Clonal, Jean.
. M Paint
Chile: History (in part);
Colombia: History,
Conjuring (,» pari).
of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers.
0. ■. Rev. George Edmundson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College. Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909.
Employed by British Government in preparation of the British case in t u - fa -* : -'- **
Guiana-Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian boundary arbitrations.
0. Fa. G. Faur.
Q. CL Co. George Gordon Coulton, M.A.
Birkbeck Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author
of Medieval Studies; Chancer and his England; &c
0. H. C. George Herbert Carpenter, M.R.I.A.
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: •
their Structure and Ufa.
0. H. Fo. George Herbert Fowler, Ph.D., F.Z.S., F.L.S. r
Formerly Berkeley Fellow of Owens College. Manchester, and Assistant Professor of J Coelenttra.
Zoology at University College, London. Member of Council of Linnean Society. I
0. J. George Jamieson, C.M.G., M.A. r
Formerly Consul-General at Shanghai, and Consul and Judge of the Supreme Court, J China (in pari).
Shanghai.
; Turner. r
Oaitndon, Constitutions of.
0. J. T. George James Turner.
Barnster-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden .
Society t ace
CoaMiT.
G. L. Georo Lunge, Ph.D., F.C.S.
See the biographical article: Lunge, Georo. \ v
6. S. C Sir George Sydenham Claree, G.C.M.G.. G.CJ.E., F.R.S. r
Governor of Bombay. Author of Imperial Defence; Russia's Croat Sea Power; The J Coaflng-StatiODS.
Last Great Naval War; &c ^
G. W. Km* Rev. George William Knox, D.D., LL.D. t
Professor of Philosophy and History of Religion, Union Theological Seminary, New _ U1 ,.
York. Author of The Religion of Jesus, The Direct and Fundamental Proofs of the \ Christianity.
Christian Religion; &c I
H. A. OL Herbert Allen Giles, MA., IX.D. r
Professor of Chinese in the University of Cambridge. Member of the China Consular I 'China: Language. LUtratttra.
Service, 1 867-1 893. Author of a Chinese-English Dictionary ; A Chinese Biographical i RAiAo*.
Dictionary; History of Chinese Literature. [ ****?**.
H. B. Hoary Bauermann, F.G.S. (d. 1009). r r „, #. + ~.
Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of J ?" <«» P** 1 *',
A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron. |Cok».
H. C. H. Rev. Horace Carter Hovey, A.M., D.D. r
Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Geological „. . . a..^
Society of America. National GeographlcSociety and Societe de SpMeologte (France). I COlOuai GiftrB.
Author of Celebrated A merican Caverns ; Handbook of Mammoth Com of Kentucky ; &c [
H. B. W. Henry Edward Watts. f
Editor of the Melbourne Argus. Author of Life of Cervantes. Translator of Don < CM, Tbt.
Quixote, I
H. H. C Sot Henry Hardinge Cunynchame. K.C.B.. M.A. f
Assistant Under-Secreury. Home Office ; Vice-President, Institute of Electrical { CMk*
Engineers. Author of various works on Enamelling. Electric Lighting, &c JL
H.L.C.
H.H.R.
H.H.W.
H.H.WO.
H.8.J.
H.IL
H.S.WL
H.Wh.
H.W.I.
H.T.
LA.
J.A.CL
J. A. P.
J. A. ■»
J.A.B.
J.C.S*.
J. IX
J.D.f.4.1
J. IP.
J.H.B.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Hugh Lohcbohrne Callentur, LL.D-, F.R.S.
ProroMpr of Physic*, Royal College of Science. London. Formerly Professor of.
Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and ih University College, London.
Hugh Munro Ros*.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln CaJlrn* Oxford.
E'tgmttfrtni Sup fitment, Antbor of Brttisk Railways.
Editor at "Th* Times'
Of HMt
I (in fori).
Hauv Marshall Ward, F.R.S. , D Sc, (d, 100O. r
Formerly Professor of Botany. Cambridge UniveTsitY> President of the British J _. ■u^i «j « «^
M yn.il. -k\c\\ Sotict y. Am bur uf /"imier anJ iff«w p/ its Diseases; The Oak; Diseases] ^ WntuMutl JullOi.
itt/'Jcatfi&C. I
Haiold MrM'.iR Woodcock, D Sc. f
Assistant to the Professor ol Prolo- Zoology. London University. Fellow of Unl> 1
verity College, London. Author o! " Mac mofhi eel late* H " in Professor Ray Lan- |
lusters Treatise of Zootogy t and of various scientific papers* I
-{
{
Henry Stuart Tones. M.A.
Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford- Director of the British School
Rome, 190J-J905. Author of The Reman Empire; Ac
Henry Stvrt, M.A.
Author at Idota Tticatri; Tie Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism; dec
Henry Smith Williams, M.D., B.Sc. .
Formerly Lecturer in the Hart lord School of Sociology. I'.S.A. Editor of The] ChrOBOlOfJ (in part); >
Historians' Hi^ty cf the World. Author of The Story ofSinetewnlh Century Science; ~ ~~ "
The History pfthe Art of Writing; The LiUOn ef Heredity; &c,
Horace White. LL.D.
Formerly Editor of the AVw York Evemnt, Poll, Sometime Editor of L
Ttfbitnf. Author of Money ami Banking Itluitratrd by American History;
\er Question;
i
£?%{
Tariff Question; The Gold Question > t The SU
H. Wick ua it Steed.
Correspondent of The Times at Rome, 1897-1903, and at Vienna.
SlB Henry Yule, K.C.SJ-. C.B.
See the biographical article: Yule, SlR HSNtY.
Israel Abrahams, M.A.
Reader in Tahnudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge.
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A *
Short H*n*ry of Jewish Literature: Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; Ac
Edited Jfu.uk Quarterly Review, ia^-i 30JJ.
John Algernon Clarke*
Author of ft* Stock* ; Ac
John Ambrose Fleidnc. MA D.Sc., F.R.S,, MJ.K.8.
Pender Profes-tut of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of
University CoHrge, London. Formerly Fellow of St Johns College, Cambridge,
and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics ia the I Diversity. Author oT Magnets ana
Eietlric Currents.
Jobk Allen Howe, B.Sc
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
Vi*¥ Rev. Joseph Armitace Robinson. D.D +
Dean of We* minister. Fellow of ihr llriii&h Academy- Hon- Fellow of Christ's
College* Cambridge. For merl y Fel low of Ch ris* ' » Coll ege. Cam bridge, and Norrieian
Professor of Di vim t y i n the U ni* crw t y . Author of Seme Thoughts on the Incarnation ;
Ac
John Chrjstophxi Schwab, A.M., Ph.D.
Librarian, Vale University. Editor of Yale Review. Author of The Confederate
States *f America ; History of New York Property Tax; *c
Stt jAitES Donaldson.
' Bee the biographical article : DONALDSON, Su J..
History (m part).
{import).
{
{oajMrtth-FIIato.
L(Mf#OYf).
Confederals States of AjMrit*,
I Clement of AJeundria (in part).
Johannes Diderib van dei Wmli, Ph.D.
Professor ol Physics at the University of Ai
profestor ol Phyii
the Liquid and Caseous Stales*
trsity of Amsterdam. Author of The Continuity of\ Co ndamntt OB Of GatH.
Rev. James Everett Frame, A.M. (Harvard}. (
Edward Robin^n Prnlnoor of BjUjcal Theology In Union Theological Seminary, «
hew York. Author of Furpasa of JV«w Tttiamuui thaatogy.
fffJfiifUfti aWttld to Iba*
Jomt Edwin Sanovs* M.A., Litt-D. p LL.D. I
Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's College, J
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of History of Classuai]
Scholarship: &c. I
John Horace Rount*. LL.D. (Edin,), ' f
Author of feudal Emtfamd, Studies ta Asrajr and PumSy History; Peerage audi Clin: PamUj.
Fedttres; &c
L Joseph John Thomson) MA., DSc. F.R.S.. LL.D,. Pn.D,
Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics, Cambridge. Professor of Physics, COBdtNfiOll,
Royal Institution, London. Fellow of Trinny College, Cambridge- PresMJent • Casta.
of the Ornish Aflsociation, 1009-1910^ Awarded Nobel Pn« for Physica* 1 006. v«*w.
Author of Candttflion af EUttriiily through G&stn Retcnt Reuurtkei in iiU-atricity ,
ami Mae/i*iij*n\ Appli&itim of Dyuamue to Physic* and Chemistry; b\c*
Blaetrie: rArtfsjga
.X
J.U.
J.L.BL
J. Ho.
J.BLBL
J.aLBo.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS; OF ARTICLES
J.H.M.
J.P.-B.
J.P.B.
I.B.C.
•J.S.P.
J.S.K.
J.T.C.
J.T.S.*
J.V.B.
K.8.
L.B. .
L.GL
L.J.8.
L.?.«
H.E.8.
{
Cltnua.
| Conjuring (in part).
{
ClOCk (in part).
Rev. James Lecce.
See the biographical artidc: Lbogb, J AMES.
John Linton Myres, M.A., F.S.A. I
Wykcham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly I
Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of 1
Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford. I
Viscount Moeley of Blackburn. J
See the biographical article: Morley, VISCOUNT. I
John Malcolm Mitchell. I
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer on Classics at East London 1
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grate's History of Greece. I
John Mackinnon Robertson, M.P. f m _ ._ _, . _ .
Author of Montaigne and Shakespeare; Modem Humanists; Buckie and his Critics; \ Coleridge, Samuel Taylor.
&c. M.P., Tyncsiclc Division of Northumberland. I
John Nevil Maskelyne.
Author of Modern Spiritualism; Sharps and Hats; &c.
James George Joseph Penderel-Brodhurst.
Editor of the Guardian, London.
Jean Paul Hippolyte Emmanuel AdhImar Esmein.
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours tihnentaire fhist
fran£ais;&c
Joseph Rogerson Cotter, M.A.
Assistant to the Professor of Physics, Trinity College, Dublin. Editor of 2nd < ColOU
edition of Preston's Theory of HeaL
John Smith Flett, D.Sc., F.G.S. f Clay;
Pctrographcr to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in J CAnrrafttiMi-
Edinburgh University. NcillMcdallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Kgsjy | 2?2!™It.
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. L Coilgtomera*
John Scott Keltie, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.).
Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of North Star.
Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Obf. Hon. Member, Geographical -
Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, Ac Editor of Statesman's Year Book, Editor of
the Geographical Journal.
Joseph Thomas Cunningham, M.A., F.Z.S.
Lecturer on Zoology at South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow of
University College, Oxford, and Assistant Professor of Natural History in the Uni
vcrsity of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association.
James Thomson Shotwell, Ph.D.
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.
ion of Honour. J
histoire du droit j
■{«
Cote Napoleon.
Congo Free State (in part).
i
{ Colbert, Jem Baptist*.
James Vernon Bartlet. M.A., D.D. (St Andrews). f «.«*«««. ih 1n<m .
. Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic \ S*™ 11 ™ Literatim;
Agc;&c ^^ \ Congregationalism.
Kathleen Schlesinger.
Author of The Instruments of Ike Orchestra.
Laurence Binyon.
See the biographical article: Bin YON, L.
Lours Duchesne.
Sec the biographical article: Duchesne, L. M. O.
Lionel Giles, M.A.
Assistant, Oriental Department, British Museum.
of War.
Chelyi; Cheng; Chorus;
Cftaan; cittern; Clarina;
Clarinet; Clavichord;
Clavicjrtherium; Concertina,
Author of Sun TeionlheArt
Leonard James Spencer, M.A.
Assistant, Department of Mineraloi
Sussex College, Cambridge, and J
Magazine.
!/, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Sidney
arkness Scholar. Editor of the Mineralogical
LuiGi Villari.
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre-
spondent in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phil-
adelphia. 1907; and Boston, U.S. A., 1007-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town
and Country; &c.
Michael Ernest Sadler, M.A., LL.t>.
Professor of the History and Administration of Education in the University of
Manchester. Formerly Director of Special Enquiries and Reports to the Board of
Education. Student and Steward of Christ Church, Oxford. Editor of Continua-
tion Schools in England and elsewhere; Moral Instruction and Training in Schools; Ac
: Chinese Art.
n.
Language (in pari).
Chlstrtnlte; Chlorite;
Chromtte; Chrysocolla;
CUntonlte; Cohaltite;
Colemanite; Columblte.
Cibrario; Colleoni;
Colletta; Colonna: Family;
Colonna, Vlttorla;
Confalonierl.
Co-edueatlon.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICfJES
BLG.D.
H.H.T.
M.O.B.C.
I.V.
I.W.T.
O.Ba.
O.J.B.H.
O.M.*
P.A.H.
P.C.T.
P. Lb.
R.itCW.
R.H*
R.J.H.
R.K.D.
R.V.B.
Ef.f.
CotarMit, J. IX C* lit
Chios (t» part).
IfTL: autipope,
~ Of.
Rt. Hon. Sib Mountstuart Elpuxnstone Grant-Duff, G.C.S.I., F.ILS. (1820-
M.P7for the Elgin Burghs. 1837-1881. Under-Secretary of State for India. 1868-
1874. Under-Secretary of State for the Colonic*, 1880-1881. Governor of Madras, '
1881-1886. President of the Royal Geographical Society, 1889-1893. President
of the Royal Historical Society, 1893-1899. Author of Studies in European Politics;
Notes from a Diary, Ac.
Marcus Niebuhr Too, M.A.
J'ellow and Tutor sA Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer b Epigraphy,
oint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum,
Max Otto Bismarck Caspau, M.A.
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming-
ham University, 1905-1908.
Joseph Marie Noel Valob.
Member of Academic des Inscriptions et Belles- Lcttres, Paris. Honorary Archivist
at the Archives Nattonales. Formerly President of the Societe de rfitstoire dc
France and the Societe de l'Ecole de Chartea. Author of La France rt le grand
schisme d'Occidenl; Ac
Korthcote Writbridce Thoiias, M.A.
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the
Societe d' Anthropologic dc Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and
Marriage in Australia; Ac
Oswald Barron, F.S.A.
Editor of the Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the
Honourable Society of the Baronetage. 1
Ossxrr John Radcliffe Howartr. M.A. f
Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant Secretary of the i Coal (in part).
British Association- I
Oct ate Maus, LL.D. (Brussels). f
Advocate of the Court of Appeal at Brussels. Director of VArt Modem* and of |
La Libre Esthiiiaue. President of the Association of Belgian writers. Officer of i Gfejt, Paul Jet*.
the Legion of Honour. Author of Le Thedtrv de Bayrtnth; Aux Ambassadeurs; I
Malta, Constantinople et la Crimee; Ac. [
Percy Alexander Macmaiion, D.Sc., F.R.S. f
Lite Major, R.A. Deputy Warden of the Standards, Board of Trade. Joint ,
General Secretary of the British Association. Formerly Professor of Physics, 1
Ordnance College. President of London Mathematical Society, 1894-1896. I
Philip Chesney Yorke, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford.
—.mm
Ouirtearde, 1st Earl of;
Cttwtearde, Harqueas of;
OartBdoa, 1st Earl of;
— ' of r
Geology.
I—
and of U
Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S. t
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian \
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kaysera Comparative Geology. {
Robert de Courcy Ward. A.M. (Harvard).
Assistant Professor of Climatology in the University of Harvard. Fellow of Royal
Meteorological Society, London, Sometime Editor of American Meteorological']
Journal. Author of Climate considered especially in Relation to Man; Ac
Sir Robert Hunter, C.B., M.A.
Solicitor to the Post Office. Author of The Preservation of Open Spaces
footpaths and other Rights of Way; Ac
Ronald John McNeill, M.A. f
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the Si James's <
Goutie, London. [
Sir Robert Kennaway Douglas. f
Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of Oriental I
Printed Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1 892-1907. Member of the Chinese 4 China: History (m Part).
Consular Service. 1858-1865. Author of The Language and Literature of China;
China; Europe and the Far Mast; Ac '
Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. l
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Dear of]
all Lands; Ac {
Robert Nbsbet Bain (d. 1009). f
Formerly Assistant Librarian, British Museum. Author of Scandinavia: the Political J
HisUnyof Denmark, Noruay and Swden,isi3-i9O0;TTuFirslRtmanotsj6i j to I72S\\ Christian IL, HL, !?•!
Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to J796; Ac. [ ChrfcttDB of SwtOBB.
dart, 1st Earl of.
China: Fauna;
Cniropatra; Chiru;
Cl oooad Laopoid.
IL Phene Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.LB.A.
Formerly Master of Architectural School and Surveyor, Royal Academy, London.
Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College,
f«mVin. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of
History of Architecture, Author of Architecture: East and West; Ac
i
{in part)',
sfi
8.A.C.
r • . ■
8.I.L.
8,11.
S.P.T.
T.A.L
T.JU.
T.Ht,
T.F.a
T.O.Br.
T.H.H>
T.K.C.
T.Ma.
T.Se.
V.O.
W.A.B.C.
W.A.P.
W.B.B.
W. C. D. W.
W.P.C..
W.G.F.
^ittAfcS AND HEADINGS OP ARTIGtES
Stanley Arthur Cook, MA
Editor for Palatine Expkwatioo Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
formerly Fellow, GooviDe and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner m Hebrew
and Aramaic, London University, 1904*1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic
Inscriptions; The Laws of Mam and Coda of Hammurabi; Critical Nam am OU
Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c
U*****).
Sidney James Low. M.A.
FeUow of King's College, London.
Jreuow of King s College, London. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple, formerly
Editor of the St James's Gazette. Joint-editor of the Dictionary of English History. 4
Author of The Governance of England. Joint-author of vol. xiL 01 Longman s
Political History of England, 1837-1901. [
SniON Newcomb, D.Sc., D.C.L. J
See the biographical article: Newcomb, Simon, i
Sxivanvs Phillips Thompson, M.D., D.Sc.. F.R.S.
' Principal and Professor of Physics w the Cit
y and Guilds Technical College, Fins- J
, /,of Institution of Electrical Engir '
Author of Lectures on Light; Michael Faraday; &c
homy. Formerly President of Physical Society, of Institution of Electrical Engineers,
and of Rontgen Society. * ' '" ' " • . . - -
ChiwWD, Let* BaadoHA.
(imparl).
Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A-, LLP.
Trinity College, Dublin.
Thomas Ashby, MA, Dim. (Oxon.), P'.S.A.
Formerly Scholar of Christ Church. Oxford. Director of British School of Archaeo-
logy at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. Craven
FeUow, Oxford, 1897.
Sn Thomas Barclay, M.P.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council J
of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems 1
of International Proem** and Diplomacy; Ac. MJ\ for Blackburn, 1910. I
Dr Theodore Frelihchoysen Collier, Ph,D. J
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, WiUiamttoim, Mass., U.SJL
Thomas Grecor Brows, M.D.. F.R.S.
Professor of Physiology m the Univcrsfty of Toronto. Author of Essentials of'
Experimental Physiology.
f Child, Sir Josiah;
Uw Relating to (in port);
Chfitorft Hondrtds; Oearmf
(Ct&Offr tin port);
{'
Ctrathii Mom; Cledia, Via;
VUL-XIV.
9. wtu iti«miii>i. R.G.S., €
The Countries of the Kind's
CbitraL
COL. Sir Thomas Hunorriord Houxcb, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc.
Superintendent Frontier. Surveys, India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist,
London, 1887. Author of The Indian Borderland,
Award; India; Tibet; &c
Rev. Thomas Kelly Cheyne, D.D., D.Lttt.
See the biographical article: Cheyne, T. K. \
Thomas Mwr, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D 7 F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). f
Superintendent-General of Education in Cape Colony. Formerly Assistant Pro- I
fessor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow. V ice-Chancellor of the J cirala (in AaWI
University of the Cape of Good Hope till 1901. Author of Theory of Determinants] ^^ im mmv *
in the Historical Order of Development; History of Determinants; Text-Booh of De- I
terminants; &c
Thomas Seccombe, M.A. r
Balliol College. Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, I chsnlar AncM aV
University of London. Assistant Editor, Dictionary of Notional Biography, 1891- | wwu ^*> eumvw »
1900. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c L
Valentine Chirol. f
Director of the Foreign Department of The Times. Author of The Middle Eastern < China: History (in part).
Question; The Far Eastern Question; Ac. [
Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coouoge, M.A., F.R.G.S., D.Ph. (Bern).
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
■ College. Lampeter, 1 880-1 881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphine; The Range of-
the Tbdi\ Guide to Grindehoald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in
History; dx. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889, Sec
Walter Alison Phillips, MA
Formerly Exhibitioner of Mcrton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, '
Oxford. Author of Modem Europe; The War of Creeh Independence; Ac
W. Baker Brown.
Lieut^Col., Commanding Royal Engineers at Malta.
William Cecil Dampier Wketham, M.A., F.R.S.
. Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Theory of Solution,
RectnlDepetopmoutof Physical Science; &c
William Feilden Craies, M.A.
New College. Oxford. Barri»ter-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, .
King's College, London. Author of Craies on Statute Law. Editor of AfdibofdV
Criminal Pleading (23rd edition).
William Georce Freeman, B.Sc. (London), A.R.C.S.
Joint-author of Nature Teaching'. The World's Com m e rci a l Products. Joint-editor
Of Science Progress in the Twentieth Century.
Chain de Ponds, La;
Colre; Como, Lake of;
Constance;
IConstanoa, Lake of.
Chimera; Choir;
Church History (in part);
Clement VIL;
Confessional; Congress;
Coast Defence.
Conduction, Electric:
in Liquids.
Children, Law leuUing to
(mpart).
Cocoa;
K.S.
LILC
M.B.
as.
B.8.*
B.8.
W.F.«
W.H.*
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xiii
Cates (1831-1895). f
General Biography. Author of A History of England from 1 ChronolOfV (in nariL
Confessor & the Death if King John; Ac Part author of 1 VBrenwg W ^ m *"*>
lory: I
William Kirby Sullivan, Ph.D., D.Sc.
President of Queen's College, Cork, 1873-1890, Author of Celtic Studies; Ac
William Lies? Readwim Cates (1831-1895).
Editor of Dictionary of ~
Ike Death of Edward the
Encyclopaedia of Chronology.
William Michael Rossettl
See the biographical article: RossETtt, D. C
Walter Nernst, Ph.D.
Professor of Physical Chemistry in the University of Berlin. Director of the
Physico-Chemical Institute in the University. Member of the Royal Prussian
Academy of Science. Author of TheoreHscke Ckemte; &c
Vzn. Winpeid Oldpield Burrows, M.A.
{
LGfaUKto of Lorrame.
h. Winpeid Olofteld Burrows, M.A. f Ct . nta ^ m . s
Archdeacon of Birmingham. Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford, 1884-1891, and < """"S*
Principal of Leeds Clergy School, 1891-190* I Confirmation.
Rdigum;
uam Roy Smith, M.A.. Ph.D. f
Associate Professor of History, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania. Author of-j CompromlM MtSJOres Of 1880.
Sectionalism in Pennsylvania during the Revo luti on; Ac. t
William Robertson Smith. LL.D.
See the biographical article: Smith, W. R.
William Warde Fowler, M.A.
Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1 881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,
Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City-Slate of the Creeks and Romans,
The Roman Festivals of Ike Republican Period; Ac
William Walker Rockwell, LioThbol. - f
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.-* 1
Author of Die Doppeleke des Landgrafen PkUipp von Hessen. I
/chronicles, Books of impart).
*{■
Club: Crtek Mat Roman.
m»iF* y.
Earl of.
Chisago.
Chilean CtfH War.
Oifle-Ponnrian War.
War.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Chopin. 1 CH?o, Lord,
dab-foot
Chrjnostom.
ChnrehlD, Charles.
Cinque Ports.
ChrQ Lbt
Ctrii Serrieo.
Clause wltx.
Clayton-Bnlwer Treaty .
Coek-flghttng.
Coda.
Coks, Sir Edward.
Colony.
Colours, 1
Common Order, Book ot
Congrere, Sir WuHam.
Conlo Soetlon.
Consarvattvo Vnitf •
J.*; 1
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME VI
CHATELET (from Med. Lat. casteUa), the word, sometimes
also writtencaj/t0ef,uscd in France for a building designed for the
defence of an outwork or gate, sometimes of great strength or
size, but distinguished from the chdUau, or castle proper, in
being purely defensive and not residential. In Paris, before the
Revolution, this word was applied both to a particular building
and to the jurisdiction of which it was the seat. This building,
the original Chatelet, had been first a castle defending the ap-
proach to the Cite" . Tradition traced its existence back to Roman
times, and in the x8th century one of the rooma in the great
tower was still called the chambrc de Cisar. The jurisdiction was
that of the provostship (prcvdtf) and viscountship of Paris, which
was certainly of feudal origin, probably going back to the counts
of Paris.
It«was not till the time of Saint Louis that, with the appoint-
ment of £tienne Bofleau, the provostship of Paris became a
prtxfiti en garde, i.e. a public office no longer put up to sale.
When the baillis (see Bailiff and Bailie) were created, the
provost of Paris naturally discharged the duties and functions
of a bailli, in which capacity he heard appeals from the seigniorial
and inferior judges of the city and its neighbourhood, keeping,
however, his title of provost. When under Henry II. certain
baiUiages became presidial jurisdictions(fr£skfi<fi(x), i.e. received
to a certain extent the right of judging without appeal, the
Chatelet, the court of the provost of Paris, was made a presidial
court, but without losing its former name. Finally, various
tribunals peculiar to the city of Paris, i.e. courts exercising
jurisdictions outside the common law or corresponding to certain
tours dfexcepiion which existed in the provinces, were united with
the Chatelet, of which they became divisions (ckombres). Thus
the lieutenant-general of police made it the seat of his juris-
diction, and the provost of the tie de France, who had the same
criminal jurisdiction as the provosts of the marshals of France
in other provinces, sat there also. As to the personnel of the
Chatelet, it was originally the same as in the baiUiages, except
that after the 14th century it had some special officials, the
auditors and the examiners of inquests. Like the baillis, the
provost had lieutenants who were deputies for him, and in
addition gradually acquired a considerable body of ex officio
councillors. This last staff, however, was not yet in existence at
the end of the 14th century, for it is not mentioned in the Registre
criminel dm Ckdtclct (1389-1392), published by the Soctftt des
Bibliophiles Francois. In 1674 the whole personnel was doubled,
at the time when the new Chatelet was established side by side
with the old, the two being soon after amalgamated. On the eve
of the Revolution it comprised, beside the provost whose office
had become practically honorary, the lieutenant citil, who
presided over the chambrc de prtvdU au pare civil or court of first
iastaace; the lieutenant criminel, who presided over the criminal
court; two lieutenants partiadiers, who presided in turn over
the chombre du prisidial or court of appeal from the inferior
jurisdictions, a jug* auditeur; sixty-four councillors (cm-
settlers); the procureur du roi, four aoocats du rot, and eight
substitute, U. deputies of the procureur (see Procuxatoi), beside
a host of minor officials. The history of the Chatelet under the
Revolution may be briefly told: the Constituent Assembly em-
powered it to try cases of Use-nation, and it was also before this
court that was opened the inquiry following on the events of
the 5th and 6th of August 1789. It was suppressed by the law
of the 1 6th of August 1700, together with the other tribunals of
the ancien rtgime. Q.P E.)
CHATBLLERAULT, a town of western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Vienne, 19 m. N.N.E.
of Poitiers on the Orleans railway between that town and
Tours. Pop. (1006) 15,214. Chatellerault is situated on the
right and eastern bank of the Vienne; it is connected with the
suburb of Cfaatcauneuf on the opposite side of the river by a
stone bridge of the x6th and 17th centuries, guarded at the
western extremity by massive towers. The manufacture of
cutlery is carried on on a largn scale in villages on the banks of
the Clain, south of the town. Of the other industrial establish-
ments the most important is the national small-arms factory,
which was established in 18x5 in Chiteauncuf, and employs
from 1500 to 5500 men. Chatellerault (or Chitelherault:
Castettum Airaldi) derives its name from a fortress built in
the xoth century by Airaud, viscount of its territory. In X515
it was made a duchy in favour of Francois de Bourbon, but It
was not long after this date that it became reunited to the
crown. In 1548 it was bestowed on James Hamilton, 2nd earl
of Arran (see Hamilton).
CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT, 1st Earl or (1708-1778), English
statesman, was born at Westminster on the 15th of November
1708. He was the younger son of Robert Pitt of Boconnoc,
Cornwall, and grandson of Thomas Pitt (1653-1726), governor
of Madras, who was known as " Diamond " Pitt, from the fact
of his having sold a diamond of extraordinary size to the regent
Orleans for something like £135,000. It was mainly by this
fortunate transaction that the governor was enabled to raise
his family, which was one of old standing, to a position of wealth
and political influence. The latter he acquired by purchasing
the burgage tenures of Old Sarum.
William Pitt was educated at Eton, and in January 1727 waa
entered as a gentleman commoner at Trinity College, Oxford.
There is evidence that he was an extensively read, if not a .
minutely accurate classical scholar; and it is interesting to
know that Demosthenes was his favourite author, and that ha
diligently cultivated the faculty of expression by the practice o£
translation and re-translation. tataR&Xar) vnX,\xMn>^tas^
CHATHAM, EARL OF
he had suffered even during his school-days, compelled him to
leave the university without taking his degree, in order to travel
abroad. He spent some time in France and Italy, but the
disease proved intractable, and he continued subject to attacks
of growing intensity at frequent intervals till the close of his life.
In 1727 his father had died, and on his return home it was
necessary for him, as the younger son, to choose a profession.
Having chosen the army, he obtained through the interest of his
friends a comet's commission in the dragoons. But his military
career was destined to be short. His elder brother Thomas
having been returned at the general election of 1734 both for
Oakhampton and for Old Sarum, and having preferred to sit for
the former, the family borough fell to the younger brother by the
sort of natural right usually recognized in such cases. Accord-
ingly, in February 1735, William Pitt entered parliament as
member for Old Sarum. Attaching himself at once to the formid-
able band of discontented Whigs known as the Patriots, whom
Walpole's love of exclusive power had forced into opposition
under Pulteney, he became in a very short time one of its most
prominent members. His maiden speech was delivered in April
1736, in the debate on the congratulatory address to the king on
the marriage of the prince of Wales. The occasion was one of
compliment, and there is nothing striking in the speech as re-
ported; but it served to gain for him the attention of the house
when he presented himself, as he soon afterwards did, in debates
of a party character. So obnoxious did he become as a critic of
the government, that Walpole thought fit to punish him by
procuring his dismissal from the army. Some years later he had
occasion vigorously to denounce the system of cashiering officers
for political differences, but with characteristic loftiness of spirit
be disdained to make any reference to his own case. The loss
of his commission was soon made up to him. The heir to the
throne, as was usually the case in the house of Hanover, if not
in reigning families generally, was the patron of the opposition,
and the ex-cornet became groom of the bed-chamber to the
prince of Wales. In this new position his hostility to the govern-
ment did not, as may be supposed, in any degree relax. He had
all the natural gifts an orator could desire — a commanding pres-
ence, a graceful though somewhat theatrical bearing, an eye of
piercing brightness, and a voice of the utmost flexibility. His
style, if occasionally somewhat turgid, was elevated and passion-
ate, and it always bore the impress of that intensity of conviction
which is the most powerful instrument a speaker can have to sway
the convictions of an audience. It was natural, therefore, that
in the scries of stormy debates, protracted through several years,
that ended in the downfall of Walpole, his eloquence should have
been one of the strongest of the forces that combined to bring
about the final result. Specially effective, according to contem-
porary testimony, were his speeches against the Hanoverian
subsidies, against the Spanish convention in 1739, and in favour
of the motion in 1742 for an investigation into the last ten years
of Walpole's administration. It must be borne in mind that the
reports of these speeches which have come down to us were made
from hearsay, or at best from recollection, and are necessarily
therefore most imperfect. The best-known specimen of Pitt's
eloquence, his reply to the sneers of Horatio Walpole at his youth
anddcclamatory manner, which has found a place in so many hand-
books of elocution, is evidently, in form at least, the work, not of
Pitt, but of Dr Johnson, who furnished the report to the Gentle-
man's Magazine. Probably Pitt did say something of the kind
attributed to him, though even this is by no means certain in view
of Johnson's repentant admission that he had often invented not
merely the form, but the substance of entire debates.
In 174a Walpole was at last forced to succumb to the long-
continued attacks of opposition, and was succeeded as prime
minister by the earl of Wilmington, though the real power in
the new government was divided between Carteret and the
Pelhams. Pitt's conduct on the change of administration was
open to grave censure. The relentless vindictiveness with
which he insisted on the prosecution of Walpole, and supported
Che bill of indemnity to witnesses against the fallen minister,
was in itself not magnanimous; but it appears positively un-
worthy when it is known that a short time before Pitt had offered,
on certain conditions, to use all his influence in the other direction.
Possibly he was embittered at the time by the fact that, owing
to the strong personal dislike of the king, caused chiefly by the
contemptuous tone in which he had spoken of Hanover, he did
not by obtaining a place in the new ministry reap the fruits of
the victory to which he had so largely contributed. The so-called
" broad-bottom " administration formed by the Pelhams in
1744, after the dismissal of Carteret, though it included several
of those with whom he had been accustomed to act, did not at
first include Pitt himself even in a subordinate office. Before
the obstacle to his admission was overcome, he had received a
remarkable accession to his private fortune. The eccentric
duchess of Marlborough, dying in 1744, at the age of ninety,
left him a legacy of £10,000 as an "acknowledgment of the
noble defence he had made for the support of the laws of England
and to prevent the ruin of his country " As her hatred was
known to be at least as strong as her love, the legacy was probably
as much a mark of her detestation of Walpole as of her admiration
of Pitt It may be mentioned here, though it does not come in
chronological order, that Pitt was a second time the object of a
form of acknowledgment of public virtue which few statesmen
have had the fortune to receive even once. About twenty years
after the Marlborough legacy, Sir William Pynsent, a Somerset-
shire baronet to whom he was personally quite unknown, left
him his entire estate, worth about three thousand a year, in
testimony of approval'of his political career.
It was with no very good grace that the king at length consented
to give Pitt a place in the government, although the latter did
all he could to ingratiate himself at court, by changing his tone
on the questions on which he had made himself offensive. To
force the matter, the Pelhams had to resign expressly on the
question whether he should be admitted or not, and it was only
after all other arrangements had proved impracticable, that they
were reinstated with the obnoxious politician as vice-treasurer
of Ireland. This was in February 1746. In May of the same
year he was promoted to the more important and lucrative office
of paymaster-general, which gave him a place in the privy council,
though not in the cabinet. Here he had an opportunity of display-
ing his public spirit and integrity in a way that deeply impressed
both the king and the country. It had been the usual practice
of previous paymasters to appropriate to themselves the interest
of all money lying in their hands by way of advance, and also to
accept a commission of J% on all foreign subsidies. Although
there was no strong public sentiment against the practice, Pitt
altogether refused to profit by it. All advances were lodged by
him in the Bank of England until required, and all subsidies
were paid over without deduction, even though it was pressed
upon him, so that he did not draw a shilling from his office
beyond the salary legally attaching to it. Conduct like this,
though obviously disinterested, did not go without immediate
and ample reward, in the public confidence which it created,
and which formed the mainspring of Pitt's power as a statesman.
The administration formed in 1746 lasted without material
change till 1754. It would appear from his published corre-
spondence that Pitt had a greater influence in shaping its policy
than his comparatively subordinate position would in itself have
entitled him to. His conduct in supporting measures, such as
the Spanish treaty and the continental subsidies, which he
had violently denounced when in opposition, had been much
criticized; but within certain limits, not indeed very well
defined, inconsistency has never been counted a vice in an English
statesman. The times change, and he is not blamed for changing
with the times. Pitt in office, looking back on the commencement
of his public life, might have used the plea " A good deal has
happened since then," at least as justly as some others have
done. Allowance must always be made for the restraints and
responsibilities of office. In Pitt's case, too, it is to be borne in
mind that the opposition with which he had acted gradually
dwindled away, and that it ceased to have any organized existence
after the death of the prince of Wales in 1751. Then in regard
to the important question with Spain as to the right of 1
CHATHAM, EARL OF
Pitt has disarmed criticism by acknowledging that the course
he followed during Wapole'a administration was indefensible.
All due weight being given to these various considerations, it
must be admitted, nevertheless, that Pitt did overstep the
limits within which inconsistency is usually regarded as venial.
His one great object was first to gain office, and then to make
his tenure of office secure by conciliating the favour of the king.
The entire revolution which much of his policy underwent in
order to effect this object bears too close a resemblance to the
sudden and inexplicable changes of front habitual to placemen
of the Tadpole stamp to be altogether pleasant to contemplate
in a politician of pure aims and lofty ambition. Humiliating
is not too strong a term to apply to a letter in which he expresses
his desire to " efface the past by every action of his life/' in order
that he may stand well with the king.
In 1754 Henry Pelham died, and was succeeded at the head of
affairs by his brother, the duke of Newcastle. To Pitt the change
brought no advancement, and he had thus an opportunity of
testing the truth of the description of bis chief given by Sir
Robert Walpole, " His name is treason." But there was for a
time no open breach. Pitt continued at his post; and at the
general election which took place during the year he even
accepted a nomination for the duke's 'pocket borough of Ald-w
borough. He had sat for Seaford since 1 747. When parliament
met, however, he was not long in showing the state of his feelings.
Ignoring Sir Thomas Robinson, the political nobody to whom
Newcastle had entrusted the management of the Commons,
he made frequent and vehement at tacks on Newcastle himself,
though still continuing to serve under him. In this strange
state matters continued for about a year. At length, just after
the meeting of parliament in November 17 51, Pitt was dismissed
from office, having on the debate on the address spoken at great
length against a new system of continental subsidies, proposed by
the government of which he was a member Fox, who had
just before been appointed secretary of state, retained his place,
and though the two men continued to be of the same party, and
afterwards served again in the same government, there was
henceforward a rivalry between them, which makes the celebrated
opposition of their illustrious sons seem like an inherited quarrel.
Another year had scarcely passed when Pitt was again in
power The inherent weakness of the government, the vigour
and eloquence of his opposition, and a series of military disasters
abroad combined to rouse a public feeling of indignation which
could not be withstood, and in December 1756 Pitt, who now
sat for Okehampton, became secretary of state, and leader of
the Commons under the premiership of the duke of Devonshire.
He had made it a condition of his joining any administration
that Newcastle should be excluded from it, thus showing a
resentment which, though natural enough, proved fatal to the
lengthened existence of his government. With the king un-
friendly, and Newcastle, whose corrupt influence was still
dominant in the Commons, estranged, it was impossible to
carry on a government by the aid of public opinion alone, how-
ever emphatically that might have declared itself on his side.
In April 1757, accordingly, he found himself again dismissed
from office on account of his opposition to the king's favourite
continental policy But the power that was insufficient to keep
him in office was strong enough to make any arrangement that
excluded him impracticable. The public voice spoke in a way
that was not to be mistaken. Probably no English minister
ever received in so short a time so many proofs of the confidence
and admiration of the public, the capital and all the chief towns
voting him addresses and the freedom of their corporations.
From the political deadlock that ensued relief could only be had
by an arrangement between Newcastle and Pitt. After some
weeks' negotiation, in the course of which the firmness and
moderation of " the Great Commoner," as he had come to be
called, contrasted favourably with the characteristic tortuosities
of the crafty peer, matters were settled on such a basis that,
while Newcastle was the nominal, Pitt was the virtual head of
the government On his acceptance of office he was chosen
snember for Bath.
This celebrated administration was formed in Jane 1757, and
continued in power till 1761. During the four years of its
existence it has been usual to say that the biography of Pitt is
the history of England, so thoroughly was he identified with the
great events which make this period, in so far as the external
relations of the country are concerned, one of the most glorious
in her annals. A detailed account of these events belongs to
history; all that Is needed in a biography is to point out the
extent to which Pitt's personal influence may really be traced
in them. It is scarcely too much to say that, in the general
opinion of his contemporaries, the whole glory of these years
was due to his single genius; his alone was the mind that planned,
and his the spirit that animated the brilliant achievements of
the British arms in all the four quarters of the globe, Posterity,
indeed, has been able to recognize more fully the independent
genius of those who carried out his purposes. The heroism of
Wolfe would have been irrepressible, Clive would have proved
himself M a heaven-born general," and Frederick the Great
would have written his name In history as one of the most skilful
strategists the world has known, whoever had held the seals of
office in England. But Pitt's relation to all three was such as to
entitle him to a large share in the credit of their deeds. It was
his discernment that selected Wolfe to lead the attack on Quebec,
and gave him the opportunity of dying a victor on the heights of
Abraham. He had personally less to do with the successes in
India than with the other great enterprises that shed an undying
lustre on his administration; but his generous praise in parlia-
ment stimulated the genius of Dive, and the forces that acted
at the dose of the struggle were animated by his indomitable
spirit. Pitt, the first real Imperialist m modern English history,
was the directing mind in the expansion of his country, and
with him the beginning of empire is rightly associated. The
Seven Years' War might weO, moreover, have been another
Thirty Years' War if Pitt had not furnished Frederick with
an annual subsidy of £700,000, and in addition relieved him of
the task of defending western Germany against France.
Contemporary opinion was, of course, incompetent to estimate
the permanent results gained for the country by the brilliant
foreign policy of Pitt. It has long been generally agreed that
by several of his most costly expeditions nothing was really won
but glory It has even been said that the only permanent
acquisition that England owed directly to him was her Canadian
dominion; and, strictly speaking, this is true, it being admitted
that the campaign by which the Indian empire was virtually won
was not planned by him, though brought to a successful issue
during his ministry. But material aggrandizement, though
the only tangible, is not the only real or lasting effect of a war
policy. More may be gained by crushing a formidable rival than
by conquering a province. The loss of her Canadian possessions
was only one of a series of disasters suffered by France, which
radically affected the future of Europe and the world. Deprived
of her most valuable colonies both in the East and in the West,
and thoroughly defeated on the continent, her humiliation was
the beginning of a new epoch in history. The victorious policy
of Pitt destroyed the military prestige which repeated experience
has shown to be in France as in no other country the very life
of monarchy, and thus was not the least considerable of the many
influences that slowly brought about the French Revolution.
It effectually deprived her of the lead in the councils of Europe
which she had hitherto arrogated to herself, and so affected the
whole course of continental politics. It is such far-reaching
results as these, and not the mere acquisition of a single colony,
however valuable, that constitute Pitt's claim to be considered
as on the whole the most powerful minister that ever guided the
foreign policy of England.
The first and most important of a series of changes which
ultimately led to the dissolution of the ministry was the death
of George II on the 35th of October 1760, and the accession of
his grandson, George III. The new king had, as was natural, new
counsellors of his own, the chief of whom, Lord Bute, was at once
admitted to the cabinet as a secretary of state. Between Bute
and Pitt there speedily arose an occasion of serious difference.
CHATHAM, EARL OF
The existence cf the so-called family compact by which the
B.-rv.iJ cf ftkz.ce and Spain bound themselves in an offensive
a-i.±xce agaxat England having been brought to light, Pitt urged
f-a: .: k, .^,1 i#e met by an immediate declaration of war with
b^L^. To this course Bute would not consent, and as his refusal
vls tz.l'.a*<i Ly ail his colleagues save Temple, Pitt had no
tb-j.:* i/. ti leave a cabinet in which his advice on a vital
q-t«-'.s tii been rejected. On his resignation, which took
I**.-* j. Cjr.y^r : 761, the king urged him to accept some signal
cjsc cf royal favour in the form most agreeable to himself.
A',v.ei£t'y he obtained a pension of £3000 a year for three lives,
as~ La *.5e. Lady Hester Grenville, whom he had married in
: ; 54. «u created Baroness Chatham in her own right. In con-
Ltx.'^ with ihe latter gracefully bestowed honour it may be
■»Vt.Kft4 that P.ti » domestic life was a singularly happy one.
Pitt's sp»>:t was too lofty to admit of his entering on any
merely facuo j opposition to the government he had quitted.
On the contrary, Lis conduct after his retirement was dis-
tir.g-~»h?i Ly a moderation and disinterestedness which, as
B-iKt Las remarked, " set a seal upon his character." The war
with Spiic, La -*L;ch he had urged the cabinet to take the initia-
tive, proved inevitable; but he scorned to use the occasion
for "altercates aci recrimination," and spoke in support of
the government measjres for carrying on the war. To the
preliminaries of the peace concluded in February 1763 he offered
an ioJig&abi reactance, considering the terms quite inadequate
lo the successes that had been gained by the count ry. When the
treaty was discussed iz. parliament in December of the preceding
year, though suffering from a severe attack of gout, he was carried
d-iwn to the Italic, a.-id in a speech of three hours* duration,
interrupted more than once by paroxysms of pain, he strongly
protested agaicst its various conditions. The physical cause
wL'.h rendered this effort so painful probably accounts for the
ii!t*liw.y of his appearances in parliament, as well as for much
l). it i\ otherwise inexplicable in his subsequent conduct. In
17'* J he <&j'tt against the obnoxious tax on cider, imposed by
Ls brot;*r-;.vla«, faorge Grer.villc, and his opposition, though
uavxcetif-J in the Ho**e, helped to keep alive his popularity
wiih th* 'v-r/.ry, whi'.h '.ord.&iiy hated the excise and all con-
w.ted *it :. .« . Vi h*r« xj-.i • y tar the question of general warrants
**• »'*': ■•*« <*r. .■>.!•«■. *;«.-. the cave of Wilkes, Titt vigorously
r/.*.:.u..'.*/: i.v r ...•&■...■/, \r t .-. defending at once the privileges
of Kr,.if.»?.i *.- : '.-a .'»*>riom of the press. During 1765 he
•pMrrr.t v, , <ft ,_,,- v.-*../ i.vjtpacitated for public business.
I: •*#. \: -.m -y m r ,. .... x m yp.zvA with gTeat power the pro-
y*^. '/ ■ « ;».■•*..-$■..••. 4/: v.if.i-.t ration for the repeal of the
A-.**.'*: ".**■■.> Af *.'jr..:.? that it was unconstitutional to
: " y/i* '+ 1 • 1 w yjt. ■ v. v, v... v He thus cndorscil the contention
v f ■ v. '/..;:..:". ',* ••• 3/", ..-.rj of principle, while the inujoiity of
* .'A* mh: *."■/: ... -^ ;,.-:. '/>.-> ten ted themselves w itli icasling the
1 -*■- "... *,./«■. ,;. v.t.tTt*. on the ground of expediency. The
*»;•«. A'f. i.-.-> »»:, *ai only passed *.irj pn\\u with another
•*..-.* ..'...jr u*. An^.ri'an assemblies, ami di-ilaring the authority
'A ».'.» fcrjv ,h parliament over the ml«uiira " in all ia*e» what-
vy "T "; v* that the House of Comm-iim n |iuduli «l in the most
f'irrr.il riarjr.tr the principle Pill Uu\ •(■■mi lli» language in
approval of the resistance of ihr mlimialB w.11 unum.illy boM,
and perhaps no one but him.scll muld liiivr uuplnied it *ilh
irr.pur.ity at a time when the In -nlntn ol dibaW *j» uiily im
perfectly conceded.
Pitt had not been long out of ollur when he was Milii iletl to
return to it, and the solicitations wue mote lli.m ome unewed.
Unsuccessful overtures were made !«• him l» i7 f M, ««»•! twin*
•n '7ftSt >n May and June— the ni-n«»tMi«ir in May Ik-jiir the
king's uncle, the duke of CumK'il.inil, who went tl««*vn in |K-nmn
to Hayes. Pitt's scat in Kent, ll is Lnowti that 1m- liad the
ci|i|iort unily of joining the marquis of Kiuliiiuhiinr» >lmrl -livi-il
ad rninl-t ration at any time on his own leim*, nml hi* (oiiduit
in di.i lining an arrangement with thut minihter has been more
generally condemned than any other sle|» in his public life. In
July 1706 Rockingham was dismissed, and Pitt was entrusted by
the king with the task of forming a government entirely on his
own conditions. The result was a cabinet, strong much beyond
the average in its individual members, but weak to poweriesaaess
in the diversity of its composition. Burke, in a memorable
passage of a memorable speech, has described this " chequered
and speckled " administration with great humour, speaking of
it as " indeed a very curious show, but utterly unsafe to touch
and unsure to stand on." Pitt chose for himself the office of
lord privy seal, which necessitated his removal to the House of
Lords; and in August he became earl of Chatham and Viscount
Pitt.
By the acceptance of a peerage the great commoner lost at
least as much and as suddenly in popularity as be gained. in
dignity. One significant indication of this may be mentioned.
In view of his probable accession to power, preparations were
made in the city of London for a banquet and a general jUumina-
tion to celebrate the event. But the celebration was at once
countermanded when it was known that he had become earl of
Chatham. The instantaneous revulsion of public feeling was
somewhat unreasonable, for Pitt's health seems now to have
been beyond doubt so shattered by his hereditary malady, that
he was already in old age though only fifty-eight It was natural,
therefore, that he should choose a sinecure office, and the ease of
the Lords. But a popular idol nearly always suffers by removal
from immediate contact with the popular sympathy, be the
motives for removal wliat they may.
One of the earliest acts of the new ministry was to lay an
embargo upon corn, which was thought necessary in order to
prevent a dearth resulting from the nnprecedentcdly bad
harvest of 1 766. The measure was strongly opposed, and Lord
Chatham delivered his first speech in the House of Lords In
support of it. It proved to be almost the only measure intro-
duced by hJsgovcmmcnt in which hcpersonally interested himseH.
His attention had been directed to the growing importance of
the affairs of India, and there is evidence in his correspondence
that he was meditating a comprehensive scheme for transferring
much of the power of the company to the crown, when he was
withdrawn from public business in a manner that has always
Uvn regarded as somewhat mysterious. It may be questioned,
indeed. wh:ther even had his powers been unimpaired he could
have carried out any decided policy on any question with a
cabinet representing interests so various and conflicting; but,
as it hapi>cned. he was incapacitated physically and mentally
during nearly the whole period of his tenure of office. He
scarcely ever saw any of his colleagues though they repeatedly
and urgently pressed for interviews with him, and even an offer
from the king to visit him in person was declined, though in the
language of profound and almost abject respect which always
maiked his communications with the court. ^ nas been in-
Mtmated l>oth by contemporary and by later critics that being
disapiK'inted at his loss of popularity, and convinced of the
im|>o:*ibilily of co-operating with his colleagues, he exaggerated
hi» malady as a pretext for the inaction that was forced upon
him by circumstances. But there is no sufficient reason to doubt
that he was really, as his friends represented, in a state that
utterly until toil him for business. He seems to have been freed
for a time from the pangs of gout only to be afflicted with a
ninnies of mental alienation bordering on insanity This is the
ino>t satis factur>', as it is the most obvious, explanation of
his utter indifference in presence of one of the most momentous
problems that ever pressed for solution on an English statesman.
Those who are able to read the history in the light of what
occurred later may perhaps be convinced that no policy whatever
initiated after 1706 could have prevented or even materially
delayed the declaration of American independence; but to the
politicians of that time the coming event had not yet cast so
dark a shadow before as to paralyse all action, and if any man
could have allayed the growing discontent of the colonists and
prevented the ultimate dismemberment of the empire, it would
have been Lord Chatham. The fact that he not only did nothing
to remove existing difficulties, but remained passive while his
colleagues took the fatal step which led directly to separation,
is in itself dear proof of his entire incapacity. The imposition
CHATHAM
of the import duty on tea and other commodities was the project
of Charles Townshcnd, and was carried into effect in 1767 without
consultation with Lord Chatham, if not in opposition to his
wishes. It is probably the most singular thing in connexion
with this singular administration, that its most pregnant measure
should thus have been one directly opposed to the well-known
principles of its head.
For many months things remained in the curious position that
he who was understood to be the head of the cabinet had as little
share in the government of the country as an unenfranchised
peasant. As the chief could not or would not lead, the sub-
ordinates naturally chose their own paths and not his. The
lines of Chatham's policy were abandoned in other cases besides
the imposition of the import duty; his opponents were taken
into confidence; and friends, such as Amherst and Shelburne,
were dismissed from their posts. When at length in October
1768 he tendered his resignation on the ground of shattered
health, he did not fail to mention the dismissal of Amherst and
Shelburne as a personal grievance.
Soon after his resignation a renewed attack of gout freed
Chatham from the mental disease under which he had so long
suffered. He had been nearly two years and a half in seclusion
when, in July 1769, he again appeared in public at a royal levee.
It was not, however, until 1770 that he resumed his seat in the
House of Lords. He had now almost no personal following,
mainly owing to the grave mistake he had made in not forming
an alliance with the Rockingham party. But his eloquence was
as powerful as ever, and all its power was directed against the
government policy in the contest with America, which had
become the question of all-absorbing interest. His last appear-
ance in the House of Lords was on the 7th of April 1778, on the
occasion of the duke of Richmond's motion for an address
praying the king to conclude peace with America on any terms.
In view of the hostile demonstrations of France the various
parties had come generally to see the necessity of such a measure.
But Chatham could not brook the thought of a step which
implied submission to the " natural enemy " whom it had been
the main object of his life to humble, and he declaimed for a
considerable time, though with sadly diminished vigour, against
the motion. After the duke of Richmond had replied, he rose
again excitedly as if to speak, pressed his hand upon his breast,
and fell down in a fit. He was removed to his scat at Hayes,
where he died on the nth of May. With graceful unanimity
all parties combined to show their sense of the national loss.
The Commons presented an address to the king praying that the
deceased statesman might be buried with the honours of a public
funeral, and voted a sum for a public monument which was
erected over his grave in Westminster Abbey. Soon after the
funeral a bill was passed bestowing a pension of £4000 a year
on his successors in the earldom. He had a family of three
sons and two daughters, of whom the second son, William,
was destined to add fresh lustre to a name which is one of the
greatest in the history of England.
Dr Johnson is reported to have said that " Walpole was a
minister given by the king to the people, but Pitt was a minister
given by the people to the king," and the remark correctly
indicates Chatham's distinctive place among English statesmen.
He was the first minister whose main strength lay in the support
of the nation at large as distinct from its representatives in the
Commons, where his personal following was always small. He
was the first to discern that public opinion, though generally
dew to form and slow to act, is in the end the paramount power
in the state; and he was the first to use it not in an emergency
merely, but throughout a whole political career. He marks the
commencement of that vast change in the movement of English
politics by which it has come about that the sentiment of the
great mass of the people now tells effectively on the action of
the government from day to day, — almost from hour to hour.
He was well fitted to secure the sympathy and admiration of his
countrymen, for his virtues and his failings were alike English.
He was often inconsistent, he was generally intractable and
overbearing, and he was always pompous and affected to a
degree which, Macaulay has remarked, seems scarcely compatible
with true greatness. Of the last quality evidence is furnished
in the stilted style of his letters, and in the fact recorded by
Seward that he never permitted his under-secretaries to sit in
his presence. Burke speaks of "some significant, pompous,
creeping, explanatory, ambiguous matter, in the true Chathamic
style." But these defects were known only to the inner circle
of his associates. To the outside public he was endeared as a
statesman who could do or suffer " nothing base," and who had
the rare power of transfusing his own indomitable energy and
courage into all who served under 'him. " A spirited foreign
policy " has always been popular in England, and Pitt was the
most popular of English ministers, because he was the most
successful exponent of such a policy. In domestic affairs his
influence was small and almost entirely indirect. He himself
confessed his unfitness for dealing with questions of finance. The
commercial prosperity that was produced by his war policy was
in a great part delusive, as prosperity so produced must always
be, though it had permanent effects of the highest moment in the
rise of such centres of industry as Glasgow. This, however, was
a remote result which he could have neither intended nor foreseen.
The correspondence of Lord Chatham, in four volumes, was
ftublifthed in 1 838-1 840; and a volume of his letters to Lord Camet-
ord in 1804. The Rev. Fsancis Thackeray's History of the Ri. Hon.
William Pitt, Earl of Chatham (2 vols., 1827), is a ponderous and
shapeless work. Frederic Harrison's Chatham, in the "Twelve
English Statesmen " series (1905), though skilfully executed, takes a
rather academic and modern Liberal view. A German work, William
PiU, Graf von Chatham, by Albert von Ruville (3 vols., 1005; English
trans. 1907), is the best and most thorough account 01 Chatham,
his period, and his policy, which has appeared. See also the separate
article on William Pitt, and the authorities referred to, especially
the Rev. William Hunt's appendix i. to his vol. x. of The Political
History of England (1905).
CHATHAM, also called Mxraiocht, an incorporated town and
port of entry in Northumberland county, New Brunswick, Canada,
on the Miramichi river, 24 m. from its mouth and xo m. by rail
from Chatham junction on the Intercolonial railway. Pop. (1001)
5000. The town contains the Roman Catholic pro-cathedral,
many large saw-mills, pulp-mills, and several establishments
for curing and exporting fish. The lumber trade, the fisheries,
and the manufacture of pulp are the chief industries.
CHATHAM, a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, and
the capital of Kent county, situated 64 m. S.W. of London*
and ix m. N. of Lake Erie, on the Thames river and the Grand
Trunk, Canadian Pacific and Lake Eric & Detroit River railways.
Pop. ( 1 oox ) 0068. It has steamboat connexion with Detroit and
the dties on Lakes Huron and Erie. It is situated in a rich agri-
cultural and fruit-growing district, and carries on a large export
trade. It contains a large wagon factory, planing and flour mills,
manufactories of fanning mills, binder-twine, woven wire goods,
engines, windmills, &c.
CHATHAM, a port and municipal and parliamentary borough
of Rent, England, on the right bank of the Med way, 34 m.
E.S.E. of London by the Soulh-Eastern & Chatham railway.
Pop. (1891) 31,657; (ioox) 37.057. Though a distinct borough
it is united on the west with Rochester and on the east with
Gfllingham, so that the three boroughs form, in appearance, a
single town with a population which in 1001 exceeded x 10,000.
With the exception of the dockyards and fortifications there are
few objects of interest. St Mary's church was opened in 1003, but
occupies a site which bore a church in Saxon times, though the
previous building dated only from 1786. A brass commemorates
Stephen Borough (d. 1584), discoverer of the northern passage
to Archangel in Russia (1553). St Bartholomew's chapel,
originally attached to the hospital for lepers (one of the first in
England), founded by Gundulph, bishop of Rochester, m 1070,
is in part Norman. The funds for the maintenance of the hospital
were appropriated by decision of the court of chancery to the
hospital of St Bartholomew erected in 1863 within the boundaries
of Rochester. The almshouse established in 159s by Sir John
Hawkins for decayed seamen and shipwrights is still extant, the
building having been re-erected in the 19th century; but the fund
called the Chatham Chest, originated by H»^tts&vok\»tfefcHfcv
CHATHAM ISLANDS
1588, was incorporated with Greenwich Hospital in 1802. In
front of the Royal Engineers' Institute is a statue (1800) o!
General Gordon, and near the railway station another (1888) to
Thomas Waghorn, promoter of the overland route to India. In
1005 King Edward V1L unveiled a fine memorial arch com-
memorating Royal Engineers who fell in the South African War.
It stands in the parade ground of the Brompton barracks, facing
the Crimean arch. There are numerous brickyards, lime-kilns
and flour-mills in the district neighbouring to Chatham; and the
town carries on a large retail trade, in great measure owing to
the presence of the garrison. The fortifications are among the
most elaborate in the kingdom. The so-called Chatham Lines
enclose New Brompton, a part of the borough of Gillingham.
They were begun in 1758 and completed in 1807, but have been
completely modernized. They are strengthened by several
detached forts and redoubts. Fort Pitt, which rises above the
town to the west, was built in 1779, and is used as a general
military hospital. It was regarded as the principal establishment
of the kind in the country till the foundation of Netley in Hamp-
shire. The lines include the Chatham, the Royal Marine, the
Brompton, the Hut, St Mary's and naval barracks; the garrison
hospital, Melville hospital for sailors and marines, the arsenal,
gymnasium, various military schools, convict prison* and finally
the extensive dockyard system for which the town is famous.
This dockyard covers an area of 516 acres, and has a river
frontage of over 3 m. It was brought into its present state by
the extensive works begun about 1867. Before that time there
was no basin or wet-dock, though the river Medway to some
extent answered the same purpose, but a portion of the adjoin-
ing salt-marshes was then taken in, and three basins have been
constructed, communicating with each other by means of large
locks, so that ships can pass from the bend of the Medway at
Gillingham to that at Upnor. Four graving docks were also
formed, opening out of the first (Upnor) basin. Subsequent
improvements included dredging operations in the Medway to
improve the approach, and the provision of extra dry-dock
accommodation under the Naval Works Acts.
The parliamentary borough returns one member. The town
was incorporated in 1S90, and is governed by a mayor, six alder-
men and eighteen councillors. Area, 4355 acres. The borough
includes the suburb (an ecclesiastical parish) of Luton, in which
are the waterworks of Chatham and the adjoining towns.
Chatham (CctcAam, Chetkam) belonged at the time of the
Domesday Survey to Odo, bishop of Bayeux. During the
middle ages it formed a suburb of Rochester, but Henry VIII.
in founding a regular navy began to establish dockyards, and the
harbour formed by the deep channel of the Medway was utilized
by Elizabeth, who built a dockyard and established an arsenal
here. The dockyard was altered and improved by Charles I.
and Charles IL, and became the chief naval station of England.
In x 708 an act was passed for extending the fortifications of
Chatham. During the excavations on Chatham Hill after 1758 a
number of tumuli containing human remains, pottery, coins, &c. v
suggestive of an ancient settlement, were found. Chatham was
constituted a parliamentary borough by the Reform Bill of 183 a.
In the time of Edward III. the lord of the manor had two fairs,
one on the 24th of August and the other on the 8th of September.
A market to be held on Tuesday, and a fair on the 4th, 5U1 and
6th of May, were granted by Charles II. in 1679, and another
provision market on Saturday by James II. in 1688. In 1738
fairs were held on the 4 th of May and the 8th of September, and
a market every Saturday.
CHATHAM ISLANDS, a smaU g^p in the j^^ c Ocean,
forming part of New Zealand, S30 m# ^ £. of Lyttelton in the
South Island, about 44 S., i 77 * \y j t consists of three
islands, a large one called Whairikautf, or Chatham Island, a
smaller one, Rangihaute, or Pitt Island, * n( j a xhird, Rangatira,
or South-cast Island. There are also sev^ Rm|| ^ rocky islets.
Whairikauri, whose highest point reaches about xooo ft., is
remarkable for the number of lakes and tarns it contains, and for
the extensive bogs which cover the surface of nearly the whole
of the uplands. It is of very irregular form, about jg as. in
length and 25 m. in extreme breadth, with an area ot
— « little larger than Middlesex. The geological h
principally of volcanic rocks, with schists and tertiarj
and an early physical connexion of the islands with N
is indicated by their geology and biology. The climi
than that of New Zealand. In the centre of What
large brackish lake called Tewanga, which at the so
is separated from the sea by a sandbank only x 50 yds. 1
it occasionally bursts through. The southern part ©
has an undulating surface, and is covered either wi
forest or with high ferns. In general the soil is extra
and where it is naturally drained a rich vegetation
flax occurs. On the north-west are several conical hil
which are surrounded by oases of fertile soil. On
western side is Petre Bay, on which, at the mouth <
Mantagu, is Waitangi, the principal settlement.
The islands were discovered in 1791 by Lieuten
Broughton (1769-1821), who gave them the name o
from the brig which he commanded. He described 1
as a bright, pleasure-loving people, dressed in seaUui
and calling themselves Morioris or Maiorioris. In
were conquered by 800 Maoris who were landed fromi
vessel. They were almost exterminated, and an e
influenza in 2839 killed half of those left; ten yean
were only 00 survivors out of a total population of 11
subsequently decreased still further. Their languag*
to that of the Maoris of New Zealand, but they differec
from them in physique, and they were probably a era
an immigrating Polynesian group and a lower indigent
esian stock. The population of the islands includes
whites of various races and the same number of nath
Maoris). Cattle and sheep are bred, and a trade is ca
them with the whalers which visit these seas. The c
from the group is wool, grown upon runs farmed botl
peans and Morioris. There is also a small export by 1
of the flesh of young albatrosses and other sea-birds, b
and cured, for the Maoris of New Zealand, by whom it 1
a delicacy. The imports consist of the usual 00
required by a population where little of the land i
cultivated.
There are no indigenous mammals; the reptiles
New Zealand species. The birds— the largest factor in
— have become very greatly reduced through the in
of cats, dogs and pigs, as well as by the constant pen
every sort of animal by the natives. The larger bell-t
ernis mclanoccphala) has become quite scarce; the n
fruit-pigeon {Carpophaga chaJkanunsis), and the tw
rails (NesolimHas diejfenbathii and Cabdus modest us),
which was confined to Whairikauri and the other tc
Island, are extinct. Several fossil or subfossil avian f<
interesting from the point of view of geographical di
have been discovered by Dr H. O. Forbes, namely, a ti
of raven (PaLxocorax morwrum), a remarkable rail (
plcryx), closely related to the extinct Apkanapttryxtf'.
and a large coot (Palatolimtuu ekatkamensu). There
been discovered the remains of a species of swan be
the South American genus Chenopis, and of the tuatara
lizard, the unique species of an ancient family now surv
in New Zealand. The swan is identical with an extli
found in caves and kitchen-middens in New Zealand,
contemporaneous with the prehistoric Maoris and «
used by them for food. One of the finest of the endec
ing plants of the group is the boraginaceous " Chath
lily " {Uyositidium nobile), a gigantic forget-me-not, w'
on the shingly shore in a few places only, and alwa;
the high-water mark, where it is daily deluged by t
while dracophyllums, leucopogons and arborescent raj
characteristic forms in the vegetation.
See Bruno Wei*. Finftit Jakre anf Chatham Islai
" ~ "-'— "The Chatham Isla '
.„..„.^_, -iJ*). vol. ltii. p. 669. "
Ums> f«J*tioa to a former Southern Continent," Sup
>): H. O. Fofhea. " The" Chatham' Islands and lb
. — ..__ (iB93). vol. liu. p. Mg t "jhc Chatha
1900): H.
CHATILLON— CHATTANOOGA
Papers. R.G.S.. vol. iu. (1803); J. H. Scott. "The Osteology of
the Maori and the Morion," Trans. New Zealand Institute, vol. xxvi.
(1893); C. W. Andrew*. "The Extinct Birds of the Chatham
Wands." NevilaUs Zoologicae, vol. H- p. 73 (I09*)>
CHATILLON, the name of a French family whose history has |
farmshed material for a large volume in folio by A. du Cbeane,
a learned Frenchman, published in 1611. But in spite of its
merits this book presents a certain number of inaccurate state- 1
menta, some of which it is important to notice. If, for instance,
it be true that the Chatfllons came from ChAtillon-sur-Marne 1
(Marne. arrondissemenl of Reims), it is now certain that, since
the nth century, this castle belonged to the count of Cham- 1
pagne, and that the bead of the house of ChAtillon was merely
tenant in that place. One of them, however, Gaucher of Chatillon,
lord of Crecy and afterwards constable of France, became in
1290 lord of Chatillon-sur-Marne by exchange, but since 1303 a
new agreement allotted to him the countabip of Forden, while
Chatillon reverted to the domain of the counts of Champagne.
It may be well to mention also that, in consequence of a resem-
blance of their armorial bearings, du Chesne considered wrongly
that the lords of Bazoches and those of Chateau-Porricn of the
nth and xjth centuries drew their descent from the house of
Chatillon.
The most important branches of the house of Chatillon were
those of (1) St Pol, beginning with Gaucher III. of ChAtillon,
who became count of St Pol in right of his wife Isabelle in 1205,
the last male of the line being Guy V. (d. 1360); (2) Blois,
founded by the marriage of Hugh of Chatillon-St Pol (d. 1248)
with Mary, daughter of Margaret of Blois (d. 1 230), — this branch
became extinct with the death of Guy II. in 1397; (3) Porcien, 1
from 1303 to 1400. when Count John sold the countship to Louis,
duke of Orleans; (4) Penthievre, by the marriage of Charles of
Blots (d. 1364) with Jeanne (d. 1384), heiress of Guy, count of
PenthieVre (d. 1331), the male line becoming extinct in 1457.
See A- du Chesne. Histoire gentaloQque it la maison de Ckatftllon-
sur-Marne (1621): Ansclme, Histowe ienialopque da Is motion
nyale de France, vi. 91-124 (1730)- (A. Lo.)
CHATILLON-SUR-SEINE, a town of eastern France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of Cote-d'Or, on the
Eastern and Paris-Lyon railways, 67 m. N.N.W. of Dijon,
between that city and Troyes. Pop. (1006) 4430. It is situated
on both banks of the upper Seine, which is swelled at its
entrance to the town by the Douix, one of the most abundant
springs in France. Chatillon is constructed on ample lines and
tendered attractive by beautiful promenades. Some ruins on
an eminence above it mark the site of a chateau of the dukes of
Burgundy. Near by stands the church of St Vorle of the 10th
century, bat with many additions of later date; it contains a
sculptured Holy Sepulchre of the 16th century and a number of
frescoes. In a fine park stands a modern chateau built by
Marshal Marmont, duke of Ragusa, born at ChAtillon in 1774.
It was burnt in 1871, and subsequently rebuilt The town
preserves several interesting old bouses. Chatillon has a sub-
prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a school
of agriculture and a communal college. Among its Industrie*
are brewing, iron-founding and the manufacture of mineral and
other blacks. It has trade in wood, charcoal, lithographic and
other stone. ChAtillon anciently consisted of two parts, Chau
mont, belonging to the duchy of Burgundy, and Bourg, ruled by
the bishop of Langres; it did not coalesce into one town till the
end of the 16th century. It was taken by the English in 1360 and
by Louis XI. in 1475, during his struggle with Charles the Bold.
ChaiiDon was one of the first dtles to adhere to the League, but
suffered severely from the oppression of its garrisons and gover-
nors, and in 1595 made voluntary submission to Henry IV. In
modern times it is associated with the abortive conference of
itr4 between the representatives of Napoleon and the Allies
CHATSWORTH, a village of Derbyshire, England, containing
a sent belonging to the duke of Devonshire, one of the most
splendid private residences in England. Chatsworth House I
shunted close to the left bank of the river Derwent. 2} m. from
BakewelL It is Ionic in style, built foursquare, and enclosing a
large open courtyard, with a fountain in the centre. In front j
a beautiful stretch of lawn slopes gradually down to the riverside,
and a bridge, from which may best be seen the grand facade of
the building, as it stands out in relief against the wooded ridge
of Bunker's Hill. The celebrated gardens are adorned with
sculptures by Gabriel Cibber; Sir Joseph Paxton designed the
great conservatory, unrivalled in Europe, which covers an acre;
and the fountains, which include one with a jet 260 ft. high, are
aid to be surpassed only by those at Versailles. Within the
house there is a very fine collection of pictures, including the
well-known portraits by Reynolds of Georgians, duchess of
Devonshire. Other paintings are asccribed to Holbein, Durer,
Murillo, Jan van Eyck, Dolci, Veronese and Titian. Hung in the
allery of sketches there are some priceless drawings attributed
to Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Raftaclle, Correggio, Titian
and other old masters. Statues by Canova, Thorwaldsen.
Chantrey and R. J. Wyatt are included among the sculptures.
In the state apartments the walls and window-panes are in some
cases inlaid with marble or porphyry; the woodcarving, mar-
vellous for its intricacy, grace and lightness of effect, is largely
the work of Samuel Watson of Heanor (d. 1715)* Chatsworth
Park is upwards of xi m. in circuit, and contains many noble
forest-trees, the whole being watered by the Derwent, and
surrounded by high moors and uplands. Beyond the river, and
immediately opposite the house, stands the model village of
Edcnsor, where most of the cottages were built in villa style, with
gardens, by order of the 6th duke. The parish church, restored
by the same benefactor, contains an old brass in memory of
John Beaton, confidential servant to Mary, queen of Scots, who
died in 1570; and in the churchyard are the graves of Lord
Frederick Cavendish, murdered in 18S2 in Phoenix Park,
Dublin, and of Sir Joseph Paxton.
Chatsworth (Cketsvorde, Ckctdsvorde, " the court of Chetel ")
took its name from Chetel, one of its Saxon owners, who held it
of Edward the Confessor. It belonged to the crown and was
entrusted by the Conqueror to the custody of William PevereU.
Chatsworth afterwards belonged for many generations to the
family of Leech, and was purchased in the reign of Elisabeth
by Sir William Cavendish, husband of the famous Bess of
Hardwick. In 1557 he began to build Chatsworth House, and
it was completed after his death by his widow, then countess of
Shrewsbury. Here Mary, queen of Scots, spent several years of
her imprisonment under the care of the earl of Shrewsbury.
During the Civil War, Chatsworth was occasionally occupied
as a fortress by both parties. It was pulled down, and the
present house begun by William, 1st duke of Devonshire in 1688.
The little village consists almost exclusively of families employed
upon the estate.
CHATTANOOGA, a city and the county-seat of Hamilton
county, Tennessee, U.S.A., in the S.E. part of the state, about
300 m. S. of Cincinnati, Ohio, and 150 m. S.E. of Nashville,
I Tennessee, on the Tennessee river, and near the boundary line
between Tennessee And Georgia. Pop. (i860) 2545; (1870)
6093; (1880) 12,892; (1800) 29,100; (1000) 30,154, of whom 094
were foreign-born and 23,122 were negroes; (U.S. census, 1010)
44.604. The city is served by the Alabama Great Southern (Queen
and Crescent), the Cincinnati Southern (leased by the Cincinnati,
New Orleans & Texas Pacific railway company), the Nashville,
Chattanooga & St Louis (controlled by the Louisville & Nash-
ville), and its leased line, the Western & Atlantic (connecting
with Atlanta, Ga.), the Central of Georgia, and the Chattanooga
Southern railways, and by freight and passenger steamboal
lines on the Tennessee river, which is navigable to and beyond
this point during eight months of the year. That branch of
the Southern railway extending from Chattanooga to Memphis
was formerly the Memphis & Charleston, under which name it
became famous in the American Civil War Chattanooga
occupies a picturesque site at a sharp bend of the river To the
south lies Lookout Mountain, whose summit (2126 ft. above the
sea; 1495 ft- above the river) commands a magnificent view.
To the east rises Missionary Ridge. Fine driveways and electric
lines connect with both Lookout Mountain (the summit of which
. is reached by an inclined plane on which cars are operated trf
8
CHATTANOOGA
cable) and Missionary Ridge, where there are Federal reserva-
tions, as well as with the National Military Park (15 sq. m.;
dedicated 1895) on the battlefield of Chickamauga (?.».); this
park was one of the principal mobilization camps of the United
States army during the Spanish-American War of 1898. Among
the principal buildings are the city hall, the Federal building,
the county court house, the public library, the high school and
the St Vincent's and the Baroness Erlanger hospitals. Among
Chattanooga's educational institutions are two commercial
colleges, the Chattanooga College for Young Ladies (non-
sectarian), the Chattanooga Normal University, and the Uni-
versity of Chattanooga, until June 1907, United States Grant
University (whose preparatory department, "The Athens
School," is at Athens, Tenn.), a co-educational institution under
Methodist Episcopal control, established in 1867; it has a school
of law (1899), a medical school (1889), and a school of theology
(1888). East of the city is a large national cemetery containing
more than 13,000 graves of Federal soldiers. Chattanooga is
an important produce, lumber, coal and iron market, and b the
principal trade and jobbing centre for a large district in Eastern
Tennessee and Northern Georgia and Alabama. The proximity
of coalfields and iron mines has made Chattanooga an iron
manufacturing place of importance, its plants including car
shops, blast furnaces, foundries, agricultural implement and
machinery works, and stove factories; the city has had an
important part in the development of the iron and steel industries
in this part of the South. There are also flour mills, tanneries
(United States Leather Co.), patent medicine, furniture, coffin,
woodenware and wagon factories, knitting and spinning mills,
planing mills, and sash, door and blind factories—the lumber
being obtained from logs floated down the river and by rail. The
value of the dty's factory products increased from $10,517,886
in 1900 to $15,193,909 in 1905 or 44*5%-
Chattanooga was first settled about 1835, and was long known
as Ross's Landing. It was incorporated in 1851 as Chattanooga,
and received a city charter in 1866. Its growth for the three
decades after the Civil War was very rapid. During the American
Civil War it was one of the most important strategic points in
the Confederacy, and in its immediate vicinity were fought two
great battles. During June 1862 it was threatened by a Federal
force under General O. M. Mitchel, but the Confederate army
of General Braxton Bragg was transferred thither by rail from
Corinth, Miss., before Mitchel was able to advance. In
September 1863, however, General W. S. Rosecrans, with the
Union Army of the Cumberland out-manoeuvred Bragg, con-
centrated his numerous columns in the Chickamauga Valley, and
occupied the town, to which, after the defeat of Chickamauga
(?.».), he retired.
From the end of September to the 24th of November the Army
of the Cumberland was then invested in Chattanooga by the
Confederates, whose position lay along Missionary Ridge from
its north end near the river towards Rossvflle, whence their
entrenchments extended westwards to Lookout Mountain, which
dominates the whole ground, the Tennessee running directly
beneath it. Thus Rosecrans was confined to a semicircle of
low ground around Chattanooga itself, and his supplies had to
make a long and difficult ditour from Bridgeport, the main road
being under fire from the Confederate position on Lookout and
in the Wauhatchie valley adjacent. Bragg indeed expected that
Rosecrans would be starved into retreat. But the Federals once
more, and this time on a far larger scale, concentrated in the face
of the enemy. The XI. and XII. corps from Virginia under
Hooker were transferred by rail to reinforce Rosecrans; other
troops were called up from the Mississippi, and on the x6th of
October the Federal government reconstituted the western
armies under the supreme command of General Grant. The
XV. corps of the Army of the Tennessee, under Sherman, was
on the march from the Mississippi. Hooker's troops had already
arrived when Grant reached Chattanooga on the 33rd of October.
The Army of the Cumberland was now under Thomas. Rosecrans
having been recalled. The first action was fought at Brown's
Ferry in the Wauhatchie valley, where Hooker executed with
complete precision a plan for the revictuaUing of Chattanooga,
established himself near Wauhatchie on the 28th, and repulsed
a determined attack on the same night. But Sherman was still
far distant, and the Federal forces at RnoxviUe, against which
a large detachment of Bragg's army under Longstreet was now
sent, were in grave danger. Grant waited for Sherman's four
divisions, but prepared everything for battle in the meantime.
His plan was that Thomas in the Chattanooga lines should
contain the Confederate centre on Missionary Ridge, while
Hooker on the right at .Wauhatchie was to attack Lookout
Mountain, and Sherman farther up the river was to carry out
the decisive attack against Bragg's extreme right wing at the
end of Missionary Ridge. The last marches of the XV. corps
were delayed by stormy weather, Bragg reinforced Longstreet,
.and telegraphic communication between Grant and the Federals
at Knoxville had already ceased. But Grant would not move
forward without Sherman, and the battle of Chattanooga was
'fought more than two months after Chickamauga. On the 23rd
of November a forward move of Thomas's army, intended as a
G-tftivaf lln *f *fi«* XX XX Urnhm tr—p» .mm
demonstration, developed into a serious and successful action,
whereby the first line of the Confederate centre was driven in
for some distance. B ragg was now much weakened by successive
detachments having been sent to RnoxviUe, and on the 24th the
real battle began. Sherman's corps was graudally brought over
the river near the mouth of Chickamauga Creek, and formed up
on the east side.
The attack began at 1 p.m. and was locally a complete success.
The heights attacked were in Sherman's hands, and fortified
against counter-attack, before nightfall. Hooker in the mean*
while had fought the " Battle above the Clouds " on the steep
face of Lookout Mountain, and though opposed by an equal
force of Confederates, had completely driven the enemy from
the mountain. The 24th then had been a day of success for the
Federals, and the decisive attack of the three armies in concert
was to take place on the 25th. But the maps deceived Grant
and Sherman as they had previously deceived Rosecrans.
Sherman had captured, not the north point of Missionary Ridge,
but a detached hill, and a new and more serious action had to be
fought for the possession of Tunnel Hill, where Bragg's right now
lay strongly entrenched. The Confederates used every effort to
hold the position and all Sherman's efforts were made in vain.
Hooker, who was moving on Rossville, had not progressed far,
and Bragg was still free to reinforce his right. Grant therefore
directed Thomas to move forward on the centre to relieve the
CHATTEL— CHATTERJI
pressure on Sherman. The Army of the Cumberland was, after
all, to strike the decisive blow. About 3.30 p.m. the centre
advanced on the Confederate's trenches at the foot of Missionary
Ridge. These were carried at the first rush, and the troops were
ordered to lie down and await orders. Then occurred one of
the most dramatic episodes of the war. Suddenly, and without
orders either from Grant or the officers at the front, the whole
line of the Army of the Cumberland rose and rushed up the ridge.
Two successive lines of entrenchments were carried at once.
Id a short time the crest was stormed, and after a last attempt
at resistance the enemy's centre fled in the wildest confusion.
The pursuit was pressed home by the divisional generals, notably
by Sheridan. Hooker now advanced in earnest on Rossville,
and by nightfall the whole Confederate army, except the troops
on Tunnel Hill, was retreating in disorder. These too were
withdrawn in the night, and the victory of the Federals was
complete. Bragg lost 8684 men killed, wounded and prisoners
out of perhaps 34,000 men engaged; Grant, with 60,000 men,
lost ab out 6 000.
CHATTEL (for derivation see Cattle), a term used in English
law as equivalent to " personal property," that is, property
which, on the death of the owner, devolves on his executor or
administrator to be distributed (unless disposed of by will)
among the next of kin according to the Statutes of Distributions.
Chattels are divided into chattels real and chattels personal.
Chattels real are those interests in land for which no " real
action " (see Action) lies; estates which are less than freehold
(estates for years, at will, or by sufferance) are chattels real.
Chattels personal are such things as belong immediately to the
person of the owner, and for which, if they are injuriously
withheld from him, he has no remedy other than by a personal
action. Chattels personal are divided into choses in possession
and choses in action (see Chose).
A chattel mortgage, in United States law, is a transfer of
personal property as security for a debt or obligation in such
form that the title to the property will pass to the mortgagee
upon the failure of the mortgagor to comply with the terms of
the contract. At common law a chattel mortgage might be
made without writing, and was valid as between the parties,
and even as against third parties if accompanied by possession
in the mortgagee, but In most states of the Union legislation
now requires a chattel mortgage to be in writing and duly
recorded in order to be valid against third parties. At common
law a mortgage can be given only of chattels actually in existence
and belonging to the mortgagor, though if he acquired title
afterwards the mortgage would be good as between the parties,
but not as against subsequent purchasers or creditors. In
equity, on the other hand, a chattel mortgage, though not good
as a conveyance, is valid as an executory agreement.
Goods and chattels is a phrase which, in its widest signification,
includes any property other than freehold. The two words,
however, have come to be synonymous, and the expression,
now practically confined to wills, means merely things movable
in pos session .
CHATTERIS, a market town in the Wisbech parliamentary
division of Cambridgeshire, England, 25} m. N. by W. of Cam-
bridge by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district
(loot) 471 1. It lies in the midst of the flat Fen country. The
church of St Peter is principally Decorated; and there are
fragments of a Benedictine convent founded in the roth century
■ad rebuilt after fire in the first half of the 14th. The town has
breweries, and engineering and rope-making works. To the
north runs the great Forty-foot Drain, also called Vermuyden's,
alter the Dutch engineer whose name is associated with the fen
drainage works of the middle of the 17th century.
CHATTERJI, BANKIM CHANDRA [Bankiuachakora
OuttJUadh-yAya) (1838-1804), Indian novelist, was born in
Hie district of the Twenty-four Parganas in Bengal on the 17th
j of Jane 1838, and was by caste a Brahman.. He was educated
I tt the Hugfi College, at the Presidency College in Calcutta, and
1 at Calcutta University, where be was the first to take the degree
of B.A. (1858). He entered the Indian dvil service, and served
as deputy magistrate in various districts of Bengal, his official
services being recognized, on his retirement in 1891, by the
title of rai bahadur and the CLE. He died on the 8th of April
1804.
Bankim Chandra was beyond question the greatest novelist
of India during the 19th century, whether judged by the amount
and quality of his writings, or by the influence which they have
continued to exercise. His education had brought him into
touch with the works of the great European romance writers,
notably Sir Walter Scott, and he created in India a school of
fiction on the European model. His first historical novel, the
Durges-Nandini or Chiefs Daughter, modelled on Scott, made
a great sensation in Bengal; and the Kapala-Kundala and
Mrinalini, which followed it, established his fame as a writer
whose creative imagination and power of delineation had never
been surpassed in India. In 187s he brought out his first social
novel, the Bisha-Brikkha or Poison Tree, which was followed by
others in rapid succession. It is impossible to exaggerate the
effect they produced; for over twenty years Bankim Chandra's
novels were eagerly read by the educated public of Bengal,
including the Hindu ladies in the zenanas; and though numerous
works of fiction are now produced year by year in every province
of India, his influence has increased rather than diminished.
Of all his works, however, by far the most important from its
astonishing political consequences was the Ananda Math, which
was published in 1882, about the time of the agitation arising
out of the Ilbert Bill. The story deals with the Sannyasi (i.e.
fakir or hermit) rebellion of 1772 near Purmca, Tirhut and
Dinapur, and its culminating episode is a crushing victory won
by the rebels over the united British and Mussulman forces,
a success which was not, however, followed up, owing to the
advice of a mysterious " physician " who, speaking as a divinely-
inspired prophet, advises Satyananda, the leader of " the
children of the Mother," to abandon further resistance, since a
temporary submission to British rule is a necessity; for Hinduism
has become too speculative and unpractical, and the mission of
the English in India is to teach Hindus how to reconcile theory
and speculation with the facts of science. The general moral
of the Ananda Math, then, a that British rule and British
education are to be accepted as the only alternative to Mussulman
oppression, a moral which Bankim Chandra developed also in
his Dharmataltwa, an elaborate religious treatise in which he
explained his views as to the changes necessary in the moral and
religious condition of his fellow-countrymen before they could
hope to compete on equal terms with the British and Mahom*
medans. But though the Ananda Math is in form an apology
for the loyal acceptance of British rule, it is none the less inspired
by the ideal of the restoration, sooner or later, of a Hindu
kingdom in India. This is especially evident in the occasional
verses in the book, of which the Bande Mater am is the most
famous.
As to the exact significance of this poem a considerable
controversy has raged. Bande Malar am h the Sanskrit for
" Hail to thee, Mother!" or more literally " I reverence thee,
Mother!", and according to Dr G. A. Grierson (The Timet,
Sept. X2, 1906) it can have no other possible meaning than an
invocation of one of the " mother " goddesses of Hinduism, in
his opinion Kali " the goddess of death and destruction/' Sir
Henry Cotton, on the other hand (10. Sept. 13, 1006), sees in
it merely an invocation of the "mother-land" Bengal, and
quotes in support of this view the free translation of the poem
by the late W. H. Lee, a proof which, it may be at once said,
is far from convincing. But though, as Dr Grierson points out,
the idea of a " mother-land " is wholly alien to Hindu ideas, it is
quite possible that Bankim Chandra may have assimilated it
with his European culture, and the true explanation is probably
that given by Mr J. D. Anderson in The Times of September 94,
1006. He points out that in the nth chapter of the 1st book of
the Ananda Math the Sannyasi rebels are represented as having
erected, in addition to the image of Kali, M the Mother who Hat
Been," a white marble statue of " the Mother that Shall Be,"
which "Is apparently a representation of the mothftt-VwA.
IO
CHATTERTON
The Bands Malar am hymn is apparently addressed lo both
idols."
The poem, then, is the work of a Hindu idealist who personified
Bengal under the form of a purified and spiritualized Kali.
Of its thirty-six lines, partly written in Sanskrit* partly in
Bengali, the greater number are harmless enough. But if the
poet sings the praise of the " Mother "
" As Lachmi. bowcred in the flower
That in the water grows,"
be also praises her as " Durga, bearing ten weapons,** and lines
10, n and 12 are capable of very dangerous meanings in the
mouths of unscrupulous agitators. Literally translated these
run, " She has seventy millions of throats to sing her praise,
twice seventy millions of hands to fight for her, how then
is Bengal powerless?" As S. M. Mitra points out (Indian
Problems, London, xooS), this language is the more significant
as the Bands II alar am in the novel was the hymn by singing
which the Sannyasis gained strength when attacking the British
forces.
During Bankim Chandra Chatterji's lifetime the Bande
Motor am, though its dangerous tendency was recognized, was
not used as a party war-cry; it was not raised, for instance,
during the Ilbert Bill agitation, nor by the students who flocked
round the court during the trial of Surendra Nath Banerji in
1883. It has, however, obtained an evil notoriety in the agita-
tions that followed the partition of Bengal That Bankim
Chandra himself foresaw or desired any such use of it is impossible
to believe. According to S. M. Mitra, he composed it " in a fit
of patriotic excitement after a good hearty dinner, which he
always enjoyed. It was set to Hindu music, known as the
MoUar-Kawali-Tal. The extraordinarily stirring character of
the air,- and its ingenious assimilation of Bengali passages with
Sanskrit, served to make it popular."
Circumstances have made the Bande hi at or am the most
famous and the most widespread in its effects of Bankim
Chandra's literary works. More permanent, it may be hoped,
was the wholesome influence he exercised on the number of
literary men he gathered round him, who have left their im-
press on the literature of Bengal. In his earlier years he served
bis apprenticeship in literature under Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar,
the chief poet and satirist of Bengal during the earlier half of the
10th century. Bankim Chandra's friend and colleague, Dina
Bandhu Mitra, was virtually the founder of the modern Bengali
drama. Another friend of his, Hem Chandra Banerji, was a poet
of recognized merit and talent. And among the younger men
who venerated Bankim Chandra, and benefited by his example
and advice, may be mentioned two distinguished poets, Nalein
Chandra Sen and Rabindra Nath Tagore.
Of Bankim Chandra's novels some have been translated into
English by H. A. D. Phillips and by Mrs M. S. Knight.
CHATTERTON, THOMAS (1752-1770), English poet, was born
at Bristol on the 20th of November 1752. His pedigree has a
curious significance. The office of sexton of St Mary Reddiffe,
at Bristol, one of the most beautiful parish churches in England,
bad been transmitted for nearly two centuries in the Chatter-
ton family; and throughout the brief life of the poet it was
held by his uncle, Richard Phillips. The poet's father, Thomas
Cbatterton, was a musical genius, somewhat of a poet, a numis-
matist, and a dabbler in occult arts. He was one of the sub-
chanters of Bristol cathedral, and master of the Pyle Street free
school, near Reddiffe church. But whatever hereditary ten-
dencies may have been transmitted from the father, the sole
training of the boy necessarily devolved on his mother, who was
in the fourth month of her widowhood at the time of his birth.
She established a girls' school, took in sewing and ornamental
needlework, and so brought up her two children, a girl and a
boy, till the latter attained his eighth year, when he was admitted
to Colston's Charity. But the Bristol blue-coat school, in which
the curriculum was limited to reading, writing, arithmetic and
the Church Catechism, had little share in the education of its
marvellous pupil. The hereditary race of sextons had come to
retard the church of St Mary tUdckfft aa their own peculiar
domain; and, under the guidance of his uncle, the child found
there his favourite haunt The knights, ecclesiastics and civic
dignitaries, recumbent on its altar tombs, became his familiar
associates ; and by and by, when be was able to spell his way
through the inscriptions graven on their monuments, he found
a fresh interest in certain quaint oaken chests in the muniment
room over the porch on the north side of the nave, where parch-
ment deeds, old as the Wars of the Roses, long lay unheeded
and forgotten. They formed the child's playthings almost from
his cradle. He learned his first letters from the illuminated
capitals of an old musical folio, and learned to read out of a
black-letter Bible. He did not like, his sister said, reading out
of small books. Wayward, as it seems, almost from his earliest
years, and manifesting no sympathy with the ordinary pastimes
of children, he was regarded for a time as deficient in intellect.
But he was even then ambitious of distinction. His sister relates
that on being asked what device he would like painted on a bowl
that was to be his, he replied, " Paint me an angel, with wings,
and a trumpet, to trumpet my name over the world."
From his earliest years he was liable to fits of abstraction,
sitting for hours in seeming stupor, or yielding after a time to
tears, for which he would assign no reason. He had no one near
him to sympathize in the strange world of fancy which his
imagination had already called into being; and circumstances
helped to foster his natural reserve, and to beget that love of
mystery which exercised so great an influence on the develop-
ment of his genius. When the strange child had attained his
sixth year his mother began to recognize his capacity; at eight
he was so eager for books that he would read and write all day
long if undisturbed; and in his eleventh year he had become a
contributor to Felix Farley's Bristol Journal. The occasion of
his confirmation inspired some religious poems published in this
paper. In 1763 a beautiful cross of curious workmanship, which
had adorned the churchyard of St Mary Reddiffe for upwards of
three centuries, was destroyed by a churchwarden. The spirit
of veneration was strong in the boy, and he sent to the local
journal on the 7 th of January 1764 a clever satire on the parish
Vandal But his delight was to lock himself in a little attic
which he had appropriated as his study; and there, with books,
cherished parchments, saved from the loot of the muniment room
of St Mary Reddiffe, and drawing materials, the child lived in
thought with his 15th-century heroes and heroines. The first of
his literary mystifications, the duologue of " Elinoure and Juga,"
was written before he was twelve years old, and be showed his
poem to the usher at Colston's hospital, Thomas Phillips, as the
work of a 15th-century poet.
Cbatterton remained an inmate of Colston's hospital for
upwards of six years, and the slight advantages gained from
this scanty education are traceable to the friendly sympathy of
Phillips, himself a writer of verse, who encouraged his pupils to
write. Three of Chatterton's companions are named as youths
whom Phillips's taste for poetry stimulated to rivalry; but
Cbatterton held aloof from these contests, and made at that
time no confidant of his own more daring literary adventures.
His little pocket-money was spent in borrowing books from a
drculating library; and he early ingratiated himself with book
collectors, by whose aid he found access to Weever, Dugdak
and Collins, as well as to Speght's edition of Chaucer, Spenser
and other books.
His "Rowleian" jargon appears to have been chiefly the
result of the study of John Kersey's Dictionarium Anglo- Br i-
tannicum, and Prof. W. W. Skeat seems to think his knowledge
of even Chaucer was very slight. His holidays were mostly
spent at his mother's house; and much of them in the favourite
retreat of his attic study there. He had already conceived the
romance of Thomas Rowley, an imaginary monk of the 15th
century, and lived for the most part in an ideal world of his own,
in that dder time when Edward IV. was England's king, and
Master William Canynge — familiar to him among the recum-
bent effigies in Reddiffe church — still ruled in Bristol's dvic
chair. Canynge is represented as an enlightened patron of
literature, and Rowley's dramatic interludes were written far
CHATTERTON
11
performance at his house. In order to escape a marriage urged
by the king, Canynge retrred to the college of Westbury in
Gloucestershire, where he enjoyed the society of Rowley, and
eventually became dean of the institution. In " The Stork of
William Canynge," one of the shorter pieces of his ingenious
romance, his early history is recorded.
•' Straight was I carried back to times of yore,
Whilst Canynge swathed yet in fleshly bed.
And saw all actions which had been bclore.
And all the scroll of Fate unravelled;
And when the fate-marked babe acome to sight,
1 saw him eager gasping after light.
In all his shcepen gambols and child's play.
In every merrymaking, fair, or wake,
I kenn'd a perpted light of wisdom's ray;
He ate down learning with the wastel-cake;
As wise as any of the aldermen.
He'd wit enow to make a mayor at ten.
This beautiful picture of the childhood of the ideal patron of
Rowley is in reality that of the poet himself— 41 the fate-marked
babe," with his wondrous child -genius, and all his romantic
dreams realized. The literary masquerade which thus consti-
tuted the life-dream of the boy was wrought out by him in
fragments of prose and verse into a coherent romance, until the
credulous scholars and antiquaries of his day were persuaded
into the belief that there had lain in the parish chest of Redcliffe
church for upwards of three centuries, a collection of MSS. of
rare merit, the work of Thomas Rowley, an unknown priest of
Bristol in the days of Henry VI. and his poet laureate, John
Lydgate.
Among the Bristol patrons of Chatter-ton were two pewterers,
George Catcott and his partner Henry Burgum. Catcott was one
of the most aealous believers in Rowley, and continued to collect
bis reputed writings long after the death of their real author.
On Burgum, who had risen in life by his own exertions, the blue*
coat boy palmed off the de Bergham pedigree, and other equally
apocryphal evidences of the pewterer's descent from an ancestry
old as the Norman Conquest. The de Bergham quartering,
blazoned on a piece of parchment doubtless recovered from the
Redcliffe muniment chest, was itself supposed to have lain for
centuries in that ancient depository. The pedigree was pro-
fessedly collected by Chatterton from original records, including
" The Ffowley MSS." The pedigree still exists in Chatterton's
own handwriting, copied into a book in which be had previously
transcribed portions of antique verse, under the title of " Poems
by Thomas Rowley, priest of St. John's, in the city of Bristol ";
and an one of these, " The Tournament," Syrr Johan de Berg-
hamme plays a conspicuous part. The ennobled pewterer
rewarded Chatterton with five shillings, and was satirized for
this valuation of a noble pedigree in some of Chatterton's
latest verse.
On the ist of July 1 767, Chatterton was transferred to the office
of John Lambert, attorney, to whom he was bound apprentice
as a clerk. There he was left much alone; and after fulfilling
the routine duties devolving on him, he found leisure for his own
favourite pursuits. An ancient stone bridge on the Avon, built
in the reign of Henry II., and altered by many later additions
into a singularly picturesque but inconvenient thoroughfare,
had been displaced by a structure better adapted to modern
requirements. In September 1768, when Chatterton was in the
second year of his apprenticeship, the new bridge was partially
opened for traffic. Shortly afterwards the editor of Felix Farley's
Journal received from a correspondent, signing himself Dunelmus
Bristoliensis, a " description of the mayor's first passing over the
old bridge," professedly derived from an ancient MS. William
Barrett, F.S.A., surgeon and antiquary, who was then accumu-
lating materials for a history of Bristol, secured the original
manuscript, which is now preserved in the British Museum, along
with other Chatterton MSS., most of which were ultimately
Incorporated by the credulous antiquary into a learned quarto
volume, entitled the History and A nHquitus of tkt City of Bristol,
published nearly twenty years after the poet's death. It was
at itts) cjnso that the- definite story made ils appearance- over
which critics and antiquaries wrangled for nearly a century—
of numerous ancient poems and other MSS. taken by the elder
Chatterton from a coffer in the muniment room of Redcliffe
church, and transcribed, and so rescued from oblivion, by his
son. The pieces include the " Bristowe Tragedie, or the Dethe
of Syr Charles Bawdin," a ballad celebrating the death of the
Lancastrian knight, Charles Baldwin; "jElIa," a "Tragycal
Enterlude," as Chatterton styles it, but In reality a dramatic
poem of sustained power and curious originality of structure;
" Goddwyn," a dramatic fragment; u Tournament," " Battle
of.Hastings," " The Parliament of Sprites," " Balade of Charitie,"
with numerous shorter pieces, forming altogether a volume of
poetry, the rare merit of which is indisputable, wholly apart from
the fact that it was the production of a mere boy. Unfortunately
for him, his ingenious romance had either to be acknowledged as
his own creation, and so in all probability be treated with con-
tempt, or it had to be sustained by the manufacture of spurious
antiques. To this accordingly Chatterton resorted, and found
no difficulty in gulling the most learned of his credulous dupes
with his parchments.
The literary labours of the boy, though diligently pursued at
his desk, were not allowed to interfere with the duties of Mr
Lambert's office. Nevertheless the Bristol attorney used to
search his apprentice's drawer, and tear up any poems or other
manuscripts that he could by his hands upon; so that It was
only during the absences of Mr Lambert from Bristol that he
was able to expend his unemployed time in his favourite pursuits.
But repeated allusions, both by Chatterton and others, seem to
indicate that such intervals of freedom were of frequent occur-
rence. Some of his modern poems, such as the piece entitled
'• Resignation," are of great beauty; and these, with the satires, in
which he took his revenge on all the local celebrities whose
vanity or meanness had excited his ire, arc alone sufficient to fill
a volume. The Catcotts, Burgum, Barrett and others of his
patrons, figure in these satires, in imprudent yet discriminating
caricature, along with mayor, aldermen, bishop, dean and other
notabilities of Bristol. Towards Lambert his feelings were of too
keen a nature to find relief in such sarcasm.
In December 1768, in his seventeenth year, he wrote to
Dodsley, the London publisher, offering to procure for him
" copies of several ancient poems, and an interlude, perhaps
the oldest dramatic piece extant, wrote by one Rowley, a priest
in Bristol, who lived in the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV."
To this letter he appended the initials of his favourite pseudonym,
Dunelmus Bristol itn sis, but directed the answer to be sent to
the care of Thomas Chatterton, Redcliffe Hill, Bristol. To this,
as well as to another letter enclosing an extract from the tragedy
of " Ailla," no answer appears to have been returned. Chatter-
ton, conceiving the idea of finding sympathy and aid at the hand
of some modern Canynge, bethought him of Horace Walpole,
who not only indulged in a medieval renaissance of his own, but
was the reputed author of a spurious antique in the Castle of
Otranta. He wrote to him offering him a document entitled
" The Ryse of Pcyncteync yn Englande, wroten by T. Rowlcie.
1469, for Mastre Canynge," accompanied by notes which included
specimens of Rowley's poetry. To this Walpole replied with
courteous acknowledgments. He characterized the verses as
" wonderful for their harmony and spirit," and added, " Give me
leave to ask you where Rowley's poems are to be had ? I should
not be sorry to print them; or at least a specimen of them, if
they have never been printed." Chatterton replied, enclosing
additional specimens of antique verse, and telling Walpole that
he was the son of a poor widow, and clerk to an attorney, but
had a taste for more refined studies; and he hinted a wish that
he might help him to some more congenial occupation. Walpolc's
manner underwent an abrupt change. The specimens of verse
had been submitted to his friends Gray and Mason, the poets,
and pronounced modern. They did not thereby forfeit the
wonderful harmony and spirit which Walpole had already
professed to recognise in them. But he now coldly advised the
boy to stick to the attorney's office; and " when be should
have made a fortune," he might betake himself to more favourite
la
studies. Chatterton had to write three times before he recovered
his MSS. Walpole has been loaded with more than his just
share of responsibility for the fate of the unhappy poet, of
whom be admitted when too late, " I do not believe there ever
existed so masterly a genius."
Chatterton now turned his attention to periodical literature
and politics, and exchanged Felix Farley* s Bristol Journal for
the Town and County Magazine and other London periodicals.
Assuming the vein of Junius— then in the . full blaze of his
triumph — he turned his pen against the duke of Grafton, the
earl of Bute, and the princess of Wales. He had just despatched
one of his political diatribes to the Middlesex Journal, when he
sat down on Easter Eve, 17 th April 1770, and penned his " Last
WQl and Testament," a strange satirical compound of jest and
earnest, in which he intimated his intention of putting an end
to his life the following evening. Among his satirical bequests,
such as his " humility " to the Rev. Mr Camplin, his " religion "
to Dean Barton, and his "modesty" along with his "prosody
and grammar " to Mr Burgum, he leaves " to Bristol all his
spirit and disinterestedness, parcels of goods unknown on its
quay since the days of Canynge and Rowley." In more genuine
earnestness he recalls the name of Michael Clayfield, a friend to
whom he owed intelligent sympathy. The will was probably
purposely prepared in order to frighten his master into letting
him go. If so, it had the desired effect Lambert cancelled his
indentures; his friends and acquaintance made him up a purse;
and on the 15th or 26th of the month he arrived in London.
Chatterton was already known to the readers of the Middlesex
Journal as a rival of Junius, under the nam de plume of Decimus.
He had also been a contributor to Hamilton's Town and County
Magazine, and speedily found access to the Freeholder's Magazine,
another political miscellany strong for Wilkes and liberty. His
contributions were freely accepted; but the editors paid little
or nothing for them. He wrote in the most hopeful terms to his
mother and sister, and spent his first earnings in buying gifts
for them. His pride and ambition were amply gratified by the
promises and interested flattery of editors and political adven-
turers; Wilkes himself had noted his trenchant style, "and
expressed a desire to know the author"; and Lord Mayor
Beckford graciously acknowledged a political address of his,
and greeted him " as politely as a citizen could." But of actual
money he received but little. He was extremely abstemious,
his diligence was great, and his versatility wonderful. He could
assume the style of Junius or Smollett, reproduce the satiric
bitterness of Churchill, parody Macphcrson's Ossian, or write in
the manner of Pope, or with the polished grace of Gray and
Collins. He wrote political letters, eclogues, lyrics, operas and
satires, both in prose and verse. In June x 7 70— after Chatterton
had been some nine weeks in London — he removed from Shore-
ditch, where he had hitherto lodged with a relative, to an attic
in Brook Street, Holborn. But for most of his productions the
payment was delayed; and now state prosecutions of the press
rendered letters in the Junius vein no longer admissible, and
threw him back on the lighter resources of his pen. In Shoredilch,
as in his lodging at the Bristol attorney's, he had only shared a
room; but now, for the first time, he enjoyed uninterrupted
solitude. His bed-fellow at Mr Walmslcy's, Shoredilch, noted
that much of the night was spent by him in writing; and now
he could write all night The romance of his earlier years
revived, and he transcribed from an imaginary parchment of
the old priest Rowley his " Excclcntc Baladc of Charitic." This
fine poem, perversely disguised in archaic language, he sent to
the editor of the Town and County Magazine, and had it rejected.
The high hopes of the sanguine boy had begun to fade. He
had not yet completed his second month in London, and already
failure and starvation stared him in the face. Mr Cross, a neigh-
bouring apothecary, repeatedly invited him to join him at dinner
or supper; but he refused. His landlady also, suspecting his
necessity, pressed him to share her dinner, but in vain. '• She
knew," as she afterwards said, " that he had not eaten anything
for two or three days." But he was offended at her urgency,
and assured her that he was not hungry. The notcoi his actual
CHATTERTON
receipts, found in his pocket-book after his death, shows that
Hamilton, Fell and other editors who had been so liberal ia
flattery, had paid him at the rate of a shilling for an article, and
somewhat less than eightpence each for his songs; while much
which had been accepted was held in reserve, and still unpaid
for. The beginning of a new month revealed to him the indefinite
postponement of the publication and payment of his work. He
had wished, according to his foster-mother, to study medicine
with Barrett; in his desperation he now reverted to this, and
wrote to Barrett for a letter to help him to an opening as a
surgeon's assistant on board an African trader. He appealed
also to Mr Catcott to forward his plan, but in vain. On the
24th of August 1770, he retired for the last time to bis attic in
Brook Street, carrying with him the arsenic which he there
drank, after tearing into fragments whatever literary remains
were at hand.
He was only seventeen years and nine months old; but the
best of his numerous productions, both in prose and verse,
require no allowance to be made for the immature years of their
author, when comparing him with the ablest of his contem-
poraries. He pictures Lydgate, the monk of Bury St Edmunds,
challenging Rowley to a trial at versemaking, and under cover
of this fiction, produces his " Songe of Alia," a piece of rare
lyrical beauty, worthy of comparison with any antique or modem
production of its class. Again, in his " Tragedy of Goddwyn,"
of which only a fragment has been preserved, the "Ode to
Liberty," with which it abruptly doses, may claim a place among
the finest martial lyrics in the language. The collection of poems
in which such specimens occur furnishes by far the most remark-
able example of intellectual precocity in the whole history of
letters. Collins, Burns, Keats, Shelley and Byron all awaken
sorrow over the premature arrestment of their genius; but the
youngest of them survived to his twenty-fifth year, while
Chatterton was not eighteen when he perished in his miserable
garret. The death of Chatterton attracted little notice at the
time; for the few who then entertained any appreciative
estimate of the Rowley poems regarded him as their mere
transcriber. He was interred in a burying-ground attached to
Shoe Lane Workhouse, in the parish of St Andrew's, Holborn,
which has since been converted into a site for Farringdon Market
There is a discredited story that the body of the poet was re-
covered, and secretly buried by his uncle, Richard Phillips, in
Rcdcliffe Churchyard. There a monument has since been erected
to his memory, with the appropriate inscription, borrowed
from his " Will," and so supplied by the poet's own pen — " To
the memory of Thomas Chatterton. Reader! judge not If
thou art a Christian, believe that he shall be judged by a Superior
Power. To that Power only is he now answerable."
HiBLiocftAi-iiY,— Poemi tttppcsrd to h&ve hem uriiten at Bristol
by Tkomai Rfiuttyand o*hert r in the Fifteenth Ccnlvr* (1 777) was edited
by Thomas Tyrwhitl; Thnftm Wart on, in his Hi iter v pj Entfiik
Poetry (177*), vol. iL section vm,, gives Rowley a place among the
15th century poets; but neither of these critics btlic v*d in the
antiquity of the poems. In t?8a a nuw edition of Rowley '■ poem*
appeared, with a " Commentary, in which the antiquity of them b
considered and defended," by Jeremiah Milles, dean of Exeter.
The controversy which raced round the Rowley poem? i* dimmed
in A. Kippi?, Btograpfiia Brilanttua, {vqL iv,. 1780), where there b a
detailed account py G. Gnetory d Chattcrton'a life (pp,. 373-610).
This was reprinted in the edition fiftoi) of Chatterton s Works w
R. Sguthey and J> CottTc t published tor the benefit of the poet's
*Utcr, Tho nc^Vclcd con Jit ion of the study or earlier English in
ihc J 8t h ccmuTv Alone accounts for the temporary surcem of
Ch.-ju i.-rton's mystification, ft has lone been apeed that ChattCffoa
wa* sofcly responsible for I he Rowley Poems, put the lan^u.-uwand
*tyle are analysed tn confirmation of this view by Pmi. W. W.
Sit eat in an introductory «&ay prefaced to vol. ii. of The Poetical
HVfjt; of Thonai Chaattiatt (1871) in the " Aldine Edition of the
British Poets." This, which is the most convenient erjirion, aba
contains a memoir of the poet by Edward BelL The spelling of the
Rowley poems is there modernized. And many of the archaic words
are replaced by modem equivalents provided in many cases from
Chattcrton's own notes the theory being that Chatterton usually
composed in modern English, and inserted his peculiar words and
his complicated orthography afterwards. For some criticism «l
rrof. SVeat's success in the very difficult task of reconstituting the
text, see H. B. Formaa, Thomas Chatterton and his latest Editor (1874).
CHATTI— CHAUCER
13
The Chatterton MSS.. originally in the possession of William Barrett
of Bristol, were left by nis heir to the British Museum in 1800.
Others are preserved in the Bristol library.
by D. C. Rossetti in " Five English Poets," and John Keats inscribed
Endymion " to the memory of Thomas Chatterton." Alfred de
Viftiy's drama of Chatterton gives an altogether fictitious account of
the poet. Herbert Croft (fl-»T), in his Love and Madness, interpolated
a long and valuable account of Chatterton, giving many of the
poet's letters, and much information obtained from his family and
friends (pp. 125-214. letter li.). There is a valuable collection of
" Chattertoniana in the British Museum, consisting of separate
works by Chatterton, newspaper cuttings, articles, dealing with the
Rowley controversy and other subjects, with MS. notes by Joseph
Haslewood, and several autograph letters.
Among biographies of Chatterton may be mentioned Chatterton:
A BiotrapkUml Study (1669), by Daniel Wilson; Chatterton: A
Biotraphy (1800; first printed 1856 in a volume of essays), by
D. Maason; "Thomas Chatterton T * (1900), by Ilclcne Richter, in
Wiener Beitrdge zur engl. Philotogie; Chatterton. by C. E. Russell
(«909).
CHATTI, an ancient German tribe inhabiting the" upper
reaches of the rivers Weser, Edcr, Fulda and Werra, a district
approximately corresponding to Hcsse-Casscl, though probably
somewhat more extensive. They frequently came into conflict
with the Romans during the early years of the 1st century.
Eventually they formed a portion of the Franks and were
incorporated in the kingdom of Clovis probably with the Ripuarii,
at the beginning of the 6th century.
Tacitus, Annals, i. 2, II, 12, 13; Cermania, 30-31: Strabo p.
291 f.
CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (? 1340-1400), English poet. The
name Chaucer, a French form of the Latin calcearius, a shoe-
maker, is found in London and the eastern counties as early as
the second half of the 13th century. Some of the London
Chaucers lived in Cordwaincr Street, in the shoemakers' quarter;
several of them, however, were vintners, and among others the
poet's father John, and probably also his grandfather Robert.
Legal pleadings inform us that in December 1324 John Chaucer
was not much over twelve years old, and that he was still un-
u/ . married in 13 28, the year which used to be considered
that of Geoffrey's birth. The poet was probably born
from eight to twelve years later, since in 1386, when giving
evidence in Sir Richard lc Scropc's suit against Sir Robert
Grosvenor as to the right to bear certain arms, he was set down
as " del age de xl ans et plus, armccz par xxvij ans." At a later
date, and probably at the time of the poet's birth, his father
lived in Thames Street, and had to wife a certain Agnes, niece
of Hamo de Compton, whom we may regard as Geoffrey Chaucer's
mother. In 1357 Geoffrey is found, apparently as a lad, in the
service of Elizabeth, countess of Ulster, wife of Lionel, duke of
Clarence, entries in two leaves of her household accounts,
accidentally preserved, showing that she paid in April, May and
December various small sums for his clothing and expenses.
In 1359, as we learn from his deposition in the Scropc suit , Chaucer
went to the war in France. At some period of the campaign he
was at " Retters," i.e. Rethel, near Reims, and subsequently
had the ill luck to be taken prisoner. On the 1st of March 1360
the king contributed £16 to his ransom, and by a year or two
later Chaucer must have entered the royal service, since on the
»oth of June 1367 Edward granted him a pension of twenty
marks for his past and future services. A pension of ten marks
had been granted by the king the previous September to a
PhiUppa Chaucer for services to the queen as one of her " domi-
cellae "or " damoisellcs," and it seems probable that at this date
Chaucer was already married and this Philippa his wife, a con-
clusion which used to be resisted on the ground of allusions in
his early poems to a hopeless love-affair, now reckoned part of
his poetical outfit. Philippa is usually said to have been one of
two daughters of a Sir Payne Roct, the other being Katherine,
who after the death of her first husband, Sir Hugh dc Swynford,
In 1372, became governess to John of Gaunt's children, and
subsequently his mistress and (in 1306) his wife. It is possible
that Philippa was sister to Sir Hugh and sister-in-law to
Katherine. In either case the marriage helps to account
for the favour subsequently shown to Chaucer by John of
Gaunt.
In the grant of his pension Chaucer is called " dilectus vallectus
noster," our beloved yeoman; before the end of 1368 he had
risen to be one of the king's esquires. In September of the
following year John of Gaunt's wife, the duchess Blanche, died at
the age of twenty-nine, and Chaucer wrote in her honour The
Book of the Duchcssc, a poem of 1334 lines in octosyllabic couplets,
the first of his undoubtedly genuine works which can be connected
with a definite date. In June 1370 he went abroad on the king's
service, though on what errand, or whither it took him, is not
known. He was back probably some time before Michaelmas,
and seems to have remained in England till the 1st of December
1372, when he started, with an advance of 100 marks in his
pocket, for Italy, as one of the three commissioners to treat with
the Genoese as to an English port where they might have special
facilities for trade. The accounts which he delivered on his
return on the 23rd of May 1373 show that he bad also visited
Florence on the king's business, and he probably went also to
Padua and there made the acquaintance of Petrarch.
In the second quarter of 1374 Chaucer lived in a whirl of
prosperity. On the 23rd of April the king granted him a pitcher
of wine daily, subsequently commuted for an annuity of 20
marks. From John of Gaunt, who in August 1372 had granted
Philippa Chaucer £10 a year, he himself now received (June 13)
a like annuity in reward for his own and his wife's services.
On the 8th of June he was appointed Comptroller of the Custom
and Subsidy of Wools, Hides and Woodfells and also of the
Petty Customs of Wine in the Port of London. A month before
this appointment, and probably in anticipation of it, he took
(May 10, 1374) a lease for life from the city of London of the
dwelling-house above the gate of Aldgate, and here he lived for
the next twelve years. His own and his wife's income now
amounted to over £60, the equivalent of upwards of £1000 in
modern money. In the next two years large windfalls came to
him in the form of two wardships of Kentish heirs, one of whom
paid him £104, and a grant of £71: 4: 6; the value of some
confiscated wool. In December 1376 he was sent abroad on the
king's service in the retinue of Sir John Burlcy; in February
1377 he was sent to Paris and Montrcuil in connexion probably
with the peace negotiations between England and France, and
at the end of April (after a reward of £20 for his good services)
he was again despatched to France.
On the accession of Richard II. Chaucer was confirmed in his
offices and pensions. In January 1378 he seems to have been
in France in connexion with a proposed marriage between
Richard and the daughter of the French king; and on the 28th
of May of the same year he was sent with Sir Edward dc Berkeley
to the lord of Milan and Sir John Hawkwood to treat for help in
the king's wars, returning on the 19th of September. This was
his last diplomatic journey, and the close of a period of his life
generally considered to have been so unprolific of poetry that
little beyond the Clerk's " Tale of Grisilde," one or two other of
the stories afterwards included in the Canterbury Talcs, and a
few short poems, are attributed to it, though the poet's actual
absences from England during the eight years amount to little
more than eighteen months. During the next twelve or fifteen
years there is no question that Chaucer was constantly engaged
in literary work, though for the first half of them he had no lack
of official employment. Abundant favour was shown him by the
new king. He was paid £22 as a reward for his later missions in
Edward III.'s reign, and was allowed an annual gratuity of xo
marks in addition to his pay of £10 as comptroller of the customs
of wool. In April 1382 a new comptrollership, that of the petty
customs in the Port of London, was given him, and shortly after
he was allowed to exercise it by deputy, a similar licence being
given him in February 1385. at the instance of the earl of Oxford,
as regards the comptrollership of wool. In October 1385 Chaucer
was made a justice of the peace for Kent. In February 1386 we
catch a glimpse of his wife Philippa being admitted to the
fraternity of Lincoln cathedral in the cosnpany-oi Henry, earl of
H
CHAUCER
Derby (afterwards Henry IV.), Sir Thomas de Swynford and
other distinguished persons. In August 1386 he was elected one
of the two knights of the shire for Kent, and with this dignity,
though it was one not much appreciated in those days, his good
fortune reached its climax. In December of the same year he
was superseded in both his comptrollerships, almost certainly
as a result of the absence of his patron, John of Gaunt, in Spain,
and the supremacy of the duke of Gloucester. In the following
year the cessation of Philippa's pension suggests that she died
between Midsummer and Michaelmas. In May 1388 Chaucer
surrendered to the king his two pensions of 20 marks each, and
they were re-granted at his request to one John Scalby. The
transaction was unusual and probably points to a pressing need
for ready money, nor for the next fourteen months do we know
of any source of income possessed by Chaucer beyond his annuity
of £10 from John of Gaunt
In July 1389, after John of Gaunt had returned to England,
and the king had taken the government into his own hands,
Chaucer was appointed clerk of the works at various royal
palaces at a salary of two shillings a day, or over £31 a year,
worth upwards of £500 present value. To this post was sub-
sequently added the charge of some repairs at St George's Chapel,
Windsor. He was also made a commissioner to maintain the
banks of the Thames between Woolwich and Greenwich, and was
given by the carl of March (grandson of Lionel, duke of Clarence,
his old patron) a sub-forcstcrship at North Pclherton, Devon,
obviously a sinecure. While on the king's business, in September
1300, Chaucer was twice robbed by highwaymen, losing £20 of
the king's money. In June 1391 he was superseded in his office
of clerk of the works, and seems to have suffered another spell of
misfortune, of which the first alleviation came in January 1393
when the king made him a present of £xo. In February 1394
he was granted a new pension of £20. It is possible, also, that
about this time, or a little later, he was in the service of the earl
of Derby. In 1397 he received from King Richard a grant of a
butt of wine yearly. For this he appears to have asked in terms
that suggest poverty, and in May 1398 he obtained letters of pro-
tection against his creditors, a step perhaps rendered necessary
by an action for debt taken against him earlier in the year.
On the accession of Henry IV. a new pension of 40 marks was
conferred on Chaucer (13th of October 1309) and Richard II. 's
grants were formally confirmed. Henry himself, however, was
probably straitened for ready money, and no instalment of the
new pension was paid during the few months of his reign that the
poet lived. Nevertheless, on the strength of his expectations,
on the 24th of December 1309 he leased a tenement in the garden
of St Mary's Chapel, Westminster, and it was probably here that
he died, on the 25th of the following October. He was buried in
Westminster Abbey, and his tomb became the nucleus of what
is now known as Poets' Corner.
The portrait of Chaucer, which the affection of his disciple,
Thomas Hocdeve,. caused to be painted in a copy of the la Iter's
Rcgcmcnl of Princes (now Harlcian MS. 4866 in the British
Museum), shows him an old man with white hair; he has a
fresh complexion, grey eyes,, a straight nose, a grey moustache
and a small double-poin ted beard. His dress and hood are black,
and he carries in his hands a string of beads. We may imagine
that it was thus that during the last months of his life he used
to walk about the precincts of the Abbey.
Henry IV.'s promise of an additional pension was doubtless
elicited by the Complcynl to his Purs, in the envoy to which
WorUm Chaucer addresses him as the " conqucrour of Brutes
Albioun." Thus within the last year of his life the
poet was still writing. Nevertheless, as early as 1393-1394, in
lines to his friend Scogan,he had written as if bis day for poetry
were past, and it seems probable that his longer poems were
all composed before this date. In the preceding fifteen—or, if
another view be taken, twenty — years, his literary activity was
very great, and with the aid of the lists of his works which he gives
in the Legend* of Good HVm^n (line* 414-431), and the talk on tho
road which precedes the " Man of Law's Tale " (Canterbury
Taks, IV 46-76), theorder in which his main wosks wese written
can be traced with approximate certainty, 1 while a few both of
these and of the minor poems can be connected with definite
dates.
The development of his genius has been attractively summed
up as comprised in three stages, French, Italian and English,
and there is a rough approximation to the truth in this formula,
since his earliest poems are translated from the French or based
on French models, and the two great works of his middle period
are borrowed from the Italian, while his latest stories have no
such obvious and direct originals and in their humour and free-
dom anticipate the typically English, temper of Henry Fielding.
But Chaucer's indebtedness to French poetry was no passing
phase. For various reasons— a not very remote French origin
of his own family may be one of them — he was in no way inter-
ested in older English literature or in the work of his English
contemporaries, save possibly that of " the moral Cower." On
the other hand he knew the Roman de la rose as modern English
poets know Shakespeare, and the full extent of his debt 16 his
French contemporaries, not merely in 1369, but in 1385 and in
1393 (the dates are approximate), is only gradually being dis-
covered. To be in touch throughout his life with the best French
poets of the day was much for Chaucer. Even with their stimulus
alone he might have developed no small part of his genius. But
it was his great good fortune to add to this continuing French
influence, lessons in plot and construction derived from Boc-
caccio's FUoslrato and Tcscide, as well as some glimpses of the
higher a rt of the Diviua Commcdia, He shows acquain tance also
with one of Petrarch's sonnets, and though, when all is said, the
Italian books with which he can be proved to have been intimate
are but few, they sufficed. His study of them was but an
episode in his literary life, but it was an episode of unique im-
portance. Before it began he had already been making his own
artistic experiments, and it is noteworthy that while he learnt
so much from Boccaccio he improved on his originals as he
translated them. Doubtless his busy life in the service of the
crown had taught him self-confidence, and he uses his Italian
models in his own way and with the most triumphant and assured
success. When he had no more Italian poems to adapt he had
learnt his lesson. The art of weaving a plot out of his own
imagination was never his, but he could take what might be little
more than an anecdote and lend it body and life and colour with
a skill which has never been surpassed.
The most direct example of Chaucer's French studies is his
translation of Le Roman de la rose, a poem written in some
4000 lines by Guillaume Lorris about 1237 and extended to over
a 2,000 by Jean Clopincl, better known as Jean de Meun, forty
years later. We know from Chaucer himself that he translated
this poem, and the extant English fragment of 7608 lines was
generally assigned to him from 1532, when it was first printed,
till its authorship was challenged in the early years of the Chaucer
Society. The ground of this challenge was its wide divergence
from Chaucer's practice in his undoubtedly genuine works as to
certain niceties of rhyme, notable as to not rhyming words ending
in -y with others ending -ye. It was subsequently discovered,
however, that the whole fragment was divisible linguistically
into three portions, of which the first and second end respectively
at lines 1 705 and 5810, and that in the first of these three sections
the variations from Chaucer's accepted practice arc insignificant.
Lines 1-1705 have therefore been provisionally accepted as
Chaucer's, and the other two fragments as the work of unknown
translators (James I. of Scotland has been suggested as one of
them), which somehow came to be pieced together. If, however,
the difficulties in the way of this theory are less than those which
confront any other, they are still considerable, and the question
can hardly be treated as closed.
While our knowledge of Chaucer's Romaunt of the Rose is
in this unsatisfactory state, another translation of his from
the French, the Book of the Lyon (alluded to in the " Retrac-
tion " found, in some manuscripts, at the end of the Canterbury
Tales), which must certainly have been taken from Guillaume
» The positions of the House of Fame and Palamon and Areyte an
•rill mattes* of controversy.
CHAUCER
15
Hadu.ult 's LeDildu lien, has perished altogether. The strength
of French influence on Chaucer's early work may, however, be
amply illustrated from the first of his poems with which we are
on sure ground, the Book of the Duckesse, or, as it is alternatively
called, the Detk of Blaunche. Here not only are individual
passages closely imitated from Machault and Froissart, but the
dream, the May morning, and the whole machinery of the poem
are taken over from contemporary French conventions. But
even at this stage Chaucer could prove his right to borrow by
the skill with which he makes his materials serve his own purpose,
and some of the lines in the Dcth of Blaunche are among the most
tender and charming he ever wrote.
Chaucer's A. B.C., a poem in honour of the Blessed Virgin, of
which the stanzas begin with the successive letters of the alpha-
bet, is another early example of French influence. It is taken
from the Pilerinage de la vie humaine, written by Guillaume de
Deguilleville about 1330. The occurrence of some magnificent
lines in Chaucer's version, combined with evidence that he did
not yet possess the skill to translate at all literally as soon as
rhymes had to be considered, accounts for this poem having been
dated sometimes earlier than the Book of the Duckesse, and
sometimes several years later. With it is usually moved up and
down, though it should surely be placed in the 'seventies, the
Com pi ey Ml to Pity, a fine poem which yet, from its slight obscurity
and absence of Chaucer's usual ease, may very well some day
prove to be a translation from the French.
While Chaucer thus sought to reproduce both the matter
and the style of French poetry in England, he found other
materials in popular Latin books. Among his lost works are
renderings of " Origencs upon the Maudeleyne," and of Pope
Innocent HL on " The Wreced Engendring of Mankinde "
(De miseria conditionis humanae). He must have begun his
attempts at straightforward narrative with the Lyf of SeytU
CecyU (the weakest of all his works, the second Nun's Tale in
the Canterbury series) from the Legenda A urea of Jacobus de
Voragine, and the story of the patience of Grisildc, taken from
Petrarch's Latin version of a tale by Boccaccio. In both of these
he condenses a little, but ventures on very few changes, though
he lets his readers see his impatience with his originals. In his
story of Constance (afterwards ascribed to the Man of Law),
taken from the Anglo-Norman chronicle of Nicholas Trivet,
written about 1334, we find him struggling to put some substance
into another weak tale, but still without the courage to remedy
Its radical faults, though here, as with Grisflde, he does as much
for his heroine as the conventional exaltation of one virtue at
a time permitted. It is possible that other tales which now stand
in the Canterbury series were written originally at this period.
What is certain is that at some time in the 'seventies three or four
Italian poems passed into Chaucer's possession, and that he set
to work busily to make use ef them. One of the most interesting
of the poems reclaimed for him by Professor Skeat is a fragment-
ary " Compleynt," part of which is written in terxa rima. While
he thus experimented with the metre of the Divina Commedia,
he made his first attempt to use the material provided by
Boccaccio's Teseide in another fragment of great interest, that of
Queue Anelida and Fals Arcyte. More than a third of this is
taken up with another, and quite successful, metrical experiment
in AnelidVs " compleynt," but in the introduction of Anelida
herself Chaucer made the first of his three unsuccessful efforts
to construct a plot for an important poem out of his own head,
and the fragment which begins so well breaks off abruptly at
line 357^
For a time the Teseide seems to have been laid aside, and it
was perhaps at this moment, in despondency at his failure, that
Chaucer wrote his most important prose work, the translation of
the De Consolatione Pkilosophiae of Boethius. Reminiscences
of this helped to enrich many of his subsequent poems, and
inspired five of his shorter pieces (The Former Age, Fortune,
Truth, CentUesse and Lak of Stedfastncsse), but the translation
itself was only a partial success. To borrow his own phrase, his
" Englysh was insufficient " to reproduce such difficult Latin.
The translation is often barely intelligible without the original,
and it is only here and there that it flows with any ease or
rhythm.
If Chaucer felt this himself he must have been speedily con-
sold by achieving in Troilus and Criseyde his greatest artistic
triumph. Warned by his failure in Anelida and Arcyte, he was
content this time to take bis plot unaltered from the Filostralo,
and to follow Boccaccio step by step through the poem. But
he did not follow him as a mere translator. He had done his
duty manfully for the saints " of other holinesse " in Cecyle,
Grisilde and Constance, whom he was forbidden by the rules of
the game to clothe with complete flesh and blood. In this great
love-story there were no such restrictions, and the characters
which Boccaccio's treatment left thin and conventional became
in Chaucer's hands convincingly human. No other English poem
is so instinct with the glory and tragedy of youth, and in the
details of the story Chaucer's gifts of vivid colouring, of humour
and pity, are all at their highest.
An unfortunate theory that the reference in the Legende ef
Good Women to " al the love of Palamon and Arcyte " is to a
hypothetical poem in seven-line stanzas on this theme, which
Chaucer is imagined, when he came to plan the Canterbury Tales,
to have suppressed in favour of a new version in heroic couplets,
has obscured the close connexion in temper and power between
what we know as the " Knight's Tale " and the Troilus. The
poem may have been more or less extensively revised before, with
admirable fitness, it was assigned to the Knight, but that its
main composition can be separated by several years from that of
Troilus is aesthetically incredible. Chaucer's art here again is at.
its highest He takes the plot of Boccaccio's Teseide, but only
as much of it as he wants, and what he takes he heightens and
humanizes with the same skill which be had shown in trans-
forming the Filostralo. Of the individual characters Theseus
himself, the arbiter of the plot, is most notably developed;
Emilic and her two lovers receive just as much individuality as
they will bear without disturbing the atmosphere of romance..
The whole story is pulled together and made more rapid and
effective. A comparison of almost any scene as told by the two
poets suffices to show Chaucer's immense superiority. At some
subsequent period the " Squire's Tale " of Cambuscan, the fair
Canacee and the Horse of Brass, was gallantly begun in some-
thing of the same key, but Chaucer took for it more materials
than he could use, and for lack of the help of a leader like Boc-
caccio be was obliged to leave the story, in Milton's phrase,
" half-told," though the fragment written certainly takes us
very much less than half-way.
Meanwhile, in connexion (as is reasonably believed) with the
betrothal or marriage of Anne of Bohemia to Richard II. (i.e.
about 1381-1382), Chaucer had brought to a successful com-!
pletion the Parlement of Foules, a charming sketch of 609 lines,
in which the other birds, on Saint Valentine's day, counsel the
" Formcl Egle " on her choice of a mate. His success here, as in
the case of the Deth of Blaunche the Duckesse, was due to the
absence of any need for a climax; and though the materials
which he borrowed were mainly Latin (with some help from
passages of the Teseide not fully needed for Palamon and Arcyte)
his method of handling them would have been quite approved
by his friends among the French poets. A more ambitious,
venture, the Hous of Fame, in which Chaucer imagines himself
borne aloft by an eagle to Fame's temple, describes what he
sees and hears there, and then breaks off in apparent inability
to get home, shows a curious mixture of the poetic ideals of the
Roman de la rose and reminiscences of the Divina Commedia.
As the Hous of Fame is most often remembered and quoted
for the personal touches and humour of Chaucer's conversation
with the eagle, so the most-quoted passages in the Prologue to'
the Legende of Good Women are those in which Chaucer professes
his affection for the daisy, and the attack on his loyalty by
Cupid and its defence by Alceste. Recent discoveries have
shown, however, that (besides obligations to Machault) some of
the touches about the daisy and the controversy between the
partisans of the Flower and of the Leaf are snatches from poems
by his friends Froissart and Deschamps, which Chaucer takes up
i6
CHAUCER
and returns to them with pretty compliments, and that he was
indebted to Froissart for some of the framework of his poem. 1
Both of the two versions of the Prologue to the Legende are
charming, and some of the tales, notably that of Cleopatra,
rank with Chaucer's best work. When, however, he had written
eight and part of the ninth he tired of his scheme, which was
planned to celebrate nineteen of Cupid's faithful " saints," with
Alcestis as their queen. With his usual hopefulness he had
overlooked the risk of monotony, which obviously weighed
heavily on him ere he broke off, and the loss of the other ten
stories is less to be regretted than that of the celebration of
Alceste, and a possible epilogue which might have exceeded in
charm the Prologue itself.
Chaucer's failure to complete the scheme of the Legende of
Good Women may have been partly due to the attractions of the
Canterbury Tales, which were probably taken up in
f****" immediate succession to it. His guardianship of two
J2fc Kentish wards, his justiceship of the peace, his repre-
senting the county in the parliament of 1386, his
commissionership of the river-bank between Greenwich and
Woolwich, all make it easy to understand his dramatic use of the
merry crowds he saw on the Canterbury road, without supposing
him to have had recourse to Boccaccio's Decamerone, a book
which there is no proof of his having seen. The pilgrims whom
he imagines to have assembled at the Tabard Inn in Southwark,
where Harry Bailey was host, are said to have numbered " wel
nyne and twenty in a company," and the Prologue gives full-
length sketches of a Knight, a Squire (his son), and their
Yeoman; of a Prioress, Monk, Friar, Oxford Clerk, and Parson,
with two disreputable hangers-on of the church, a Summoncr
and Pardoner; of a Serjcant-at-Law and a Doctor of Physic,
and of a Franklin, or country gentleman, Merchant, Shipman,
Miller, Cook, Manciple, Reeve, Ploughman (the Parson's brother)
and the ever-famous Wife of Bath. Five London burgesses are
described in a group, and a Nun and Priest 3 are mentioned as
in attendance on the Prioress. Each of these, with Chaucer
himself making the twenty-ninth, was pledged to tell two tales,
but including one second attempt and a tale told by the Yeoman
of a Canon, who overtakes the pilgrims on the road, we have
only twenty finished stories, two unfinished and two interrupted
ones. As in the case of the Legende of Good Women, our loss is
not so much that of the additional stories as of the completed
framework. The wonderful character sketches of the Prologue
are carried yet farther by the Talks on the Road which link the
different talcs, and two of these Talks, in which the Wife of
Bath and the Pardoner respectively edify the company, have the
importance of separate Tales, but between the Tales that have
come down to us there arc seven links missing, 3 and it was left
to a later and weaker hand to narrate, in the " Tale of Beryn,"
the adventures of the pilgrims at Canterbury.
The reference to the Lyf of Scynt Cecyle in the Prologue to
the Legende of Good Women gives external proof that Chaucer
included earlier work in the scheme of the Canterbury Tales,
and mention has been made of other stories which are indisput-
ably early. In the absence of any such metrical tests as have
1 The French influences on this Prologue, its connexion with the
Flower and the Leaf controversy, and the prority of what had pre-
viously been reckoned as the second or " B " form of the Prologue
over the " A," were demonstrated in papers by Prof. Kittredge on
" Chaucer and some of his Friends " in Modern Philology, vol. i.
J Chicago, 1903), and by Mr J. L. Lowes on " The Prologue to the
.egend of Good Women " in Publications of the Modern Language
Association of America, vol. xix., December 1904.
1 The Talks on the Road show clearly that only one Priest in
attendance on the Prioress, and two tales to each narrator, were
originally contemplated, but the " Prestcs thre "in line 164 of the
Prologue, and the bald couplet (line 793 eq.) explaining that each
pilgrim was to tell two tales each rcay, were probably both alterations
made by Chaucer in moments of amazing hopefulness. The journey
was reckoned a 3$ days' ride, and eight or nine tales a day would
surely have been a sufficient allowance.
'The absence of these links necessitates the division of the
Canterbury Tales into nine groups, to which, for purposes of quota-
tion, the letters A to I have been assigned, the line numeration of the
Tales in each group being continuous.
proved useful in the case of Shakespeare, the dates at which
several of the Tales were composed remain doubtful, while in
the case of at least two, the Clerk's tale of Grisilde and the
Monk's tragedies, there is evidence of early work being revised
and supplemented. It is fortunately impossible to separate the
prologue to the charmingly told story of " yonge Hugh of
Lincoln " from the tale itself, and with the " quod sche " in the
second line as proof that Chaucer was here writing specially for
his Prioress we are forbidden to limit the new stories to any one
metre or tone. There can be no doubt, however, that what may
be called the Tales of the Churls (Miller, Reeve, Summoner,
Friar, &c), and the conversational outpourings of the Pardoner
and Wife of Bath, form, with the immortal Prologue, the most
important and distinctive additions to the older work. In these,
and in the Pardoner's story of Death and the Three Revellers,
and the Nun's Priest's masterly handling of the fable of the
Cock and Fox, both of them free from the grossness which marks
the others, Chaucer takes stories which could have been told
in a short page of prose and elaborates them with all the skill
in narration which he had sedulously cultivated. The conjugal
reminiscences of the Wife of Bath and the Reeve's Tale with its
abominable climax (lightened a little by Aleyn's farewell, lines
316-319) are among the great things in Chaucer, as surely as
Troil us, and Palamon and Arcyte and the Prologue. They help
notably to give him the width of range which may certainly be
claimed for him.
In or soon after 1391 Chaucer wrote in prose for an eleven-
year-old reader, whom he addresses as " Lite! Lowis my son,"
a treatise on the use of the Astrolabe, its short prologue being
the prettiest specimen of his prose. The wearisome tale of
" Melibee and his wyf Prudence," which was perhaps as much
admired in English as it had been in Latin and French, may have
been translated at any time. The sermon on Penitence, used as
the Parson's Talc, was probably the work of his old age. " En-
voys " to his friends Scogan and Bukton, a translation of some
balades by Sir Otes de Granson, and the Compleynl to his Purs
complete the record of his minor poetry. We have his own
statement that in his youth he had written many Balades,
Roundels and Yirelayes in honour of Love, and the two songs
embedded respectively in the Parlement of Foules and the Pro-
logue to the Legende of Good Women are charming and musical.
His extant shorter poems, however, whether early or late,
offer no excuse for claiming high rank for him as a lyrist. He
had very little sheer singing power, and though there are fine
lines in his short poems, witness the famous " Flee fro the prees
and dwell with soothfastnesse," they lack the sustained concen-
tration of great work. From the drama, again, Chaucer was cut
off, and it is idle to argue from the innumerable dramatic touches
in his poems and his gift of characterization as to what he
might have done had he lived two centuries later. His own age
delighted in stories, and he gave it the stories it demanded
invested with a humanity, a grace and strength which place him
among the world's greatest narrative poets, and which bring the
England of his own day, with all the colour and warmth of life,
wonderfully near to all his readers.
The part played by Chaucer in the development of the English
language has often been overrated. He neither corrupted it, as
used to be said, by introducing French words which ._„
it would otherwise have avoided, nor bore any such """
part in fixing it as was afterwards played by the translators
of the Bible. When he was growing up educated society
in England was still bilingual, and the changes in vocabulary
and pronunciation which took place during his life were the
natural results of a society, which had been bilingual with a
bias towards French, giving an exclusive preference to English.
The practical identity of Chaucer's language with that of Cower
shows that both merely used the best English of their day with
the care and slightly conservative tendency which befitted poets.
Chaucer's service to the English language lies in his decisive
success having made it impossible for any later English poet to
attain fame, as Gower had done, by writing alternatively in
Latin and French. The claim which should be made for him ja
CHAUDESAIGUES— CHAUMETTE
17
that, at least as regards poetry, be proved that English was
"sufficient."
Chaucer borrowed both his stanza forms and bis "deca-
syllabic " couplets (mostly with an extra syllable at the end
of the line) from Guillaume Machault, and his music, like that
of his French master and his successors, depends very largely
on assigning to every syllable its full value, and more especially
on the due pronunciation of the final -e. The slower movement
of change in Scotland allowed time for Chaucer to exercise a
potent influence on Scottish poetry, but in England this final
•*, to which most of the earlier grammatical forms by Chaucer's
time had been reduced, itself fell rapidly into disuse during the
15th century, and a serious barrier was thus raised to the apprecia-
tion of the artistic-value of his verse. His disciples, Hocdeve
and Lydgate, who at first had caught some echoes of his rhythms,
gradually yielded to the change in pronunciation, so that there
was no living tradition to hand down his secret, while successive
copyists reduced his text to a state in which it was only by
accident that lines could be scanned correctly. For fully three
centuries his reputation was sustained solely by his narrative
power, his warmest panegyrists betraying no consciousness
that they were praising one of the greatest technical masters
of poetry. Even when thus maimed, however, his works found
readers and lovers in every generation, and every improvement
in his text has set his fame on a surer basis.
BnUQG*ATHY.—TheCanterburyTaUshavca\ways been Chnuccr*s
most popular work, and, including fragments, upward 1 of sixty
15th-century manuscripts of it still survive. Two thin volume* of
his minor poems were among the little quartos which Out ton printed
by way of advertisement immediately on his return to England;
the Canterbury Tales and Boeihius followed in 147a, TroQui and m
second edition. of the Tales in 148,}, the Hous of /■'.;««■ in 1 4 84 . The
Canterbury Tales were subsequently printed in 149a (Pynwn), 1498
(de Worae) and 1526 (Pynson); Troilus in is 17 (de Wordc) and
iu6 (Pynson); the Hous of Fame in 1526 (Pynson); the Parlement
of Foules in 1526 (Pynson) and I £30 (de Worde), and the Mars,
Venus " and Envoy to Bukton by Julyan Notary about i§oo.
Pynson's three issues in 1526 almost amounted to a collected edition,
but the first to which the title The Workes of Ceffray Chaucer was
riven was that edited by William Thynne in 153a for Thomas
Uudfray. Of this there was a new edition in 1542 for John Reynes
and William Bonham, and an undated reprint a few years later for
Bonham. Kele, Petit and Toye, each of whom put his name on part
of the edition. In 1561 a reprint, with numerous additions, edited
by John Sfcowe, was printed by J. Kynnton fori. Wight, and this
was re-edited, with fresh additions by Thomas Spcght, in 1598 for
C. Bishop and again in 1602 for Adam Islip. In 1687 there was an
anonymous reprint, and in 1721 John Urry produced the last and
worst of the folios. By this time the paraphrascrs were already at
work. Dry dm rewriting ihe tales of the Knight, the Nun's Priest
and the Wife of Bath H acid Pope the Merchant's. In 1737 (reprinted
in tjJuy) the Prologue and Knight \ Tale were edited (anonymously)
by Thomas MoreD H from the most authentic^ manuscripts," and
here* though by dint of much violence and with many mistakes,
Chiucer'i lines were for the first time in print given in a form in
which they could be scanned. This, promise of better things (Morell
still thought k necessary to accompany his text with the paraphrases
by Betterton and Dry den) was fulfilled by a fine edition of the
Caittrrb+ry Talcs (I775-'7?8K in which Thomas Tyrwhitt's scholarly
instincts produced a comjjarutivcly good text from second-rate
manuscript!! and accompanied it with valuable illustrative notes.
The neit edition of any importance was that edited by Thomas
Wright for the Percy Society in 1^48-1851, based on the erratic
but valuable British Museum manuscript Haiiey 7334, containing
reading* which must be either Chaucer's second thoughts or the
emendations o( a brilliantly clever scribe. In 1866 Richard Morris
re edited this te«t in a more scholarly manner for the Aldine edition
of the British Poets, and in the fu (lowing year produced for the
Clarendon Pre** Series a school edition of the Prologue and Tales
of the Knight and Nun's Priest, edited with the fulness and care
previously bestowed only on Greek and Latin classics.
In 1968 the foundation of the Chaucer Society, with Dr Furnivall
as its director and chief worker, and Henry Bradshaw as a leading
?*rit F Jed to the publication at 3 *i\ text edition of the Canterbury
Viet, and the consequent discovery that a manuscript belonging
to the Earl of Ellcsmcre, though undoubtedly "edited," contained
the best available text. The Chaucer Society also printed the best
manuscripts of Troilus and Cn'seyde and of all the minor poems,
and thus cleared the way for the "Oxford " Chaucer, edited by
Professor Skeat, with a wealth of annotation, for the Clarendon Press
in 1894. the text of which was used for the splendid folio printed
two years later by William Morris at the Kelmscott Press, with
■lustrations by Sir Edward Bume- Jones. A supplementary volume
of the Oxford edition, entitled Chaucerian end other Pieces, issued
by Professor Skeat in 1897. contains the prose and verse which his
early publishers and editors, from Pynson and Thynne onwards,
included among his Works by way of illustration, but which hod
^J-.^tl-. — T 1 *- !._ i_J __ I :__ _.^ -i ■_■ . ■_... Tl.
gradually come to be regarded as forming: part of h\s text. The
reasons For their rejection are fully tinted by Professor Skeat in the
work named and also in The Chaucer Canon, (1900)^ Many of these
pieces have now been traced to other authors, and their exclusion,
das helped to clear not only Chaucer's text but also his biography,
which used (as in the " Life " published by William Godwin in two
quarto volumes in 1 8oj) to be encumbered with inferences from
works now known not to be Chaucer's, notably the Teiiamtni of
L01* written by Thomas Usk, All information about Chaucer s
life available in 1 900 will.be found summarized by Mr R. B- C
Kirk in Life-Records of Chaucer, part iv 4| published by the Chaucer
Society in that year. See also Chaucer; a BiUmiraphical Manual,
by Eleanor P. llammond (1909). (A, W, Fo.)
CHAUDESAIGUES, a village of central France, in the depart-
ment of Cantal, at the foot of the mountains of Aubrac, 19 m.
S.S.VV. of St Flour by road. Fop. (1006) town, 937; commune,
1558- It is celebrated for its hoi mineral springs, which vary
in temperature from 135° to 177° Fahx., and at their maximum
rank as the hottest in France. The water, which contains
bicarbonate of soda, is employed not only medicinally (for
rheumatism, &c), but also for the washing of fleeces, the incuba-
tion of eggs, and various other economic purposes; and it
t umiihes a ready means of heating the houses of the town during
winter. In the immediate neighbourhood is the cold chalybeate
spring of Condamine. The warm springs were known to the
Romans , and are mentioned by SitoniusApollinaris.
CHAUFFEUR (from Fr. chauffer, to heat, a term primarily
used in French of a man in charge of a forge or furnace, and so
of a stoker on a locomotive or in a steamship, but in its anglicized
sense more particularly confined to a professional driver of a
motor vehicle. (See also Brigandage.)
CHAULIEU. GUILLAUME AMFRYE DE (1639-1730), French
pott and wit, waa born at Fontenay, Normandy, in 1639. His
1'.! 1 1 ■ 1. maUre des comptcs of Rouen, sent him to study at the
College de Navarre. Guillaume early showed the wit that was
to distinguish him, and gained the favour of the duke of Vendome,
win* procured for him the abbey of Aumale and other benefices.
Louis Joseph, duke of Vendome, and his brother Philippe, grand
prior of the Knights of Malta in France, at that time had a joint
establishment at the Temple, where they gathered round them
a very gay and reckless circle. Chaulieu became the constant
companion and adviser of the two princes. He made an expedi-'
lion to Poland in the suite of the marquis de Belhune, hoping to'
make a career for himself in the court of John Sobieski; he saw
one of the Polish king's campaigns in Ukraine, but returned to
Paris v- l thout securing any advancement Saint-Simon says that
the abbe helped his patron the grand prior to rob the duke of
Vendome, and that the king sent orders that the princes should
take the management of their affairs from him. This account
has been questioned by Sainte-Beuve, who regards Saint-Simon
as a prejudiced witness. In his later years Chaulieu spent much
time at the little court of the duchesse du Maine at Sceaua.
There he became the trusted and devoted friend of MdJJe
Dtlauiiay, with whom he carried on an interesting correspond-
ence. Among his poems the best known are " Fontenay " and
' " La K f raite." Chaulieu died on the 27th of June 1710.
Hit works were edited with those of his friend the marquis de la
Fare in 1 714, 17*0 and 1774. See also C. A. Sainte-Beuve. Causeries
du tttndi, vol. 1.; and Lettres inedites (1850), with a notice by
Raymond, marquis de Berenger.
CHAUMETTE, PIERRE GA8PARD (1763-1704), French
revolutionist, was born at Never*. Unto the Revolution he
lived a somewhat wandering life, interesting himself particularly
in botany. He was a student of medicine at Paris in 1790,
became one of the orators of the club of the Cordeliers, and
contributed anonymously to the Revolutions de Paris. As
member of the insurrectionary Commune of the xoth of August
I7Q3, he was delegated to visit the prisons, with full power to
arrest suspects. He was accused later of having taken part in
the massacres of September, but was able to prove that at that
time he had been sent by the provisional executive council to
Normandy to oversee a requisition of 60,000 men. Returning
i8
CHAUMONT-EN-BASSIGNY— CHAUNCY
from this mission, he pronounced an eloquent discourse in favour
of the republic His simple manners, easy speech, ardent
temperament and irreproachable private life gave him great
Influence in Paris, and he was elected president of the Commune,
defending the municipality in that capacity at the bar of the
Convention on the 31st of October 1792. Re-elected in the
municipal elections of the 2nd of December 1792, he was soon
charged with the functions of procurator of the Commune, and
contributed with success to the enrolments of volunteers by his
appeals to the populace. Chaumette was one of the ringleaders
in the attacks of the 31st of May and of the 2nd of June 1793
on the Girondists, toward whom he showed himself relentless.
He demanded the formation of a revolutionary army, and
preached the extermination of all traitors. He was one of the
promoters of the worship of Reason, and on the 10th of November
1793 he presented the goddess to the Convention in the guise of
an actress. On the 23rd of the same month he obtained a decree
closing all the churches of Paris, and placing the priests under
strict surveillance; but on the 25th he retraced his steps and
obtained from the Commune the free exercise of worship. He
wished to save the Hehertists by a new insurrection and struggled
against Robespierre; but a revolutionary decree promulgated
by the Commune on his demand was overthrown by the Con- _
vention. Robespierre had him accused with the Htbertists; he
was arrested, imprisoned in the Luxembourg, condemned by the
Revolutionary tribunal and executed on the 13th of April 1704.
Chaumette's career had its brighter side. He was an ardent
social reformer; he secured the abolition of corporal punishment
in the schools, the suppression of lotteries, of houses of ill-fame
and of obscene literature; he instituted reforms in the hospitals,
and insisted on the honours of public burial for the poor.
Chaumette left some printed speeches and fragments, and memoirs
published in the Amateur d'autogrophes. His memoirs on the 10th
of August were published by F. A. Aulard, preceded by a biographical
study.
CHAUMONT-EN-BASSIGNY, a town of eastern France,
capital of the department of Haute-Marne, a railway junction
163 m. E.S.E. of Paris on the main line of the Eastern railway
to Belfort. Pop. (1006) 12,089. Chaumont is picturesquely
situated on an eminence between the rivers Marne and Suine
in the angle formed by their confluence. To the west a lofty
viaduct over the Suize carries the railway. The church of
St-Jean-Baptiste dates from the 13th century, the choir and
lateral chapels belonging to the 15 th and 16th. In the interior
the sculptured triforium (15th century), the spiral staircase in
the transept and a Holy Sepulchre are of interest. The lycee
and the hospital have chapels of the 17th and 16th centuries
respectively. The Tour Hautef euille (a keep of the 1 1 th century)
is the principal relic of a chateau of the counts of Champagne;
the rest of the site is occupied by the law courts. In the Place
de rEscargot stands a statue of the chemist Philippe Lebon
(1767-1804), born in Haute-Marnc. Chaumont is the seat of
a prefect and of a court of assises, and has tribunals of first
Instance and of commerce, a lycee, training colleges, and a
branch of the Bank of France. The main industries are glove-
making and leather-dressing. The town has trade in grain, iron,
mined in the vicinity, and leather. In 1 190 it received a charter
from the counts of Champagne. It was here that in 18 14 Great
Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia concluded the treaty (dated
March 1, signed March 9) by which they severally bound them-
selves not to conclude a separate peace with Napoleon, and to
continue the war until France should have been reduced within
the boundaries of 1792.
. CHAUNCEY, ISAAC (1772-1840), American naval com-
mander, was born at Black Rock, Connecticut, on the 20th of
February 1772. He was brought up in the merchant service, and
entered the United States navy as a lieutenant in 1 798. His first
services were rendered against the Barbary pirates. During these
operations, more especially at Tripoli, he greatly distinguished
himself, and was voted by Congress a sword of honour, which,
however, docs not appear to have been given him. The most
•dive period of his life is that of his command on the Lakes during
the War of 181 2. He took the command at Sackett's Harbor on
Lake Ontario in October 18x2. There was at that time only one
American vessel, the brig " Oneida " (16), and one armed prise,
a schooner, on the lake. But Commodore Chauncey brought
from 400 to 500 officers and men with him, and local resources
for building being abundant, he had by November formed a
squadron of ten vessels, with which he attacked the r»«Hi»»i
port, York, taking it in April 18x3, capturing one vessel and
causing the destruction of another then building. He returned
to Sackett's Harbor. In May Sir James Lucas Yeo (1 732-1818)
came out from England with some 500 officers and men, to
organise a squadron for service on the Lakes. By the end of
the month he was ready for service with a squadron of eight
ships and brigs, and some small craft. The governor, Sir G.
pTcvost, gave him no serious support. On the 29th of May. dur-
ing Cbauncey's absence at Niagara, the Americans were attacked
at Sackett's Harbor and would have been defeated if Prevost had
not insisted on a retreat at the very moment when the American
shipbuilding yard was in danger of being burnt, with a ship of more
than eight hundred tons on the stocks. The retreat of the British
force gave Chauncey time to complete this vessel, the " General
Pike," which was so far superior to anything under Yeo's com-
mand that she was said to be equal in effective strength to
the whole of the British flotilla. The American commodore was
considered by many of his subordinates to have displayed
excessive caution. In August he skirmished with Sir James Yeo's
small squadron of six vessels, but made little effective use of
his own fourteen. Two of his schooners were upset in a squall,
with the loss of all hands, and he allowed two to be cut off by
Yeo. Commodore Chauncey showed a preference for relying oa
his long guns, arid a disinclination to come to close quarters.
He was described as chasing the British squadron all round the
lake, but his encounters did not go beyond artillery duels at
long range, and he allowed his enemy to continue in existence
long after he might have been destroyed. The winter suspended
operations, and both sides made exertions to increase their forces.
The Americans had the advantage of commanding greater
resources for shipbuilding. Sir James Yeo began by h^hidfaf
Sackett's Harbor in the early part of 18x4, but when the American
squadron was ready he was compelled to retire by the disparity
of the forces. The American commodore was now able to
blockade the British flotilla at Kingston. When the cruising
season of the lake was nearly over he in his turn retired to
Sackett's Harbor, and did not leave it for the rest of the war.
During his later years he served as commissioner of the navy,
and was president of the board of naval commissioners from
1833 till his death at Washington on the 97th of February 184a
See Roosevelt's War of 1812 (1882) ; and A. T. Mahan, Sea-Power
in Hi Relations to the War of 1812 (190$).
CHAUNCY, CHARLES (1592-1672), president of Harvard
College, was born at Yardley-Bury, Hertfordshire, England, in
November x 592, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge,
of which he became a fellow. He was in turn vicar at Ware,
Hertfordshire (1627-1633), and at Marston St Lawrence, North-
amptonshire (1633-1637). Refusing to observe the ecclesiastical
regulations of Archbishop Laud, he was brought before the court
of high commission in 1629, and again in 1634, when, for opposing
the placing of a rail around the communion table, he was sus-
pended and imprisoned. His formal recantation in February
1637 caused him lasting self-reproach and humiliation. In 1637
he emigrated to America, and from 1638 until 1641 was an
associate pastor at Plymouth, where, however, his advocacy of
the baptism of infants by immersion caused dissatisfaction.
He was the pastor at Sdtuate, Massachusetts, from 1641 until
1654, and from 1654 until his death was president of Harvard
College, as the successor of the first president Henry Dunster
(c. 16x2-1659). He died on the 10th of February 1672. By
bis sermons and his writings he exerted a great influence in
colonial Massachusetts, and according to Mather was " a most
incomparable scholar." His writings include: The Plain
Doctrine of the Justification of a Sinner in the Sight of Cod (1659)
and Antisynadalia Scripta Americana (1662). His son, Isaac
CHAUNY^-CHAUVIN
«9
31-1712), who removed to England, was a volu-
r on theological subjects.
liographical sketches of President Chauncy in Cotton
malia Ckritti Americana (London, i7oa) t and in W. C.
lariats of the Chammcys, including Freud**! Chauncy
Chauncy's great-grandson, Chaixes Chauncy
a prominent American theologian, was bom in
lachusetts, on the xst of January 1705, and gradu-
krdini72i. In 1727 he was chosen aa the colleague
oxcroft (1697-1769) in the pastorate of the First
Mton, continuing as pastor of this church until his
le time of the " Great Awakening " of x 740-1743 and
hauncy was the leader of the so-called " Old Light "
t England, which strongly condemned the White-
si as an outbreak of emotional extravagance. His
iHy presented in his sermon Enthusiasm and in his
noughts on the State of Religion in New England
m in answer to Jonathan Edwards's Some Thoughts
t Present Revival of Religion in New England (1742).
a leading part in opposition to the projected estsb-
n Anglican Episcopate in America, and before and
jnerican War of Independence he ardently sup-
hlg or patriot party. Theologically he has been
lecursor of the New England Unitarians. He died
the xoth of February 1787. His publications in-
ert View of Episcopacy, as Exhibited in the Fathers
n Church, until the close of the Second Century (1771);
All Men, Illustrated and Vindicated as a Scripture
\i)\ The Mystery Hid from Ages and Generations
si by the Gospel- Revelation (1783); and Fhe Dis-
\he Fall and its Consequences (1785).
aid's privately printed Bibliotheca Chaunciana (Broofc-
84) ; and Williston Walker's Ten New England Leaders
901).
a" town of northern France in the department of
. S. by W. of St Quentin by rail. Pop. (1906)
! town is situated on the Oise (which here becomes
id at the junction of the canal of St Quentin with the
of the Oise, and carries on an active trade. It
tor-polishing works, subsidiary to the mirror-works
In, chemical works, sugar manufactories, metal
I breweries. Chauny was the scene of much fighting
ml Years' War.
QUA* a village on the west shore of Chautauqua
>wn of Chautauqua, Chautauqua county, New York,
. of the town (1900), 3590; (1005) 3505; (1910)
village (1908) about 750. The lake is a beautiful
cr over 1300 ft. above sea-levd, 20 m. long, and
ud red yards to 3 m. in width. The town of Chau-
anted near the north end and is within easy reach
t and electric car connexions with the main railways
ast and the west. The town is known almost solely
permanent home of the Chautauqua Institution, a
ipular education founded in 1874 by Lewis Miller
of Akron, Ohio, and Bishop John H. Vincent
rhe village, covering about three hundred acres of
iufly laid out to provide for the work of the
itauqua Institution began as a Sunday-School
itute, and for nearly a quarter of a century the
>n was in the hands of Mr Miller, who was responsible
ness management, and Bishop Vincent, who was
t instruction department. Though founded by
in its earliest years it became non-sectarian and has
meeting-ground for members of all sects and de-
, At the very outset the activities of the assembly
i: (x) the conducting of a summer school for
ol teachers, and (2) the presentation of a series of 1
iCturcs and entertainments. Although the move-
ad still is primarily religious, H has always been
t tha best religious education most necessarily take
advantage of the best that the educational world can afford is
the literatures, arts and sciences. The scope of the plan rapidly
broadened, and in 1879 a regular group of schools with graded
courses of study was established. At about the same time, also,
the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, providing a
continuous home-reading system, was founded. The season
lasts during June, July and August. In 1907 some 325 lectures,
concerts, readings and entertainments were presented by a
group of over 190 lecturers, readers and musicians, while at the
same time 200 courses in the summer schools were offered by a
faculty of instructors drawn from the leading colleges and
normal schools of the country.
The Chautauqua movement has had an immense influence on
education in the United States, an influence which is especially
marked in three directions: (x) in the establishment of about
300 local assemblies or " Chautauquas " in the United States
patterned after the mother Chautauqua; (2) in the promotion
of the idea of summer education, which has been followed by
the founding of summer schools or sessions at a large number
of American universities, and of various special summer schools,
such as the Catholic Summer School of America, with head-
quarters at Cliff Haven, Clinton county, New York, and the
Jewish Chautauqua Society, with headquarters at Buffalo, N.Y.;
and (3) in the establishment of numerous correspondence schools
patterned in a general way after the system provided by the
Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle.
See John Heyl Vincent, The Chautauqua Mooenumt (Boston, 1886),
and Frank C. Bray, A Reading Journey through C h au tauqua (Chicago,
X905).
CHAUVBUX, BERNARD FRAH90I8, Maxquxs db (1766-
' X832), French diplomatist and administrator. Though master of
> the king's wardrobe in X789, he joined in the Revolution. He
served in the army of Flanders, and then was sent to London
in February 1792, to induce England to remain neutral in the
war which was about to break out between France and "the
king of Bohemia and Hungary." He was well received at first,
but after the xoth of August 1792 he was no longer officially
recognized at court, and on the execution of Louis XVL (21st of
1 January x 793) he was given eight days to leave England. After
an unsuccessful embassy in Tuscany, he was imprisoned as a
suspect during the Terror, but freed after the 9th Thermidor.
Under Napoleon he became a member of the council of state, and
from 1812 to 18x4 he governed Catalonia under the title of
intendant-gencral, being charged to win over the Catalonians
to King Joseph Bonaparte. He remained in private life during
1 the Restoration and the Hundred Days. In 1816 he was elected
deputy, and spoke in favour of liberty of the press and extension
of the franchise. Though he was again deputy in X827 he played
no part in public affairs, and resigned in 1829.
See G. PalUm, La Mission do Talleyrand A Londres en 190*
(Paris, 1889).
CHAUVIOKY, a town of western Prance, in the department
J of Vienne, so m. E. of Poitiers by rail. Pop. (1906) 2326. The
town is finely situated overlooking the Vienne and a small
torrent, and has two interesting Romanesque churches, both
restored in modern times. There are also ruins of a chateau of
the bishops of Poitiers, and of other strongholds. Near Chau-
vigny is the curious bone-cavem of Jioux, the entrance to which
is fortified by large blocks of stone. The town carries on hme-
burning and plaster-manufacture, and there are stone quarries
in the vicinity. Trade is in wool and feathers.
CHAUVIN. frriENME (1640-1725), French Protestant divine,
was born at Nlraes on the x8th of April 1640. At the revocation
of the Edict of Nantes he retired to Rotterdam, where he was for
some years preacher at the Walloon church; in 1695 the elector
of Brandenburg appointed him pastor and professor of philo-
sophy, and later inspector of the French college at Berlin, where
he enjoyed considerable reputation as a representative of
Cartesianism and as a student of physics. His principal work
is a laborious Lexicon Rationale, site Thesaurus Fhilosophicus
(Rotterdam, 169s; new and enhuged edition, Leuwarden, iftj).
20
CHAUVINISM— CHEBOYGAN
He also wrote Theses de Cognition* Dei (1662), and started the
Nouveau Journal des Savans (1604-1698).
See E. and E. Haag, La Prance ProUstante, vol. iv. (1884).
CHAUVINISM, a term for unreasonable and exaggerated
patriotism, the French equivalent of " Jingoism." The word
originally signified idolatry of Napoleon, being taken from a
much-wounded veteran, Nicholas Chauvin, who, by his adoration
of the emperor, became the type of blind enthusiasm for national
military glory.
CHAUX DB PONDS, LA, a large industrial town in the Swiss
canton of Neuchatel. It is about 19 m. by rail N. W. of Neuchatel,
and stands at a height of about 3255 ft. in a valley (5 m. long)
of the same name in the Jura. Pop. (1900) 35>9*8 (only 13.659
in 1850); (1905) 38,700, mainly French-speaking and Pro-
tesUnts; of the 61x4 "Catholics" the majority are "Old
Catholics." It is a centre of the watch-making industry, especi-
ally of gold watch cases; about 70% of those manufactured
in Switzerland are turned out here. In 1900 it exported watches
to the value of nearly £3,000,000 sterling. There is a school of
industrial art (engraving and enamelling watch cases) and a
school of watch-making (including instruction in the manufacture
of chronometers and other scientific Instruments of precision).
It boasts of being le plus gros village de f 'Europe, and certainly
has preserved some of the features of a big village. Leopold
Robert (1 704-1835), the painter, was born here. ( W. A. B. C).
CHAVES, a town of northern Portugal, in the district of Villa
Real, formerly included in the province of Trax os Mohtes;
8 m. S. of the Spanish frontier, on the right bank of the river
Tamega. Pop. (1900) 6388. Chaves is the ancient Aquae
Flaviae, famous for its hot saline springs, which are still in use.
A fine Roman bridge of 18 arches spans the Tamega. In the 16th
century Chaves contained 20,000 inhabitants; it was long one of
the principal frontier fortresses, and in fact derives its present
name from the position which makes it the " keys," or chaves, of
the north. One of its churchescontains the tomb of Alphonso I.
of Portugal (1139-1185). In 1830 the town gave the title of
marquess to Pinto da Fonseca, a leader of the Miguelite party.
CHA7.E1.I.1B, JEAN MATHIEU DB (1657-1710), French
hydrographer, was born at Lyons on the 24th of July 1657.
He was nominated professor of hydrography at Marseilles in
1685, and in that capacity carried out various coast surveys. In
1693 he was engaged to publish a second volume of the Neptune
francais, which was to include the hydrography of the Mediter-
ranean. For this purpose he visited the Levant and Egypt.
When in Egypt he measured the pyramids, and, finding that
the angles formed by the sides of the largest were in the direction
of the four cardinal points, he concluded that this position must
have been intended, and also that the poles of the earth and
meridians had not deviated since the erection of those structures.
He was made a member of the Academy in 1695, and died in
Paris on the 16th of January 1710.
CHEADLE, a town in the Altrincham parliamentary division
of Cheshire, England, 6 m. S. of Manchester, included in the
urban district of Cbeadle and Gatlcy. Pop. (ioox) 7916. This
is one of the numerous townships of modern growth which fringe
the southern boundaries of Manchester, and practically form
suburbs of that city. Stockport lies immediately to the east.
The name occurs in the formerly separate villages of Cheadle
Ilulmc, Cheadle Bulkelcy and Cheadle Mosclcy. There are
cotton printing and bleaching works in the locality. The parish
church of St Giles, Cheadle, is Perpendicular, containing an altar-
tomb of the 15th century for two knights.
CHEADLE, a market town in the Leek parliamentary divi-
sion of Staffordshire, England, 13 m. N.E. of Stafford, and
the terminus of a branch line from Cresswell on the North
Staffordshire railway. Pop. (xoox) 5186. The Roman Catholic
church of St Giles, with a lofty spire, was designed by Pugin
and erected in 1 846. The interior is lavishly decorated. There
are considerable collieries in the neighbourhood, and silk and
tape works in the town. In the neighbouring Froghall district
limestone is quarried, and there are manufactures of copper.
In Cheadle two (airs of ancient origin are held annually.
CHEATING, "the fraudulently obtaining the property of
another by any deceitful practice not amounting to felony, which
practice is of such a nature that it directly affects, or may
directly affect, the public at large" (Stephen, Digest of Criminal
Law, chap. xL f 367). Cheating is either a common law or
statutory offence, and is punishable as a misdemeanour. An
indictment for cheating at common law is of comparatively rare
occurrence, and the statutory crime usually presents itself in the
form of obtaining money by false pretences (f.f.). The word
" cheat " is a variant of " escheat" Le. the reversion of land to
a lord of the fee through the failure of blood of the tenant
The shortened form. " cheater " for " escheator " is found early
in the legal sense, and chetynge appears in the Pramptarium
Parvulorum, c. 1440, as the equivalent of confUcalio. In the
1 6th century " cheat " occurs in vocabularies of thieves and other
slang, and in such works as the Use of Dice-Play (153 a). It is
frequent in Thomas Harman's Cowo/ or Warming for. . .Vega-
bones (1567), in the sense of " thing," with a descriptive word
attached, e.g.smdingchete— nose. InthctnctMihil Mumchance,
his Discovert* of the Art of Cheating, doubtfully attributed to
Robert Greene (1560-1592), we find that gamesters call them-
selves cheaters, " borrowing the term from the lawyers." The
sense development is obscure, but it would seem to be due to the
extortionate or fraudulent demands made by legal " eacheators."
CHEBICHEV, PAPNUTIT LVOVICH (18*1-1804), Russiaa
m a th ematician, was born at Borovsk on the *6th of May 1S11.
He was educated at the university of Moscow, and in 1859
became professor of mathematics in the university of St Peters-
burg, a position from which he retired in 1880. He was chosen
a correspondent of the Institute of France in i860, and succeeded
to the high honour of assocU Stranger in 1874. He was also a
foreign member of the Royal Society of London. After N. L
Lobachevskiy he probably ranks as the most distinguished
mathematician Russia has produced. In 1841 he published a
valuable paper, " Sur la convergence de la serie de Taylor," in
Crcllc*s Journal. His best-known papers, however, deal with
prime numbers; in one of these ("Sur les nombres premiers,"
1850) he established the existence of limits within which must
be comprised the sum of the logarithms of the primes inferior
to a given number. Anot her question to which he devoted muck
attention was that of obtaining rectilinear motion by linkage.
The parallel motion known by his name is a three-bar linkage,
which gives a very close approximation to exact rectilinear
motion, but in spite of all his efforts he failed to devise one that
produced absolutely true rectilinear motion. At last, indeed, he
came to the conclusion that to do so was impossible, and in that
conviction set to work to find a rigorous proof of the impossibility.
While he was engaged on this task the desired linkage, which
moved the highest admiration of J. J. Sylvester, was discovered
and exhibited to him by one of his pupils, named Lipkin, who,
however, it was afterwards found, had been anticipated by
A. Peaucellier. Chebichev further constructed an instrument
for drawing large circles, and an arithmetical machine with
continuous motion. His mathematical writings, which account
for some forty entries in the Royal Society's catalogue of scien-
tific papers, cover a wide range of subjects, such as the theory of
probabilities, quadratic forms, theory of integrals, gearings, the
construction of geographical maps, &c. He also published a
Traill de la thlorU des nombres. He died at St Petersburg on
the 8th of December 1894.
CHEBOYGAN, a city and the county-seat of Cheboygan
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on South Cliannel (between Lakes
Michigan and Huron), at the mouth of Cheboygan river, in the
N. part of the lower peninsula. Pop. (1890) 6135; (X900)
6489, of whom 2101 were foreign-born; (1004) 6730; (1910)
6859. It is served by the Michigan Central and the Detroit k
Mackinac railways, and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Mil-
waukee, Detroit, Sault Ste Marie, Green Bay and other lake
ports; and is connected by ferry with Mackinac and Pointe aux
Pins. During a great part of the year small boats ply between
Cheboygan and the head of Crooked Lake, over the " Inland
Route." Cheboygan is situated in a fertile farming region, for
CHECHENZES— CHEERING
21
which it b a trade centre, and it has lumber mills, tanneries,
paper mills, boiler works, and other manufacturing establish-
ments- The water- works are owned and operated by the munici-
pality. The city, at first called Duncan, then Inverness, and
finally Cheboygan, was settled in 1846, incorporated as a village
in 1871, reincorporated in 1877, and chartered as a city in
1889.
CHECHENZES, Tchetchen, or Kjhsts (Kisti), the last being
the name by which they are known to the Georgians, a people
of the eastern Caucasus occupying the whole of west Daghcstan.
They call themselves Nakhtche, " people." A wild, fierce people,
they fought desperately against Russian aggression in the 18th
century under Daud Beg and Oman Khan and Shamyl, and in
the 19th under Khazi-Mollah, and even now some are inde-
pendent in the mountain districts. On the surrender of the
chieftain Shamyl to Russia in 1859 numbers of them migrated
into Armenia. In physique the Chechentcs resemble the Cir-
cassians, and have the same haughtiness of carriage. They are
of a generous temperament, very hospitable, but quick to re-
venge. They are fond of fine clothes, the women wearing rich
robes with wide, pink silk trousers, silver bracelets and yellow
sandals. Their houses, however, are mere hovels, some dug
out of the ground, others formed of boughs and stones. Before
their subjection to Russia they were remarkable for their inde-
pendence of spirit and love of freedom. Everybody was equal,
and they had no slaves except prisoners of war. Government
in each commune was by popular assembly, and the adminis-
tration of justice was in the hands of the wronged. Murder and
jobbery with violence could be expiated only by death, unless
the criminal allowed his hair to grow and the injured man
consented to shave it himself and take an oath of brotherhood
on the Koran. Otherwise the law of vendetta was fully carried
out with curious details. The wronged man, wrapped in a white
woollen shroud, and carrying a coin to serve as payment to a
priest for saying the prayers for the dead, started out in search
of his enemy. When the offender was found he must fight to a
finish. A remarkable custom among one tribe is that if a
betrothed man or woman dies on the eve of her wedding, the
marriage ceremony is still performed, the dead being formally
united to the living before witnesses, the father, in case it is the
girl who dies, never failing to pay her dowry. The religion of
the Chechenzes is Mahommcdanism, mixed, however, with
Christian doctrines and observances. Three churches near Kistin
in honour of St George and the Virgin are visited as places of
pilgrimage, and rams are there offered as sacrifices. The
Chechenzes number upwards of 200,000. They speak a distinct
language, of which there are said to be twenty separate dialects.
See Ernest Chanter, Recherches anthropologiques dans U Caucau
(Lyon. 1885-1887) ; D. G. Brinton. Races of Man (1800) ; Hutchinson,
Ltrimg Rates of Mankind (London, 1901).
CHECKERS* the name by which the game of draughts (q.v.)
is known in America. The origin of the name is the same as that
of - chess " fo.r).
CHEDDAR, a small town in the Wells parliamentary division
of Somersetshire, England, 22 m. S.W. of Bristol by a branch
of the. Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1975. The town,
with its Perpendicular church and its picturesque market -cross,
lies below the south-western face of the Mendip Hills, which rise
sharply from 600 to 800 ft. To the west stretches the valley of
the river Axe, broad, low and flat. A fine gorge opening from
the lulls immediately upon the site of the town is known as
Cheddar cliffs from the sheer walls which flank it; the contrast
of its rocks and rich vegetation, And the falls of a small stream
traversing it, make up a beautiful scene admired by many
visitors. Several stalactitical caverns are also seen, and pre-
historic British and Roman relics discovered in and near them
are preserved in a small museum. The two caverns most fre-
quently visited are called respectively Cox's and Cough's; in
each, but especially in the first, there is a remarkable collection
of fantastic and beautiful stalactitical forms. There are other
caverns of greater extent but less beauty, but their extent is not
completely explored. The remains discovered in the caves give
evidence of British and Roman settlements at Cheddar (CesTe,
C Med are), which was a convenient trade centre. The manor of
Cheddar was a royal demesne in Saxon times, and the witcnage-
mot was held there in 066 and 068. It was granted by John in
1 204 to Hugh, archdeacon of Wells, who sold it to the bishop of
Bath and Wells in 1229, whose successors were overlords until
*SS3» when the bishop granted it to the king. It is now owned
by the marquis of Bath. By a charter of 1 23 1 extensive liberties
in the manor of Cheddar were granted to Bishop Joceline, who
by a charter of 1235 obtained the right to hold a weekly market
and fair. By a charter of Edward III. (1337) Cheddar was
removed from the king's forest of Mendip. The market was
discontinued about 1690. Fairs arc now held on the 4th of May
and the 29th of October under the original grants. The name
of Cheddar is given to a well-known species of cheese (see Daiiy),
the manufacture of which began in the 17th century in the
town and neighbourhood.
CHEDUBA, or Man-aunc, an island in the Bay of Bengal,
situated 10 m. from the coast of Arakan, between 18° 40' and
18° 56' N. lat., and between 93° 31' and 93° 50' E. long. It
forms part of the Kyaukpyu district of Arakan. It extends
about 20 m. in length from N. to S., and 17 m. from E. to W.,
and its area of 220 sq. m. supports a population of 26,899 (in
1 001). The channel between the island and the mainland b
navigable for boats, but not for large vessels. The surface of the
interior is richly diversified by hill and dale, and in the southern
portion some of the heights exceed a thousand feet in elevation.
There are various indications of former volcanic activity, and
along the coast are earthy cones covered with green-sward, from
which issue springs of muddy water emitting bubbles of gas.
Copper, iron and silver ore have been discovered; but the
island is chiefly noted for its petroleum wells, the oil derived
from which is of excellent quality, and is extensively used in the
composition of paint, as it preserves wood from the ravages of
insects. Timber is not abundant, but the gamboge tree and
the wood-oil tree arc found of a good size. Tobacco, cotton,
sugar-cane, hemp and indigo are grown, and the staple ankle
is rice, which is of superior quality, and the chief article of export.
The inhabitants of the island arc mainly Maghs. Cheduba fell
to the Burmese in the latter part of the x8th century. From
them it was captured in 1824 by the British, whose possession
of it was confirmed in 1826 by the treaty concluded with the
Bur mese a t Yandaboo.
CHEERING, the uttering or making of sounds encouraging,
stimulating or exciting to action, indicating approval or acclaim-
ing or welcoming persons, announcements of events and the
like. The word " cheer " meant originally face, countenance,
expression, and came through the O. Fr. into Mid. Eng. in the
13th century from the Low Lat. caro, head; this is generally
referred to the Gr. x&pa. Cora is used by the 6th-century poet
Flavius Crcsconius Corippus, " Postquam venere verendam
Caesaris ante caram " (In Laudem Justini Minor is). " Cheer "
was at first qualified with epithets, both of joy and gladness and
of sorrow; compare " She thanked Dyomede for alle ... his
gode cherc " (Chaucer, Troylus) with " If they sing ... 'tis
with so dull a checre " (Shakespeare, Sonnets, xcvii.). An early
transference in meaning was to hospitality or entertainment,
and hence to food and drink, " good cheer." The sense of a
shout of encouragement or applause is a late use. Defoe (Captain
Single ten) speaks of it as a sailor's word, and the meaning does
not appear in Johnson. Of the different words or rather sounds
that are used in cheering, " hurrah," though now generally
looked on as the typical British form of cheer, is found in various
forms in German, Scandinavian, Russian (urd), French (hour a).
It is probably onomatopoeic in origin; some connect it with
such words as " hurry," " whirl "; the meaning would then be
" haste," to encourage speed or onset in battle. The English
" hurrah " was preceded by " huzza," stated to be a sailor's
word, and generally connected with " heeze," to hoist, probably
being one of the cries that sailors use when hauling or hoisting.
The German hock, seen In full in hock Ube der Kaiser, fcc., die
French we, Italian and Spanish ma, evrica, are cries rather
22
CHEESE— CHEFFONIER
of acclamation than encouragement. The Japanese shout
kammi became familiar during the Russo-Japanese War. In
report* of parliamentary and other debates the insertion of
"cheers" at any point in a speech indicates that approval was
shewn by members of the House by emphatic utterances of
" bear hear." Cheering may be tumultuous, or it may be
conducted rhythmically by prcarrangemenl, as in the case of
the " Hip-hip-hip " by way of introduction to * simultaneous
•* hurrah."
Rhythmical cheering has been developed to its greatest
extent in America in the college yells, which may be regarded as
a development of the primitive war-cry; this custom has no
real analogue at English schools and universities, but the New
Zealand football team in 1907 familiarized English crowds at
their matches with a similar sort of wax -cry adopted from the
Maoris. In American schools and colleges there is usually one
cheer for the institution as a whole and others for the different
classes. The oldest and simplest are those of the New England
colleges. The original yells of Harvard and Yale are identical
in form, being composed of rah (abbreviation of hurrah) nine
times repeated, shouted in unison with the name of the university
at the end. The Yale cheer is given faster than that of Harvard.
Many institutions have several different yells, a favourite
variation being the name of the college shouted nine times in a
slow and prolonged manner. The best known of these variants
is the Yale cheer, partly taken from the Frogs of Aristophanes,
which runs thus:
" Rrekekekfr. ko-Ax. ko-ax.
Hrrkckt'kcft, ko-a*. ko-a*.
O-op. O-op. narabaloQ,
Yale, Yale. Vale,
Rah. rah, rah. rah. rah, rah, rah, rah, rah,
Yale! Yale I Yale!"
The regular cheer of Princeton is:
" ll'ray. h'ray. h'ray. tiger.
Sim, boom, ah; Princeton I "
This is expanded into the " triple cheer ":
" H'ray, h'ray, h'ray.
Tiger, tiger, tiger,
Sm. mm, tits,
Boom, boom, boom.
Ah. ah. ah.
Princet6n, Princct6n, Princeton 1"
The " railroad cheer " is like the foregoing, but begun very
slowly and broadly, and gradually accelerated to the end, which
Is enunciated as fast as possible. Many cheers are formed
like that of Toronto University:
*' Varsity, varsity,
V-ir-i-l-ly (.polled)
VARSITY (spelled staccato)
Var-si-ty.
Rah. rah. rah! M
Another variety of yell is illustrated by that of the School
of Practical Science of Toronto University:
" Who are we r Can't you guess?
We are from the & PS. !"
The cheer of the United States Naval Academy is an imita-
tion of a nautical syren. The Amherst cheer is:
" Amherst ! Amherst ! Amherst ! Rah « Rah !
Amher»t ! Rah ! Rah !
Rah I Rah ! Rah ! Rah I Rah I Rah ! Amherst I"
Besides the cheers of individual institutions there are some
common to all. generally used to compliment some successful
athlete or popular professor. One of the oldest examples of
these persona) cheers is:
" Who was George Washington f
lirrt in »ar.
KirM in peace.
First in the hearts of his countrymen."
followed by a stamping on the floor in the same rhythm.
College >el1s are used particularly at athletic contests. In
any Urgccotlcgc there are several leaders, chosen by the students,
who stand in front and call for the different songs and cheers,
directing with their arms in the fashion of an orchestral con-
ductor. This cheering and singing form one of the distinctive
features of inter-collegiate and scholastic athletic contests in
America.
CHEESE (Lat. castas), a solidified preparation from milk, the
essential constituent of which b the protdnous or nitrogenous
substance casein. All cheese contains in addition some proportion
of fatty matter or butter, and in the more valuable varieties the
butter present is often greater in amount than the casein. Cheese
being thus a compound substance of no definite composition is
found in commerce of many different varieties and qualities;
and such qualities are generally recognized by the names of the
localities in which they are manufactured. The principal dis-
tinctions arise from differences in the composition and condition
of the milk operated upon, from variations in the method of
preparation and curing, and from the use of the milk of other
animals besides the cow, as, for example, the goal and the ewe,
from the milk of both of which cheese is manufactured on a
commercial scale. For details about different cheeses and cheese-
making, see Daixy. From the Urdu ckix ("thing") comes the
slang expression " the cheese," meaning "the perfect thing,"
apparently from Anglo-Indian usage.
A useful summary of the history and manufacture of all sorts of
cheeses, under their different names, is given in Bulletin 105 of the
Bureau of Animal Industry (United States Dep. of Agriculture),
Varieties of Cheese, by C. F. Doane and H. W. Laweoa (Washington,
1908).
CHEESE CLOTH, the name given to cloth, usually made from
flax or tow yarns, of an open character, resembling a fine riddle
or sieve, used for wrapping cheese. A finer quality and texture
is made for women's gowns. A similar doth is used for inside
linings in the upholstery trade, and for the ground of embroidery.
CHEETA (Chita), or Huntinc-Leopabd {Cynadurus jubatus,
formerly known as Cue par da jubata), a member of the family
Pelidae, distinguished by its claws being only partially retractile
(see Caanivora). The checta attains a length of 3 to 4 ft;
it is of a pale fulvous colour, marked with numerous spots of
black on the upper surface and sides, and is nearly white beneath.
The fur is somewhat crisp, altogether lacking the sleekness which
characterizes the fur of the typical cats, and the tail is long and
somewhat busby at the extremity. In confinement the cnecta
soon becomes fond of those who are kind to it, and gives evidence
of its attachment in an open, dog-like manner. The cheeta is
found throughout Africa and southern Asia, and has been em-
ployed for centuries in India and Persia in hunting antelopes
and other game. According to Sir W. Jones, this mode of
hunting originated with Hushing, king of Persia, 865 B.C., and
afterwards became so popular that certain of the Mongol
emperors were in the habit of being accompanied in their sport-
ing expeditions by a thousand hunting leopards. In prosecuting
this sport at the present day the cheeta is conveyed to the' field
in a low car without sides, hooded and chained like hunting-
birds in Europe in the days of falconry. When a herd of deer
or antelopes is seen, the car, which bears a close resemblance to
the ordinary vehicles used by the peasants, is usually brought
within 200 yds. of the game before the latter takes alarm; the
cheeta is then let loose and the hood removed from its eyes. No
sooner does it sec the herd, than dropping from the car on the side
remote from it sprcy, it approaches stealthily, making use of
whatever means of concealment the nature of the ground permits,
until observed, when making a few gigantic bounds, it generally
arrives in the midst of the herd and brings down its victim with
a stroke of its paw. The sportsman then approaches, draws off
a bowl of the victim's blood, and rtats it before the cheeta, which
is again hooded and led back to the car. Should it not succeed
in reaching the herd in the first few bounds, it makes no further
effort to pursue, but retires seemingly dispirited to the car. Is
Africa the cheeta is only valued for its skin, which is worn by
chiefs and other people of rank. It should be added that in
India the name cheeta (chita) is applied also to the leopard.
CHEFFONIER. properly CmFFOKrct, a piece of furniture
differentiated from the sideboard by its smalts* tfse and by the
CHEH-KIANG— CHELMSFORD, LORD
23
enclosure of the whole of the front by doors. Its name (which
comes from the French for a rag-gatherer) suggest* that it was
originally intended as a receptacle for odds and ends which had
no place elsewhere, but it now usually serves the purpose of a
sideboard. It is a remote and illegitimate descendant of the
cabinet; it has rarely been elegant and never beautiful. It was
one of the many curious developments of the mixed taste, at
once cumbrous and bizarre, which prevailed in furniture during
the Empire period in England. The earliest cberToniers date
from that time; they are usually of rosewood — the favourite
timber of that moment; their " furniture " (the technical name
for knobs, handles and escutcheons) was most commonly of
brass, and there was very often a raised shelf with a pierced brass
gallery at the back. The doors were well panelled and often
edged with brass-beading, while the feet were pads or claws, or,
ia the choicer examples, sphinxes in gilded bronze. Cbeffoniers
are still made in England in cheap forms and in great number.
CHEH-KIAJfG, an eastern province of China, bounded N. by
the province of Kiang-su, E. by the sea, S. by the province of
Fu-kien, and W by the provinces of Kiang-si and Ngan-hui.
It occupies an area of about 36,000 sq. m., and contains a popu-
lation of 11,800,000. With the exception of a small portion of
the great delta plain, which extends across the frontier from the
province of Kiang-su, and in which are situated the famous
cities of Hu Chow, Ka-hing, Hang-chow, Shao-Sing and Ning-po, 1
the province forms a portion of the Nan-shan of south-eastern
China, and is hilly throughout. The Nan-shan ranges run!
through the centre of the province from south-west to north-
east, and divide it Into a northern portion, the greater part of
which is drained by the T&icn-t'ang-kiang, and a southern
portion which is chiefly occupied by the Ta-chi basin. The
valleys enclosed between the mountain ranges are numerous,
fertile, and for the most part of exquisite beauty. The hilly
portion of the province furnishes large supplies of tea, and in the
plain which extends along the coast, north of Ning-po, a great
quantity of silk is produced. In minerals the province is poor.
Coal and iron are occasionally met with, and traces of copper
ore are to be found in places, but none of these minerals exists
in sufficiently large deposits to make mining remunerative. The
province, however, produces cotton, rice, ground-nuts, wheat,
indigo, tauow and beans in abundance. The principal cities
are Hang-chow., which is famed for the beauty of its surroundings,
Ning-po, which has been frequented by foreign ships ever since
the Portuguese visited it in the 16th century, and Wcnchow.
Opposite Ning-po, at a distance of about 50 m., lies the island of
Chusan, the largest of a group bearing that general name. This I
island is ai m. long, and about 50 m. in circumference. It is I
very mountainous, and is surrounded by numerous islands and 1
islets. On its south side stands the walled town of Ting-hai,
in front of which is the principal harbour. The population is
returned as 50,000.
CHEKE, SIR JOHN (1 514-1 SS7). English classical scholar,
was the son of Peter Cheke, esquire-bedell of Cambridge Univer- 1
sity He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where I
he became a fellow in 1529. While there he adopted the prin-
ciples of the Reformation. His learning gained him an exhibition
from the king, and in 1540, on Henry VIII *s foundation of the
regius professorships', he was elected to the chair of Greek.
Amongst his pupils at St John's were Lord Burghlcy, who married
Cheke's sister Mary, and Roger Ascham, who in The School-
master gives Chcke the highest praise for scholarship and
character Together with Sir Thomas Smith, he introduced
a new method of Greek pronunciation very similar to that com-
monly used in England in the igth century It was strenuously!
opposed in the University, where the continental method
prevailed, and Bishop Gardiner, as chancellor, issued a decree
against it (June 1542); but Chcke ultimately triumphed. On
the 10th of July 1554, he was chosen as tutor to Prince Edward,
and after his pupil's accession to the throne be continued his in-
structions. Cheke took a fairly active share in public life, be
sat, as member for Bletchingley, for the parliaments of 1547 and
i5S*-t5Sj; h* "** rode provost of King's College, Cambridge
(April 1, 1548), was one of the commissioners for visiting that
university as well as Oxford and Eton, and was appointed with
seven divines to draw up a body or law* for the governance
of the church. On the nth of October 1551 he wu knighted;
in i jsj be wu made one of the secretaries of state, and sworn
of the privy council. His zeal for Protestant am induced him
to fallow toe duke of Northumberland, and he filled the office
of secretary of state for Lady Jane Grey during her nine days'
reign. In consequence Mary threw him into the Tower (Juty J 7*
1 55j>, and con fist a led his wealth. He was, however, released
on the ijth of September 1554, and granted permission to travel
abroad. He went first to Basel, then visited Italy, giving
lectures in Greek at Padua, and finally settled at Stras&burg,
teaching Creek for his living. Id the spring of 1556 he visited
Brussels to see his wife; on his way back, between Brussels and
Antwerp, be and Sir Peter Carew were treacherously seised
(May 15] by order of Philip of Spain, hurried over to England,
and imprisoned in the Tofcer. Chcke waj visited by two priests
ami by Dr John FeeLenham, dean of St Pauls, whom he had
formerly tried to convert to Protestantism, and, terrified by a
threat of the stake, he gave way and was received into the Church
of Rome by Cardinal Pole, being cruelly forced to make two
public recantations. Overcome with shame, he did not long sur-
vive, but died in London on the ijth of September 1557, carry-
ing, ai T. Fuller says (Church Hiitery). " God's pardon and all
good men** pity along with him." About 1547 Cheke married
Mary, daughter of Richard Hill, sergeant of the wine-cellar to
Henry VII I ., and by her he had three ions. The descendants
of one of these, Henry, known only for his translation of an
Italian morality play Fr&Tryl {Trottdio dei Ltbero Arbiirie) by
Nigri de B&ssano, settled at Pyrgo in Essex.
Thomaa Wilson, in the cpUt fc prefixed to hii transition of the
Oknthiac* of Demosthenes (JJToJ. has a long and meat interesting
eulogy of Chefce : and Thomas Naih. in To ih* Gentftmtn Si*d™is.
prcn>ftl to Rc.tri.-rt OreerveV irVnapta* (1589), <a11i him "the
fcschijoDcr of eloquence, Sir fhort Cheke* a man of men. super-
naturally traded in all tongue*.'* Many of CheWs work* art still
in MS .„ some have been aWocei her lost, One of the most interesting
from a historical point of view is the ffuri of Sedition h(Kt zrweom
U is to & C'omfnunnLritk fi^oK written on the occasion of Ket'i
rebellion, republished in 1 560, 1570 4 ml 104 t, on the last occasion
with a life of the author by Gerard Langbaine. Other* are i>,
JoQ/tnis CkTYityitomi horn iliac dune (I54J). &- Joannii Ckryictlami dc
prtfrfcfrnlia Dti (134 j J, Tkt Cpi^/ wtGrding to St AtaHhtv . . ,
iraniiat/d ft. rjttJ: *d- Ume* Goodwin, i&J3) h D* obiiM Afdrfiwi
JFurm (1551). (Leo VI. %} 4* Appar&u betiito (Duel. 1554; but
dedicated to Henry VIM., I 544] 1 - Cnnnn* Hcreidtm. aut tfntopbiv**
** >nnvm ( r 5 5 1 ) . Dt pramutiniiwM G*a*tae , . . frntpaf
He alio tranvlatecfieveral Greek works, and lectured
in Antonium Dtnnum (r*j
(Bapel. 1SS5>- He allot*
admirably upon Demosthenes
Hit Ltfe wai written' by John Strypc {1811V; additions by J-
Gough N idiots in Arthacotagfti (ta&o), axxvijj, ofl, uj,
CH ELIJAH, trie name given by the French anthropologist
G. de Mortillcl to the fint epoch of the Qua ternary period when
the earliest human remains are discoverable. The word is
derived from the French town Che lies in the department of
Seine-el -Mame, The climate of the Che Hi an epoch was warm
and humid as evidenced by the wild growth of fig trees and
laurels. The animals characteristic of the epoch are the Elrpkat
aKiiqmta, the rhinoceros, the cave-bear, the hippopotamus and
the striped hyaena- Man existed and belonged to the Neander-
thal type. The implements charac lens tic of the period are flints
chipped into leaf shaped 'orrns and held in the hand when used*
The drift -beds of St Acheul { A miens) , ol Menchecourt ( Abbeville})
of Hoxne (Suffolk), and the delrital lalrrite of Madras ate con-
sidered by de Mortillcl to be synchronous with the Chelhan beds.
See Gabriel de Monillot, Lt PilhiOoriqvt { 1000): Lord Avebury,
Frthistwic Titrtfi (1900).
CHELMSFORD, FREDERIC THES1CER. itt Baron ftjrja-
18; 8), lord chancellor of England, was the third son of Charles
Thesiger, and «u born in London on the 15th of April 1704.
Hb father; collector of customs at St Vincent's, was the son of
a Saion gentleman who had migrated to England and become
secretary to Lord Rockingham, and was the brother of Sir
Frederic Thesigrr, naval ADC to Nelson at Copenhagen.
Young Frederic Thcstger was originally destined for a navaj
24
CHELMSFORD— CHELSEA
career, and he served as a midshipman on board the " Cambrian "
frigate in 1807 at the second bombardment of Copenhagen. His
only surviving brother, however, died about this time, and he
became entitled to succeed to a valuable estate in the West
Indies, so it was decided that he should leave the navy and
study law, with a view to practising in the West Indies and
eventually managing his property in person. Another change
of fortune, however, awaited him, for a volcano destroyed the
family estate, and he was thrown back upon his prospect of a
legal practice in the West Indies. He proceeded to enter at
Gray's Inn in 18 13, and was called on the 18th of November
18:8, another change in his prospects being brought about by
the strong advice of Godfrey Sykes, a special pleader in whose
chambers he had been a pupil, that he should remain to try his
fortune* in England. He accordingly joined the home circuit,
and soon got into good practice at the Surrey sessions, while he
also made a fortunate purchase in buying the right to appear
in the old palace court (see Lord Steward). In 1824 he dis-
tinguished himself by his defence of Joseph Hunt when on his
trial at Hertford with John Thurtell for the murder of Wm.
Weare; and eight years later at Chelmsford assizes he won a
hard-fought action in an ejectment case after three trials, to
which he attributed so much of his subsequent success that when
be was raised to the peerage he assumed the title Lord Chelms-
ford. In 1834 he was made king's counsel, and in 1835 was
briefed in the Dublin election inquiry which unseated Darnel
O'Connell. In 1840 he was elected MP. for Woodstock. In
1844 he became solicitor-general, but having ceased to enjoy
the favour of the duke of Marlborough, lost his seat for Wood-
stock and had to find another at Abingdon. In 1845 he became
attorney-general, holding the post until the fall of the Peel
administration on the 3rd of July 1846. Thus by three days
Thesiger missed being chief justice of the common picas, for on
the 6th of July Sir Nicholas Tindal died, and the seat on the
bench, which would have been Thesiger's as of right, fell to
the Liberal attorney-general, Sir Thomas Wilde. Sir Frederic
Thesiger remained in parliament, changing his seat, however,
again in 1852, and becoming member for Stamford. During
this period he enjoyed a very large practice at the bar, being
employed in many causes cticbres. On Lord Derby coming into
office for the second time in 1858, Sir Frederic Thesiger was
raised straight from the bar to the lord chancellorship (as were
Lord Brougham, Lord Sclborne and Lord Halsbury). In the
following year Lord Derby resigned and his cabinet was broken
up. Again in 1866, on Lord Derby coming into office for the third
time, Lord Chelmsford became lord chancellor for a short period.
In 1868 Lord Derby retired, and Disraeli, who took his place as
prime minister, wished for Lord Cairns as lord chancellor. Lord
Chelmsford was very sore at his supersession and the manner
of it, but, according to Lord Malmesbury he retired under a
compact made before he took office. Ten years later Lord
Chelmsford died in London on the 5th of October 1878. Lord
Chelmsford had married in 1822 Anna Maria Tinling. He left
four sons and three daughters, of whom the eldest, Frederick
Augustus, 2nd Baron Chelmsford (1827-1005), earned distinction
as a soldier, while the third, Alfred Henry Thesiger (1838-1880)
was made a lord justice of appeal and a privy councillor in 1877,
at the early age of thirty-nine, but died only three years later.
Sec Lives of Ik* Chancellors (1008). by J. B. Atlay. who has had the
advantage of access to an unpublished autobiography of Lord
Chelmsford's.
CHELMSFORD, a market town and municipal borough, and
the county town of Essex, England, in the Chelmsford parlia-
mentary division, 30 m. E.N.E. from London by the Great
Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 12,580. It is situated in the
valley of the Chelmer, at the confluence of the Cann, and has
communication by the river with Maldon and the Dlackwater
estuary 11 m. east. Besides the parish church of St Mary, a
graceful Perpendicular edifice, largely rebuilt, the town has
a grammar school founded by Edward VI., an endowed charity
school and a museum. It is the seat of the county assizes and
quarter sessions, and has a handsome shire hall; the county gaol
is near the town. Its corn and cattle markets are among
largest in the county; for the first a fine exchange is provid
In the centre of the square in which the corn exchange is situs
stands a bronze statue of Lord Chief- Justice Tindal (1776- 1&
a native of the parish. There are agricultural implement 1
iron foundries, large electric light and engineering wm
breweries, tanneries, makings and extensive corn mills. Tfc
is a race-course 2 m. south of the town. The borough is tin
a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area 2308 acres.
A place of settlement since Palaeolithic times, Chelmsf
(Chil men ford, CkeJmeresford, Chelmcsford) owed its importa
to its position on the road from London to Colchester. It e
sistcd of two manors: that of Moulsham, which remained in
possession of Westminster Abbey from Saxon times till the re
of Henry VIII., when it was granted to Thomas Mildmay; 1
that of Bishop's Hall, which was held by the bishops of Lock
from the reign of Edward the Confessor to 1545, when it pas
to the crown and was granted to Thomas Mildmay In 1 563. 1
medieval history of Chelmsford centred round the manor
Bishop's Hall. Early in the 12th century Bishop Maurice bi
the bridge over the Chelmer which brought the road from Load
directly through the town, thus making it an important stoppli
place. The town was not incorporated until 1888. In si
Chelmsford was made the centre for the collection of fifteen)
from the county of Essex, and in 1227 it became the regular m
of assizes and quarter-sessions. Edward I. confirmed Bish
Richard de Gravcsend in his rights of frank pledge in Chelmsfc
in 1200, and in 1395 Richard II. granted the return of writs
Bishop Robert de Braybroke. In 1377 writs were issued for I
return of representatives from Chelmsford to parliament, I
no return of members has been found. In z 109 the bish
obtained the grant of a weekly market at the yearly rent of c
palfrey, and in 1201 that of an annual fair, now discontinui
for four days from the feast of St Philip and St James.
CHELSEA, a western metropolitan borough of Loodt
England, bounded E. by the city of Westminster, N.W.
Kensington, S.W. by Fulham, and S. by the river Tham
Pop. (1001) 73,842. Its chief thoroughfare is Sloane Stre
containing handsome houses and good shops, running south fit
Knightsbridge to Sloane Square. Hence King's Road lea
west, a wholly commercial highway, named in honour of Char
II., and recalling the king's private road from St James's Pah
to Fulham, which was maintained until the reign of George I
The main roads south communicate with the Victoria or Chelv
Albert and Battersea bridges over the Thames. The bcauti
Chelsea embankment, planted with trees and lined with fi
houses and, in part, with public gardens, stretches betwe
Victoria and Battersea bridges. The better residential porti
of Chelsea is the eastern, near Sloane Street and along the rivi
the western, extending north to Fulham Road, is mainly a pc
quarter.
Chelsea, especially the riverside district, abounds in historic
associations. At Ccalchythe a synod was held in 785.
similar name occurs in a Saxon charter of the nth century aj
in Domesday; in the 16th century it is Chelcith. The la!
termination ey or ca was associated with the insular character
the land, and the prefix with a gravel bank (ceosol; cf. Che
Bank, Dorsetshire) thrown up by the river; but the eai
suffix hylhe is common in the meaning of a haven. The man
was originally in the possession of Westminster Abbey, but i
history is fragmentary until Tudor times. It then came in
the hands of Henry VIII., passed from him to his wife Cathari
Parr, and thereafter had a succession of owners, among who
were the Howards, to whom it was granted by Queen Elizabel
and the Cheynes, from whom it was purchased in 1712 by !
Hans Sloane, after which it passed to the Cadogans. T
memorials which crowd the picturesque church and churchya
of St Luke near the river, commonly known as the Old Churc
to a great extent epitomize the history of Chelsea. Such a
those of Sir Thomas More (d. 1535); Lord Bray, lord oft
manor (1539)* bis father and son; Lady Jane Guyldefoi
duchess of Northumberland, who died " at her mancr of Chela
CHELSEA— CHELTENHAM
25
b 1555; Xerd and Lady Daere (1594-1595); Sir John Lawrence
(1638); Lady Jane Cheyne (1698); Francis Thomas, " director
of the china porcelain manufactory, Lawrence Street, Chelsea "
(1770); Sir Hans Sloane (1753); Thomas Shadwell, poet
borate (169s); Woodfall the printer of Junius (1844)* and
■any others. More's tomb is dated 1 53a, as he set it up himself,
though it is doubtful whether he lies beneath it His house was
■ear the present Beaufort Street. In the 18th and 19th centuries
Chelsea, especially the parts about the embankment and Cheyne
Walk, was the home of many eminent men, particularly of
writers and artists, with whom this pleasant quarter has long
been in favour. Thus in the earlier part of the period named,
Atterbury and Swift lived in Church Lane, Steele and Smollett
in Monmouth House. Later, the names of Turner, Rossetti,
Whistler, Leigh Hunt, Carlyle (whose house in Cheyne Row
is preserved as a public memorial), Count D'Orsay, and Isambard
Brand, are intimately connected with Chelsea. At Lindsey
House Count Zinsendorf established a Moravian Society (c. 1750).
Sir Robert Watpoie's residence was extant till 1 810; and till 1824
the bishops of Winchester had a palace in Cheyne Walk. Queen's
Bouse, the home of D. G. Rossetti (when it was called Tudor
Bouse), is believed to take name from Catharine of Braganza.
Chelsea was noted at different periods for two famous places
of entertainment, Ranelagh (q.v.) in the second half of the 18th
century, and Cremorne Gardens (y.t.) in the middle of the 19th.
Don Saltern's museum, which formed the attraction of a popular
coffee-house, was formed of curiosities from Sir Hans Sloanc's
famous collections. It was Sloane who gave to the Apothecaries'
Company the ground which they had leased in 1673 * or lnc
Physsck Garden, which is still extant, but ceased in 2002 to be
w.^fin^ by the Company. At Chelsea Sir John Danvers
(d. 1655) introduced the Italian style of gardening which was
so greatly admired by Bacon and soon after became prevalent
is England. Chelsea was formerly famous for a manufacture
of buns; the original Chelsea bun-house, claiming royal patron-
age, stood until 1839, and one of its successors until 1888. The
P"frr | ^ i q works existed for some 25 years before 1769, when
they were told and removed to Derby. Examples of the original
Chelsea ware (see Ceramics) are of great value.
Of buildings and institutions the most notable is Chelsea
Royal Hospital for invalid soldiers, initiated by Charles II.
(according to tradition on the suggestion of Nell Gwynne), and
opened in 1694. The hospital itself accommodates upwards of
500 men, but a system of out-pensioning was found necessary
from the outset, and. now relieves large numbers throughout
the empire. The picturesque building by Wren stands in exten-
sive grounds, which include the former Ranelagh Gardens. A
theological college (King James's) formerly occupied the site;
it was founded in 1610 and was intended to be of great size, but
the fffrfiy was unsuccessful, and only a small part of the build-
ings was erected. In the vicinity are the Chelsea Barracks
(not actually in the borough). The Royal Military Asylum for
boys, commonly called the Duke of York's school, founded in
180s by Frederick, duke of York, for the education of children
connected with the army, was removed in 1009 to new quarters
at Dover. Other institutions are the Whitelands training
college for school-mistresses, in which Ruskin took deep interest;
the St Mark's college for school-masters; the Victoria and the
Cheyne hospitals for children, a cancer hospital, the South-
western polytechnic, and a public library containing an excellent
collection relative to local history.
The parliamentary borough of Chelsea returns one member,
and includes, as a detached portion, Kensal Town, north of
Kmfffrtg t< > ,t The borough council consists of a mayor, 6 alder-
men and 36 councillors. Area, 659-6 acres.
CHELIBA, a dty of Suffolk county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
a suburb of Boston. Pop. (1800) 27,009; (2000) 34,072, of
whom 11,203 were foreign-born; (19 10) 32,452. It is situ-
ated on a peninsula between the Mystic and Chelsea rivers,
and Charleatown and East Boston, and is connected with
East Boston and Charlestown by bridges. It is served by the
It Maine and (for freight) by the Boston & Albany
railways. The United States maintains here naval and marine
hospitals, and the state a soldiers' home, Chelsea's interests
are primarily industrial. The value of the city's factory products
in 1005 was $13,879,159, the principal items being rubber and
elastic goods (83,635,2x1) and boots and shoes ($2,044,250.)
The manufacture of stoves, and of mucilage and paste are
important industries. Flexible tubing for electric wires (first
made at Chelsea 1889) and art tiles are important products.
The first settlement was established in 1624 by Samuel Maverick
(c. 2602-c. 1670), the first settler (about 2629) of Noddle's
Island (or East Boston), and one of the first slave-holders in
Massachusetts; a loyalist and Churchman, in 1604 he was
appointed with three others by Charles II. on an important
commission sent to Massachusetts and the other New England
colonics (see Nicous, Richaxd), and spent the last years of
his life in New York. Until 2730, under the name of Winnisim-
met, Chelsea formed a part of Boston, but in that year it was
made a township; it became a city in 2857. In May 2775 a
British schooner in the Mystic defended by a force of marines
was taken by colonial militia under General John Stark and
Israel Putnam,-— one of the first conflicts of the War of Inde-
pendence. A terrible fire swept the central part of the city on
the 22th of April 2008.
See Mellen Chamberlain (and others). History of Ckdsta (2 vols.,
Boston. 1908), published by the Massachusetts Historical Society.
CHELTENHAM, a municipal and parliamentary borough of
Gloucestershire, England, 209 m, W. by N. of London by the
Great Western railway; served also by the west and north
line of the Midland railway. Pop. (1002) 49.439- The town is
well situated in the valley of the Chelt, a small tributary of the
Severn, under the high line of the Cotteswold Hills to the east,
and is in high repute as a health resort Mineral springs were
accidentally discovered in 2726. The Montpellier and Pittville
Springs supply handsome pump rooms standing in public
gardens, and are the property of the corporation. The Mont-
pellier waters are sulphated, and are valuable for their diuretic
effect, and as a stimulant to the liver and alimentary canaL The
alkaline-saline waters of Pittville are efficacious against diseases
resulting from excess of uric acid. The parish church of St Mary
dates from the 24th century, but is almost completely modern-
ized. The town, moreover, is wholly modern in appearance.
Assembly rooms opened in 2825 by the duke of Wellington were
removed in 2002. A new town hall, including a central spa and
assembly rooms, was opened in 2003. There are numerous other
handsome buildings, especially in High Street, and the Promen-
ade forms a beautiful broad thoroughfare, lined with trees.
The town is famous as an educational centre. Cheltenham
College (1842) provides education for boys in three departments,
classical, military and commercial; and includes a preparatory
school The Ladies' College (2854), long conducted by Miss
Beale (qv.), is one of the most successful in England. The
Normal Training College was founded in 2846 for the training
of teachers, male and female, in national and parochial schools.
A free grammar school was founded in 2568 by Richard Pate,
recorder of Gloucester. The art gallery and museum may be
mentioned also. The parliamentary borough returns one
member. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen
and 28 councillors. Area, 4726 acres. The urban district of
Charlton Kings (pop. 3806) forms a south-eastern suburb of
Cheltenham.
The site of a British village and burying-ground, Cheltenham
(Celtankomme, Chiltkam, Chdttkam) was a village with a church
in 803. The manor belonged to the crown; it was granted to
Henry de Bohun, earl of Hereford, late in the 22th century, but
in 2109 was exchanged for other lands with the king. It was
granted to William de Longespee, earl of Salisbury, in 2229, but
resumed on his death and granted in dower to Eleanor of Pro-
vence in 2243. In 2252 the abbey of Fecamp purchased the
manor, and it afterwards belonged to the priory of ConneHle,
but was confiscated in 2425 as the possession of an alien priory,
and was granted in 2462 to the abbey of Lyon, by which it was
held until, once more returning to the crown at the Dissolution,
36
CHELYABINSK— CHEMICAL ACTION
it was granted to the family of Dutton. The town is first
tioned in 1223, when William de Longespee leased the benefit
of the markets, fairs and hundred of Cheltenham to the men of
the town for three years; the lease was renewed by Henry IIL
in 1226, and again in 1230 for ten years. A market town in the
time of Camden, it was governed by commissioners from the
18th century in 1876, when it was incorporated; it became a
parliamentary borough in 1832. Henry III. in 1 230 had granted
to the men of Cheltenham a market on each Thursday, and a fair
on the vigil, feast and morrow of St James. Although Camden
mentions a considerable trade in malt, the spinning of woollen
yarn was the only industry in 1779. After the discovery of
springs in x 7 1 6, and the erection of a pump-room in x 738, Chelten-
ham rapidly became fashionable, the visit of George 111. and the
royal princesses in 1788 ensuring its popularity.
See & Moreau. A Tour to Cheltenham Spa (Bath, 1738).
CHELYABINSK, a town of Russia, in the Orenburg govern-
ment, at the east foot of the Urals, is the head of the Siberian
railway, 624 m. by rail E.N.E. of Samara and 154 m. by rail
S.S.E. of Ekaterinburg. Pop. (1900) 25,505. It has tanneries
and distilleries, and is the centre of the trade in corn and pro-
duce of cattle for the Ural iron-work*. The town was founded
in 1658.
CHELTS (Gr. x&"j tortoise; Lat testudo), the common lyre
of the ancient Greeks, which had a convex back of tortoise-
shell or of wood shaped like the shell. The word ckdys was nsed
in allusion to the oldest lyre of the Greeks which was said to
have been invented by Hermes. According to tradition he was
attracted by sounds of music while walking- on the banks of the
Nile, and found they proceeded from the shell of a tortoise across
which were stretched tendons which the wind had set in vibration
(Homeric Hymn to Hermes, 47-5 1 ). The word has been applied
arbitrarily since classic times to various stringed instruments,
some bowed and some twanged, probably owing to the back
being much vaulted. Kircher (Musurgia, i. 486) applied the
name of ckdys to a kind of viol with eight strings. Numerous
representations of the ckdys lyre or Ustudo occur on the Greek
vases, in which the actual tortoisrshell is depicted; a good illus-
tration is given in Le Antickitd di Ercolano (vol. i. pi. 43). Pro*
pertius (iv. 6) calls the instrument the lyra testudinea. Scaliger
(on Manilius, Astronomicon, Proleg. 420) was probably the first
writer to draw attention to the difference between ckdys and
cithara (q.v.). (K. S.)
CHEMICAL ACTION, the term given to any process in which
change in chemical composition occurs. Such processes may be
set up by the application of some form of energy (heat, light,
electricity, &c.) to a substance, or by the mixing of two or more
substances together. If two or more substances be mixed one of
three things may occur. First, the particles may be mechani-
cally intermingled, the degree of association being dependent
upon the fineness of the particles, &c. Secondly, the substances
may intermolecularly penetrate, as in the case of gas-mixtures
and solutions. Or thirdly they may react chemically. The
question whether, in any given case, we have to deal with a
physical mixture or a chemical compound is often decided by
the occurrence of very striking phenomena. To take a simple
example: — oxygen and hydrogen are two gases which may be
mixed in all proportions at ordinary temperatures, and it is easy
to show that the properties of the products are simply those of
mixtures of the two free gases. If, however, an electric spark
be passed through the mixtures, powerful chemical union ensues,
with its concomitants, great evolution of heat and consequent
rise of temperature, and a compound, water, is formed which
presents physical and chemical properties entirely different from
those of its constituents.
In general, powerful chemical forces give rise to the evolution
of large quantities of heat, and the properties of the resulting sub-
stance differ vastly more from those of its components than is the
case with simple mixtures. This constitutes a valuable criterion
as to whether mere mixture is involved on the one hand, or strong
chemical union on the other. When, however, the chemical
forces art weak and the reaction, being incomplete, leads to a
state of chemical equilibrium, in which all the reacting tubal
are present side by side, this criterion vanishes. For exampl
question whether a salt combines with water molecules
dissolved in water cannot be said even yet to be fully se
and, although there can be no doubt that solution is, in :
cases, attended by chemical processes, still we possess as y
means of deciding, with certainty, how many molecul
water have bound themselves to a single molecule of the diss
substance {solute). On the other hand, we possess exact met
of testing whether gases or solutes in dilute solution raac
with another and of determining the equilibrium state wk
attained. For if one solute react with another on addinj
latter to its solution, then corresponding to the decrease «
concentration there must also be a decrease of vapour pact
and of solubility in other solvents; further, in the cue
mixture of gases, the concentration of each single constii
follows from its solubility in some suitable solvent. We
obtain the answer to the question: whether the concenta
of a certain constituent has decreased during mixing, Le, win
it has reacted chemically.
When a compound can be obtained in a pure state, aiu
affords us an important criterion of its chemical nature
unlike mixtures, the compositions of which are always var
within wider or narrower limits, chemical compounds pn
definite and characteristic mass-relations, which find full ex]
sion in the atomic theory propounded by Dal ton (see At
According to this theory a mixture is the result of the xm
interpenetration of the molecules of substances, which rei
unchanged as such, whilst chemical union involves changes 1
deeply seated, inasmuch as new molecular species ap|
These new substances, if well -defined chemical compounds, I
a perfectly definite composition and contain a definite, gene
small, number of elementary atoms, and therefore the la'
constant proportions follows at once, and the fact that oal
integral number of atoms of any element may enter into
composition of any molecule determines the law of mul
proportions.
These considerations bring us face to face with the tas
more closely investigating the nature of chemical
forces, in other words, of answering the question: j**
what forces guide the atoms in the formation of a new JjJJJ
molecular species? This problem is still far from
being completely answered, so that a tew general remarks 1
suffice here.
It is remarkable that among the most -stable chemical <
pounds, we find combinations of atoms of one and the a
element. Thus, the stability of the di-atomic molecule"*
so great, that no trace of dissociation has yet been proved «
at the highest temperatures, and as the constituent atoms of
molecule N« must be regarded as absolutely identical, it Is <
that " polar " forces cannot be the cause of all chemical ad
On the other hand, especially powerful affinities are
at work when so-called electro-positive and dectro-nega
elements react The forces which here come into play appes
be considerably greater than those just mentioned; for insta
potassium fluoride is perhaps the most stable of all kr*
compounds.
It is also to be noticed that the combinations of the elec
negative elements (metalloids) with one another exhibi
metalloid character, and also we find, in the mutual combinat
of metals, all the characteristics of the metallic state; bu
the formation of a salt from a metal and a metalloid we haw
entirely new substance, quite different from its compone
and at the same time, the product is seen to be an electro!
i.e. to have the power of splitting up into a positively at
negatively charged constituent when dissolved in some sohr
These considerations lead to the conviction that forces <
" polar " origin play an important part here, and indeed we 1
make the genera] surmise that in the act of chemical combina
forces of both a non-polar and polar nature play a part, and 1
the latter are in all probability identical with the electric fbi
It now remains to be asked — what are the laws which goi
CHEMICAL ACTION
27
the action of these forces? This question is of fundamental
import* nor, since it leads directly to those law* which regulate
the chemical process. Besides the already mentioned funda-
mental law of chemical combination, that of constant and
multiple proportions, there is the law of chemical mass-action,
discovered by Guldberg and Waage in 1867, which we will now
develop from a kinetic standpoint
Kinetic Boris of Ok Law of Chemical Mau-octum.—Wt will
assume that the molecular species A ( , A* . . . A' w A\ . .
are present in a homogeneous system, where they can react on
each other only according to the scheme
A.+A.+ ...J*A',+A',+ ...;
this Is A special case of the general equation
*»A»+%Atir-... <± *'»A',+*'.A'.+. ...
fa which only one molecule of each substance takes part In the
reaction. The reacting substances may be either gaseous or
form a liquid mixture, or be dissolved in some selected solvent;
but hi each case we may state the following considerations
regarding the course of the reaction. For a transformation to
take place from left to right in the sense of the reaction equation,
all the snoloceles At, A*> . . . must dearly collide at one point;
eihenrJse no reaction is possible, since we shall not consider
si de reac ti o ns Such a collision need not of course bring about
that transposition of the atoms of the single molecules which
constitutes the above reaction. Much rather must it be of such
a kind as is favourable to that loosening of the bonds that bind
the atoms in the separate molecules, which must precede this
transposition. Of a large number of such collisions, therefore,
only a certain smaller number will involve a transposition from
left to right in the sense of the equation. But this number will
be the same under the same external conditions, and the greater
the note numerous the collisions; in fact a direct ratio must
exist between the two. Bearing in mind now, that the number
of cotillions must be proportional to each of the concentrations
of the bodies A*, A* . . ., and therefore, on the whole, to the
product of aD these concentrations, we arrive at the conclusion
that the velocity t of the transposition from left to right in the
sense of the reaction equation is vkc x c t . . ., in which c t , c %
. . . represent the spatial concentrations, i*. the number of
gAm-Aokcules of the substances A t , A* . . . present in one
litre, and a is, at a given temperature, a constant which may be
called the velocity-coefficient.
Exactly the same consideration applies to the molecules
A'i, A'» . • . Here the velocity of the change from right to
left in the sense of the reaction-equation increases with the
number of fnltisions of all these mokcules at one point, and this
is proportional to the product of all the concentrations. If
¥ drrP^** the corresponding proportionality-factor, then the
velocity • of the change from right to left in the sense of the
reaction-equation is v'-JrWt . . . These spatial concentra-
tions arc often called the " active masses " of the reacting com-
ponents. Hence the reaction-velocity in the sense of the reaction-
equation from left to right, or the reverse, is proportional to the
product of the M active-masses " of the left-hand or right-hand
compoaenU respectively.
Neither nor w* can be separately investigated, and the
measurements of the course of a reaction always furnish only
Wm _ mmM the difference of these two quantities. The reaction-
JJLSrf velocity actually observed represents the difference
«aaasa> of these two partial reaction-velocities, whilst the
amount of change observed during any period of time
is equal to the change in the one direction, minus the change in
the opposite direction. It must not be assumed, however, that
on the attainment of equilibrium all action has ceased, but
rather that the velocity of change in one direction has become
equal to that in the opposite direction, with the result that no
farther total change can be observed, i.e. the system has reached
aquilfbriuin,for which the relation f—r'-o must therefore hold,
or what is the same thing
**»... -aVicV..;
Oaf is tbf fundamental law of chemical statics.
The conception that the equilibrium is not to be attributed
to absolute indifference between the reacting bodies, but that
these continue to exert their mutual actions undiminished and
the opposing changes now balance, is of fundamental significance
in the interpretation of changes of matter in general. This is
generally expressed in the form: the equilibrium in this and
other analogous easts is not static but dynamic This conception
was a direct result of the kinetic-molecular considerations, and
was applied with special success to the development of the kinetic
theory of gases. Thus with Claushis, we conceive the equilibrium
of water-vapour with water, not as if neither water vaporised
nor vapour condensed, but rather as though the two processes
went on unhindered in the equilibrium state,*.*, during contact
of saturated vapour with water, in a given time, as many water
molecules passed through the water surface in one direction as
in the opposite direction. This view, as applied to chemical
changes, was first advanced by A. W. Williamson (1851), and
further developed by C. M. Guldberg and P. Waage and
others.
From the previous considerations it follows that the reaction-
velocity at every moment, sVe. the velocity with LMmm§
which the chemical process advances towards the ^Iim^oi
equilibrium state, is given by the equation kuwum,
V-v-r*-***,. . . -ftVrt. ... ;
this states the fundamental law of chemical kinetics.
The equilibrium equation is simply a special case of this more
general one, and results when the total velocity is written
zero, just as in analytical mechanics the equilibrium conditions
follow at once by specialization of the general equations of
motion.
No difficulty presents Itself in the generalization of the previous
equations for the reaction which proceeds after the scheme
»iA4+«»Ai+ . . . -M\A'i+n'»A't+ ....
where*),** . . .,« / i,« / t, . . . denote the numbers of molecules
of the separate substances which take part in the reaction, and
are therefore whole, mostly small, numbers (generally one or
two, seldom three or more). Here as before, t and v* are to be
regarded as proportional to the number of collisions at one point
of all molecules necessary to the respective reaction, but now *t
molecules of A ( , *•* molecules of At, &c>, must collide for the
reaction to advance from left to right in the sense of the equation;
and similarly n\ molecules of A'i, n't molecules of A'* &c.,
must collide for the reaction to proceed in the opposite direction.
If we consider the path of a single, arbitrarily chosen molecule
over a certain time, then the number of its collisions with other
similar molecules will be proportional to the concentration C
of that kind of molecule to which it belongs. The number of •
encounters between two molecules of the kind in question, during
the same time, will be in general C times as many, i.e. the number
of encounters of two of the same molecules is proportional to
the square of the concentration C; and generally, the number
of encounters of n molecules of one kind must be regarded as
proportional to the nth power of C, i.e. O.
The number of collisions of n t molecules of A t , * t molecules
of At ... is accordingly proportional to CpC? . • . , and the
reaction-velocity corresponding to it is therefore
and similarly the opposed reaction-velocity is
•-s'C^C^'...;
the resultant reaction-velocity, being the difference of these
two partial velocities, is therefore
v-»-r*-K?c? ..-atr^c';'*...
This is the most general expression of the law of chemical mass-
action, for the case of homogeneous systems.
Equating V to sero, we obtain the equation for the equilibrium
state, vis*
(?<?. . . /C;"'«C*\ . ..-t/y-K;
K is called the " equilibrium-constanL w
28
CHEMICAL ACTION
These formulae hold for gases and for dilate solutions, but
assume the system to be homogeneous, ix. to be either a homo-
Ltm to. geneous gas-mixture or a homogeneous dilute solution.
Oom&amS The case in which other states of matter share in the
MNi r s equilibrium permits of simple treatment when the
27£j!^ substances in question may be regarded as pure, and
consequently as possessing definite vapour-pressures
or solubilities at a given temperature. In this case the molecular
species in question, which is, at the same time, present in excess
and is hence usually, called a Bodenkdrper, must possess a constant
concentration in the gas-space or solution. But since the left-
hand side of the last equation contains only variable quantities,
it is simplest and most convenient to absorb these constant
concentrations into the equilibrium-constant; whence we have
the rule: leave the molecular species present as Bodenkdrper
out of account, when determining the concentration-product.
Guldberg and Waage expressed this in the form " the active
mass of a solid substance is constant." The same is true of
liquids when these participate in the pure state in the equilibrium,
and possess therefore a definite vapour-pressure or solubility.
When, finally, we are not dealing with a dilute solution but with
any kind of mixture whatever, it is simplest to apply the law
of mass-action to the gaseous mixture in equilibrium with this.
The composition of the liquid mixture is then determinable
when the vapour-pressures of the separate -components are
known. This, however, is not often the case; but in principle
this consideration is important, since it involves the possibility
of extending the law of chemical mass-action from ideal gas-
mixtures and dilute solutions, for which it primarily holds, to
any other system whatever.
The more recent development of theoretical chemistry, as
weU as the detailed study of many chemical processes which
have found technical application, leads more and more con-
vincingly to the recognition that in the law of chemical mass-
action we have a law of as fundamental significance as the law
of constant and multiple proportions. It is therefore not without
interest to briefly touch upon the development of the doctrine
of chemical affinity.
Historical Development of the Law of Mass-action. — The theory
developed by Torbern Olof Bergman in 1775 must be regarded
as the first attempt of importance to account for the mode of
action of chemical forces. The essential principle of this may
be stated as follows: — The magnitude of chemical affinity may
be expressed by a definite number; if the affinity of the sub-
stance A is greater for the substance B than for the substance
C, then the latter (C) will be completely expelled by B from its
compound with A, in the sense of the equation A-C+B - A«B-fC.
• This theory fails, however, to take account of the influence of
the relative masses of the reacting substances, and had to be
abandoned as soon as such an influence was noticed. An
attempt to consider this factor was made by Claude Louis
Berthollet (1801), who introduced the conception of chemical
equilibrium. The views of this French chemist may be summed
up in the following sentence: — Different substances have differ-
ent affinities for each other, which only come into play on im-
mediate contact. The condition of equilibrium depends not only
upon the chemical affinity, but also essentially upon the relative
masses of the reacting substances.
Essentially, Berthollet's idea is to-day the guiding principle
of the doctrine of affinity. This is especially true of our con-
ceptions of many reactions which, in the sense of Bergman's idea,
proceed to completion, i.e. until the reacting substances are all
used up; but only for this reason, via. that one or more of the
products of the reaction is removed from the reaction mixture
(either by crystallization, evaporation or some other process),
and hence the reverse reaction becomes impossible. Following
Berthollet's idea, two Norwegian investigators, C. M. Guldberg
and Peter Waage, succeeded in formulating the influence of the
reacting masses in a simple law— the law of chemical mass-action
already defined. The results of their theoretical and experi-
mental studies were published at Christiania in 1867 (£ludes sur
Us qffinitis ckinuqms); this work marks a ucw epoch in the
history of chemistry. Even before this, formulae to describe the
progress of certain chemical reactions, which must be regarded
as applications of the law of mass-action, had been put forward
by Ludwig Wflhehny (1850), and by A. G. Vernon-Harcourt
and William Esson (1856), but the service of Guldberg and
Waage in having grasped the law in its full significance and
logically applied it in all directions, remains of course un-
diminished. Their treatise remained quite unknown; and so
it happened that John Hewitt Jellett (1873), J. H. van't Hoff
(1877), and others independently developed the same law.
The thermodynamic basis of the law of mass-action is primarily
due to Horstmann, J. Willard Gibbs and van't Hoff.
Applications. —Let us consider, as an example of the appli-
cation of the law of mass-action, the case of the dissociation of
water-vapour, which takes place at high temperatures in the
sense of the equation 2H<0-2HrK)*. •Representing the con-
centrations of the corresponding molecular species by (H J, Ac,
the expression [H J* lOj/lH/^ must be constant at any given
temperature. This shows that the dissociation is set back by
increasing the pressure; for if the concentrations of all three
kinds of molecules be increased by strong compression, say to
ten times the former amounts, then the numerator is increased
one thousand, the denominator only one hundred times. Hence
if the original equilibrium-constant is to hold, the dissociation
must go back, and, what is more, by an exactly determinable
amount At 2000° C. water-vapour is only dissociated to the
extent of a few per cent; therefore, even when only a small
excess of oxygen or hydrogen be present, the numerator in the
foregoing expression is much increased, and it is obvious that in
order to restore the equilibrium state, the concentration of the
other component, hydrogen or oxygen as the case may be, must
d iminish . In the case of slightly dissociated substances, there-
fore, even a relatively small excess of one component b sufficient
to set back the dissociation substantially.
Chemical Kinetics.— It has been already mentioned that the
law of chemical mass-action not only defines the conditions for
chemical equilibrium, but contains at the same time the prin-
ciples of chemical kinetics. The previous considerations show
indeed that the actual progress of the reaction is determined by
the difference of the reaction-velocities in the one and the other
(opposed) direction, in the sense of the corresponding reaction-
equation. Since the reaction-velocity is given by the amount of
chemical change in a small interval of time, the law of chemical
mass-action supplies a differential equation, which, when in-
tegrated, provides formulae which, as numerous experiments
have shown, very happily summarise the course of the reaction.
For the simplest case, in which a single species of molecule under-
goes almost complete decomposition, so that the reaction-
velocity in the reverse direction may be neglected, we have the
simple equation
dxJdt-k(o-x),
and if x-o when /-o we have by integration
*-#-*log|a/(a-*)|.
We will now apply these conclusions to the theory of the
ignition of an explosive gas-mixture, and in particular to the
combustion of "knallgas" (a mixture of hydrogen n—rrmt
and oxygen) to water-vapour. At ordinary tempera- •«**••
tures knallgas undergoes practically no change, and JJjJLJJf"
it might be supposed that the two gases, oxygen and f
hydrogen, have no affinity for each other. This concruswa,
however, is shown to be incorrect by the observation that it a
only necessary to add some suitable catalyst such as platinum- .
black in order to immediately start the reaction. We must
therefore conclude that even at ordinary temperatures strong
chemical affinity is exerted between oxygen and hydrogen, but
that at low temperatures this encounters great Mctional resist-
ances, or in other words that the reaction-velocity is very small.
It is a matter of general experience that the r es ista nces which
the chemical forces have to overcome diminish with rising
temperature, i.e. the reaction-velocity increases with temperature.
Therefore, when we warm the knallgas, the number of collisions
of oxygen and hydrogen molecules favourable to the formation
CHEMICAL ACTION
*9
»mes greater and greater, until at about $00" the
nation of water Is observed, while at still higher
1 the reaction-velocity becomes enormous. We
position to understand what is the result of a strong
of the knallgas, as, for example, by an electric spark.
V heated parts of the knallgas combine to form
r with great velocity and the evolution of large
seat, whereby the adjacent parts are brought to a
iture and into a state of rapid reaction, i.e. we
gnition of the whole mixture. If we suppose the
w at a very high temperature, then its combustion
mger complete owing to the dissociation of water-
it at extremely high temperatures it would practi-
ar. Hence it is clear that knallgas appears to be
r temperatures only because the reaction-velocity
U but that at very high temperatures it is really
no chemical forces are then active, or, in other
semical affinity is very small,
mination of the question whether the failure of
d is due to an inappreciable reaction-velocity or to
aesnical affinity, is of fundamental importance, and
nt case can the reaction be hastened by catalysts,
nical compounds behave like knallgas Acetylene
vdinary temperatures, inasmuch as it only decom-
■; but at the same time it is explosive, for the
a when once started is rapidly propagated, on
*e heat evolved by the splitting up of the gas into
hydrogen. At very high temperatures, however,
quires real stability, since carbon and hydrogen
!o form acetylene.
esrehes have shown that the combustion of an
gas-mixture which is started at a point, e.g. by an
ctric spark, may be propagated in two essentially
ferent ways. The characteristic of the slower
nbustion consists in this, via. that the high tempera-
previously ignited layer spreads by conduction,
png the adjacent layers to the ignition-temperature;
of the propagation is therefore conditioned in the
f the magnitude of the conductivity for heat, and
darly, in the second place, by the velocity with
derately heated layer begins to react chemically,
e gradually in temperature, i.e. essentially by the
reaction-velocity with temperature. A second
pendent mode of propagation of the combustion
sis of the phenomenon that an explosive gas-mixture
sd by strong compression or — more correctly — by
mperature thereby produced. The increase of the
is of the reacting substances consequent upon this
treasure raises the reaction-velocity in accordance
of chemical mass-action, and so enormously favours
olution of the heat of combustion,
fore clear that such a powerful compression-wave
initiate the combustion, but also propagate it with
gh velocity. Indeed a compression-wave of this
hrough the gas-mixture, heated by the combustion
[Ji temperature. It must, however, be propagated
faster than an ordinary compression-wave, for
ignition in the compressed (still unburnt) layer is
m of a very high pressure, which must in accordance
ariples of wave-motion increase the velocity of
Tlic absolute velocity of the explosion-wave
in the light of these considerations, to be susceptible
calculation. It is at least clear that it must be
higher than the velocity of sound in the mass of
heated by the explosion, and this is confirmed by
lemcnts (see below) which show that the velocity
ion-wave is from one and a half times to double
d-waves at the combustion temperature,
ir in a position to form the following picture of the
ich follow upon the ignition of a combustible gas-
ained in a long tube. First we have the condition
notion; the heat is conveyed by conduction to the
adjacent layers, and there follows a velocity of propagation of
a few metres per second. But since the combustion is accom-
panied by a high increase of pressure, the adjacent, still unburnt
layers Are simultaneously compressed, whereby the reaction-
velocity increases, and the ignition proceeds faster. This
involves still greater compression of the next layers, and so if
the mixture be capable of sufficiently rapid combustion, the
velocity of propagation of the ignition must continually increase.
As soon as the compression in the still unburnt layers becomes
so great that spontaneous ignition results, the now much
more pronounced compression-waves excited with simultaneous
combustion must be propagated with very great velocity, is.
we have spontaneous development of an "explosion-wave."
M.P.E. Berthelot, who discovered the presence of such explosion-
waves, proved their velocity of propagation to be independent
of the pressure, the cross-section of the tubes In which the
explosive gas-mixture is contained, as well as of the material
of which these are made, and concluded that this velocity is a
constant, characteristic of the particular mixture. The deter-
mination of this velocity is naturally of the highest Interest.
In the following table Berthdot's results are given along with
the later (1891) concordant ones of H.'B. Dixon, the velocities
of propagation of explosions being given in metres per second.
Reacting Mixture.
Velocity of Wave in
Metres per second.
Berthelot.
Dixon.
Hydtfof en and oxygen. HffO-
lUcirogcn and nitrous oxide, Hi+N*0 ■
^fclh3^*r and ofcygen, CH*+40 .
Ethylene ♦. M C,H,+60
Acetylene ¥ , „ GHt+50.
Cyanogen ♦, ♦♦ GN,-MO.
Hydrogen and chlorine, Hj+Ui .
2Hi+a .
iSio
12BJ
1210
3J9<
■*49
The maximum pressure of the explosion-wave possesses very
high values; it appears that a compression of from 1 to 50-40
atmospheres is necessary to produce spontaneous ignition of
mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen. But since the heat evolved
in the path of the explosion causes a rise of temperature of
2ooo°-3ooo*. i.e. a rise of absolute temperature about four
times that directly following upon the initial compression, we are
here concerned with pressures amounting to considerably more
than 100 atmospheres. Both the magnitude of this pressure
and the circumstance that it so suddenly arises are peculiar to
the very powerful forces which distinguish the explosion-wave
from the slow combustion-wave.
Nascent State.— The great reactive power of freshly formed
or nascent substances (status natcens) may be very simply
referred to the principles of mass-action. As is well known,
this phenomenon is specially striking- in the case of hydrogen,
which may therefore be taken as a typical example. The law
of mass-action affirms the action of a substance to be the greater
the higher its concentration, or, for a gas, the higher its partial-
pressure. Now experience teaches that those metals, which
liberate hydrogen from acids are able to supply the latter under
extremely high pressure, and we may therefore assume that the
hydrogen which results, for example, from the action of sine
upon sulphuric acid is initially under very high pressures which
are then afterwards relieved. Hence the hydrogen during
liberation exhibits much more active powers of reduction than
the ordinary gas.
A deeper insight into the relations prevailing here is offered
from the atomistic point of view. From this we are bound to
conclude that the hydrogen is in the first instance evolved in
the form of free atoms, and since the velocity of the reaction
H-fH-Ht at ordinary temperatures, though doubtless very
great, is not practically instantaneous, the freshly generated
hydrogen will contain a remnant of free atoms, which are able to
react both more actively and more rapidly. Similar considera-
tions are of course applicable to other cases .
/<m-re*c/tffu.— The applic at ion of the law of chemkal mats*
3°
CHEMICAL ACTION
action is much simplified in the case in which the reaction-
velocity is enormously great, when practically an instantaneous
adjustment of the equilibrium results. Only in this case can the
state of the system, which pertains after mixing the different
components, be determined merely from knowledge of the
equilibrium-constant This case is realized in the reactions
between gases at very high temperatures, which have, however,
been little investigated, and especially by the reactions between
electrolytes, the so-called ion-reactions. In this latter case,
which has been thoroughly studied on account of its fundamental
importance for inorganic qualitative and quantitative analysis,
the degrees of dissociation of the various electrolytes (acids,
bases and salts) are for the most part easily determined by the
aid of the freezing-point apparatus, or of measurements of the
electric conductivity; and from these data the equilibrium-
constant K may be calculated. Moreover, it can be shown
that the state of the system can be determined when the equi-
librium constants of all the electrolytes which are present in the
common solution are known. If this be coupled with the law
that the solubility of solid substances, as with vapour-pressures,
is independent of the presence of other electrolytes, it is sufficient
to know the solubilities of the electrolytes in question, in order
to be able to determine which substances must participate in the
equilibrium in the solid state, i.«. we arrive at the theory of the
formation and solution of precipitates.
As an illustration of the application of these principle?, we
shall deal with a problem of the doctrine of affinity, namely,
that of the relative strengths of acids and bases. It
|y2j2r was quite an early and often repeated observation
tat teswi that the various acids and bases take part with very
varying intensity or avidity in those reactions in
which their acid or basic nature comes into play. No success
attended the early attempts at giving numerical expression to
the strengths of acids and bases, i.e. of finding a numerical
coefficient for each acid and base, which should be the quantita-
tive expression of the degree of its participation in those specific
reactions characteristic of acids and bases respectively. Julius
Thomsen and W. Ostwald attacked the problem in a far-seeing
and comprehensive manner, and arrived at indisputable proof
that the property of adds and bases of exerting their effects
according to definite numerical coefficients finds expression not
only in salt-formation but also in a large number of other, and
indeed very miscellaneous, reactions.
When Ostwald compared the order of the strengths of adds
deduced from their competition for the same base, as determined
by Thomsen's thermo-cnemical or bis own volumetric method,
with that order in which the adds arrange themselves according
to their capadty to bring caldum oxalate into solution, or to
convert acetamide into ammonium acetate, or to split up
methyl acetate into methyl alcohol and acetic acid catalytically,
or to invert cane-sugar, or to accelerate the mutual action of
hydriodic on bromic add, he found that in all these well-investi-
gated and very miscellaneous cases the same succession of acids
in the order of their strengths is obtained, whichever one of the
above chemical processes be chosen as measure of these strengths.
It is to be noticed that all these chemical changes cited took
place in dilute aqueous solution, consequently the above order
of adds refers only to the power to react under these circum-
stances. The order of acids proved to be fairly independent
of temperature. While therefore the above investigations
afforded a definite qualitative solution of the order of acids
according to strengths, the determination of the quantitative
relations offered great difficulties, and the numerical coefficients,
determined from the separate reactions, often displayed great
variations, though occasionally also surprising agreement.
Especially great were the variations of the coefficients with the
concentration, and in those cases in which the concentration
of the add changed considerably during the reaction, the calcu-
lation was naturally quite uncertain. Similar relations were
found in the investigation of bases, the scope of which, however,
was much more limited.
These apparently rather complicated relations were now
deared up at one stroke, by the application of the law of chemical
mass-action on the lines indicated by S. Arrhenius in 1887, when
he put forward the theory of dectrolytic dissociation to explain
that peculiar behaviour of substances in aqueous solution first
recognized by van't Hoff in 1885. The formulae which must
be made use of here in the calculation of the equilibrium-relations
follow naturally by simple application of the law of mass-action
to the corresponding ion-concentrations.
The peculiarities which the behaviour of adds and bases
presents, and, according to the theory of Arrhenius, must
present — peculiarities which found expression In the very early
distinction between neutral solutions on the one hand, and arid
or basic ones on the other, as well as in the belief in a polar
antithesis between the two last— must now, in the light of the
theory of dectrolytic dissociation, be conceived as follows: —
The reactions characteristic of adds in aqueous solution,
which are common to and can only be brought about by acids,
find their explanation in the fact that this class of bodies gives
rise on dissociation to a common molecular species, namely, the
positivdy charged hydrogen-ion (h). The specific chemical
actions peculiar to adds are therefore to be attributed to the
hydrogen-ion just as the actions common to all chlorides are to
be regarded as those of the free chlorine-ions. In like manner,
the reactions characteristic of bases in solution are to be attri-
buted to the negatively charged hydroxyl-ions (oh), **»ch
result from the dissociation of this class of bodies.
A solution has an acid reaction when it e/>ntiins an excess of
hydrogen-ions, and a basic reaction when it contains an excess
of hydroxyl-ions. If an acid and an alkaline solution be brought
together mutual neutralization must result, since the positive
H-ions and the negative OH-ions cannot exist together in view
of- the extremely weak conductivity of pure water and its conse-
quent slight dectrolytic dissociation, and therefore they must at
once combine to form electrically neutral molecules, in the sense
of the equation +
H+OH-HA
In this lies the simple explanation of the " polar M difference
between add and basic solutions. This rests essentially upon the
fact that the ion peculiar to adds and the ion peculiar to bases
form the two constituents of water, ix. of that solvent in which
we usually study the course of the reaction. The idea of the
" strength " of an add or base at once arises. If we compare
equivalent solutions of various adds, the intensity of those
actions characteristic of them will be the greater the more free
hydrogen-ions they contain; this is an immediate consequence
of the law of chemical mass-action. The degree of dectrolytic
dissociation determines, therefore, the strength of acids, and a
similar consideration leads to the same result for bases.
Now the degree of dectrolytic dissociation changes with
concentration in a regular manner, which is given by the law of
mass-action. For if C denote the concentration of the electrolyte
and a its degree of dissociation, the above law states that
CV/C(i -a)«CoV(i -o) -K.
At very great dilutions the dissodation is complete, and equiva-
lent solutions of the most various acids then contain the sane
number of hydrogen-ions, or, in other words, are equally strong;
and the same is true of the hydroxyl-ions of bases. The dis-
sociation also decreases with increasing concentration, but at
different rates for different substances, and the relative
" strengths " of acids and bases must hence change with concen-
tration, as was indeed found experimentally. The dissodation-
constant K is the measure of the variation of the degree of
dissodation with concentration, and must therefore be regarded
as the measure of the strengths of adds and bases. So that in
this special case we are again brought to the result which was
stated in general terms above, viz. that the dissociation-coefficient
forms the measure of the reactivity of a dissolved electrolyte.
Ostwald '3 series of acids, based upon the investigation of the
most various reactions, should therefore correspond with the
order of thdr dissociation-constants, and further with the
CHEMICAL ACTION
3»
order of their freezing-point depressions in equivalent solutions,
since the depression of the freezing-point increases with the
degree of electrolytic dissociation. Experience confirms this
conclusion completely. The degree of dissociation of an acid,
at a given concentration, for which its molecular conductivity
is A, is shown by the theory of electrolytic dissociation to be
a-A/A«; A„, the molecular conductivity at very great dilu-
tion in accordance with the law of Kohlrausch, is «+?, where
■ and t are the ionic-mobilities (see Conduction, Electric).
Since «, the ionic-mobility of the hydrogen km, is generally
more than ten times as great as v, the tonic-mobility of the
negative acid-radical, A* has approximately the same value
(generally within less than 10%) for the different acids, and the
molecular-conductivity of the acids in equivalent concentration
b at least approximately porportional to the degree of electrolytic
dissociation, it. to the strength.
In genera], therefore, the order of conductivities is identical
with that in which the adds exert their specific powers. This
remarkable parallelism, first perceived by Arrhenius and Ostwald
in 1885, was the happy development which led to the discovery
of electrolytic dissociation (see Conduction, Electric; and
Solution).
Catalysis. — We have already mentioned the fact, early known
to chemists, that many reactions proceed with a marked increase
of velocity in presence of many foreign substances. With
Berzdius we call this phenomenon " catalysis," by which we
understand that general acceleration of reactions which also
progress when left to themselves, in the presence of certain
bodies which do not change in amount (or only slightly) during
the course of the reaction. Acids and bases appear to act
catalytically upon all reactions involving consumption or
liberation of water, and indeed that action is proportional to the
concentration of the hydrogen or hydroxyf-ions. Further, the
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is " catalysed " by iodine-
ions, the condensation of two molecules of benzaldefayde to
benzoin by cyanogen-ions. One of the earliest known and
technically most important instances of catalysis is that of the
oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphuric add by oxygen in the
presence of oxides of nitrogen. Other well-known and remark-
able examples are the catalysis of the combustion of hydrogen
and of sulphur dioxide in oxygen by finely-divided platinum.
We may also mention the interesting work of Dixon and Baker,
which led to tbe discovery that a large number of gas-reactions,
eg. the combustion of carbon monoxide, the dissociation of
sal-ammoniac vapour, and the action of sulphuretted hydrogen
upon the salts of heavy metals, cease when water-vapour a
absent, or at least proceed with greatly diminished velodty.
" Negative catalysis," i.e. the retardation of a reaction by
addition of some substance, which is occasionally observed,
appears to depend upon the destruction of a " positive catalyte "
by tbe body added.
A catalyte can have no influence, however, upon the affinity
of a process, since that would be contrary to the second law of
thermodynamics, according to which affinity of an isothermal
process, which is measured by the maximum work, only depends
upon the initial and final states. The effect of a catalyte is
therefore limited to the resistances opposing the progress of a
reaction, and does not influence its driving-force or affinity.
Since the catalyte takes no part in the reaction its presence has
no effect on the equilibrium-constant. This, in accordance
with the law of mass-action, is the ratio of the separate reaction-
velocities in the two contrary directions. A catalyte must
therefore always accelerate the reverse-reaction. If the velodty
of formation of a body be increased by addition of some substance
then its vdodty of decomposition must likewise increase. We
have an example of this in the well-known fact that the formation,
and no less the saponification, of eaters, proceeds with increased
vdodty in tbe presence of adds, while the observation that in
absence of water-vapour neither gaseous ammonium chloride
dJasoriates not dry ammonia combines with hydrogen chloride
becomes clear on the same grounds.
A general theory of catalytic phenomena does not at present
exist. The formation of intermediate products by the action
of the reacting substance upon the catalyte has often been
thought to be the cause of these. These intervening products,
whose existence in many cases has been proved, then split up
into the catalyte and the reaction-product. Thus chemists
have sought to ascribe the influence of oxides of nitrogen on the
formation of sulphuric add to the initial formation of nitrosyl-
sulphuric add, SOi(OH)(NO,), from the mixture of sulphur
dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and air, which then reacted with water
to form sulphuric and nitrous adds. When the velodty of such
intermediate reactions b greater than that of the total change,
such an explanation may suffice, but a more certain proof of this
theory of catalysis has only been reached in a few cases, though
in many others it appears very plausible. Hence it is hardly
possible to interpret all catalytic processes on these lines.
In regard to catalysis in heterogeneous systems, especially
the hastening of gas-reactions by platinum, it is very probable
that it is closely connected with the solution or absorption of tbe
gases on the part of the metal. From the experiments of G.
Bredig it seems that colloidal solutions of a metal act like the
metal itself. The action of a colloidal-platinum solution on the
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is still sensible even at a
dilution of 1/70,000,000 gnn.-mol. per litre; indeed the activity
of this colloidal-platinum solution calls to mind in many ways
that of organic ferments, hence Bredig has called it an " inorganic
ferment." This analogy is especially striking in the change of
thdr activity with time and temperature, and in the possibility,
by means of bodies like sulphuretted hydrogen, hydrocyanic
add, &c, which act as strong poisons upon the latter, of "poison-
ing " the former also, i.e. of rendering it inactive. In the case
of the catalytic action of water-vapour upon many processes
of combustion already mentioned, a part of the effect is prob-
ably due to the circumstance, disdosed by numerous experi-
ments, that the union of hydrogen and oxygen proceeds,
between certain temperature limits at least, after the equation
H, + O, - H4O1, that is, with the preliminary formation of
hydrogen peroxide, which then breaks down into water and
oxygen, and further, above all, to the fact that this substance
results from oxygen and water at high temperatures with great
vdodty, though indeed only in small quantities.
The view now suggests itself, that, for example, in the com-
bustion of carbon monoxide at moderatdy high temperatures,
the reaction
(I.) 2CO+0.-2CO*
advances with imperceptible speed, but that on the contrary the
two stages
fll.) 2H,0-r>0»-2HA.
(III.) 2CO+2H/),-2COi+2HA
which together result in (I.), proceed rapidly even at moderate
temperatures.
Temperature and Reaction-Velocity.— Then are few natural
constants which undergo so marked a change with temperature
as those of the vdodties of chemical changes. As a rule a rise
of temperature of xo* causes a twofold or threefold rise of
reactjon-velodty.
If the reaction-coeffident it, in the sense of the equation
derived above, via. *-/"• log |a/(«-*)l» be determined for the
inversion of cane-sugar by an add of given concentration, the
following values are obtained:—
Temperature -25° 40° 43* 50* 55*
* -9*7 73 139 »« 491:
here a rise of temperature of only 30" suffices to raise the speed of
inversion fifty times.
We possess no adequate explanation of this remarkable
temperature influence; but some account of it is given by the
molecular theory, according to which the energy of that motion
of substances in homogeneous gaseous or liquid systems which
constitutes heat increases with the temperature, and hence also
the frequency of collision of the reacting substances. When we
reflect that the velocity of motion of the molecules of gases, and
in all probability those of liquids also, are proportional to the
square root of the absolute temperature, and therefore rise by
3*
CHEMICAL ACTION
only i % per degree at room-temperature, and that we must
assume the number of collisions proportional to the velocity of
the molecules, we cannot regard the actually observed increase
of reaction-velocity, which often amounts to 10 or z 2 % per degree,
as exclusively due to the quickening of the molecular motion by
beat. It is more probable that the increase of the kinetic energy
of the atomic motions within the molecule itself is of significance
here, as the rise of the specific heat of gases with temperature
seems to show. The change of the reaction-coefficient h with
temperature may be represented by the empirical equation
log 4- -AT" 1 + B + CT, where A, B, C are positive constants.
For low temperatures the influence of the last term is as a
rule negligible, whilst for high temperatures the first term on the
right side plays a vanishingly small part.
Definition of Chemical Affinity. — We have still to discuss the
question of what is to be regarded as the measure of chemical
affinity. Since we are not in a position to measure directly the
intensity of chemical forces, the idea suggests itself to determine
the strength of chemical affinity from the amount of the work
which the corresponding reaction is able to do. To a certain
extent the evolution of heat accompanying the reaction is a
measure of this work, and attempts have been made to measure
chemical affinities thermo-chemically, though it may be easily
shown that this definition was not well chosen. For when, as is
clearly most convenient, affinity is so defined that it determines
under all circumstances the direction of chemical change, the
above definition fails in so far as chemical processes often take
place with absorption of heat, that is, contrary to affinities so
defined. But even in those cases in which the course of the
reaction at first proceeds in the sense of the evolution of heat,
it is often observed that the reaction advances not to com-
pletion but to a certain equilibrium, or, in other words, stops
before the evolution of heat is complete.
A definition free from this objection is supplied by the second
law of thermodynamics, in accordance with which all processes
must take place in so far as they are able to do external work.
When therefore we identify chemical affinity with the maximum
wcrk which can be gained from the process in question, we reach
such a definition that the direction of the process is under all
conditions determined by the affinity. Further, this definition
has proved serviceable in so far as the maximum work in many
cases may be experimentally measured, and moreover it stands
is a simple relation to the equilibrium constant K. Thermo-
d>r.arnics teaches that the maximum work A may be expressed
as A- RT log K, when R denotes the gas-constant, T the absolute
te r.peraturc. In this it is further assumed that both the molc-
c -!ir species produced as well as those that disappear are present
Ln ur.it concentration. The simplest experimental method of
directly determining chemical affinity consists in the measure-
rs r.t of electromotive force. The latter at once gives us the work
which can be gained when the corresponding galvanic element
implies the electricity, and, since the chemical exchange of one
gram-equivalent from Faraday's law requires 06,540 coulombs,
we obtain from the product of this number and the electromotive
force the work per gram-equivalent in watt-seconds, and this
quantity when multiplied by 0-23872 is obtained in terms of the
usual unit, the gram-calorie. Experience teaches that, especially
when we have to deal with strong affinities, the affinity so deter-
mined is for the most part almost the same as the heat -evolution,
whJit in the case in which only solid or liquid substances in the
pure slate take part in the reaction at low temperatures, heat-
evclution and affinity appear to possess a practically identical
value.
Hence it seems possible to calculate equilibria for low tem-
peratures from heats of reaction, by the aid of the two equations
A-Q, A*RTlogK;
a.TJ since the change of A «ith temperature, as required by the
principles of thermodynamics, follows from the specific heats of
the reacting substances, it seems further possible to calculate
cherr.ical equilibria from heats of reaction and specific heats
The circumstance that chemical affinity and heat-evolution
so nearly coincide at low temperatures may be derived from the
hypothesis that chemical processes are the result of forces of
attraction between the atoms of the different elements. If we
may disregard the kinetic energy of the atoms, and this is
legitimate for low temperatures, it follows that both heat-evolu-
tion and chemical affinity are merely equal to the decrease of the
potential energy of the above-mentioned forces, and it is at once
clear that the evolution of heat during a reaction between only
pure solid or pure liquid substances possesses special importance.
More complicated is the case in which gases or dissolved sub-
stances take part. This is simplified if we first consider the
mixing of two mutually chemically indifferent gases. Thermo-
dynamics teaches that external work may be gained by the mere
mixing of two such gases (see Diffusion), and these amounts of
work, which assume very considerable proportions at high
temperatures, naturally affect the value of the maximum work
and so also of the affinity, in that they always come into play
when gases or solutions react. While therefore we regard as
chemical affinity in the strictest sense the decrease of potential
energy of the forces acting between the atoms, it is dear that the
quantities here involved exhibit the simplest relations under the
experimental conditions just given, for when only substances
in a pure state take part in a reaction, all mixing of different
kinds of molecules is excluded; moreover, the circumstance
that the respective substances are considered at very low tempera-
tures reduces the quantities of energy absorbed as kinetic
energy by their molecules to the smallest possible amount.
Chemical Resistance. — When we know the chemical affinity of
a reaction, we are in a position to decide in which direction the
process must advance, but, unless we know the reaction-velocity
also, we can in many cases say nothing as to whether or not the
reaction in question will progress with a practically inappreciable
velocity so that apparent chemical indifference is the result.
This question may be stated in the light of the law of mass-
action briefly as follows: — From a knowledge of the chemical
affinity we can calculate the equilibrium, ix. the numerical
value of the constant K - hjk'; but to be completely informed
of the process we must know not only the ratio of the two
velocity-constants h and h\ but also the separate absolute values
of the same.
In many respects the following view a more comprehensive,
though naturally in harmony with the one just expressed.
Since the chemical equilibrium is periodically attained, it follows
that, as in the case of the motion of a body or of the diffusion of
a dissolved substance, it must be opposed by very great friction.
In all these cases the velocity of the process at every instant is
directly proportional to the driving-force and inversely pro-
portional to the frictional resistance. We hence arrive at the
result that an equation of the form
reaction-velocity mchemicatfonef chemical resistance
must also hold for chemical change; here we have an analogy
with Ohm's law. The " chemical force " at every instant may
be calculated from the maximum work (affinity); as yet little
is known about " chemical resistance," but it is not improbable
that it may be directly measured or theoretically deduced.
The problem of the calculation of chemical reaction-velocity in
absolute measure would then be solved; so far we possess indeed
oniy a few general facts concerning the magnitude of chemical
resistance. It is immeasurably small at ordinary temperatures
for ion-reactions, and, on the other hand, fairly large for nearly all
reactions in which carbon-bonds must be loosened (so-called
" inertia of the carbon-bond ") and possesses very high values
for most gas-reactions also. With rising temperature it always
strongly diminishes, on the other band, at very low tempera-
tures its values are always enormous, and at the absolute xero
of temperature may be infinitely great. Therefore at that
temperature all reactions cease, since the denominator in the
above expression assumes enormous values.
It is a very remarkable phenomenon that the chemical resist-
ance is often small in the case of precisely those reactions in
which the affinity is also small, to this circumstance is to be
traced the fact that in many chemical changes the most stable
condition is not at once reached, but is preceded by the fonnatioa
CHEMISTRY
33
of more or less unstable Intermediate products. Thus the un-
stable ozone is very often first formed on the evolution of oxygen,
whilst in the reaction between oxygen and hydrogen water is
often not at once formed, but first the unstable hydrogen)
peroxide as an intermediate product.
Let us now consider the chemical process in the light of the
equation
reaction-velocity « chemical forcefchemical resistance.
Thermodynamics shows that at very low temperatures, i.e.
in the immediate vicinity of the absolute zero, there is no
equilibrium, but every chemical process advances to completion
in the one or the other direction. The chemical forces therefore
act in the one direction towards complete consumption of the
reacting substance. But since the chemical resistance is now
immensely great, they can produce practically no appreciable
result
At higher temperatures the reaction always proceeds, at least
in homogeneous systems, to a certain equilibrium, and as the
chemical resistance now has finite values this equilibrium will
always finally be reached after a longer or shorter time. Finally,
at very high temperatures the chemical resistance is in every case
very small, and the equilibrium is almost instantaneously
reached; at the same time, the affinity of the reaction, as in the
case of the mutual affinity between oxygen and hydrogen, may
very strongly diminish, and we have then chemical indifference
again, not because, as at low temperatures, the denominator
of the previous expression becomes very great, but because the
numerator now assumes vanishing] y small values. (W. N.)
CHEMISTRY (formerly "chymistry"; Cr. X"M«k; for deri-
vation see Alchemy), the natural science which has for its pro-
vince the study of the composition of substances. In common
with physics it includes the determination of properties or
characters which serve to distinguish one substance from another,
but while the physicist is concerned with properties possessed by
all substances and with processes in which the molecules remain
intact, the chemist is restricted to those processes in which the
molecules undergo some change. For example, the physicist
determines the density, elasticity, hardness, electrical and
thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, &c; the chemist,
on the other hand, investigates changes in composition, such as
may be effected by an electric current, by heat, or when two or
more substances are mixed. A further differentiation of the j
provinces of chemistry and physics is shown by the classifications
of matter. To the physicist matter is presented in three leading
forms— solids, liquids and gases; and although further sub-
divisions have been rendered necessary with the growth of I
knowledge the same principle is retained, namely, a classification
based on properties having no relation to composition. The
fundamental chemical classification of matter, on the other
hand, recognizes two groups of substances, namely, elements,
which are substances not admitting of analysis into other
substances, and compounds, which do admit of analysis into
simpler substances and also of synthesis from simpler substances.
Chemistry and physics, however, meet on common ground in
a well-defined branch of science, named physical chemistry,
which is primarily concerned with the correlation of physical
properties and chemical composition, and, more generally,
with the elucidation of natural phenomena on the molecular
theory.
It may be convenient here to state how the whole tubjoct of
chemistry is treated in thi* edition of the Emydvpatdia BrttannUa.
The present article include* the folio wipe tcciioiuv; —
I Hiitary— Thi* section is confined to (rating the ventral trend
of the science, from it* infancy to the foundation* of the modern
theory. The history of the alchemical period i* treated in more
drtaifin the ankle Alchemy, and of the lAtrocHemietii ia the if tide
Meuici^sl The evolution of the notion of clement it treated under
Ei&uf.m; the molecular hypothesis of matter under Molecuekt
ami the; genesis of, and deductions from, the atomic theory of
Dalton receive; detailed anaU-sis in the article A TO**.
U- Principlts,— Thi* section ireati oJ &uch subject* a* nomen*
cUturc, formulae, chemical equations chemical change And similar
subjects- It h intended to provide an Introduction, necessarily
brier, to the terminology and machinery of the chemist.
III. Tnortamc Chemistry.— Here is treated the history of descrip»
tive inorganic chemistry; reference should be made to the ankle*
on the separate elements lor an account of their preparation,
properties, &c.
IV. Organic Chemiitry.—Thte section includes a brief history of
the subject, and proceed ■ to treat of the principles underlying tht
structure and interrelations of organic compounds,
V. Analytical Chtati nty,— This section treats of the qualitative
detection and separation of the metals, and the commoner methods
employed in quantitative analysis* The analysis of organic com-
pounds is also noticed,
VI. fkyiiial C**i*M/^y,— Thi* section is restricted to an account
of the relations exiting between physical properties and chemical
composition- Other branches of this subject are treated in tht
articles OrgsticaL Action; Energetics; Solution: Alloys t
Tut *J* OC II EM 1 i T a v .
L History
Although chemical actions must have been observed by man
in the most remote times, and also utilized in such processes
\ as the extraction of metals from their ores and in the arts of
tanning and dyeing, there is no evidence to show that, beyond
| an unordered accumulation of facts, the early developments of
these industries were attended by any real knowledge of the
nature of the processes involved. All observations were the
result of accident or chance, or possibly in some cases of experi-
mental trial, but there is no record of a theory or even a general
classification of the phenomena involved, although there b no
doubt that the ancients had a fair knowledge of the properties
and uses of the commoner substances. The origin of chemistry
is intimately bound up with the arts which we have indicated;
in this respect it is essentially an experimental science, A
unifying principle of chemical and physical changes was provided
by metaphysical conceptions of the structure of matter. We
find the notion of "elements," or primary qualities, which
confer upon all species of matter their distinctive qualities by
appropriate combination, and also the doctrine that _.
matter is composed of minute discrete particles, JJJJJ
prevailing in the Greek schools. These " elements," as*****.
however, had not the significance of the elements of
to-day; they connoted physical appearances or qualities rather
than chemical relations; and the atomic theory of the ancients
is a speculation based upon metaphysical considerations, having,
in its origin, nothing in common with the modern molecular
theory, which was based upon experimentally observed properties
of gases (see Element; Molxcule).
Although such hypotheses could contribute nothing directly
to the development of a science which laid especial claim to
experimental investigations, yet indirectly they stimulated
inquiry into the nature of the " essence " with which the four
"elements" were associated. This quinta essentia had been
speculated upon by the Greeks, some regarding it as immaterial
or aethereal, and others as material; and a school of philosophers
termed alchemists arose who attempted the isolation of this
essence. The existence of a fundamental principle, unalterable
and indestructible, prevailing alike through physical and chemical
changes, was generally accepted. Any change which a substance
may chance to undergo waa simply due to the discarding or
taking up of some proportion of the primary "elements" or
qualities: of these coverings " water," " air," " earth " and
" fire " were regarded as clinging most tenaciously to the essence,
while "cold," "heat," "moistneas" and "dryness" were
more easily cast aside or assumed. Several origins have been
suggested for the word alchemy, and there seems to | ffita ^ L
have been some doubt as to the exact nature and
import of the alchemical doctrines. According to M. P. E.
Berthelot, " alchemy rested partly on the industrial processes
of the ancient Egyptians, partly on the speculative theories
of the Greek philosophers, and partly on the mystical reveries
of the Gnostics and Alexandrians." The search for this essence
subsequently resolved itself into the desire to effect the trans-
mutation of metals, more especially the base metals, into silver
and gold. It seems that this secondary principle became the
dominant idea in alchemy, and in this sense the word is used
in Byzantine literature of the 4th century; Suidas^ vtbans^Vt
34
CHEMISTRY
(HISTORY
the nth century, defines chemistry as the " preparation of
silver and gold " (see Alchemy).
From the Alexandrians the science passed to the Arabs,
who made discoveries and improved various methods of separat-
ing substances, and afterwards, from the nth century, became
seated in Europe, where the alchemical doctrines were assidu-
ously studied until the 15th and i6th centuries. It is readily
understood why men imbued with the authority of tradition
should prosecute the search for a substance which would
confer unlimited wealth upon the fortunate discoverer. Some
alchemists honestly laboured to effect the transmutation and to
discover the " philosopher's stone," and in many cases believed
that they had achieved success, if we may rely upon writings
assigned to them. The period, however, is one of literary
forgeries; most of the MSS. are of uncertain date and authorship,
and moreover are often so vague and mystical that they are of
doubtful scientific value, beyond reflecting the tendencies of
the age. The retaining of alchemists at various courts shows
the high opinion which the doctrines had gained. It fa really
not extraordinary that Isaac Hollandus was able to indicate
the method of the preparation of the " philosopher's stone "
from " adamic " or " virgin " earth, and its action when medicin-
ally employed; that in the writings assigned to Roger Bacon,
Raimon Lull, Basil Valentine and others arc to be found the
exact quantities of it to be used in transmutation; and that
George Ripley, in the 15th century, had grounds for regarding
its action as similar to that of a ferment.
In the view of some alchemists, the ultimate principles of
matter were Arbtotle's four elements; the proximate constituents
were a M sulphur " and a " mercury," the father and mother
of the metals; gold was supposed to have attained to the
perfection of its nature by passing in succession through the
forms of lead, brass and silver; gold and silver were held to
contain very pure red sulphur and white quicksilver, whereas
in the other metals these materials were coarser and of a different
colour. From an analogy instituted between the healthy human
being and gold, the most perfect of the metals, silver, mercury,
copper, iron, lead and tin, were regarded in the light of lepers
that required to be healed.
Notwithstanding the false idea which prompted the researches
of the alchemists, many advances were made in descriptive
._,__ chemistry, the metals and their salts receiving much
attention, and several of our important acids being
discovered. Towards the 16th century the failure
of the alchemists to achieve their cherished purpose, and the
general increase of medical knowledge, caused attention to be
given to the utilization of chemical preparations as medicines.
As early as the 15th century the alchemist Basil Valentine had
suggested this application, but the great exponent of this
doctrine was Paracelsus, who set up a new definition: "The
true use of chemistry is not to make gold but to prepare medi-
cines." This relation of chemistry to medicine prevailed until
the 17th century, and what in the history of chemistry is termed
the iatrochemical period (see Medicine) was mainly fruitful
in increasing the knowledge of compounds; the contributions
to chemical theory are of little* value, the most important con-
troversies ranging over the nature of the " elements," which were
generally akin to those of Aristotle, modified so as to be more
In accord with current observations. At the same time,
however, there were many who, opposed to the Paracelsian
definition of chemistry, still laboured at the problem of the
alchemists, while others gave much attention to the chemical
industries. Metallurgical operations, such as smelting, roasting
and refining, were scientifically investigated, and in some degree
explained, by Georg Agricola and Carlo Biringuiccio; ceramics
was studied by Bernard Palissy, who is also to be remembered as
an early worker in agricultural chemistry, having made experi-
ments on the effect of manures on soils and crops; while general
technical chemistry was enriched by Johann Rudolf Glauber. 1
1 The more notable chemists of this period were Turquet de
Mayernc( 1571-1 665), a physician Q f Paris.who re jetted the Galenian
doctrines ami accepted the exaggerations of Paracelsus; Andreas
The second half of the 17th century witnessed remarkable
transitions and developments in all branches of natural science,
and the facts accumulated by preceding generations
during their generally unordered researches were rt- ^"^
placed by a co-ordination of experiment and deduction. From
the mazy and incoherent alchemical ami iatrochemical doctrines,
the former based on false conceptions of matter, the latter on
erroneous views of life processes and physiology, a new science
arose — the study of the composition of substances. The formula-
tion of this definition of chemistry was due to Robert Boyle.
In his Sceptical Chemist (1662) he freely criticized the prevailing
scientific views and methods, with the object of showing that
true knowledge could only be gained by the logical application
of the principles of experiment and deduction. Boyle's masterly
exposition of this method is his most important contribution to
scientific progress. At the same time he clarified the conception
of elements and compounds, rejecting the older notions, the
four elements of the "vulgar Pcripateticks " and the three
principles of the " vulgar Stagynsts," and defining an element
as a substance incapable of decomposition, and a compound
as composed of two or more elements. He explained chemical
combination on the hypotheses that matter consisted of minute
corpuscles, that by the coalescence of corpuscles of different sub-
stances distinctly new corpuscles of a compound were formed, and
that each corpuscle had a certain affinity for other corpuscles.
Although Boyle practised the methods which he expounded,
he was unable to gain general acceptance of his doctrine of
elements; and, strangely enough, the theory which _.
next dominated chemical thought was an alchemical 'SSf*
invention, and lacked the lucidity and perspicuity
of Boyle's views. This theory, named the phlogistic theory,
was primarily based upon certain experiments on combustion
and calcination, and in effect reduced the number of the
alchemical principles, while setting up a new one, a principle
of combustibility, named phlogiston (from fkoyurrfa, burnt).
Much discussion had centred about fire or the "igneous principle."
On the one hand, it had been held that when a substance was
burned or calcined, it combined with an " air "; on the other
hand, the operation was supposed to be attended by the destruc-
tion or loss of the igneous principle. Georg Ernst Stahl, following
in some measure the views held by Johann Joachim Bccher, as,
for instance, that all combustibles contain a " sulphur " (which
notion is itself of older date than Becker's terra pinguis), regarded
all substances as capable of resolution into two components,
the inflammable principle phlogiston, and another element—
" water," " acid " or " earth." The violence or completeness
of combustion was proportional to the amount of phlogiston
present. Combustion meant the liberation of phlogiston.
Metals on calcination gave calces from which the metals could
be recovered by adding phlogiston, and experiment showed that
this could generally be effected by the action of coal or carbon,
which was therefore regarded as practically pure phlogiston;
the other constituent being regarded as an acid. At the hands
of Stahl and his school, the phlogistic theory, by exhibiting a
fundamental similarity between all processes of combustion
and by its remarkable flexibility, came to be a general theory
of chemical action. The objections of the antiphlogistonists,
such as the fact that calces weigh more than the original mctab
instead of less as the theory suggests, were answered by postulat-
ing that phlogiston was a principle of levity, or even completely
ignored as an accident, the change of fualiiies being regarded
as the only matter of importance. It is remarkable that this
theory should have gained the esteem of the notable chemists
who flourished in the 18th century. Henry Cavendish, a care-
ful and accurate experimenter, was a phlogistonist, aa were
J. Black, K. W. Scheele, A. S. Marggraf, J. Priestley and many
others who might be mentioned.
Libaviui (d. 1616). chiefly famous for his Operm Omnia MUk+-
elucidated ihc nature of sails.
CHEMISTRY
35
ive chemistry was now assuming considerable pro-
he experimental inquiries suggested by Boyle were I
icing assiduously developed; and a- wealth of observa-
ions was being accumulated, for the explanation of I
resources of the dominant theory were sorely taxed.
Antoinc Laurent Lavoisier, "... chemists have
logiston into a vague principle, . . . which conse-
nts itself to all the explanations for which it may be
Sometimes this principle has weight, and sometimes
sometimes it is free fire and sometimes it is fire
rlth the earthy dement; sometimes it passes through
4 vessels, sometimes these are Impervious to it; it
rth causticity and non-causticity, transparency and
lours and their absence; it is a veritable Proteus
i form at each instant." Lavoisier may be justly
t the founder of modern or quantitative chemistry,
iremost, he demanded that the balance must be used
ligations into chemical changes. He established as
il that combustion and calcination were attended
rase of weight, and concluded, as did Jean Rey and
iw in the 17th century, that the increase was due to
ation of the metal with the air. The problem could
e completely solved only when the composition of the
parts played by its components, had been determined.
1 the air had received attention, especially since van
ade his far-reaching investigations on gases: Mayow
gd the existence of two components, a spiritus niiro-
a supported combustion, and a spiriius nilri atidi
nguished fire; J. Priestley and K. W. Schede,
hey isolated oxygen, were fogged by the phlogistic
i H. Cavendish, who had isolated the nitrogen
Bosphere, had failed to decide conclusively what
happened to the air which disappeared during
L
' adequately recognized and acknowledged how
wed to the researches of others; to himself is due j
nation of these researches, and the welding of his
• a doctrine to which the phlogistic theory ultimately I
. He burned phosphorus In sir standing oven
ad showed that (1) there was a limit to the amount I
ens which could be burned in the confined air, (2) 1
bo more phosphorus could be burned, one-fifth of the
ippeared, (3) that the weight of the air lost was nearly 1
e difference in the weights of the white solid produced ■
Dspfaorus burned, (4) that the density of the residual 1
1 than that of ordinary air. The same results were
4th lead and tin; and a more elaborate repetition
r established their correctness. He also showed that
mercury calx alone an •• air ** was liberated which
n other " airs," and was slightly heavier than ordinary 1
vcr, the weight of the " air " set free from a given
be calx was equal to the weight taken up in forming
ran mercury, and if the calx be heated with charcoal,
«s recovered and a gas named " fixed ah*," the modern
ude, was formed. The former experiment had been
by Scheele and Priestley, who had named the gas
rated air "; Lavoisier subsequently named it oxygen,
t as the " acid producer " (e{fe, sour) The theory
by Lavoisier came to displace the phlogistic concep- 1
t first its acceptance was slow. Chemical literature
f the phlogistic modes of expression— oxygen was
licated air," nitrogen M phlogisticated air," fie-
lded to retard its promotion. Yet really the transition
me theory to the other was simple, it being only
:o change the " addition or loss of phlogiston " into
sr addition of oxygen." By his insistence upon the
balance as a quantitative check upon the masses
a all chemical reactions, Lavoisier was enabled to
>y his own investigations and the results achieved 1
the principle now known as the " conservation of;
latter can neither be created nor destroyed; however
.system be caauaged, the weights before and aftsr see!
equal. 1 To him Is also due a rigorous examination of the nature
of elements and compounds; he held the same views that were
laid down by Boyle, and with the same prophetic foresight
predicted that some of the elements which he himself accepted
might be eventually found to be compounds.
It is unnecessary in this place to recapitulate the many
results which had accumulated by the end of the x 8th century,
or to discuss the labours and theories of individual workers
since these receive attention under biographical headings;
in this article only the salient features in the history of our
science can be treated. The beginning of the 19th century
was attended by far-reaching discoveries in the nature of the
composition of compounds. Investigations proceeded in two
directions:-— ( 1) the nature of chemical affinity, (a) the laws
of chemical combination. The first question has not
yet been solved, although it has been speculated upon
from the earliest times. The alchemists explained
chemical action by means of such phrases as " like attracts
Dike," substances being said to combine when one " loved "
the other, and the reverse when it M hated " it. Boyle rejected
this terminology, which was only strictly applicable to intelligent
beings; and he used the word " affinity " as had been previously
done by Stahl and others. The modern sense of the word, vis*
the force which holds chemically dissimilar substances together
(and also similar substa nces as is seen in di-, tri-, and poly-atomic
molecules), was introduced by Hermann Boerhaave, and made
more precise by Sir Isaac Newton. The laws of chemical com-
bination were solved, in a measure, by John Dalton, and the
solution e xpr e ss ed as Dalton's "atomic theory." Lavoisier
appears to have assumed that the composition of every chemical
compound was constant, and the same opinion was the basis
of much experimental inquiry at the hands of Joseph Louis
Proust during 1801 to 1800, who vigorously combated the
[doctrine of Claude Louis BerthoUet (Bssai de statique ckimiq**,
1x803), vi** tm H fixed proportions of elements and compounds
combine only under exceptional conditions, the general rule
[being that the composition of a compound may vary continuously
between certain limits.'
This controversy was unfinished when Dalton published the
first part of his New System ef Chemical Philosophy in 1808,
although the per solium theory was the most popular. fr,y >a
I Led thereto by speculations on gases, Dalton assumed
that matter was co mp o se d of atoms, that in the elements the
atoms were simple, and in compounds complex, being composed
of elementary atoms. Dalton furthermore perceived that the
same two elements or substances may combine in different
proportions, and showed that these proportions had always a
simple ratio to one another. This is the "law of multiple
proportions." He laid down the following arbitrary rules for
determining the number of atoms (n a compound:— if only one
compound of two elements exists, it is a binary compound and
its atom is composed of one atom of each dement; if two
compounds exist one is binary (say A + B) and the other ternary
(say A + 2B) ; if three, then one Is binary and the others may be
ternary (A + 2B,and2A + B), and soon. More important is his
[deduction of equivalent weights, Lt. the relative weights of
atoms. He took hydrogen, the lightest substance known, to
be the standard. From analyses cf water, which he regarded
las composed of one atom of hydrogen and one of oxygen, he
I * This dictum was questioned by the researches of H. Landolt.
A. Heydwcillcr and others. In a aeries of 73 reaction* it was found
I that in 61 there was apparently a diminution in weight, but in 1908,
[after a mart careful repetition and making allowance for all experi-
mental errors, Laadoft concluded that no change occurred (see
Element).
•The theory of BerthoUet was essentially mechanical, and be
attempted to prove that the course of a reaction depended not on
affinities alone but alto on the masses of the reacting components.
I In this respect his hypothesis has much fa common with the " law
of mass-action " developed at a much later date by the Swedish
chemists Guldberg and Waage, and the American. Wiuard Cibba
(ate Chemical Action). In hbclasskal thesis BerthoUet vigorously
attacked the molts deduced by Bergman, who had followed In Ms
table of elective attamataaaw the path taevessed by Stahl end S. P
Ceofroy*
36
CHEMISTRY
deduced the relative weight of the oxygen atom to be 65;
from marsh gas and olefiant gas he deduced carbon-* 5, there
being one atom of carbon and two of hydrogen in the former
and one atom of hydrogen to one of carbon in the latter;
nitrogen had an equivalent of 5, and so on. 1
The value of Dalton's generalizations can hardly be over-
estimated, notwithstanding the fact that in several cases they
needed correction. The first step in this direction was effected
by the co-ordination of Gay Lussac's observations on the
combining volumes of gases. He discovered that gases always
combined in volumes having simple ratios, and that the volume
of the product had a simple ratio to the volumes of the reacting
gases. For example, one volume of oxygen combined with two
of hydrogen to form two volumes of steam, three volumes of
hydrogen combined with one of nitrogen to give two volumes
of ammonia, one volume of hydrogen combined with one of
chlorine to give two volumes of hydrochloric acid. An immediate
inference was that the Daltonian " atom " must have parts
which enter into combination with parts of other atoms; in,
other words, there must exist two orders of particles, via. (1)
particles derived by limiting mechanical subdivision,, the modern
molecule, and (2) particles derived from the first class by chemical
subdivision, i.e. particles which are incapable of existing alone, ,
but may exist in combination. Additional evidence as to the
structure of the molecule was discussed by Avogadro in 181 1,
and by Ampere in 1 8 14. From the gas-laws of Boyle and J. A. C.
Charles — viz. equal changes in temperature and pressure
occasion equal changes in equal volumes of all gases and vapours
—Avogadro deduced the law :— Under the same conditions
of temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain
equal numbers of molecules; and he showed that the relative
weights of the molecules are determined as the ratios of the,
weights of equal volumes, or densities. He established the
existence of molecules and atoms as we have denned above,,
and stated that the number of atoms in the molecule is generally
2, but may be 4, 8, &c. We cannot tell whether his choice of the
powers of 2 is accident or design.
Notwithstanding Avogadro's perspicuous investigation, and
a similar exposition of the atom and molecule by A. M. Ampere,
the views therein expressed were ignored both by
their own and the succeeding generation. In place
of the relative molecular weights, attention was concentrated
on relative atomic or equivalent weights. This may be due
in some measure to the small number of gaseous and easily
volatile substances then known, to the attention which the
study of the organic compounds received, and especially to the
energetic investigations of J. J. Berzclius, who, fired with
enthusiasm by the original theory of Dalton and the law of
multiple proportions, determined the equivalents of combining
ratios of many elements in an enormous number of compounds. 1
He prosecuted his labours in this field for thirty years; as
proof of his industry it may be mentioned that as early as 1818
he bad determined the combining ratios of about two thousand
simple and compound substances.
We may here notice the important chemical symbolism or notation
introduced by Berzeliui, which greatly contributed to the definite
ChtmkMl and convenient representation of chemical composition
mZZSmm mn & t ' ie tnc * n t °* chemical reactions. The denotation of
dements by symbols had been practised by the alchemists,
and it is interesting to note that the symbols allotted to the well-known
elements are identical with the astrological symbols of the sun and
the other members of the solar system. Gold, the most perfect metal,
had the symbol of the Sun, O ; silver, the semiperfect metal, had
the symbol of the Moon, 3): copper, iron and antimony, the
imperfect metals of the gold class, had the symbols of Venus ? ,
Mars rj*, and the Earth £ '• tin and lead, the imperfect mctaU of
the silver class, had the symbols of Jupiter 21, and Saturn T? ;
while mercury, the imperfect metal of both the gold and silver
class, had the symbol of the planet. Q . Torbern Olof Bergman used
an elaborate system In his Opuscule pkytka et chemica (1783); the
1 Dalton'satomic theory istreated in moredetailinthc art iclc Atom.
• Berzetius, however, appreciated the necessity of differentiating
the at om and the molecule, and even urged Dalton Co amend his
dactriae, but without success.
(HISTORY
elements received symbols composed of circles, arcs of circles, and
lines, while certain class symbols, such as^Jfor metals, -^-foradds,
@ for alkalies,Q for salts,\j/ for cakes, Ac, were used. Compounds
were r epresented by copulating simpler symbols, e.g. mercury calx
1 was \j^ Q .» Bergman's symbolism was obviously cumbrous, and
the system used in 1782 by Lavoisier was equally abstruse, since the
forms gave no clue as to composition; for instance water, oxygen,
and nitric acid irere\/,»(ft«» and Qs-
A partial clarification was suggested in 1787 by J. H. Hassenfrati
and Adet, who assigned to each element a symbol, and to each com-
pound a sign which should record the elements present and their
relative quantities. Straight tines and semicircles were utilized for
the non-metallic elements, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur
(the " simple actdifiable bases " of Lavoisier), and circles eadosinf
the initial letters of their names for the metals. The " compound
acidifiable bases," i.e. the hypothetical radicals of acids, were denoted
by squares enclosing the initial letter of the base; an alkali was
denoted by a triangle, and the particular alkali by inserting the
initial letter. Compounds were denoted by Joining the symbols of
the components, and by varying the manner of joining compounds
of the same elements were distinguished. The symbol V was used
to denote a liquid, and a vertical line to denote a gas. As as
example of the complexity of this system we may note the fin
oxides of nitrogen, which were symbolised as
the first three representing the gaseous oxides, and the last two the
liquid oxides.
A great advance was made by Dalton. who, besides introducing
simpler symbols, regarded the symbol as representing not only the
clement or compound but also one atom of that element or com-
pound; in other words, his symbol denoted equivalent weights. 4
Thia *y*icm, whi h permitted the correct rep r ese ntation of molecuUr
composition, was adopted by Bertelius in 1814, who, having replaced
the geometric signs oi Dalton by the initial letter (or letters) of the
Latin name* of the elements, re pres ented a compound by placing s
pirn sign between the symbols of its components, and the number oi
atoms of each component (except in the case of only one atom) by
placing Arabic numerals before the symbols; for example, copper
oxide was Cu +0, sulphur trioxide S+30. If two compounds com-
bined, the + signs of the free compounds were discarded, and the
number of atoms denoted by an Arabic index placed after the
elements, and from these modified symbols the symbol of the new
compound was derived in the same manner as simple compounds
were built up from their elements. Thus copper sulphate was
CuO+SO*. potassium sulphate 2SO"+Pof> (the symbol Pto for
potassium was subsequently discarded in favour of K from hokum).
1 At a later date Berzclius denoted an oxide by dots, equal in number to
the number of oxygen atoms present, placed over the element; this
notation survived longest in mineralogy, tie also introduced barred
symbols, i.e. letters traversed by a horizontal bar, to denote the double
atom (or molecule). Although the system of Berzclius has been
modified and extended, its principles survive in the modern notation.
In the development of the atomic theory and the deduction
of the atomic weights of elements and the formulae of compounds,
Dalton's arbitrary rules failed to find complete accept-
ance. Berzelius objected to the hypothesis that if. ■*<•»
two elements form only one compound, then the *"
atoms combine one and one; and although he agreed
with the adoption of simple rules as a first attempt at representing
a compound, he availed himself of other data in order to gaia
further information as to the structure of compounds. For
example, at first he represented ferrous and ferric oxides by the
formulae FeOj, FcOa, and by the analogy oi zinc and other
1 basic oxides he regarded these substances as constituted similarly
' to FeOj, and the acidic oxides alumina and chromium oxide as
I similar to FeOj. He found, however, that chromic acid, which
he had represented as CrO«, neutralized a base containing \ the
* The following symbols were also used by Bergman :—
! 0. <D. O. 0. I. ~. 3G.VVA
which represented zinc, manganese, cobalt, bismuth, nickel, arsenic.
platinum, water, alcohol, phlogiston.
4 The following are the symbols employed by Dalton:—
1 0. <D. ©. O. ®, ©.©, ©. CD. <D. O. O. Q
, which represent in order, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen,
phosphorus, sulphur, magnesia, lime, soda, potash, strontia, baryta,
, mercury; iron, zinc, copper, lead, silver, platinum, and gold weft
represented by circles enclosing the initial letter of the escsnss*.
HISTORY)
CHEMISTRY
37
quantity of oxygen. He inferred that chromic acid must
contain only three atoms of oxygen, as did sulphuric add SOj ;
consequently chromic oxide, which contains half the amount
of oxygen, must be CrjOi, and hence ferric oxide must be FeiO>
The basic oxides must have the general formula MO. To these
results he was aided by the law of isomorphism formulated by
E. Milscherhch in 1820; and he confirmed his conclusions by
showing the agreement with the law of atomic heat formulated
by Dulong and Petit in 1819.
While successfully investigating the solid elements and their
compounds gravimetrically, Berzclius was guilty of several
inconsistencies in his views on gases. He denied that gaseous
atoms could have parts, although compound gases could. This
altitude was due* to his adherence to the "dualislic theory"
of the structure of substances, which he deduced from electro-
chemical researches. From the behaviour of substances on
electrolysis (q.v.) he assumed that all substances had two com-
ponents, one bearing a negative charge, the other a positive
charge. Combination was associated with the coalescence of
these charges, and the nature of the resulting compound showed
the nature of the residual electricity. For example, positive
iron combined with negative oxygen to form positive ferrous
oxide; positive sulphur combined with negative oxygen to
form negative sulphuric acid; positive ferrous oxide combined
with negative sulphuric acid to form neutral ferrous sulphate.
Berzclius elevated this theory to an important position in the
history of our science. He recognized that if an elementary
atom had parts, his theory demanded that these parts should
carry different electric charges when they entered into reaction,
and the products of the reaction should vary according as a
positive or negative atom entered into combination. For
instance if the reaction 2Ha+0,= HjO+IIiO be true, the
molecules of water should be different, for a negative oxygen
atom would combine in one case, and a positive oxygen atom
in the other. Hence the gaseous atoms of hydrogen and oxygen
could not have parts. A second inconsistency was presented
when he was compelled by the researches of Dumas to admit
Avogadro's hypothesis; but here he would only accept it for
the elementary gases, and denied it for other substances. It is
to be noticed that J. B. Dumas did not adopt the best methods
for emphasizing his discoveries. His terminology was vague
and provoked caustic criticism from Berzclius; he assumed
that all molecules contained two atoms, and consequently the
atomic weights deduced from vapour density determinations of
sulphur, mercury, arsenic, and phosphorus were quite different
from those established by gravimetric and other methods.
Chemists gradually tired of the notion of atomic weights on
account of the uncertainty which surrounded them; and the
suggestion made by W. H. Wollaston as early as 1814 to deal
only with " equivalents," i.e. the amount of an element which
can combine with or replace unit weight of hydrogen, came
into favour, being adopted by L. Gmclin in his famous text-book.
Simultaneously with this discussion of the atom and molecule,
great controversy was ranging over the constitution of com-
Aioln i a pounds, more particularly over the carbon or organic
mmdmolf compounds. This subject is discussed in section IV.,
"jJjT^ Organic Chemistry. The gradual accumulation of data
*■*■*■* referring to organic compounds brought in its train a
revival of the discussion of atoms and molecules. A. Laurent
and C. F. Gerhardt attempted a solution by investigating chemical
reactions. They assumed the atom to be the smallest part of
matter which can exist in combination, and the molecule to be
the smallest part which can enter into a chemical reaction.
Gerhardt found that reactions could be best followed if one
assumed the molecular weight of an element or compound to be
that weight which occupied the same volume as two unit weights
of hydrogen, and this assumption led him to double the equiva-
lents accepted by Gmelin, making H=l, 0-10, and C-12,
thereby agreeing with Bcrzelius, and also to halve the values
given by Berzelius to many metals. Laurent generally agreed,
except when the theory compelled the adoption of formulae
containing fractions of atoms; in such cases he regarded the
molecular weight as the weight occupying a volume equal to
four unit weights of hydrogen. The bases upon which Gerhardt
and Laurent founded their views were not sufficiently well
grounded to lead to the acceptance of their results; Gerhardt
himself returned to Gmelin's equivalents in his Lckrbuck dtr
Chemie (1853) as they were in such general use.
In i860 there prevailed such a confusion of hypotheses as to
the atom and molecule that a conference was held at Karlsruhe
to discuss the situation. At the conclusion of the sitting,
Lothar Meyer obtained a paper written by Stanislas Cannixxaro
in 1858 wherein was found the final link required for the deter-
mination of atomic weights. This Jink was the full extension
of Avogadro's theory to all substances, Cannizzaro showing that
chemical reactions in themselves would not suffice. He chose
as his unit of reference the weight of an atom of hydrogen, fo.
the weight contained in a molecule of hydrochloric acid, thus
differing from Avogadro who chose the weight of a hydrogen
molecule. From a study of the free elements Cannizzaro showed!
that an element may have more than one molecular weight; for
example, the molecular weight of sulphur varied with the tem-
perature. And from the study of compounds he showed that
each element occurred in a definite weight or in some multiple
of this weight He called this proportion the " atom," since
it invariably enters compounds without division, and the weight
of this atom is the atomic weight. This generalization was of
great value inasmuch as it permitted the deduction of the
atomic weight of a non-gasifiable clement from a study of the
densities of its gasifiablc compounds.
From the results obtained by Laurent and Gerhardt and their
predecessors it immediately followed that, while an element could
have but one atomic weight, it could have several equivalent
weights. From a detailed study of organic compounds Ger-
hardt had promulgated a " theory of types " which represented
a fusion of the older radical and type theories. This theory
brought together, as it were, the most varied compounds, and
stimulated inquiry into many fields. According to this theory,
an element in a compound had a definite saturation capacity,
an idea very old in itself, being framed in the law of multiple
proportions. These saturation capacities were assidu- y a » t ^
ously studied by Sir Edward Frankland, who from —**
the investigation, not of simple inorganic compounds, but of the
organo-mctallic derivatives, determined the kernel of the theory
of valency. Frankland showed that any particular element
preferentially combined with a definite number (which might
vary between certain limits) of other atoms; for example, some
atoms always combined with one atom of oxygen, some with two,
while with others two atoms entered into combination with one
of oxygen. If an element or radical combined with one atom
of hydrogen, it was termed monovalent; if with two (or with
one atom of oxygen, which is equivalent to two atoms of hydrogen)
it was divalent, and so on. The same views were expressed by
Cannizzaro, and also by A. W. von Hofmann, who materially
helped the acceptance of the doctrine by the lucid exposition in
his Introduction to Modern Chemistry, 1865.
The recognition of the quadrivalency of carbon by A. Kekule
was the forerunner of his celebrated benzene theory in particular,
and of the universal application of structural formulae to the
representation of the most complex organic compounds equally
lucidly as the representation of the simplest salts. Alexander
Butlerow named the " structure theory," and contributed much
to the development of the subject. He defined structure " as the
manner of the mutual linking of the atoms in the molecule,"
but denied that any such structure could give information as to
the orientation of the atoms in space. He regarded the chemical
properties of a substance as due to (x) the chemical atoms
composing it, and (2) the structure, and he asserted that while
different compounds might have the same components (isomer*
ism), yet only one compound could have a particular structure.
Identity in properties necessitated identity in structure.
While the principle of varying valency laid down by Frankland
is still retained, Butlerow's view that structure had no spatial
significance has been modified. The researches of L. Pasftcnx*
3»
CHEMISTRY
[HISTORY
J. A. Le Bel, J. Wislicenus, van't Hoff and others showed that
substances having the same graphic formulae vary in properties
and reactions, and consequently the formulae need modification in
order to exhibit these differences. Such isomerism, named stereo-
isomeritm(7.t.),hasbccnassiduouslydevclopedduringrecentyetrs;
it prevails among many different classes of organic compounds
and many examples have been found in inorganic chemistry.
The theory of valency as a means of showing similarity of
properties and relative composition became a dominant feature
of chemical theory, the older hypotheses of types, radicals, &c.
being more or less discarded. We have seen how its
utilization in the " structure theory " permitted great
clarification, and attempts were not wanting for the
deduction of analogies or a periodicity between elements. Frank-
land had recognized the analogies existing between the chemical
properties of nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic and antimony,
noting that they act as tri- or penta-valent. Carbon was joined
with silicon, zirconium and titanium, while boron, being tri-
valent, was relegated to another group. A general classification
of elements, however, was not realized by Frankland, nor even by
Odling, who had also investigated the question from the valency
standpoint. The solution came about by arranging the elements
in the order of their atomic weights, tempering the arrangement
with the results deduced from the theory of valencies and
experimental observations. Many chemists contributed to the
establishment of such a periodicity, the greatest advances being
made by John Newlands in England, Lothar Meyer in Germany,
and D. J. Mendeleeff in St Petersburg. For the development of
this classification see Element.
In the above sketch we have briefly treated the history of the
main tendencies of our science from the earliest times to the
ammmmy. establishment of the modern laws and principles. We
have seen that the science took its origin in the arts
practised by the Egyptians, and, having come under the influence
of philosophers, it chose for its purpose the isolation of the
quinta essentia, and subsequently the " art of making gold and
silver." This spirit gave way to the physicians, who regarded
" chemistry as the art of preparing medicines," a denotation
which in turn succumbed to the arguments of Boyle, who regarded
it as the " science of the composition of substances," a definition
which adequately fits the science to-day. We have seen how
his classification of substances into elements and compounds,
and the definitions which he assigned to these species, have
similarly been retained; and how Lavoisier established the law
of the " conservation of mass," overthrew the prevailing phlogistic
theory, and became the founder of modern chemistry by the
overwhelming importance which he gave to the use of the balance.
The development of the atomic theory and its concomitants—
the laws of chemical combination and the notion of atoms and
equivalent*— at the hands of Dal ton and Berzelius, the extension
to the modern theory of the atom and molecule, and to atomic
and molecular weights by Avogadro, Ampere, Dumas, Laurent,
Gcrhardt, Cannizzaro and others, have been noted. The
structure of the molecule, which mainly followed investigations
in organic compounds, Frankland's conception of valency, and
finally the periodic law, have also been shown in their chrono-
logical order. The principles outlined above constitute the
foundations of our science; and although it may happen that
experiments may be made with which they appear to be not in
complete agreement, yet in general they constitute a body of
working hypotheses of inestimable value.
Chemical Education. — It is remarkable that systematic in-
struction in the theory and practice of chemistry only received
earnest attention in our academic institutions during the opening
decades of the 19th century. Although for a long time lecturers
and professors had been attached to universities, generally their
duties had also included the study of physics, mineralogy and
other subjects, with the result that chemistry received scanty
encouragement Of practical instruction there was none other
than that to be gained in a few private laboratories and in the
abop* of apothecaries. The necessity for experimental demon-
ttmtioD mad p m ctical instruction, in addition to academic
lectures, appears to have been urged by the French chemists
L. N. Vauquelin, Gay Lussac, Thenard, and more especially by
A. F. Fourcroy and G. F. Rouellc, while in England Humphry
Davy expounded the same idea in the experimental demonstra-
tions which gave his lectures their brilliant charm. But the real
founder of systematic instruction in our science was Justus von
Liebig, who, having accepted the professorship at Giesaen in
1824, made his chemical laboratory and course of instruction
the model of all others. He emphasized that the practical
training should' include (1) the qualitative and quantitative
analysis of mixtures, (2) the preparation of substances according
to established methods, (3) original research— a course which has
been generally adopted. The pattern set by Liebig at Giesten
was adopted by F. Wfihler at GOttingen in 1836, by R. W.
Bunsen at Marburg in 1840, and by O. L. Erdmann at Leipzig
in 1843; *nd during the 'fifties and 'sixties many other labora-
tories were founded. A new era followed the erection of the
laboratories at Bonn and Berlin according to the plans of A. W.
von Hofmann in 1867, and of that at Leipzig, designed by Kolbe
in 1868. We may also mention the famous laboratory at Munich
designed by A. von Bacyer in 1875.
In Great Britain the first public laboratory appears to have
been opened in 1817 by Thomas Thomson at Glasgow. But the
first important step in providing means whereby students could
systematically study chemistry was the foundation of the College
of Chemistry in 1845. This institution was taken over by the
Government in 1853, becoming the Royal College of Chemistry,
and incorporated with the Royal School of Mines; in 1881 the
names were changed to the Normal School of Science and Royal
School of Mines, and again in 1890 to the Royal College of
Science. In 1907 it was incorporated in the Imperial College of
Science and Technology. Under A. W. von Hofmann, who
designed the laboratories and accepted the professorship in 1845
at the instigation of Prince Albert, and under his successor (in
1864) Sir Edward Frankland, this institution became one of
the most important centres of chemical instruction. Oxford
and Cambridge sadly neglected the erection of convenient
laboratories for many years, and consequently we find technical
schools and other universities having a far better equipment and
offering greater facilities. In the provinces Victoria University
at Manchester exercised the greater impetus, numbering among
its professors Sir W. H. Pcrkin and Sir Henry Roscoe.
In America public laboratory instruction was first instituted at
Yale College during the professorship of Benjamin Silliman. To
the great progress made in recent years F. W. Garke, W. Gibbs,
E. W. Morley, Ira Remsen, and.T. W. Richards have especially
contributed.
In France the subject was almost entirely neglected until
late in the 19th century. The few laboratories existing in the
opening decades were ill-fitted, and the exorbitant fees con-
stituted a serious bar to general instruction, for these institutions
received little government support. In 2869 A. Wurtx reported
the existence of only one efficient laboratory in France, namely
the £cole Normale Superieure, under the direction of H. Sainte
Claire Deville. During recent years chemistry has become
one of the most important subjects in the curriculum of technical
schools and universities, and at the present time no general
educational institution is complete until it has its full equip-
ment of laboratories and lecture theatres.
Chemical Literals* —The growth of chemical literature itnte the
publication of Lavoisier 4 ! famous Traiti 4e ckimit in 178$, and of
Rcr*elius' Lehrbuth dtr Chtmie in 1B08-1818, has been encrimnjv
These two works, and especially the latter, wrre the model* followed
by Then arch Liebig , Strorfcer. Wohler ind many others, tndudinr
Thomas Graham, upon whose Liftmen ts of Cttemiitry wai touuded
Otto'i famous Ltkrbvtk d*r Cktm.it r to which H- Kopp contributed
the general theoretical part, Kolbe the organic, and Buff and
2am miner the physircKhemic*l. Organic chemistry wai espeeially
developed by the publication of Gerhard! t Trait fdt chimtt &r£nniqui
in 1853-1836, and of Kelcute'i Lehrluch dtt crfojiijchtn Cktmu in
[861-1882. General theoretical and physical rhemistry was treated
with conspicuous acumen by Lothar Meyer in his htodtntf Tmtwitn,
by W. Oswald in hi* Lthrbtuh frr nltftm, Chrmie {1&84-1E57), and
by Kemst in his Thtoniw-h* Chemie, in English* Ragcoe and
Schode miner "» Trt&tiH d» Chemistry la * ttanda*! work ; it records
PRINCIPLES]
CHEMISTRY
39
t v jcce** I .1] attempt to state the theories and facts of chemistry,
mi in condensed epitomes, but in an easily read form. The J'riitU
it ehimit mmir{rft, edited by H. Moitun. And the Ifandhuck 4er
44twja.ri i*ihem Ckcmit, edited by Abee,g f are of the Mine type.
. G, Dam aw' 1 fiandbuirh 4er unewpmiuken Chwmit and F. Bcilstcin's
i/jiuftj*f A *&r o^dAi'jiL^rt £%mhj arc invaluable works of reference.
Of the catMcr encyclopaedias we may notice th* famous Hand-
Y$rirrbvfh dtr reinen und anicxandttn Chemie, edited by LifhEe;
Fremy't Ejityctapidie de ekimit, Wurts's Duiuynnaire At chimie
pure et u£#*v*i«i Watts* Dictionary of Chemiitry t and Ladcabutg'i
Handv&rtcrbnth Jfr Chemie.
The number of periodicals devoted to chemistry hai steadily
increased since the early part of the 19th century. In England the
most important is the Journal of the Chemical Society of Landau,
tiTil [ju Wished in \*&\ii. Since \9~t abstracts of papers a ppearing
in the other journals have been printed. In 1904 a new departure
»ai made in issuing Ann mil Re pur is , containing resumes of the most
FfnportanE researches of the year, THe Chemitat JVnrr h founded by
Sir W. Groakes in 1S60, may also be noted. In America the chief
periodical is the American Chemical Journal, founded in 1&J9-
Germany is provided with a great number of magazines. The
Bffkhie Act devSickrtt chemise ken Cesfilichoft. published by the
Befit*. Chemkal Society, the Chtmiicha Centratblait, which ii con-
fined to a bsttaci » of pa pecs a npeari n g \ n other j ou rnalf , t he Zeitsshtift
fir Ckcmit, and Licbig » Annate n dtr Chemie are the most important
of the general magazines: Others devoted to special phases are the
Journal fur praktuehe Chemie, founded by Crdmann in 1834, the
Zfitjchnfi fur ano*tani icht Chemie and
taiixke Chemie. Mention may also h
Jakrtsherkkte and the Jahrbuch dtr Chemie. In France, the most
important journals are the Annates de chimie et dt physique, founded
in 1789 with the title Annates dt chimie, and the CompUs rendus,
pubuahed weekly by the Academic franchise since 1835.
II. General Principles
The substances with which the chemist has to deal admit of
dasaification into elements and compounds. Of the former
about eighty may be regarded as well characterized, although
many mora have been described.
Elements. — The following table gives the names, symbols
and atomic weights of the perfectly characterized dements. —
International Atomic Weights, 1910.
the Zeiitthrifl far Mn£
£ Trui(.[c! of the mv.anj.iMe
Atomic
Atomic
Name. Symbol. Weights.
Name. Symbol. Weights.
0-16.
0-16.
Aluminium • . Al
27-1
Mercury . . ,
Molybdenum
. Mo
200-0
Antimony • • Sb
ISO'S
96-0
Argon • .A
399
Neodymiura .
Nd
144-3
Arsenic ... As
7496
Neon . . .
Ne
20
Barium . . . Ba
137-37
Nickel . .
Ni
58-68
Beryllium or Be )
Glucinura Gl )
91
Nitrogen . •
Osmium . •
N
Os
14-01
1909
Bismuth . . • Bi
2O8-0
Oxygen . .
Palladium .
O
1600
Boron • B
II'O
Pd
106-7
Bromine ... Br
7992
Phosphorus .
P
31
Cadmium . . Cd
112*40
132-81
Platinum •
Pt
1950
Caesium . . . Cs
Potassium
K
39-10
Calcium . • . Ca
4009
Praseodymium
Pr
140-6
Carbon . • . C
12-0
Radium . .
Ra
226-4
Cerium . • . Ce
l40-2«
35'4°
Rhodium . •
Rh
102 9
Chlorine ... CI
Rubidium •
Rb
85-45
Chromium . . Cr
52-0
Ruthenium .
Ru
1017
Cobalt ... Co
5897
Samarium •
Sa
150-4
Columbians . . Cb j
or Niobium . Nb ]
Scandium •
Sc
44*1
93*5
Selenium . •
Se
79.2
Copper . . . Cu
63-57
Silicon . .
Si
i8}
107-88
230
Dysprosium . . Dy
Erbium . . . Er
1625
1674
Silver . .
Sodium . .
&
Europium • . Eu
152-0
Strontium .
Sr
8762
Fluorine . • . F
190
Sulphur . .
S
3207
181 -o
Gadolinium • . Gd
1573
69-9
Tantalum .
Ta
Gallium . . . Ga
Tellurium
Te
127-5
Germanium . . Ge
7*-5
Terbium . .
Tb
159-3
Gold . . . . Au
1972
Thallium . .
Tl
204-0
Helium •• . .He
40
Thorium . .
Th
at?
Hydrogen • • H
1-008
Thulium . .
Tm
Indium ... In
1148
12692
Tin . . .
Sn
1 19-0
Iodine ... I
Titanium. .
. Ti
481
Iridium . • . Ir
193* »
Tungsten. .
W
184-0
Iron . . . . Fe
55-85
83-0
Uranium . .
. U
238-5
Krypton . . . Kr
Vanadium .
. V
51-2
Lanthanum . . La
139-0
Xenon
Xe
130-7
Lead . . . . Pb
207-10
Ytterbium (Neo
Lithium ... Li
7«oo
ytterbium)
' Yb
890
Lutecium . . Lu
174
Yttrium . .
. Y
Magnesium . . Mg
2432
Zinc .
. Za
£l 7
Manganese • . Mn
54-93
Zirconium
. Zr
The elements are usually divided into two classes, the metallic
and the non-metallic elements; the following are dasse4 as
non-metals, and the remainder as metals.-—
Hydrogen Oxygen Boron . Neon
Chlorine Sulphur Carbon Krypton
Bromine Selenium Silicon Xenon
Iodine Tellurium Phosphorus Helium
Fluorine Nitrogen Argon
Of these hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen, argon,
neon, krypton, xenon and helium are gases, bromine is a liquid,
add the remainder are solids. All the metals are solids at ordinary
temperatures with the- exception of mercury, which is liquid.
The metals are mostly bodies of high specific gravity; they
exhibit, when polished, a peculiar brilliancy or metallic lustre,
and they are good conductors of heat and electricity; the non-
metals, on the other hand, are mostly bodies of low specific
gravity, and bad conductors of heat and electricity, and do not
exhibit metallic lustre. The non-metallic elements are also
sometimes termed metalloids, but this appellation, which signifies
metal-like substances (Gr. dbot, like), strictly belongs to certain
elements which do not possess the properties of the true metals,
although they more closely resemble them than the non-metals
in many respects; thus, selenium and tellurium, which art
closely allied to sulphur in their chemical properties, although
bad conductors of heat and electricity, exhibit metallic lustra
and have relatively high specific gravities. But when the
properties of the elements are carefully contrasted together it
is found that no strict line of demarcation can be drawn dividing
them into two classes; and if they are arranged in a series,
those which are most closely allied in properties being placed
next to each other, it is observed that there is a more or less
regular alteration in properties from term to term in the series.
When binary compounds, or compounds of two elements, art
decomposed by an electric current, the two elements make their
appearance at opposite poles. Those elements which are dis-
engaged at the negative pole are termed electro-positive, or
positive, or basylous elements, whilst those disengaged at the
positive pole are termed electro-negative, or negative, or chlorous
elements. But the difference between these two classes of
elements is one of degree only, and they gradually merge into
each other; moreover the electric relations of elements are not
absolute, but vary according to the state of combination In
which they exist, so that It is just as impossible to divide the
elements into two classes according to this property as it is to
separate them into two distinct classes of metals and non-metals.
The following, however, are negative towards the remaining
elements which are more or less positive.*— Fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine, oxygen, sulphur, selenium, tellurium.
The metals may be arranged in a series according to their
power of displacing one another in salt solutions, thus Cs, Rb,
K, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cd, Tl, Fe, Co, Ni, Sn, Pb, (H), Sb, Bi,
As, Cu, Hg, Ag, Pd, Pt, Au.
Elements which readily enter into reaction with each other,
and which develop a large amount of heat on combination, are
said to have a powerful affinity for each other. The tendency
of positive elements to unite with positive elements, or of negative
elements to unite with' negative elements, is much less than that
of positive elements to unite with negative elements, and the
greater the difference in properties between two elements the
more powerful is their affinity for each other. Thus, the affinity
of hydrogen and oxygen for each other is extremely powerful,
much heat being developed by the combination of these two
elements; when binary compounds of oxygen are decomposed
by the electric current, the oxygen invariably appears at the
positive pole, being negative to all other elements, but the
hydrogen of hydrogen compounds is always disengaged at the
negative pole. Hydrogen and oxygen are, therefore, Of very
opposite natures, and this is well illustrated by the circumstance
that oxygen combines, with very few exceptions, with all the
remaining elements, whilst compounds of only a limited number
with hydrogen have been obtained.
Compounds.— A chemical compound contains two or more
CHEMISTRY
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^-.7. >-?---•-"-- -•" «&z-7is .: »b4:e-.:: sas:<:
«i roc j cc ire iccnsr *c:i
^r- — v-
• .-1 *■ "V »
: - %
v . :.
*.-.* A
: -P : ^^ '-+
»"i
•k-
."». -
-Trc r^vscs
:i z^zn
r.;
■—"•
. %■
.: .-.rw
i.rc .2-
. *xr« r:«
oS
x.
.:c *^rc ts
.*» SJTT."
»c r-^i^.
vi
.*"*.■
: - w -
v: > %
T.V* .*«
cos %*
:i
. - *—"
.- .* .
*.v.* -C
xrc -;
«c
.*" •:.
ru."->
.» x. »C
* A2C *2
;ri
> ■ *v
.-.vcv
-v.t .-;
». •« r«t:
"*
^- .
. ;•
1 v :-■
-•..•*?
:r
.* v
" > . *
—"" -. ;
r^-- * .: i
:c
^
.; . * ■«
v.i\;
-CT5» '. _*.
.-
, fc , >.*s.wx .*.•£: :..tu .C»T »*.ci »c >
^. . >..!-•• >ia<> .*.'•?. -etc »• .» «— •
* J - * "J. *
■ ir^" ** ix. * -* "*'* * v *** t: ^ - --*—"* %-aiir-A-v
>. m _ * ^ p,t^ -*f 5**^ ^.VJ*. 4* 2CAS ^*- .'■*.
■^^^^B^. *****^** w jK »s^ SAT-. A -X" •""-tV -V .X*
evolution of h>*drogen. A base may be regarded as i
mhich part of the hydrogen is replaced by a metal, <
radical which behaves as a metal. (The term radical
to a group of atoms which persist in chemical changes, b
as if the group were an element; the commonest
ammonium group, NH 4 , which forms salts similar to t
of sodium and potassium.) If the add contains no oxygi
kydrccid, and its systematic name is formed from th
kyjre- and the name of the other clement or radical, 1
syllable of which has been replaced by the termination -1
example, the acid formed by hydrogen and chlorine is
hydrochloric acid (and sometimes hydrogen chloride),
add contains oxygen it is termed an oxyacid. The nomei
of adds lollops the same general lines as that for bina;
pounds. If one add be known its name is formed by
misatwn -«■. e.g. carbonic add; if two, the one contain
'.«* arrouzt of oxygen takes the termination -ous and t>
:z< :eraiinat:on -ic, e.g. nitrous add, HNO:, nitric add,
I: =cre than two be known, the one inferior in oxygen
has *.he pre£x fiypo- &nd the termination -ous, and t
*--<r!:T >. cx>-gtn content has the prefix per- and the tenr
•u-. Th:5 is illustrated in the four oxyacids of chlorine,
HCCV ECO:. HClOi, which have the names hypocl
:b;.-rr-js. chloric and perchloric adds. An add is sail
=rr.:!:i5;c. dibasic, tribasic, &c, according to the nux
r:z .irrib'.e hydrogen atoms; thus HXOj is monobasic, su
x.-.i K.»SO« dibasic, phosphoric acid H*F0 4 tribasic.
A- acii terxr-inating in -cus forms a salt ending in -ilf,
?-..z::i e=iir.g in ~ic forms a salt ending in -ale. T
;V..*:ir.s exyaciis enumerated above form salts named
::«".y hy^orhlcrises. ch'.oritcs, chlorates and perchlorates
::7—:i rVcr: hyiracids terminate in -ufe, following tl
: :r ^i-ar>' ccrr.pcur.ds. An acid salt is one in which tin
i-r--.i o: hyircpen has not been replaced by metal; a
s^l: ;* v-rs i= which all the hydrogen has been replaced
>c-:.- sail is cr.s in which part of the add of the normal t
b«2 rr-!acrd by ox>gen.
\."cr*.:± F:—.Jz{. — Opposite the name of each elen
iS: sx-.-ri cc'._rr-r. of the above table, the symbol is givcx
:* il» ;y? er-jL-ycd to represent it. This symbol, howe\
c-'.y r;?7w<r:s :he particular element, but a certain <
;_i=: :;. c: ;:. Thus, the letter H always stands for i a
: 7.1:1 b;. wcl;h: cf hydrogen, the letter X for 1 atom or 1
.*c r.ir;?.rr ir..i ihe s\mbol Q f or x atom or 35- 5 parts o
- .- : Ccr-pvur.is are in h"ke manner represented by writ
f -r-.*x-.j :: :r^:r constituent elements side by side, and i
.za^. c t< x: :rr. c: each element be present, the number is ini
:•. 1 =-_-r*rzl placed on the right of the symbol of the e
„• •>« rxl;^ cr above the line. Thus, hydrochloric 1
"??rts*r:sd by the fcrrr.uia HC1, that is to say, it is a com
.*:* *i 1::-:: c: hyirc^en with an atom of chlorine, or of
:> w^*—. 0: hydroptn w-ih 35*5 parts by weight of cl
iri -. su'rhuric acli b represented by the formula HiS0 4
j z *n -.i—t"'. that i: corjsists of 2 atoms of hydrogen, 1 of si
ire 4 c: :\yprr.. ani consequently of certain relative wci
•."•erf elcrxr.ts. A 2£ure placed on the right of a symb
ifx'ts ib< *>-=boI to which it is attached, but when figt
.-."a-.-rc :- :x*zt cf «%-«ra! symbols all are affected by i
Ir^CV r-cars H^d taken twice.
TV r*ir.b"-:lc?. cf weight in chemical change is
crvr-Mvi 1 ii< :cra cf equations by the aid of these s)
:HO-rZn-ZnCli+Hi,
»..- .-ia-~ *. is :*" Se read as meaning that from 73 t>
• v '.v : ore a.-i i*i t.; part* of zinc, 136 parts of zinc c
1 ■»; : 'C7 .* c: V\ ix-^rc are produced. The + sign is inv,
;- ■ .'.-*- : .^ :r.s way <;:hcr to express combination or
.„v .* . *c =•« " ~« usually at lached to the use of the sign ■
•*j: *-.- such a=d such bodies such and such other
1 K^csaisaK val jcs of the atomic weights arc employed
PRINCIPLES]
CHEMISTRY
4i
Usually, when the symbols of the dements are written or
printed with a figure to the right, it is understood that this
indicates a molecule of the element, the symbol alone representing
an atom. Thus, the symbols H t and P4 indicate that the mole-
coles of hydrogen and phosphorus respectively contain 2 and 4
atoms. Since, according to the molecular theory, in all cases
af ■*— ■!*■ 1 change the action is between molecules, such symbols
as these ought always to be employed. Thus, the formation of
hydrochloric add from hydrogen and chlorine is correctly
upKscn teri by the equation
H.+CW-2HC1;
that is to say, a molecule of hydrogen and a molecule of chlorine
give rise to two molecules of hydrochloric add; whilst the
following equation merely represents the relative weights of the
elements which enter into reaction, and is not a complete ex-
pression of what is supposed to take placer—
H+Cl-HCL
In all cases it is usual to represent substances by formulae
whkh to the best of our knowledge express their molecular
composition in the state of gas, and not merely the relative
Bomber of atoms which they contain; thus, acetic add consists
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of one atom
of carbon, two of hydrogen, and one of oxygen, but its molecular
weight corresponds to the formula C2H4O1, which therefore is
always employed to represent acetic add. When chemical
change is expressed with the aid of molecular formulae not
only is the distribution of weight represented, but by the mere
inspection of the symbols it is possible to deduce from the law
of gaseous combination mentioned above, the relative volumes
whkh the agents and resultants occupy in the state of gas if
measured at the same temperature and under the same pressure.
Thus, the equation
2H,+Ot-2IM)
■at only represents that certain definite weights of hydrogen
and oxygen furnish a certain definite weight of the compound
which we term water, but that if the water in the state of gas,
the hydrogen and the oxygen are all measured at the same
temperature and pressure, the volume occupied by the oxygen
is only half that occupied by the hydrogen, whilst the resulting
water-gas will only occupy the same volume as the hydrogen.
In other words, a volumes of oxygen and 4 volumes of hydrogen
famish 4 volumes of water-gas. A simple equation like this,
therefore, when properly interpreted, affords a large amount of
fafonnation. One other instance may be given; the equation
2NH.-N.+3H,
represents the decomposition of ammonia gas into nitrogen and
hyd rog en gases by the electric spark, and it not only conveys
the information that a certain relative weight of ammonia,
5?ft"«tft iw g of certain relative weights of hydrogen and nitrogen,
is broken up into certain relative weights of hydrogen and
ahrogen, but also that the nitrogen will be contained in half
the space which contained the ammonia, and that the volume
of the hydrogen will be one and a half times as great as that of
the original ammonia, so that in the decomposition of ammonia
the volume becomes doubled.
Formulae which merely express the relative number of atoms
of the different dements present in a compound are termed
empirical formulae, and the formulae of all compounds whose
m^i#*nilar weights are undetermined are necessarily empirical.
The molecular formula of a compound, however, is always a
simple multiple of the empirical formula, if not identical with it;
thus, the empirical formula of acetic add is CHiO, and its
Molecular formula is QH4O,, or twice CHjO. In addition to
empirical and molecular formulae, chemists are in the habit of
employing various kinds of rational formulae, called structural,
constitutional or graphic formulae, &c, which not only express
the molecular composition of the compounds to which they
apply, but also embody certain assumptions as to the manner
in which the constituent atoms are arranged, and convey more
or less information with regard to the nature of the compound
itself, vis. the class to which it belongs, the manner in which
it b formed, and the behaviour it will exhibit under various
drcumstances. Before explaining these formulae it will be
necessary, however, to consider the differences in combining
power exhibited by the various elements.
Valency.— It h found that the number of atoms of a given
element, of chlorine, for example, which unite with an atom of
each of the other elements is very variable. Thus, hydrogen
unites with but a single atom of chlorine, sine with two, boron
with three, silicon with four, phosphorus with five and tungsten
with six. Those elements which are equivalent in combining
or displacing power to a single atom of hydrogen are said to be
unnalent or monad elements; whilst those which are equivalent
to two atoms of hydrogen are termed bivalent or dyad elements;
and those equivalent to three, four, five or six atoms of hydrogen
triad, tetrad, pentad or hexad elements. But not only is the
combining power or valency (atomidty) of the dements different,
it is also observed that one dement may combine with another
in several proportions, or that its valency may vary; for example,
phosphorus forms two chlorides represented by the formulae
PCI, and PCI*, nitrogen the series of oxides represented by the
formulae N4O, NO, (NA)> NA> NA, molybdenum forms tho
chlorides Mod* MoCU, fttoCU, MoCU, MoO«(?), and tungsten
the chlorides WO* WCU, WCU, WO*
In explanation of these facts it is supposed that each element
has a certain number of " units of affinity," which may be
entirely, or only in part, engaged when it enters into combination
with other elements; and in those cases in which the entire
number of units of affinity are not engaged by other elements,
it is supposed that those which are thus dis enga ged neutralize
each other, as it were. For example, in phosphorus penta-
chloride the five units of affinity possessed by the phosphorus
atom are satisfied by the five monad atoms of chlorine, but in
the trichloride two are disengaged, and, it may be supposed,
satisfy each other. Compounds in which all the units of affinity
of the contained elements are engaged are said to be saturated,
whilst those in which the affinities of the contained elements are
not all engaged by other elements are said to be u n satu rat ed.
According to this view, it is necessary to assume that, in all
unsaturated compounds, two, or some even number of affinities
are disengaged; and also that all elements which combine
with an even number of monad atoms cannot combine with an
odd number, and vice versa,— in other words, that the number
of units of affinity active in the case of any given element must
be always either an even or an odd number, and that it cannot
be at one time an even and at another an odd number. There
are, however, a few remarkable exceptions to this "law."
Thus, it must be supposed that in nitric oxide, NO, an odd
number of affinities are disengaged, since a single atom of dyad
oxygen is united with a single atom of nitrogen, which in all its
compounds with other elements acts either as a triad or pentad.
When nitric peroxide, NA, Is converted into gas, it decomposes,
and at about 180° C. its vapour entirely consists of molecules
of the composition NOj; while at temperatures between this
and o° C. it consists of a mixture in different proportions of the
two kinds of molecules, NA and NO». The oxide NOj must
be regarded as another instance of a compound in which an odd
number of affinities of one of the contained elements are dis-
engaged, since it contains two atoms of dyad oxygen united with
a single atom of triad or pentad nitrogen. Again, when tungsten
hexachloride is converted into vapour it is decomposed into
chlorine and a pentachloride, having a normal vapour density,
but as in the majority of its compounds tungsten acts as a hexad,
we apparently must regard its pentachloride as a compound
in which an odd number of free affinities are dismgagrd. Hither-
to no explanation has been given of these exceptions to what
appears to be a law of almost universal application, viz. that the
sum of the units of affinity of all the atoms in a compound 1*
an even number.
The number of units of affinity active in the case of any
particular element is largely dependent, however, upon the
nature of the element or elements with which it is issoristed.
Thus, an atom of iodine only comhanes with one of hydrogen^
•IVISTRY
::"*>
zcn is associated wit
«.r^"c .i!!";riit> to the <
'.K *e;c::.! atom of ox
.> r •. to be s*ipp«»^
-. i-.t'ACcn the a:o
. ttpres* the hypothc
:::-.: l.rectiy «:thi.
.: i.:r*. anJ er.Iy
:. .-.».— an hypvtt
: :•!•. .: .> v.*:en jv»m"»
. ~ z< mZZ. +L.1 to J:?p!»
. _ . ?
, f.r.plcr <.
rr:.->ci.
:rj form
Cue
A-c
ft tv
Ne*
tettft c
l\ic
*»*»
*"** .« aria
PRINCIPLES]
CHEMISTRY
43
tic all compounds of similar atoms united together by one or
more units of affinity, according to their valencies. If this be
the case, however, it is evident that there is no real distinction
between the reactions which take place when two elements
nwnhrnc together and when an element in a compound is dis-
placed by another. The combination, as it is ordinarily termed,
of chlorine with hydrogen, and the displacement of iodine in
potassium iodide by the action of chlorine, may be dted as
examples; if these reactions are represented, as such reactions
very commonly are, by equations which merely express the
relative weights of the bodies which enter into reaction, and of
the products, thus—
H + a - Ha
Hydrogen. Chlorine. Hydrochloric add.
KI + a - KG + I
Potassium Iodide. Chlorine. Potassium chloride. Iodine.
they appear to differ in character; but if they are correctly
represented by molecular equations, or equations which express
the relative number of molecules which enter into reaction and
which result from the reaction, it will be obvious that the
character of the reaction is substantially the same in both cases,
and that both are instances of the occurrence of what is ordinarily
termed double decomposition—
H, + CI, - 2HCI
Hydrogen. Chlorine. Hydrochloric add.
2KI + CI, - 2KC1 + U
Potassium iodide. Chlorine. Potassium chloride. Iodine.
In all cases of chemical change energy in the form of heat is
either developed or absorbed, and the amount of heat developed
or absorbed in a given reaction is as definite as are the weights
of the substance engaged in the reaction . Thus, in the production
of hydrochloric add from hydrogen and chlorine a 2,000 calories
are developed; in the production of hydrobromic add from
hydrogen and bromine, however, only 844<>caloriesaredeveloped;
and in the formation of hydriodic acid from hydrogen and
iodine 6040 calories are absorbed.
This difference in behaviour of the three elements, chlorine,
bromine and iodine, which in many respects exhibit considerable
resemblance, may be explained in the following manner. We
may s up po s e that in the formation of gaseous hydrochloric add
bom gaseous chlorine and hydrogen, according to the equation
H,+C1,-HC1+HCI.
a certain amount of energy is expended in separating the atoms
of hydrogen in the hydrogen molecule, and the atoms of chlorine
in the chlorine molecule, from each other; but that heat is
developed by the combination of the hydrogen atoms with
the chlorine atoms, and that, as more energy is developed by the
union of the atoms of hydrogen and chlorine than is expended
u separating the hydrogen atoms from each other and the
chlorine atoms from one another, the result of the action of the
two elements upon each other is the development of heat,— the
amount finally developed in the reaction being the difference
between that absorbed in decomposing the elementary mole-
cules and that developed by the combination of the atoms of
chlorine and hydrogen. In the formation of gaseous hydrobromic
add from liquid bromine and gaseous hydrogen—
H,+Br,-HBr+HBr,
in addition to the energy expended in decomposing the hydrogen
and bromine molecules, energy is also expended in converting
the liquid bromine into the gaseous condition, and probably
less heat is developed by the combination of bromine and
hydrogen than by the combination of chlorine and hydrogen, so
that the amount of heat finally developed is much less than is
developed in the formation of hydrochloric acid. Lastly, in
the production of gaseous hydriodic add from hydrogen and
solid iodine —
H,+I,-HI+HI,
so much energy is expended in the decomposition of the hydrogen
and iodine molecules and in the conversion of the iodine into the
gaseous condition, that the heat which it may be supposed is
developed by the combination of the hydrogen and iodine atoms
is insufficient to balance the expenditure, and the final result is
therefore negative; hence it is necessary in forming hydriodic
add from its dements to apply heat continuously.
These compounds also afford examples of the fact that,
generally speaking, those com p ounds are most readily formed,
and are most stable, in the formation of which the most heat is
developed. Thus, chlorine enters into reaction with hydrogen,
and removes hydrogen from hydrogenised bodies, far more
readily than bromine ; and hydrochloric add is a fax more
stable substance than hydrobromic add, hydriodic add. bring
greatly inferior even to hydrobromic add in stability. Com-
pounds formed with the evolution of heat are termed exothermic,
while those formed with an absorption are termed endothermic
Explosives are the commonest examples of endothermic com-
pounds.
When two substances which by their action upon each other
develop much heat enter into reaction, the reaction is usually
complete without the employment of an excess of either; for
example, when a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, in the pro-
portions to form water—
2H,+0,-20H*
is exploded, it is entirely converted into water. This is also
the case if two substances are brought together in solution, by
the action of which upon each other a third body Is formed
which is insoluble in the solvent employed, and which also does
not tend to react upon any of the substances present; for
instance, when a solution of a chloride is added to a solution of
a silver salt, insoluble silver chloride is precipitated, and almost
the whole of the silver is removed from solution, even if the
amount of the chloride employed be not in excess of that
theoretically required.
But if there be no tendency to form an insoluble compound,
or one which is not liable to react upon any of the other substances
present, this is no longer the case. For example, when a solution
of a ferric salt is added to a solution of potassium thiocyanate,
a deep red coloration is produced, owing to the formation of
ferric thiocyanate. Theoretically the reaction takes place in
the case of ferric nitrate in the manner represented by the
equation
Fe(NO,), + 3KCNS - Fe(CNS), + 3KN0,;
Ferric aitnte. Fttaatan thlocjuate. Ferric thiocyanate. Pttttriam aanta.
but it is found that even when more than sixty times the amount
of potassium thiocyanate required by this equation is added,
a portion of the ferric nitrate still remains unconverted, doubtless
owing to the occurrence of the reverse change —
Fe(CNS).+3KNO,-Fe(NO0,+3KCN&
In this, as in most other cases in which substances act upon one
another under such circumstances that the resulting compounds
are free to react, the extent to which the different kinds of action
which may occur take place is dependent upon the mass of the
substances present in the mixture. As another instance of this
kind, the decomposition of bismuth chloride by water may be
dted. If a very large quantity of water be added, the chloride
is entirely decomposed in the manner represented by the
equation —
BICI. + OHi - BiOO + 2HO,
Bismuth chloride. Bismuth oxychloride.
the oxychloride being predpitated; but if smaller quantities
of water be added the decomposition is incomplete, and it is
found that the extent to which decomposition takes place is
proportional to the quantity of water employed, the decern-
position being incomplete, except in presence of large quantities
of water, because of the occurrence of the reverse action—
BiOCl +2HC1 - BiCU+OH*.
Chemical change which merely involves simple decomposition
is thus seen to be influenced by the masses of the reacting sub-
stances and the presence of the products of decomposition; in .
other words the system of reacting substances and resultants
form a mixture in which chemical action has apparently ceased,
or the system is in equilibrium. Such reactions are termed
reversible (see Chemical Action).
CHEMISTRY
45
x
epted explanations of
■.* of solar energy and
ay require recasting,
ted uranium, he also
the mineral variously
jargoon, but he failed
jmplished some years
he double potassium
e following year, 1795,
.1 third new clement,
•irm),as in the case of
disulphidc by W A.
Vauquelinin 1797, and
>S, the next important
ith platinum and the
< d by Antonio de Uiloa
I. T. Scheffer in 1752.
palladium, especially
■-rbing (" occluding ")
rdinary temperatures,
.g year he discovered
thson Tcnnant added
ium; the former was
• >xidcs (fptf , rainbow),
.<-• (hank smell) The
metal," ruthenium,
. The great number
.'Is of this group of
y investigations, and
ature. Bcrzelius was
iiccecded by Bunsen,
tut the separation of
'eve, the first to make
and their compounds.
.s formed by the union
ie, discovered by Paul
.ttted by F. B. Mylius
phosphoplatinic com-
.nd phosphorus penta-
•ounds, formed by the
of these metals, which
daily S. M. Jdrgensen.
the atomic weights of
-rzclius being doubtful.
onstant for platinum,
palladium, and A. A.
witnessed the discovery
lysis of compounds and
t investigation of the
s clearly demonstrated
sis could render to the
of this method by Sir
ycbates of the metals of
■ results which he thus
1808 Davy isolated
1 his attention to the
. strontium and mag-
ulty, and it is to be
»se metals even in an
metallurgy). The
Davy in 1809 led
e following year he
herto unrecognized
1 it to be a metal.
illic in character,
ogy with carbon
ed the element,
ireoal and iron
dition he first
>d of heating
double potassium fluorides with metallic potassium. The
success which attended his experiments in the case of silicon led
him to apply it to the isolation of other elements. In 1824 he
obtained zirconium from potassium zirconium fluoride; the
preparation of (impure) titanium quickly followed, and in 1828
he obtained thorium. A similar process, and equally efficacious,
was introduced by F. Wtthlcr in 1827. It consisted in healing
metallic chlorides with potassium, and was first applied to
aluminium, which was isolated in 1827; in the following year,
beryllium chloride was analysed by the same method, beryllium
oxide (berylla or glucina) having been known since 1798, when
it was detected by L. N. Vauquclin in the gem-stone beryl.
In 181 2 B. Courtois isolated the element iodine from " kelp,"
the burnt ashes of marine plants. The chemical analogy of this
substance to chlorine was quickly perceived, especially after
its investigation by Davy and Gay Lussac. Cyanogen, a
compound which in combination behaved very similarly to
chlorine and iodine, was isolated in 181 5 by Gay Lussac. This
discovery of the first of the then-styled " compound radicals "
exerted great influence on the prevailing views of chemical
composition. Hydrochloric acid was carefully investigated
at about this time by Davy, Faraday and Gay Lussac, its
composition and the elementary nature of chlorine being thereby
established.
In 181 7 F. Stromeyer detected a new metallic element, cad-
mium, in certain zinc ores; it was rediscovered at subsequent
dates by other observers and its chemical resemblance to zinc
noticed. In the same year Berzelius discovered selenium in a
deposit from sulphuric acid chambers, his masterly investigation
including a study of the hydride, oxides and other compounds.
Selenic add was discovered by E. Mitscherlich, who also observed
the similarity of the crystallographic characters of sclenates
and sulphates, which afforded valuable corroboration of his doc-
trine of isomorphism. More recent and elaborate investigations
in this direction by A. E. H. Tutton have confirmed this view.
In 18 1 8 L. J. Thtnard discovered hydrogen dioxide, one of
the most interesting inorganic compounds known, which has
since been carefully investigated by H. E. Schtine, M. Traube,
Wolfenstcin and others. About the same time, J. A. Arfvedson,
a pupil of Berzelius, detected a new element, which he named
lithium, in various minerals— notably pctalite. Although
unable to isolate the metal, he recognized its analogy to sodium
and potassium; this was confirmed by R. Bunsen and A.
Matthiessen in 1855, who obtained the metal by electrolysis
and thoroughly examined it and its compounds. Its crimson
flame-coloration was observed by C. G. Gmclin in 1818.
The discovery of bromine in 1826 by A J. Balard completed
for many years Berzelius's group of " halogen " elements, the
remaining member, fluorine, notwithstanding many attempts,
remained unisolated until 1886, when Henri Moissan obtained
it by the electrolysis of potassium fluoride dissolved in hydro-
fluoric add . Hydrobromic and hydriodic adds were investigated
by Gay Lussac and Balard, while hydrofluoric add received
considerable attention at the hands of Gay Lussac, Thenard
and Berzelius. We may, in fact, consider that the descriptive
study of the various halogen compounds dates from about this
time. Balard discovered chlorine monoxide in 1834, investigat-
ing its properties and reactions; and his observations on hypo-
chlorous arid and hypochlorites led him to conclude that " bleach-
ing-powder " or " chloride of lime " was a compound or mixture
in equimolecular proportions of calcium chloride and hypo-
chlorite, with a h'ttle calcium hydrate. Gay Lussac investigated
chloric acid, Stadion discovered perchloric acid, since more
fully studied by G S. Scrullas and Roscoe; Davy and Stadion
investigated chlorine peroxide, formed by treating potassium
chlorate with sulphuric acid. Davy also described and partially
investigated the gas, named by him " euchlorine," obtained
by heating potassium chlorate with hydrochloric acid; this
gas has been more recently examined by Pebal. The oxy-adda
of iodine were investigated by Davy and H. G. Magnus; periodic
acid, discovered by the latter, is characterized by the striking
complexity of its salts as pointed out by Kimmins.
44
CHEMISTRY
nNORGAKIC
IH Inorganic Chemtstey
Inorganic chemistry h concerned with the descriptive study
of the elements and their compounds, except those of carbon.
Reference should be made to the separate articles on the different
elements and the more important compounds for their prepara-
tion, properties and uses. In this article the development of
this branch of the science is treated historically.
The earliest discoveries in inorganic chemistry are to be found
in the metallurgy, medicine and chemical arts of the ancients.
The Egyptians obtained silver, iron, copper, lead, sine and tin,
either pure or as alloys, by smelting the ores; mercury is men-
tioned by Theophrastus (c. 300 B.C.). The manufacture of glass,
also practised in Egypt, demanded a knowledge of sodium or
potassium carbonates; the former occurs as an efflorescence
on the shores of certain lakes; the latter was obtained from
wood ashes. Many substances were used as pigments: Pliny
records white lead, cinnabar, verdigris and red oxide of iron;
and the preparation of coloured glasses and enamels testifies to
the uses to which these and other substances were put. Salts of
ammonium were also known; while alum was used as a mordant
in dyeing. Many substances were employed in ancient medicine;
galena was the basis of a valuable Egyptian cosmetic and drug;
the arsenic sulphides, realgar and orpiment, litharge, alum,
saltpetre, iron rust were also used. Among the Arabian and
later alchemists we find attempts made to collate compounds by
specific properties, and it is to these writers that we are mainly
indebted for such terms as "alkali," "sal," &c The mineral
adds, hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric adds, and also aqua
regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) were discovered,
and the vitriols, alum, saltpetre, sal-ammoniac, ammonium
carbonate, silver nitrate (lunar caustic) became better known.
The compounds of mercury attracted considerable attention,
mainly on account of their medicinal properties; mercuric
oxide and corrosive sublimate were known to pseudo*Geber, and
the nitrate and basic sulphate to " Basil Valentine." Antimony
and its compounds formed the subject of an elaborate treatise
ascribed to this last writer, who also contributed to bur knowledge
of the compounds of zinc, bismuth and arsenic All the com-
monly occurring elements and compounds appear to have
received notice by the alchemists; but the writings assigned
to the alchemical period are generally so vague and indefinite
that it is difficult to determine the true value of the results
obtained.
In the succeeding latrochemical period, the methods of the
alchemists were improved and new ones devised. Glauber
showed how to prepare hydrochloric acid, spirUus salts, by
heating rock>saH with sulphuric add, the method in common
use to-day; and also nitric add from saltpetre and arsenic
trioxide. Libavius obtained sulphuric add from many sub-
stances, e.g. alum, vitriol, sulphur and nitric add, by distillation.
The action of these adds on many metals was also studied;
Glauber obtained sine, stannic, arsenious and cuprous chlorides
by dissolving the metals in hydrochloric add, compounds
hitherto obtained by heating the metals with corrosive sublimate,
and consequently supposed to contain mercury. The scientific
study of salts dates from this period, especial interest being
taken in those compounds which possessed a medicinal or
technical value. In particular, the salts of potassium, sodium
and ammonium were carefully investigated, but sodium and
potassium salts were rarely differentiated. 1 The metals of the
alkaline-earths were somewhat neglected; we find Georg
Agricola considering gypsum (caldum sulphate) as a compound
of lime, while caldum nitrate and chloride became known at
about the beginning of the 17th century. Antimonial, bismuth
and arsenical compounds were assiduously studied, a direct
consequence of their high medicinal importance; mercurial
and silver compounds were investigated for the same reason.
The general tendency of this period appears to have taken the
form of improving and developing the methods of the alchemists;
*The definite distinction b e t we en potash and soda was first
established by Duhamd de Monceau (1700-1781).
few new fields were opened, and apart from a more complete
knowledge of the nature of salts, no valuable generalizations
were attained.
The discovery of phosphorus by Brand, a Hamburg alchemist,
in 1660 exdted chemists to an unwonted degree; it was also'
independently prepared by Robert Boyle and J. KunckeJ,
Brand having kept his process secret. Towards the middle of
the 1 8th century two new elements were isolated: cobalt by
G. Brandt in 1 74 2, and nickel by A. F. Cronstedt in 1 7 50. These
discoveries were followed by Daniel Rutherford's isolation of
nitrogen in 177s, and by K. Scheele's isolation of chlorine and
oxygen in 1774 (J. Priestley discovered oxygen independently
at about the same time), and his investigation of molybdic and
tungstic adds in the following year; metallic molybdenum
was obtained by P. J. Hjelm in 1783, and tungsten by Don
Fausto d'EIhuyar; manganese was isolated by J. G. Gahn in
1774. In x 784 Henry Cavendish thoroughly examined hydrogen,
establishing its elementary nature; and he made the far-reaching
discovery that water was composed of two volumes of hydrogen
to one of oxygen.
The phlogistic theory, which pervaded the chemical doctrine
of this period, gave rise to continued study of the products of
calcination and combustion; it thus happened that the know*
ledge of oxides and oxidation products was considerably
developed. The synthesis of nitric add by passing electric
sparks through moist air by Cavendish is a famous piece of
experimental work, for in the first place it determined the
composition of this important substance, and in the second
place the minute residue of air which would not combine, although
ignored for about a century, was subsequently ********* by
Lord Raylcigh and Sir William Ramsay, who showed that it
consists of a mixture of elementary substances— argon, krypton,
neon and xenon (see Argon).
The 1 8th century witnessed striking development* in
pneumatic chemistry, or the chemistry of gases, which had
been begun by van Helmont, Mayow, Hales and Boyle. Gases
formerly considered to be identical came to be clearly distin-
guished, and many new ones were discovered. Atmospheric '
air was carefully investigated by Cavendish, who showed that
it consisted of two elementary constituents: nitrogen, which
was isolated by Rutherford in 1772, and oxygen, isolated in
1774; and Black established the presence, in minute quantity,
of carbon dioxide (van Helmont's gas sylvtslrc). Of the many
workers in (his field, Priestley occupies an important position.
A masterly device, initiated by him, was to collect gases over
mercury instead of water; this enabled him to obtain gases
previously only known in solution, such as ammonia, hydro-
chloric acid, silicon fluoride and sulphur dioxide. Sulphuretted
hydrogen and nitric oxide were discovered at about the
same time.
Returning to the history of the discovery of the elements and
their more important inorganic compounds, we come in 1789 to
M. H. Klaproth's detection of a previously unknown constituent
of the mineral pitchblende. He extracted a substance to which
he assigned the character of an element, naming it uranium
(from Obpavte, heaven); but it was afterwards shown by E. M.
Peligot, who prepared the pure metal, that Klaproth's product
was really an oxide. This clement was investigated at a later
date by Sir Henry Roscoc, and more thoroughly and successfully
by C. Zimmermann and Alibegoff. Pitchblende attained con-
siderable notoriety towards the end of the 19th century on
account of two important discoveries. The first, made by Sir
William Ramsay in 1896, was that the mineral evolved a peculiar
gas when treated with sulphuric acid; this gas, helium (q.v.),
proved to be identical with a constituent of the sun's atmosphere,
detected as early as 1868 by Sir Norman Lockyer during a
Spectroscopic examination of the sun's chromosphere. The
second discovery, associated with the Curies, is that of the
peculiar properties exhibited by the impure substance, and due
to a constituent named radium. The investigation of this
substance and its properties (see Radioactivity) hss proceeded
so far as to render it probable that the theory of the unalterability
WORCANiq
CHEMISTRY
+5
of dements, and also the hitherto accepted explanations of
various celestial phenomena— the source of solar energy and
the appearances of the tails of comets — may require recasting.
In the same year as Klaproth detected uranium, he also
isolated zirconia or zirconium oxide from the mineral variously
known as zircon, hyacinth, jacynth and jargoon, but he failed
to obtain the metal, this being first accomplished some years
later by Berzelius, who decomposed the double potassium
fifconrum fluoride with potassium. In the following year, 1795,
KJaprotb announced the discovery of a third new clement,
titanium, its isolation (in a very impure form), as in the case of
zirconium, was reserved for Bcrzelius.
Passing over the discovery of carbon disulphide by W A.
Lampadius in 1706, of chromium by L N Vauquelin in 1797, and
Klsproth's investigation of tellurium in 1798, the next important
series of observations was concerned with platinum and the
allied metals. Platinum had been described by Antonio de Ulloa
in 1748, and subsequently discussed by H. T. Scheffer in 1752.
la 1803 W H. Wollaston discovered palladium, especially
interesting for its striking property of absorbing (" occluding ")
as much as 376 volumes of hydrogen at ordinary temperatures,
and 643 volumes at 90° In the following year he discovered
rhodium; and at about the same time Smithson Tennant added
two more to the list — iridium and osmium; the former was
so named from the changing tints of its oxides (T/xt, rainbow),
and the latter from the odour of its oxide (fo/hj, smell) The
most recently discovered "platinum metal," ruthenium,
was recognized by C. E. Clans in 1845. The great number
and striking character of the compounds of this group of
metals have formed the subject of many investigations, and
already there is a most voluminous literature. Berzelius was
an early worker in this field, he was succeeded by Bunsen,
and Deville and Debray, who worked out the separation of
rhodium; and at a later date by P T. Clcve, the first to make
a really thorough study of these elements and their compounds.
Of especial note are the curious compounds formed by the union
of carbon monoxide with platinous chloride, discovered by Paul
Schtttxenbcrger and subsequently investigated by F. B. Mylius
and F. Foerster and by Pullinger; the phosphoplatinic com-
pounds formed primarily from platinum and phosphorus penta-
chloride; and also the " ammino " compounds, formed by the
union of ammonia with the chloride, &c, of these metals, which
have been studied by many chemists, especially S. M. Jdrgensen.
Considerable uncertainty existed as to the atomic weights of
these metals, the values obtained by Berzelius being doubtful
K. F. O. Seubert redetermined this constant for platinum,
flf""«™ and iridium, E H. Keiser for palladium, and A. A.
JoJy for ruthenium.
The beginning of the 19th century witnessed the discovery
of certain powerful methods for the analysis of compounds and
the isolation of elements. Berzelius's investigation of the
action of the electric current on salts clearly demonstrated
the invaluable assistance that electrolysis could render to the
isolator of elements; and the adoption of this method by Sir
Humphry Davy for the analysis of the hydrates of the metals of
the alkalis and alkaline earths, and the results which he thus
achieved, established its potency. In 1808 Davy isolated
sodium and potassium; he then turned his attention to the
preparation of metallic calcium, barium, strontium and mag-
nesium. Here he met with greater difficulty, and it is to be
questioned whether he obtained any of these metals even in an
approximately pure form (see ELiCTxoirETALLURGY). The
discovery of boron by Gay Lussac and Davy in 1809 led
Berzelius to investigate silica (siltx). In the following year he
announced that silica was the oxide of a hitherto unrecognized
element, which he named silicium, considering it to be a metal.
This has proved to be erroneous; it is non-metallic in character,
and its name was altered to silicon, from analogy with carbon
and boron. At the same time Berzelius obtained the element,
in an impure condition, by fusing silica with charcoal and iron
In a blast furnace; its preparation in a pure condition he first
accomplished in 1823, when be invented the method of beating
double potassium fluorides with metallic potassium. The
success which attended his experiments in the case of silicon led
him to apply it to the isolation of other elements. In 18S4 he
obtained zirconium from potassium zirconium fluoride; the
preparation of (impure) titanium quickly followed, and in 1828
he obtained thorium. A similar process, and equally efficacious,
was introduced by F. Wohler in 1827. It consisted in heating
metallic chlorides with potassium, and was first applied to
aluminium, which was isolated in 1827; in the following year,
beryllium chloride was analysed by the same method, beryllium
oxide (berylla or glucina) having been known since 1708, when
it was detected by L. N. Vauquelin in the gem-stone beryl
In 181 2 B. Courtois isolated the element iodine from " kelp,"
the burnt ashes of marine plants. The chemical analogy of this
substance to chlorine was quickly perceived, especially after
its investigation by Davy and Gay Lussac. Cyanogen, a
compound which in combination behaved very similarly to
chlorine and iodine, was isolated in 181 5 by Gay Lussac This
discovery of the first of the then-styled " compound radicals "
exerted great influence on the prevailing views of chemical
composition. Hydrochloric acid was carefully investigated
at about this time by Davy, Faraday and Gay Lussac, its
composition and the elementary nature of chlorine being thereby
established.
In 181 7 F. Stromeyer detected a new metallic element, cad-
mium, in certain zinc ores; it was rediscovered at subsequent
dates by other observers and its chemical resemblance to sine
noticed. In the same year Berzelius discovered selenium in a
deposit from sulphuric add chambers, his masterly investigation
including a study of the hydride, oxides and other compounds.
Selenic acid was discovered by E. Mitscherlkh, who also observed
the similarity of the crystallographic characters of selenates
and sulphates, which afforded valuable corroboration of his doc-
trine of isomorphism. More recent and elaborate investigations
in this direction by A. E. H. Tutton have confirmed this view.
In 1818 L. J. Thenard discovered hydrogen dioxide, one of
the most interesting inorganic compounds known, which has
since been carefully investigated by H. E. Schone, M. Traube,
Wolfenstein and others. About the same time, J. A. Arfvedson,
a pupil of Berzelius, detected a pew element, which he named
lithium, in various minerals— notably petalitc. Although
unable to isolate the metal, be recognized its analogy to sodium
and potassium; this was confirmed by R. Bunsen and A.
Matthiessen in 1855, who obtained the metal by electrolysis
and thoroughly examined it and its compounds. Its crimson
flame-coloration was observed by C. G. Gmelin in 1818.
The discovery of bromine in 1826 by A J. Balard completed
for many years Berzelius's group of " halogen " elements, the
remaining member, fluorine, notwithstanding many attempts,
remained unisolated until 1886, when Henri Moissan obtained
it by the electrolysis of potassium fluoride dissolved in hydro-
fluoric acid. Hydrobromic and hydriodic adds were investigated
by Gay Lussac and Balard, while hydrofluoric acid received
considerable attention at the hands of Gay Lussac, Thenard
and Berzelius. We may, in fact, consider that the descriptive
study of the various halogen compounds dates from about this
time. Balard discovered chlorine monoxide in 1834, investigat-
ing its properties and reactions; and his observations on hypo-
chlorous arid and hypochlorites led him to condude that " bleach*
ing-powder " or M chloride of lime " was a compound or mixture
in equimolecular proportions of calcium chloride and hypo-
chlorite, with a little calcium hydrate. Gay Lussac investigated
chloric add, Stadion discovered perchloric add, since more
fully studied by G S. Serullas and Roscoe; Davy and Stadion
investigated chlorine peroxide, formed by treating potassium
chlorate with sulphuric add. Davy also described and partially
investigated the gas, named by him " eucblorine," obtained
by heating potassium chlorate with hydrochloric add; this
gas has been more recently examined by Pebal. The coy-acids
of iodine were investigated by Davy and H. G. Magnus; periodic
add, discovered by the latter, is characterized by the striking
complexity of its salts as pointed out by T
4*
CHEMISTRY
(INORGANIC
In 1830 N. G. Sefstrom definitely proved the existence of ft
metallic .dement vanadium, which had been previously detected
(in 1801) in certain lead ores by A. M. del Rio; subsequent
elaborate researches by Sir Henry Roscoe showed many in-
accuracies in the conclusions of earlier workers (for instance, the
substance considered to be the pure element was in reality an
oxide) and provided science with an admirable account of this
element and its compounds. B. W. Ceriand contributed to our
knowledge of vanadyl salts and the vanadic acids. Chemically
related to vanadium are the two elements tantalum and colum-
bium or niobium. These elements occur in the minerals colum-
bite and tantalite, and their compounds became known in the
early part of the 19th century by the labours of C. Hatchett,
A. G. Ekeberg, W. H. Wollaston and Berzelius. But the
knowledge was very imperfect; neither was it much clarified
by H. Rose, who regarded niobium oxide as the element The
subject was revived in 1866 by C. W. Blomstrand and J. C.
Marignac, to whom is due the credit of first showing the true
chemical relations of these elements. Subsequent researches by
Sainte Claire DeviUe and L. J. Troost, and by A. G. Krttss and
L. £. Nilson, and subsequently (1004) by Hall, rendered notable
additions to our knowledge of these elementsand theircompounds.
Tantalum has in recent years been turned to economic service,
being employed, in the same manner as tungsten, for the pro-
duction of the filaments employed in incandescent electric
lighting.
In 1833 Thomas Graham, following the paths already traced
out by £. D. Clarke, Gay Lussac and Stromeyer, published his
masterly • investigation of the various phosphoric acids and
their salts, obtaining results subsequently employed by J. von
Liebtg in establishing the doctrine of the characterization and
basicity of acids. Both phosphoric and phosphorous acids
became known, although imperfectly, towards the end of the
18th century, phosphorous acid was first obtained pure by
Davy in 181 », while pure phosphorous oxide, the anhydride
el phosphorous acid, remained unknown until T. E. Thorpe's
investigation of the products of the slow combustion of phos-
phorus. Of other phosphorus compounds we may here notice
Gengembre's discovery of phosphuretted hydrogen (phosphine)
in 1783, the analogy of which to ammonia was first pointed out
by Davy and supported at a later date by H. Rose; liquid
phosphuretted hydrogen was first obtained by Thenard in
1838, and hypophosphorous add was discovered by Dulcng
in 1816 Of the halogen compounds-of phosphorus, the tri-
chloride was discovered by Gay Lussac and Thenard, while the
pentachloride was obtained by Davy. The oxychloride, bro-
mides, and other compounds were subsequently discovered,
here we need only notice Moissan's preparation of the trifluoride
and Thorpe's discovery of the pentafluoride, a compound of
especial note, for it volatilizes unchanged, giving a vapour of
normal density and so demonstrating the stability of a pentava-
len.t phosphorus compound (the pentachloride and pentabromide
dissociate into a molecule of the halogen element and phosphorus
trichloride).
In 1840 C. F. Scbonbein investigated ozone, a gas of peculiar
odour (named from the Gr. 6f«r, to smell) observed in 1785 by
Martin van Marum to be formed by the action of a silent electric
discharge on the oxygen of the air; he showed it to be an
allotropic modification ef oxygen, a view subsequently confirmed
by Marignac, Andrews and Soret In 1845 a further contribution
to the study of allotropy was made by Anton Schrotter, who
investigated the transformations of yellow and red phosphorus,
phenomena previously noticed by Berzelius, the inventor of the
term " allotropy.'* The preparation of crystalline boron in 1856
by Wohler and Sainte Claire Deville showed that this element
also existed in allotropic forms, amorphous boron having been
obtained simultaneously and independently in 1809 by Gay
Lussac and Davy. Before leaving this phase of inorganic
chemistry, we may mention other historical examples of allo-
tropy. Of great importance is the chemical identity of the
diamond, graphite and charcoal, a fact demonstrated in part by
Lavoisier in 1773, Smithson Tennant in 1790, and by Sir George
Steuart-Mackenzie (1780-1848), who showed that equal weights
of these three substances yielded the same weight of carbon
dioxide on combustion. The allotropy of selenium was fiat
investigated by Berzelius, and more fully in 1851 by J. W«>
Hittorf, who carefully investigated the effects produced by heat;
crystalline selenium possesses a very striking property, via.
when exposed to the action of light its electric conductivity
increases. Another element occurring in allotropic forms Is
sulphur, of which many forms have been described. E. Mit-
scherlich was an early worker in this field. A modification
known as " black sulphur/' soluble in water, was announced
by F. L. Rnapp in 1848, and a colloidal modification was
described by H. Debus. The dynamical equilibrium 1
rhombic, liquid and monosymmetric sulphur has been '
out by H. W. Bakhuis Roozeboom. The phenomenon of allo-
tropy Is not confined to the non-metals, for evidence has been
advanced to show that allotropy is far commoner than hitherto
supposed. Thus the researches of Carey Lea, E. A. Schneider
and others, have proved the existence of " colloidal silver *\
similar forms of the metals gold, copper, and of the platinum
metals have been described. The allotropy of arsenic and
antimony is also worthy of notice, but in the case of the first
element the variation is essentially non-metallic, closely resemb-
ling that of phosphorus. The term allotropy has also been
applied to inorganic compounds, identical in composition, bat
assuming different crystallographic forms Mercuric oxide,
sulphide and iodide, arsenic trioxide; titanium dioxide and
silicon dioxide may be cited as examples.
The joint discovery in 1859 of the powerful method of spectrum
analysis (see Spectroscopy) by G. R. Rirchhoff and R. W.
Bunsen, and its application to the detection and the characteriza-
tion of elements when in a state of incandescence, rapidly led
to the discovery of many hitherto unknown elements. Within
two years of the invention the authors announced the discovery
of two metals, rubidium and caesium, closely allied to sodium,
potassium and lithium in properties, in the mineral lepidotite
and in the Durkheim mineral water. In 186 1 Sir William Crook**
detected thallium (named from the Gr. ffdXXot , a green bud, on
account of a brilliant green line in its spectrum) in the sdenious
mud of the sulphuric acid manufacture, the chemical affinities
of this element, on the one hand approximating to the metals
of the alkalis, and on the other hand to lead, were mainly
established by C A. Lamy Of other metals first detected by
the spectroscope mention is to be made of indium, determined
by F Reich and H T Richter in 1863, and of gallium, detected
in certain zinc blendes by Lecoq de Boisbaudran m 1875 The
spectroscope has played an all-important part in the character-
ization of the elements, which, in combination with oxygen,
constitute the group of substances collectively named the ** rare
earths." The substances occur, in very minute quantity, in a
large number of sparingly-distributed and comparatively rare
minerals— -euxenite, samarksite, cerite, yttrotantab'te, &&
Scandinavian specimens of these minerals were examined by
J Gadolin, M H. Klaproth, and especially by Berzelius; these
chemists are to be regarded as the pioneers in this branch of
descriptive chemistry Since their day many chemists have
entered the lists, new and powerful methods of research have
been devised, and several new elements definitely characterized.
Our knowledge on many points, however, is very chaotic; great
uncertainty and conflict of evidence circulate around many of
the " new elements " which have been announced, so much so
that P T Cleve proposed to divide the " rare earth " metals into
two groups, (1) "perfectly characterized"; (2) "not yet
thoroughly characterized." The literature of this subject is
very large. The memorial address on J. C. G. de Marignac, a
noted worker in this field, delivered by Cleve, a high authority
on this subject, before the London Chemical Society (7.C 5.
Trans., 1895, p. 468), and various papers in the same journal
by Sir William Crookes, Bohuslav Brauner and others should
be consulted for details.
In the separation of the constituents of the complex mixture
of oxides obtained from the " rare earth " minerals, the mtthffdt
mMCAmq
CHEMISTRY
47
/ forced upon chemists are those of fractional predptta-
bon or crystallization-, the striking resemblances of the com*
sounds el these elements rarely admitting of a complete separa-
tion by simple precipitation and nitration. The extraordinary
asttrnrr requisite to a successful termination of such an analysis
cui only be adequately realized by actual research; an idea
any be obtained from Crookes's Select Methods in Analysis,
Off recent years the introduction of various organic compounds as
predpttaaU or reagents has reduced the labour of the process;
sad advantage has also been taken of the fairly complex double
salts which these metals form with compounds. The purity of
the compounds thus obtained is checked by spectroscopic
■hmtalkmi. Formerly the spark- and absorption-spectra
were the sole methods available; a third method was introduced
by Crookes, who submitted the oxides, or preferably the basic
auphates, to the action of a negative electric discharge in vacuo,
■ad investigated the phosphorescence induced spectroscopically
By such u study in the ultra-violet region of a fraction prepared
from crude yttria he detected a new element victorium, and
by elaborate fractionation obtained the element
The first earth of this group to be isolated (although in an
impure form) was yttria, obtained by Gadolin in 1704 from the
mineral gadofinite, which was named after its discoverer and
investigator. Klaproth and Vauquelin also investigated this
earth, but without detecting that it was a complex mixture —
a discovery reserved for C G Mosander The next discovery,
made independently and simultaneously in 1803 by Klaproth and
by W. Ksinger and Berzelius, was of ccria, the oxide of cerium,
sn the, mineral cerite found at Ridderhytta, Westmannland,
These crude earths, yttria and ceria, have supplied
i if not all of the " rare earth " metals. In 184 1 Mosander,
in 1830 discovered a new element lanthanum in the
cerife, isolated this element and also a hitherto un-
1 substance, didymia, from crude yttria, and two years
later he announced the determination of two fresh constituents
of the same earth, naming them erbia and terbia. Lanthanum
has retained its elementary character, but recent attempts at
separating it from didymia have led to the view that didymium
is a mixture of two elements, praseodymium and neodymium
face Duhjuum). Mosander's erbia has been shown to contain
\ other oxides-— thulia, holmia, &c. — but this has not yet
1 perfectly worked out In 1878 Marignac, having subjected
' 1 erbia, obtained from gadolinite, to a careful examina-
the presence of a new element, ytterbium;
is confirmed by Nilson, who in the following year
discovered another element, scandium, in Marignac's ytterbia.
Scandium possesses great historical interest, for Cleve showed
that it was one of the elements predicted by Mendeleeff about ten
yean previously from considerations based on his periodic
rlsswifirirkni of the elements (see Element). Other elements
predicted and characterized by Mendeleeff which have been
since realized are gallium, discovered in 1875, and germanium,
di s covered in 1885 by Clemens Winkler.
In 1880 Marignac examined certain earths obtained from the
mineral samarskite, which had already in 1878 received attention
from Dekfontaine and later from Lecoq de Boisbaudran. He
'the existence of two new elements, samarium and
t investigated more especially by Geve, to whom
1 of our knowledge on this subject is due. In addition to
the rare elements mentioned above, there are a score or so more
whose existence is doubtful Every year is attended by fresh
M discoveries " in this prolific source of elementary substances,
bat the paucity of materials and the predilections of the investi-
gators militate in some measure against a just valuation being
accorded to such researches. After having been somewhat
neglected for the greater attractions and wider field pre-
sented by organic chemistry, the study of the elements
sad their inorganic compounds is now rapidly coming into
favour; new investigators are continually entering the lists;
the beaten paths are being retraversed and new ramifications
IV. OtGAMic Chemist**
While inorganic chemistry was primarily developed through
the study of minerals— a connexion still shown by the French
appellation chimie «wiir«/*— organic chemistry owes its origin
to the investigation of substances occurring in the vegetable
and animal organisms. The quest of the alchemists for the
philosopher's stone, and the almost general adherence of the
iatrochemists to the study of the medicinal characters and
preparation of metallic compounds, stultified m some measure
the investigation of vegetable and animal products. It is true
that by the distillation of many herbs, resins and similar sub-
stances, several organic compounds had been prepared, and in a
few cases employed as medicines; but the prevailing classifica-
tion of substances by physical and superficial properties led to
the correlation of organic and inorganic compounds, without
any attention being paid to their chemical composition. The
clarification and spirit of research so dearly emphasised by
Robert Boyle in the middle of the 17th century is reflected in
the classification of substances expounded by Nicolas Lemery,
in 1675, in his Court do c kymh . Taking as a basis the nature of
the source of compounds, he framed three classes:
comprising the metals, minerals, earths and stones;
table," comprising plants, resins, gums, juices, Jec.; and
" animal," comprising animals, their different parts and excreta.
Notwithstanding the inconsistency of bis allocation of substances
to the different groups (for instance, acetic add was placed in
the vegetable dais, while the acetates and the products of their
dry distillation, acetone, &c, were placed in the mineral class),
this classification came into favour. The nhlogistonists en-
deavoured to introduce chemical notions to support it: Becber,
in his Physic* subterranea (1669), stated that mineral, vegetable
and animal matter contained the same elements, but that more
simple combinations prevailed in the mineral kingdom; while
Stanl, in his Specimen Beeheriamm (1703), held the '' earthy "
principle to predominate in the mineral class, and the " aqueous "
and " combustible " in the vegetable and animal daises, It
thus happened that in the earlier treatises on phlogistic chemistry
organic substances were grouped with all combustibles.
The development of organic chemistry from this time until
almost the end of the 18th century was almost entirely confined
to such compounds as had practical applications, especially in
pharmacy and dyeing. A new and energetic spirit was introduced
by Scheele; among other discoveries this gifted experimenter
isolated and characterised many organic adds, and proved the
general occurrence of glycerin (OlsOss) in all oils and fats.
Bergman worked in the same direction; while Rouelle was
attracted to the study of animal chemistry. Theoretical specula-
tions were revived by Lavoisier, who, having explained the nature
of combustion and determined methods for analysing com-
pounds, concluded that vegetable substances ordinarily contained
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, while animal substances generally
contained, in addition to these elements, nitrogen, and sometimes
phosphorus and sulphur. Lavoisier, to whom chemistry was
primarily the chemistry of oxygen compounds, having developed
the radical theory initiated by Guyton de Morveau, formulated
the hypothesis that vegetable and animal substances were oxides
of radicals composed of carbon and hydrogen; moreover, since
simple radicals (the elements) can form more than one oxide,
he attributed the same character to his hydrocarbon radicals:
he considered, for Instance, sugar to be a neutral oxide and
oxalic add a higher oxide of a certain radical, for, when oxidized
by nitric add, sugar yields oxalic add. At the same time, how-
ever, he adhered to the classification of Lemery; and it was
only when identical compounds were obtained from both vege-
table and animal sources that this subdivision was discarded, and
the classes were assimilated in the division organic chemistry.
At this time there existed a belief, held at a later date by
Berzelius, Gmelin and many others, that the formation of
organic compounds was conditioned by a so-called vital forta\
and the difficulty of artificially realising this action explained
the supposed impossibility of synthesizing organic co mp o un d s.
4*
CHEMISTRY
This dogma was shaken by WOhler's synthesis of urea in
1828. But the belief died hard; the synthesis of urea remained
isolated for many years, and many explanations were attempted
by the vitalists (as, for instance, that urea was halfway between
the inorganic and organic kingdoms, or that the carbon, from
which it was obtained, retained the essentials of this hypothetical
vital force), but only to succumb at a later date to the indubitable
fact that the same laws of chemical combination prevail in both
the animate and inanimate kingdoms, and that the artificial
or laboratory synthesis of any substance, either inorganic or
organic, is but a question of time, once its constitution is
determined. 1
The exact delimitation of inorganic and organic chemistry
engrossed many minds for many years; and on this point there
existed considerable divergence of opinion for several decades.
In addition to the vitahstic doctrine of the origin of organic
compounds, views based on purely chemical considerations were
advanced. The atomic theory, and its correlatives— the laws
of constant and multiple proportions— had been shown to possess
absolute validity so far as well-characterized inorganic com-
pounds were concerned; but it was open to question whether
organic compounds obeyed the same laws. Berzelius, in 1813
and 1814, by improved methods of analysis, established that
the Daltonian laws of combination held in both the inorganic
and organic kingdoms; and he adopted the view of Lavoisier
that organic compounds were oxides of compound radicals, and
therefore necessarily contained at least three elements— carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. This view was accepted in 1817 by
Leopold Gmehn, who, in his Hondbnck der Chemie, regarded
inorganic compounds as being of binary composition (the
simplest being oxides, both acid and basic, which by combination
form salts also of binary form), and organic compounds as
ternary, i.e. composed of three elements; furthermore, he
concluded that inorganic compounds could be synthesized,
whereas organic compounds could not. A consequence of this
empirical division was that marsh gas, ethylene and cyanogen
were regarded as inorganic, and at a later date many other
hydrocarbons of undoubtedly organic nature had to be included
in the same division.
The binary conception of compounds held by Berzelius received
apparent support from the observations of Gay Lussac, in 1815,
on the vapour densities of alcohol and ether, which pointed to
the conclusion that these substances consisted of one molecule
of water and one and two of ethylene respectively; and from
Pierre Jean Robiquet and Jean Jacques Colin, showing, in 1816,
that ethyl chloride (hydrochloric ether) could be regarded as
a compound of ethylene and hydrochloric acid.' Compound
radicals came to be regarded as the immediate constituents of
organic compounds; and, at first, a determination of their
empirical composition was supposed to be sufficient to char-
acterize them. To this problem there was added another in
about the third decade of the 19th century— namely, to determine
the manner in which the atoms composing the radical were
combined; this supplementary requisite was due to the dis-
covery of the isomerism of silver fulminate and silver cyanate
by Justus von Liebig in 1823, and to M. Faraday's discovery of
butylene, isomeric with ethylene,.in 1825.
The classical investigation of Liebig and Friedrich Wdhler
on the radical of benzoic acid (" tlber das Radikal der Beniofr-
saure," Ann. Chem. t 1832, 3, p. 949) is to be regarded as a most
important contribution to the radical theory, for it was shown
that a radical containing the elements carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, which they named benzoyl (the termination yl coming
from the Cr. CX17, matter), formed the basis of benzaldehyde,
benzoic acid, benzoyl chloride, benzoyl bromide and benzoyl
sulphide, benzamide and benzoic ether. Berzelius immediately
appreciated the importance of this discovery, notwithstanding
1 The reader is specially referred to the articles Alizarin ; Indigo ;
Put in and Tee penes for illustrations of the manner in which
chemists have artificially prepared important animal and vegetable
products.
* These observations were generalized by J. B. Dumas and
Polydore Boullay (1806-1835) in their "etheria theory " (vide infra).
(ORGANIC
that he was compelled to reject the theory that oxygen could
not play any part in a compound radical— a view which he
previously considered as axiomatic; and he suggested the
names " proin " or " orthrin " (from the Gr. vpul and opflpot,
at dawn) However, in 1833, Berzelius reverted to his earlier
opinion that oxygenated radicals were incompatible with his
electrochemical theory; he regarded benzoyl as an oxide of the
radical CmH», which he named "picramyl" (from «ixp6r,
bitter, and djunroaXn, almond), the peroxide being anhydrous
benzoic add; and he dismissed the views of Gay Lussac and
Dumas that ethylene was the radical of ether, alcohol and ethyl
chloride, setting up in their place the idea that ether was a
suboxide of ethyl, (C»H»)iO, which was analogous to K4O, while
alcohol was an oxide of a radical C»H«; thus annihilating any
relation between these two compounds. This view was modified
by Liebig, who regarded ether as ethyl oxide, and alcohol as the
hydrate of ethyl oxide; here, however, he was in error, for he
attributed to alcohol a molecular weight double its true value.
Notwithstanding these errors, the value of the " ethyl theory "
was perceived; other radicals— formyl, methyl, amyl, acetyl,
Arc— were characterized; Dumas, in 1837, admitted the failure
of the etherin theory, and, in company with Liebig, he defined
organic chemistry as the "chemistry of compound radicals."
The knowledge of compound radicals received further increment
at the hands of Robert W Bunsen, the discoverer of the cacodyl
compounds.
The radical theory, essentially dualistic in nature in view of
its similarity to the electrochemical theory of Berzelius, was
destined to succumb to a unitary theory. Instances had already
been recorded of cases where a halogen element replaced hydrogen
with the production of a closely allied substance. Gay Lussac
had prepared cyanogen chloride from hydrocyanic add, Faraday,
hexachlorethane from ethylene dichloride, &c. Here the electro-
negative halogens exercised a function similar to. electro-positive
hydrogen. Dumas gave especial attention to such substitutions,
named metalepsy QuraXiifts, exchange); and framed the
following empirical laws to explain the reactions :— (1) a body
containing hydrogen when substituted by a halogen loses one
atom of hydrogen for every atom of halogen introduced, (2) the
same holds if oxygen be present, except that when the oxygen
is present as water the latter first loses its hydrogen without
replacement, and then substitution according to (x) ensues.
Dumas went no further that thus epitomizing his observations,
and the next development was made in 1836 by Auguste Laurent,
who, having amplified and discussed the applicability of Dumas'
views, promulgated bis Nucleus Theory, which assumed the
existence of " original nudd or radicals " (radkaux or noyau*
fondamentaux) composed of carbon and hydrogen, and " derived
nudd " (radicaux or noyaux dlrivts) formed from the original
nudd by the substitution of hydrogen or the addition of other
dements, and having properties closely related to the primary
nucld.
Vigorous opposition was made by Liebig and Berzelius, the
latter directing his attack against Dumas, whom he erroneously
believed to be the author of what was, in his opinion, a pernicious
theory. Dumas repudiated the accusation, affirming that he
held exactly contrary views to Laurent; but only to- admit
their correctness in 1839, when, from his own researches and
those of Laurent, Malaguti and Regnault, he formulated his
type theory. According to this theory a "chemical type"
embraced compounds containing the same number of equivalents
combined in a like manner and exhibiting similar properties,
thus acetic and trichloracetic acids, aldehyde and chloral, marsh
gas and chloroform are pairs of compounds referable to the same
type. He also postulated, with Regnault, the existence of
" molecular or mechanical types " containing substances which,
although having the same number of equivalents, are essentially
different in characters. His unitary conceptions may be sum-
marized: every chemical compound forms a complete whole,
and cannot therefore consist of two parts; and its chemical
character depends primarily upon the arrangement and number
of the atoms, and, in a lesser degree, upon their chemical nature.
ANZC]
»e emphatic opposition to the dualistic theory of Berzelius
bardly possible; this illustrious chemist perceived that the
ity of his electrochemical theory was called in question,
therefore he waged vigorous war upon Dumas and his
vers. But he fought in a futile cause; to explain the facts
orward by Dumas he had to invent intricate and involved
theses, which, it must be said, did not meet with general
rtance; Licbig seceded from him, and invited Wohlcr to
ivour to correct him. Still, till the last Berzelius remained
ful to his original theory; experiment, which he had hitherto
to he the only sure method of research, he discarded, and
. place he substituted pure speculation, which greatly injured
adical theory. At the same time, however, the conception
dicals could not be entirely displaced, for the researches of
ig and Wohler, and those- made subsequently by Bun sen,
mstrated beyond all doubt the advantages which would
ic from their correct recognition.
step forward— the fusion of Dumas' type theory and the
al theory — was made by Laurent and Charles Gerhardt.
atly at 1842, Gerhardt in his Prfcis de chimie organique
bited a marked leaning towards Dumas' theory, and it is
out doubt that both Dumas and Laurent exercised con-
mble influence on his views. Unwilling to discard the strictly
try views of these chemists, or to adopt the copulae theory
•melius, he revived the notion of radicals in a new form.
icding to Gerhardt, the process of substitution consisted
be union of two residues to form a unitary whole; these
lues, previously termed " compound radicals," are atomic
plezes which remain over from the interaction of two
pounds. Thus, he interpreted the interaction of benzene
nitric acid as C«H,+HNO,= C 6 H i NC,-f-HA the "residues"
ensene being C«H» and II, and of nitric acid HO and NO».
ihurly he represented the reactions investigated by Licbig
Wfihler on benzoyl compounds as double decompositions,
his rejuvenation of the notion of radicals rapidly gained
wr; and the complete fusion of the radical theory with the
«y of types was not long delayed. In 1849 C. A. Wurtz
overed the amines or substituted ammonias, previously
licted by Licbig: A. W. von Hofmann continued the investi-
mi, and established their recognition as ammonia in which
or more hydrogen atoms had been replaced by hydrocarbon
cab, thus formulating the "ammonia type." In 1850
AT. Williamson showed how alcohol and ether were to be
rded as derived from water by substituting one or both
rogen atoms by the ethyl group; he derived acids and the
anhydrides from the same type; and from a comparison
■any inorganic and the simple organic compounds he con-
led that this notion of a " water- type " clarified, in no small
sure, the conception of the structure of compounds,
hese conclusions were co-ordinated in Gcrhardt's "new
iry of types." Taking as types hydrogen, hydrochloric acid,
er and ammonia, he postulated that all organic compounds
e referable to these four forms: the hydrogen type included
rocaxbons, aldehydes and ketones; the hydrochloric acid
\ the chlorides, bromides and iodides; the water type, the
hob, ethers, monobasic acids, acid anhydrides, and the
ogous sulphur compounds; and the ammonia type, the
lies, acid-amides, and the analogous phosphorus and arsenic
pounds. The recognition of the polybasicity of acids,
:h followed from the researches of Thomas Graham and
tig, had caused Williamson to suggest that dibasic acids could
eferred to a double water type, the acid radical replacing an
n of hydrogen in each water molecule; while his discovery
ribasic formic ether, CII(OC,Hi)i, in 1854 suggested a triple
sr type. These views were extended by William Odling, and
)ted by Gerhardt, but with modifications of Williamson's
icts. A further generalization was effected by August
uIG, who rejected the hydrochloric acid type as unnecessary,
introduced the methane type and condensed mixed types.
iting out that condensed types can only be fused with a
cal replacing more than one atom of hydrogen, he laid the
tdation of the doctrine of valency, a doctrine of incalcul-
n*
CHEMISTRY
49
able service to the knowledge of the structure of chemical
compounds.
At about the same time Hermann Kolbe attempted a re-
habilitation, with certain modifications, of the dualistic con-
ception of Berzelius. He rejected the Bcrzelian tenet as to the
unaltcrability of radicals, and admitted that they exercised a
considerable influence upon the compounds with which they were
copulated. By his own investigations and those of Sir Edward
Frankland it was proved that the radical methyl existed in
acetic acid; and by the electrolysis of sodium acetate, Kolbe
concluded that he had isolated this radical; in this, however,
he was wrong, for he really obtained ethane, CjH 4 , and not
methyl, CII* From similar investigations of valerianic acid
he was led to conclude that fatty acids were oxygen compounds
of the radicals hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, &c, combined with the
double carbon equivalent C* Thus the radical of acetic acid,
acetyl, 1 was C : II, C,. (It will be noticed that Kolbe used the
atomic weights H = i, C«-6, 0=8, S=iO, &c; his formulae,
however, were molecular formulae, i.e. the molecular weights
were the same as in use to-day.) This connecting link, Q, was
regarded as essential, while the methyl, ethyl, &c. was but a
sort of appendage; but Kolbe could not dearly conceive the
manner of copulation.
The brilliant researches of Frankland on the organo-mctallic
compounds, and his consequent doctrine of saturation capacity
or valency of elements and radicals, relieved Kolbe's views of
all obscurity. The doctrine of copulae was discarded, and in
1859 emphasis was given to the view that all organic compounds
were derivatives of inorganic by simple substitution processes.
He was thus enabled to predict compounds then unknown,
e.g. the secondary and tertiary alcohols; and with inestimable
perspicacity he proved intimate relations between compounds
previously held to be quite distinct. Lactic acid and alanine
were shown to be oxy- and amino-propionic acids respectively;
glycollic acid and glycocoll,oxy-andamino-acetic acids; salicylic
and benzamic acids, oxy- and amino-benzoic adds.
Another consequence of the doctrine of valency was that it
permitted the graphic representation of the molecule. The
" structure theory " (or the mode of linking of the atoms) of
carbon compounds, founded by Butlerow, Kckule and Couper
and, at a later date, marvellously enhanced by the doctrine of
stereoisomerism, due to J. H. van't Hoff and Le Bd, occupies
such a positron in organic chemistry that its value can never
be transcended. By its aid the molecule is represented as a
collection of atoms connected together by valcndcs in such a
manner that the part played by each atom is represented;
isomerism, or the existence of two or more chemically different
substances having identical molecular weights, is adequately
shown; and, most important of all, once the structure is
determined, the synthesis of the compound is but a matter of
time.
In this summary the leading factors which have contributed
to a correct appreciation of organic compounds have so far been
considered historically, but instead of continuing this method it
has been thought advisable to present an epitome of present-day
conclusions, not chronologically, but as exhibiting the prindples
and subject-matter of our sdence.
Classification of Organic Compounds.
An apt definition of organic chemistry is that it is "the study
of the hydrocarbons and their derivatives." This description,
although not absolutely comprehensive, serves as a convenient
starting-point for a preliminary classification, since a great
number of substances, induding the most important, are directly
referable to hydrocarbons, being formed by replacing one or
more hydrogen atoms by other atoms or groups. Two distinct
types of hydrocarbons exist: (1) those consisting of an open
chain of carbon atoms — named the " aliphatic scries " (dXct^ap,
oil or fat), and (2) those consisting of a closed chain — the
" carbocycUc scries." The second series can be further divided
1 This must not be confused with the modern acttyl, CHyCO,
which at that time was known as actloxyl.
So
CHEMISTRY
fORGANIC
into two groups: (i) those exhibiting properties closely analo-
gous to the aliphatic scries — the polymethylenes (?.'.)• And (*)
a scries exhibiting properties differing in many respects from the
aliphatic and polymcthylene compounds, and characterized by
a peculiar stability which is to be associated with the disposi-
tion of certain carbon valencies not saturated by hydrogen—
the " aromatic series." There also exists an extensive class of
compounds termed the " heterocyclic series "—these compounds
are derived from ring systems containing atoms other than
carbon; this class is more generally allied to the aromatic
series than to the aliphatic.
We now proceed to discuss the types of aliphatic compounds;
then, the characteristic groupings having been established, an
epitome of their derivatives will be given. Carbocyclic rings
will next be treated, benzene and its allies in some detail; and
finally the heterocyclic nuclei.
Accepting the doctrine of the tetravalency of carbon (its
divalency in such compounds as carbon monoxide, various
isocyanides, fulminic acid, &c, and its possible trivalency in
M. Gomberg's triphenyl-methyl play no part in what follows),
it is readily seen that the simplest hydrocarbon has the formula
CH4, named methane, in which the hydrogen atoms are of
equal value, and which may be pictured as placed at the vertices
of a tetrahedron, the carbon atom occupying the centre. This
tetrahedral configuration is based on the existence of only one
methylene dichloride, two being necessary if the carbon valencies
were directed from the centre of a plane square to its corners,
and on the existence of two optical isomers of the formula
C.A.B.D.&, C being a carbon atom and A.B.D.E. being different
monovalent atoms or radicals (see Stereoisomerism). The
equivalence of the four hydrogen atoms of methane rested on
indirect evidence, e.g. the existence of only one acetic acid,
methyl chloride, and other monosubstitution derivatives — until
the experimental proof by *L. Henry (Zeit. f. Phys. Chem., 1888,
a. P- SS3), who prepared the four nitromethanes, CHjNOi,each
atom in methane being successively replaced by the nitro-group.
Henry started with methyl iodide, the formula of which we write
In the form CI*HnHJT.i. This readily gave with silver nitrite a
nttromethane jn which wo may Giippow the nit regroup to replace
the a h ydrogen atom, tVe* C ( NOz)* li J M L- The same met hyl iodide
gave with potassium cyanide, acetonkril t which waj hydrvLysed to
acetic acid; this must be C(CGO10Jh>H*Hj. ChJorination of this
substance gave a monochloracetic acid ; we will assume the chlorine
atom to replace the b hydrogen atom. This acid with silver nitrite
gave nitroacetic acid, which readily gave the second nitromethane,
CR^NOjhHuH^ identical with the first niironiethanc. From the
njtroacetic acid obtained above, malonic acid was prepared, and
from this a manor hlormalonic arid was obtained ; we assume the
chlorine atom to replace the t hydrogen atom. This acid gives with
silver nitrite the corresponding niiromalonie acid, which readily
yielded the third mtrojncthane^CILHifNOjKHrf, aLw identical witn
the first. The fourth nitromethane was obtained from the nitro-
ma Ionic acid previously mentioned by a repetition" of the method
by which the third was prepared ■ this wa* identical with the other
na
Let us now consider hydrocarbons containing a atoms of
carbon. Three such compounds arc possible according to the
number of valencies acting directly between the carbon atoms.
Thus, if they are connected by one valency, and the remaining
valencies saturated by hydrogen, we obtain the compound
H s CCHj, ethane. This compound may be considered as
derived from methane, CH 4 , by replacing a hydrogen atom by
the monovalent group CHj, known as methyl; hence ethane
may be named " methylmcthane." If the carbon atoms are
connected by two valencies, we obtain a compound HjCiCHj, I
ethylene; if by three valencies, HCiCH, acetylene. These last
two compounds are termed unsaturated, whereas ethane is
saturated. It is obvious that we have derived three combinations
of carbon with hydrogen, characterized by containing a single, I
double, and triple linkage; and from each of these, by the
substitution of a methyl group for a hydrogen atom, compounds
of the same nature result. Thus ethane gives H,C-CHfCH»,
propane; ethylene gives H 2 C:CHCH|, propylene; and acety-
lene gives HC : O CHj, allylene. By continuing the introduction
of methyl groups we obtain three series of homologous hydro-
Compounds containing these groupings are, however, rarely observed
(see Chloral), and it is generally found -■■--■ * *
" fpes are
groupiii„ , . _„__,_..„.,
Containing the group — CH : O arc known as aldehydes («.*•.). while
generally found that when compounds of
uced
_._„.__. :H: _ „„„. w _„ wm
the group >C:0 (sometimes termed the carbonyl or keto group)
these types are expected
typical
, . ....in compou
elements of water are split off, and the
ings are reduced to - CH : O and > C : O. Compounds
carbons given by the general formulae CH*** C*H», and ^
C»H>-t, each member differing from the preceding one of the -
same series by CH* It will be noticed that compounds contain* £
ing two double linkages will have the same general formula as *
the acetylene series; such compounds are known as the " diole- *
fines." Hydrocarbons containing any number of double or a
triple linkages, as well as both double and triple linkages, are 4
possible, and a considerable number of such compounds have
been prepared.
A more complete idea of the notion of a compound radical follows
from a consideration of the compound propane. We derived this
substance from ethane by introducing a methyl group; hence it
may be termed " methylethanc." Equally well we may derhe it
from methane by replacing a hydrogen atom by the monovalent
group CHj-CHj, named ethyl; hence propane may be considered
as " ethylmethane." Further, since methane may be regarded as
formed by the conjunction of a methyl group with a hydrogen atom,
it may be named " methyl hydride"; similarly ethane is "ethyl
hydride," propane, " propyl hydride." and so on. The importance
of such groups as methyl, ethyl, &c. in attempting a nomenclature
of organic compounds cannot be overestimated ; these compound
radicals, frequently termed alkyt radicals, serve a similar purpose to
the organic chemist as the elements to the inorganic chemist.
In methane and ethane the hydrogen atoms are of equal value,
and no matter which one may be substituted by another element
or group the same compound will result. In propane, on the
other hand, the hydrogen atoms attached to the terminal
carbon atoms differ from those joined to the medial atom; we
may therefore expect to obtain different compounds according
to the position of the hydrogen atom substituted. By intro-
ducing a methyl group we may obtain CH»-CHrCHrCH»,
known as " normal " or n-butane, substitution occurring at a
terminal atom, or CH,CH(CH,)CH,, isobutane, substitution
occurring at the medial atom. From n-butanc we may derive,
by a similar substitution of methyl groups, the two hydrocarbons:
(1) CHrCHrCHrCHs-CH,. and (a) CH,CH(CH,)CH,CH,;
from isobutane we may also derive two compounds, one identical
with (a), and a new one (3) CH,(CH»)C(CHi)CH*. These
three hydrocarbons are isomeric, i.e. they possess the same
formula, but differ in constitution. We notice that they may
be differentiated as follows: (1) is built up solely of methyl and
•CH? (methylene) groups and the molecule consists of a single
chain; such hydrocarbons are referred to as being normal;
(a) has a branch and contains the group* CH (methine) in which
the free valencies are attached to carbon atoms; such hydro-
carbons are termed secondary or iso-; (3) is characterized by a
carbon atom linked directly to four other carbon atoms; such
hydrocarbons arc known as tertiary.
Deferring the detailed discussion of cyclic or ringed hydro-
carbons, a correlation of the various types or classes of compounds
which may be derived from hydrocarbon nuclei will now be given.
It will be seen that each type depends upon a specific radical
or atom, and the copulation of this character with any hydro-
carbon radical (open or cyclic) gives origin to a compound of
the same class.
It is convenient first to consider the effect of introducing one,
two, or three hydroxyl (OH) groups into the -CH* >CH t , and
>CH groups, which we have seen to characterize the different
types of hydrocarbons. It may be noticed here that cyclic
nuclei can only contain the groups >CH a and >CH, the first
characterizing the polymcthylene and reduced heterocyclic
Compounds, the second true aromatic compounds.
Substituting one hydroxyl group into each of these residues, we
pbtain radicals of the type-CH,OH, >CHOH, and >COH;
these compounds are known as alcohols (o.t».),and are termed primary,
secondary, and tertiary respectively. Polymethylenes can give only
secondary and tertiary alcohols, benzene only tertiary; these latter
compounds are known as phenols. A second hydroxyl group may be
introduced into the residues -CHjOH and >CH-OH, with the
production of radicals of the form — CH(OH)» and >C(OH)».
inc gruu-j ^\*-.\j \stmiciimcs ivrmcti me caroonyi or keto group)
Characterises the ketones ($.».). A third hydroxyl group may be
ORGANIC]
introduced into the— CHi O resid ue with the formation of the radical
— C(OH) :Q; this is known a* the carboxyl group, and characterizes
the pr&BMit acids.
Sulphur analogue* q f these oxygen compounds arc known. Thus
the tbio-alc ohol* or tttetaipiam \tj.v.) contain the group — CHi'SH;
■nd the elimination or the elements of sulphuretted hydrogen
between iwo molecule* of a thio-alcobot result* in the formation of a
thio-cther of ju1phide t R*S. Oxidation of thio-elhcr* result* in the
formation of sulphoxidc*, RjiS^O, and udphanes, R ( :SOj:
oxidation of mercaptan* yields sulphonic acids R>SOjH, and or
•odium mercaptidea sulphinic acids, R j SO{OH). We may alto
notice that thio-ethcTs combine with alkyl iodide* to form sulpbine
r:t tulphonium compounds, RilSI, Thjo-aklehyde*, rJiu>kctoncs
ijod ihio-acid* also exist.
We proceed to consider various simple derivatives of the
alcohols, which we may here regard as hydroxy hydrocarbons,
R»OH t where R is an alkyl radical, either aliphatic or cyclic in
nature.
Of these, undoubtedly the simplest aretheefftm (q.v.) t formed by
the elirni nation of the elements of water between two molecules of
the same alcohol, " simple ether*. r * or of different alcohols, " mixed
These compound* may be regarded as oxides in just the
t -way as the alcohol* are regarded as hydroxide*. In tact, the
analogy between (he alkyl group* and metallic element* forms a
convenient basis from which to consider many derivatives. Thus
from ethyl alcohol there cart be [~ 'pared compounds, termed esters
(5rP.>, or ethereal aalts, exactly comparable in structure with corres-
ponding salt* of, toy* potassium: by the action of the phosphorus
Lk*dv the hydroxy! gmup i* replaced by a halogen atom with the
rjrm.ii ion of derivatives ol the type R'Cl(Br,l); nitric acid forms
nitrates, R-ONQj; nltmus add, nitrites, R-O-NO; sulphuric acid
five* normal sulphates RiSO*. or acid sulphates, R*SO«H. Organic
ALxA* also condense with alcohols to form similar compounds: the
(at*, waxes, and essential oils are naturally occurring substances of
this class.
An important class of compounds, termed amines (g.r.), results
bum the condensation of alcohols with ammonia, water being
eliminated between the alcoholic hydroxyl group ami a hydrogen
atom of the ammonia- Thrtx types <A 3 mines ^ puisible and luve
betn prepared; pritiiary, R-Nllj; secondary ( R ; Nil; and tertiary,
Rj[N;tne oxamines, RiN:0, are closely related to the tertiary
ammonias, which also unite with a molecule of alkyl iodide to farm
anfef of quaternary ammonium bases, t.g. R*N-I. It is worthy of
note thai phosphorus and arsenic bases analogous to the amines
are known (see Phosphorus and Arsenic). From the primary
amines are derived the dia*o compounds (ij.t>.) and azo compound*
if, v.}; closely related are the hydraxines (q-t,). Secondary amine*
yield BJtrosamincs, R|N<NQ, with nitrous acid. Dy the action of
hydroxy Lamine or pheny {hydrazine on aldehydes or ketones, con*
densatkm occurs between the carbon yl oxygen of the aldehyde or
Intone and the amino group of the hydro*™ hi mine or hydrazine.
Thus with hydroxy la mine aldehydes yield aldoximes, R-CII 1 N-OH.
ind ketones, ketoume*. R:C;N-Oli {see O.ximes), while phenyl
by draxine gives phenyl hydra tones, RiC:N-NH'CiHi (see Hvdka-
tajtMa}* DKyaklehydeii and oxykctoncs (vir, compounds containing
ai oxy in addition to an aldchydte or ketonic irroupli imdcrgo
both coodensation and oxidation when treated with phcnylnydrazine,
forming: compounds known as osozones; these are of great import*
ance in characterizing the sugars (j.».).
The carboxyl group constitutes another convenient starting-
point for the orientation of many types of organic compounds.
This group may be considered as resulting from the fusion of a
carbonyi (:CO) and a hydroxyl (HO*) group, and we may
expect to meet with compounds bearing structural resemblances
to the derivatives of alcohols and aldehydes (or ketones).
Considering derivatives primarily concerned with transformations
of the hydroxyl group, we may regard our typical acid as a fusion
of a radical R-CO— (named acetyl, propionyl, butyl, &c, generally
according to the name of the hydrocarbon containing the same
number of carbon atoms) and a hydroxyl group. By replacing the
hydroxyl group by a halogen, acid-haloids result ; by the elimination
of the elements of water between two molecules, acid-anhydrides,
which may be oxidized to acid-peroxides; by replacing the hydroxyl
group by the group -SH, thio-acids; by replacing it by the amino
group, acid-amides (qx.); by replacing it by the group — NH-NH*,
add-bydrazides. The structural relations of these compounds are
here shown:
R.COOH; R-CO-CI; (RCO),0; RCOSH;
odd: acid-chloride; acid-anhydride; thio-acid;
RCONH,; R-CO-NH-NHa.
acid-amide; acid-hydrazide.
It la necessary clearly to distinguish such compounds as the
amino- (or amido-) acids and acid-amides; in the first case the
aaaiao group b substituted in the hydrocarbon residue, in the second
it is substituted in the carboxyl group.
CHEMISTRY
5*
By transformations of the carbonyi group, and at the same time
of the hydroxyl group, many interesting types of nitrogen com-
pounds may be correlated.
Thus from the acid -amides, which we have seen to be closely related
to the acids themselves, we obiain, by rvplarinE the carbonyi oxygen
by chlorine, the aeidamido-chlundes. R-CCliNHi, from which arc
derived the iraido-ch lurid l>4, R-CCl:NH t by loss of one molecule of
hydrochloric acid. By replacing the chlorine in the imido-chloride
by an nxyalkyl group we obtain the imido-ethcrs, R-C(OR') :NH ;
and by an amino group, the amidines. R-C(NHr);NH. The
carbonyi oxygen may also DC replaced by theoxime group, : ft-OH;
thus the acid* yield the hyUroxamic adds. R-CfOH) : NOH, and the
acid amides the amidoxtmes, R-C(NHi);NO!i. Closely related to
the amidoxime* are the niirolic acids, R-C(NO*}:NOH.
Cyclic Hydrocarbons and Nuclei. ^
Having passed in rapid review the various types of compounds
derived by substituting for hydrogen various atoms or groups of
atoms in hydrocarbons (the separate articles on specific com-
pounds should be consulted for more detailed accounts), we now
proceed to consider the dosed chain compounds. Here we meet
with a great diversity of types: oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and
other elements may, in addition to carbon, combine together in a
great number of arrangements to form cyclic nuclei, which
exhibit characters closely resembling open-chain compounds in
so far as they yield substitution derivatives, and behave as
compound radicals. In classifying dosed chain compounds, the
first step consists in dividing them into: (1) carbocyclic, in which
the ring is composed solely of carbon atoms— these are also
known as homocydk or isocyclic on account of the identity of the
members of the ring— and (2) heterocyclic , in which different
elements go to make up the ring. Two primary divisions of
carbocyclic compounds may be conveniently made: (1) those
in which the carbon atoms are completely saturated— these are
known by the generic term polymethylenes, their general formula
being (CHj).: it will be noticed that they are isomeric with
ethylene and its homologues; they differ, however, from this
series in not containing a double linkage, but have a ringed
structure; and (2) those containing fewer hydrogen atoms than
suffice to saturate the carbon valencies— these are known as the
aromatic compounds proper, or as benzene compounds, from the
predominant part which benzene plays in their constitution.
It was long supposed that the simplest ring obtainable con-
tained six atoms of carbon, and the discovery of trimethylene
in 1882 by August Freund by the action of sodium on trimethylene
bromide, Br(CHj)aBr, came somewhat as a surprise, especially
in view of its behaviour with bromine and hydrogen bromide.
In comparison with the isomeric propylene, CH,-HC:CH 2 , it is
remarkably inert, being only very slowly attacked by bromine,
which readily combines with propylene. But on the other hand,
it is readily converted by hydrobromic acid into normal propyl
bromide, CHYCHrCH»Br. The separation of carbon atoms
united by single affinities in this manner at the time the observa-
tion was made was altogether without precedent. A similar
behaviour has since been noticed in other trimethylene deri-
vatives, but the fact that bromine, which usually acts so much
more readily than hydrobromic acid on unsaturated compounds,
should be so inert when hydrobromic add acts readily is one still
needing a satisfactory explanation. A great impetus was given to
the study of polymethylene derivatives by the important and
unexpected observation made by W. H. Per kin, junr., in 1883,
that ethylene and trimethylene bromides are capable of acting
in such a way on sodium acetoacetic ester as to form tri- and tctra-
methylene rings. Perkin has himself contributed largely to our
knowledge of such compounds; penta- and hcxa-mclhylene
derivatives have also received considerable attention (see
Polymethylenes).
A. von Baeycr has sought to explain the variations in stability
manifest in the various polymethylene rings by a purely
mechanical hypothesis, the " strain " or Spannungs theory
(Ber., 1885, p. 2277). Assuming the four valencies of the
carbon atom to be directed from the centre of a regular tetra-
hedron towards its four corners, the angle at which they meet
is 1 09° 28'. Baeyer supposes that in the formation of carbon
5*
CHEMISTRY
" rings " the valencies become deflected from their positions, and
that the tension thus introduced may be deduced from a com-
parison of this angle with the angles at which the strained
valencies would meet. He regards the amount of deflection as
a measure of the stability of the " ring." The readiness with
which ethylene is acted on in comparison with other types of
hydrocarbon, for example, is in harmony, he considers, with
the circumstance that the greatest distortion must be involved
in its formation, as if deflected into parallelism each valency will
be drawn out of its position through }.ioo° 28'. The values in
other cases are calculable from the formula §(109° 28'— a), where
a is the internal angle of the regular polygon contained by sides
equal in number to the number of the carbon atoms composing
the ring. These values are. —
Trimethylene. Tetramethylene.
i(ioo° 28'-6o°) -24° 44'- i(i09° 28' -90*) -9° 44'-
Pentamethylene. Hexamethylene.
I(i09*28'-io8°)-o°44'. K109 28'- 120 ) --5 16'.
The general behaviour of the several types of hydrocarbons is
certainly in accordance with this conception, and it is a remark-
able fact that when benzene is reduced with hydriodic acid, it is
converted into a mixture of hexamethylene and methylpenta- 1
methylene (cf. W. Markownikov, Ann., 1808, 302, p. 1); and 1
many other cases of the conversion of six-carbon rings into five-
carbon rings have been recorded (see below, Decompositions of
the Benzene Ring). Similar considerations will apply to rings
containing other elements besides carbon. As an illustration it 1
may be pointed out that in the case of the two known types of
lactones — the 7-lactones, which contain four carbon atoms and
one oxygen atom in the ring, are more readily formed and more
stable (less readily hydrolysed) than the 6-lactones, which
contain one oxygen and five carbon atoms in the ring. That the
number of atoms which can be associated in a ring by single
affinities is limited there can be no doubt, but there is not yet
sufficient evidence to show where the limit must be placed. Baeyer
has suggested that his hypothesis may also be applied to explain
the instability of acetylene and its derivatives, and the still
greater instability of the polyacetylene compounds.
Benzene.
The ringed structure of benzene, C#He, was first suggested in
1865 by August Kekul6, who represented the molecule by six
CH groups placed at the six angles of a regular hexagon, the sides
of which denoted the valencies saturated by adjacent carbon
atoms, the fourth valencies of each carbon atom being represented
as saturated along alternate sides. This formula, notwithstand-
ing many attempts at both disproving and modifying it, has well
stood the test of time; the subject has been the basis of constant
discussion, many variations have been proposed, but the original
conception of Kekule* remains quite as convenient as any of the
newer forms, especially when considering the syntheses and
decompositions of the benzene complex. It will be seen, however,
that the absolute disposition of the fourth valency may be
ignored in a great many cases, and consequently the complex may
be adequately represented as a hexagon. This symbol is in
general use; it is assumed that at each corner there is a CH
group which, however, is not always written in; if a hydrogen
atom be substituted by another group, then this group is
attached to the corner previously occupied by the displaced
hydrogen. The following diagrams illustrate these statements.—'
CH C'OH OH
H c cOc"0«ca"o
CH CM
hwM, •MwnacAOvyftfAMm. AMnvutc*.
From the benzene nucleus we can derive other aromatic nuclei.
common sides.
naphthalene, C I0 H«; by
graphically represented by fusing two or more hexagons alonj
" ' * *-- " ' i obtain the to *
hydrocarbon
pbenanthrene, LmH 10 ; by fusing lour, chrysene, „ ...
possibly pyrene, C11H10; by fusing five, picene, C B Hi«. But it
By fusing two nuclei we obtain the formula ol
oH« ; by lusinj
and phenanthrene, CmH w ; b]
using three, the hydrocarbons anthracene
fusing four, # chrysene, CnH», and
must be here understood that each member of these condensed nuclei
need not necessarily be identical in structure; thus the central
nuclei in anthracene and phenanthrene differ very considerably
from the terminal nuclei (see below, Condensed Nuclei). Other
(ORGANIC
hydrocarbon nuclei generally classed as aromatic in character result
from the union of two or more benwme nuclei joined by one or two
valencies with poly methylene or oxidized poly methylene rings;
instances of such nuclei are indenc, hydrindene, nuorene, and fluor-
anthene. From these nuclei an immense number of derivatives may
be obtained, for the hydrogen atoms may be substituted by any
of the radicals discussed in the preceding section on the classi fi cation
of organic compounds.
We now proceed to consider the properties, syntheses, decom-
positions and constitution of the benzene complex. It has
already been stated that benzene derivatives may be
regarded as formed by the replacement of hydrogen
atoms by other elements or radicals in exactly the
same manner as in the aliphatic series. Important
differences, however, are immediately met with
when we consider the methods by which derivatives
are obtained. For example: nitric acid and sulphuric
acid readily react with benzene and its homologues with the
production of nitro derivatives and sulphonic acids, while in the
aliphatic series these acids exert no substituting action (in the
case of the defines, the latter acid forms an addition product);
another distinction is that the benzene complex is more stable
towards oxidizing agents. This and other facts connected with
the stability of benzenoid compounds are clearly shown when
we consider mixed aliphatic-aromatic hydrocarbons, i.e. com-
pounds derived by substituting aliphatic radicals in the benzene
nucleus; such a compound is methylbenzene or toluene,
CeHs-CHa. This compound is readily oxidized to benzoic acid,
CsHfCOOH, the aromatic residue being unattacked; nitric
and sulphuric acids produce nitro- toluenes, QH^CHrNQ*,
and toluene sulphonic acids, C*H«CHySOjH; chlorination
may result in the formation of derivatives substituted either
in the aromatic nucleus or in the side chain; the former substitu-
tion occurs most readily, chlor-toluenes, CeH 4 -CHj-Cl, being
formed, while the latter, which needs an elevation in temperature
or other auxiliary, yields benzyl chloride, CeH«-CH a Cl, and
benzal chloride, CcHfCHCU. In general, the aliphatic residues
in such mixed compounds retain the characters of their class,
while the aromatic residues retain the properties of benzene.
Further differences become apparent when various typical
compounds are compared. The introduction of hydroxyl
groups into the benzene nucleus gives rise to compounds genetic-
ally named phenols, which, although resembling the aliphatic
alcohols in their origin, differ from these substances in their
increased chemical activity and acid nature. The phenols
more closely resemble the tertiary alcohols, since the hydroxyl
group Is linked to a carbon atom which is united to other carbon
atoms by its remaining three valencies; hence on oxidation they
cannot yield the corresponding aldehydes, ketones or adds
(see below, Decompositions of the Benzene Ring). The amines
also exhibit striking differences: in the aliphatic series these
compounds may be directly formed from the alkyl haloids and
ammonia, but in the benzene series this reaction is quite im-
possible unless the haloid atom be weakened by the presence of
other substituents, e.g. nitro groups. Moreover, while methyl-
amine, dimethylamine, and trimethylamine increase in basicity
corresponding to the introduction of successive methyl groups,
phenylamine or aniline, diphenylamine, and triphenylamine
are in decreasing order of basicity, the salts of diphenylamine
being decomposed by water. Mixed aromatic-aliphatic amines,
both secondary and tertiary, are also more strongly basic than
the pure aromatic amines, and less basic than the true aliphatic
compounds; ' e.g. aniline, CeH&NHs, monomethyl aniline,
C«H»NHCHa, and dimethyl aniline, C»HrN(CHj),, are in
increasing order of basicity. These observations may be sum-
marized by saying that the benzene nucleus is more negative
in character than the aliphatic residues.
Isomerism of Benzene Derivatives. — Although Kekule founded
his famous benzene formula in 1865 on the assumptions that
the six hydrogen atoms in benzene are equivalent and that the
molecule is symmetrical, i.e. that two pairs of hydrogen atoms
I are symmetrically situated with reference to any specified
I hydrogen atom, the absolute demonstration of the validity of
ORGANIC!
CHEMISTRY
53
these assumptions was first given by A. Ladcnburg in 1874
(see Ber. t 1874, 7, p. 1684; 1875, 8, p. 1666; Theorie der
eromatiscken Verbhtdungen, 1876). These results may be
graphically represented as follows: numbering the hydrogen
atoms in cyclical order from 1 to 6, then the first thesis demands
that whichever atom is substituted the same compound results,
while the second thesis points out that the pairs 2 and 6, and 3
and s are symmetrical with respect to i, or in other words, the
di -substitution derivatives 1.2 and 1.6, and also 1.3 and 1.5 are
identical. Therefore three di-derivatives are possible, viz,
1.2 or 1.6, named ortho- (0), 1.3 or 1.5, named mcta- (m), and
T.4, named para- compounds (p). In the same way it may be
shown that three tri-substitution, three tetra -substitution, one
penta-subslitution, and one hcxa-substitution derivative are
possible. Of the tri-substitution derivatives, 1.2.3. -comrwands
are known as " adjacent " or " vicinal " (v), the 1.2.4 as " asym-
metrical " (as), the 1.3.5 as "symmetrical " (*); of the tctra-
substitution derivatives, 1.2.3.4-compounds arc known as
** adjacent," 1.2.3.5 as " asymmetrical," and 1.2.4.5 as " sym-
metrical."
O i »ii wO»W Tri-dcrivath«t Tctrftftritatlm
XXX XXX XXX
X XXX
• m p v as s v as s
Here we have assumed the subslitucnt groups to be alike;
when they are unlike, a greater number of isomers is possible.
Thus in the tri-substitution derivatives six isomers, and no
more, are possible when two of the substituents are alike; for
instance, six diaminobenzoic acids, C«H«(NHs)aCOOH, are
known; when all are unlike ten isomers are possible; thus,
ten oxytoluic acids, C«H, CH,OHCOOH, are known. In the
case of tetra-substitutcd compounds, thirty isomers are possible
when all the groups are different.
The preceding considerations render it comparatively easy to
follow toe reasoning on which the experimental verification of the
.. . above statements is based. The proof is divided into two
ry**~l parts: (1) that four hydrogen atoms arc equal, and [2)
T—j**, that two pairs of hydrogen atoms are symmetrical with
■"MmmiT n ^ rrtnn toa specified hydrogen atom. In the first thesis,
**■«*«. phenoloroxyberuene.Ctlit'OH.inwhichwewillassumethe
hydroxyl group to occupy position I, is converted into brombenzene,
which is then converted into benzoic acid, C«H t -COOH. From this
substance, an oxybenzoic acid (meta-), C«H4-OHCOOH, may be
prepared; and the two other known oxybenzoic acids (ortho- and
para-) may be converted into benzoic acid. These three acids yield
on heating phenol, identical with the substance started with, and
since in the three oxybenzoic acids the hydroxyl groups must occupy
positions other than I, it follows that four hydrogen atoms are equal
in value.
R. Hubner and A. Petcrmann (Ann., 1869, 149, p. 129) provided
the proof of the equivalence of the atoms 2 and 6 with respect
TT i ■mi ■ *°i. From mcta-brombcnzoicacid two nitrobrombenzoic
*t _?_ J* acids are obtained on direct nitration; elimination of the
k**njmm bromine atom and the reduction of the nitro to an amino
"ZZZ^7 groupin these two acids results in the formation of the same
ortho-aminobenzoicacid. Hence thepositionsoccupied by
the aitro groups in the two different nitrobrombenzote adds must be
symmetrical with respect to the carboxyl group. In 1879, Hubner
(Ann., 195, p. 4) proved the equivalence of the second pair, viz.
3 and 5, by starting out with ortho-aminobenzoic acid, previously
obtained by two different methods. This substance readily yields
ortho-oxybenzoic acid or salicylic acid, which on nitration yields two
mononitro-oxybenzoir acids. By eliminating the hydroxy groups
ia these acids the same nitrobenzoic acid is obtained, which yields
oa reduction an aminobenzoic acid different from the starting-out
acid. Therefore there must be another pair of hydrogen atoms,
other than 2 and 6, which arc symmetrical with respect to 1. The
symmetry of the second pair was also established in 1878 by E.
Wroblewsky (Ann., 192, p. 196).
Orientation of Substituent Groups.— The determination of the
relative positions of the substituents in a benzene derivative
constitutes an important factor in the general investigation
of such compounds. Confining our attention, for the present, to
ii-substitution products we sec that there are three distinct
series of compounds to be considered. Generally if any group
be replaced by another group, then the second group enters the
nucleus in the position occupied by the displaced group; this
means that If we can definitely orientate three di-dcrivatives
of benzene, then any other compound, which can be obtained
from or converted into one of our typical derivatives, may be
definitely orientated. Intermolecular transformations — migra-
tions of substitucnt groups from one carbon atom to another —
are of fairly common occurrence among oxy compounds at
elevated temperatures. Thus potassium ortho-oxybenzoate is
converted into the salt of para-oxybenzoic acid at 220 ; the
three bromphcnols, and also the brombcnzcncsulphonic acids,
yield m-dioxybenzene or rcsorcin when fused with potash. It is
necessary, therefore, to avoid reactions involving such inter-
molecular migrations when determining the orientation of
aromatic compounds.
Such a series of typical compounds are the benzene dicarboxylic
acids (phthalic acids). C.H 4 (COOH),. C. Gracbc (Ann., 1869, 149,
J). 22) orientated the ortho-compound or phthalic acid from its
ormation from naphthalene on oxidation: the meta-coro pound or
isophthalic acid is orientated by its production from mesityleoe.
shown by A. Ladenburg (Ann., 1875, 170, p. 163) to be symmetrical
trimethyl benzene; tcrcphthalic acid, the remaining isomer, must
therefore be the para-compound.
P. Griess (Bcr., 1872, 5, p. 192; 1874, 7, p. 1223) orientated the
three diaminobenzencs or phcnylenc diamines by considering their
preparation by the elimination of the carboxyl group in the six
diaminobenzoic acids. The diaminobenzene resulting from two of
these acids is the ortho-compound; from three, the mcta-; and
from one the para-; this is explained by the following scheme: —
NH t NH, NH, NH a KH a NU,
I^JcOOH LJ kJ»H. lyJw^aOOcl^NH, kj
^tOOH _ ^ COOH . n5L
Cr
CU
W. Korner (Gaze. Chew. Ital., 4, p. 305) in 1874 orientated the
three dibrombenzencs in a somewhat similar manner. Starting with
the three isomeric compounds, he found that one gave two tnbrom-
benzencs, another gave three, while the third gave only one. A
scheme such as the preceding one shows that the first dibrombenzene
must be the ortho-compound, the second the meta-, and the third
the para-derivative. Further research in this direction was made by
D.E Noctling (Bcr., 1883, 18, p. 26*7), who investigated the nitro-,
amino-, and oxy-xylcnes in their relations to the three xylenes or
dimethyl benzenes.
The orientation of higher substitution derivatives is determined
by considering the di- and tri-substitution compounds into which
they can be transformed.
Substitution of the Benzene Ring.— As a general rule, homologues
and mono-derivatives of benzene react more readily with sub-
stituting agents than the parent hydrocarbon, for example,
phenol is converted into tribromphenol by the action of bromine
water, and into the nitrophenols by dilute nitric acid; similar
activity characterizes aniline. Not only docs the substituent
group modify the readiness with which the derivative is attacked,
but also the nature of the product. Starting with a mono-
derivative, we have seen that a substitucnt group may enter
in cither of three positions to form an ortho-, meta-, or para-
compound. Experience has shown that such mono-derivatives
as nitro compounds, sulphonic acids, carboxylic acids, aldehydes,
and ketones yield as a general rule chiefly the mcta-compounds,
and this is independent of the nature of the second group in-
troduced; on the other hand, benzene haloids, amino-,
homologous-, and hydroxy-benzencs yield principally a mixture
of the ortho- and para-compounds. These facts arc embodied
in the " Rule of Crum Brown and J. Gibson " (Jour. Chan. Soc.
61, p. 367): If the hydrogen compound of the substituent
already in the benzene nucleus can be directly oxidized to the
corresponding hydroxyl compound, then mcta-dcrivatives
predominate on further substitution, if not, then ortho- and para-
derivatives. By further substitution of ortho- and para-di-
derivatives, in general the same tri-derivative (1.2.4] is formed
(Ann., 1878, 192, p. 219); meta-compounds yield [1.3.4] and
[1.2.3] tri-dcrivatives, except in such cases as when both sub-
stitucnt groups are strongly acid, e.g. m-dinitrobenxene, then
[i-3-sl-derivatives are obtained.
Syntheses of the Benzene Ring. — The characteristic distinctions
54
CHEMISTRY
{ORGANIC
which exist between aliphatic and benzenoid compounds make
the transformations of one class into the other especially
interesting. ...
In the first place we may notice a tendency of several aliphatic
compounds, e.t. methane, tetrachlormethane. &c, to yield aromatic
compounds when subjected to a high temperature, the so-called
pyrogenetic reactions (from Greek wvp. fire, and ywii*. 1 produce);
the predominance of benzenoid, and related compounds— naphtha-
lene, anthracene, phenanthrene. Ac— in coal-tar is probably to be
associated with similar pyrocondensations. Long-continued treat-
ment with halogens may, in some cases, result in the formation of
aromatic compounds, thus perchlorbenzene, C»CU. frequently
appears as a product of exhaustive chlonnation. while hexyl iodide,
CiHial, yields pcrchlor- and perbrom-benzene quite readily.
The tnmolecular polymerization of numerous acetylene com-
pounds — substances containing two trebly linked carbon atoms,
— C.C— , to form derivatives of benzene is of considerable interest.
M P E. Berthelot first accomplished the synthesis of benzene in
1870 by leading acetylene. HC : CH, through tubes heated to dull
redness; at higher temperatures the action becomes reversible,
the benzene yielding diphenyl, dipheny (benzene, and acetylene.
The condensation of acetylene to benzene is also possible at ordinary
temperatures by leading the gas over pyrophoric iron, nickel,
cobalt, or spongy pbtinum (P. Sabatier and J. B. Scndcrcns).
The homologues of acetylene condense more readily; thus allylcne,
CH C-CHi. and crotonylene, CH,C • CCH,. yield trimethyl- and
hexamethyl-benzcne under the influence of sulphuric acid. Toluene
or mono-met hylbenzcnc results from the pyrocondensation of a
mixture of acetylene and allylene. Substituted acetylenes also
exhibit this form of condensation; for instance, bromacetylcne,
BrC - CH, is readily converted into tribrombenzenc, while propiolic
acid, HC : CCOOH, under the influence of sunlight, gives benzene
tricarboxylic acid.
A larger and more important series of condensations may be
grouped together as resulting from the elimination of the elements
of water between carbonyl (CO) and methylene (CHO groups.
A historic example is that of the condensation of three molecules of
acetone, CHiCOCHa. in the presence of sulphuric acid, to j-tri-
mcthvlbenzene or mesitylene, C«H,(CHj)j, first observed in 1837 by
R. Kane; methylethyl ketone and methyl-n-propyl ketone suffer
similar condensations to j-triethylbenzene and s-tn-n-propylbenzene
respectively. Somewhat similar condensations are: of geranial or
citral. (CH,),CH-CHrCH.CH-C(CH,):CH-CHO. to ^isopropyl-
methylbcnzene or cymene; of the condensation product of methyl-
ethylacrolein and acetone. CHrCH^CH:C(CH,KH:CHCOCHa.
to { 1 3. 4|-trimethylbenzene or pseudocumene; and of the con-
densation product of two molecules of isovaleryl aldehyde with one
of acetone. C,H,CH,CH :C(C,H,) CH :CHCOCH,. to (i)-methyl-
a-4-di-isopropyl benzene. An analogous synthesis is that of di-
hydro-m-xylenefrommethylheptenone,(CHjJtC:CH'(CHi)tCO'CH».
Certain w-diketones condense to form benzenoid quinones, two
molecules of the diketone taking part in the reaction; thus diacetyl,
CH, COCOCH,, yields p-xyloquinonc. C*H,(CH,),0, (Btr.. 1888,
21, p. 141 1), and acetylpropionyl, CHrCOCOCiH*, yields duro-
quinone, or tctramcthylquinone, C«(CH»)«Ot. Oxymethylene com-
pounds, characterized by the grouping >C:CH(OH), also give
benzene derivatives by hydrolytic condensation between three
molecules; thus oxymethylene acetone, or formyl acetone,
CHj-CO-CH:CH(OH). formed by acting on formic ester with acetone
in the presence of sodium ethylate, readily yields li.j.5]-triacetyl-
benzene, C«Hi(CO-CHj)j; oxymethylene acetic ester or formyl
acetic ester or 0-oxyacrylic ester, (HO)CH :CH«CO*CtH», formed by
condensing acetic ester with formic ester, and also its dimolecular
condensation product, cou malic acid, readily yields esters of J1.3.5I-
benzene tricarboxylic acid or trimesic acid (see Btr., 1887, 20,
p. 2010).
In i8oo,0- Doehncr (R?r, at, p. 2$7?) investigated the condensation
of pyroraccmic i*ci<\, CHrCO'tOOH* with various aliphatic alde-
hydes, and obtained from two molecules of the acid and one of the
aWi-hyde in the presence of baryta water alky tic isophthalic acids:
With acetnldehyde |l,3.5j-meThyli*ophthalic acid or uvjtic acid t
a4i-CH»-(CQOH)i. wasobuincdi with propionic aldehyde (1.3 j|-
ylisophihalic acid, and with butyric aldehyde the corresponding
propyl iaophthalic acid- We may here mention the tyutbesii oT
oxyuvftk rsccr {ymeEhyl-4rcm''t-vbenierie dicar boxy tic ester) by
ihe condensation of two molecules of sodium acetuaceiie ester
with one of chloroform {Ann., 1883 1 3}i t p. 349,}, Of Other
syntheses of true Lenzene derivatives, montian may be made of
ihr formation of orcinol or [j- sl-dioxy toluene from dehydracelic
iWiil: and the form at ion of esters of ovytolufc acid {5-methyl-
1 oxy-benaoic BcidhC,HfCHi-OH'CQOH,wheii acetcffleova beefier,
CHi'CO -CH* C O CO -COtCiH,, El boiled with baryta (Brr„ ft**
ti. p 317I }, Of interest also are H. B. Hill and I. Torray F » ob**r\ a*
tioni on nitromakinic aldehyde, NG^CH(CHUhJormed by acting on
mucobromic acid r probably CHQCBr CWriCGOH, with alkahric
nitrites; this subsumt condenses with acetone to give 6-nitrophcnol.
and forms |T.3,5l-trtnitroU"nttne when its sodium wit is decomposed
with an acid.
By passing carbon monoxide over heated potassium J. von Lichig
discovered, in 1834. an intemitng aromatic ronipound, pou&sium
carbon monoiide or potassium bcxafnybentene, the natuie of
which wj« satisfactorily cleared up by R N+ettki and T Bene k iter
iBfr 18, p 4qo/) in 1K85. who hhowed that it yielded bexaoxy-
bemene. C,(OH) f . when acted upon with ddute hydrochloric acid,
further investigation of this compound brought to light a consider-
able number of highly interest wg derivatives (see QutNOKts).
Another hena-substituted benzene compound capable of direct
synthesis is me'lnic acid or benfene carboxylic acid, CtLCOOH)*.
This substance, first obtained from the mineral lionry stone* alu-
minium meltitatc* by M H. Ktapruih in tjoo, 1* obtained when pure
carbon (graphite or charcoal J is oxidized by alkaline permanganate,
or when carbon forms the posit ive pole in dn electrolytic cell iBtr ,
iWRj, in, p. e?oq}. The composition of this substance was deter-
mined by A. von Baeytr in t&J& t who obtained Leruene on distilling
the calcium salt with Lime.
Hitherto we have gentry l|y restricted ourselves to syntheses
which result in the production of a true lien ten* ring but there
are many reactions by which reduced benzene rings are tynihesucd,
and from the compound s so obtained true bciucnoid compounds
may be prepared. Of such syntheses we may notice the con-
densation of sodium maloiiic ester to phlcroglucin trkarbohvlic
ester, a substance which gives phloeoglucin or trioxybenrene when
fused with alkalis, and behaves boih as m triketohexa methylene
tricarboxylic ester and as a trio*ybeinene tricarboiyhc esttr, the
condensation of succinic ester. (CHi-COiCiH*)]* under the influence
of sodium to succinosuccinic ester, a difcctohe&ametbylene ^'*
cafbo\ylic ester, which readily yields dioiiyLerephthaUc acid and
bydri>quinone(F Herrmann. Ann., iRJJj. ?l i> p 306; also sec below,
Conjipumhvn of tkt Btnxnf Cgmpiex}; the condensackm of acetone
dTcarBoxylic ester with malonic ester to form tri kei one va methylene
dicarbotylic citcr (E. Riminr, Gai?. Chrm.. f8oA a6, (a), p. 374).
th-c condensation of aceione-di- propionic acid under the influence
of boiling water to a di ketone &a methylene propionic acid (von
Per h maim a nil Sidgwick, Brf-< t°Ati 3T* P- 3816). Many dilteto
com pon mis suffer condensation between two molecules to form
hydrobenft-ne derivatives^ thus ■,ir-di-acctoclutaric etier,
C,f nOiCCC H» CO)CHCHrCH(COCH i)CQ,C*Hi. yields a methyl-
ketohrxamet hvlcne r whiUry'aceiobuiyrk- ester ,CHiCO(C HtljCOjCtH*.
i* convened into dihydrmesortinol or m-diker oh* xt methylene by
sodium ethylate; this last reaction is reversed by baryta (see £«'
torn positions 0/ Btnxm Rini). For other syntheses of hexamcthylene
derivatives, see PolyuetuvlemfSu
Dttamptotiiaiu of ike Btment Ring—We have previously
alluded lo the relative stability of the benzene complex; con-
sequently reactions which lead to its disruption are all the more
interesting, and have engaged the attention of many chemists.
If we accept KekuJe 1 * formula for the benzene nucleus, then we
may expect the ctoublc linkages to be opened up partially, either
by oxidation or reduction, with the formation of di-, letra-, or
he Ka- hydro derivatives, or entirely, with the production of open
chain compounds. Generally rupture occurs at mote than one
point , and rarely are the six carbon alums of the complex
regained as an open chain. Certain compounds withstand ting
decomposition much more strongly than others, for instance,
benzene and its hotnologues, carbootylic acids h and nitre com-
pounds are much more stable towards oiidiaing agents than
amino- and oxy-bemsenes, sminophenob, quinones, and oxy-
carboxylic adds.
Strong oxidation breaks the beruene complex into iuch compounds
aa carbon dtoside. oaalk acid, formic acid. Act such decompositions
are of little interest. More important are Kakstt'a si^m^
observations that nitrous acid oaidiaes pyrocatecbol or t"TJZL-
|i r 2|-dioxybenzene. and protocatechuic acid or U .4!-
dioxybenroic acid to dk>kytartarit acid, (C{OH), COOHj* (Ann.,
18*3, 3a 1 * p. ?3oh and O. Dotbner's preparation ol mesotartaric
acid, the tmernally compensated tartaric acid* (CH(QH)-CQGH>i,
by oiiidifing phenol with dilute potassium permanganate (Bcr*, 1691.
=a. p. 17531-
For many years it had been known that a mixture of potassium
chlorate and hydrochloric or sulphuric acids possessed strong
oxidizing powers, 1^. Cariui showed that potaAsmni r^^j
chlorate and sulphuric acid oxidiicd benzene to trichlor- ZZ*?^?T
phcnomalic acid, a substance afterwards investigated by ^rTttf
Kekule and O. Strecker {Ann., i&Sa, 333, p tjo) k And ■ ' mm *
shown to be /J'trichloracetnacrytu; acid. TO* COCH CHCOOH.
which with baryta gave chloroform and mak'ic acid. Potassium
chlorate and hydrochloric add onidiu phenol, salicylic acid (o-oxy-
benroic acid % and caElic acid da^il tnoxybemok acid) to tri-
ehlorpyroracemjc acid (i*ot rich lorglycerk acid), COiC^OHJvCOjH,
a 9ub«tantealso obtained from trirhloracelouitrtlc, CCU-CQ'CM. by
hydfolyris. We may also notice the conversion of picric acid-
\ j. 4 fi|-irinitrophenol) Into chloropirrin, CCtiNOr, by bleaching lime
(calcium hypochlorite), and into hromopicrin. CBrjNO,, by bromine
water*
ORGANiq
The action of chlorine upon di- and tri-oxybenzenes has been
carefully investigated by Th. Zincke; and his researches have led
to the discovery of many chlorinated oxidation products which admit
of decomposition into cyclic compounds containing fewer carbon
atoms than characterize the benzene ring, and in turn yielding open-
chain or aliphatic compounds. In general, the rupture occurs
be t w e e n a keto group (CO) and a keto-chloiide group (CC!,). into
CHEMISTRY
55
which two adjacent carbon atoms of the ring are converted by the
oxidizing and substituting action of chlorine. Decompositions of
this nature were first discovered in the naphthalene series, where it
was found that derivatives of indene (and of hydrindene and indone)
and also of benzene resulted; Zincke then extended his methods to
the disintegration of the oxybenzenes and obtained analogous
results, R-pentene and aliphatic derivatives being formed (R-
symbolizing a ringed nucleus).
When treated with chlorine, pyrocatechol (1.2 or ortho-dioxy-
benzene) (i) yields a tetrachlor ortho-quinone, which suffers further
chlorination to hexachlor-o-diketo-R-hexene (2). This substance is
transformed into hexach lor- R-pentene oxycarboxylic acid (3) when
digested with water; and chromic acid oxidizes this substance to
hexachlor-R-pentene (4) The ring of this compound hr ruptured by
caustic soda with the formation of perchlorvinyl acrylic acid (5).
which gives on reduction ethidine propionic acid (6), a compound
containing five of the carbon atoms originally in the benzene ring
(see Zincke. Btr , 1894, 27, p 3364) (the carbon atoms are omitted in
some of the formulae).
&<te-3>
~ac % "*q«
«. ci« a«
CCI, CH,
<•> <D <4>
($) (•)
Resorcin (1.3 or meta dioxybenzene) (1) is decomposed in a
somewhat similar manner. Chlorination in glacial acetic acid
solution yields pentachlor-m-diketo-R-hexenc (2) and, at a later
stage, heptachlor-m-dikcto-R-hexene (3}- These compounds are
both de c o m posed by water, the former giving dichloraceto-trichlor*
cratomc acid (4), which on boiling with water gives dichlormethyl-
viny1-«-diketone (5). The heptacnlor compound when treated with
chlorine water gives trichloraceto-pentachlorbutyric acid (6). which
is hydrolysed by alkalis to chloroform and pentachlorglutaric acid
(7), and is converted by boiling water into tctrachlor-diketo-R-
(8). This latter compound may be chlorinated to
. acetoacrylic chloride (9), from which the corresponding acid
(to) is obtained by treatment, with water: alkalis hydrolyse the acid
fS _ afSci. _ c/Sa
I^OH Hl^O HCll^O
y^n c j'«
HO.C-CCUCH CCL-CO-CHO,
CO.-»CiHC:CHCOCO CHCI,
(*)
HO a C'CC1*CHCI'CC1 a 'CO»CCI.
I <«) L
MO,C< CCljCHCI* CCI jCO a H ♦ C HCI ,
(7)
co-cci tv
ciooccitca-cocci,— 1 "^co (•)
KO-C-CCI.CC1-CO-CCI, — HO.CCCI-.COCOJt+CHO,
(10) (11)
Hydroqainone (1.4 or para-dioxybenzene) (t) gives with chlorine,
first, a tetrachlorquinone (2), and then hcxachlor-p-dikcto-R-hcxcne
to), which alcoholic potash converts into perchloracroylacrylic acid
(4). This substance, and also the preceding compound, is converted
by aqneoua caustic soda into dichlormaletc acid, trichlorethylene,
and hydrochloric acid (5) (Th. Zincke and O. Fuchs, Ann., 1892.
267. p. 1).
— °rS ci ^nc't^x cic-
cil^Jci «LJci. ocl^cct CIC
f>>
(J>
co,H ♦ J c, «
C,C VO,H *' HC *
PMoroglucin (t 3.5-trioxybenzene) ft) behaves similarly to
resorcin. hexachloir [ 1 3.5) triketo-R-hcxylene (2} being first formed
This compound is converted by chlorine water into octachloracetyl-
acetone (3). by methyl alcohol into the ester of dichlormalomc acid
and tetrachloracetone (4), whilst ammonia gives dichloracetamide
Kr ' n " ~" ' ~ " ---"■
(5) (th. Zincke and O
egel, Bet., 1890, 23, p. 1706).
,<i) ajC-co-ca^coccij+co,
(4) ^HC-CO'CHCl^CHj-OjC-CCIjCOjfCH,
($) ClyHC'CONH,
When phenol is oxidized in acid solution by chlorine, letrachlor-
quinone U obtained, a compound also obtai ruble from hydfbquinoae-
By conducting the chlorination in alkaline total ion, -. tt _
A Hantzsch {Brr. w r8Sg, 22, p. 1236) succeeded in ob- J^J'jJ"
tuning derivatives of ct-diketo-R-hciione, which yield ^ZSS
R<pentene and aliphatic com pound* on decora pout tan.
When thus chlorinated phenol (t) yields trie htor-o-diketo-R- he vent
(2>, which may be hydrolysed to an acid [3'. which, in turn,
suffers rearrangement to frkhlor-R-pentcne-oxycaf boxy lit add (4).
Bromine water oxid lies this substance to oxalic acid and tetrabrom-
dichloracetone (5).
Clti
HOOC
...OH
Hd,C, SCO ■ I I^COOH Cl t 8rCCO'CBr a *
— II— HCS^/CH, . —
CCI
IsJ ' HVyJH, HCVyTCH, ""^f* "" HO.CCO.H
(1) (a) (S) (4) (S)
The reduction of o-oxybenioic acids by sodium in amyl alcohol
solution has been studied by A. f£i n horn and J. S. Lumsden (Ann.,
1805, 2S6, p. 257). tt is probable that tctranydro acids are first
formed, which suffer rearrangement to orthoketone carbotylic acids.
Those substances absorb water and become pimelic acids. Thus
salicylic acid yields n-pimeJic acid, HOOC-iCfidrCOOH. while 0-,
m-. and p^resotiak acids, Ci H 4CH i) (QH J tCOQH). yield isomeric
meihytpirnctic acids,
Rcsorcin on reduction give* dihydroresortin, which C Merlins
Mm., iSqj, %j$ p. jo) showed to be converted into n-jturar acid,
HOOC'(CHi)i'CCJUH f when oxidized with pufaAsium perm3ri>: natc;
according to D- Vtolandcr t^-i l8 95> 28 4 p. 23481 it is concerted
into T-acL-tobu lyric acid, CH*CO-(CHi)i-COOH, when healed with
baryta eo 150-160*.
Configuration of Ike Bemene Complex. — The development of
the " structure theory " in about i860 brought in its train an
appreciation of the chemical structure of the derivatives of
benzene. The pioneer in this field was August Kekule, who,
in 186s (Ann., 137, p. 129; see also his Lekrbuch dcr organiscken
Chemie), submitted his well-known formula for benzene, so
founding the " benzene theory " and opening up a problem
which, notwithstanding the immense amount of labour since
bestowed upon it, still remains imperfectly solved. Arguing
from the existence of only one mono-substitution derivative,
and of three di-derivatives (statements of which the rigorous
proof was then wanting), he was led to arrange the six carbon
atoms in a ring, attaching a hydrogen atom to each carbon
atom; being left with the fourth carbon valencies, he mutually
saturated these in pairs, thus obtaining the symbol I (sec below).
The value of this ringed structure was readily perceived, but
objections were raised with respect to Kckul6's disposal of the
fourth valencies. In 1866 Sir James Dcwar proposed an tin-
symmetrical form (II); while in 1867, A. Claus (Tkeorctiscke
Betrachtungen und dcren A nwendung zur SysUtnaUkder organiscken
Chemie) proposed his diagonal formula (III), and two years
later, A. Ladenburg (Bcr., 2, p. 140) devised his prism formula
(IV), the six carbon atoms being placed at the six corners of a
right equilateral triangular prism, with its plane projections
(V, VI).
|T|CH HC<b[CH HC,™CM HC^CH HcJAyCH
IJ^CH HC<J>C!I HcUJfcH HcU JcH HC^CH
CH CM CH CH CH
Dcwar uiCUut (v v y ,
<■>
HC /SCH
MCV^JcM
CH
Xelrall
One of the earliest and strongest objections urged against Kekulc's
formula was that it demanded two isomeric ortho-di-subatitution
derivatives, for if we number the carbon atoms in cyclical
order from I to 6, then the derivatives 1.2 and 1.6 should Obfectloa*
be different. 1 Ladenburg submitted that if the 1-2 and toKckaWt
1.6 compounds were identical, then we should expect the ahsshIs.
two well-known crotonic acids, CH,CH CHCOOH and
CH, CH CH, COOH. to be identical This view was opposed by
Victor Meyer and Kekule The former pointed out that the supposed
isomerism was not due to an arrangement of atoms, but to the dis-
position of a valency, and therefore it was doubtful whether such a
subtle condition could exert any influence on the properties of the
substance Kekule answered Ladenburg by formulating a dynamic
interpretation of valency He assumed that if we have one atom
1 It is now established that ortho compounds do exist in isomeric
forms, instances being provided by chlor-, brom-, and amino-toluene,
chlorphenol. and rhloranilinc; but arguments, e.g. E. Knoevenagel a
theory of " motoi5omerism, ,, have been brought forward to cause
these facts to support Kekule.
56
CHEMISTRY
connected by single bonds to (say) four other atoms, then in * certain
unk of time it will collide with each of these atoms in turn. Now
suppose two of the attached atoms are replaced by one atom, then
this atom must have two valencies directed to the central atom;
and consequently, in the same unit of time, the central atom will
collide once with each of the two monovalent atoms and twice with
the divalent. Applying this notion to benzene, let us consider the
impacts made by the carbon atom (i) which we will assume to be
doubly linked to the carbon atom (2) and singly linked to (6), h
standing for the hydrogen atom. In the first unit of time, the
impacts arc 2, 6. h, 2; and in the second 6, 2, h, 6. If we represent
graphically the impacts in the second unit of time, we perceive that
they point to a configuration in which the double linkage is between
the carbon atoms. 1 and 6, and the single linkage between I and 2.
Therefore, according to Kekule, the double linkages are in a state of
continual oscillation, and if his dynamical notion of valency, or a
similar hypothesis, be correct, then the difference between the 1.2
and 1.6 di-derivatives rests on the insufficiency of his formula,
which represents the configuration during one set of oscillations only.
The difference is only apparent, not real. An analogous oscillation
Kevails in the pyrazol nucleus, for L. Knorr (A »»., 1804, 279, p. 188)
s shown that 3- and 5-mcthylpyrazols are identical.
The explanation thus attempted by Kckulc was adversely criti-
cized, more especially by A. Laden burg, who devoted much attention
. _^ to the study of the substitution products of benzene, and
i f f!?* to the support of his own formula. His views arc presented
mgr * - in his pamphlet: Theorte der aromalischen Verbtndungen,
1876. The prism formula also received support from the
following data: protocatcchuic acid when oxidized by nitrous acid
gives carboxytartronic acid, which, on account of its ready de-
composition into carbon dioxide and tartronic acid, was considered
to be HO-C(COOH) s . This implied that in the benzene complex
there was at least one carbon atom linked to three others, thus
rendering Kekuld's formula impossible and Ladenburg's and Claus'
possible. Kekule (Ann., 1883. 221, p. 230), however, reinvestigated
this acid; he showed that it was dibasic and not tribasic; that it
gave tartaric acid on reduction; and, finally, that it was dioxy-
tartaric acid, HOOCC(OH),C(OH).COOH. The formation of
this substance readily follows from Kekule's formula, while con-
siderable difficulties are met with when one attempts an explanation
based on Ladenburg's representation. Kekule also urged that the
formation of trichlorphenomalic acid, shown by him and O. Strcckcr
to be trichloracetoacrylic acid, was more favourably explained by
his formula than by Ladenburg's.
Other objections to Ladenburg's formula resulted from A. von
Baeycr's researches (commenced in 1886) on the reduced phthalic
^^ acids. Baeyer pointed out that although benzene deri-
"■^•^f vatives were obtainable from hexamethylenc compounds,
/vsMfcav*. vct - lt by ^j mcana follows that only hexamethylene
compounds need result when benzene compounds are reduced. He
admitted the possibility of the formulae of Kekule. Claus, Dewar
and Ladenburg, although as to the last di-trimcthylcne derivatives
should be possible reduction products, being formed by severing
two of the prism edges; and he attempted to solve the problem by a
systematic investigation of the reduced phthalic acids.
Ladenburg's prism admits of one mono-substitution derivative
and three di-derivatives. Furthermore, it is in accordance with
certain simple syntheses of benzene derivatives (e.g. from acetylene
and acetone) ; but according to Baeyer (Ber., 1886, 19, p. 1 797)
it fails to explain the formation of dioxyterephthalic ester from
succinosuccinic ester, unless we make the assumption that the
transformation of these substances is attended by a migration of the
•ubstitucnt groups. For succinosuccinic ester, formed by the action
of sodium on two molecules of succinic ester, haseitherof theformulae
(I) or (II) ; oxidation of the free acid gives dioxyterephthalic acid in
which the para-positions must remain substituted as in (I) and (II).
By projecting Ladenburg's prism on a plane and numbering the
atoms so as to correspond with Kekule's form, viz. that 1.2 and 1.6
should be ortho-positions, 1.3 and 1.$ mcta-. and 1.4 para-, and
following out the transformation on the Ladenburg formula, then
an ortho-dioxytcrcphthalic acid (IV) should result, a fact denied
by experience, and inexplicable unless we assume a wandering of
atoms. Kekule's formula (111), on the other hand, is in full agree-
ment (Baeyer). This explanation has been challenged by Ladenburg
59 ^OH CjOh (,)oh
HaCrNcH-CO/t^ MC^jCMCO t W^ MC^Sc-CO,!! «t 0| C«j4iS(S)M
ElOjDHCl^CM, EtOjOC^AM, "ttOyC-cLJcM «O a Oll)l4 7 l(l)OH
CO COH COH (4)11
(Ber., 1886. 19. p. 971; Ber., 1887. 20. p. 62) and by A. K Miller
(J CS. Trans., 1887. p. 208). The transformation is not one of the
oxidation of a hexamethylene compound to a benzenoid compound,
for only two hydrogen atoms are removed. Surcinosuccinic ester
behaves both as a ketone and as a phenol, thereby exhibiting
desmotropy, assuming the ketone formula as indicating the con-
stitution, then in Bacyer's equation we have a migration of a
hydrogen atom, whereas to bring Ladenburg's formula into line
an oxygen atom must migrate
(ORGANIC
The relative merits of the formulae of Kekule*, Claus and Dewar
were next investigated by means of the reduction products of benzene,
it being Baeycr's intention to detect whether double linkages were
or were not present in the benzene complex.
To follow Baeyer's results we must explain his nomenclature of
the reduced benzene derivatives. He numbers the carbon atoms
placed at the corners of a hexagon from 1 to 6, and each side in the
same order, so that the carbon atoms 1 and 2 are connected by the
side I, atoms 2 and 3 by the side 2, and so on. A doubly linked pair
of atoms is denoted by the sign A with the index corresponding to
the side; if there arc two pairs of doubter links, then indices corre-
sponding to both sides are employed- Thus A ] denote* a tetrahydro
derivative in which the double Imk occupies the tide 1; A lJ , a
dihydro derivative, the double links being along the sides 1 and j.
Another form of isomerism is occasioned by spatial arrangement *,
many of the reduced terephthalic acids existing in two steteo-iwineric
forms. Baeyer explains this by analogy with fu marie and makic
acids: he assumes the reduced benzene ring to lie in a plane: when
both carboxyl groups arc on the same tide of thii plane, the acidi,
in general, resemble malcic acids, these forms he denotes by rcu-cii,
or shortly cts~, when the carboxyl groups are on opposite sides,
the acids correspond to fumaric acid7 these forma are denoted by
Ycis-trans, or shortly trans-.
By reducing tcrcphthalic acid with sodium amalgam, care being
taken to neutralize the caustic soda simultaneously formed by
passing in carbon dioxide. A* ' dihydroterephthalic acid is obtained;
this results from the splitting of a para-linkage. By boiling with
water the A*-* acid is converted into the A 1 • dihydroterephthalic
acid. This acid is converted into the A M acid by soda, and into the
A 1 tctrahydro acid by reduction. From this acid the A 1 ' dihydro
and the A 1 tetrahydro acids may be obtained, from both of which
the hcxahydro acid may be prepared. From these results Baeyer
concluded that Claus' formula with three para-Unkings cannot
possibly be correct, for the A' * dihydroterephthalic acid undoubtedly
has two ethylene linkages, since it readily takes up two or four
atoms of bromine, and is oxidized in warm aqueous solution by
alkaline potassium permanganate. But the formation of the A*»
acid as the first reduction product is not fully consistent with
KekukVs symbol, for wc should then expect the A" or the A" acid
to be first formed (see also Pox.ymethyi.enss).
The stronger argument against the ethylcnoid linkages
demanded by Kekule's formula is provided by the remark-
able stability towards oxidizing and reducing agents which
characterizes all benzenoid compounds. From the fact that
reduction products containing either one or two double linkages
behave exactly as unsaturated aliphatic compounds, being
readily reduced or oxidized, and combining with the halogen
elements and haloid acids, it seems probable that in benzenoid
compounds the fourth valencies are symmetrically distributed
in such a manner as to induce a peculiar stability in the molecule.
Such a configuration was proposed in 1887 by H. £. Armstrong
(J.C.S Trans., 1887, p. 258), and shortly afterwards by Baeyer
(Ann., 1888, 24s, p. 103). In this formula, the so-called " centric
formula/' the assumption made is that the fourth valencies are
simply directed towards the centre of the ring; nothing further
is said about the fourth valencies except that they exert a
pressure towards the centre. Claus maintained that Bacyer's
view was identical with his own, for as in Baeyer's formula, the
fourth valencies have a different function from the peripheral
valencies, being united at the centre in a form of potential
union.
It is difficult to determine which configuration most accurately
explains the observed facts; Kekule's formula undoubtedly
explains the synthetical production of benzenoid compounds
most satisfactorily, and W. Marckwald (Ann., 1893, 274, p. 331;
1894, 279, p 14) has supported this formula from considerations
based on the syntheses of the quinoline ring. Further researches
by Baeyer, and upon various nitrogenous- ring systems by £.
Bamberger (a strong supporter of the centric formula), have
shown that the nature of the substituent groups influences the
distribution of the fourth valencies; therefore it may be con-
cluded that in compounds the benzene nucleus appears to be
capable of existence in two tautomeric forms, in the sense that
each particular derivative possesses a definite constitution.
The benzene nucleus presents a remarkable case, which must be
considered in the formulation of any complete theory of valency.
From a study of the reduction of compounds containing two
cthylcnic bonds united by a single bond, termed a "conjugated
system," E. Thiele suggested a doctrine of " partial valencies,"
ORCANIQ
CHEMISTRY
57
chich assumes that in addition to the ordinary valencies, each
doubly linked atom has a partial valency, by which the atom first
interacts. When applied to benzene, a twofold conjugated
system is suggested in which the partial valencies of adjacent!
itoms neutralize, with the formation of a potential double link.
The stability of benzene is ascribed to this conjugation. 1
Physico-chemical properties have also been drawn upon to
•Sedde whether double unions are present in the benzene com-
plea; but here the predilections of the observers
JjjJkS *PP* ren tly influence the nature of the conclusions to
ssstia*. be drawn from such data. It is well known that
singly, doubly and trebly linked carbon atoms affect
the physical properties of substances, such as the refractive 1
index, specific volume, and the heat of combustion; and by*
determining these constants for many substances, fairly definite
values can be assigned to these groupings. The general quest ion
cf the relation of the refractive index to constitution has been
especially studied by J. W. Brtihl, who concluded that benzene
contained 3 double linkages; whereas, in 1901, Pellini (Gaze II a,
31, i. p. 1) calculated that single linkages were present. A'
similar contradiction apparently exists with regard to the
specific volume, for while benzene has a specific volume corre-
sptnding to Claus' formula, toluene, or methyl benzene, rather
points to Kckule's. The heat of combustion, as first determined 1
by Julius Thomsen, agreed rather better with the presence of
cine single unions. His work was repeated on a finer scale by
M. P. E. Bcrthelot of Paris, and F. C. A. Stohmann of Leipzig;
aad the new data and the conclusions to be drawn from them
formed the subject of much discussion, Bruhl endeavouring,
to show how they supported Kckul6's formula, while Thomsen
maintained that they demanded the benzene union to have a
different heat of combustion from the acetylene union. Thomsen
then investigated heats of combustion of various benzenoid
hydrocarbons — benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, phenanthrcne,
ic. — in the crystallized state. It was found that the results
were capable of expression by the empirical relation C.IIi»-
i04-3M*49*oo*i+iO5-47n, where C.Hj» denotes the formula
of the hydrocarbon, m the number of single carbon Unkings and
• the number of double Unkings, m and n being calculated on
the KekuM formulae. But, at the same time, the constants in
the above relation are not identical with those in the corre-
sponding relation empirically deduced from observations on fatty
hydrocarbons; and we arc therefore led to conclude that a 1
benzene union is considerably more stable than an ethylene
union.
Mention may be made of the absorption spectrum of benzene.
According to W. N. Hartley (J.CS., 1005, 87, p. 1822), there
are six bands in the ultra-violet, while £. C. C. Baly and J. N.
Collie (J.CS., 1905, 87, p. 1332; 1006, 89, p. 524) record seven.,
These bands are due to molecular oscillations; Hartley suggests
the carbon atoms to be rotating and forming alternately single
and double linkages, the formation of three double Unks giving
three bands, and of three single Unks another three; Baly and
Collie, on the other hand, suggest the making and breaking of
links between adjacent atoms, pointing out that there arc seven
combinations of one, two and three pairs of carbon atoms in the '
benzene molecule.
Sicreo-ckemkal Configurations. — Simultaneously with the dis-
cussions of Kekule, Ladcnburg, Claus, Bacyer and others as to the
merits of various plane formulae of the benzene complex, there
were published many suggestions with regard to the arrange-
ment of the atoms in space, all of which attempted to explain
the number of isomers and the equivalence of the hydrogen
atoms. The development of stcrco-isomerism at the hands of
1 Victor Meyer and G. Heyl (Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2776) attempted a
Ktlution from the foUowing data. It i» well known that di-orthe-
mbstituted benzoic acids arc estcrificd with difficulty. Two acids
co rresponding to the formula of Kelcule and Claus are triphenyl
acrylic acid,TC«H,),C: C(COOH)C.H». and triphenyl acetic acid,
(CtHOiC'COOH. Experiments showed that the second acid was
much more difficult to cstcrify than the first, pointing to the con-
clusion that Claus' formula for benzene was more probable than
KdraW's.
J, Wislicr nt», Lc Be] and van 't Hoff has resulted in the intro-
duction of another condition which formulae for the benzene
complex must satisfy, viz, that the hydrogen atoms must all
tic in one plane. The proof of this statement rests on the fact
that if the hydrogen moms were not co-planar, then substitution
derivatives (the substituting groups not containing asymmetric
carbon atoms) should etist in enantiomorphic forms, differing in
crystal form and in I heir action on polarized light; such optical
antipodes have, however, not yet been separated. Ladcnburg's
prism formula would give two enantiomorphic ortho-di-substi-
lution derivatives, while forms in which the hydrogen atoms
are placed at the corners of a regular octahedron would yield
tmntiomorphie tri -substitution derivatives.
The Oct ahedrat formula dLvu&Hd by Julius Thomsen (Ber., 1 886, '
lo s p. 204a) conrists of the dn carbon atoms placed at the corners
of a regular octahedron, and connected together by the full lines at
shown in (1); a plane projection gives a hexagon with diagonals
ill, 1. Reduction to he u methylene compounds necessitate* the
disruption of three of the edge* of the octahedron, the diagonal
linkinga remaining intact, or, in the plane projection, three peripheral
linkages, the hexa methylene ring assuming the form (III):
b-^fe
In iRSg J t E. Mar* pulilkned a paper (Phil. Mag. [V.], 26, p. 436)
in which he diHruued vjriou? *KTco-chcmical representation* of
the Ik [imic nucleus (The tpUrco-rhcmistry of carbon compounds
ha™ led to the spatial it presentation of a carbon atom as being
t-i runted at the centre of a tetrahedron, the four valencies being
directed toward* the aplresj n-e above, and Isomerism.) A form
hi Fed on Kckulc's formula tonwbti in taking three pairs of tctra-
hrcka, each pair hating a tide in common, and joining them up
along the sidi* of a re gulir hexagon by means of their apices. This
form, afterward-; Mipportcd by Carl < iraebe (Ber., 1902, 35,p. 526; see
also Marsh's m»ly h J^yrn^ Chan. .Soc. Trant. % 1902, p. 06 ij shows
the proximity of the orihn- position*, but fails to explain the identity
of i.J ami 1.6 compounds. Arrangements connected with Claus*
formula are obtained by placing six tetrahedra on the six triangles
formed by I he dia finals of a plane hexagon. The form in which the
tctrahedra are ail un one bide, afterwards discussed by J. Loschmidt
(Mcnatt., 1S90, m, p. 38). would not give sterco-isomcrs; and the
arrangement of plating the tetrahedra on alternate sides, a form
after ward* developed by W. Vaubcl (J own. Pr. Chem., 1894 fa),
49* p- 30^)* ha* the advantage of bringing the meta-positions on one
tide, and I he ortho- and para- on opposite sides, thus exhibiting
the similarity actually observed between these series of compounds.
Mai^h aUo devised a fond closely resembling that of Thomncn,
inasmuch as the carbon atoms occupied the angles of a regular
octahedron, and the diagonal linkages differed in nature from
the peripheral., but diffcrcne from Thomscn's since rupture of the
diagonal and not peripheral bonds accompanied the reduction to
he *a methylene.
We may n!*j notice the model devised by H. Sachsc (Ber., 1888,
31, 2&\Q; Zcil. fur pbyi. Chem, t |i, p. 214; 23, p. 2062). Two
parallel triangular faces are removed frpvn a cardboard model of a
regular octahedron, and on the remaining six faces tctrahedra are
then placed: the hydrogen atoms are at the free angles. This
configuration is, according to Sathse, more stable than any other
form; no oscillation is possible, the molecule being only able to
move as a whole. In I*kj7. J, N. Collie (Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans.,
p. 1013) considered in detail an octahedral form, and showed how by
means of certain simple rotations of his system the formulae
of Kekulfi and Claus could be obtained as projections. An entirely
new device, suggested by B. Konig (Chem. Zeit., 1905, 29, p. 30),
assumed the six esrbnn atoms to occupy six of the corners of a cube,
each carbon atom being linked to a hydrogen atom and by single
bonds to two neighbouring carbon atoms, the remaining valencies
being directed to the unoccupied corners of the cube, three to each,
where they are supposed to satisfy each other.
Condensed Nuclei.
Restricting ourselves to compounds resulting from the fusion
of beaaene rings, we have first to consider naphthalene, CttH*
which consists of two benzene rings having a pair of carbon atom*
in common. The nefct members are the isomers anthracene and
phenanthrenc t C t ,U,t,, formed from three benzene nuclei. Here
we shall only discuss the structure of these compounds in the
light of the modern benzene Uicatfcr, tcfatrat tSms^W*. \s*ta.
58
CHEMISTRY
[ORGANIC
to the articles Naphthalene, Anthracene and Phenan-
ihrene for syntheses, decompositions, &c.
Naphlkalcnc.—Qi the earlier suggestions for the constitution
of naphthalene we notice the formulae of Wreden (i) and (i),
Bcrthclot and Balls (3), R. A. C. E. Erlenmcyer (4) and Adblf
Claus(s).
CP30D (KD CD
<•)
(•)
(1)
(4)
The first suggestion is quite out of the question. C. Graebe in
x866 (Ann. 140, p. 20) established the symmetry of the naph-
thalene nucleus, and showed that whichever half of the molecule
be oxidized the same phthalic acid results. Therefore formula (i),
being unsymmctrical, is impossible. The third formula is based
on Dewar's benzene formula, which we have seen to be incorrect.
Formula (4) is symmetrical and based on Kekule's formula: it
is in full accord with the syntheses and decompositions of the
naphthalene nucleus and the number of isomers found, In
1882 Claus suggested a combination of his own and Dewar's
benzene formulae. This is obviously unsymmetrical, consisting
of an aliphatic and an aromatic nucleus; Claus explained the
formation of the same phthalic acid from the oxidation of either
nucleus by supposing that if the aromatic group be oxidized, the
aliphatic residue assumes the character of a benzene nucleus.
Bamberger opposed Claus' formula on the following grounds,:—
The molecule of naphthalene is symmetrical, since 2.7 dioxy-
naphthalene is readily esterificd by methyl iodide and sulphuric
acid to a dimethyl ether; and no more than two mono-substi-
tution derivatives arc known. The molecule is aromatic but not
benzenoid; however, by the reduction of one half of the mole-
cule, the other assumes a benzenoid character.
If ^mphthvLnmine and 0-naphthot be reduced, tetrahydro
products arc obtained in which ine jrninu- or oxy- bearing half of
the molecule become* aliphatic in character. The compounds w
obtained, alicyclic^lctrahydronafilithyUmine and alieyeTie-0-
tetrihydrortjphckj], elo&tly resemble 0-amiriodu'thylUnrene.
C B H .(Ci I J t ) C|J I < N H ; . and fl-o w d id hy tben«ne .CftrUOHi) ■ CtH iOR
If ^naphthyliminc and a-naphlhol be reduced, the hydrofirn atoms
attach themselves to the non-substituted hilf ot the molecule,
and the compounds so obtained resemble aminodicthylbcfttenc,
C,Uj N[i,{C,R,)i, artd osydicthylbenxene, C.f U-Oil (C,lti)i. Bam-
berj^er's observations on reduced qu incline derivatives point to the
tame conclusion, that condensed nuclei are not benzenoid* but
possess an individual character, which breaks down, however, when
the molecule is reduced.
It remains, therefore, to consider Erlenmcyer's formula and
those derived from the centric hypothesis. The former, based
on Kekull's symbol for benzene, explains the decompositions
and syntheses of the ring, but the character of naphthalene
is not in keeping with the presence of five double linkages,
although it is more readily acted upon than benzene is. On the
centric hypothesis two formulae are possible: (1) due to H.E.
Armstrong, and (2) due to £. Bamberger.
coco
<«> (a)
In the first symbol it is assumed that one of the affinities of each
of the two central carbon atoms common to the two rings acts
into both rings, an assumption involving a somewhat, wide
departure from all ordinary views as to the manner in which
affinity acts. This symbol harmonizes with the fact that the two
rings are in complete sympathy, the one responding to every
change made in the other. Then, on account of the rcl •■■-.■
slight— because divided— influence which would be exercised
upon the two rings by the two affinities common to both, the
remaining four centric affinities of each ring would presumably
be less attracted into the ring than in the case of benzene;
consequently they would be more active outwards, and com*
bination would set in more readily. When, as in the formation
of naphthalene tetrachloride, for example, the one ring becomei
saturated, the other might be expected to assume the normal
centric form and become relatively inactive. This is absolutely
the case. On the other hand, if substitution be effected in the
one ring, and the affinities in that ring become attracted inwards,
as apparently happens in the case of benzene, the adjoining ring
should become relatively more active because the common
affinities would act less into it. Hence, unless the radical
introduced be one which exercises a special attractive influence,
substitution should take place in preference in the previously
unsubstituted ring. In practice this usually occurs; for example,
on further bromination, a-bromonaphthalene yields a mixture
of the (1.4) and (1.5) dibromonaphthalenes; and when nitro-
naphthalene is either brominated, or nitrated or sulphonated,
the action is practically confined to the second ring. The
centric formula proposed by Bamberger represents naphthalene as
formed by the fusion of two benzene rings, this indicates that it
is a monocyclic composed of ten atoms of carbon. The formula
has the advantage that it may. be constructed from tctrahedral
models of the carbon atom; but it involves the assumption that
the molecule has within it a mechanism, equivalent in a measure
to a system of railway points, which can readily close up and
pass into that characteristic of benzene.
Anthracene and PJunantkrcnc.— These isomeric hydrocarbons,
of the formula CuHio, are to be regarded as formed by the
fusion of three benzenoid rings as represented by the symbols.'—
COO cPd
In both cases the medial ring is most readily attacked; and
various formulae have been devised which are claimed by their
authors to represent this and other facts. According to Arm*
strong, anthracene behaves unsymmetrically towards sub-
stituents, and hence one lateral ring differs from the other; he
represents the molecule as consisting of one centric ring, the
remaining medial and lateral ring being ethenoid. Bamberger,
on the other hand, extends his views on benzene and naphthalene
and assumes the molecule to be (1). For general purposes,
however, the symbol (2), in which the lateral rings are benzenoid
and the medial ring fatty, represents quite adequately the
syntheses, decompositions, and behaviour of anthracene.
csoato
(•)
(»)
Phenanthrene is regarded by Armstrong as represented by (3),
the lateral rings being benzenoid, and the medial ring fatty;
Bamberger, however, regards it as (4), the molecule being
c£t> <r£fe>
O) (4)
entirely aromatic. An interesting observation by Baeyer, Via.
that stilbene, C»H t CH:CHC«H t , is very readily oxidized,
while phenanthrene is not, supports, in some measure, the views
of Bamberger.
Heterocyclic Compounds.
During recent years an immense number of ringed or cyclic
compounds have been discovered, which exhibit individual
characters more closely resembling benzene, naphthalene, &c
than purely aliphatic substances, inasmuch as in general they
contain double linkages, yet withstand oxidation, and behave as
nuclei, forming derivatives in much the same way as benzene.
By reduction, the double linkages become saturated, and
compounds result which stand in much about the same relation
to the original nucleus as hexamethylcne does to benzene. In
general, therefore, it may be considered that the double linkages
are not of exactly the same nature as the double linkage present
in ethylene and ethylcnoid compounds, but that they are
analogous to the potential valencies of benzene. The centric
hypothesis has been applied to these rings by Bamberger and
others; but as in the previous rings considered, the ordinary
ORGANIC]
CHEMISTRY
59
representation with double and single linkages generally repre-
sents Che syntheses, decompositions, &c; exceptions, however,
are known where it is necessary to assume an oscillation of the
double linkage. Five- and six-membered rings are the most
stable and important, the last-named group resulting from the
polymerization of many substances; three- and four-membered
rings are formed with difficulty, and are easily ruptured; rings
containing seven or more members are generally unstable, and
are relatively little known. The elements which go to form
heterocyclic rings, in addition to carbon, are oxygen, sulphur,
selenium and nitrogen. It is remarkable that sulphur can
replace two methinc or CH groups with the production of com-
pounds greatly resembling the original one. Thus benzene,
(CH)*, gives thiophene, (CH)«S, from which it is difficultly dis-
tinguished; pyridine, (CH)»N, gives thiazole, (CH)rN-S, which
is a very similar substance; naphthalene gives thionaphthen,
CtHcS, with which it shows great analogies, especially in the
derivatives. Similarly a CH group may be replaced by a nitrogen
atom with the production of compounds of similar stability;
thus benzene gives pyridine, naphthalene gives quinoline and
isoquinoh'ne; anthracene gives acridine and a and anthra-
pyridines. Similarly, two or more mcthine groups may be
replaced by the same number of nitrogen atoms with the forma-
tion of rings of considerable stability.
Most of the simple ring systems which contain two adjacent
carbon atoms may suffer fusion with any other ring (also containing
two adjacent carbon atoms) with the production of nuclei of greater
complexity. Such condensed nuclei are, in many cases, more readily
obtained than the parent nucleus. The more important types are
derived from aromatic nuclei, benzene, naphthalene, &c.; the
ortho-di-derivatives of the first named, lending themselves particu-
larly to the formation of condensed nuclei. Thus ortho-phenylene
j: — j_^ yields the following products: —
contains a ring composed of four carbon atoms and one oxygen
atom:
CliVCH/ CHrOi/ tH^CO^ CH-CfX 6h-CH^
In some cases oxidation of condensed benzenoid-heterocyclic nuclei
results in the rupture of the heterocyclic ring with the formation of
a benzene dicarboxylic acid ; but if the aromatic nucleus be weakened
by the introduction of an amino group, then it is the benzenoid
nucleus which is destroyed and a dicarboxylic acid of the heterocyclic
ring system obtained.
Heterocyclic rings may be systematically surveyed from two
aspects: (1) by arranging the rings with similar hetero-atoms
according to the increasing number of carbon atoms, the so-called
" homologous series "; or (2) by first dividing the ring systems
according to the number of members constituting the ring, and
then classifying these groups according to the nature of the
hetero-atoms, the so-called " isologous series." The second
method possesses greater advantages, for rings of approximate
stability come in one group, and, consequently, their derivatives
may be expected to exhibit considerable analogies.
As a useful preliminary it is convenient to divide heterocyclic
ring systems into two leading groups: (1) systems resulting
from simple internal dehydration (or similar condensations) of
saturated aliphatic compounds — such compounds are: the
internal anhydrides or cyclic ethers of the glycols and thioglycols
(ethylene oxide, &c); the cyclic alkyleneimides resulting from
the splitting off of ammonia between the amino groups of diamino-
paraffins (pyrrolidine, piperazine, &c); the cyclic esters of
oxycarboxylic acids (lactones, lactides); the internal anhydrides
of aminocarboxylic acids (lactams, betaines); cyclic derivatives
of dicarboxylic acids (anhydrides, imides, alkylen-esters, alkylen-
amides, &c). These compounds retain their aliphatic nature,
and are best classified with open-chain compounds, into which,
in general, they are readily converted. (2) Systems which
are generally unsaturated compounds, often of considerable
stability, and behave as nuclei; these compounds constitute a
well-individualized class exhibiting closer affinities to benzenoid
substances than to the open-chain scries.
-~ I The transition between the two classes as differentiated above
- 1 Bay be illustrated by the following cyclic compounds, each of which
T«nuMthjrkM Butyrobctooe. Succinic
wide auhydrid*. aahydrkto.
The first four substances are readily formed from, and converted
into, the corresponding dihydroxy open-chain compound; these
substances are truly aliphatic in character. The fifth compound,
on the other hand, does not behave as an unsaturated aliphatic
compound, but its deportment is that of a nucleus, many substitution
derivatives being capable of synthesis. Reduction, however, con-
verts it into an aliphatic compound. This is comparable with the
reduction of the benzene nucleus into hcxametbylene, a substance of
an aliphatic character.
True ring systems, which possess the characters of organic
nuclei, do not come into existence in three- and four-membered
rings, their first appearance being in penta-atomic rings. The
three primary members are furfurane, thiophene and pyrrol,
each of which contains four methine or CH groups, and an
oxygen, sulphur and imido (NH) member respectively; a
series of compounds containing selenium is also known. The
formulae of these substances are:
CH-CHv CH-C1L
CH-OK CH-CH'
Furfurane. Thiophene.
CH-CR
\q
CH-
A,.
Crl
>NH
CH-CH^ CH-CH'
Sclenophene. Pyrrol.
By substituting one or more CH groups in these compounds
by nitrogen atoms, ring-systems, collectively known as azotes,
result. Obviously, isomeric ring-systems are possible, since the
carbon atoms in the original rings are not all of equal value.
Thus furfurane yields the following rings by the introduction
of one and two nitrogen atoms:
CH-N v N-CH v
I >o I >>
:h«ch' ch-ok
Oxazole.
N-CH V
N-N
CH-CH'
Isoxazole.
HON.
HC-rT
Furazane.
CH-N^
Azoximcs.
n — r* v
CH-OK
Diazo-oxides.
N-CH^
N-CH'
Oxybiarole.
Thiophene yields a similar series: isothiazole (only known as
the condensed ring, isobenzothiazole), thiazole, diazosulphides,
piazthioles, azosulphimes and thiobiazole (the formulae are
easily derived from the preceding series by replacing oxygen by
sulphur). Thiophene also gives rise to triazsulphole, three
nitrogen atoms being introduced. Selenophene gives the series:
selcnazole, diazoselcnide and piaselenole, corresponding to
oxazole, diazo-oxides and furazane. Pyrrol yields an analogous
series: pyrazole, imidazole or glyoxaline, azimide or osotriazole,
triazole and tetrazole:
N-CH,
CH-N N «-*.n N
CH-CH^ ch-ch'
Pyrazole.
Imidazole.
N-CH V N-N
1 ;nh 1 yi
n-ch/ n«ch'
Triazole. Tetrazole.
N-N v
CH-OK
Azimide.
\
NH
Six-membered ring systems can be referred back, in a manner
similar to the above, to pyrone, penthiophene and pyridine, the
substances containing a ring of five carbon atoms, and an
oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen atom respectively. As before,
only true ring nuclei, and not internal anhydrides of aliphatic
compounds, will be mentioned. From the pyrone ring the
following series of compounds are derived (for brevity, the
hydrogen atoms are not printed) :
:6: :a c c a XX ft
Penthiophene gives, by a similar introduction of nitrogen atoms,
penthiazoline, corresponding to mcta-oxazine, and para-thiaxine x
6o
CHEMISTRY
corresponding to paroxazine. (para-oxazine). Pyridine gives
origin to: pyridazine or ortho-diazine, pyrimidine or meta-
diazine, pyrazine or para-diazine, osotriazine, unsymmetrical
triazine, symmetrical triazine, osotctrazone and tetrazine. The
skeletons of these types are (the carbon atoms are omitted for
brevity):
G 0- 0* 6 jatX"0r ft ft
t* N N N K W H . H N
Pyridine Pyridactne Pyrtnddfno Pyrazine Triasinea Oaotetraxonea Tetnsfn*
We have previously referred to the condensation of hetero-
cyclic ring systems containing two vicinal carbon atoms with
benzene, naphthalene and other nuclei. The more important
nuclei of this type have received special and non-systematic
names; when this is not the case, such terms as phen-, benzo-,
naphtho- are prefixed to the name of the heterocyclic ring. One
or two benzene nuclei may suffer condensation with the furfurane,
thiophene and pyrrol rings, the common carbon atoms being
vicinal to the hetero-atom. The mono-benzo-derivatives are
coumarone, benzothiophene and indole; the dibenzo-derivatives
are diphcnylcne oxide, dibenzothiophene or diphenylene sulphide,
and carbazole. Typical formulae are (R denoting 0, S or NH) :
CoCcO
Isomers are possible, for the condensation may be effected on
the two carbon atoms symmetrically placed to the hetero-atom;
these isomers, however, are more of the nature of internal
anhydrides. Benz-oxazoles and -thiazoles have been prepared,
benz-isoxazoles are known as indoxazenes; benzo-pyraxoles
occur in two structural forms, named indazoles and isindazolcs.
Derivatives of osotriazol also exist in two forms— azimides and
pseudo-azimides.
Proceeding to the six-membered hctero-atomic rings, the
benzo-, dibenzo- and naphtho-derivatives are frequently of
great commercial and scientific importance, a-pyronc condenses
with the benzene ring to form coumarin and isocoumarin;
benzo-7-pyrone constitutes the nucleus of several vegetable
colouring matters (chrysin, fisctin, quercctin, &c, which are
derivatives of flavonc or phenyl benzo-7-pyrone); dibcnzo-7-
pyrone is known as xanthone; related to this substance are
fluorane (and fluorescein), fluorone, fluorime, pyronine, &c.
The pyridine ring condenses with the benzene ring to form
quinoline and isoquinolinc; acridinc and phenanthridine are
dibenzo-pyridines; naphthalene gives rise to o-and 0-naphtho-
quinolines and the anthrapyridines; anthracene gives anthra-
quinoline; while two pyridine nuclei connected by an inter-
mediate benzene nucleus give the phenanthrolines. Naph-
thyridines and naphthinolincs result from the condensation of
two pryridine and two quinoline nuclei respectively; and
quino-quinolines are unsymmetrical naphthyridine nuclei
condensed with a benzene nucleus. Benzo -orthoxazines,
-mctoxazines and -paroxazines are known: dibenzoparoxazine
or phenoxazinc is the parent of a valuable series of dyestuffs;
dibenzoparathiazine or thiodiphcnylamine is important from
the same aspect. Benzo-ortho-diazincs exist in two structural
forms, dnnolin and phthalazine; benzo-mcta-diazincs are
known as quinazolines; benzo-para-diazines are termed quinoxa-
lines; the dibenzo-compounds arc named phenazincs, this last
group including many valuable dyestuffs— indulines, safranines,
&c. In addition to the types of compounds enumerated above
we may also notice purin, tropine and the terpenes.
V. Analytical Chemistry
This branch of chemistry has for its province the determination
of the constituents of a chemical compound or of a mixture of
compounds. Such a determination is qualitative, the constituent
being only detected or proved to be present, or quantitative, in
which the amount present is ascertained. The methods of
chemical analysis may be classified according to the type of
(ANALYTICAL
reaction: (1) dry or blowpipe analysis, which consists in an
examination of the substance in the dry condition; this includes
such tests as ignition in a .tube, ignition on charcoal in the
blowpipe flame, fusion with borax, microcosmic salt or fluxes,
and flame colorations (in quantitative work the dry methods are
sometimes termed " dry assaying "); (2) wet analysis, in which
a solution of the substance is treated with reagents which
produce specific reactions when certain elements or groups of
elements are present. In quantitative analysis the methods
can be subdivided into: (a) gravimetric, in which the constituent
is precipitated either as a definite insoluble compound by the
addition of certain reagents, or electrolytically, by the passage
of an electric current; (6) volumetric, in which the volume of a
reagent of a known strength which produces a certain definite
reaction is measured; (c) colorimctric, in which the solution has
a particular tint, which can be compared with solutions of
known strengths.
Historical. — The germs of analytical chemistry are to be
found in the writings of the pharmacists and chemists of the
iatrochemical period. The importance of ascertaining the
proximate composition of bodies was clearly realized by Otto
Tachcnius; but the first systematic investigator was Robert
Boyle, to whom we owe the introduction of the term analysis.
Boyle recognized many reagents which gave precipitates with
certain solutions: he detected sulphuric and hydrochloric
acids by the white precipitates formed with calcium chloride
and silver nitrate respectively; ammonia by the white cloud
formed with the vapours of nitric or hydrochloric adds; and
copper by the deep blue solution formed by a solution of ammonia.
Of great importance is his introduction of vegetable juices (the
so-called indicators, q.v.) to detect acids and bases. During the
phlogistic period, the detection of the constituents of compounds
was considerably developed. Of the principal workers in this
field we may notice Fricdrich Hoffmann, Andreas Sigismund
Marggraf (who detected iron by its reaction with potassium
ferrocyanide, and potassium and sodium by their flame colora-
tions), and especially Carl Scheele and Torbern Olof Bergman.
Scheele enriched the knowledge of chemistry by an immense
number of facts, but he did not possess the spirit of working
systematically as Bergman did. Bergman laid the foundations
of systematic qualitative analysis, and devised methods by which
the metals may be separated into groups according to their
behaviour with certain reagents. This subdivision, which is of
paramount importance in the analysis of minerals, was subse-
quently developed by Wilhelm August Lampadius in his Hand-
buck zur ekemischen Analyse der Mincralicn (1801) and by John
Fricdrich A. Gdttling in his Praktische Anlcitung zur prtfenden
und zurlegenden C hemic (1802).
The introduction of the blowpipe into dry qualitative analysis
by Axel Frcdrik Cronstcdt marks an important innovation.
The rapidity of the method, and the accurate results which it
gave in the hands of a practised experimenter, led to its system-
atization by Jons Jakob Berzclius and Johann Fricdrich Ludwig
Hausmann, and in more recent times by K. F. Planner, whose
treatise Die Probirkunst mit dem Ldthrohr is a standard work on
the subject. Another type of dry reaction, namely, the flame
coloration, had been the subject of isolated notices, as, for example,
the violet flame of potassium and the orange flame of sodium
observed by Marggraf and Scheele, but a systematic account was
wanting until Cartmcll took the subject up. His results (Phil.
Mag. 16, p. 382) were afterwards perfected by Robert Wilhelm
Bunsen and Gustav Mere. Closely related to the flame-colora-
tions, we have to notice the great services rendered by the
spectroscope to the detection of elements. Rubidium, caesium,
thallium, indium and gallium were first discovered by means of
this instrument; the study of the rare earths is greatly facilitated,
and the composition of the heavenly bodies alone determinable
by it.
Quantitative chemistry had been all but neglected before
the time of Lavoisier, for although a few chemists such as
Tachenius, Bergman and others had realized the advantages
which would accrue from a knowledge of the composition of
ANALYTICAL)
CHEMISTRY
61
bodies by weight, and had laid down the lines upon which such
determinations should proceed, the experimental difficulties in
making accurate observations were enormous, and little progress
could be made until the procedure was more accurately
determined. Martin Hcinrich Klaproth showed the necessity for
igniting precipitates before weighing them, if they were not
decomposed by this process; and he worked largely with Louis
Nicolas Vauquclin in perfecting the analysis of minerals. K. F.
Wenzel and J. B. Richtcr contributed to the knowledge of the
quantitative composition of salts. Anton Laurent Lavoisier,
however, must be considered as the first great exponent of this
branch of chemistry. He realized that the composition by
weight of chemical compounds was of the greatest moment if
chemistry were to advance. His fame rests upon his exposition
of the principles necessary to chemistry as a sccience, but of his
contributions to analytical inorganic chemistry little can be said.
He applied himself more particularly to the oxygen compounds,
and determined with a fair degree of accuracy the ratio of carbon
to oxygen in carbon dioxide, but his values for thcratioof hydrogen
to oxygen in water, and of phosphorus to oxygen in phosphoric
add, are only approximate; he introduced no new methods
either for the estimation or separation of the metals. The next
advance was made by Joseph Louis Proust, whose investigations
led to a clear grasp of the law of constant proportions. The
formulation of the atomic theory by John Dalton gave a fresh
impetus to the development of quantitative analysis; and the
determination of combining or equivalent weights by Berzelius
led to the perfecting of the methods of gravimetric analysis.
Experimental conditions were thoroughly worked out; the
necessity of working with hot or cold solutions was clearly
emphasized; and the employment of small quantities of
substances instead of the large amounts recommended by
Klaproth was shown by him to give more consistent results.
Since the time of Berzelius many experimenters have entered
the lists, and introduced developments which we have not space
to mention. We may, however, notice Hcinrich Rose 1 and
Friedrkh Wdhler,* who, having worked up the results of their
teacher Berzelius, and combined them with their own valuable
observations, exerted gTcat influence on the progress of analytical
chemistry by publishing works which contained admirable
accounts of the then known methods of analysis. To K. R.
Fresenius, the founder of the Zeitschrifl far analytische C hemic
(1862), we are particularly indebted for perfecting and systematiz-
ing the various methods of analytical chemistry. By strengthen-
ing the older methods, and devising new ones, he exerted an
influence which can never be overestimated. His text-books on
die subject, of which the Qualitative appeared in 1841, and the
Quantitative in 1846, have a world-wide reputation, and have
passed through several editions.
The quantitative precipitation of metals by the electric current,
although known to Michael Faraday, was not applied to analytical
chemistry until O. Wolcott Gibbs worked out the electrolytic
separation of copper in 1865. Since then the subject has been
extensively studied, more particularly by Alexander Classen, who
has summarized the methods and results in his Quantitative
Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis (1003). The ever-increasing
importance of the electric current in metallurgy and chemical
manufactures is making this method of great importance, and in
some cases it has partially, if not wholly, superseded the older
methods.
Volumetric analysis, possessing as it does many advantages
over the gravimetric methods, has of late years been extensively
developed. Gay Lussac may be regarded as the founder of the
method, although rough applications had been previously made
by F. A. II. Descroizilles and L. N. Vauquelin. Chlorimctry
(1824), alkalimetry (1828), and the volumetric determination of
silver and chlorine (1832) were worked out by Gay Lussac; but
although the advantages of the method were patent, it received
recognition very slowly. The application of potassium per-
manganate to the estimation of iron by £. Margueritte in 1846,
1 H. Rose. Ausffihrlichts Handbuch der analytischcn Chemie (1851).
*F. Wohfcr, Die Mineralanalyse in Beispieten (1S6I).
and of iodine and sulphurous add to the estimation of copper and
many other substances by Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, marks an
epoch in the early history of volumetric analysis. Since then it
has been rapidly developed, particularly by Karl Friedrich Mohr
and J. Volhard, and these methods rank side by side in value
with the older and more tedious gravimetric methods.
The detection of carbon and hydrogen in organic compounds
by the formation of carbon dioxide and water when they are
burned was first correctly understood by Lavoisier, and at he
had determined the carbon and hydrogen content of these two
substances he was able to devise methods by which carbon and
hydrogen in organic compounds could be estimated. In his
earlier experiments he burned the substance in a known volume
of oxygen, and by measuring the residual gas determined the
carbon and hydrogen. For substances of a difficultly combustible
nature he adopted the method In common use to-day, viz. to mix
the substance with an oxidizing agent — mercuric oxide, lead
dioxide, and afterwards copper oxide — and absorb the carbon
dioxide in potash solution. This method has been Improved,
especially by Justus v. LicLig; and certain others based on a
different procedure have been suggested. The estimation of
nitrogen was first worked out in 1830 by Jean Baptiste Dumas,
and different processes have been proposed by Will and F.
Varrcntrapp, J. Kjcldahl and others. Methods for the estimation
of the halogens and sulphur were worked out by L Carius (see
below, § Organic Analysis).
Only a reference can be made in this summary to the many
fields in which analytical chemistry has been developed. Pro-
gress in forensic chemistry was only possible after the reactions
of poisons had been systematized; a subject which has been
worked out by many investigators, of whom we notice K. R.
Fresenius, J. and R. Otto, and J. S. Stas. Industrial chemistry
makes many claims upon the chemist, for it is necessary to deter-
mine the purity of a product before it can be valued. This has
led to the estimation of sugar by means of the polarimcter, and
of the calorific power of fuels, and the valuation of ores and
metals, of coal-tar dyes, and almost all trade products.
The passing of the Food and Drug Acts (1S75-1800) in England,
and the existence of similar adulteration acts in other countries,
have occasioned great progress in the analysis of foods, drugs, &c.
For further information on this branch of analytical chemistry,
see Adulteration.
There exists no branch of technical chemistry, hygiene or
pharmacy from which the analytical chemist can be spared,
since it is only by a continual development of his art that we can
hope to be certain of the purity of any preparation. In England
this branch of chemistry is especially cared for by the Institute
of Chemistry, which, since its foundation in 1877, has done much
for the training of analytical chemists.
In the preceding sketch we have given a necessarily brief
account of the historical development of analytical chemistry in
its main branches. We shall now treat the different methods ih
more detail. It must be mentioned here that the reactions of
any particular substance arc given under its own heading, and in
this article we shall only collate the various operations and outline
the general procedure. The limits of space prevent any sys-
tematic account of the sqwration of the rare metals, the alkaloids,
and other classes of organic compounds, but sources where these
matters may be found are given in the list of references.
Qualitative Inorganic Analysis.
The dry examination of a substance comprises several opera-
tions, which may yield definite results if no disturbing
element is present; but it is imperative that any in- j^^
ference should be confirmed by other methods.
1. Heat the substance in a hard glass tube. Note whether
any moisture condenses on the cooler parts of the tube, a gas is
evolved, a sublimate formed, or the substance changes colour.
Moisture is evolved from substances containing water of crystal-
lization or decomposed hydrates. If it possesses an alkaline or
acid reaction, it must be tested in the first case for ammonia, and
in the vecond case for a volatile acid, s-uch as sulphuric, nitric,
hydrochloric, Sec
62
CHEMISTRY
(ANALYTICAL
Any evolved gas must be examined. Oxygen, recognized byita,
power of igniting a glowing splinter, results from the decomposition
of oxides of the noble metals, peroxides, chlorates, nitrates and other
highly oxygenized salts. Sulphur dioxide, recognised by its smell
and acid reaction, results from the ignition of certain sulphites,
sulphates, or a mixture of a sulphate with a sulphide. Nitrogen
oxides, recognized by their odour and brown-red colour, result from
the decomposition of nitrates. Carbon dioxide, recognized by
turning lime-water milky, indicates decomposable carbonates or
oxalates. Chlorine, bromine, and iodine, each recognizable by its'
colour and odour, result from decomposable haloids; iodine forms
also a black sublimate. Cyanogen and hydrocyanic acid, recogniz-
able by their odour, indicate decomposable cyanides. Sulphuretted
hydrogen, recognized by its odour, results from sulphides containing
water, and hydrosulphidcs. Ammonia, recognizable by its odour
and alkaline reaction, indicates ammoniacal salts or cyanides
containing water.
A sublimate may be formed of: sulphur — reddish-brown drops,
cooling to a yellow to brown solid, from sulphides or mixtures;
iodine — violet vapour, black sublimate, from iodides, iodic acid, or
mixture*: mercury and its compounds — metallic mercury forms
minute globules, mercuric sulphide is black and becomes red on
rubbing, mercuric chloride fuses before subliming, mcrcurous
chloride does not fuse, mercuric iodide gives a yellow sublimate;
arsenic and its compounds — metallic arsenic gives a grey mirror,
arsenious oxide forms white shining crystals, arsenic sulphides give
reddish-yellow sublimates which turn yellow on cooling; antimony
oxide fuses and gives a yellow acicular sublimate; lead chloride
forms a white sublimate after long and intense heating.
If the substance does not melt but changes colour, we may have
present: zinc oxide — from white to yellow, becoming white on
cooling; stannic oxide — white to yellowish brown, dirty white on
cooling; lead oxide — from white or yellowish-red to brownish-red,
yellow on cooling; bismuth oxide — from white or pale yellow to
orange-yellow or reddish-brown, pale yellow on cooling; manganese
oxide — from white or yellowish white to dark brown, remaining
dark brown on cooling (if it changes on cooling to a bright reddish-
brown, it indicates cadmium oxide); copper oxide — from bright
blue or green to black; ferrous oxide — from grcyjsh-whitc to black;
ferric oxide — from brownish-red to black, brownish-red on cooling;
potassium chromate — yellow to dark orange, fusing at a red heat.
2. Heat the substance on a piece of charcoal in the reducing
flame of the blowpipe.
(q) The substance may fuse and be absorbed by the charcoal;
this indicates more par tic utility ihe alkaline metal*.
(&} An infusible white residue may be obi alncd, which may denote
barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium or zinc. The
first three give characteristic flame colorations (see below); the last
three, wh?n moistened with cobalt nitrate and re- ignited, give
coloured masses; aluminium for silica} gives a brilliant blue ; side
gives a green; whilst magnesium phosphates or arsenate (and to a
less degree the phosphates of (he alkaline earth* } give a viol el mass.
A metallic globule with or without an incrustation maybe obtained.
Gold and copper salts give a metallic bead without an incrustation.
If the incrustation be white and readily volatile, arsenic U present.
if mure difficultly volatile and beads are present, antimony; zinc
gives an incrustation yellow whilst hot, white on cooling* and
volatilized with difficulty: tin gives a pile yellow incrustation,
which becomes white on cooling, and docs not volatilize in either the
reducing or oxidizing flames; lead gives a lemon- yellow incrustation
turning sulphur- yellow on cooling* together with, metallic malleable
bead s; bismuth gives- metallic gTubule* and a dark orange- yellow
incrustation, which becomes lemon-yellow on cooling; cadmium
Eivcs a reddish-brown incrustation, which is removed without
saving a gleam by heating in th& reducing flame; silver gives white
metallic globules and a darkened incrustation*
3. Heat the substance with a bead of roicrocosmic salt or I
borax on a platinum wire in the oxidizing flame.
(o) The substance dissolves readily and in quantity, forming a
bead which is clear when hot. If the bead is coloured we may have
present: cobalt, blue to violet; copper, green, blue on cooling ;
in the reducing flame, red when cola; chromium, green, unaltered
in the reducing flame; iron, brownish-red, light-yellow or colourless
on cooling; in the reducing flame, red while hot, yellow on cooling,
greenish when cold ; nickel, reddish to brownish-red, yellow to
reddish-yellow or colourless on cooling, unaltered in the reducing
flame; bismuth, yellowish-brown, light-yellow or colourless on
cooling; in the reducing flame, almost colourless, blackish-grey when
cold; silver, light yellowish to opal, somewhat opaque when cold ;
whitish-grey in the reducing flame; manganese, amethyst red,
colourless in the reducing flame. If the hot bead is colourless and !
remains clear on cooling, we may suspect the presence of antimony, 1
aluminium, zinc, cadmium, lead, calcium ana magnesium. When
present in sufficient quantity the five last-named give enamel-white
beads; lead oxide in excess gives a yellowish bead. If the hot I
colourless bead becomes enamel-white on cooling even when minute j
quantities of the substances are employed, we may infer the presence
off barium or strontium.
(ff\ The substance dissolves stewly and in small quantity, and form*
a colourless bead which remain* &o on cooling. Either silica or lia
may be present. If silica be present, it gives the if on bead when
heated with a little ferric oxide; il tin is. present there is no change.
Certain substances, such as the precious metals, arc quite insoluble in
the bead, but float about in iL
4, Hold a small purl ion of the substance moistened with
hydrochloric acid on a clean platinum wire in the fusion ;onc
of the Sunken burner, and note any colour imparted to the flame.
Potassium gives a blue- violet flame which may be masked by the
colorations due to sodium, calcium and other elements. Uy
viewing the flame through an indigo prism it appears sky-blue,
violet and ultimately crimson, as the thickness of the prism is
increased. Other elements do not interfere with this method.
Sodium gives an intense and persistent yellow flame; lithium c\\n s
a carmine coloration, and may be identified in the presence of sodium
by viewing through a cobalt glass or indigo prism; from potassium
it may he distinguished by its redder colour; barium gives a yellowish'
grccn flame, which appear* bluish -green when viewed through green
glass; strontium gite* a erim&on Dame which appears purple or row
when viewed through blue glass; calcium gives an orange- red
colour which appears finch -green through green glass; inVftum
gives a characteristic bluish -violet flame; copper gives an intense
emerald 'green coloration,
5. Film Reactions*— These reactions are practised in the
following manner: — A thread of asbestos is moistened and then
dipped in the substance to be tested; it is then placed in the
luminous point of the Bunstn Dame, and a small porcelain basin
containing cold water placed immediately over rJte asbestos.
The formation of a film is noted. The operation is repeated with
the thread in the oxidizing flame.
Any film formed in the first ease is metallic, in the second it is the
oxide. The metallic film is tested with 20% nitric acid and with
bleaching" powder solution. Arsenic is insoluble in the acid, but
immediately dissolves in the bleachtng-powder. The black films of
antimony and bismuth and the grey mottled film of mercury are
•tfowly soluble in (he acid, and untouched by bleach i rig-powder.
The black films ol tin, lead and cadmium dissolve at once in the acid,
the lead film being also soluble in bleaching -powder The oxide
films of antimony, arsenic, tin and bismuth are white, that of bismuth
slightly yellowish: lead yields a very pale yellow film, and cadmium
a brown one; mercury yield's no oxide film. The oxide films {the
metallic one in the case of mercury) are tested with hydriodic acid,
and with ammonium sulphide, and from the changes produced the
film can be determined {sec r\ M. Pcrfcin. QmililGtizc Chemical
Analyst*, 1905),
Having completed the dry analysis we may now pass on to
the vet and more accurate investigation. It is first necessary
to get the substance into solution. Small portions
should be successively tested with water, dilute hydro-
chloric add, ddulc nitric aeid T strong hydrochloric
acid, and a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids, first in the
cold and then with warming. Certain substances arc insoluble
in all these reagents, and other methods, such as the fusion with
sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate, and subsequent treat-
ment with an acid, must be employed. Some of these insoluble
compounds can be detected by their colour and particular re-
actions. For further information on ibis subject, we refer the
readers to Frcsenius's Qualitative Analysis.
The procedure for the detection of metals in solution consist'- of
fir?'! separating them into groups and then examining each group
separately. For this purpose the cold solution is treated with
hydrochloric acid, which precipitates lead, silver and mere urn us
salts as chloride*. The solution is filtered and treated with an e*et**
of sulphuretted hydrogen, either in solution or by passing in the gas;
this precipitates mercury (mercuric ), any lead left over from the
first group, copper, bismuth, cadmium, arsenic, antimony and tin
as syl phi J<'*. The solution is filtered off, boiled till free of sulphur*
et ted hydrogen, and ammonium chloride and ammonia addcfl. If
phosphoric acid is absent, aJu minium, chromium and ferric hydrate
are precipitated. If, however, phosphoric acid is present in the
original substance, we may here obtain a precipitate of the phosphates
of the remaining metals, together with aluminium, chromium and
ferric hydrates. In this ense, the precipitate la dissolved in as little
as possible hydrochloric Acid and boiled with ammonium ace tale,
acetic acid and ferric chloride. The phosphates of aluminium.
chromium and iron are precipitated, and the solution contains the
same metals as if phosphoric acid had been absent. To the filtrate
from the aluminium, iron and chromium precipitate, ammonia and
ammonium sulphide' are added; the precipitate may contain nkkel,
cobalt, line and manganese sulphides. Ammonium carbonate is
added to the filtrate; this precipitate* calcium, strontium and
ANALYTICAL)
CHEMISTRY
63
The solution contains magnesium, sodium and potassium,
which are separately distinguished by the methods given under their j
own headings.
We now proceed with the examination of the various group
precipitates. The white precipitate formed by cold hydrochloric
add is boiled with water, and the solution filtered while hot. Any •
kad chloride dissolves, and may be identified by the yellow precipitate
formed with potassium chroma te. To the residue add ammonia,
sfcak*\ then filter. Silver chloride goes into eolutian. and may be
precipitated by dilute nitric acid. The residue, which is black in
colour, consists of mcrcurosoammonium chloride, in which mercury
C40 be confirmed by its ordinary tests.
Tne precipitate formed by sulphuretted hydrogen may contain
thr. bLick mercuric. lead, and copper sulphides, dark* brown bismuth
*utplude, yellow cadmium and aftcnious sulphides, orantft-rcd
antimony sulphide, brown stannous sulphide, d nil -yellow stannic
iJphide. and whitish sulphur, the last resulting from the oxidation
<tf sulphuretted hydrogen by ferric salts, chromate*, &c. Warming
with ammonium sulphide dissolves out the arsenic, antimony and
t;» salts, whkh are fcpreripitated by the addition of hydrochloric
«dd to the ammonium sulphide solution. The precipitate w shaken
with ammonium carbonate* whkh dissolve* the arsenic* Filter and
confirm arsenic in the solution by it* part icu Ear tests. Dissolve the
residue in hydrochloric acid and test separately for antimony and
tin. The residue from the ammonium sulphide solution in warmed
with dilute nitric acid. Any residue consists of black mercuric
fcqlphide (and possibly white lead sulphate), in which mercury is
enn firmed by its usual tests. The solution is evaporated with a
title sulphuric acid and well cooled, The white precipitate consists
of tead sulphate. To the filtrate add ammonia in curt-vi; a \\)n\u
precipitate indicates bismuth; if the solution tie blue, copper is
present. Filter from tin l.i-.nmih bv.lr.itc, and if copper in present,
add potassium cyanide till the colour is destroyed, then pass sulphur-
etted hydrogen, and cadmium is precipitated as the yellow sulphide.
If copper is absent, then sulphuretted hydrogen can be passed
directly into the solution.
The next group precipitate may contain the white gelatinous
aluminium hydroxide, the greenish chromium hydroxide, reddish
ferric hydroxide, and ^ possibly zinc and manganese hydroxides.
Treatment with casuttc soda dissolves out aluminium hydroxide,
which is reprecipiratcd by the addition of ammonium chloride.
The remaining metals are tested for separately.
The next group may contain black nickel and cobalt sulphides,
flesh-coloured manganese sulphide, and white zinc sulphide. The
last two are dissolved out by cold, very dilute hydrochloric acid,
ami the residue is tested for nickel and cobalt. The solution is
boiled till free from sulphuretted hydrogen and treated with excess
of sodium hydrate. A white precipitate rapidly turning brown
indicates manganese. The solution with ammonium sulphide gives
a white precipitate of zinc sulphide.
The next group may contain the white calcium, barium and
strontium carbonates. The flame coloration (see above) may give
information as to which elements are present. The carbonates arc
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and calcium sulphate solution is
added to a portion of the solution. An immediate precipitate
indicates barium; a precipitate on standing indicates strontium.
If barium is present, the solution of the carbonates in hydrochloric
acid is evaporated and digested with strong alcohol for some time;
barium chloride, which is nearly insoluble in alrohol.is thus separated,
the remainder being precipitated by a few drops of hydrofluosilicic
acid, and may be confirmed by the ordinary tests. The solution free
from barium is treated with ammonia and ammonium sulphate,
which precipitates strontium, and the calcium in the solution may be
identified by the white precipitate with ammonium oxalate.
Having determined the bases, it remains to determine the acid
radicals. There is no general procedure for these operations,
and it is customary to test for the acids separately by special
tests; these are given in the articles on the various adds. A
knowledge of the solubility of salts considerably reduces the
number of acids likely to be present, and affords evidence of great
value to the analyst (see A. M. Comey, Dictionary of Chemical
Solubilities). In the above account wc have indicated the pro-
cedure adopted in the analysis of a complex mixture of salts.
It is unnecessary here to dwell on the precautions which can only
be conveniently acquired by experience; a sound appreciation
of analytical methods is only possible after the reactions and
characters of individual substances have been studied, and wc
therefore refer the reader to the articles on the particular ele-
ments and compounds for more information on this subject.
Quantitative Inorganic A nalysis.
Quantitative methods are divided into four groups, which we
now pass on to consider in the following sequence: (a) gravimetric,
(0) volumetric, (7) electrolytic, (6) colorimetric.
(a) Gravimetric.— This method is made up of four operations:
(1) a weighed quantity of the substance is dissolved in a suitable
solvent; (2) a particular reagent is added which precipitates
the substance it is desired to estimate; (3) the precipitate is
filtered, washed and dried; (4) the filter paper containing the
precipitate is weighed either as a tared filter, or incinerated and
ignited cither in air or in any other gas, and then weighed.
(1) Accurate weighing is all-important; for details of the various
appliances and methods see Weighing Machines. (2) No general
directions can be given as to the method of precipitation. Sometimes
it is necessary to allow the solution to stand for a considerable time
cither in the warm or cold or in the light or dark; to work with cold
solutions and then boil; or to use boiling solutions of both the
substance and reagent. Details will be found in the articles on
particular metals. (3) The operation of filtration and washing is
very important. If the substance to be weighed changes in com-
position on strong heating, it is necessary to employ a tared filter,
t*. a filter paper which has been previously heated to the temperature
at which the substance i* to be dried until its weight is contlanl.
If the precipitate settles readily, the supernatant liquor may he
decanted through the filter paper, more water added to the pre-
cipitate and again decanted. By this means most of (he wathing.
tta. freeing from the other substance* in the solution, can be accom-
plished in the precipitating vessel* If, however, the precipitate
refuses to settle, it is directly trans/erred to the filter paper, the bit
traces being removed by washing and rubbing the sides of the vcsh'I
with a piece of rubber, and the liquid U allowed to drain through.
It i* washed by ejecting a jet of water, ammemu or other prescribed
liquid on to the side of the filter pn per until the paper is nearly full
It can be shown that a, more efficient washing results from alternately
filling and empty inK the funnel than by endeavouring to keep the
funnel full. The washing is continued until the filtrate is free from
salts or acids, (4) After washing, the funnel containing the filter paper
is transferred to a drying ovrn. In the east of a tared filter it to
weighed repeatedly until the weight suffer* no change ; then knowing
the weight at the filter paper, the weight of the precipitate is obtained
by subtraction. If the precipitate may be fen i ted, it is transferred!
to a clean, weighed and recently Ignited; crucible, and the filter paper
U burned srparatcly on the lid, the ash tranisferrvd to the crucible*
and the whole ignited . + After ignition, k i& allowed to cuot In a
desiccator end then weighed. Knowing the weight of the crucible
and of the ash of the filler paper, the weight of the precipitate is
deter mined. The calculation of the percentage uf the purl it idar cun-
stituent is simple. Vie know the amount present in the precipitate,
and since the fame amount is present in the quantity of substance
experimented with, we have only to work out a sum in proportion.
0) Volumetric. — This method is made up of three operations:
— (1) preparation of a standard solution; (2) preparation of a
l solution of the substance; (3) titration, or the determination of
what volume of the standard solution will occasion a known
and definite reaction with a known volume of the test solution.
(1) In general analytical work the standard solution contains the
equivalent weight of the substance in grammes dissolved in a litre
of water. Such a solution is known as normal. Thus a normal
solution of sodium carbonate contains 53 grammes per litre, of
sodium hydrate 40 grammes, of hydrochloric acid 36-5 grammes,
i and so on. By taking rVh or rlnth of these quantities, decinormal
lor cenlinormai solutions arc obtained. We see therefore that I
I cubic centimetre of a normal sodium carbonate solution will exactly
I neutralize 0*040 gramme of sulphuric arid. 0-0365 gramme 01
hydrochloric acid (i>. the equivalent quantities), and similarly for
I decinormal and centinormal solutions. Unfortunately, the term
1 normal is sometimes given to solutions which arc strictly decinormal;
; for example, iodine, sodium thiosulphatc, &c. In technical analysis,
1 where a solution is used for one process only, it may be prepared so
that I cc. is equal to «oi gramme of the substance to be estimated.
j This saves a certain amount of arithmetic, but when the solution
is applied in another determination additional calculations are
; necessary. Standard solutions arc prepared by weighing out the
exact amount of the pure substance and dissolving it in water, or
by forming a solution of approximate normality, determining its
exact strength by gravimetric or other means, and then correcting
it for any divergence. This may l>e exemplified in the case of
alkalimetry. Pure sodium carbonate is prepared by igniting the
bicarbonate, and exactly 53 grammes arc dissolved in water, forming
a strictly normal solution. An approximate normal sulphuric acid is
prepared from 30 cc«». of the pure acid (1*84 specific gravity) diluted
to I litre. The solutionsarc titrated (sec below) and the acid solution
I diluted until equal volumes arc exactly equivalent. A standard
I sodium hydrate solution can be prepared by dissolving 42 grammes
1 of sodium hydrate, making up to a litre, and diluting until one
cubic centimetre is exactly equivalent to one cubic centimetre of tha
sulphuric acid. Similarly, normal solutions of hydrochloric and nitric
acids can be prepared. Where a solution is likely to change in
I composition on keeping, such as potassium permanganate, iodine.
6+
CHEMISTRY
sodium hydrate, &c, it is necessary to check or re-standardize ii
periodica fly.
(2) The preparation of the solution of the substance consists in
dissolving an accurately determined weight, and miking up tha
volume in a graduated cylinder or riask to a known volume.
(3) The titration is conducted by running the standard solution
from a burette into a known volume of the te*t solution, which b
usually transferred from the s:ock-bctt!e to a beaker or basin by
means of a pipette. V;ric"s ar.:n:es are employed to denote the
end of the reaction. Tr-t-se nay be divided into two groups: (t)
those in * hiih a charge in ap^earar-ce r JL the reacting mixture occurs;
(7 i those ir: m'^i:b L u ^ece*Kar>- to use an indicator which, by its
chaagt in apptiranr:-. shews tiat an excess of one reagent is present.
Ic liit £rsi grjcp. we r-i-kt ir r.tace the titration of a cyanide with
le-itr XL-tra.;*. wr-ir: a r.liL.&c-« ah>a » ham far the reaction has gone;
iht t-tritjic -.< .--jr. mi^t pcrrr-ir.-icattf. when the faint pink colour
siov-f lit: t* ir* ir:»=. Ls *\*'.:i*rl. In the second group, we may
mrJii* ".'a i;C'j2.-ji-i ~ji L:=-s, drtiyl orange or phenolphthalein
xx. *-ta.'..-a*rr*. wti-:i v.-t zdii :r a'JLLJse character of the solution
cxi=M.n» tti* r:-:'_r wi_i:i it tx>.:":::*; starch paste, which forma
t :».u* tun::*: ■_:•:. v-r: :".-*» l^;^=ir:->i:rr.ttr\"; potassium chromatc,
wia'jr. j-j-ni' r»r; s-.tr rr_ _ :— ar* ai'er all the hydrochloric acid is
jm:::zti\i.'tri. it. b:i_rj. tj :c :.-. .riiis; and in the estimation of
ie—t •.-jnrsjKZii* :-■ :i:c»*=:_- r.:>.r.^iate. the indicator, potassium
fer-i7.ii.iai!. » ;ur_-; jz. zr:-s _- a porcelain plate, and the end of
in* r\MT:rj: u lzm-.i- :-• *_-.* ii« =c: of a blue coloration when
a ar.c a' ".:k tar so _-.,::. .» ir: „£-.: Lv.o contact with it.
■» L.'-zr »::.-.: — 71 j =rf.h>d consists in decomposing a
ki":v.i:<i :r 1 sl: :f :i» =-»ii by the electric current and weigh-
auf -it saj! :■-.:■*::*■; a: lie caihode.
!: ii :c*7 ":•. :m:--£ yr-at attention to the current density that
f-o. .-t^w-i iri :i:ai.:-:v:. =i.-.ce metals other than that *oughl for may
"Jt ijtzrjMJzL. '.: fci: ; c-:p_per solution*, mercury i*> dejioMted bcfiirc
tit :.;r m r m +- \:-.z. nr.^i'2. it subsequently amalgamates; silver is
tirvv. i-v- «..— .Icar^-maly; bismuth ap|>car* towards the end;
arii i-"*»r 1.". •"-_* rapper has been precipitated, arsenic and antimony
may be ~ -:;*.-. :-ed. Lead and manganese are partially separated
as ptr.xi:-.-*. hut the remaining metal* are not de|K»sited from acid
io*^::ou. It is therefore necessary that the solution should l«e free
from metals which may vitiate the results, or special piccautions
taken by which the impurities are rendered harmless. In such cases
the simplicity of manipulation and the high degree of accuracy of
the method have made it especially valuable. The eu\trol\>i* is
generally conducted with platinum electrodes, of which the cathode
takes the form of a piece of foil bent into a eylindiu.il form, the
necessary current being generated by one or more Dauit.il evils.
(0) Color i metric. — This method is adopted when it is necessary
to determine minute traces (as in the liquid obtained in the
electrolytic separation of copper) of substances which afford
well-defined colour reactions.
The general procedure is to make a series of standard solutions
containing definite quantities of the substance which it is di-Mrcd to
estimate; such a scries will exhibit tints which deepen as the
quantity of the substance is increased. A known weight ol the test
substance is dissolved and a [tortion of the solution is placed in a
tube similar to those containing the standard solution*. The colour-
producing reagent is added and the tint-* compared. In the case of
copper, the colour reaction> with p»ra**ium fcrnvyanidc or ammonia
are usually employed; traces of ammonia are istimatrd with
Kcsskr's reagent; sulphur in iron and sucl is determined by the
tint assumed by a silver-copper plate f ufpt-nded in the gast-s liberated
when the nv-ral is dt«jlveil in ^ulph'.irir acid (Eg^erta's test) (sec
\V. Crookea, Select SfcttoJs in Anciyiutl Ciur:utry).
Organic Analysis.
The elements which play irnfiort.int parts in organic com-
pounds arc carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, iodine,
sulphur, phosphorus and oxygen. \\\- shall here consider the
qualitative and quantitative dtiermir.ation of these elements.
Qualilatiir. — Caibon is d-.tc-ctcd by tlie formation of carbon
di'/xidv. whi'.h turns li:ne-*at'.r milky, and h>drog , - > n b> the forma-
tion 'A wat'-r, whiiih comlon«e> on tlie tube, when t!»e ?ub»tance is
hr.-ir^d with toprjtr oxide. Nitr-^^n mav be detcrted by the I
«rr il-it ion of ammonia when the sub-.tanre i^' heated uith soda-lime.
A rnor»- df-li-ar- th rhvJ is that due to J. L. Las>iigne and improved
by (). Jafob...n and C. Graebe. Th'.- subitancc is heated uith
nv'f.ill!'. VfJium or [/jij--.ium 'in exec.^ if <ulphur be present* to 1
redn. . .. ih'- r..-,:due in 1" d inith water, Alt- n -1. and ferrous >>jlphate,
f'-rri' t blond.: and hydnx:hl -^ric acid ad«i 1. A blue coloration
ind.'.at-.-* mtro.:--n. ;,nd i, ti^ a, the form i* ion of jyjtab>i'jm lor
tooiumj i-yun'rU- durir.v the f S( -i-jn. and s«* ;';.-r.t intera:tion I
*"■' l »e iron -alts. I!.- halo^. n- mav lie son.-fi-n-.-* d-.-tccted by I
fu*irig w:!h liim, ar-l •—tir.g the v.lution for a b-jmMi-. chloride I
and 10. \A-. in the ip-.al » a y. F. R. i|.ti:in determiw.* their pre*».nce I
by hf-af.in^ rh«: iub-*ar..:t with p-jrr- cojrv.r oxii-.- on a platinum I
win.- in the Rur.>i.n fla.-.i:.-; a grwn r . floral iun i»cb>urved if halo^en^ 1
oe pn.scnt. Sulphur is detected by heating the wib.Uncc with *
IANALYTICAL
sodium, dissolving the product in water, and adding sodium iritro-
prusside; a bluish-violet coloration indicates sulphur (H. VoM).
Or we may use \. Hort«aczewski's method, uhich consists in boiling
the substance with strong potash, saturating the cold solution with
chlorine, adding hydrochloric acid, and boiling till no more chlorine is
liberated, and then testing for sulphuric acid with barium chloride.
Phosphorus is obtained as a soluble phosphate (which can be ex-
amined in the usual wa> ) by lixiviating the product obtained when
the substance is ignited with potassium nitrate and carbonate.
Quantitative. — Larbon and hydrogen are generally estimated by
the romhtf. 'iV*ii process, which consists in oxidizing the substance
and absorbing the products of combustion in suitable carbmm ami
apparatus. The oxidizing agent in commonest use '^kr^rmma,
copper oxide, which must be freshly ignited before use on
account of its hygroscopic nature. Lead chromate is sometimes
used, and many other substances, such as platinum, manganese
dioxide. &c. have been suggested. The procedure for a combustion
is as follows: —
Fie. 1.
A hard glass tube slightly longer than the furnace and IS to 15 ram.
in diameter is thoroughly cleansed and packed as shown in fig. 1.
The space a must allow for the inclusion of a copper spiral if the
sub-tance contains nitrogen, and a silver spiral if halogens be
present, for otherwise nitrogen oxides and the halogens may be
condense I in the absorption apparatus; b contains copper oxide;
c is a>i\u e for the insertion of a porcelain or platinum boat containing
a weighed quantity of the substance; d is a copper spiral. The end
d is connected to an air or oxygen supply with an intermediate
dr\ing apparatus. The other cud is connected with the absorption
vc>«el*. which consist of a tube \e) containing calcium chloride, and
a set of bulbs \f\ containing pota>h solution. Various forms of potash
bull* are employed: fig. 2 w Liebig's. fig. 3 Mohr's or Gcissler's,
fig. 4 is a more recent form, of which special variations have been
Flu. 2. Fie. 3. FlG . 4.
made bv An.kr.»n. Gomberg. IXIisle and others. After having
previously r.u>ted the tul>e and copper oxide, and reduced the
copjy r >piral a. the weighed ca!.u:m chloride tube and potash bulbs
are put in portion, the boat containing the substance b inserted
\»» the ca«v* of a diiticuitly cvnbu>;ib»e substance it is desirable to
mix it with cupnc oxide «^r lea.! chromate*. the copper spiral (d)
replaced, and the air and oxygon supply connected up. The
I apparatus is then tested for leaks. If all the connexions are sound,
the loppcr oxide is gradually heated from the end a, the gas-jets
under the s-piral d an* lighted, and a -slow current of oxygen is passed
through the tu!«e. The success vi the c^ ration depends upon the
slow burning of the substance. Toward* the end the heat and the
oxygen Mipply are increased. When there is no more absorption
in the pwta>h bulbs, the ovygen *u;»ply « cut off and air passed
through. Having replaced the oxxgen m the abMrpiion vessels by-
air, they are diiton«'ccud and weighed, after having cooled down
to the tem[v. rat tire of the room. The increase in wcighi of the calcium
I chloride tulv gives tht weight of water formed, and oi the potash
bull's the carbon dioxide.
I Liquid* are amenable to the same treatment, but especial care
inu>t be taken so that i1k> volatilise slowly. Difficultly volatile
liquids ma> Iw wtighnl diixvib ini . the ban; volatile liquids are
weighed in thin hermetically seal, il bulb*, the necks of which are
broken just before they are placed in the combustion tube.
The length of time and other divid vantages attending the com-
bustion method have cau>ed investigators to devise other processes.
In i8« C. Brumit-r desvriUd a mcth..d for oxidizing the carbon
to carbon dioxide, which could be estimated bv the usual methods,
by heating the sul»stancc with i^ta-sium bichromate and sulphuric
acid. This process ha> been co^iderablx developed bv J. Messinger,
and we may hojw that with subsxpjent improvements it may be
adapted to all cla»*e< of organic <.omr">uu>ls. The oxidation, which
i? eff«-ctcd by chromic acid and sulphuric acid. i< conducted in a flask
provided with a funnel ami escape tutie. and the carlKm dioxide
f.;rn:r.J U swvpt by a current ».f dr> air. prcvio.isK frexd from carbon
cli-jxile. through a dryiiii: lube to a set of puta>h bulbs and a tulie
containing; soxla-lime; ii h.,Iog..-.N are present, a small wash bottle
conn ini nc rxita-ssium i"lidv. and a y tube containing «lass wool
moi-trucd with silver nitrate on one side and strong sulphuric acid
pn the other, mu&t be inserted between the llas»k and the drying tube
The incrcass in weight of the potash bulbs and soda-lime tube £i\cs
PHYSICALI
CHEMISTRY
65
the weight of carbon dioxide evolved. C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan
collected the carbon dioxide obtained in this way over mercury.
They also showed that carbon monoxide was given off towards the
end of the reaction, and oxygen was not evolved unless the tempera*
ture exceeded 100°.
Methods depending upon oxidation in the presence of a contact
substance have come into favour during recent years. In that of
M. Dennstedt, which was first proposed in 1902, the substance is
vaporised in a tube containing at one end platinum foil, platinised
quartz, or platinized asbestos. The platinum is maintained at a
bright red heat, cither by a gas flame or by an electric furnace, and
the vapour is passed over it by leading in a current of oxygen. If
nit roge n be present, a boat containing dry lead peroxide and heated
to ajo* is inserted, the oxide decomposing any nitrogen peroxide
which may be formed. The same absorbent quantitatively takes
up any halogen and sulphur which may be present. The process is
therefore adapted to the simultaneous estimation of carbon, hydrogen,
the halogens and sulphur.
Nitrogen is estimated by (1) Dumas' method, which consists in
ht a t«" g the substance with copper oxide and measuring the volume
a mtm -- of nitrogen liberated; (2) by Will and Varrentrapp's
* method, in which the substance is heated with soda-lime,
and the ammonia evolved is absorbed in hydrochloric acid, and thence
precipitated as ammonium chlorplatinate or estimated volumetric-
ally; or (3) by KjeldahPs method, in which the substance is dissolved
in concentrated sulphuric acid, potassium permanganate added, the
liquid diluted and boiled with caustic soda, and the evolved ammonia
absorbed in hydrochloric acid and estimated as in Will and
Varrentrapp's method.
Dumas' Method.— In this method the operation is carried out in a
hard glass tube sealed at one end and packed as shown in fig. 5.
The magnesite (a) serves for the generation of carbon dioxide which
clears the tube of air before the compound (mixed with fine copper
oxide (0)) is burned, and afterwards sweeps the liberated nitrogen
into the receiving vessel (e), which contains a strong potash solution ;
c is coarr~ rr?r?<*r <" ,vi ^e : Ttr.^ i n vrAv.rvA r^pr^r
gauze spiral, heated in order to decompose amy
nitrogen oxides. _ LUrich Kreuslcr generates the
carbon dioxide in a separate apparatus, and
in this caie the tube is drawn out to A capillary
at the end (<iK This artifice is specially valuable
when the substance decompose* or volatitiJcs
in a warm current of carbon dioxide. Various
forms of tne absorbing apparatus (f) have been
discussed by M- Nin*ki (Btr, J7. p. 1 347.1 T who
has also suggested the use of manganese car-
bonate instead of magnetite since the change
of colour enables one to fallow the detomposi-
Fig. 3.
tJon. Substances which hum with difficulty may be mixed with
mercuric oride in addition to copper o*k}t.
Will <md VQTTenttapff'i Hcihod. — This method, as originally pro-
posed, is not in common, use, but has been superseded by Kjcldahl's
method* since the nitrogen generally com.es out too low. It is
luTceptible of wider application by mixing reducing agents with the
Md* lime; thus Goldberg {&tr r io, p t 3546) uses a mixture of
wda>lime. stannous chloride and sulphur for nitro- and azo-com-
poadds. and C. Arnold {Bet, iS, p r fjoo) a mixture containing
•orfrum hyposulphite and sodium formate for nitrates.
KjtMakrs AfrthnJ. — This iHeihnd rapidly came into favour on
account of its simplicity, both of opttaimn and apparatus. Various
substances other than potii^ium permanganate have been suggested
for facilitating the operation; J. W. Gunning (Z. anal. Ckem., 1889,
p. t&o) uses potawium sulphate; Lasaar-Cohn uses mercuric oxide.
The applicability of the process has been examined by F. W. Dafert
(Z. anal. Ckem., 1888, p. 224), who has divided nitrogenous bodies
into two classes with respect to it. The first class includes those
substances which require no preliminary treatment, and comprises
the amides and ammonium compounds, pyridines, quinolincs,
alkaloids, albumens and related bodies; the second class requires
preliminary treatment and comprises, with few exceptions, the nitro-,
aitroeo- azo-, diazo- and amidoazo-compounds, hydrazines, deriva-
tives of nitric and nitrous acids, and probably cyanogen compounds.
Other improvements have been suggested by Dyer (J.C.S. Trans.
67, p. 811). For an experimental comparison of the accuracy of
the Dumas, Will* Varrentrapp and Kjcldahl processes sec L. L'riote,
C.R. 1889, p. 817. Debordeaux (C.R. 1904, p. 005) has obtained
good results by distilling the substance with a mixture of potassium
tatosulphatc and sulphide.
The halogens may be estimated by ignition with quicklime, or by
I with nitric acid and silver nitrate in a scaled tube. In the
first method the substance, mixed with quicklime free from chlorine,
is heated in a tube closed at one end in a combustion furnace.
The product is dissolved in water, and the calcium »,,*-»-.
haloid estimated in the usual way. The same decomposi- MuShmr
tion may be effected by igniting with iron, ferric oxide and mtoa- *
sodium carbonate (E. Kopp, Ber. 10, p. 290) ; the operation ^ttonn.
is easier if the lime be mixed with sodium carbonate, or a
mixture of sodium carbonate and potassium nitrate be used. With
iodine compounds, iodic acid is likely to be formed, and hence the
solution must be reduced with sulphurous acid before precipitation
with silver nitrate. C. Zulkowsky (Ber. 18, R. 648) burns the
substance in oxygen, conducts the gases over platinized sand, and
collects the products in suitable receivers. The oxidation with,
nitric acid in scaled tubes at a temperature of 150* to 2oo° for aliphatic
compounds, and 250° to 260* for aromatic compounds, is in common
use, for both the sulphur and phosphorus can be estimated, the
former being oxidized to sulphuric acid and the latter to phosphoric
acid. This method was due to L. Carius (Ann. 136, p. 129;. R.
Klason (Ber 19, p. 1910) determines sulphur and the halogens by
oxidizing the substance in a current of oxygen and nitrous fumes,
conducting the vapours over platinum foil, and absorbing the vapours
in suitable receivers. Sulphur and phosphorus can sometimes be
estimated by Messinger's method, in which the oxidation is effected
by potassium permanganate and caustic alkali, or by potassium
bichromate and hydrochloric acid. A comparison of the various
methods for estimating sulphur has been given by O. Hammarsten
(Zeit. physiolog. Ckem. 9, p. 273), and by Holand (Chemiker Zritung,
1893. P' 99')' H - H - P rin g*heim (Ber. 38, p. 1434) has devised a
method in which the oxidation is effected by sodium peroxide; the
halogens.phosphorusand sulphur can be determined by one operation.
VI. Physical Chemistry
We have seen how chemistry may be regarded as having for
its province the investigation of the composition of matter,
and the changes in composition which matter or energy may
effect on matter, while physics is concerned with the general
properties of matter. A physicist, however, does more than
merely quantitatively determine specific properties of matter;
he endeavours to establish mathematical laws which co-ordinate
his observations, and in many cases the equations expressing such
laws contain functions or terms which pertain solely to the
chemical composition of matter. One example will suffice here.
The limiting law expressing the behaviour of gases under varying
temperature and pressure assumes the form £r=RT; so stated,
this law is independent of chemical composition and may be
regarded as a true physical law, just as much as the law of uni-
versal gravitation is a true law of physics. But this relation is
not rigorously true; in fact, it does not accurately express the
behaviour of any gas. A more accurate expression (see Con-
densation op Gases and Molecule) is (p+a/tf) (»— 6) «RT, in
which a and b are quantities which depend on the composition
of the gas, and vary from one gas to another.
It may be surmised that the quantitative measures of most
physical properties will be found to be connected with the
chemical nature of substances. In the investigation of these
relations the physicist and chemist meet on common ground;
this union has been attended by fruitful and far-reaching results,
and the correlation of physical properties and chemical composi-
tion is one of the most important ramifications of physical
chemistry. This branch receives treatment below. Of consider-
able importance, also, arc the properties of solids, liquids and
gases in solution. This subject has occupied a dominant position
in physico-chemical research since the investigations of van't
Hoff and Arrhenius. This subject is treated in the article
Solution; for the properties of liquid mixtures reference should
ilso be made to the article Distillation.
Another branch of physical chemistry has for its purpose the
quantitative study of chemical action, a subject which has
brought out in clear detail the analogies of chemical and physical
equilibrium (see Chemical Action). Another branch, related
to energetics (q.v.) t is concerned with the transformation of
chemical energy into other forms of energy-— heat, light, electri-
city. Combustion is a familiar example of the transformation
of chemical energy into heat and light; the quantitative measures
of heat evolution or absorption (heat of combustion or combina-
tion), and the deductions therefrom, arc treated in the article
Thermochemistry. Photography (q.v.) is based on chemical
action induced by luminous rays; apart from this practical
66
CHEMISTRY
(PHYSICAL
application there are many other cases in which actinic ray
occasion chemical actions; these are treated in the article
Photochemistry. Transformations of electrical into chemical
energy are witnessed in the processes of electrolysis (g.v.; se
also Electrochemistry and Electrometallurgy). The con-
verse is presented in the common electric celL
Physical Properties and Composition.
For the complete determination of the chemical structure o
any compound, three sets of data are necessary: (i) the empirical
chemical composition of the molecule; (2) the constitution, i.e.
the manner in which the atoms are linked together; and (3) the
configuration of the molecule, ix. the arrangement of the atoms
in space. Identity in composition, but difference in constitution
is generally known as "isomerism" (q.v.) t and compound*
satisfying this relation differ in many of their physical properties
If, however, two compounds only differ with regard to the spatial
arrangement of the atoms, the physical properties may be (1)
for the most part identical, differences, however, being apparent
with regard to the action of the molecules on polarized light, as
is the case when the configuration is due to the presence of an
asymmetric atom (optical isomerism); or (2) both chemica]
and physical properties may be different when the configuration
is determined by the disposition of the atoms or groups attached
to a pair of doubly-linked atoms, or to two members of a ring
system (geometrical isomerism or aUo-isomerism). Three sets
of physical properties may therefore be looked for: (1) depending
on composition, (2) depending on constitution, and (3) depending
on configuration. The first set provides evidence as to the
molecular weight of a substance: these are termed " colligativc
properties." The second and third sets elucidate the actual
structure of the molecule: these are known as " constitutional
properties."
In any attempts to gain an insight into the relations between
the physical properties and chemical composition of substances,
the fact must never be ignored that a comparison can only be
made when the particular property under consideration is deter-
mined under strictly comparable conditions, in other words,
when the molecular states of the substances experimented upon
are identical. This is readily illustrated by considering the pro-
perties of gases — the simplest state of aggregation. According
to the law of Avogadro, equal volumes of different gases under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal
numbers of molecules; therefore, since the density depends upon
the number of molecules present in unit volume, it follows that
for a comparison of the densities of gases, the determinations
must be made under coincident conditions, or the observations
reduced or re-computed for coincident conditions. When this
b done, such densities are measures of the molecular weights
of the substances in question.
Volume Relations. 1 — When dealing with colligative properties
of liquids it is equally necessary to ensure comparability of con-
ditions. In the article Condensation of Gases (see also
Molecule) it is shown that the characteristic equation of gases
and liquids is conveniently expressed in the form (p -fa/**) (r— b)
— RT. This equation, which is mathematically dcducible from
the kinetic theory of gases, expresses the behaviour of gases,
the phenomena of the critical state, and the behaviour of liquids;
solids are not accounted for. If we denote the critical volume,
pressure and temperature by V'*, Pt and T*, then it may be
shown, either by considering the characteristic equation as a
perfect cube in v or by using the relations that dp/dv=*o,
d'f/dv'^o at the critical point, that ^ = 36, ? k =a/27b*,
T*=8a/27&. Eliminating a and b between these relations, we
derive P*V±/Tk=$R, a relation which should hold between the
critical constants of any substance. Experiment, however,
showed that while the quotient on the left hand of this equation
was fairly constant for a great number of substances, yet its
value was not f R but Vr R; this means that the critical density
is, as a general rule, 3 7 times the theoretical density. Deviation 1
from this rule indicates molecular dissociation or association.
1 For the connexion between valency and volume, see Valency.
By actual observations it has been shown that ether, alcohol,
many esters of the normal alcohols and fatty acids, benzene,
and its halogen substitution products, have critical constants
agreeing with this originally empirical law, due to Sydney Young
and Thomas; acetic acid behaves abnormally, pointing to
associated molecules at the critical point
The critical volume provides data which may be tested for additive
relations. Theoretically the critical volume is three times the
volume at absolute zero, ue, the actual volume of the .^-^^
molecules; this is obvious by considering the result of rj T" , J
making T zero in the characteristic equation. Experi- ?Tr? f _ M
mentally (by extrapolation from the" law of the rectilinear yy.ffl
diameter ") the critical volume is four times the volume iJZ.
at absolute zero (see Condensation of Gases). The ^^
most direct manner in which to test any property for additive
relations is to determine the property for a number of elements, and
then investigate whether these values hold for the elements in com-
bination, want of data for the elements, however, restricts this
method to narrow limits, and hence an indirect method is necessary.
It is found that isomers have nearly the same critical volume, aid
that equal differences in molecular content occasion equal differ-
ences in critical volume. For example, the difference due to an
increment of CH, is about 56*6, as is shown in the following table.—
Name.
Methyl formate . .
Ethyl formate * ,
Methyl acetate . *
V ropy J formate ■ ",
Ethyl j ■: c t j. r r .
Methyl propionate .
Propyl acetate - .
Ethyl propionate -
Methyl ri'Dutyrate .
Methyl kohutyratc.
Formula.
HCOiClli
HCOC-Hi
CH,CO t CHj
H-COhCiH*
CjH^COCHt
I CHrCQiCHi
Cri t. Vol.
5} *w
*4
Ml
W I
337 J
3«3J
M°7
VoL per CH,
56'5
55 >8
57 4
Since the critical volume of normal pentane C»Hn is v>7-2. we
1 the data
. . __ — . — _ „ 29, whereas the experimental
value is 25.
The researches of H. Kopp, begun in 1842, on the molecular
volumes, i.e. the volume occupied by one gramme molecular weight
of a substance, of liquids measured at their boiling-point VjmXmmmm
under atmospheric pressure, brought to light a scries of if S?" **
additive relations which, in the case of carbon compounds, f*frj**
render it possible to predict, in some measure, the com- *•"*■
position of the substance. I n practice it is generally more convenient
to determine the density, the molecular volume being then obtained
by dividing the molecular weight of the substance by the density.
By the indirect method Kopp derived the following atomic volumes :
C O. H. CI. Br. I. Sw
11 122 55 228 278 37-5 aa-ei
These values hold fairly well when compared with the experimental
Values determined from other compounds, and also with the mole-
cular volumes of the elements themselves. Thus the actually
observed densities of liquid chlorine and bromine at the boiling-
points are 1-56 and 2-96, leading to atomic volumes 22*7 and 26-9,
which closely correspond to Kopp's values deduced from organic
compounds.
^ These values, however, require modification in certain casts, for
discrepancies occur which can e*c fcc«*nrilcd in some cases by assuming
that the atomic value of a polyvalent dement varies according to the
distribution of its valencies. Thus a'i>ui Lie to ml of oxygen, as in the
carbonyl group CO, requires a larger volume than a single bond, as
in the hydroxy) group -OH, being about 13*2 in the first case and
7*8 in the second. Similarly, an increase of volume is as-s iated
with doubly and trebly linked carbon atoms.
Recent researches have shown that the law originally proposed by
Kopp — " That the specific volume of a Liquid compound {n\- •, cular
volume) at its toiling point ii equal* rhe sum of the specific volumes
rf its constituents (atomic volumes)* and that every element has a
definite atomic value in its compounds " — U by no means exact,
lor isomers have different specific volumes, and the volume for an
increment of CHi in different homologous aeries is by no means
constant ; for example, the difference among the esters of tl fatty
acids is about 57, whereas Ji*r (he aliphatic aktchydea it is 40.. We
may therefore conclude that the molecular volume depends more
1 ipon the i n t trio I etructu re of t he moleoi lc 1 ha n i ts em pineal co n tent.
W. Ostwald (Lekr. dtr allt* Chem.], after an exhaustive review of the
material at hand, concfuded that oiraple additive relations did
• Jtist but with considerable deviations, which, he ascribed to infer-
ences in Mnjrture. la this connexion we may notice W. St Adds
determinations:
CH,ca,
CH.CICHCI,
xo8
102-8
CHCIBrCH, .
CH,BrCH,Cl .
n*
PHYSICAL!
CHEMISTRY
67
These differences do not disappear at the critical point, and hence
the critical volumes arc not strictly additive.
Theoretical considerations as to how far Kopp was justified in
choosing the boiling-points under atmospheric pressure as being
comparable states (or different substances now claim our attention.
Van der Waal's equation (p+al&) {v — b) «■ RT contains two constants
a and b determined by each particular substance. If we express
the pressure, volume and temperature as fractions of the critical
constants, then, calling these fractions the " reduced " pressure,
volume and temperature, and denoting them by w, 4> and $ re-
spectively , the characteristic equation becomes (r +3/4?) (3* — 1 ) - 80 ;
which has the same form for all substances. Obviously, therefore,
liquids are comparable when the pressures, volumes and tern-
peratures are equal fractions of the critical constants. In view
of the extremely slight compressibility of liquids, atmospheric
pressure may be regarded as a coincident condition; also C. M.
Uuldbcrg pointed out that for the most diverse substances the
absolute ooiling-point is about two-thirds of the critical temperature.
Hence within narrow limits Kopp's determinations were carried out
under coincident conditions, and therefore any regularities presented
by the critical volumes should be revealed in the specific volumes
at the boiling-point.
The connexion between the density and chemical composition of
solids has not been investigated with the same completeness as in the
case of gases and liquids. The relation between the atomic
volumes and the atomic weights of the solid elements
exhibits the periodicity which generally characterises the
elements. The molecular volume is additive in certain
, in particular of analogous compounds of simple constitution.
For instance, constant differences are found between the chlorides,
bromides and iodides of sodium and potassium : —
I.
Diff.
II.
Diff.
Diff. I. & 11.
KCI-37-4
KBr-443
KI -540
69
97
NaCI-271
NaBr-338
Nal -435
67
97
103
105
10-5
According to H. Schroeder the silver salts of the fatty acids
exhibit additive relations; an increase in the molecule of CHi
s an increase in the molecular volume of about 15*3.
Thermal Relations.
Specific Beat and Composition.— The nature and experi-
mental determination of specific heats arc discussed in the
article Caloumxtry; here will be discussed the relations exist-
ing between the beat capacities of elements and compounds.
In the article Thermodynamics it is shown that the amount
of heat required to raise a given weight of a gas through a certain
range of temperature is different according as the gas
j^" is maintained at constant pressure, the volume in-
jnii creasing.or at constant volume, the pressure increasing.
A gas, therefore, has two specific heats, generally
denoted by C, and C, when the quantity of gas taken as a unit
is one gramme molecular weight, the range of temperature being
i A C. It may be shown that <V-C,-R, where R is the gas-
constant, i.e. R in the equation PV = RT. From the ratio C,/C,
conclusions may be drawn as to the molecular condition of the
gas. By considerations based on the kinetic theory of gases
(aee Molecule) it may be shown that when no energy is utilized
in separating the atoms of a molecule, this ratio is 5/3 •» 1-67.
If. however, an amount of energy a is taken up in separating
atoms, the ratio is expressible as C,/C,-(5+a)/(3+a), which
is obviously smaller than 5/3, and decreases with increasing
values of a. These relations may be readily tested, for the ratio
<V/C V is capable of easy experimental determination. It is found
that mercury vapour, helium, argon and its associates (neon,
krypton, &c) have the value 1*67; hence we conclude that these
gases exist as roonatomic molecules. Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen
and carbon monoxide have the value 1*4; these gases have
diatomic molecules, a fact capable of demonstration by other
means. Hence it may be inferred that this value is typical for
diatomic molecules. Similarly, greater atomic complexity is
reflected in a further decrease in the ratio C F /C,. The following
table gives a comparative view of the specific heats and the
ratio for molecules of variable atomic content
The abnormal specific heats of the halogen elements may be due
to a loosening of the atoms, a preliminary to the dissociation into
monatomic molecules which occurs at high temperatures. In the
more complex gases the specific heat varies considerably with
temperature; only in the case of monatomic gases docs it remain
Molecu hrCantent.
Examples*
' <V
c„
c r ;c.
Monatomic .
Diatomic
Triatomfc
Tetf atomic ,
PenMtomtc 1
Hejutomfc - .
Hg F Zn h Cd,He.Ar,^. r
i Hi, Oi. Ni (o*~awi*) ,
] Ck Eir f+ T, iu°~2oo ] .
f HC1, HBr, HI, NO, CO
HrO, HjS. N,0, COi .
S An, P.
JNHi, QH, . . , ;
CHCI. . . . : .
C,H lt C,H,Br . . ,
a 6
0-2
134
116
14
16-4
b
TJ
14-4
t 66
141
I-JO
■'*!
t *8
1 175
101
1-17
114
constant. Le Chatelier (Zed. /. £kys. Chem. i. 456) has given the
formula C,-6-5+oT, where a is a constant depending on the
complexity of the molecule, as an expression for the molecular heat
at constant pressure at any temperature T (reckoned on the absolute
scale). For a further discussion of the ratio of the specific heats see
Molecule.
Specific Heats of Solids.— The development of the atomic
theory and the subsequent determination of atomic weights
in the opening decades of the 19th century inspired A. T. Petit
and P. L. Dulong to investigate relations (if any) existing
between specific heats and the atomic weight. Their obser-
vations on the solid elements led to a remarkable generalization,
now known as Dulong and Pe tit's law. This states that " the
atomic heat (the product of the atomic weight and specific
heat) of all elements is a constant quantity.' 1 The value
of this constant when H-x is about 6-4; Dulong and Petit,
using O- 1, gave the value '38, the specific heat of water being
unity in both cases. This law— purely empirical in origin— was
strengthened by Berzelius, who redetermined many specific
heats, and applied the law to determine the true atomic weight
from the equivalent weight. At the same time he perceived
that specific heats varied with temperature and also with allo-
types, e.g. graphite and diamond. The results of Berzelius were
greatly extended by Hermann Kopp, who recognized that carbon,
boron and silicon were exceptions to the law. He regarded these
anomalies as solely due to the chemical nature of the elements,
and ignored or regarded as insignificant such factors as the state
of aggregation and change of specific heat with temperature.
The specific heats of carbon, boron and silicon subsequently
formed the subject of elaborate investigations by H. F. Weber, who
showed that with rise of temperature the specific (and atomic) heat
increases, finally attaining a fairly constant value; diamond,
graphite and the various amorphous forms of carbon having the value
about 56 at 1000*, and silicon 5-68 at 232°; while be concluded
that boron attained a constant value of 5*5. Nilson and Pettcrsson's
observations on beryllium and germanium have shown that the
atomic heats of these metals increase with rise of temperature,
finally becoming constant with a value 5-6. W. A. Tilden (PkiL
Trans., 1900, p. 233) investigated nickel and cobalt over a wide
range of temperature (from — 182-5° to ioo°); his results are:—
Cobalt.
Nickel.
From -182-5* to -78-4° . .
- 78-4* to 15% . •
15° to too* . .
41687
5-4978
60324
41874
56784
6-3143
It is evident that the atomic heats of these intimately associated
elements approach nearer and nearer as we descend in temperature,
approximating to the value 4. Other metals were tested in order
to determine if their atomic heats approximated to this value at low
temperatures, but with negative results.
It is apparent that the law of Dulong and Petit is not rigorously
true, and that deviations are observed which invalidate the law as
originally framed. Since the atomic heat of the same element
vanes with its state of aggregation, it must be concluded that some
factor taking this into account must be introduced; moreover, the
variation of specific heat with temperature introduces another factor.
We now proceed to discuss molecular heats of compounds,
that is, the product of the molecular weight into the specific
heat. The earliest generalization in this direction is associated
with F. E. Neumann, who, in 1831, deduced from observations
on many carbonates (calcium, magnesium, ferrous, zinc, barium
and lead) that stoichiometric quantities (equimolecular weights)
of compounds possess the some heat capacity. This is spoken of
as " Neumann's law." Regnault confirmed Neumann's obser-
vations, and showed that the molecular heat depended on the
number of atoms present, equi atomic compounds having the
same molecular heat. Kopp systematized the earlierobservations,
68
CHEMISTRY
[PHYSICAL 5
and, having made many others, he was able to show that!
the molecular heat was an additive property, i.e. each element
retains the same heat capacity when in combination as in the
free state. This has received confirmation by the researches
of W. A. Tilden (Phil. Trans., 1904, 203 A, p. 139) for those
elements whose atomic heats vary considerably with temperature.
The specific heat of a compound may, in general, be calculated
from the specific heats of its constituent elements. Conversely, if
the specific heats of a compound and its constituent elements, j
except one, be known, then the unknown atomic heat is readily I
deducible. Similarly, by taking the difference of the molecular heats
of compounds differing by one constituent, the molecular (or atomic) '
heat of this constituent is directly obtained. By this method it is
shown that water, when present as " water of crystallization,"
behaves as if it were ice.
Deductions from Dulong and PetiCs Law. — Denoting the
atomic weight by W and the specific heat by s, Dulong and
Petit's law states that 6*4 = Wj. Thus if s be known, an approxi-
mate value of W is determinate. In the determination of the
atomic weight of an element two factors must be considered:
(z) its equivalent weight, i.e. the amount which is equivalent to
one part of hydrogen ; and (2) a factor which denotes the number I
of atoms of hydrogen which combines with or is equivalent to
one atom of the particular element. This factor is termed the
valency. The equivalent weight is capable of fairly ready
determination, but the settlement of the second factor is some-
what more complex, and in this direction the law of atomic heats
is of service. To take an example: 38 parts of indium combine
with 35*4 parts of chlorine; hence, if the formula of the chloride \
be InCi, InCls or InClt, indium has the atomic weights 38, 76
or 114. The specific heat of indium is 0*057; and the atomic
heats corresponding to the atomic weights 38, 76 and 1x4 are
3*2, 4*3, 6*5. Dulong and Petit's law thus points to the value
1x4, which is also supported by the position occupied by this
element in the periodic classification. C. Winkler decided the
atomic weight of germanium by similar reasoning.
Boiling-Paint and Composition. — From the relation between
the critical constants P* V*/T fc «^R or T fc /P*=3-7V*/R, and |
since V* is proportional to the volume at absolute zero, the ratio
Tft/P* should exhibit additive relations. This ratio, termed by
Guye the critical coefficient, has the following approximate
values^
C H. CI. -0-. -0. N. N-. P. 82*£fi£
1*35 0*57 2-66 0-87 1-27 1-6 1-86 3-01 088 1-03
Since at the boiling-point under atmospheric pressure liquids
are in corresponding states, the additive nature of the critical
coefficient should also be presented by boiling-points. It may
be shown theoretically that the absolute boiling-point is pro-
portional to the molecular volume, and, since this property is
additive, the boiling-point should also be additive.
These relations have been more thoroughly tested in the case of
organic compounds, and the results obtained agree in some measure
with the deductions from molecular volumes. In general, isomers
boil at about the same temperature, as is shown by the isomeric
esters CHwOi:— ....
Methyl octoate . • xoao* Amyl butyrate . . 184-8*
Ethyl heptoate . * 187-1° Heptyl acetate • . I9i'3*
Propyl hexoate . . I85'5° Octyl formate . . lo8-l*
Butyl pentoate . . 185-8°
Equal increments in the molecule are associated with an equal
rise ui the boiling-point, but this increment varies in different
homologous series. Thus in the normal fatty alcohols, acids, esters,
nitrites and ketones, the increment per CHi is 19 — 21 °; in the alde-
hydes it is 26°— 27°. In the aromatic compounds there is no regu-
larity between the increments due to the introduction of methyl
groups into the benzene nucleus or side chains; the normal value
of 20°— 21° is exhibited, however, by pyridine and its derivatives.
The substitution of a hydrogen atom by the hydroxyl group generally
occasions a rise in boiling-point at about 100 . The same increase
accompanies the introduction of the amino group into aromatic nuclei.
While certain additive relations hold between some homologous
series, yet differences occur which must be referred to the constitution
^ .,*-. of the molecule. As a general rule, compounds formed
™" with a great evolution of heat have high boiling-points,
y3L««^ and vice vers*. The introduction of negative groups into
"»•«*«• a mo leculc alters the boiling-point according to the number
of negative groups already present. This is shown in the case of th*
chloracetic acids:
DHL
CHiCQ,H-»iS*
CLCHrC0iH=l8s 6
CUCH-CQ,H=t95* I0 "
OiC CQ.H - I95*-joo° 3*
According to van 't Hoff the substitution oi chlorine atoms into a
methyl group occasions the following increments: —
ClmCHi 66*
CI ,. CH>Cl 39*
a „chcii 13*.
The introduction of chlorine, however, may involve a fall in the
boiling- point, as is recorded by Henry in die case of the chlorinated
acetonEtrilcn: —
NC-CH*. NC-CHiCl. NOCHCU* NOCCV
fii* 123" Ji-' 7 Bj"
42° —it* -7V*
The re place meat of one ncgat i ve erou p b v another *s <iccom pa nicd by
a change in the tMiiling- point, which is independent of the compound
in whit;h the substitution is effected, and solely conditioned by the
nat utfe of the re placed and re plac i n r grou ps. Th u* bromi ne and tod ine
replace chlorine with increments of about 32° and 50" respectively,
A factor of considerable importance in determining boiling' point 1
of isomers is the symmetry of the- molecule. KeJerring to the esters
CtHttOi previously mentioned, it is seen that the highest boiling-
points belong to methyl octoate and octyl formate, the least sym-
metrical, while the minimum behngs to amyl butyrate, the most
symmetrical. The isomeric pctitanes aUo exhibit a similar rela-
tione Hi (CH,)*C Hi - 38*. CCrWIH C f Hi =30", (CHi)«C - 95*. Fora
similar reason seconds ry alcohols boil at a lower temperature than
the corresponding primary, the difference bring about to,". A. E.
Larp {PU4+ J/ajf., 1893 fs|. 35h P- 45&> ha* shown that, while an
increase in molecular weight is generally associated with a rise in
the boil i repaint, yet the symmetry of the resulting molecule may
e*crt such a lowering effect that the final result is a diminution in the
boiling-point. The scries H^-tii", CH,5H=it°, (CHi)^S-^i*
is an trample: in the first case the molecular weight is in-
creased and the symmetry diminished, the increase of boiling-point
being fla"; in the second case the molecular weight is again increased
but the molecule assumes a more symmetrical configuration, hence
the comparatively slight incir-ise of 20 *t A similar depression is
presented by methyl alcohol 107°) and methyl ether ("~a\j B );
Among the aromatic di-*ubs(itutiun derivatives the artho com-
pounds Save the highest boilinEpoint, and the mefa boil at a hirhrr,
or about the same temperature as the p&w compounds. Of the
tri-defivatives the sym metrical compounds boil at the lowest
temperature, the asymmetric next, and the vicinal at the highest \
An tthylcnic or double carbon union in the aliphatic hydrocarbons
has, apparently, the same effect on the boiling-point as two hydrogen
atoms, since the compound* C*H: n4 «and C,fl h bo]) at about the
same temperature. An acctyknic or triple linkage is associated
with a rise in the boiling 'point ; for example, prcpargyl compounds
boil about T^-g" higher than the corresponding, prop) I compound.
Certain regularities attend the corresponding property of the
melting- point. A rule applicable to organic compounds, due to
Adolf v. Baeyer and supported by F. 5. Kipping {Jour. Cktm. St*t. t
1*93* 6 3> P- 4 (, 5) states, that the melting-paint oi any odd member
of a homologous series is lower than, the me I ting-point of the even
member containing one carbon atom less. This is true of the fatty
acid scries:, and the corresponding: ketones and alcohols, and also of
the succinic acid series. Other regularities e»ist. but generally with
many exceptions* It is to be potMf that although the correlation of
melting-point with constitution has not been developed to such
an extent as the chemical significance of other physical properties,
the melting-point is the most valuable test of the purity of a sub*
stance, a circumstance due in considerable measure to the fact that
impurities always tend to lower the melting- point.
If eat vf Combustion and Constitution,.— In the art tele TfrEitltO-
cmumistrv a general account of heats at formation of rhemitaJ
compounds is given, and it is there shown that this constant
measures the stability of the compound. In organic chemistry
it is more customary to deal with the " heat of combustion/ 1
i.e. the heat evolved when an organic compound is completely
burned in o*ygen; the heat of formation is deduced from the
fact that it is equal to the hents of formation of the products
of combustion less the observed heat of combustion* The
tc^carc hes of Ju I i us Thomscn a nd 1 hers have shown Iha t in many
cases definite conclusions regarding constitution can be drawn
front quantitative measurements of the heats of combustion;
andin this article * summary of the chief results will be Riven.
from th^« y t h, f t c ^ f r r h r™ a ft! «/ toB * x *™ ™££
™™A* 1% lit C J" 4 * cf «™ bt, * ,ion of methane, ethane,
E^TA "*, m methyl methane, and tetrameihvl methane have a
constant diilercace ui the ord*r given, vii. i5S-6calori e » ' this r
PHYSICAL!
CHEMISTRY
69
rtrttu
both
that the replacement or fl hydrogen stoni by a methyl group is
attended by a constant increase in the heat of comb union. The
same difference attends the introduction of the methyl group into
many classes of compounds, for example, the psramns, ok fines,
acetylenes* aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, Aldehydes, ketones
and esters, while a slightly lower value (157-1) is. found in the case
of the halogen compounds, uitrik*, amines, acids, ethers, sulphides
and nitro compounds* It therefor? appears that the difference be-
tween the heats of combustion of two adjacent members of a series
of homologous compounds is practically a constant, and that this
constant has two ajgsgs values, viz. 158-6 and 157-1.
An important connexion between heats of combustion and
constitution b found in the investigation of the effect of tingle,
doable and triple carbon linkages on the ihermothemkal constants*
If twelve grammes of amorphous carbon be burnt to carbon dioxide
trader constant volume, the Nat evolved (96 -o6cal.) does not measure
the entire thermal effect, but the difference between this and the
heat required to break down the carbon molecule into atoms.
If the number of atoms in the carbon molecule be denoted by n.
and the heat required to spjlh off cieh atom from the molecule by d,
then the total heat required to break dawn a carbon molecule
completely into atoms is nd. It follows that the true heat of com-
bustion of carbon, i.r. the heat of combustion of one gramme-atom,
is 96-96+d. The value of d can lie evatuatr.fi by considering the
*on of amorphous carbon to carbon monoxide and carbon
In the first case the thermal effect of 5& l 5& calories actually
must be increased by id to allow for the heat al^orbed in
off two gramme-atoms of carbon; in the second ease the
effect of 96-46 must be increa^-d by d as above, Now in
es one gramme-molecule of oiygcn is decomposed , and the
two oxygen atoms thus formed are combined witn two carbon
valencies. It follows that the thermal effects staled above must be
equal, •>. 58-58+2^=76 no ^ and iiHTcforc-rf^jg-jg. Theabsolutc
beat of combustion of a cartoon alom is thcrrfon J 35 34 calorie*,
and this is independent of the form uf the carbon burned.
Consider now the combustion of a hydrocarbon of the general
formula C*Hf.,. We a<uumc that each c^tboti atom and each
hydrogen atom contributes equally to the thermal effect. If a. be
the heat evolved by each carbmi atom, and & that bv each hydrogen
atom, the thermal effect may be expressed .1*1 ll =sno-f 2mfl-A,
where A is the heat required tu break the mok-eqle into its constituent
atoms. If the hydrocarbon be saturated, i>. only contain single
carbon linkages, then the numlier of such linkages is 2a-m l and if
the thermal effect of such a linkage be X, thtmtbc term A is obviously
equal to (2«-«i)X. The value of H then become* 11 ^jiq+2«^
(2u-m)X or M{+f»i?, where f and * are constants. Let double
bonds be present, in number /», and let the energy due to such a
bond be V. Then the number of single bond J is jh-mi-2^, and the
beat of combustion becomes H, -Tfti+mq+pteX-Y)* If tfinle bonds,
f in number, occur also, and the energy of such a bond be Z, the
equation for H becomes
H-nZ+m+P(zX-Y}+ 3 tiX-2).
This is the general equation for calculating the heat of combustion
of a hydrocarbon, it contains four independent constants; two
of these may be calculated from the heats of combustion of
saturated hydrocarbons, and the other two from the combustion of
hydrocarbons containing double and iripk- linkages. By experiment
it is found that the thermal effect of a double bond is much less than
the effect of two single bond?, while a triple bond has a much smaller
effect than three single bonds. J. Thomsen deduces the actual
values of X, Y, Z to be 14*71, i.W? an d znti% the last value be
considers to be in agreement with the labile equilibrium of acctylcnic
compounds. One oil the most important applications of thc*c value*
b found in the case of the constitution of benzene, where Thomsen
1 in favour of the Claus formula, involving nine single carbon
linkages, and rejects the Kckule. formula, which has three single
and three double bonds (sec section IV.).
The thermal effects of the common organic substituents have
also been investigated. The thermal effect of the " alcohol " group
C-OH may be determined by finding the heat of formation of the
alcohol ana subtracting the thermal effects of the remaining Linkages
in the molecule. The average value: for primary alcohols is 44-67 cal-,
but many large differences from this value obtain in certain cascs-
The thermal effects increase as one passes from primary to tertiary
alcohols, the values deduced from propyl and isopropyl alcohols and
tnmethy! carbinol being:— primary" 45-08, secondary -50 -39, ter-
tiary <» 60-98. The thermal effect of the aldehyde group has the
average value 64*88 calorics, i.e. considerably greater than the afcohol
group. The ketone croup corresponds to a thermal effect of 53-52
calories. It is remarkable that the difference in the heats of forma-
tion of ketones and the paraffin containing one carbon atom less is
67*94 calorics, which ttt the heat of formation of carbon monoxide
at constant volume. It follows therefore that two hydrocarbon
radicals arc bound to the carbon monoxide residue with the same
strength as they combine to form a paraffin. The average value for
the carboxyl group is 119-75 calories. i>, it is equal to the sum of
the thermal effects of the aldehyde and carbon yl groups.
The thermal effeci s of the halocens are : chlorine *■ r.v 13 calorics,
bromine -708; iodine « -4-25 caWics. It is remark* We that the
position of the halogen in the molecule has no effect on the heat of
formation; for example, chlorpropylenc and allylchloridc. and also
ethylene dichloride and ethyl idene dichloridc, have equal heats of
formation. The thermal effect of the ether group has an average
value of 34-31 calories. This value does not hold in the ca se of
methylene oxide if we assign to it the formula HiC O-CHj, but
if the formula HiC-O-CHt (which assumes the presence of two free
valencies) be accepted, the calculated and observed heats of formation
are in agreement.
The combination of nitrogen with carbon may result in the
formation of nitrites, cyanides, or primary, secondary or tertiary
amines. Thomsen deduced that a single bond between a carbon and
a nitrogen gramme-atom corresponds to a thermal effect of 277
calories, a double bond to 544, and a treble bond to 8-31. From
this he infers that cyanogen is C:N-N:Cand not N-C-C-N.that
hydrocyanic acid is HC-N^ and acctonitrile CH,C | N. In the case
of the amines he decides in favour of the formulae '
H,C:NH, h|c^NH« 5lc^ NHCH »
primary, secondary, tertiary.
These involve pcntavalcnt nitrogen. These formulae, however, only
apply to aliphatic amines ; the results obtained in the aromatic series
are in accordance with the usual formulae.
Optical Relations.
Refraction and Composition. — Reference should be made to
the article Refraction for the general discussion of the pheno-
menon known as the refraction of light. It is there shown that
every substance, transparent to light, has a definite refractive
index, which is the ratio of the velocity of light in vacuo to its
velocity in the medium to which the refractive index refers.
The refractive index of any substance varies with (1) the wave-
length of the light; (2) with temperature; and (3) with the state
of aggregation. The first cause of variation may be at present
ignored; its significance will become apparent when we consider
dispersion (tide infra). The second and third causes, however,
are of greater importance, since they are associated with the
molecular condition of the substance; hence, it is obvious that
it is only from some function of the refractive index which is
independent of temperature variations and changes of state
(i.e. it must remain constant for the same substance at any
'temperature and in any form) that quantitative relations between
rcfractivity and chemical composition can be derived.
The pioneer work in this field, now frequently denominated
" spectro-chemistry," was done by Sir Isaac Newton, who, from
theoretical considerations based on his corpuscular theory of light,
determined the function (n*— 1), where n is the refractive index,
to be the expression for the refractive power; dividing this
expression by the density (d), he obtained (n*— i)/d, which he
named the " absolute refractive power." To P. S. Laplace is
due the theoretical proof that this function is independent of
temperature and pressure, and apparent experimental confirma-
tion was provided by Biot and Arago's, and by Dulong's obscrva-
tions on gases and vapours. The theoretical basis upon which
*his formula was devised (the corpuscular theory) was shattered
early in the 19th century, and in its place there arose the modern
wave theory which theoretically invalidates Newton's formula.
-The question of the dependence of refractive index on tempera-
ture was investigated in 1858 by J. H. Gladstone and the Rev.
T. P. Dale; the more simple formula (n-i)[d, which lemained
constant for gases and vapours, but exhibited slight discrepancies
when liquids were examined over a wide range of temperature,
being adopted. The subject was next taken up by Hans Landolt,
who, from an immense number of observations, supported in
$1 general way the formula of Gladstone and Dale. He introduced
the idea of comparing the rcfractivity of cquimolecular quantities
of different substances by multiplying the function («— i)/d
by the molecular weight (M) of the substance, and investigated
the relations of chemical grouping to rcfractivity. Although
establishing certain general relations between atomic and
molecular refractions, the results were somewhat vitiated by the
inadequacy of the empirical function which he employed, since it
was by no means a constant which depended only on the actual
composition of the substance and was independent of its physical
condition. A more accurate exocessuro. vjfr— "C^V^-Vi^ **c*a>
70
CHEMISTRY
(PHYSICAL
suggested in 1880 independently and almost simultaneously by
L. V. Lorcnz of Copenhagen and H. A. Lorcntz of Leiden, from
considerations based on the Clausius-Mossotti theory of dielectrics.
Assuming that the molecules are spherical, R. J. E. Clausius and
O. F. Mossotti found a relation between the dielectric constant and
the space actually occupied by the molecules, viz. K*= (1 +2a)/(i —a),
or a-(K — i)/(K-f 2), where K is the dielectric constant and a the
fraction of the total volume actually occupied by matter. According
to the electromagnetic theory oi light K = Nt. where N is the
refractive index lor rays of infinite wave-length. Making this
substitution, and dividing by d, the density of the substance, we
obtain a/d ■ (N* — 1 )/(N*-|-2)d. Since aid is the real specific volume
of the molecule, it is therefore a constant; hence (N*— i)/(N*+2)<f
is also a constant and is independent of all changes of temperature,
pressure, and of the state of aggregation. To determine N
recourse must be made to Cauchys formula of dispersion (g.v.),
»«A + B/X , +C/X 4 +. . . from which, by extrapolation, X becoming
infinite, wc obtain N-»A. In the case of substances possessing
anomalous dispersion, the direct measurement of the refractive
index for Hertzian waves of very long wave-length may be
employed.
It is found experimentally that the Lorcnz and Lorcntz
function holds fairly well, and better than the Gladstone and Dale
formula. This is shown by the following observations of Riihl-
mann on water, the light used being the D line of the spectrum: —
either directly, by investigating the various elements, or indirectly,
by considering differences in the molecular refractions of related
compounds. The first method needs no explanation. The second
method proceeds on the same lines as adopted for atomic volumes.
By subtracting the value for CHj, which may be derived from two
substances belonging to the same homologous scries, from the mole-
cular refraction of methane, CH«, the value of hydrogen is obtained;
subtracting this from CH 2 , the value of carbon is determined.
Hydroxylic oxygen is obtained by subtracting the molecular refrac-
tions of acetic acid and acetaldehyde. Similarly, by this method of
differences, the atomic refraction of any element may be determined.
It is found, however, that the same element has not always the same
atomic refraction, the difference being due to the nature of the
elements which saturate its valencies. Thus oxygen varies according
as whether it is linked to hydrogen (hydroxyhc oxygen), to two
atoms of carbon (ether oxygen), or to one carbon atom (carbonyl
oxygen) ; similarly, carbon varies according as whether it is singly,
doubly, or trebly bound to carbon atoms.
A table of the atomic refractions and dispersions of the principal
elements is here given : —
/.
(n-i)/rf.
(fl'-l)/(lf* + 2)c/.
10
20
90
IOO
0-3338
03338
0*3330
03321
0-3323
0-206 I
0-2O6 1
0-206l
0-2059
0-206l
Eykmann's observations also support the approximate
constancy of the Lorcnz-Lorcntz formula over wide temperature
differences, but in some cases the deviation exceeds the errors
of observation. The values arc for the Ha line: —
Substance.
Temp.
(n*-\)l(n*+2)d.
Isosafrol, C»HioO>
Diphenyl ethylene, CuHi* . . .
Quinoline, C»HiN
\ I7 'K
I 141-1
\ 22°
J M3-4*
K 16-2°
)l4i°
0-2925
0-2962
0-3339
03382
03187
03225
The empirical formula (n*-i)/(n 8 +0'4)d apparently gives more
constant values with change of temperature than the Lorenz-
Lorentz form. The superiority of the Lorenz-Lorentz formula
over the Gladstone and Dale formula for changes of state is
shown by the following observations of Bruhl (Zeit.f. phys. Chcm.,
1891, 71, p. 4). The values are for the D line: —
Element,
Hydr*jgcn . , ,
Oxygen, Jmhmyl . .
t , ether . * ,
„ carbonyl , .
Chlorine . , . .
Bromine . . , r 1
Iodine . . . +
Carr«?n (singly bound)
Double linkage of carbon
Triple
Nitroecn, singly bound
and only to carbon
H,.
1-103
1-506
3-33i
G Mf
8«6t
lj-KoS
2*365
I '836
?<J5
* 76
1-683
J-287
S'998
8*937
14U
J'5'Jt
I -707
Hi.
1 '39
t-667
2-4U
6-190
9-21 1
14582
2-404
1-859
a.95
Dispersion
0-036
0-019
O-012
0-086
0-176
0348
o-774
0-039
0-2J
O-I9
O+I9
Substance.
Temp.
Gladstone and Dale.
Lorcnz and Lorcntz.
Vapour.
Liquid.
Vapour.
Liquid.
Water ...
Carbon disulphide • .
Chloroform ....
io°
IO*
IO*
03101
o-4347
0-2694
0-3338
04977
03000
0-2068
02898
01 796
02061
02805
01 790
Atmtv
Landolt and Gladstone, and at a later date J. W. Briihl, have
investigated the relations existing between the refractive power
and composition. To Landolt is due the proof that,
in general, isomers, i.e. compounds having the same
composition, have equal molecular refractions, and that
equal differences in composition arc associated with equal differences
in refractive power. This is shown in the following table (the values
are for H.) : —
Dispersion and Composition.— In the preceding section we have
seen that substances possess a definite molecular (or atomic) refrac-
tion for light of particular wave-length; the difference between the
refractions for any two rays is known as the molecular (or atomic)
dispersion. Since mole* uLr refraction*^, i ■ ■ pcra-
ture and of the state of aggregation, it follows, rh^t molitulj dis-
persions must be also independent oj these conditions; and hence
quantitative measurement! should give an indication as to the
chemical composition of substances. This subject hat been princi-
pally investigated by Briihl; he found that molecular dii| sions
of liquids and gases were independent of temperature, and fairly
independent of the state of aggregation, but that no simple con 1 »xion
exists between atomic refractions and dispersions (see pn riing
table). He also showed how changes in constitution effected dis-
persions to a far greater extent than they did refractions; thus,
while the atomic dispersion of carbon ti 0"**39< the dupersions due
to a double and treble linkage is o<3j and O-tn respectively.
Colour and Constitution. — In this article a summary of the
theories which have been promoted in order to connect the colour
of organic compounds with their constitution
will be given, and the reader is referred to the
article Colour for the physical explanation of
this property, and to Vision for the physiological
and psychological bearings. A clear distinction
must be drawn between colour and the property
of dyeing; all coloured substances are not dyes,
and it is shown in the article Dyeing that the property of
entering into chemical or physical combination with fibres involves
properties other than those essential to colour. At the same
time, however, all dyestuffs are coloured substances.
A survey of coloured substances led O. N. Witt in i876toformulate
- " chromophore-auxochromc " theory. On this theory colour is
his
regarded as due to the presence of a chromophore," and dyeing
power to an "auxochrome"; the latter by itself
cannot produce colour or dyeing power, but it is
only active in the presence 01 a chromophore, when
it intensifies the colour and confers the property
of dyeing. The principal chromophores are the azo,
— N=N— , azoxy, = NjO, nitro, — N0», nitroso,
— NO, and carbonyl, => CO, groups. Theazo-group
is particularly active, both the aliphatic and
aromatic compounds being coloured. The simplest
aliphatic compounds, such as diazo-methanc, diazo-
cthane, and azo-formic acid, are yellow: the
diamide of the latter acid is orange-red. Of the
Additive relations undoubtedly exist, but many discrepancies occur 1 aromatic comjKuinds azo-benzene is bright orange-red, and o-azo-
which may be assigned, as in the case of molecular volumes, to I naphthalene forms red needles or small steel-blue prisms. The azo-
differences in constitution. Atomic refractions may be obtained | group, however, has little or no colouring effect when present in a
Substance.
Mol.
Refract.
Substance.
Mol.
Refract.
Diff. for
CHa.
Ethylene chloride | rHr ,
Ethylidene chloride S C «"^ I «
Fumaric acid (run
Maleicacid i C « H «°« * '
o-Crcsol )
m«Crcsol [ CtH»0 • - .
p-Crcsol }
\ 2096
? 2108
$70-89
? 7029
( 3*'5*
} 3'-56
(3*-57
Acetic acid . . .
Propionic acid . .
Butyric acid . , ,
Acetaldehyde . . .
Propionaldohydc . »
Butylaldehyde . .
1293
1742
2201
1150
15-93
2052
{ 449
(4-59
U-43
! 459
PHYSICAL]
CHEMISTRY
7i
ring system, such as in clnnolene, phthalazine and tolazone. The
nitro group has a very important action mainly on account of the
readiness with which it can U: introduced into the molecule, but its
effect is much less than that of the azo group. The colour produced
is generally yellow, which, in accordance with a general rule, Is
intensified with an increase in the number of groups; compare, for
example, mono-, di- and tri-nitrobenzene. The nitroso group is
lew important. The colour produced is generally of a greenish
shade; for example, nitrosobenzene is green when fused orin solution
(when crystalline, it is colourless), and dinitrosorcsorcin has been
employee! as a dyestuff under the names " solid green " and
" chlorine." The carbonyl group by itself does not produce colour,
but when two adjacent groups occur in the mojccule, as for example
in the «-dikctoncs (such as di-acctyl and benzil), a yellow colour is
produced. It also acts as a chromogenic centre when double bonds
or ethylente linkages are present, as in fluorcnc ketone or fluorenone.
A more complex chromophoric group is the triple ethylcnic
grouping ™p ^> C", the introduction of which wa* rendered neces-
sary by the discovery of certain coloured hydrocarbon*. As a general
rule, hydrocartwms are colourless; the exceptions include the golden
yellow acenaphthylenc, the red bidipheny lene-cthylcnc, and the
CH-CH
derivatives of fulvcne ~„ [ p.. >CIU, which have been discussed by
J. Thielc (Ber., 1900, 3}, p. fif>6). This grouping is not always
colour-producing, since diphenyl is colourless.
The most important auxocriromis arc the hydroxyl (-0H) and
amino (-NHi) groups. According to the modern theory of auxo-
chromic action, the introduction of a group into the molecule is
accompanied by some strain, and the alteration in colour produced
is connected with the magnitude of the strain. The amino group is
more powerful than the hydroxyl, and the substituted amino group
more powerful still; the repeated substitution of hydroxyl groups
sometimes causes an intensification and sometimes a diminution of
colour.
We may here notice an empirical rule formulated by Nietzski in
1879: — the simplest colouring substances arc in the greenish -yellow
and yellow, and with increasing molecular weight the colour passes
into orange, red, violet, blue and green. This rule, however, is by
no means perfect. Examination of the absorpt ion spectra of coloured
compounds shows that certain groupings displace the absorption
bands in one direction, and other groupings in the other. If the
bands be displaced towards the violet, involving a regression through
the colours mentioned above, the group is said to be " hypso-
chromk"; if the reverse occurs the group in " iKithochromic. It
may be generally inferred that an increase in molecular weight is
accompanied by a change in colour in the direction of the violet.
Auxochromic groups generally aid one another, i.e. the tint
deepens as the number of auxochromes increases. Also the relative
position of the auxochromc to the chromophorc influences colour,
the ortho-position being generally the most powerful. KaufTmann
\Btr., 1900, 39, p. 1959) attempted an evaluation of the effects of
auxochromic groups by means of the magnetic optical constants.
The method is based on the supposition that the magnetic rotation
measures the strain produced in the molecule by an auxochromc,
and he arranges the groups in the following order: —
•O-COCHi -OCH, -NHCOCH, NH, N(CH0« •N(C,H»),
-0-260 1-459 .»-949 3-321 8-587 8-816
The phenomena attending the salt formation of coloured and
colouring substances arc important. The chromophoric groups arc
rarely strongly acid or basic; on the other hand, the auxochromes
are strongly acid or basic and form salts very readily. Notable
differences attend the neutralization of the chromophoric and auxo-
chromic groups. With basic substances, the chromophoric combina-
tion with? a colourless acid is generally attended by a deepening in
colour: auxochromic combination, on the other hand, with a learn-
ing. Examples of the first case are found among the colourless
acridities and quinoxalincs which give coloured salts. ; of the second
case we may notice the colourless hydrochloride and sulphate of the
deep yellow 0-aminobcnzophenonc. With acid substances, the com-
bination with '* colourless " metals, i.e. metals producing colour-
less salts with acids, is attended by colour changes contrary to those
S'ven above, auxochromic combination being accompanied by a
opening, and chromophoric by a lessening of the tint.
Mention may be made of the phenomenon of halochromism, the
name given to the power of colourless or faintly-coloured substances
of combining with acids to form highly-coloured substances without
the necessary production of a chromophoric croup. The researches
of Adolf von Daeycr and Villiger, Kehrmann, KaufTmann and others,
show that this property is^ possessed by very many and varied
substances. In many cases it may be connected with basic oxygen,
and the salt formation is assumed to involve the passage of divalent
into tetravalent oxygen. It seems that intermofccular change also
occurs, but further research is necessary before a sound theory can
be stated.
Quinone Theory of Colour . — A theory of colour Jn opposition to
the Witt theory was proposed by Henry Armstrong in 1880 and 1892.
TP»is assumed that all coloured substances were derivatives of ortho-
or para-quinone (sec Quinones), and although at the time of its
promotion little practical proof was given, yet the theory found
wide acceptance on account of the researches of many other chemists.
It follows on this theory that all coloured substances contain cither
of the groupings
O-o'Q-,
the former being a para-quinonoid, the latter an ortho-quinonoid.
While very many coloured substances must obviously contain this
grouping, yet in many cases it is necessary to assume a simple
intcrmolecularchange, while in others a more complex rearrangement
of bonds is necessary. Quinone, which is light yellow in colour, is
the simplest coloured substance on this theory. Hydrocarbon*
of similar structure have been prepared by Thielc, for example, the
orange-yellow tctraphenyl-Aflra-xylylene, which is obtained by
boiling the bromide C«H 4 |Cbr(CcHi) : jj with benzene and molecular
silver. The quinonoid structure of many coloured compounds has
been proved experimentally, as, for example, by Hewitt for the
benzene-azo-phennls, and Hantzsch for triaminotriphenyl methane
and acridine derivatives; but, at the same time, many substances
cannot be so explained. A notable example is provided by the
phthalcins, which result by the condensation of phthalic anhydride
with phenols. In the free state these substances arc colourless,
and were assumed to have the formula shown in I. Solution in
dilute alkali was supposed to be accompanied by the rupture of the
lactone ring with the formation of the quinonoid salt shown in 2.
xxcrxxjy
«•>
Bacyer (Ber., 1905, 3S, p. 569) and Silbcrrad (Joiirn. Chem. Soe.,
1906, 89, p. 1767) have disputed the correctness of this explanation,
and the latter has prepared mclliteins and pyromclliu-ins which are
highly-coloured compounds produced from mcUiLic and pyromcllitic
acids, and which cannot be formulated as quinones. Bacyer has
suggested that the nine carbon atom system of xanthonc may act as a
chromophorc. An alternative view, due to Green, is that the oxygen
atom of the xanthonc ring is tetravalent, a supposition which permits
the formulation of these substances as ortho-quinonoid*.
The theories of colour have also been investigated by Hantzsch,
who first considered the nitro-phcnols. On the chromophore-
auxochrome theory (the nitro group being the chromophorc, and the
hydroxyl the auxochromc) it is necessary in order to explain the high
colour of the mctallicsalts and the colourlessalkylandaryl derivatives
to assume that the auxochromic action of the hydroxyl group is only
brought strongly into evidence by salt formation. Armstrong, on
the other hand, assumed an tntermotccuUr change, thus;—
NO,
U- N(
NO,Na.
RC ^NO»
The proof of this was left for Hantzsch, who traced a connexion
with the nitrolic acids of V. Meyer, which are formed when nitrous
acid acts on primary aliphatic nitro coni[>ounds. Meyer formulated
these compounds as nitroximes or nitro-isnitroso derivatives, viz.
R'C(NO.)iXpH). Hantrsch explains the transformation of the
colourless arid into red salts, whirh on standing yield more stable,
colourless salts, by the following scheme: —
NOH v RC<T}0 o.r^NOiNa
\ N / -» RC <NO
oS \ONa
Colourless, stable. Coloured, labile. Colourless, stable.
He has also shown that the nitrophcnols yield, in addition to the
colourless trucnitrophcnol ctlu-r>, an isomeric series of rulourcd un-
stable quinonoid ari-ethers, which have practically the same colour
and yield the same absorption spectra as the coloured metallic
salts. He suggests that the term " quinone " theory be abandoned,
and replaced by the Umlancrunzs theory, since this term implies
some intermolecular rearrangement, and does not connote simply
benzenoid compounds as docs " quinonoid." 11. von Liebig (Ann.,
1908, 3°°i P* **8), from a very complete discussion of triphenyl-
methane derivatives, concluded that the grouping a-A-A wastne
only true organic chromophorr, colour production, however, re-
quiring another condition, usually the closing of a ring.
The views as to the question of colour and constitution may be
summarized as follows: — (1) The quinone theory (Armstrong,
Gombcrg, R. Meyer) regards all coloured substances as having
a quinonoid structure. (2) The chromophorc-auxochrome
theory (KaufTmann) regards colour as due to the entry of an
" auxochrome " into a " chromophoric " molecule. (3) If a
colourless compound gives a coloured one on solution or by
72
CHEMISTRY
salt-formation, the production of colour may be explained as &
particular form of ionization (Baeycr), or by a molecular re-
arrangement (Hantzsch). A dynamical theory due to £. C. C.
Baly regards colour as due to " isorropesis " or an oscillation
between the residual affinities of adjacent atoms composing the
molecule.
Fluorescence and Constitution. — The physical investigation
of the phenomenon named fluorescence — the property of
transforming incident light into light of different refrangibUity —
is treated in the article Fluorescence. Researches in syntheti-
cal organic chemistry have shown that this property of
fluorescence is common to an immense number of substances,
and theories have been proposed whose purpose is to connect
the property with constitution.
In ISM Kichaxd Meyer [Ztti. phyrik. Chtmie. 24, p. 465) submitted
the \\e w that Quore&rence was due to the presence of certain " iluoro
phor< " groups: such groupings are the pyrone ring and it* con-
gene- 1 lhe centra! ring! in anthracene and acridine derivative*,
and iht nam diamine ring in tafra nines, A novel theory, proposed
by J . T, He wut in tqotj {Zc (7,/, physik, Ckemir, 34* P- 1 : B-4 ■ Report.
1903, p. 62$, and later papers in the Journ, CteM.Svc.), regard 1 the
property as occasioned by internal vibration* within the molecule
condiiianf-rj by a symmetrical double lautomeriim, light ol one
wavt -Tr-ngth being absorbed by one form, and emitted wit ha different
wave- length by the other. 1 hi* oscillation may be rcprt&ciucd in
the case of acridine and fluorescein as
c&=ofi>ooo ^<&p*xftr
N N N CJH;COOH V^Jp C^COOH
This theory brings the property of fluorescence into relation with
that of colour; the forms which cause fluorescence being the coloured
modifications: ortho-quinonoid in the case of acridioc, para-
quinonoid in the case of fluorescein. H. Kauffmann (Ber., 1900, 33,
p. !73>: 1904. 35, P 394; 1905. 3B, p. 7&g; Ann », 1506, 344, p. 3a)
suggested that the probity is due to the presence of fit least two
groups. The first jgroup, named the "' Juminophore," is such that
when excited by suitable aetherial vibrations emit* radiant energy;
the other, named the " Uuoragtn." acts with the luminophore in
some way or other to cause the fluorescence* This theory explain*
thefluoresccnccof ant hranilie acid fc-aminohcnioic acid), by regard-
ing the aniline residue as the luminophore. and the carboKyl group
as the fluorogen, since, apparently, the introduction of the Tatter
into the non-fluorescent andine molecule involves the production of
a fluorescent substance. Although the theories of Meyer and
Hewitt do not explain (in their present form) the behaviour of
anthranilic acid, yet Hewitt ha* shown that his theory eoea far to
explain the fluorescence of substance*, in which a double symmetrical
tautomerism is possible. This tautomeric may be of a twofold
nature: — (1) it may involve the mere oscillation of linkages, as in
acridinc; or (2) it may involve the oscillaiion til atoms, as in fluor-
escein. A theory of a physical nature, based primarily upon Sir
h J. Thomson's theory of corpuscles, has been proposed by J. de
Kowalfki (Compt. rem. 1907, 144, p. 266). We may notice that
ethyl oxalosuccinonitrilc is the first case of a fluorescent aliphatic
compound (sec W. Wisliccnus and P. Berg, Bcr. t 1908, 41, p. 3757).'*
Capillarity and Surface Tension. — Reference should be made
to the article Capillary Action for the general discussion of this
phenomenon of liquids. It is there shown that the surface
tension of a liquid may be calculated from its rise in a capillary
tube by the formula 7 = \rhs, where 7 is the surface tension per
square centimetre, r the radius of the tube, h the height of the
liquid column, and s the difference between the densities of
the liquid and its vapour. At the crit ical point liquid and vapour
become identical, and, consequently, as was pointed out by
Frankenhcim in 1841, the surface tension is zero at the critical
temperature.
McndclccfT endeavoured to obtain a connexion between surface
energy and constitution ; more successful were the investigations
Relation °^ Setoff, who found that the " molecular surface tension,"
fomoJocv which he defined as the surface tension divided by the
Jar weight, molecular weight, is constant for isomers, and that two '
atoms of hydrogen were equal to one of carbon, three to j
one of oxygen, and seven to one of chlorine; but these ratios were <
by no means constant, and afforded practically no criteria as to the 1
molecular weight of any substance.
In 1886 R. Eotvds (\Vied. Ann. 27, p. 452), assuming that two I
liquids may l>e compared when the ratios of the volumes of the ]
liquids to the volumes of the saturated vapours are the same,
deduced that 7V'(whcre y is the surface tension, and V the molecular
volume 01 the liquid) causes all liquids to have the same temperature 1
[PHYSICAL
coefficients. This theorem was investigated by Sir W. Ramsay and
J. Shields {Jenrn* €htm. Sot. 63, p r iobq; 65. p. 167), whose results
have thrown considerable light on t lie subject of the molecular
complexity of liquids. ftam&ay am] bihiclds suggested that there
exists an equation lot the surface cncrKV of liquids, analogous to the
volume-encVey equation of gnat-*, PV = RT. The relation they
suspected to be of the form -jS ■» KT, where K is a constant analogous
to K, and S the surface containing one gramme-molecule, y and T
being the surface tension and temperature respectively. Obviously
equ [molecular surface* are civen by (Mr)', where M is the molecular
weight of the sutauince, for equi molecular volumes are Mr, and
corresponding surfaces the two-thirds power of this. Hence S may
be replaced by (Mv)4. Ramsay and Shields found from investiga-
tions of the temperature coefficient of the surface energy thatTin the
equation y (Mf )* » KT must be counted downwards from the critical
tem perat a re r less ubou t 6 *, Their surface energy equation therefore
assumes the form y (Mr) 1 - K(rH&*). Now the value of K, y being
measured in dynes and M being the molecular weight of the substance
as a gas, is in general 2- u 1 : this value is never exceeded, but in
many rases it it less. This diminution implies an association of
molecule*, the surface containing fewer molecules than it is supposed
to. Suppose the coefficient of association be n, i.e. n is the mean
number of molecules which associate to form one molecule, then by
the normal equation we have >(Mot)^ = s 2-i2i(r— 6°); if the calcu-
lated constant be Ki, then we have also «y(Mv)*«=Ki(r — 6°). By
division we obtain w* -2*121 /[Ci, or r~(2«I2I/Kj)*, the coefficient
of association being thus determined,
The apparatus devised! by Ramsay and Shields consisted of a
capillary tid«\ on one end of which was blown a bulb provided with
a minute hole. Attached to the bulb was a glass rod and then a tube
containing iron wire. This tube was placed in an outer tube contain-
ing the liquid to be experimented with; the liquid is raised to its
boiling-point* and then hermetically sealed. The whole is enclosed
in a jacket connected with a boikr coutaining a liquid, the vapour
of which scots to keep the inner tube at any desired temperature.
The capillary lube can be raised or lowered at will by running a
magnet outside the tube, and the heights of the columns are measured
by a cathetotneter or micrometer microscope.
N'otmal values of K were given by nitrogen peroxide, NiO«, sulphur
chloride, SjCIj, silicon tetrachloride, SiCI«, phosphorus chloride,
PCI, T phcpsphoryl chloride, POClj, nickel carbonyl, Ni(CO)«, carbon
di sulphide, benzene, pyridine, tt her, methyl propyl ketone; associa-
tion characterized many hydroxy lie compounds: for ethyl alcohol
the factor of association was 2-74,-2 -43, (or n-propyl alcohol 2 -86-2* 72,
acetic add 3/62—3*77, acetone J-2u, water 3-81 —2-32; phenol,
nitric acid, sulphuricacid, oitroethjtne, and propionitril, also exhibit
association.
Crystalline Form and Composition.
The development oT the theory of crystal structure, and the
fundamental principles on which is based the classification of
crystal forms, are treated in Lhe article Crystallography; in
the same place will be found an account of the doctrine of iso-
morphism, polymorphism and morphetropy. Here we shall
treat the latter subjects in more del ail, viewed from the stand-
point of the chemist. Isomorphism may be defined as the
existence of two or more different substances in the same crystal
form and structure, polymorphism ns the existence of the same
substance m two or moie crystal modifications, and morphotropy
(after P. von Grolh) as the change in crystal form due to altera-
tions in (nt molecule of closely (chemically) related substances.
Tn order to permit a comparison of crystal forms, from which
wc hope to gain an insight into the prevailing molecular con-
ditions, it is necessary that some unit of crystal dimensions must
be chosen, A crystal may be regarded as built up of primitive
paiallckpipcda, the edges of which are in the ratio of the
crystallographic axes, and the angles the axial angles of the
crystals* To reduce these figures lo a common standard, so
that lhe volumes shall contain equal numbers of molecules,
the notion of molecular volumes is introduced, the arbitrary
values of the crystaJlngraphic ues {a, h, c) being replaced by the
topic parameters 1 (x, ^ w) H which are such that, combined with
the axial angles, they enclose volumes which contain equal
numbers of molecules. The actual values of the topic para-
meters can then readily be expressed in terms of the elements of
the crystals (the axial ratios and angles), the density, and the
molecular weight (see Groth, Phyiikjlische Krystallographie, or
Chemical Cryitjlfagrvphy).
'This was done simultaneously in 1894 by \V. Muthmann and
A. fc. El. Tut ion, the latter receiving the idea from F. Bcckc (sec
Joutn. Ckcm. Soc. t 1896, 69, p. 507; 1905, 87, p. 1183).
PHYSICAL}
CHEMISTRY
73
Polymorphism. — On the theory that crystal form and i tructure
are the result of the equilibrium between the atoms and molecules
composing the crystals, it is probable, a priori, that the same
substance may possess different equilibrium configurations of
sufficient stability, under favourable conditions, to form different
crystal structures. Broadly this phenomenon is termed poly-
morphism; however, it is necessary to examine closely the diverse
crystal modifications in order to determine whether they are
really of different symmetry, or whether twinning has occasioned
the apparent difference. In the article Crystallography the
nature and behaviour of twinned crystals receives full treat-
ment; here it is sufficient to say that when the planes and aces
of twinning are planes and axes of symmetry, a twin would
exhibit higher symmetry (but remain in the same crystal system)
than the primary crystal; and, also, if a crystal approximates
in its axial constants to a higher system, mimetic twinning
would increase the approximation, and the crystal would be
pseudo-symmetric.
In general, polysymmetric and polymorphous modifications
suffer transformation when submitted to variations in either
temperature or pressure, or both. The criterion whether
a pseudo-symmetric form is a true polymorph or not consists
in the determination of the scalar properties {e.g. density,
specific heat, &c.) of the original and the resulting modifica-
tion, a change being in general recorded only when polymorphism
exists. Change of temperature usually suffices to determine
this, though in certain cases a variation in pressure is
necessary; for instance, sodium magnesium uranyl acetate,
NaMg(UO»)i(CiH J Oi),-9HjO shows no change in density unless
the observations are conducted under a considerable pressure.
Although many pseudo-symmetric twins are transformable into
the simpler form, yet, in some cases, a true polymorph results,
the change being indicated, as before, by alterations in scalar
(as well as vector) properties.
For example, boracite forms pseudo-cubic crystals which become
truly cubic at 265°, with a distinct change in density; Ieucite
behaves similarly at about 560*. Again, the pyroxenes, RSiOt
(R— Fe, Mg, Mn, 9k..), assume the forms (1) monoclinic, sometimes
twinned so as to become pseudo-rhombic; (2) rhombic, resulting
from the pseudo-rhombic struct urfcof (1) becoming ultramicroscopic ;
and (3) triclinic, distinctly different from (1) and (2); (1) and (2)
are polysymmetric modifications, while (3) and the pair (1) and (2;
are polymorphs.
While polysymmetry is solely conditioned by the manner
fn which the mimetic twin is built up from the single crystals,
there being no change in the scalar properties, and the vector
properties being calculable from the nature of the twinning,
m the case of polymorphism entirely different structures present
themselves, both scalar and vector properties being altered;
and, in the present state of our knowledge, it is impossible to
foretell the characters of a polymorphous modification. We may
conclude that in polymorphs the substance occurs in different
phases (or molecular aggregations), and the equilibrium between
these phases follows definite laws, being dependent upon tempera-
ture and pressure, and amenable to thermodynamic treatment
(cf. Chemical Action and Energetics). The transformation
of polymorphs presents certain analogies to the solidification
of a liquid. Liquids may be cooled below their freezing-point
without solidification, the metastable (after W. Ostwald) form
so obtained being immediately solidified on the introduction
of a particle of the solid modification; and supersaturated
solutions behave in a similar manner. At the same time there
may be conditions of temperature and pressure at which poly-
morphs may exist side by side.
The above may be illustrated by considering the equilibrium
between rhombic and monoclinic sulphur. The former, which is
deposited from solutions, is transformed into monoclinic sulphur
at about 96*, but with great care it is possible to overheat it and
even to fuse it (at 113-5°) without effecting the transformation.
Monoclinic sulphur, obtained by crystallizing fused sulphur, melts
at 1 19-5°, and admits of undercooling even to ordinary temperatures,
but contact with a fragment of the rhombic modification spontane-
ously brings about the transformation. From Reichcr's determina-
tions, the exact transition point is 05-6°: it rises with increasing
e about 0-05° for one atmosphere ; the density of the rhombic
diai
the elevation of the
The overheating curve of
F10. 6.
form is greater than that of the moaodinic The equilibria of these
modifications may be readily represented on a pressure-temperature
'iagram. If OT, OP (fig. 6), be the axes of temperature and pressure,
nd A corresponds to the transition point (95*6 ) of rhombic sulphur,
we may follow out the line AB which 1
transition point with increasing pressure,
rhombic sulphur extends along the curve
AC, where C is the melting-point of
monoclinic sulphur. The line BC, repre-
senting the equilibrium between mono-,
clinic and liquid sulphur, is thermo-
dynamicaily calculable; the point B is
found to correspond to 131 and 400
atmospheres. From B the curve of
equilibrium (BD) between rhombic and
liouid sulphur proceeds; and from C
(along CE) the curve of equilibrium
between liquid sulphur and sulphur
vapour. Of especial interest is the
curve BD: along Lhii line liquid and
rhombic sulphur are in equilibrium, which
tneanj that at above 131 and 400 atmosphere* the rhombic (and
not the monoclinic) variety would frtparate from liquid sulphur.
Mercuric iodide also exhibit* dimorphism. When precipitated
from solutions it forms red tetragonal crystals, which, on careful
heating* give a yellow rhombic form* also obtained by crystallization
from the (used substance, or by sublimation. The transition point
ts 1 2 6- j {VV : Sdi wart. Z*it.f. Krvit. x$> p 0)3), but both modifica-
tions may exist in metastable I amis at higher and lower temperatures
respectively; the rhombic form may be cooled down to ordinary
temperature without changing, the transformation, however, being
readily induced! by a trace of the red modification, or by friction.
The density and specific heat of the tetragonal form are greater
than thrwc of the yellow,
Hexach lor ethane is trimorphous, forming rhombic, triclinic and
cubic crystals; the successive changes occur at about 44* and 71*,
and are attended by a decrease in density.
Tetramorphism is exhibited by ammonium nitrate. According to
O. Lehmann it melts at 168* (or at a slightly lower temperature in
its water of crystallisation) and on cooling forms optically isotropic
crystals; at I25-6* the mass becomes doubly refracting, and from
a solution rhombohcdral (optically uniaxial) crystals are deposited;
by further cooling acicular rhombic crystals are produced at 82*8*,
and at 32*4° other rhombic forms are obtained, identical with the
product obtained by crystallizing at ordinary temperatures. The
reverse series of transformations occurs when this final modification
is heated. M. Bcllatl and R. Romanese (ZeiL f. Kryst. 14, p. 78)
determined the densities and specific heats of these modifications.
The first and third transformations (reckoned in order with in-
creasing temperature of the transition point) are attended by an
increase in volume, the second with a contraction: the solubility
follows the same direction, increasing up to 82*8*, then diminishing
up to 125*6*, and then increasing from this temperature upwards.
The physical conditions under which polymorphous modifica-
tions are prepared control the form which the substance assumes.
We have already seen that temperature and pressure exercise
considerable influence in this direction. In the case of separation
from solutions, either by crystallization or by precipitation by
double decomposition, the temperature, the concentration of
the solution, and the presence of other ions may modify the
form obtained. In the case of sodium dihydrogen phosphate,
NaHjPCVHiO, a stable rhombic form is obtained from warm
solutions, while a different, unstable, rhombic form is obtained
from cold solutions. Calcium carbonate separates as hexagonal
calcite from cold solutions (below 30°), and as rhombic aragonite
from solutions at higher temperatures; lead and strontium
carbonates, however, induce the separation of aragonite at lower
temperatures. From supersaturated solutions the form unstable
at the temperature of the experiment is, as a rule, separated,
especially on the introduction of a crystal of the unstable form;
and, in some cases, similar inoculation of the fused substance
is attended by the same result. Different modifications may
separate and exist side by side at one and the same time from
a solution; e.g. telluric add forms cubic and monoclinic crystals
from a hot nitric acid solution, and ammonium fJuosilicate gives
cubic and hexagonal forms from aqueous solutions between
6° and 13 .
A comparison of the transformation of polymorphs leads to
a twofold classification: (1) polymorphs directly convertible
in a reversible manner— termed " enantiotropk " by O. Lehmann
and (2) polymorphs in which the transformation proceeds in
one direction only— termed " monotropic." In the first, clam
74
CHEMISTRY
(PHYSICAL
are included sulphur and ammonium nitrate; monotropy if
exhibited by aragonite and calcite.
It is doubtful indeed whether any general conclusions can yel
be drawn as to the relations between crystal structure and scalar
properties and the relative stability of polymorphs. As a
general rule the modification stable at higher temperatures
possesses a lower density; but this is by no means always the
case, since the converse is true for antimonious and arsenious
oxides, silver iodide and some other substances. Attempts to
connect a change of symmetry with stability show equally a lack,
of generality. It is remarkable that a great many polymorphous
substances assume more symmetrical forms at higher tempera-
tures, and a possible explanation of the increase in density of
such compounds as silver iodide, &c., may be sought for in the
theory that the formation of a more symmetrical configuration
would involve a drawing together of the molecules, and conse-
quently an increase in density. The insufficiency of this argu-
ment, however, is shown by the data for arsenious and anti-
monious oxides, and also for the polymorphs of calcium carbonate,
the more symmetrical polymorphs having a lower density.
Morphotropy. — Many instances have been recorded where sub-
stitution has effected a deformation in one particular direction,
the crystals of homologous compounds often exhibiting the same
angles between faces situated in certain zones. The observations
of Slavik (Zed. /. Kryst., 1902, 36, p. 268) on ammonium and
the quaternary ammonium iodides, of J. A. Le Bel and A. Ries
(Zeit.f. Kryst., 1902, 1004, et seq.) on the substituted ammonium
Chlorplatinatcs, and of G. Mea (ibid., 1901, 35, p. 242) on
substituted Ureas, illustrate this point
Ammonium iodide assumes cubic forms with perfect cubic cleavage ;
tetramechyl ammonium iodide is tetragonal with perfect cleavages
parallel to |ioo) and 1 001}— a difference due to the lengthening of
the a axes; tctraethyl ammonium iodide also assumes tetragonal
forms, but docs not exhibit the cleavage of the tetramethyl com-
pound ; while tetrapropyl ammonium iodide crystallizes in rhombic
The equivalent volumes and topic parameters are tabulated :
pound
form.
NH,K
NMcl
NEl,I.
NFVJ,
V
10870
5*3<9
jGjOI
664a
J-6S6
3J5-95
6*093
7-&5I
Froui these figures It ts Goviuui that the first three compounds
form ■ morphotroptc series; the, equivalent volumes exhibit a
regular prcgn^akm; the value* of x and M\ corresponding to the a
axes, on* regularly increased, while the value of w, corresponding
to the c axt*, ncmaijw practically unchanged, Thi* points to the
conclusion that substitution has been effected fa one of the cube
faces. We may therefore regard the nitrogen atoms at occupying
the cer 1 1 1 e* of a c u bic space tat tie* com pc*ed of Iodine atoms, bet wee n
which the hydrogen atoms are distributed on the tetrahedron face
norma i>. Cophinar substitution in four hydrogen atom* would
involv the pushing apart of the iodine atoms in four horizon La I
direct! * n*. The magnitude of this separation would obviously
depend on the magnitude ol the eubstiiucnt group, which may he
so hug > tin this case propyl is sufficient} ns to cause unequal horizontal
deforo jdon and at the samt time a change In the vertical direction.
The measure of the loss of symmetry associated with the intro-
duction of alkyl groups depends upon the relative magnitudes
of the substituent group and the rest of the molecule; and the
larger the molecule, the less would be the morphotropic effect
of any particular substituent. The mere retention of the same
crystal form by homologous substances is not a sufficient reason
for denying a morphotropic effect to the substituent group;
for, in the case of certain substances crystallizing in the cubic
system, although the crystal form remains unaltered, yet the
structures vary. When both the crystal form and structure are
retained, the substances arc said to be isomorphous.
Other substituent groups exercise morphotropic effects similar
to those exhibited by the alkyl radicles; investigations have
been made on halogen-, hydroxy-, and nitro-dcrivatives of
benzene and substituted benzenes. To Jaeger is due the deter-
mination of the topic parameters of certain haloid-derivatives, 1
and, wh»lc showing that the morphotropic effects closely resemble
those occasioned by methyl, he established the important fact !
[ that, in general, the crystal form depended upon the orientation
of the subslituents in the benzene complex.
Benzoic acid is pseudo-tetragonal, the principal axis being remark-
ably long; there is no cleavage at right angles to this axis. Direct
nitration gives (principally) m-nitrobenzoic acid, also pseudo-
tetragonal with a much shorter principal axis. From this two
chlornitrobenzoic acids [COOH-NOrCI « x . 3 . 6 and 1 . 3 . 4l may be
obtained. These are also pscudotetragonal; the (1.3.6) acid has
nearly the same values of x and <i> as benzoic acid, but t$ is increased ;
compared with HMnitrobenzoic acid, x and ^ have been diminished,
whereas i* is much increased; the (1.3.4) ac ^ ** more closely
related to w-nirrobenzoic acid, * and f being increased, a diminished.
The results obtained for the (r. 2) and (1. 4) chlorbenzok adds also
illustrate the dependence of crystal form and structure on the
orientation of the molecule.
The hvdroxvt group also resembles the methyl group in its morpho-
tropic effects, producing in many cases, no change in symmetry but
a dimensional increase in one direct Ion. This holds for benzene and
pheW, and is supported by the observations of Cossner on [1. 3.5I
tri nitrobenzene and picric acid (1.3.5-trinitro, 2 oxybenzenej:
these last two substances assume rhombic forms, and picric aad
differs from trinitrobenzene in having « considerably greater,
with x and ^ slightly less. A similar change, in one direction only,
characterizes benzoic acid and salicylic acid.
The nitro group behaves very similarly to the hydroxyl group.
The effect of varying the position of the nitro group in the molecule
is well marked, and conclusions may be drawn as to the orientation
of the groups from a knowledge 01 the crystal form ; a change in
the symmetry of the chemical molecule being often attended by a
loss in the symmetry of the crystal.
It may be generally concluded that the substitution of alkyl,
nitro, hydroxyl, and haloid groups for hydrogen in a molecule
occasions a deformation of crystal structure in one definite
direction, hence permitting inferences as to the configuration
of the atoms composing the crystal; while the nature and degree
of the alteration depends (1) upon the crystal structure of the
unsubstituted compound; (2) on the nature of the substituting
radicle; (3) on the complexity of the substituted molecule;
and (4) on the orientation of the substitution derivative.
Isomorphism. — It has been shown that certain elements and
groups exercise morphotropic effects when substituted in a
compound; it may happen that the effects due to two or more
groups are nearly equivalent, and consequently the resulting
crystal forms are nearly identical. This phenomenon was first
noticed in 1822 by £. Mitschcrlich, in the case of the add phos-
phate and acid arsenate of potassium, KH»P(As)Qfc who adopted
the term isomorphism, and regarded phosphorus and arsenic as
isomorpbously related elements. Other isomorphously related
elements and groups were soon perceived, and it has been shown
that elements so related are also related chemically.
Tutton's investigations of the morphotropic effects of the metals
potassium, rubidium and caesium, in combination with the acid
radicals of sulphuric and selcnic acids, showed that the replacement
of potassium by rubidium, and this metal in turn by caesium.was
accompanied by progressive changes in both physical and crystal-
lographicai properties, such that the rubidium salt was always inter-
mediate between the salts of potassium and caesium (see table:
the space unit is taken as a pseudo-hexagonal prism). This fact finds
a parallel in the atomic weights of these metals.
K,SO«
RkSO«
CS1SO4
K-SeO,
RUScO*
Cs^eO,
6492
73-36
8364
4464
$4
4401 4-997
4004 5237
4M5 5519
71-71 4-636 4-662 5-n8
7995 4*7»5 4*8*6 5 '
9116 4-9 g 7 5-Q3S 5
5346
1-W
By taking appropriate differences the following facts will be
observed: (I) the replacement of potassium by rubidium occasions
an increase in the equivalent volumes by about eight units, and of rubi-
dium by caesium by about eleven units; (2) replacement in the same
order is attended by a general increase in the three topic parameters, a
greater increase being met with in the replacement of rubidium by
trae^ium; (3) the parameters x and ^ are about equally increased,
while the increase in w is always the greatest. Now consider the
effect of replacing sulphur by selenium. Jt will be seen that (1) the
increase in equivalent volume is about 6-6: (2) all the topic para-
meters arc increased; (3) the greatest increase is effected in the
parameters \ and ^, which are equally lengthened. •
These observations admit of ready explanation in the following
PHYSICAL)
CHEMISTRY
75
manner. The ordinary structural formula of potassium sulphate is
o
K-o-s-o-K. If the crystal structure be regarded as composed of
6
three interpenetrating point systems, one consisting of sulphur
atoms, the second of four times as many oxygen atoms, and the
third of twice as many potassium atoms, the systems being soarranged
that the sulphur system is always centrally situated with respect
to the other two, and the potassium system so that it would affect
the vertical axis, then it is obvious that the replacement of potassium
by an element of greater atomic weight would specially increase the
length of « (corresponding to the vertical axis), and cause a smaller
increase in the horizontal parameters (jr. and 4>); moreover, the
increments would advance with the atomic weight of the replacing
metal. If, on the other hand, the sulphur system be replaced by a
corresponding selenium system, an element of higher atomic weight,
it would be expected that a slight increase would be observed in the
vertical parameter, and a greater increase recorded equally in the
horizontal parameters.
Muthmann (Zeit.f. KrysU, 1804), in his researches on the tetragonal
potassium and ammonium dihydrogen phosphates and arsenates.
found that the replacement of potassium by ammonium was attended
by an increase of about six units in the molecular volume, and of
phosphorus by arsenic by about 4*6 units. In the topic parameters
the following changes were recorded : replacement of potassium by
ammonium was attended by a considerable increase in «, x and i>
being equally, but only slightly, increased; replacement of phos-
phorus by arsenic was attended by a considerable increase^ equally
in x and y, while ta suffered a smaller, but not inconsiderable, increase.
It is thus seen that the ordinary plane representation of the structure
of compounds possesses a higher significance than could have been
suggested prior to crystallographical researches.
Identity, or approximate identity, of crystal form is not in
itself sufficient to establish true isomorphism. If a substance
deposits itself on the faces of a crystal of another substance
of similar crystal form, the substances are probably isomorphous.
Such parallel overgrowths, termed episomorphs, are very common
among the potassium and sodium felspars; and K. von Hauer
has investigated a number of cases in which salts exhibiting
episomorphism have different colours, thereby clearly demonstrat-
ing this property of isomorphism. For example, episomorphs
of white potash alum and violet chrome alum, of white mag-
nesium sulphate and green nickel sulphate, and of many other
pairs of salts, have been obtained. More useful is the property
of isomorphous substances of forming mixed crystals, which
are strictly isomorphous with their constituents, for all variations
in composition. In such
crystals each component
plays its own part in de-
termining the physical pro-
perties; in other words,
any physical constant of a
mixed crystal can be cal-
anwi.-X culat J cd « additively com-
posed of the constants of
the two components.
Fig. 7 represents the
specific volumes of mixtures
of ammonium and potassium
sulphates; the ordinate* re-
presenting specific volumes,
and the abscissae the per-
centage composition of the
mixture. Fig. 8 6hows the
v KAh.m-e\ variation of refractive index
HA*.-.* tiajmmi-* of mixed crystals of potash
FiO 8. alum and thallium alum with
variation in composition.
In these two instances the component crystals are miscible in all
proportions; but this is by no means always the case. It may
happen that the crystals do hot form double salts, and are only
miscible in certain proportions. Two cases then arise: (1) the
properties may be expressed as linear functions of the composition,
the terminal values being identical with those obtained for the
individual components, and there being a break in the curve corre-
sponding to the absence of mixed crystals; or (2) similar to (1) except
that different values must be assigned to the terminal values in order
to preserve collinearity. Fig. 9 illustrates the first case : the ordi nates
represent specific volumes, and the abscissae denote the composition
of isomorphous mixtures of ammonium and potassium dihydrogen
phosphates, which mutually take one another up to the extent of
20% to form homogeneous crystals. The second! case is illustrated
in fig. 10. Magnesium sulphate (orthorhombic) takes up ferrous
sulphate (monoclinic) to the extent of 19%, forming Isomorphous
orthorhombic crystals; ferrous sulphate, on the other hand, takes
up magnesium sulphate to the extent of 54% to form monoclinic
crystals. By plotting the specific volumes of these mixed crystals
as ordi nates, it is found that they fall on two lines, the upper corre-
sponding to the orthorhombic crystals, the lower to the monoclinic.
From this we may conclude that these salts are isodimorphous:
the upper line represents isomorphous crystals of stable orthorhombic
magnesium sulphate and unstable orthorhombic ferrous sulphate,
the lower line isomor-
phous crystals of stable
monoclinic ferrous sul-
phate and unstable
monoclinic magnesium
sulphate.
An important distinc-
tion separates true mixed
crystals and crystallized
double salts, for in the
latter the properties are
not linear functions of
the properties of the
components; generally
there is a contraction in
volume, while the re-
fractive indices and other
physical properties do
not, in general, obey the
additive law. _
Isomorphism is most F.so i7 H,o=.~%
clearly discerned be-
tween elements of
analogous chemical properties; and from the wide generality
of such observations attempts have been made to form a classifica-
tion of elements based on isomorphous replacements. The
following table shows where isomorphism may be generally
expected. The elements are arranged in eleven scries, and the
series are subdivided (as indicated by semicolons) into groups;
these groups exhibit partial isomorphism with the other groups
of the same series (see W. Nernst, Theoretical Chemistry).
Series 1: CI, Br, I. F; Mn (in permanganates).
2. S, Se; Te (in tellundes); Cr, Mn, Te On the acids
H,RO«) ; As, Sb Cm the glances MRO.
3. As, Sb, Bi; Te (as an element); P, Vd (in salts); N,
P (in organic bases).
Fig. 7.
MffSO^KsO-mX
Fig. 10.
4. K,Na,Cs,Rb.Li; fl, Ag.
5. Ca, Ba, Sr. Pb; Fc, Zn. Mn, Me; Ni, Co, Cu; Ce, La,
Di, Er, Y, Ca; Cu, Hg, Pb; Cd, Be, In, Zn; Tl, Pb.
6. Al, Fe, Cr, Mn; Ce, U (in sesauiorides).
J. Cu, Ag (when monovalent); Au.
. Pt, Ir, Pd, Rh. Ru, Os: Au, Fe. Ni; Sn, Te.
9. C, Si. Ti, Zr, Th, Sn; Fe. Ti.
10. Ta, Cb (Nb).
11. Mo.W, Cr.
For a detailed comparison of the isomorphous relations of the.
elements the reader is referred to P. von Groth, Chemical Crystal-
lography. Reference may also be made to Ida Freund, The Study
of Chemical Composition-, and to the Annual Reports of the Chemical
Society for 190K p. 25& . .
Bibliography _ History. F. H«fer, Eistoire it la cktmte (and
at, iSb6-iS6o); Hermann Kopu, Cesckichic der Chemie (1869),
Entxrickclung dc? Chemie in d. neueren Zedt (1871-1874); £. von
Meyer; Geschichle der Chemie (3rd ed M 1905. Edg. trans.); A.
Ladenburg, Enrmchetttngipescliickte der Chemte (4th cd. F 1907); A*
Stange, Die ZeitoJter der Chemie (loofl}. Reference may also be
made toM.M. PaLtlson Muir. History of Chemical Theories and Laws
C1907); Ida Freund, Study of Chtrmcal Composition (1904); T. E.
Thorpe, Essayt in Historical Chemistry (»na ed., 1903) See also,
the article ALCHEMY.
Principles owd Physical.— W. Oswald, Principles of Inorganic
Chemistry (3rd En*, cd., ioo8). Outlines of General Chemtstry,
Lchrbvth det oltgenttwen Chemie: W. Nernet. ThevrMisehe Chemie
<4t ti rd., 1907, Eng, tmna,) ' J. H, van't Hoft\ Letlvrts o« Theoretical
and Physical Chemistry ■ J . Walter Introduction to FhyiimI Chemistry
{4th ed., 1007) j H. C Jones, Outlines of Physical Chemistry (1903);
D. MendcicefT, Principles of Chemistry {3rd ed., 1905).
Inorganic. — Robcgc and Scliorlemmer, Inorganic Chemistry (3rd
ed., Noivmetali, 1905; Mrtals,^ 1007)7 R. AbcRp T Eondbuch der
anorganisfken Chemie; Gmelin-Kraut. Handbvch der anarganischen,
Ckrmiei Q. Dammcr* flandbuch dtr aRorganischen Chemie; H*
Moiasan, Chimie mineraie*
Organic — F. Betlstein. Eandbvcb der organist hen Ch*mit\ M. M.
Ric titer f Lniknn der KohirnitofftterbtTidungrn (these ore primarily
works or reference) ; V. Meyer and I*. H. Jacobson, Lehrbuch der
ortanischen Chemie\ Rkhter-Anschutz, Organische Chemie (l Ith ed.,
76
CHEMNITZ, MARTIN— CHEMNITZ
Vol. t, 1909, Eng, trans,); G* K, Schmidt. Kttrtes Lehrbuch der
organitchfn Chzmte; A- Bernthsen> Org.tni.ithr ChemU [ting- trans, V.
Practical methods are treated in Lassar-Cohn, Arbeitsmttkoden fur
organiich-ikemisfke LahoTatotien (4th ed.. 1906-1907)4 Select chap-
Cohen. Organic Chemistry U90HJ ; A, W* Stewart, Recent Advances in
Organic Chemistry (tooS); and in a sent* of pamphlet* issued since
1896 with the title Sammlvng ehtmischer and dmnisth'techmKtur
ten are treated in A. Lachmann, Spirit <qf Organit Chemistry i J>
Cohen. Org
Organic Cn
1896 with
Vortr&gc,
Analytical.— Vqt Blowpipe Analysis: C* F. V\&ttmr*Probirkarttt
mit dem Lethrvhr, For General Analysis: C R. Ffcsenius, Qualita-
tive and Quantity lite Analysis, Enjj. trans, by Q> E. Groves {Qualita-
tive. 1887) and A* 1- Colin (Quantitative, 1903); F. R Tread well,
Ktirtts Ltbrlrueh der anniytischen Chemie (1905): F* Julian, Textbook
of Quonliialite Chemical Analysis (1004)^ A, Classen, Aitsgewahlie
Mtthoden der analytisctus Chemie (1 901-1501) ; VV. Crookes, Select
Methods in Chemical Analysis {1&94). Volumetric Analysis:
F* 5utton> Systematic Handbook of Volumetric Analysis (1904}:
F, Mohr* Lehrbuch der chemisch-aNalytiszhes Titrirmclkode [jn).
Organic Analysis: Hans Meyer, Analyse uttd Ktmsffixtiejucrmittfunr
organist ktr Verbindungen (1909) ; Wilhclm Vatibcl. Die physikalischen
una chemischen Methoden der quanlitatiirn Bestimmung prganiichcr
Verkindttngrn. For the historical development of thti proximate
analysis of organic compound a see M* E* H- Dcrnitstedt. Die Enteric ke-
Ittng der orgatiischen EicnunUtranalyit (1^99)*
Encyclopaedias.— The early dictionaries nf Muspratt and Watts
are out of date; there lb 4 brer edition of the latter by H< F, Morley
and M. M. f\ Muir A,. Ladcnhunj, Hand^atterbuch der Chemie r
A. \Vurt*, Diciicmnaire de chimie t and F. SeLuii. Ettcidapedia di
chimica. are more valuable; the latter two are kept up lo date by
annu.il supplements. (C- L. ")
CHEMNITZ (or Kemnitz), MARTIN (1522-1586), German
Lutheran theologian, third son of Paul Kemnitz, a cloth-worker
of noble extraction, was born at Treuenbrietzen, Brandenburg,
on the 9th of November 1522. Left an orphan at the age of
eleven, he worked for a time at his father's trade. A relative at
Magdeburg put him to school there (1530-1 542). Having made a
little money by teaching, he went (1543) to the university of
Frankfort-on-Oder; thence (1545) to that of Wittenberg. Here
he heard Luther preach, but was more attracted by Mclanchthon,
who interested him in mathematics and astrology. Mclanchthon
gave him (1547) an introduction to his son-in-law, Georg Sabinus,
at Kdnigsberg, where he was tutor to some Polish youths, and
rector (1548) of the Kneiphof school He practised astrology;
this recommended him to Duke Albert of Prussia, who made him
his librarian (1550). He then turned to Biblical, patristic and
kindred studies. His powers were first brought out in contro-
versy with Osiander on justification by faith. Osiander, main-
taining the infusion of Christ's righteousness into the believer,
impugned the Lutheran doctrine of imputation; Chemnitz
defended it with striking ability. As Duke Albert sided with
Osiander, Chemnitz resigned the librarianship. Returning (1 553)
to Wittenberg, he lectured on Melanchthon's Loci Communes, his
lectures forming the basis of his own Loci Theologies (published
posthumously, 1591), which constitute probably the best ex-
position of Lutheran theology as formulated and modified by
Melanchthon. His lectures were thronged, and a university career
of great influence lay before him,when he accepted a call to become
coadjutor at Brunswick to the superintendent, Joachim MOrlin,
who had known him at Kdnigsberg. He removed to Brunswick
on the 15th of December 1554, and there spent the remainder of
his life, refusing subsequent offers of important offices from
various Protestant princes of Germany. Zealous in the duties of
his pastoral charge, he took a leading part in theological con-
troversy. His personal influence, at a critical period, did much to
secure strictness of doctrine and compactness of organization
in the Lutheran Church. Against Crypto-Calvinists he upheld
the Lutheran view of the eucharist in his Rcpclitio same doctrinae
de Vera Pratsentia (1560; in German, 1561). To check the
reaction towards the old religion he wrote several works of great
power, especially his Theologize Jesuitarum praecipua capita
(1562), an incisive attack on the principles of the society, and the
Rxamcn concilii Tridentini (four parts, 1565-66-72-73), his
greatest work. His Corpus doctrinae Prutenicum (1567), drawn
up in conjunction with MOrlin, at once acquired great authority.
In the year of its publication he became superintendent of
Brunswick, and in effect the director of. his church throughout
Lower Saxony. His tact was equal to his learning. In conjunc-
Kunze in A.
[1897); that by
W. cash. (1858),
(A. Go.*)
tion with Andrea and Selnecker he induced the Lutherans of
Saxony and Swabia to adopt the Formula Concordiae and so
become one body. Against lax views of Sodnian tendency he
directed his able treatise De duabus naturis in Ckristo (1570),.
Resigning office in infirm health (1584) he survived till the 8th of
April 1586.
Lives of Chemnitz are numerous, e.g. by J. Gasmerus (1588).
T. Presscl (1862), C. G. H. Lent* (1866), H. Hachfeld (186701.
Scbmid in J. J. Herzog's Realencyklojpadie (-•-•* * «'--— *- *
Hauck's ReoJencyklop. J£r prot. TheoC. und J
Hausle, in I. Goschlers Diet, encyclopidique c
gives a R oman Catholic view.
CHEMNITZ, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
the capital of a governmental district, 50 m. W.S.W. of Dresden
and 51 S.E. of Leipzig by rail. Pop. (1885) 110,817; (1895)
161,0x7; (1005) 244,405. It lies 950 ft. above the sea, in a
fertile plain at the foot of the Erzgcbirge, watered by the
river Chemnitz, an affluent of the Mulde. It is the chief
manufacturing town in the kingdom, ranks next to Dresden
and Leipzig in point of population, and is one of the principal
commercial and industrial centres of Germany. It is well
provided with railway communication, being directly connected
with Berlin and with the populous and thriving towns of the
Erzgcbirge and Voigtland. Chemnitz is in general well built,
the enormous development of its industry and commerce having
of late years led to the laying out of many fine streets and
to the embellishing of the town with handsome buildings. The
centre is occupied by the market square, with the handsome
medieval Rathaus, now superseded for municipal business by a
modern building in the Post-strasse. In this square are monu-
ments to. the emperor William L, Bismarck and Moltke. The
old inner town is surrounded by pleasant promenades, occupying
the site of the old fortifications, and it is beyond these that
industrial Chemnitz lies, girdling the old town on all sides with a
thick belt of streets and factories, and ramifying far into the
country. Chemnitz has eleven Protestant churches, among
them the ancient Gothic church of St James, with a fine porch,
and the modern churches of St Peter, St Nicholas and St Mark.
There are also a synagogue and chapels of various sects. The
industry of Chemnitz has gained for the town the name of
" Saxon Manchester." First in importance are its locomotive
and engineering works, which give employment to some 20,000
hands in 00 factories. Next come its cotton-spinning, hosiery,
textile and glove manufactures, in which a large trade is done
with Great Britain and the United States. It is also the seat
of considerable dyeworks, bleachworks, chemical and woollen
factories, and produces leather and straps, cement, small vehicles,
wire-woven goods, carpets, beer and bricks. The town is well
provided with technical schools for training in the various
industries, including commercial, public, economic and agri-
cultural schools, and has a chamber of commerce. There are
also industrial and historical museums, and collections of paint-
ing and natural history. The local communications are main-
tained by an excellent electric tramway system. To the north-
west of the town is the Gothic church of a former Benedictine
monastery, dating from 1514-1525, with a tower of 1897.
Chemnitz is a favourite tourist centre for excursions into the
Erzgcbirge, the chain of mountains separating Saxony from
Bohemia.
Chemnitz (Kaminiii) was originally a settlement of the
Sorbian Wends and became a market town in 1 143. Its municipal
constitution dates from the 14th century, and it soon became the
most important industrial centre in the mark of Meissen. A
monopoly of bleaching was granted to the town, and thus a
considerable trade in woollen and linen yarns was attracted to
Chemnitz; paper was made here, and in the 16th century the
manufacture of cloth was very flourishing. In x 539 the Reforma-
tion was introduced, and in 1546 the Benedictine monastery,
founded about 1136 by the emperor Lothair II. about 2 m. north
of the town, was dissolved." During the Thirty Years' War
Chemnitz was plundered by all parties and its trade was com-
pletely ruined, but at the beginning of the 18th century it had
begun to recover. Further progress in this direction was made
CHEMOTAXIS— CHENG
77
during the 19th century, especially after 1834 when Saxony
joined the German Zollvcrein.
See Zollncr, Gtschickte der Fabrik- und TTandehstadt Chemnitz
(1891) ; and Straumer, Die Fabrik- und Handehstadt Chemnitz (1892).
CHEMOTAXIS (from the stem of " chemistry" and Gr. rd(t*,
arrangement), a biological term for the attraction exercised on
living or growing organisms or their members by chemical
substances, e.g. the attraction of the male cells of ferns or
mosses by an organic acid or sugar-solution.
CHEHAB (the Greek Acesines), one of the " Five rivers " of the
Punjab, India. It rises in the snowy Himalayan ranges of
Kashmir, enters British territory in the Sialkot district, and flows
through the plains of the Punjab, forming the boundary between
the Rechna and the Jech Doabs. Finally it joins the Jhclum
at Trimmu.
The Chenab Colony, resulting from the great success of the
Chenab Canal in irrigating the desert of the Bar, was formed out
of the three adjacent districts of Gujranwala, Jhang, and
Montgomery in 1892, and contained in roox a population of
701,861. It lies in the Rechna Doab between the Chenab and
Ravi rivers in the north-cast of the Jhang district, and is designed
to include an irrigated area of 2 J million acres. The Chenab
canal (opened 1887) is the largest and most profitable per-
ennial canal in India. The principal town is Lyallpur, called after
Sir J. Broadwood Lyall, lieutenant-governor of the Punjab 1887-
1S92, which gives its name to a district created in 1004.
CHftNEDOLLft, CHARLES JULIEN LIOULT DB (1 769-1833),
French poet, was born at Vire (Calvados) on the 4th of November
1769. He early showed a vocation for poetry, but the outbreak
of the Revolution temporarily diverted his energy. Emigrating
in 1 791, he fought two campaigns in the army of Conde*, and
eventually found his way to Hamburg, where he met Anloinc de
Rivarol, of whose brilliant conversation he has left an account.
He also visited Mme de St ad in her retreat at Coppet. On his
return to Paris in 1709 he met Chateaubriand and his sister
Lucfle (Mme de Caud), to whom he became deeply attached.
After her death in 1804, Chenedoll6 returned to Normandy,
where he married and became eventually inspector of the
academy of Caen (181 2-183 2). With the exception of occasional
visits to Paris, he spent the rest of his life in his native province.
He died at the chateau de Coisel on the 2nd of December 1833.
He published his Genie de VHomme in 1807, and in 1820 his
iiudes pottiques, which had the misfortune to appear shortly
after the Meditations of Lamartine, so that the author did not
receive the credit of their real originality. ChCnedolle' had many
sympathies with the romanticists, and was a contributor to their
organ, the Afusefrancaise. His other works include the Esprit de
Rivarol (1808) in conjunction with F. J. M. Fayolle.
The works of ChGnedollc* were edited in 1864 by Saintc-Bcuve,
who drew portraits of him in his Chateaubriand et son groupe and in
an article contributed to the Revue des deux mondet (June 1849).
See alto E. Helland, Elude biographique el litUraire sur CkinedoiU
(1S57); Cazin, Notice sur ChenedolU (1869).
CHEHERY, THOMAS (1826-1884), English scholar and editor
of The Times, was born in 1826 at Barbados. He was educated at
Eton and Caius College, Cambridge. Having been called to the
bar, he went out to Constantinople as The Times correspondent
just before the Crimean War, and it was under the influence there
of Algernon Smythe (afterwards Lord Strangford) that he first
turned to those philological studies in which he became eminent.
After the war he returned to London and wrote regularly for The
Times for many years, eventually succeeding Dclane as editor in
1877. He was then an experienced publicist, particularly well
versed in Oriental affairs, an indefatigable worker, with a rapid
and comprehensive judgment, though he lacked Dclane's
intuition for public opinion. It was as an Orientalist, however,
that he had meantime earned the highest reputation, his
knowledge of Arabic and Hebrew being almost unrivalled and his
gift for languages exceptional. In 1868 he was appointed Lord
Almoner's professor of Arabic at Oxford, and retained his
position until he became editor of The Times. He was one of the
company of revisers of t he Old Testament. He was secretary foe
some time to the Royal Asiatic Society, and published learned
editions of the Arabic classic The Assemblies of Al- Hariri and of
the Machberolk It hid. He died in London on the xith of
February 1884.
CHENG, Tscheng or Tschiang (Ger. Scheng), an ancient
Chinese wind instrument, a primitive organ, containing the
principle of the free reed which found application in the accordion,
concertina and harmonium. The cheng resembles a tea-pot
filled with bamboo pipes of graduated lengths. It consists of a
gourd or turned wooden receptacle acting as wind reservoir, in
the side of which is inserted an insufflation tube curved like a
swan's neck or the spout of a tea-pot. The cup-shaped reservoir
is closed by means of a plate of horn pierced with seventeen round
holes arranged round the edge in an unfinished circle, into which
fit the bamboo pipes. The pipes are cylindrical as far as they are
visible above the plate, but the lower end inserted in the wind
reservoir is cut to the shape of a beak, somewhat like the mouth-
piece of the clarinet, to receive the reed. The construction of the
free reed is very simple: it consists of a thin plate of metal — gold
according to the Jesuit missionary Joseph Amiol, 1 but brass in
the specimens brought to Europe — of the thickness of ordinary
paper. In this plate is cut a rectangular flap or tongue which
remains fixed at one end, while at the other the tongue is filed so'
that, instead of closing the aperture, it passes freely through,
vibrating as the air is forced through the pipe (see Free- Reed
Vibrator). The metal plate is fastened with wax longitudinally
across the diameter of the beak end of the pipe, a little layer of
wax being applied also to the free end of the vibrating tongue for
the purpose of tuning by adding weight and impetus. About
half an inch above the horn plate a small round hole or stop is
bored through the pipe, which speaks only when this hole is
covered by the finger. A longitudinal aperture about an inch
long cut in the upper end of the bamboo pipe serves to determine
the length of the vibrating column of air proper to respond to the
vibrations of the free reed. The length of the bamboo above this
opening is purely ornamental, as arc also four or five of the
seventeen pipes which have no reeds and do not speak, being
merely inserted for the purposes of symmetry in design. The
notes of the cheng, like those of the concertina, speak either by
inspiration or expiration of air, the former being the more usual
method. Mahillon states that performers on the cheng in China
are rare, as the method of playing by inspiration induces in-
flammation of the throat.* Amiot, who gives a description of the
instrument with illustrations showing the construction, states
that in the great Chinese encyclopaedia Eulh-ya, articles Yu and
Ho, the Yu of ancient China was the large cheng with nineteen
free reeds (twenty-four pipes), and the Ho the small cheng with
thirteen reeds or seventeen pipes described in this article. The
compass of the latter is given by him as the middle octave with
chromatic intervals, the thirteenth note giving the octave of the
first. Mahillon gives the compass of a modern cheng as follows:
14 4 or 8 j j or 6 xa
E. F. F. Chladni,' who examined a cheng sent from China to Herr
Muller, organist of the church of St Nicholas, Leipzig, at the
beginning of the 19th century, gives an excellent description of
the -instrument, reproducing in illustration a plate from Giulio
Fcrrario's work on costume. 4 Mutter's cheng. had the same
compass as Mahillon's. Chladni's article was motived by the
publication of an account of the exhibition of G. J. Grenie's
Orgue expressif, invented about 1810, in the Conservatoire of
» MC moire sur la musique des Chinois (Paris, 1779), pp. 78 and 8a,
pi. vi., or Mf moire sur Us Chinois, tome vi. pi. vi.
* Catalogue descriptif, vol. ii. (Ghent, 1896), p. 91; also vol. L
(1880), pp. 29. 44, 154.
a " Wcitere Nachrichten von dem . . . chinesischen Blasinstru*
mente Ttcbeng oder Tschiang," in Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung
(Leipai«. 1821). Bd. xxtii. No. 22, pp.369, 374 et seq., and illustration
* P fzTc3NAnM Mffcfte • —demo (Milan. 1816). pL 66, vol. I
78
CHEN-HAI— CHENIER, A. DE
Paris. 1 Grcntt's invention, perfected by Alexandre and Debain
about 1840, produced the harmonium. Kratzenstein (see under
Harmonium) of §t Petersburg was the first to apply the free
reed to the organ in the second half of the 18th century. In-
ventions of similar instruments, which after a short life were
relegated to oblivion, followed at the beginning of the 19th
century. An interesting reproduction of a Persian cheng dating
from the xoth or nth century is to be seen on a Persian vase
described and illustrated together with a shawm in the Gazette
archiotogique (tome xi., 1886). (K. S.)
CH&N-HAI [CmNHAi),a district town of China, in the province
of Cheh-kiang, at the mouth of the Yung-kiang, 12 m. N.E.
of Ningpo, in 29° 58' N., 1 2 1° 45' E. It lies at the foot of a hill on
a tongue of land, and is partly protected from the sea on the N.
by a dike about 3 m. long, composed entirely of large blocks of
hewn granite. The walls are 20 ft. high and 3 m. in circumfer-
ence. The defences were formerly of considerable strength, and
included a well-built but now dismantled citadel on a precipitous
cliff, 250 ft. high, at the extremity of the tongue of land on which
the town is built. In the neighbourhood an engagement took
place between the English and Chinese in 1841.
CH&NIER, ANDRfi DE (1762-1794), French poet, was born at
Constantinople on the 30th of October 1762. His father, Louis
Chenier, a native of Langucdoc, after twenty years of successful
commerce in the Levant as a cloth-merchant, was appointed to a
position equivalent to that of French consul at Constantinople.
His mother, Elisabeth Santi-Lomaca, whose sister was grand-
mother of A. Thiers, was a Greek. When the poet was three
years old his father returned to France, and subsequently from
1 768 to 1 7 7 5 served as consul -general of France in Morocco. The
family, of which Andr£ was the third son, and Marie- Joseph (see
below) the fourth, remained in France; and after a few years,
during which Andr6 ran wild with " la tante de Carcasonnc," he
distinguished himself as a verse-translator from the classics at
the College dc Navarre (the school in former days of Gerson and
Bossuet) in Paris. In 1783 he obtained a cadet ship in a French
regiment at Strassburg. But the glamour of the military life
was as soon exhausted by Chenier as it was by Coleridge. He
returned to Paris before the end of the year, was well received by
his family, and mixed in the cultivated circle which frequented
the salon of his mother, among them Lebrun-Pindare', Lavoisier,
Lesucur, Dorat, Parmy, and a little later the painter David. He
was already a poet by predilection, an idyllist and steeped in the
classical archaism of the time, when, in 1784, his taste for the
antique was confirmed by a visit to Rome made in the company
erf two schoolfellows, the brothers Trudaine. From Naples, after
visiting Pompeii, he returned to Paris, his mind fermenting with
poetical images and projects, few of which he was destined to
realize. For nearly three years, however, he was enabled to
study and to experiment in verse without any active pressure or
interruption from his family— three precious years in which the
first phase of his art as a writer of idylls and bucolics, imitated to
a large extent from Theocritus, Bion and the Greek anthologists,
was elaborated. Among the poems written or at least sketched
during this period were L'Oaristys, L'Aveugle, La J tunc Molade,
Bacchus, Euphrosinc and La Jeunc Tarentine, the last a synthesis
of his purest manner, mosaic though it is of reminiscences of at
least a dozen classical poets. As in glyptic so in poetic art, the
Hellenism of the time was decadent and Alexandrine rather than
Attic of the best period. But Ch6nier is always far more than an
imitator. La Jeunc Tarentine is a work of personal emotion and
inspiration. The colouring is that of classic mythology, but the
spiritual element is as individual as that of any classical poem by
Milton, Gray, Keats or Tennyson. Apart from his idylls and his
elegies, Chenier also experimented from early youth in didactic
Mnd philosophic verse, and when he commenced his Hermes in
1783 his ambition was to condense the Encyclopedic of Diderot
into a poem somewhat after the manner of Lucretius. This poem
was to treat of man's position in the Universe, first in an isolated
state, and then in society. It remains fragmentary, and though
1 See Allg. mus. Zt. (Leipzig, 1821), Bd. xxiii. Nos. 9 and io, pp.
133 and 149 ct scq.
some of the fragments are fine, its attempt at scientific exposition
approximates loo closely to the manner of Erasmus Darwin to
suit a modern ear. Another fragment called V Invention sums
Chenier's Ars Poetic a in the verse " Sur des pensers nouvcaux,
faisons des vers antiques." Suzanne represents the torso of a
Biblical poem on a very large scale, in six cantos.
In the meantime, Andre had published nothing, and some of
these last pieces were in fact not yet written, when in November
1787 an opportunity of a fresh career presented itself. The new
ambassador at the court of St James's, M. de la Luzerne, was
connected in some way with the Chenier family, and he offered to
take Andrf with him as his secretary. The offer was too good to
be refused, but the poet hated himself on the banks of thefiere
Tamisc, and wrote in bitter ridicule of
" Ces Anglais.
Nation toutc a vend re a qui peut la payer. (
De contree en contree allant au monde enticr,
Offrir sa joie ignoble et son faste grassier. "
He seems to have been interested in the poetic diction of Milton
and Thomson, and a few of his verses are remotely inspired by
Shakespeare and Gray. To say, however, that he studied
English literature would be an exaggeration. The events of 1 789
and the startling success of his younger brother, Marie- Joseph,
as political playwright and pamphleteer, concentrated all his
thoughts upon France. In April 1 790 he could stand London no
longer, and once more joined his parents at Paris in the rue
de C16ry.
The France that he plunged into with such impetuosity was
upon the verge of anarchy. .A strong constitutionalist, Chenier
took the view that the Revolution was already complete and that
all that remained to be done was the inauguration of the reign of
law. Moderate as were his views and disinterested as were his
motives, his tactics were passionately and dangerously aggressive.
From an idyllist and elegist we find him suddenly transformed
into an unsparing master of poetical satire. His prose Avis au
peuplc francfiis (August 24, 1790) was followed by the rhetorical
Jeu de paume, a somewhat declamatory moral ode addressed
" a Louis David, peintre." In the meantime he orated at the
Feuillants Club, and contributed frequently to the Journal de
Paris from November 1791 to July 1792, when he wrote his
scorching Iambes to Collot d'Herbois, Sur Its Suisses reroltes du
rtgiment de Ck&teauvicux. The 10th of August uprooted his party,
his paper and his friends, and the management of relatives who
kept him out of the way in Normandy alone saved him from the
massacre of September. In the month following these events his
democratic brother, Marie- Joseph, had entered the Convention.
Andre's sombre rage against the course of events found vent in
the line on the Maenads who mutilated the king's Swiss Guard,
and in the Ode a Charlotte Corday congratulating France that
" Un scellrat de moins rampc dans cette fange." At the express
request of Maleshcrbes he furnished some arguments to the
materials collected for the defence of the king. After the execu-
tion he sought a secluded retreat on the Plateau dc Satory at
Versailles and took exercise after nightfall. There he wrote the
poems inspired by Fanny (Mme Laurent Lecoulteux), including
the exquisite Ode a Versailles ; one of his freshest, noblest and
most varied poems.
His solitary life at Versailles lasted nearly a year. On the 7th
of March 1794 he was taken at the house of Mme Piscatory at
Passy. Two obscure agents of the committee of public safety
were in search of a marquise who had flown, but an unknown
stranger was found in the house and arrested on suspicion.
This was Andre, who had come on a visit of sympathy. He was
taken to the Luxembourg and afterwards to Saint-Lazare.
During the 140 days of his imprisonment there he wrote the
marvellous Iambes (in alternate lines of 12 and 8 syllables), which
hiss and stab like poisoned bullets, and which were transmitted to
his family by a venal gaoler. There he wrote the best known of
all his verses, the pathetic Jeunc captive, a poem at once of
enchantment and of despair. Suffocating in an atmosphere of
cruelty and baseness, Chenier's agony found expression almost to
the last in these murderous Iambes which he launched against the
CHENIER, M.-J. B. DE
79
Convention. Ten days before the end, the painter J. B. Suvee
executed the well known portrait. He might have been over-
looked but for the well-meant, indignant officiousness of his
father. Marie- Joseph had done his best to prevent this, but he
could do nothing more. Robespierre, who was himself on the
brink of the volcano, remembered the venomous sallies in the
Journal de Paris. At sundown on the 25th of July 1794, the very
day of his condemnation on a bogus charge of conspiracy, Andre
Chenier was guillotined. The record of his last moments by La
Toucbe is rather melodramatic and is certainly not above
suspicion.
Incomplete as was his career — he was not quite thirty-two —
his life was cut short in a crescendo of all its nobler elements.
Exquisite as was already his susceptibility to beauty and his
mastership of the rarest poetic material, we cannot doubt that
Chenier was preparing for still higher flights of lyric passion and
poetic intensity. Nothing that he had yet done could be said
to compare in promise of assured greatness with the Iambes, the
Odes and the J tune Captive. At the moment he left practically
nothing to tell the world of his transcendent genius, and his
reputation has had to be retrieved from oblivion page by page,
and almost poem by poem. During his lifetime only his Jeu
de paumc (1791) and Hymne sur Us Suisses (1792) had been
given to the world. The Jeunc Captive appeared in the Decade
pkilosopkiquc, Jan. 9, 1795; La J tune Tarentine in the Mercure
of March 22, 1801 . Chateaubriand quoted three or four passages
in his Cinie du christianisme. Fayette and Lefeuvre-Deuroier
also gave a few fragments; but it was not until 18 19 that a
first imperfect attempt was made by II. de la Touche to collect
the poems in a substantive volume. Since the appearance of the
editio prinups of Chenier's poems in La Touchc's volume, many
additional poems and fragments have been discovered, and an
edition of the complete works of the poet, collated with the MSS.
bequeathed to the Bibliothcque Rationale by Mme Elisa de
Chenier in 1892, has been edited by Paul Dimoft and published
by Delagrave. During the same period the critical estimates
of the poet have fluctuated in a truly extraordinary manner.
Saintc-Beuve in his Tableau of 1828 sang the praises of Ch6nier
as an heroic forerunner of the Romantic movement and a
precursor of Victor Hugo. Chenier, he said, had " inspired and
determined " Romanticism. This suggestion of modernity in
Chenier was echoed by a chorus of critics who worked the idea
to death; in the meantime, the standard edition of Chlnicr's
works was being prepared by M. Becq de Fouquieres and was
issued in 1862, but rearranged and greatly improved by the
editor in 1872. The same patient investigator gave his New
Documents on Andre* Chenier to the world in 1875.
In the second volume of La Vie littiraire Anatole France
contests the theory of Sainte-Bcuve. Far from being an initiator,
he maintains that Chenier's poetry is the last expression of an
expiring form of art. His matter and his form belong of right
to the classic spirit of the 18th century. He is a contemporary,
not of Hugo and Leconte de Lisle, but of Suard and Morellet.
M. Faguet sums up on the side of M. France in his volume on the
18th century (1890). Chenier's real disciples, according to the
latest view, are Leconte de Lisle and M. de Hcrcdia, mosaistes
who have at heart the cult of antique and pagan beauty, of
" pure art " and of " objective poetry." Heredia himself
reverted to the judgment of Sainte-Beuve to the effect that
Chinicr was the first to make modern verses, and he adds,
" I do not know in the French language a more exquisite fragment
than the three hundred verses of the Bucoliqucs." Chenier's
influence has been specially remarkable in Russia, where Pushkin
imitated him, Kogloff translated La J tune Captive, La jeune
Torcnline and other famous pieces, while the critic Vcsselovsky
pronounces " II a re tab li le lyrisme pur dans la poesie francaise."
The general French verdict on his work is in the main well
Rummed by Morillot, when he says that, judged by the usual
tests of the Romantic movement of the 'twenties (love for strange
literatures of the North, medievalism, novelties and experiments),
Chenier would inevitably have been excluded from the ctnaclc of
1827. On the other hand, he exhibits a decided tendency to
the world-ennui and melancholy which was one of the earlier
symptoms of the movement, and he has experimented in French
verse in a manner which would have led to his excommunication
by the typical performers of the 18th century. What is univer-
sally admitted is that Chenier was a very great artist, who like
Ronsard opened up sources of poetry in France which had long
seemed dried up. In England it is easier to feel his attraction
than that of some far greater reputations in French poetry, for,
rhetorical though he nearly always is, he yet reveals something
of that quality which to the Northern mind has always been of
the very essence of poetry, that quality which made Sainte-
Beuve say of him that he was the first great poet " personnel
et reveur " in France since La Fontaine. His diction is still very
artificial, the poetic diction of Delille transformed in the direction
of Hugo, but not very much. On the other hand, his descriptive
power in treating of nature shows far more art than the Trianin
school ever attained. His love of the woodland and his political
fervour often remind us of Shelley, and his delicate perception of
Hellenic beauty, and the perfume of Greek legend, give us
almost a foretaste of Keats. For these reasons, among others,
Chenier, whose art is destined to so many vicissitudes of criticism
in his own country, seems assured among English readers of a
place among the Dii Majores of French poetry.
The Chenier literature of late years has become enormous. His
fate has been commemorated in numerous plays, pictures and poems,
notably in the fine epilogue of Sully Prudhomme, the Stella of A. de
Vigny, the delicate statue by Puech in the Luxembourg, and the
well-known portrait in the centre of the " Last Days of the Terror."
The best editions are still those of Becq de Fouquieres (Paris, 1862.
1872 and 1881), though these are now supplemented by those of
L. Moland (2 vols., 18&9) and R. Guillard (2 vols., 1899). (T.Se.)
CHENIER, MARIE-JOSEPH BLAISE DE (1764-1811), French
poet, dramatist and politician, younger brother of Andre de
Chenier, was born at Constantinople on the nth of February
1764.* He was brought up at Carcassonne, and educated in
Paris at the College de Navarre. Entering the army at seventeen,
he left it two years afterwards; and at nineteen he produced
Aztmire, a two-act drama (acted in 1786), and Edgar, ou le page
supposi, a comedy (acted in 1785), which were failures. His
Charles IX was kept back for nearly two years by the censor.
Chenier attacked the censorship in three pamphlets, and the
commotion aroused by the controversy raised keen interest in
the piece. When it was at last produced on the 4th of November
1789, it achieved an immense success, due in part to its political
suggestion, and in part to Talma's magnificent impersonation of
Charles IX. Camille Dcsmoulins said that the piece had done
more for the Revolution than the days of October, and a con-
temporary memoir-writer, the marquis de Ferriere, says that
the audience came away " ivrc de vengeance ct tourmentc" d'unc
soif de sang." The performance was the occasion of a split among
the actors of the Corned ie Francaise, and the new theatre in the
Palais Royal, established by the dissidents, was inaugurated
with Henri VIII (1791)1 generally recognized as Chfnier's
masterpiece; Jean Colas, ou Vtcole des juges followed in the
same year. In 1792 he produced his Caius Gracchus, which was
even more revolutionary in tone than its predecessors. It was
nevei the less proscribed in the next year at the instance of the
Montagnard deputy Albitte, for an anti-anarchical hemistich
(Des his et non du sangl)\ F end on (1793) was suspended after
a few representations; and in 1704 his Timolton, set to £tienne
Mehul's music, was also proscribed. This piece was played
after the fall of the Terror, but the fratricide of Timoleon became
the text for insinuations to the effect that by his silence Joseph
de Chenier had connived at the judicial murder of Andrl, whom
Joseph's enemies alluded to as A bel. There is absolutely nothing
to support the calumny, which has often been repeated since.
In fact, after some fruitless attempts to save his brother, variously
related by his biographers, Joseph became aware that Andre's
only chance of safety lay in being forgotten by the authorities,
and that ill-advised intervention would only hasten the end.
Joseph Chenier had been a member of the Convention and of
1 This is the date given by G. de Chenier in his La Viriti sur la
famille de Chenier (1844).
8o
CHENILLE— CHEOPS
the Council of Five Hundred, and bad voted for the death of
Louis XVI.; he had a seat in the tribunate; he belonged to
the committees of public instruction, of general security, and of
public safety. He was, nevertheless, suspected of moderate
sentiments, and before the end of the Terror had become a
marked man. His purely political career ended in 1802, when
he was eliminated with others from the tribunate for his opposi-
tion to Napoleon. In 1801 he was one of the educational jury
for the Seine; from 1803 to 1806 he was inspector-general of
public instruction. He had allowed himself to be reconciled
with Napoleon's government, and Cyrus, represented in 1804,
was written in his honour, but he was temporarily disgraced
in 1806 for his £pttre d Voltaire. In 1806 and 1807 he delivered
a course of lectures at the Athenee on the language and literature
of France from the earliest years; and in 1808 at the emperor's
request, he prepared his Tableau historique de Vital et du progrls
de la lUUrature jrancaise depuis 1789 jusqu'd 1808, a book con-
taining some good criticism, though marred by the violent
prejudices of its author. He died on the 10th of January 18x1.
The list of his works includes hymns and national songs — among
others, the famous Chant du depart; odes, Sur la mart de
Mirdbeau, Sur V oligarchic de Robespierre, &c ; tragedies which
never reached the stage, Brutus et Cassius, Philippe deux,
Tiber e\ translations from Sophocles and Leasing, from Gray
and Horace, from Tadtus and Aristotle; with elegies, dithyr-
ambics and Ossianic rhapsodies. As a satirist he possessed
great merit, though he sins from an excess of severity, and is
sometimes malignant and unjust. He is the chief tragic poet
of the revolutionary period, and as Camille Desmoulins expressed
it, he decorated Melpomene with the tricolour cockade.
See the (Euvres computes de Joseph Chtnier (8 vols., Paris, 1823-
1826), containing notices of the poet by Arnault and Daunou;
Charles Labitte, Etudes litUraires (1846); Henri Welschingcr, Le
ThMtre rhoiuiionncire, 1780-1709 (1881); and A. Lteby, Etude sur
le tM&tre de Marie- Joseph Chtnier (1002).
CHENILLE (from the Fr. chenille, a hairy caterpillar), a
twisted velvet cord, woven so that the short outer threads
stand out at right angles to the central cord, thus giving a
resemblance to a caterpillar. Chenille is used as a trimming
for dress and furniture.
CHENONCEAUX, a village of central France, in the department
of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Cher, 20 m. E. by S.
of Tours on the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) 216. Chenonceaux
owes its interest to its chateau (see Architecture: Renaissance
Architecture in France), a building in the Renaissance style
on the river Cher, to the left bank of which it is united by a
two-storeyed gallery built upon five arches, and to the right by
a drawbridge flanked by an isolated tower, part of an earlier
building of the 15th century. Founded in 1515 by Thomas
Bohicr (d. 1523), financial minister in Normandy, the chateau
was confiscated by Francis I. in 1535. Henry II. presented
it to his mistress Diane de Poitiers, who on his death was forced
to exchange it for Chaumont-sur-Loire by Catherine de' Medici.
The latter built the gallery which leads to the left bank of the
Cher. Chenonceaux. passed successively into the hands of
Louise de Vaudemont, wife of Henry III., the house of Vend6me,
and the family of Bourbon-Conde. In the 18th century it came
into the possession of the farmer-general Claude Dupin (1684-
1769), who entertained the most distinguished people in France
within its walls. In 1864 it was sold to the chemist Theophile
Pelouze, whose wife executed extensive restorations. It sub-
sequently became the property of the Credit Foncier, and again
passed into private occupancy.
CHENOPODIUM , or Goose-foot, a genus of erect or prostrate
herbs (natural order Chenopodiaceae), usually growing on the
seashore or on waste or cultivated ground. The green angular
stem is often striped with white or red, and, like the leaves,
often more or less covered with mealy hairs. The leaves are
entire, lobed or toothed, often more or less deltoid or triangular
in shape. The minute flowers are bisexual, and borne in dense
axillary or terminal clusters or spikes. The fruit is a membranous
one-seeded utricle often enclosed by the persistent calyx. Ten
species occur in Britain, one of which, C. Bonus-IIcnricus, Good
King Henry, is cultivated as a pot-herb, in lieu of asparagus
under the name mercury, and all-good.
CHEOPS, in Herodotus, the name of the king who built the
Great Pyramid in Egypt. Following on a period of good rule
and prosperity under Rhampsinitus, Cheops closed the temples,
abolished the sacrifices and made all the Egyptians labour for
his monument, working in relays of 100,000 men every three
months (see Pyramid). Proceeding from bad to worse, he
sacrificed the honour of his daughter in order to obtain the money
to complete his pyramid; and the princess built herself besides
a small pyramid of the stones given to her by her lovers. Cheops
reigned 50 years and was succeeded by his brother, Chephren,
who reigned 56 years and built the second pyramid. During
these two reigns the Egyptians suffered every kind of misery
and the temples remained closed. Herodotus continues that
in his own day the Egyptians were unwilling to name these
oppressors and preferred to call the pyramids after a shepherd
named Philition, who pastured his flocks in their neighbour-
hood. At length Mycerinus, son of Cheops and successor of
Chephren, reopened the temples and, although he built the Third
Pyramid, allowed the oppressed people to return to their proper
occupations.
Cheops, Chephren and Mycerinus are historical personages
of the fourth Egyptian dynasty, in correct order, and they built
the three pyramids attributed to them here. But they are
wholly misplaced by Herodotus. Rhampsinitus, the predecessor
of Cheops, appears to represent Rameses III. of the twentieth
dynasty, and Mycerinus in Herodotus is but a few generations
before Psammetichus, the founder of the twenty-sixth dynasty.
Manetho correctly places the great Pyramid kings in Dynasty IV.
In Egyptian the name of Cheops (Chemmis or Chembisin Diodorus
Siculus, Suphis in Manetho) is spelt Hwfw (Khufu), but the
pronunciation, in late times perhaps Khdouf, is uncertain.
The Greeks and Romans generally accepted the view that Hero-
dotus supplies of his character, and moralized on the uselessness
of his stupendous work; but there is nothing else to prove that
the Egyptians themselves execrated his memory. Modern
writers rather dwell on the perfect organization demanded by his
scheme, the training of a nation to combined labour, the level
attained here by art and in the fitting of masonry, and finally
the fact that the Great Pyramid was the oldest of the seven
wonders of the ancient world and now alone of them survives.
It seems that representations of deities, and indeed any represen-
tations at all, were rare upon the polished walls of the great
monuments of the fourth dynasty, and Petrie thinks that he
can trace a violent religious revolution with confiscation of
endowments at this time in the temple remains at Abydos;
but none the less the wants of the deities were then attended to
by priests selected from the royal family and the highest in the
land. Khufu's work in the temple of Bubastis is proved by a
surviving fragment, and he is figured slaying his enemy at Sinai
before the god Thoth. In late times the priests of Denderah
claimed Khufu as a benefactor; he was reputed to have built
temples to the gods near the Great Pyramids and Sphinx (where
also a pyramid of his daughter Hcntsen is spoken of), and there
are incidental notices of him in the medical and religious
literature. The funerary cult of Khufu and KhafrS was practised
under the twenty-sixth dynasty, when so much that had fallen
into disuse and been forgotten was revived. Khufu is a leading
figure in an ancient Egyptian story (Papyrus Wcstcar), but it
is unfortunately incomplete. He was the founder of the fourth
dynasty, and was probably born in Middle Egypt near Bcni
Hasan, in a town afterwards known as " Khufu's Nurse," but
was connected with the Memphite third dynasty. Two tablets
at the mines of Wadi Maghara in the peninsula of Sinai, a
granite block from Bubastis, and a beautiful ivory statuette
found by Petrie in the temple at Abydos, are almost all that can
be definitely assigned to Khufu outside the pyramid at Gixa
and its ruined accompaniments. His date, according to Petrie,
is 3960-3008 B.C., but in the shorter chronology of Meyer,
Breasted and others he reigned (23 ye*rs) about a thousand years
later, c. 2000 B.C.
CHEPSTOW— CHER
81
See Herodotus ii. 124: Diodorus Siculu* i. 64; Seihe in Pauly- 1
Wissowa's RcaUncyclopadii. s.v.: W. M. F. Pctrie. History of Egypt, \
vol. i., and Abydos, part iL p. 4*; J- H. Breasted, History.
(r . LL. O.) I
CHEPSTOW, a market town and river-port in the southern |
parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, on the Wye,
2 m. above its junction with the Severn, and on the Great Western
railway. Pop. of urban district (1001) 3067- It occupies the •
slope of a hill on the western (left) bank of the river, and is
environed by beautiful scenery. The church of St Mary, origin- 1
ally the conventual chapel of a Benedictine priory of Norman j
foundation, has remains of that period in the west front and |
the nave, but a rebuilding of the chancel and transepts was
effected in the beginning of the 19th century. The church ,
contains many interesting monuments. The castle, still a mag-
nificent pile, was founded in the nth century by William
Fitz-Osbern, carl of Hereford, but was almost wholly rebuilt
in the 13th. There are, however, parts of the original building in
the keep. The castle occupies a splendid site on the summit of 1
a cliff above the Wye, and covers about 3 acres. The river is 1
crossed by a fine iron bridge of five arches, erected in 1816, and
by a tubular railway bridge designed by Sir Isambard Brunei.
There is a free passage on the Wye for large vessels as far as the
bridge. From the narrowness and depth of the channel the tide
rises suddenly and to a great height, forming a dangerous bore.
The exports are limber, bark, iron, coal, cider and millstones.
Some shipbuilding is carried on.
As the key to the passage of the Wye, Chepstow (Estrigkorel,
Slriguil) was the site successively of British, Roman and Saxon
fortifications'. Domesday Book records that the Norman castle
was built by William Fitz-Osbern to defend the Roman road
into South Wales. On the confiscation of his son's estates,
the castle was granted to the earls of Pembroke, and after its
reversion to the crown in 1306, Edward II. in 13 10 granted it
to his half-brother Thomas de Brotherton. On the latter's
death it passed, through his daughter Margaret, Lady Segrave,
to the dukes of Norfolk, from whom, after again reverting to the
crown, it passed to the earls of Worcester. It was confiscated
by parliament and settled on Oliver Cromwell, but was restored
to the earls in 1660. The borough must have grown up between
1 3 10, when the castle and vill were granted to Thomas de
Brotherton, and 1432, when John duke of Norfolk died seised 1
of the castle, manor and borough of Struguil. In 1524 Charles,
first earl of Worcester and then lord of the Marches, granted a
new charter of incorporation to the bailiffs and burgesses of the
town, which had fallen into decay. This was sustained until
the reign of Charles II., when, some dispute arising between the 1
earl of Bridgwater and the burgesses, no bailiff was appointed
and the charter lapsed. Chepstow was afterwards governed by 1
a board of twelve members. A port since early times, when the
lord took dues of ships going up to the forest of Dean, Chepstow
had no ancient market and no manufactures .but that of glass,
which was carried on for a short time within the ruins of the
castle.
CHEQUE, or Check, in commercial law, a bill of exchange
drawn on a banker and signed by the drawer, requiring the
banker to pay on demand a certain sum in money to or to the)
order of a specified person or to bearer. In this, its most modern
sense, the cheque is the outcome of the growth of the banking
system of the 19th century. For details see Banks and Bank- 1
ing: Law, and Bill of Exchange. The word check, 1 of which
" cheque " is a variant now general in English usage, signified
merely the counterfoil or indent of an exchequer bill, or any
draft form of payment, on which was registered the particulars
of the principal part, as a check to alteration or forgery. The
1 The original meaning of " check " is a move in the game of chesi
which directly attacks the king; the word comes through the Old
Fr. esckec, eschac, from the Med. Lat. form uaccus of the Persian
skdk, king, \jt. the king in the game of chess: cf. the origin of
M mate " from the Arabic shah-mat, the king is dead. The won'
early used in a transferred sense of a (stoppage or rebuff, and so is
; word was
. . _ . and so fe
J to anything which stops or hinders a matter in progress, 01
which controls or restrains anything, hence a token, ticket 01
counterfoil which serves as a means of identification, &c
early ust
applied 1
check or counterfoil parts remained in the hands of the banker,
the portion given to the customer being termed a " drawn note "
or " draft." From the beginning of the 19th century the word
" cheque " gradually became synonymous with " draft " as
meaning a written order on a banker by a person having money
in the banker's hands, to pay some amount to bearer or to a
person named. Ultimately, it entirely superseded the word
" draft," and has now a statutory definition (Bills of Exchange
Act 1883. s. 73)—" a bill of exchange drawn on a banker payable
on demand." The word " draft " has come to have a wider
meaning, that of a bill drawn by one person on another for a sum
of money, or an order (whether on a banker or other) to pay
money. The employment of cheques as a method of payment
offering greater convenience than coin is almost universal in
Great Britain and the United States. Of the transactions
through the banks of the United Kingdom between 86 and 00%
arc conducted by means of cheques, and an even higher propor-
tion in the United States. On the continent of Europe the use
of cheques, formerly rare, is becoming more general, particularly
in France, and to some extent in Germany.
CHER, a department of central France, embracing the eastern
part of the ancient province of Berry, and parts of Bourbonnais,
Nivcrnais and Orleanais, bounded N. by the department of
Loire t, W. by Loir-et-Cher and Indre, S. by Allier and Creuse,
and E. by Nievre. Pop. (1006) 343.484. Area a8io sq. m.
The territory of the department is elevated in the south, where
one point reaches 1654 ft., and in the east. The centre is occupied
by a wide calcareous table-land, to the north of which stretches
the plain of Sologne. The principal rivers, besides the Cher and
its tributaries, arc the Grande Sauldre and the Petite Sauldre
on the north, but the Loire and Allier, though not falling within
the department, drain the eastern districts, and are available
for navigation. The Cher itself becomes navigable when it
receives the Anion and Yevre, and the communications of the
department arc greatly facilitated by the Canal du Berry, which
traverses it from east to west, the lateral canal of the Loire,
which follows the left bank of that river, and the canal of the
Sauldre. The climate is temperate, and the rainfall moderate.
Except in the Sologne, the soil is generally fertile, but varies
considerably in different localities. The most productive region
is that on the cast, which belongs to the valley of the Loire;
the central districts are tolerably fertile but marshy, being often
flooded by the Cher; while in the south and south-west there
is a considerable extent of dry and fertile land. Wheat and oats
are largely cultivated, while hemp, vegetables and various
fruits are also produced. The vine flourishes chiefly in the east
of the arrondisscment of Sancerre. The department contains
\ a comparatively large extent of pasturage, which has given rise
to a considerable trade in horses, cattle, sheep and wool for the
northern markets. Nearly one-fifth of the whole area consists
of forest. Mines of iron are worked, and various sorts of slone
are quarried. Brick, porcelain and glassworks employ large
numbers of the inhabitants. There are also flour-mills, dis-
tilleries, oil-works, saw-mills and tanneries. Bourges and Vierion
are metallurgical and engineering centres. Coal and wine are
leading imports, while cereals, timber, wool, fruit and industrial
products are exported. The department is served by the Orleans
railway, and possesses in all more than 300 m. of navigable
waterways. It is divided into three arrondissements (29 cantons,
292 communes) cognominal with the towns of Bourges, Saint-
Amand-Mont-Rond, and Sancerre, of which the first is the
capital, the seat of an archbishop and of a court of appeal and
headquarters of the VIII. army-corps. The department
belongs to the acadlm.it (educational division) of Paris. Bourges,
Saint-Amand-Mont-Rond, Vierzon and Sancerre (q.v.) are the
principal towns. M6hun-sur- Yevre (pop. 5227), a town with an
active manufacture of porcelain, has a Romanesque church and
a chateau of the 14th century. Among the other interesting
churches of the department, that at St Satur has a fine choir
of the 14th and 15th centuries; (hose of Dun-sur-Auron,
, Plaimpied, Aix d'AngUlon and Jeanvrin are Romanesque in
[ style, while Aubigny-Ville has a church of the iath^ ttfk axA
82
CHERAT— CHERCHEL
15th centuries and a chateau of later date. Drevant, built on
the site of a Roman town, preserves ruins of a large theatre and
other remains. Among the megalithic monuments of Cher,
the most notable is that at Villeneuve-sur-Cher, known as the
Pierre-de-la-Roche.
CHERAT* a hill cantonment and sanatorium in the Peshawar
district of the North-VVest Frontier Province, India, 34 rn. S.E.
of Peshawar. It is situated at an elevation of 4500 ft., on the
west of the Khattak range, which divides the Peshawar from the
Kohat district. It was first used in 1861, and since then has
been employed during the hot weather as a health station for
the British troops quartered in the hot and malarious vale of
Peshawar.
CHERBOURG* a naval station, fortified town and seaport
of north-westem France, capital of an arrondissement in the
department of Manchc, on the English Channel, 232 m. W.N.W.
of Paris on the Ouest-Etat railway. Pop. (1006) town, 35i7*o;
commune, 43,827. Cherbourg is situated at the mouth of the
Divettc, on a small bay at the apex of the indentation formed
by the northern shore of the peninsula of Cotentin. Apart from
a fine hospital and the church of La Trinite" dating from the
15th century, the town has no buildings of special interest. A
rich collection of paintings is housed in the h6tel de ville. A
statue of the painter J. F. Millet, born near Cherbourg, stands
in the public garden, and there is an equestrian statue of
Napoleon I. in the square named after him. Cherbourg is a
fortified place of the first class, headquarters of one of the five
naval arrondissements of France, and the seat of a sub-prefect.
It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber
of commerce, a lycee and a naval school. The chief industries
of the town proper are fishing, saw-milling, tanning, leather-
dressing, ship-building, iron and copper-founding, rope-making
and the manufacture of agricultural implements. There are
stone quarries in the environs, and the town has trade in farm
produce.
Cherbourg derives its chief importance from its naval and
commercial harbours, which are distant from each other about
half a mile. The former consists of three main basins cut out
of the rock, and has an area of 55 acres. The minimum depth
of water is 30 ft. Connected with the harbour are dry docks,
the yards where the largest ships in the French navy are con-
structed, magazines, rope walks, and the various workshops
requisite for a naval arsenal of the first class. The works and
town are carefully guarded on every side by redoubts and
fortifications, and are commanded by batteries on the surround-
ing hills. There is a large naval hospital close to the harbour.
The commerical harbour at the mouth of the Divette com-
municates with the sea by a channel 650 yds. long. It consists
of two parts, an outer and tidal harbour 17} acres in extent, and
an inner basin 15 acres in extent, with a depth on sill at ordinary
spring tide of 25 ft. Outside these harbours is the triangular
bay, which forms the roadstead of Cherbourg. The bay is
admirably sheltered by the land on every side but the north. On
that side it is sheltered by a huge breakwater, over 2 m. in length,
with a width of 650 ft. at its base and 30 ft. at its summit, which
is protected by forts, and leaves passages for vessels to the east
and west. These passages are guarded by forts placed on islands
intervening between the breakwater and the mainland, and
themselves united to the land by breakwaters. The surface
within these barriers amounts to about 3700 acres. Cherbourg
is a port of call for the American, North German Lloyd and other
important lines of transatlantic steamers. The chief exports
are stone for road-making, butter, eggs and vegetables; the
chief imports are coal, timber, superphosphates and wine from
Algeria. Great Britain is the principal customer.
Cherbourg is supposed by some investigators to occupy the
site of the Roman station of Coriallum, but nothing definite is
known about its origin. The name was long regarded as a
corruption of Caesaris Burgus (Caesar's Borough). William
the Conqueror, under whom it appears as Corusbur, provided
it with a hospital and a church; and Henry II. of England on
several occasions chose it as his residence. In 1295 it was
pillaged by an English fleet from Yarmouth, and in the 14th
century It frequently suffered during the wars against the
English. Captured by the English in 1418 after a four months'
siege, it was recovered by Charles VII. of France in 1450. An
attempt was made under Louis XIV. to construct a military port;
but the fortifications were dismantled in 168S, and further
damage was inflicted by the English in 1758. In 1686 Vauban
planned harbour-works which were begun under Louis XVI.
and continued by Napoleon I. It was left, however, to Louis
Philippe, and particularly to Napoleon III., to complete them,
and their successful realization was celebrated in 1858, in the
presence of the queen of England, against whose dominions they
had at one lime been mainly directed. At the close of 1857,
£8,000,000, of which the breakwater cost over £2,500,000, bad
been expended on the works; in 1889 a further sum of £680,000
was voted by the Chamber of Deputies for the improvement of
the port.
CHERBUUEZ, CHARLES VICTOR (1820-1809), French
novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born on the 19th of July
1829, at Geneva, where his father, Andre* Cherbuliez (1795-1874),
was a classical professor at the university. He was descended
from a family of Protestant refugees, and many years later
Victor Cherbuliez resumed his French nationality, taking
advantage of an act passed in the early days of the Revolution.
Geneva was the scene of his early education; thence he proceeded
to Paris, and afterwards to the universities of Bonn and Berlin.
He returned to his native town and engaged in the profession of
teaching. After his resumption of French citizenship he was
elected a member of the Academy (188 1), and having received
the Legion of Honour in 1870, he was promoted to be officer of
the order in 1892. He died on the 1st of July 1809. Cherbuliez
was a voluminous and successful writer of fiction. His first book,
originally published in i860, reappeared in 1864 under the title
of Un Cheval de Phidias: it is a romantic study of art in the
golden age of Athens. He went on to produce a series of novels,
of which the following are the best known "i—Le Comte Kostia
(1863), Le Prince Vitale (1864), Le Roman d'une konnite fenme
(1866), VAventure de Ladislas Bolski (1869), Miss Hotel (1875),
Samuel Brohl tt Cie (1877), L'Idie de Jean Tllbrol (1878), Noirs
el rouges (1881), La Vocation du ComU Ghislain (1888), Une
Gageure (1890), Lc Secret du pricepteur (1893), Jacquinc Vanes se
(1898), &c. Most of these novels first appeared in the Revue its
deux mondes, to which Cherbuliez also contributed a number
of political and learned articles, usually printed with the pseu-
donym G. Valbert. Many of these have been published in
collected form under the titles L'Allemagne politique (1870),
VEspagne politique (1874), Profits Grangers (1889), VArl el la
nature (1 £92), &c. The volume £iudesdclitt£raturectd'art(i&?$)
includes articles for the most part reprinted from Lc Temps.
The earlier novels of Cherbuliez have been said with truth to
show marked traces of the influence of George Sand; and in
spite of modification, his method was that of an older school.
He did not possess the sombre power or the intensely analytical
skill of some of his later contemporaries, but his books are
distinguished by a freshness and honesty, fortified by cosmo-
politan knowledge and lightened by unobtrusive humour, which
fully account for their wide popularity in many countries besides
his own. His genius was the reverse of dramatic, and attempts
to present two of his stories on the stage have not succeeded.
His essays have all the merits due to liberal observation and
thoroughness of treatment; their style, like that of the novels,
is admirably lucid and correct. (C.)
CHERCHEL, a seaport of Algeria, in the arrondissement and
department of Algiers, 55 m. W. of the capital. It is the centre
of an agricultural and vine-growing district, but is commercially
of no great importance, the port, which consists of part only of
the inner port of Roman days, being small and the entry difficult.
The town is chiefly noteworthy for the extensive ruins of former
cities on the same site. Of existing buildings the most remarkable
is the great Mosque of the Hundred Columns, now used as a
military hospital. The mosque contains 89 columns of dioritc,
surmounted by a variety of capitals brought from other buildings.
CHERCHEN— CHERNIGOV
83
The population of the town in 1906 was 4733; of the commune
of which Chcrchel is the centre 11,088.
Cherchel was a city of the Carthaginians, who named it Jol.
Juba 1L (25 b.c.) made it the capital of the Mauretanian king-
dom under the name of Cacsarea. Juba's tomb, the so-called
Tombeau de la Chretienne (see Algeria), is i\ m. E. of the, town.
Destroyed by the Vandals, Cacsarea regained some of its im-
portance under the Byzantines. Taken by the Arabs it was
renamed by them Cherchel. Khair-ed-Diri Barbarossa captured
the city in 1520 and annexed it to his Algerian pashalik. In
the early years of the 18th century it was a commercial dty
of some importance, but was laid in ruins by a terrible earthquake
in 1738. In 1840 the town was occupied by the French. The
ruins suffered greatly from vandalism during the early period
of French rule, many portable objects being removed to
museums in Paris or Algiers, and most of the monuments
destroyed for the sake of their stone. Thus the dressed stones
of the ancient theatre served to build barracks; the material
of the hippodrome went to build the church; while the portico
of the hippodrome, supported by granite and marble columns,
and approached by a fine flight of steps, was destroyed by
Cardinal Lavigerie in a search for the tomb of St Marciana. The
fort built by Arouj Barbarossa, elder brother of Khair-ed-Din,
was completely destroyed by the French. There are many
fragments of a while marble temple. The ancient cisterns still
supply the town with water. The museum contains some of
the finest statues discovered in Africa. They include colossal
figures of Aesculapius and Bacchus, and the lower half of a
seated Egyptian divinity in black basalt, bearing the cartouche
of Tethmosis (Thothmcs) I. This statue was found at Cherchel,
and is held by some archaeologists to indicate an Egyptian
settlement here about 1500 b.c
See Africa, Roman, and the description of the museum by
P. Gaucklcr in the Musics el collections arch&ologiques de FAlgirie.
CHERCHEN, a town of East Turkestan, situated at the
northern foot of the Altyn-tagb, a range of the Kuen-lun, in
85° 35' E., and on the Cherchcn-darya, at an altitude of 4100 ft.
It straggles mostly along the irrigation channels that go off from
the left side of the river, and in 1900 had a population of about
sooo. The Cherchcn-darya, which rises in the Arka-tagh, a more
southerly range of the Kuen-lun, in 87 E. and 36° 20' N., flows
north until it strikes the desert below Chcrchcn, after which it
turns north-east and meanders through a wide bed (300-400 ft.),
beset with dense reeds and flanked by older channels. It is
probable that anciently it entered the disused channel of the
Ettek-tarim, but at present it joins the existing Tarim in the
lake of Kara-buran, a sort of lacustrine " ante-room " to the
Kara-koshun (N. M. Przhcvalsky's Lop-no r). At its entrance
into the former lake the Cherchen-darya forms a broad delta.
The river is frozen in its lower course for two to three months
in the winter. From the foot of the mountains to the oasis of
Cherchen it has a fall of nearly 4000 ft., whereas in'thc 300 m.
or so from Cherchen to the Kara-buran the fall is 1400 ft. The
total length is 500-600 m., and the drainage basin measures
6000-7000 sq. m.
See Sven Hedin, Scientific Results of a Journey in Central Asia,
1899-1902, vols. i. and ii. (1905-1906); also Takla-Makan.
CHEREMISSES, or Tcheremisses, a Finnish people living in
isolated groups in the governments of Kazan, Viatka, Novgorod,
Perm, Kostroma and Ufa, eastern Russia. Their name for
themselves is Mori or Mari (people), possibly identifiable with the
ancient Merians of Suzdalia. Their language belongs to the
Finno-Ugrian family. They number some 240,000. There are
two distinct physical types: one of middle height, black-haired,
brown skin and flat- faced; the other short, fair-haired, white
skinned, with narrow eyes and straight short noses. Those
who live on the right bank of the Volga are sometimes known
as Hill Chcremis, and are taller and stronger than those who
inhabit the swamps of the left bank. They are farmers and herd
horses and cattle. Their religion is a hotchpotch of Shamanism,
Mahoramedanism and Christianity. They are usually mono-
gamous. The chief ceremony of marriage is a forcible abduction
of the bride. The women, naturally ugly, are often disfigured
by sore eyes caused by the smoky atmosphere of the huts. They
wear a head-dress, trimmed with glass jewels, forming a hood
behind stiffened with metal. On their breasts they carry a
breastplate formed of coins, small bells and copper disks.
See Smirinov, Mordres et Tcheremisses (Paris, 1895); J- Aber-
cromby, Pre- and ProLo-kistoric Finns (London, 1898).
CHERIBON, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East
Indies, bounded S. and W. by the Prcanger regencies, N.W. by
Krawang, N. by the Java Sea, and E. by the residencies of Tegal
andBanyumas. Pop. (1897) 1,577,521, including 867 Europeans,
21,108 Chinese, and 2016 Arabs and other Asiatic foreigners. The
natives consist of Middle Javanese in the north and Sundanese
in the south. Cheribon has been for many centuries the centre
of Islamism in western Java, and is also the seat of a fanatical
Mahommedan sect controlled from Mecca. The native population
is on the whole orderly and prosperous. The northern half of the
residency is flat and marshy in places, especially in the north-
western corner, while the southern half is mountainous. In the
middle stands the huge volcano Chcrimai, clad with virgin
forest and coffee plantations, and surrounded at its foot by rice
fields. South-south-west of Chcrimai on the Preangcr border is
the Sawal volcano, at whose foot is the beautiful Penjalu lake.
Sulphur and salt springs occur on the slopes of Chcrimai, and
near Palimanan there is a cavernous hole called Guwagalang (or
Payagalang), which exhales carbonic add gas, and is considered
holy by the natives and guarded by priests. There is a similar
hole in the Preangei. The principal products of cultivation arc
sugar, coffee, rice and also tea and pulse (rochang), the planta-
tions being for the most part owned by Europeans. The chief
towns are Cheribon, a seaport and capital of the residency, the
seaport of Indramaya, Palimanan, Majalcngka, Kuningan and
Chiamis. Cheribon has a good open roadstead. The town is
very old and irregularly built, and the climate is unhealthy;
nevertheless it has a livery export trade in sugar and coffee and
is a regular port of call. In 1008 the two descendants of the old
sultans of Cheribon still resided there in their respective Kratons
or palaces, and each received an annual income of over £1500 for
the loss of his privileges. A country residence belonging to one;
of the sultans is situated dose to Cheribon and is much visited
on account of its fantastic architecture. Indramaya was a
considerable trading place in the days of the early Portuguese
and Dutch traders. Kuningan is famous for a breed of small
but strong horses.
CHBRKASY (Polish, Cxerkasy), a town of Russia, in the
government of Kiev, 96 m. S.E. of Kiev, on the right bank of the
Dnieper. Pop. (1883) 15,74°; (1897) 26,619. The inhabitants
(Little Russians) are mostly employed in agriculture and garden-
ing; but sugar and tobacco arc manufactured and spirits distilled.
Cherkasy was an important town of the Ukraine in the 15th
century, and remained so, under Polish rule, until the revolt
of the Cossack heiman Chmielnicki (1648). It was annexed by
Russia in 1795.
CHERNIGOV, a government of Utile Russia, on the left bank
of the Dnieper, bounded by the governments of Mogilev and
Smolensk on the N., Orel and Kursk on the E., Poltava on the
S., and Kiev and Minsk on the W. Area, 20,233 &Q- m. Its
surface is an undulating plain, 650 to 750 ft. high in the north
and 370 to 600 ft. in the south, deeply grooved by ravines and
the valleys of the rivers. In the north, beyond the Desna river,
about one-third of the area is under forest (rapidly disappearing),
and marshes occur along the courses of the rivers; while to the
south of the Desna the soil is dry and sometimes sandy, and
gradually it assumes the characters of a steppe-land as one
proceeds southward. The government is drained by the Dnieper,
which forms its western boundary for 180 m., and by its tributary
the Desna, The latter, which flows through Chernigov for
nearly 350 m., is navigable, and timber is brought down its
tributaries. The climate is much colder in the wooded tracts
of the north than in the south; the average yearly temperature
at the city of Chernigov is 44*4° F. (January, 23 ; July 68«5°).
The population reached 1,096,350 in 1883, 2,3x6,818 in 2897,
8+
CHERNIGOV— CHERRY
and 2,746,300 (estimate) in 1906. It is chiefly Little Russian
(85-6%); but Great Russians (61%), mostly Raskolniks,
i.e. nonconformists, and White Russians (5-6%) inhabit the
northern districts. There are, besides, some Germans, as well
as Greeks, at Nyezhin. Agriculture is the principal occupation ;
in the north, however, many of the inhabitants are engaged in
the timber tracje, and in the production of tar, pitch, wooden
wares, leather goods and so forth. Cattle-breeding is carried
on in the central districts. Beet is extensively cultivated. The
cultivation of tobacco is increasing. Hemp is widely grown in
the north, and the milder climate of the south encourages
gardening. Bee-keeping is extensively carried on by the Raskol-
niks. Limestone, grindstones, china-clay and building-stone
are quarried. Manufactures have begun to develop rapidly of
late, the most important being sugar-works, distilleries, cloth-
mills and glass-works. The government is divided into fifteen
districts, their chief towns being Chernigov (q.v.), Borzna (pop.
12,458 in 1897), Glukhov (14,856), Gorodnya (4197), Konotop
(*3,o83), Kozcleta (5160), Krolevcts (10,375), Mglin (7631),
Novgorod-Syeversk (9185), Novozybkov (15,480), Nyezhin
(32,481), Ostcr (5384), Sosnitsa (2507), Starodub (12,451) and
Surazh (4004).
CHERNIGOV, a town of Russia, capital of the above govern-
ment, on the right bank of the Desna, nearly half a mile
from the river, 141 m. by rail N.E. of Kiev on a branch line.
Pop. (1897) 27,006. It is an archicpiscopal see and possesses a
cathedral of the nth century. In 907 the city is mentioned
in the treaty of Olcg as next in importance to Kiev, and in the
nth century it became the capital of the principality of Syevcrsk
and an important commercial city. The Mongol invasion put
an end to its prosperity in 1239. Lithuania annexed it in the
14th century, but it was soon seized by Poland, which held it until
the 1 7th century. In 1686 it was definitely annexed to Russia.
CHEROKEE (native Tsalagi, " cave people "), a tribe of North
American Indians of Iroquoian stock. Next to the Navaho they
are the largest tribe in the United States and live mostly in
Oklahoma (formerly Indian territory). Before their removal
they possessed a large tract of country now distributed among
the states of Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, Tennessee and the
west of Florida. Their chief divisions were then settled around
the head-waters of the Savannah and Tennessee rivers, and
were distinguished as the Elati Tsalagi or Lower Cherokees,
i.e. those in the plains, and Alali Tsalagi or Upper Cherokees,
i.e. those on the mountains. They were further divided into
seven exogamous clans. Fernando dc Soto travelled through
their country in 1540, and during the next three centuries they
were important factors in the history of the south. They
attached themselves to the English in the disputes and contests
which arose between the European colonizers, formally recog-
nized the English king in 1730, and in 1755 ceded a part of
their territory and permitted the erection of English forts.
Unfortunately this amity was interrupted not long after;
but peace was again restored in 1761. When the revolutionary
war broke out they sided with the royalist party. This led
to their subjugation by the new republic, and they had to
surrender that part of their lands which lay to the south of the
Savannah and cast of the Chattahoochee. Peace was made in
1781, and in 1785 they recognized the supremacy of the United
States and were confirmed in their possessions. In 1820 they
adopted a civilized form of government, and in 1827, as a
" Nation," a formal constitution. The gradual advance of white
immigration soon led to disputes with the settlers, who desired
their removal, and exodus after exodus took place; a small part
of the tribe agreed (1835) to remove to another district, but
the main body remained. An appeal was made by them to
the United States government; but President Andrew Jackson
refused to interfere. A force of 2000 men, under the command
of General Win field Scott, was sent in 1838, and the Cherokees
were compelled to emigrate to their present position. After
the settlement various disagreements between the eastern and
western Cherokees continued for some time, but in 1839 a union
was effected. In the Civil War they all at first sided with the
South; but before long a strong party joined the North, and
this led to a disastrous internecine struggle. On the close of the
contest they were confirmed in the possession of their territory,
but were forced to give a portion of their lands to their eman*
cipated slaves. Their later history is mainly a story of hopeless
struggle to maintain their tribal independence against the white*
man. In 1892 they sold their western territory known as the
" Cherokee outlet." Until 1006, when tribal government
virtually ceased, the " nation " had an elected chief, a senate and
house of representatives. Ma ny of them have become Christiana;
schools have been established and there is a tribal press. Those
in Oklahoma still number some 26,000, though most are of mixed
blood. A group, known as the Eastern Band, some 1400 strong,
are on a reservation in North Carolina. Their language consists
of two dialects— a third, that of the " Lower " branch, having
been lost. The syllabic alphabet invented in 1821 by George
Guess (Sequoyah) is the character employed.
See also Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907);
T. V. Parker. Cherokee Indians (N. Y.,1909); and Indians, Noam
American.
CHEROOT, or Sheroot (from the Tamil word " shuruttu,"
a roll), a agar made from tobacco grown in southern India and
the Philippine Islands. It was once esteemed very highly for
its delicate flavour. A cheroot differs from other cigars in having
both ends cut square, instead of one being pointed, and one end
considerably larger than the other.
CHERRAPUNJI. a village in the Khasi hills district of Assam.
It is notable as having the heaviest known rainfall in the world.
In 1 86 1 it registered a total of 905 in., and its annual average
is 458 in. This excessive rainfall is caused by the fact that
Chcrrapunji stands on the edge of the plateau overlooking the
plains of Bengal, where it catches the full force of the monsoon
as it rises from the sea. There is a good coal-seam in the vicinity.
CHERRY. As a cultivated fruit-tree the cherry is generally
supposed to be of Asiatic origin, whence, according to Pliny, it
was brought to Italy by Lucullus after his defeat of Mithradates,
king of Pontus, 68 B.C. As with most plants which have been
long and extensively cultivated, it is a matter of difficulty, if not
an impossibility, to identify the parent stock of the numerous
cultivated varieties of cherry; but they are generally referred
to two species: Prunus Ccrasus, the wild or dwarf cherry, the
origin of the morello, duke and Kentish cherries, and P. Avium,
the gean, the origin of the geans, hearts and bigarreaus. Roth
species grow wild through Europe and western Asia to the
Himalayas, but the dwarf cherry has the more restricted range
of the two in Britain, as it does not occur in Scotland and b rare
in Ireland. The cherries form a section Ccrasus of the genus
Prunus; and they have sometimes been separated as a distinct
genus from the plums proper; both have a stone-fruit or drupe,
but the drupe of the cherry differs from that of the plum in not
having a waxy bloom; further, the leaves of the plum are rolled
(convolute) in the bud, while- those of the cherry are folded (con-
duplicate).
The cherries are trees of moderate size and shrubs, having
smooth, serrate leaves and white flowers. They are natives
of the temperate regions of both hemispheres; and the cultivated
varieties ripen their fruit in Norway as far as 63° N. The geans
are generally distinguished from the common cherry by the
greater size of the trees, and the deeper colour and comparative
insipidity of the flesh in the ripe fruit, which adheres firmly
to the " nut " or stone; but among the very numerous cultivated
varieties specific distinctions shade away so that the fruit
cannot be ranged under these two heads. The leading varieties
are recognized as bigarreaus, dukes, morcllos and geans. Several
varieties are cultivated as ornamental trees and on account
of their flowers.
The cherry is a well-flavoured sub-add fruit, and is much
esteemed for dessert. Some of the varieties are particularly
selected for pies, tarts, &c, and others for the preparation of
preserves, and for making cherry brandy. The fruit is also very
extensively employed in the preparation of the liqueurs known
as kjrscbwaaser, ratafia and maraschino. Kirschwasscr is made
CHERRYVALE— CHERSO
85
chiefly on the upper Rhine from the wild blick gean, and in
the manufacture the entire fruit-flesh and kernels are pulped up
and allowed to ferment. By distillation of the fermented pulp
the liqueur is obtained in a pure, colourless condition. Ratafia
is similarly manufactured, also by preference from a gean.
Maraschino, a highly valued liqueur, the best of which is produced
at Zara in Dalmatia, differs from these in being distilled from
a cherry called marasca, the pulp of which is mixed with honey,
honey or sugar being added to the distillate for sweetening.
It is also said that the flavour is heightened by the use of the
leaves of the perfumed cherry, Primus Makaleb, a native of
central and southern Europe.
The wood of the cherry tree is valued by cabinetmakers,
and that of the gean tree is largely used in the manufacture
of tobacco pipes. The American wild cherry, Prumus serotina,
h much sought after, its wood being compact, fine-grained, not
liable to warp, and susceptible of receiving a brilliant polish.
The kernels of the perfumed cherry, P. Makaleb, are used in
confectionery and for scent. A gum exudes from the stem of
cherry trees similar in its properties to gum arabic.
The cherry is increased by budding on the wild gean, obtained
by sowing the stones of the small black or red wild cherries. To
secure very dwarf trees the Prunus Makaleb has been used for
the May duke, Kentish, morello and analogous sorts, but it is
not adapted for strong-growing varieties like the bigarreaus.
The stocks are budded, or, more rarely, grafted, at the usual
seasons. The cherry prefers a free, loamy soil, with a well-
drained subsoil. Stiff soils and dry gravelly subsoils are both
unsuitable, though the trees require a large amount of moisture,
particularly the large-leaved sorts, such as the bigarreaus. For
standard trees, the bigarreau section should be planted 30 ft.
apart, or more, in rich soil, and the May duke, morello and
similar varieties 20 or 2s ft. apart; while, as trained trees agninst
walls and espaliers, from 20 to 24 ft. should be allowed for the
former, and from x 5 to 20 ft. for the latter. In forming the stems
of a standard tree the temporary side-shoots should not be
allowed to attain too great a length, and should not be more
than two years old when they are cut close to the stem. The
first three shoots retained to form the head should be shortened
to about 15 in., and two shoots from each encouraged, one at the
end, and the other 3 or 4 in. lower down. When these have
become established, very little pruning will be required, and
that chiefly to keep the principal branches as nearly equal in
strength as possible for the first few years. Espalier trees
should have the branches about a foot apart, starting from the
stem with an upward curve, and then being trained horizontally.
In summer pruning the shoots on the upper branches must be
shortened at least a week before those on the lower ones. After
a year or two clusters of fruit buds will be developed on spurs
along the branches, and those spurs will continue productive
for an indefinite period. For wall trees any form of training
may be adopted; but as the fruit is always finest on young
spurs, fan-training is probably the most advantageous. A
succession of young shoots should be laid in every year. The
morello, which is of twiggy growth and bears on the young wood,
must be trained in the fan form, and care should be taken to
avoid the very common error of crowding its branches.
Forcing.— The cherry will not endure a high temperature nor
close atmosphere. A heat of 45° at night will be sufficient at
starting, this being gradually increased during the first few
weeks to 55°, but lowered again when the blossom buds are about
to open. After stoning the temperature may be again gradually
raised to 6o°, and may go up to 70 by day, or 75° by sun beat,
and 6o° at night. The best forcing cherries are the May duke
and the royal duke, the duke cherries being of more compact
growth than the bigarreau tribe and generally setting better;
nevertheless a few of the larger kinds, such as bigarreau Napoleon,
black tartarian and St Margaret's, should be forced for variety.
The trees may be either planted out in tolerably rich soil, or
grown in large pots of good turfy friable calcareous loam mixed
with rotten dung. If the plants are small, they may be put into
ia-in. pots in the first instance, and after a year shifted into
15-in. pots early in autumn, and plunged in some loose or even
very slightly fermenting material. The soil of the pots should
be protected from snow-showers and cold rains. Occasionally
trees have been taken up in autumn with balls, potted and
forced in the following spring; but those which have been
established a year in the pots are to be preferred. Such only as
are well furnished with blossom-buds should be selected. The
trees should be removed to the forcing house in the beginning
of December, if fruit be required very early in the season. During
the first and second weeks it may be kept nearly close; but, as
vegetation advances, air becomes absolutely necessary during
the day, and even at night when the weather will permit. If
forcing is commenced about the middle or third week of December,
the fruit ought to be ripe by about the end of March. After the
fruit is gathered, the trees should be duly supplied with water
at the root, and the foliage kept well syringed till the wood is
mature. (See also Fruit and Flower Farming.)
CHERRYVALE, a city of Montgomery county, Kansas, U.S.A.,
about 140 m. S.S.E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 2104; (1000)
3472, including 180 negroes; (1005, state census) 5089; (19x0)
4304. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, and the
main line and a branch (of which it is a terminus) of the St Louis
& San Francisco railways. It is in a farming district and in the
Kansas natural-gas and oil-field, and has large zinc smelters, an
oil refinery, and various manufactures, including vitrified brick,
flour, glass, cement and ploughs. Cherryvalc was laid out in
1871 by the Kansas City, Lawrence & South Kansas Railway
Company (later absorbed by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Ft).
The main part of the town was destroyed by fire in 1873, but
was soon rebuilt, and in 1880 Cherryvale became a city of the
third and afterwards of the second class. Natural gas, which
is used as a factory fuel and for street and domestic lighting,
was found here in 1889, and oil several years later.
CHERRY VALLEY, a village of Otsego county, New York,
USA., in a township of the same name, 68 m. N.W. of Albany.
Pop. (1890) 685; (1900) 772; (1905) 746; (1910) 792; of the
township (1910) 1706. It is served by the Delaware &
Hudson railway. Cherry Valley is in the centre of a rich farming
and dairying region, has a chair factory, and is a summer resort
with sulphur and lithia springs. It was the scene of a terrible
massacre during the War of Independence. The village was
attacked on the nth of November 1778 by Walter Butler
(d. 1 781 ) and Joseph Brant with a force of 800 Indians and Tories,
who killed about 50 men, women and children, sacked and
burned most of the houses, and carried off more than 70 prisoners,
who were subjected to the greatest cruelties and privations,
many of them dying or being tomahawked before the Canadian
settlements were reached. Cherry Valley was incorporated
in 1812.
CHERSIPHRON, a Cretan architect, the traditional builder
(with his son Metagenes) of the great Ionic temple of Artemis
at Ephesus set up by the Greeks in the 6th century. Some
remains of this temple were found by J. T. Wood and brought
to the British Museum. In connexion with the pillars, which
are adorned with archaic reliefs, a fragmentary inscription has
been found, recording that they were presented by King Croesus,
as indeed Herodotus informs us. This temple was burned on
the day on which Alexander the Great was born.
CHERSO, an island in the Adriatic Sea, off the cast coast
of Istria, from which it is separated by the channel of Farasina.
Pop. (1900) 8274. It is situated in the Gulf of Quarnero, and is
connected with the island of Lussin, lying on the S.W. by a
turn bridge over the small channel of Ossero, and with the
island of Veglia, lying on the E. by the Canale di Mezco. These
three are the principal islands of the Quarnero group, and form
together the administrative district of Lussin in the Austrian
crownland of Istria. Cherso is an elongated island about 40 m.
long, 1 J to 7 m. wide, and has an area of 1 50 sq. m. It is traversed
by a range of mountains, which attain in the peak of Syss an
altitude of 2000 ft. and form natural terraces, planted with vines
and olive trees, specially in the middle and southern parts of
the island. The northern part is covered with bushes of laurel
86
CHERSONESE— CHERUBIM
and mastic, but there are scarcely any large trees. There is a
scarcity of springs, and the houses are generally furnished with
cisterns for rain water. In the centre of the island is an interesting
lake called the Vrana or Crow's Lake, situated at an altitude of
40 ft. above the level of the sea, 3} m. long, 1 m. wide and 184
ft. deep. This lake is in all probability fed by subterranean
sources. The chief town of the island is Cherso, situated on
the west coast. It possesses a good harbour and is provided
with a shipwright's wharf.
CHERSONESE, Chersonesus, or Cherronesus (Gr. xtfxm,
dry, and vrjaos, island), a word equivalent to " peninsula."
In ancient geography the Chersonesus Thracica, Chersonesus
Taurica or Scythica, and Chersonesus Cimbrica correspond to
the peninsulas of the Dardanelles, the Crimea and Jutland; and
the Golden Chersonese is usually identified with the peninsula
of Malacca. The Tauric Chersonese was further distinguished
as the Great, in contrast to the Heraclcotic or Little Chersonese
at its S.W. corner, where Sevastopol now stands.
The Tauric Chersonese 1 (from and century a.d. called
Cherson) was a Dorian colony of Heraclea in Bithynia, founded
in the 5th century B.C. in the Crimea about 2 m. S. of the
modern Sevastopol. After defending itself against the kingdom
of Bosporus (?.«.), and the native Scythians and Tauri, and even
extending its power over the west coast of the peninsula, it
was compelled to call in the aid of Mithradatcs VI. and his
general Diophantus, c. no B.C., and submitted to the Pontic
dynasty. On regaining a nominal independence, it came more
or less under the Roman suzerainty. In the latter part of the
1st century a.d., and again in the succeeding century, it received
a Roman garrison and suffered much interference in its internal
affairs. In the time of Constantine, in return for assistance
against the Bosporans and the native tribes, it regained its
autonomy and received special privileges. It must, however,
have been subject to the Byzantine authorities, as inscriptions
testify to restorations of its walls by Byzantine officials. Under
Thcophilus the central government sent out a governor to take
the place of the elected magistrate. Even so it seems to have
preserved a measure of self-government and may be said to
have been the last of the Greek city states. Its ruin was brought
about by the commercial rivalry of the Genoese, who forbade
the Greeks to trade there and diverted its commerce to Caffa
and Sudak. Previous to this it had been the main emporium
of Byzantine commerce upon the N. coast of the Euxinc.
Through it went the communications of the empire with the
Pctchenegs and other native tribes, and more especially with
the Russians. The commerce of Cherson is guaranteed in the
early treaties between the Greeks and Russians, and it was in
Cherson, according to Ps. Nestor's chronicle, that Vladimir was
baptized in 988 after he had captured the city. The constitution
of the city was at first democratic under Damiorgi, a senate and
a general assembly. Latterly it appears to have become aristo-
cratic, and most of the power was concentrated in the hands of
the first archon or Proteuon, who in time was superseded by
the strategus sent out from Byzantium. Its most interesting
political document is the form of oath sworn to by all the citizens
in the 3rd century B.C.
The remains of the city occupy a space about two-thirds of a
mile long by half a mile broad. They are enclosed by a Byzantine
wall. Foundations and considerable remains of a Greek wall
going back to the 4th century B.C. have been found beneath
this in the eastern or original part of the site. Many Byzantine
churches, both cruciform and basilican, have been excavated.
The latter survived here into the 13th century when they had
long been extinct in other Grcck-spcaking lands. The churches
were adorned with frescoes, wall and floor mosaics, some well
preserved, and marble carvings similar to work found at Ravenna.
The fact that the site has not been inhabited since the 14th
century makes it important for our knowledge of Byzantine
life. The city was used by the Romans as a place of banishment :
St Clement of Rome was exiled hither and first preached the
1 In Pliny " Heraclea Chersonesus," probably owing to a confusion
with the name of the mother city.
Gospel; another exile was Justinian II., who is said to have
destroyed the city in revenge. We have a considerable series
of coins from the 3rd century B.C. to about aj>. 200, and also
some of Byzantine date.
See B. Koehnc, Beitrdge tur Geschichle von Cherronesus in Tauritn
(St Petersburg. 1848) ; art. " Cherso nesos " (20) by C. G. Brandis in
Pauly-Wissowa, Realencydopadie, vol. iii. 221; A. A. Bobrinskoj,
Chersonesus Taunca (St Petersburg, 1905) (Russian) ; V. V. Uty-
shev. Inscrr. Orae Septentr. Ponti Euxini, vols. i. and rv. Report* of ex-
cavations appear in the Compte rendu of the Imperial Archaeological
Commission of St Petersburg from 1888 and in its Bulletin. See
E. H. Minns, Scythians and Creeks (Cambridge, 1907). (E. H. M.)
CHERTSEY, a market town in the Chertsey parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 22 m. W.S.W. from London by
the London & South -West cm railway. Pop. of urban district
(1001) 12,762. It is pleasantly situated on the right bank of
the Thames, which is crossed by a bridge of seven arches, built
of Purbeck stone in 1785. The parish church, rebuilt in 1808,
contains a tablet to Charles James Fox, who resided at St
Anne's Hill in the vicinity, and another to Lawrence Tomson, a
translator of the New Testament in the 17th century. Hardly
any remains arc left of a great Benedictine abbey, whose buildings
at one time included an area of 4 acres. They fell into almost
complete decay in the 17th century, and a " fair house " was
erected out of the ruins by Sir Nicholas Carew of Beddington.
The ground-plan can be traced; the fish-ponds are complete;
and carved stones, coffins and encaustic tiles of a peculiar
manufacture are frequently exhumed. Among the abbots the
most famous was John de Rutherwyk, who was appointed in
1307, and continued, till his death in 1346, to carry on a great
system of alteration and extension, which almost made the abbey
a new building. The house in which the poet Cowley spent the
last years of his life remains, and the chamber in which he
died is preserved unaltered. The town is the centre of a large
residential district. Its principal trade is in produce for the
London markets.
The first religious settlement in Surrey, a Benedictine abbey,
was founded in 666 at Chertsey (Cerotesei, Ccrtesey), the manor
of which belonged to the abbot until 1539, since when it has been
a possession of the crown. In the reign of Edward the Confessor
Chertsey was a large village and was made the head of Godley
hundred. The increase of copyhold under Abbot John de
Rutherwyk led to discontent, the tenants in 1381 rising and
burning the rolls. Chertsey owed its importance primarily to
the abbey, but partly to its geographical position. Ferries over
the Rcdewynd were subjects of royal grant in 1340 and 1390;
the abbot built a new bridge over the Bourne in 1333, and
wholly maintained the bridge over the Thames when it replaced
the 14th century ferry. In 14 10 the king gave permission to
build a bridge over the Rcdewynd. As the centre of an agri-
cultural district the markets of Chertsey were important and are
still held. Three days' fairs were granted to the abbots in 1129
for the feast of St Peter ad Vincula by Henry III. for Holy Rood
day; in 1282 for Ascension day; and a market on Mondays
was obtained in 1 282. In 1590 there were many poor, for whose
relief Elizabeth gave a fair for a day in Lent and a market on
Thursdays. These fairs still survive.
Sec Lucy Wheeler, Chertsey Abbey (London, 1905); Victoria
County History, Surrey.
CHERUBIM, the Hebrew plural of "cherub" {kfrtb),
-imaginary winged animal figures of a sacred character, referred
to in the description of Solomon's temple (1 Kings vi. 23-35,
vii. 29, viii. 6, 7), and also in that of the ark of the tabernacle
(Ex. xxv. 18-22, xxvi. 1, 31, xxxvii. 7-9). The cherub-images,
where such occur, represent to the imagination the supernatural
bearers of Yahwch's throne or chariot, or the guardians of His
abode; the cherub-carvings at least symbolize His presence,
and communicate some degree of His sanctity. In Gen. iii. 24
the cherubim arc the guards of Paradise; Ezck. xxviii. 14, 16
cannot be mentioned here, the text being corrupt We also find
(1 Sam. iv. 4; a. Sam. vi. 2) as a divine title " that sitteth upon
the cherubim "; here it is doubted whether the cherubim are
the material ones in the temple, or those which faith assumes and
CHERUBINI
87
the artist tries to represent — the supernatural steeds upon which
Yahweh issues forth to interfere in human -affairs. In a poetic
thtophany (Ps. xviii. 10) we find " upon a cherub " parallel to
" upon the wings of the wind " (cp. Isa. xix. x ; Ps. civ. 3).
One naturally infers from this that the " cherub " was sometimes
viewed as a bird. For the clouds, mythologically, are birds.
" The AJgonkins say that birds always make the winds, that they
create the waterspouts, and that the clouds arc the spreading
and agitation of their wings." " The Sioux say that the thunder
is the sound of the cloud-bird flapping his wings." If so, Ps. xviii.
uisa solitary trace of the archaic view of the cherub. The
bird, however, was probably a mythic, extra-natural bird. At
any rate the cherub was suggested by and represents the storm-
cloud, just as the sword in Gen. iii. 24 corresponds to the lightning.
In Ezek. L the four visionary creatures are expressly connected
with a storm-wind, and a bright cloud (ver. 4). Elsewhere
(xli. 18) the cherub has two faces (a man's and a bird's), but
in i. 10 and x. 14 each cherub has four faces, a view tastefully
amplified in the Johannine Apocalypse (Rev. iv. 7).
It is best, however, to separate Ezckicl from other writers,
since he belongs to what may be called a great mythological
revival. Probably his cherubim arc a modification of older
ones, which may well have been of a more sober type. His own
accounts, as we have seen, vary. Probably the cherub has
passed through several phases. There was a mythic bird-cherub,
and then perhaps a winged animal-form, analogous to the winged
figures of bulls and lions with human faces which guarded
Babylonian and Assyrian temples and palaces. Another analogy
is furnished by the winged genii represented as fertilizing the
sacred tree — the date-palm (Tylor); here the body is human,
though the face is sometimes that of an eagle. It is perhaps even
more noteworthy that figures thought to be cherubs have been
found at ZcnjirU, within the ancient North Syrian kingdom of
Ya'di (see Jeremias, Das Allc Testament im Lickte des Alten
Orients, pp. 350 f.); wc may combine this with the fact that one
of the great gods of this kingdom was called Rakab'el or Rekub'el
(also perhaps Rakab or Rekub). A Sabacan (S. Arabian)
name Karab'cl also exists. The kcrubim might perhaps be
symbolic representatives of the god Rakab'el or Rekub'el,
probably equivalent to Hadad, whose sacred animal was the bull.
That the figures symbolic of Rakab or Hadad were compounded
or amalgamated by the Israelites with those symbolic of Nergal
(the lion-god) and Ninib (the eagle-god), is not surprising.
See further " Cherubim," in Ency. Bib. and Hast. D.B. ; Cheyne,
Genesis; Tylor. Proc. Soc Bibl. Arch. xii. 383 ff.; Zimmcrn, Die
Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, pp. 529 f., 631 f. ; Dibclius,
Die Lade Jakves (1906), pp. 72-86. (T. K. C.)
CHERUBINI, MARIA LUIQI CARLO ZENOBIO SALVATORE
(1760-184.O, Italian musical composer, was born at Florence
on the 14th of September 1760, and died on the 15th of March
1842 in Paris. His father was accompanist {Maestro al Cembalo)
at the Pergola* theatre. Chcrubini himself, in the preface of his
autograph catalogue of his own works, states, " I began to learn
music at six and composition at nine, the former from my father,
the latter from Bartolomeo and Alessandro Felici, and, after
their death, from Bizzarri and J Castrucci." By the time he
was sixteen he had composed a great deal of church music, and
in 1777 he went to Bologna, where for four years he studied under
Sard. This deservedly famous master well earned the gratitude
which afterwards impelled Chcrubini to place one of his double
choruses by the side of his own El Vilam Venturi as the crown
of his Treatise on Counterpoint and Fugue, though the juxta-
position is disastrous for Sarti. But besides grounding Chcrubini
in the church music for which he had early shown so special a
bent, Sarti also trained him in dramatic composition; some-
times, like the great masters of painting, entrusting his pupil
vith minor parts of his own works. From 1780 onwards for the
next fourteen years dramatic music occupied Chcrubini almost
entirely. His first complete opera, Quinto Fabio, was produced
in 1780, and was followed in 1782 by Arntida, Adriano in Siria,
and other works. Between 1782 and 1784 the successful pro-
duction of five operas in four different towns must have secured
Chcrubini a dignified position amongst his Italian contemporaries;
and in 1784 he was invited to London to produce two works for
the Italian opera there, one of which, La Finta Principessa, was
favourably received, while the other, Giulio Sabino, was, accord-
ing to a contemporary witness, "murdered " by the critics.
In 1786 he left London for Paris, which became his home after
a visit to Turin in 1787-1788 on the occasion of the production
there of his I fi tenia in Aulide. With Chcrubini, as with some
other composers first trained in a school where the singer reigned
supreme, the influence of the French dramatic sensibility proved
decisive, and his first French opera, Demopkon (1788), though
not a popular success, already marks a departure from the
Italian style, which Chcrubini still cultivated in the pieces he
introduced into the works of Anfossi, Paisiello and Cimarosa,
produced by him as director of the Italian opera in Paris (estab-
lished in 1789). As in Paris Cluck realized his highest ambitions,
and even Rossini awoke to a final effort of something like dra-
matic life in GuUlautne Tell, so in Paris Chcrubini became a
great composer. If his melodic invention had been as warm as
Gluck-'s, his immensely superior technique in every branch of
the art would have made him one of the greatest composers that
ever lived. But his personal character shows in quaint exaggera-
tion the same asceticism that in less sour and more negative
form deprives even his finest music of the glow of that lofty
inspiration that fears nothing.
With Lodoiska (1791) the series of Cberubini's masterpieces
begins, and by the production of Mtdle (1797) his reputation was
firmly established. The success of this sombre classical tragedy,
which shows Cherubim's genius in its full power, is an honour to
the Paris public If Cherubini had known how to combine his
high ideals with an urbane tolerance of the opinions of persons of
inferior taste, the severity of his music would not have prevented
his attaining the height of prosperity. But Napoleon Bonaparte
irritated him by an enthusiasm for the kind of Italian music
against which his whole career, from the time he became Sarti 's
pupil, was a protest. When Cherubini said to Napoleon, " Citoyen
General, I perceive that you love only that music which does not.
prevent you thinking of your politics," he may perhaps have been
as firmly convinced of his own conciliatory manner as he was
when many years afterwards he •" spared the feelings " of a
musical candidate by " delicately " telling him that he had " a
beautiful voice and great musical intelligence, but was too ugly for
a public singer." Napoleon seems to have disliked opposition in
music as in other matters, and the academic offices held by
Chcrubini under him were for many years far below his deserts.
But though Napoleon saw no reason to conceal his dislike of
Cherubini, his appointment of Lesucur in 1804 as his chapel-
master must not be taken as an evidence of his hostility. Lesucur
was not a great genius, but, although recommended for the post
by the retiring chapelmaster, Paesiello (one of Napoleon's
Italian favourites), he was a very meritorious and earnest
Frenchman whom the appointment saved from starvation.
Cberubini's creative genius was never more brilliant than at this
period, as the wonderful two-act ballet, Anacreon, shows; but
his temper and spirits were not improved by » series of dis-
appointments which culminated in the collapse of his prospects of
congenial success at Vienna, where he went in 1805 in compliance
with an invitation to compose an opera for the Imperial theatre.
Here he produced, under the title of Der WasscrtrUgcr, the great
work which, on its first production on the 7th of January 1801
(26 Nivdse, An 8) as Lcs Deux Journies, had thrilled Paris with the
accents of a humanity restored to health and peace. It was
by this time an established favourite in Austria. On the 25th
of February Cherubini produced Faniska, but the war between
Austria and France had broken out immediately after his
arrival, and public interest in artistic matters was checked by
the bombardment and capitulation of Vienna. Though the
meeting between Cherubini and the victorious Napoleon was
not very friendly, he was called upon to direct the music at
Napoleon's soirees at Schonbrunn. But this had not been his
object in coming to Vienna, and he soon returned to a retired
and gloomy life in Paris.
88
CHERUBINI
Hit stay at Vienna is memorable for his intercourse with
Beethoven, who had a profound admiration for him which he
could neither realize nor reciprocate. It is too much to expect
that the mighty genius of Beethoven, which broke through all
rules in vindication of the principles underlying them, would
be comprehensible to a mind like Cherubim's, in which, while
the creative faculties were finely developed, the critical faculty
was atrophied and its place supplied by a mere disciplinary
code inadequate even as a basis for the analysis of his own
works. On the other hand, it would be impossible to exaggerate
the influence La Deux Jo urn its had on the lighter parts of
Beethoven's Fidelity. Cherubini's librettist was also the author
of the libretto from which Fidclio was adapted, and Cherubini's
score was a constant object of Beethoven's study, not only
before the production of the first version of Fidelia as Leon ore,
but also throughout Beethoven's life. Cherubini's record of
his impressions of Beethoven as a man is contained in the
single phrase, " II Itait toujours brusque," which at least shows
a fine freedom from self-consciousness on the part of the man
whose only remark on being told of the death of Brod, the famous
oboist, was, " Ah, he hadn't much tone " (" Ah, petit son ").
Of the overture to Leonore Cherubini only remarked that he
could not tell what key it was in, and of Beethoven's later
style he observed, " It makes me sneeze." Beethoven's brusque-
ness, notorious as it was, did not prevent him from assuring
Cherubini that he considered him the greatest composer of the
age and that he loved him and honoured him. In 1806 Haydn
had just sent out his pathetic " visiting card " announcing that
he was past work; Weber was still sowing wild oats, and Schubert
was only nine years old. We need not, then, be surprised at
Beethoven's judgment. And though we must regret that
Cherubini's disposition prevented him from understanding
Beethoven, it would be by no means true to say that he was
uninfluenced at least by Ae sheer grandeur of the scale which
Beethoven had by that time established as the permanent
standard for musical art. Grandeur of proportion was, in fact,
eminently characteristic of both composers, and the colossal
structure of such a movement as the duet Ferfides ennemis in
M idee is almost inconceivable without the example of Beethoven's
C minor trio, op. 1, No. 3, published two years before it; while
the cavatina Eierno iddio in Faniska is not only worthy of
Beethoven but surprisingly like him in style.
After Cherubini's disappointing visit to Vienna he divided
his time between teaching at the conservatoire and cutting up
playing-cards into figures and landscapes, which he framed and
placed round the walls of his study. Not until 1809 was he
aroused from this morbid indolence. He was staying in retire-
ment at the country seat of the prince de Chimay, and his
friends begged him to write some music for the consecration of
a church there. After persistent refusals he suddenly surprised
them with a mass in F for three-part chorus and orchestra.
With this work the period of his great church music may be said
to begin; although it was by no means the end of his career
as an opera writer, which, in fact, lasted as late as his seventy-
third year. This third period is also marked by some not un-
important instrumental compositions. An early event in the
annals of the Philharmonic Society was his invitation to London
in 1815 to produce a symphony, an overture and a vocal piece.
The symphony (in D) was afterwards arranged with a new slow
movement as the string quartet in C (1829), a fact which, taken
in connexion with the large scale of the work, illustrates Cheru-
bini's deficient sense of style in chamber music. Nevertheless all
the six string quartets written between 1814 and 1837 are
interesting works performed with success at the present day,
though the last three, discovered in 1889, are less satisfactory
than the earlier ones. The requiem in C minor (18 17) caused
Beethoven to declare that if he himself ever wrote a requiem
Cherubini's would be his model.
At the eleventh hour Cherubini received recognition from
Napoleon, who, during the Hundred Days, made him chevalier of
the Legion of Honour. Then, with the restoration of the Bour-
baas, the very fact that Cherubini had not been persona grata
with Napoleon brought him honour and emoluments. He
was appointed, jointly with Lesucur, as composer and conductor
1 to the Chapel Royal, and in 1822 he obtained the permanent
directorship of the conservatoire. This brought him into con-
tact, for the most part unfriendly, with all the most talented
musicians of the younger generation. It is improbable that
Berlioz would have been an easy subject for the wisest and
kindest of spiritual guides; but no influence, repellent or
attractive, could have been more disastrous for that passionate,
quick-witted and yet eminently puzzle-headed mixture of
Philistine and genius, than the crabbed old martinet whose
regulations forbade the students access to Cluck's scores in the
library, and whose only theory of art (as distinguished from his
practice) is accurately formulated in the following passage from
Berlioz's Grande TraiU de ^instrumentation et d' orchestration:
" It was no use for the modern composer to say, ' But do just
listen I See how smoothly this is introduced, how well motived,
how deftly connected with the context, and how splendid it
sounds 1' He was answered, 'That is not the point. This
modulation is forbidden; therefore it must not' be made.'"
The lack of really educative teaching, and the actual injustice
for which Cherubini's disciplinary methods were answerable,
did much to weaken Berlioz's at best ill-balanced artistic sense,
and it is highly probable that, but for the kindliness and com-
parative wisdom of his composition master, Lesueur, he would
have broken down from sheer lack of any influence which could
command the respect of an excitable youth starving in the
pursuit of a fine art against the violent opposition of his family.
Only when Mendelssohn, at the age of seventeen, visited Paris
in 182$, did Cherubini startle every one by praising a young
composer to his face.
In 1833 Cherubini produced his last work for the stage, AH
Baba, adapted (with new and noisy features which excited
Mendelssohn's astonished disgust) from a manuscript opera,
Koukourgi, written forty years earlier. It is thus, perhaps, not
a fair illustration of the vigour of his old age; but the requiem
in D minor (for male voices), written in 1836, is one of his greatest
works, and, though not actually his last composition, is a worthy
close to the long career of an artist of high ideals who, while
neither by birth nor temperament a Frenchman, must yet be
counted with a still greater foreigner, Gluck, as the glory of
French classical music. In this he has no parallel except his
friend and contemporary, Mehul, to whom he dedicated Midte,
and who dedicated to him the beautiful Ossiank one-act opera
Uthal. The direct results of his teaching at the conservatoire
were the steady, though not as yet unhealthy, decline of French
opera into a lighter style, under the amiable and modest Boieldieu
and the irresponsible and witty Auber; for, as we have seen,
Cherubini was quite incapable of making his ideals intelligible
by any means more personal than his musk; and the crude
grammatical rules which he mistook for the eternal principles
of his own and of all music had not the smallest use as a safeguard
against vulgarity and pretentiousness.
Lest the passage above quoted from Berlioz should be suspected
of bias or irrelevance, we cite a few phrases from Cherubini's
Treatise on Counterpoint and Fugue, of which, though the letter-
press is by his favourite pupil, Halevy, the musical examples
and doctrine are beyond suspicion his own. Concerning the
16th-century idiom, incorrectly but generally known as the
" changing note " (an idiom which to any musical scholar is as
natural as " attraction of the relative " is to a Greek scholar),
Cherubini remarks, " No tradition gives us any reason why the
classics thus faultily deviated from the rule." Again, he dis-
cusses the use of " suspensions " in a series of chords which
without them would contain consecutive fifths, and after making
all the observations necessary for the rational conclusion that
the question whether the fifths are successfully disguised or not
depends upon the beauty and force of the suspensions, he merely
remarks that " The opinion of the classics appears to me
erroneous, notwithstanding that custom has sanctioned it, for,
on the principle that the discord is a mere suspension of the
chord, it should not affect the nature of the chord. But since
CHERUEU-CHESHIRE
89
the classics have pronounced judgment we must of course
submit." In the whole treatise not one example is given from
Palest rina or any other master who handled as a living language
what are now the forms of contrapuntal discipline. As a dead
language Cherubini brought counterpoint up to date by abandon-
ing the church modes; but in true severity of principle, as
in educational stimulus, his treatise shows a deplorable falling
off from the standard set a hundred years before in Fux's Gradus
at Parnassian with its delightful dialogues between master and
pupO and its continual appeal to artistic experience. Whatever
may have been Cherubim's success in imparting facility and
certainty to his light-hearted pupils who established 19th-century
French opera as a refuge from the terrors of serious art, there
can be no doubt that his career as a teacher did more harm than
good. In it the punishment drill of an incompetent schoolmaster
was invested with the authority of a great composer, and by it
the false antithesis between the " classical " and the " romantic "
was erected into a barrier which many critics still find an insuper-
able obstacle to the understanding of the classical spirit. And
yet as a composer Cherubini was no pseudo-classic but a really
great artist, whose purity of style, except at rare moments, just
failed to express the ideals he never lost sight of, because in his
bve of those ideals there was too much fear.
His principal works are summarized by Fetis as thirty-two operas,
twenty-nine church compositions, four cantatasand several instru-
mental pieces, besides the treatise on counterpoint and fugue.
Good modern full scores of the two Requiems and of Les Deux
Jaurnees (the latter unfortunately without the dialogue, which,
h o wev e r, is accessible in its fairly good German translation in the
fUdam Bibtiotiuk), and also of ten opera overtures, are current in
the Peters edition. Vocal scores of some of the other operas are not
difficult to get. The great Credo is in the Peters edition, but is
becoming scarce. The string quartets are in Payne's Miniature
Scores, It b very desirable that the operas, from Demophon onwards,
should be republished in full score.
See also E. Bellasis, Cherubini (1874) '• and an article with personal
reminiscences by the composer Ferdinand Hiller, in MacmiUans
Magawine (1875). A complete catalogue of his compositions (1773"
1841) was edited by Bottee du Toulmon. (O. F. T.)
CHERUEL, PIERRE ADOLPHE (1800-1891), French historian,
was born at Rouen on the 17th of January 1809. He was
educated at the Ecole Normale Superieure, and became a fellow
{agrirt) in 1830. His early studies were devoted to his native
town. His Histoire de Rouen sous la domination anglaise au
XV' siecle (1840) And. Histoire de Rouen pendant Vtpoque com-
munalc, 1150-1382 (Rouen, 1843-1844), are meritorious pro-
ductions for a time when the archives were neither inventoried
nor classified, and contain useful documents previously un-
published- His theses for the degree of doctor, Dc l' adminis-
tration da Louis XIV d'apres les Mimoires intdiis d' Olivier
fOrmesson and De Maria Sluarta et Henrico III. (1849), led
him to the study of general history. The former was expanded
afterwards under the title His&ire de I' administration monarchique
em France depuis I'avenemenl de Philippe- Augusta jusqu'd la
mart de Louis XIV (1855), and in 1855 he also published his
Dkiionnaire /nstorique des institutions, nuzurs et eoutumes de
la France, of which many editions have appeared. These works
may still be consulted for the 17th century, the period upon
which Cheruel concentrated all his scientific activity. He edited
successively the Journal d'Oiitier Lefetre d'Ormesson ( 1860-1862) ,
interesting for the history of the parlement of Paris during the
minority of Louis XIV.; Lettres du cardinal Mazarin pendant
son ministere (6 vols., 1870-1891), continued by the vicomte
G. d'Aveuel; and Mimoires du due de Saint-Simon, published
for the first time according to the original MSS. (2 editions,
1856-1858 and 1878-1881). To Saint-Simon also he devoted
two critical studies, which are acute but not definitive: Saint-
Simon consider t comma kislorien de Louis XIV (1865) and
Notice sur latieetsur les mimoires du due de Saint-Simon ( 1876).
The latter may be considered as an introduction to the famous
Mimoires, Among his later writings may be mentioned the
Histoire de la France pendant la minoriti de Louis XI V (4 vols.,
1880) and Histoire de la Prance sous le ministere de Matarin
(3 vols., 1883-1883). These two works are valuable for abund-
ance of facts, precision of details, and dear and intelligent
arrangement, but are characterized by a slightly frigid style.
In their compilation Cheruel used a fair number of unpublished
documents. To the student of the second half of the 1 7th century
in France the works of Cheruel are a mine of information. He
died in Paris on the 1st of May 1891.
CHERUSCI, an ancient German tribe occupying the basin
of the Weser to the north of the Chatti. Together with the
other tribes of western Germany they submitted to the Romans
in 1 1-9 b.c, but in aj>. 9 Arminius, one of their princes, rose in
revolt, and defeated and slew the Roman general Quintilius
Varus with his whole army. Gcrmanicus Caesar made several
unsuccessful attempts to bring them into subjection again. By
the end of the 1st century the prestige of the Cherusci had
declined through unsuccessful warfare with the Chatti. Their
territory was eventually occupied by the Saxons.
Tacitus, Annals, I 2, n, 12, 13; Cermania, 36; Strabo, p. 291 f.;
E. Devrient, in Neue Jahrb.f. a\ Mass. Alter. (1900), p. 517.
CHESELDEN, WILLIAM (1688-1752), English surgeon, was
born at Somerby, Leicestershire, on the 19th of October 1688.
He studied anatomy in London under William Cowper (1666-
1709), and in 17 13 published his Anatomy of the Human Body,
which achieved great popularity and went through thirteen
editions. In 17 18 he was appointed an assistant surgeon at
St Thomas's hospital (London), becoming full surgeon in the
following year, and he was also chosen one of the surgeons to
St George's hospital on its foundation in 1733. He retired from
St Thomas's in 1738, and died at Bath on the 10th of April
1752. Chcsclden is famous for his " lateral operation for the
stone," which he first performed in 1727. He also effected a
great advance in ophthalmic surgery by his operation of iridec-
tomy, described in 1728, for the treatment of certain forms of
blindness by the production of an " artificial pupil." He at-
tended Sir Isaac Newton in his last illness, and was an intimate
friend of Alexander Pope and of Sir Hans Sloane.
CHESHAM, a market town in the Aylesbury parliamentary
division of Buckinghamshire, England, 26 m. W.N.W. of London
by the Metropolitan railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
7245. It is pleasantly situated in the narrow valley of the river
Chess, closely flanked by low wooded hills. The church of St
Mary is cruciform and mainly Perpendicular. Some ancient
frescoes and numerous monuments are preserved. All sorts of
small dairy utensils, chairs, malt-shovels, &c, are made of
beech, the growth of which forms a feature of the surrounding
country. Shoemaking is also carried on. In Waterside hamlet,
adjoining the town, are flour-mills, duck farms, and some of the
extensive watercress beds for which the Chess is noted, as it is
also for its trout-fishing.
CHESHIRE, a north-western county of England, bounded N.
by Lancashire, N.E. by Yorkshire and Derbyshire, S.E. by
Staffordshire, S. by Shropshire, W. by Denbighshire and Flint,
and N.W. by the Irish Sea. Its area is 1027*8 sq. m. The
coast-line is formed by the estuaries of the Dee and the Mersey,
which are separated by the low rectangular peninsula of WirraL
The estuary of the Dee is dry at low tide on the Cheshire shore,
but that of the Mersey bears upon its banks the ports of Liverpool
(in Lancashire) and Birkenhead (on the Wirral shore). The
Dee forms a great part of the county boundary with Denbigh*
shire and Flint, and the Mersey the boundary along the whole
of the northern side. The principal river within the county is
the Weaver, which crosses it with a north-westerly course, and,
being joined by the Dane at Northwich, discharges into the
estuary of the Mersey south of Runcorn. The surface of Cheshire
is mostly low and gently undulating or flat; but the broken
line of the Peckforton hills, seldom exceeding 600 ft. in height,
runs north and south flanking the valley of the Weaver on the
west. A low narrow gap in these hills is traversed by the small
river Gowy, which rises to the cast but has the greater part of
its course to the west of them. Commanding this gap on the
west, the Norman castle of Beeston stands on an isolated
eminence. The northern part of the hills coincides approxi-
mately with the district still called Delamere Forest, formerly
a chase of the earls of Chester, and finally disXrasMAAw v%\*»
9 o
CHESHIRE
In certain sequestered parts the forest has not wholly lost its
anrirnt character. On the east Cheshire includes the western
fare of the broad belt of high land which embraces the Peak
dfatrict of Derbyshire; these hills rise sharply to the east of
Cough'ton, Macclesfield and Hyde, reaching a height of about
i Moo ft. within Cheshire. Distributed over the county, but
principally in the eastern half, are many small lakes or meres,
such as Comtarmcrc, Tat ton, Rosthcrne, Tabley, Doddington,
Marlmry and Merc, and it was a common practice among the
gentry of the county to build their mansions on the banks of
these waters. The meres form one of the most picturesque
features of the county.
Cfuloty. — Wilh the exception of a small area of Carboniferous
nicks tin the cittern bonier, and a small patch of Lower Lias near
Audlcm, the whole country is occupii-d by Triaxsie strata. The
great central pl.iin is covered by red ami mottled Kcuper Marls.
From the«e marl* salt is obtained; there are many beds of rock-
*.»!(, mostly thin; two are much thicker than the others, being from
75 ft. to over too ft. thick. Thin bed* and veins of gypsum are
common in the marls. The striking features of the Pec kf or ton Hills
are due to the repeated faulting of the Lower Keupcr Sandstone,
which lies n^m bed* of Hunter Sandstone. Besides forming this
* ell -marked ridec. the Lower Kcuper Sandstones or " Waterstones "
form srvcr.il ridges north-west of Macclesfield and appear alone
iih»*t of the northern borders of the county and inthe neighbourhood
of New Brighton and Birkenhead. The Lower Kcuper Sandstone is
<|u.uricd near the last-named place, also at Storeton, Delamere and
Ma nicy. This i* a good building stone and an important water-
bearing stratum: it is often ripple- marked, ami bears the footprints
of the Ckfirtfhrrimm. At Aklerley Edge ores of copper, lead and
coUilt are found. West of the lYckforton ridge, Buntcr Sandstones
ami ix'bhlc bed* extend to the border. They also form low foothills
between Cheudlc ami Macclesfield. They fringe the northern bound-
ary and appear on the south-eastern boundary as a narrow strip
of hilly ground near YYoorc. The oklest rock exposed in the county
is the small faulted anticline of Carboniferous limestone at Aslbury
followed in regular succession eastward by
limestone* and sandstones of the Pcndle*ide
the shale, and thin
de series. These rocks
extend from Congleton Kdge to near Macclesfield, where the outcrop
hrnd* »W|>U i.^ivk.mi ami runs up the Goyt valley. Some h.inl
quarttitr* in the fWdWule series, known kxallv a* " Crowstones,"
hat* contributed to the formation of the high Boslcv M in and neigh-
bouring h*U*- I Jif of Uotlcy Min, on either side of the Goyt valley,
ate the MilUftw Cirfts ami Shales, forming the elevated moorland
tntitt Cloud 1 HitL a striking feature near Congleton, is capped by
the " TfcW Grit," on* of the Millstone Grit aeries. From Maccles-
4eU noftfewanl ihfwigh Stockport is a narrow tongue of Lower and
Middle Co*rMe**<i(v^-ai\ extension of the Lancashire coalfield.
Coal i* mined if Ne*ton »n the Wirral perdiiMila from N'm-ath the
Triat; it is a ewirwrrina link between the Lancashire and Flintshire
coaMeUs. Glacial dfifi i» ihicklv thread over all the lower ground:
Uni<tuted red Hjytv *a**l clav with nonhern erratics ami lenticular
sand iv.isv* with o»va>i.'nal giaxeU, are the common tvpes. At
I'rewe tSe Jmi i» oxer jax» It. thick Patches of IVilt Kind, with
ru-.^i' nS-'!* aviii on the high giotind east of Macvlcsrteld at an
tl.'Uli.':! oi i.*xo it.
»f:«
ta:
.".*••• .»:,:* JxfVoj.-* --The ttimate is temperate and
■«p; tin* soil »> xat.cd ar.d ii regular, but a large prxv-
po-.v."-* ;n a tV.:v. ^kr.isv.! «la\ Move than four fifths of the total
a:vi .> -.."t-c; e*.;'.:ixa: on I'hc nop of wheat i* eomparalixely
:r<-g" : ,wt . but a Luge tpiantitx ol oats i< grown, and a Rrc.H
pre-v.v.ci el tVe * i.''.i> ated land i* in pcini.uicnt pasture. VJie
x v "..w o: >::.-b jvp. :■.".> » entic* a> 1 >xci|svl and Manchester. ,i>
»c« a> tV s:\c:al \Mft to««» wnhm the countv, n % ake« *att!c
a-, 1 , c.vrx tarn*. '.-a: p^v.-Mr t>cc»v of excellent o.uaIh> i>
p-.v\ved. sbe n«rw c: t v .e count x being gixen to a pattuul.u
c-a-v. ..see PwsV IVtatev* a:v bx tat the moM ini|v;t.:tu
g~.*.~. c-v : » Y'.:.". grow::*^ ■.< tamed on m xome pi*!*, evjv* i.ilU
:\c ...': »a p . o™. e »:o-e \:\ i ar.d j-».v.c ;*•«■*** .I.wivm-.*. while
:v •..,-i»N:-x \\ ; > -ear l"aitt. , .» v t a'ld lL-'.t .vs. ^Ut'iaicxl In
: v .* r.-s: v jl". o ; '.'•c :c?V. *xv*:«i\ tV tw..! , ,m e: agtiii.'sve
• C v .-s.*. -e »rt • .* v. v :.■».' > Nu- V w at x : . . a **.d . ■! 1 S .x x i S .s*« t Sc
•v. -:» >. *.--.- : » ■. * r^xv \\ *cxv.;:\ isv.'* ax* , ..i , .n»", ot \.\t:\t
. .*v> o" *-'."■. V a~v..""i»\l to '/.s*^" :*"a • , V . N ,\\»
^ .^ • » : .* .-*■ :a- -i :• e—. i V,- i s ,v **■.■.'. x a '..\.\ .-. »»
'■-■J .- a^ . ■ * jn
; --o .xv c- : v c *.-
-. . .' ■ ." .-.■"■ .V "vt
W. *.-.V X v.* . v *
g\XX- -.•».. .,n- u ;X.
*\".'Sx> ■.*,%■ .Nv.v
■■.;x
P"«
..- <v a \ i..
The industries of the county are various and impa
manufacture of cotton goods extends from its seat ir
into Cheshire, at the town of Stockport and else*
north -cast. Macclesfield and Congleton are cen
manufacture. At Crewe are situated the great work
London & North -Western railway company, the iz
which actually brought the town into being. Anotbe;
the modern creation of a town by an individual
corporation is seen in Port Sunlight on the Mency
soap-works of Messrs Lever are situated. On the li
are shipbuilding yards, and machinery and iron wc
important manufactures are those of tools, chemic
and hats, and there are printing, bleaching and dye
metal foundries. Much sandstone is quarried, but
wealth of the county lies in coal and salt. The
specially important product. Some rock-salt is i
Northwich and Winsford, but most of the salt is ext
brine both here and at Lawton, Wheclock and Midd
Northwich and other places in the locality curio?
frequently occur owing to the sinking of the soil after
pumped out; walls crack and collapse, and nous
leaning far out of the perpendicular. A little copp
are found.
Communications. — The county is well served wil
The main line of the London & North-Wcstcrn raflw
north from Crewe to Warrington in Lancashire, sen
town, but from Crewe branches diverge fan wise to 1
Chester, North Wales and Shrewsbury. The Ck
railway, wilh a line coming northward from Wrcxha
access through Cheshire to Liverpool and Manchester,
companies jointly work the Birkenhead railway fr
to Birkenhead. The heart of the county is travel
Cheshire Lines, serving the salt district, and reach
from Manchester by way of Delamere Forest. In i
Midi a mi and Great Central systems enter the coun
North Staffordshire line serves Macclesfield. The 3
South Junction & Altrincham and the Wirral railwaj
systems serving the localities indicated by their ni
river Weaver is locked as far up as Winsford. and the I
salt is thus expedited. The profits of the navigation
originally undertaken in i ; :o by a few Cheshire squi
to the county, and are paid annually to the relief of
tates. In the salt dUtrict through which the Wea
subsidence of the land has resulted in the formation
considerable extent, which act as reservoirs to
na\ ig.it ion. There arc further means of inland navigj
Grand Trunk, Shropshire I'r.ion and other canals,
small steamers are in use. The Manchester Ship C
through a section ei r.o::h Cheshire, being entered
estuary of the Mersey by leek* r.Ar East ham, and I
southern shore up to Rur.corn. aster which it takes a \
course than the river
/V.riu'.Ti.vT ,:«:J J ./■*." ■.:;>.: .:'.«:.— The ancient count
a countv palat :ne. has -n area o: o ; - .-> : acres, with a
tn i So i \>i ;^o.OnS a::d in i.v; o: Si 5. coo. Chesbit
deM'i sbed a> a suburb or l.\ iTjw'.. Manchester and tl
ot St.ifl.«ix!Nb.w. and ir.a:i\ o: ; s :o*e whese business!
centres h.wc *o*.*rs.:ed >v.»h »:s;r : .c:» .*.s Mowdon, Ak
and Ma:pV re.it V..-.:^S*!er. :V W.rral. and Alsi
MaA««td>>9fe !v..\r «■ :.i :>.c« I...;'.::^s have come
Iheiuhei >.-Vus!xa::» , -»:::.-iso-. I cn.io-:. Or. the short
the Win. 11 ate 10.: -.d i>.e rvv_\;r :.»s::ts o: New Bi
II ox ' a kc V > is it'.ev c rr. » ■-.: :. :.,' : w. _■> - : : .: :\ce c fits indi
S\.-a the »v.:r:v a x •>: •«:• .•:»■**? o: ;>■.•.■*.-,: .en in mo
li iS'i tSc jsv-Ia :..»■-. « .- »."-...*c:. rc.r. :>c: until
' id \ .: , i v -. »e»; 1 o i "' , 1 ** e . . ! v .1 f : > c i .: r* :-.: .-; rativ
» % . 1 .< ■ x a, : v* The " ,; ' x - v * ■ ■* " ~ v.r. clrcis Th
■'o- .* , .^>* .i 1 v I* . ■ "x .■ -. V . . ■ . . v ^ ; . c ; \ z . Chestei
vo-vVu-^.o-e x ^-». ,.•-. ?;A-.:^:8.i
.«• -.v» M^x'-c*:.-'-- ■••.' x S..M-. ."jk .:-*7jjV
»vh»»vX K*xM«^ •••i li-Ae«Vxad *:..! Suvkp,>ri a
CHESHIRE
9"
boroughs. The other urban districts with their populations are
as follows- —
'(*)*
Aldrrky Edge (a)
Aiwjer
Ahnncham {a)
Ash t on-ii pon- Mem
BoUingtH) (a)
Bowdoa {») «
Bradbury and Romiky (a),
Broiubarough (fl) ,
Bitclawton (Cortgtrton V
QieadJe and Gailcv (a) .
CocrtpitalWa) • ..'*.
Ellesmer* Port and Whitby (ft)
Hak la)
Handforth W . ,
Hazel Cmve and BramhalJ (b)
HiaHcf BcbJngtoJi (ft)
HoUinrikQftli ',-; i . * .
HooUlChcitcr) „ - .
J -597
2jS«
7,087
7.9 ^
4,5^
9"
7<934
1.54'
*-447
3441
1 loyhkc and West Kirby (*)
Knutsford 1 ll/
Lower Bubinjjton (ft) ,,
Lymm (a) . , #
ManiH (a) , „ , 4
Middlemen
Mottram-in^LonpJcndalc [p)
S.W.lWi: k ....
Ncarcn and ParkBate {ft)
North with .
Kuncom m • ^ *
Sak OT « * « «
Sjndbich . , « .
Tarporky „
Wafbscy (ft) . * ■
Witmhluw (tf) * «
Win staid ...
Ycardsky-cutn- Whale y (a)
10,911
SJ7J
&&B
4-7^7
5.595
4-«9
7i7«
4.154
17*6*1
^49*
U p oBH
? S5S
a.&44
53-579
7.3&*
10,382
J-487
Of the townships in this tabic, those marked (a) are within a radius
of about 15 m. from Manchester (Knutsford bcinR taken as the
limit), while those marked (ft) are in the Wirral. The localities of
densest population .are thus clearly illustrated.
The county is In the North Wales and Chester circuit, and
assizes are held at Chester. It has one court of quarter sessions,
and is divided into fourteen petty sessional divisions. The
boroughs already named, excepting Duk infield, have separate
commissions of the peace, and Birkenhead and Chester have
separate courts of quarter sessions. There are 464 civil parishes.
Cheshire is almost wholly in the diocese of Chester, but small
parts are in those of Manchester, St Asaph or Lichfield. There
are 26S ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part
within the county. There are eight parliamentary divisions,
namely, Macclesfield, Crewe, Eddisbury, Wirral, Knutsford,
Altrincham, Hyde and North wich, each returning one member;
the county also includes the parliamentary borough of Birkenhead
returning one member, and parts of the borough of Stockport,
which returns two members, and of Ashton-under-Lync, Chester,
Staly bridge, and Warrington, which return one member
each.
History — The earliest recorded historical fact relating to the
district which is now Cheshire is the capture of Chester and
destruction of the native Britons by the Northumbrian king
iEthelfrith about 614. After a period of incessant strife between
the Britons and their Saxon invaders the district was subjugated
by Ecgbert in 830 and incorporated in the kingdom of Mercia.
During the oth century /Ethelwulf held his parliament at Chester,
and received the homage of his tributary kings from Berwick to
Kent, and in the 10th century jElhclflsrd rebuilt the city, and
erected fortresses at Eddisbury and Runcorn. Edward the
Elder garrisoned Thelwall and strengthened the passages of the
Mersey and the Irwell. On the splitting up of Mercia in the
roth century the dependent districts along the Dee were made a
shire for the fortress of Chester. The shire is first mentioned in
the Abingdon Chronicle, which relates that in 980 Cheshire was
plundered by a fleet of Northmen. At the time of the Domesday
Survey the county was divided into twelve hundreds, exclusive
of the six hundreds between the Ribble and the Mersey, now
included in Lancashire, but then a part of Cheshire. These
divisions have suffered great modification, both in extent and
in name, and of the seven modern hundreds Bucklow alone
retains its Domesday appellation. The hundreds of Atiscross
and Exestan have been transferred to the counties of Flint and
Denbigh, with the exception of a few townships now in the
hundred of Broxton. The prolonged resistance of Cheshire to
the Conqueror was punished by ruthless harrying and sweeping
confiscations of property, and no Englishman retained estates
of importance after the Conquest. In order that the shire
might be relieved of all obligations beyond the ever-pressing
necessity of defending its borders against the inroads of hostile
neighbours, it was constituted a county palatine which the earl
of Chester " held as freely by his sword as the king held England
by his crown." The county had its independent parliament
I consisting of the barons and clergy, and courts, and all lands
I except those of the bishop were held of the earl. The court of
exchequer was presided over by a chamberlain, a
vice-chamberlain, and a baron of the exchequer.
It was principally a court of revenue, but prob-
ably a court of justice also, before that of the
justiciary was established, and had besides the
functions of a chancery court, with an exclusive
jurisdiction in equity. Other officers of the
palatinate were the constable, high-steward and
the Serjeants of the peace and of the forests.
The abbots of St Wcrburgh and Combermere
and all the eight barons held courts, in any of
which cases of capital felony might be tried.
During the 12th and 13th centuries the county
was impoverished by the constant inroads of the
Welsh. In 1264 the castle and city of Chester
were granted to Simon de Mont fort, and in 1267
the treaty of Shrewsbury procured a short interval of peace.
Richard II., in return for the loyal support furnished him by
the county, made it a principality, but the act was revoked in
the next reign. In 1403 Cheshire was the headquarters of
Hotspur, who roused the people by telling them that Richard
II. was still living. At the beginning of the Wars of the Roses
Margaret collected a body of supporters from among the Cheshire
gentry, and Lancastrian risings occurred as late as 1464. At
the time of the Civil War feeling was so equally divided that
an attempt was made to form an association for preserving
internal peace. In 1643, however, Chester was made the head*
quarters of the royalist forces, while Nantwich was garrisoned
for the parliament, and the county became the scene of con-
stant skirmishes until the surrender of Chester in 1646 put an
end to the struggle.
From the number of great families with which it has been
associated Chester has been named " the mother and nurse of
English gentility." Of the eight baronies of the earldom none
survives, but the title of that of Kinder ton was bestowed in 176s
on George Venables- Vernon, son of Anne, sister of Peter Venables,
last baron of Kinderton, from whom the present Lord Vernon
of Kinderton is descended. Other great Domesday proprietors
were William FitzNigcl, baron of Hal ton, ancestor of the Lacys;
Hugh dc Mara, baron of Mont alt, ancestor of the Ardens;
Ranulph, ancestor of the Mainwarings; and Hamo de Mastey.
The Davenports, Leighs and Warburtons trace their descent
back to the 12th century, and the Grosvcnors are descended
from a nephew of Hugh Lupus.
In the reign of Henry VIII. the distinctive privileges of
Cheshire as a county palatine were considerably abridged. The
right of sanctuary attached to the city of Chester was abolished;
justices of the peace were appointed as in other parts of the
kingdom, and in 1542 it was enacted that in future two knights
for the shire and two burgesses for the city of Chester should be
returned to parliament. After the Reform Act of 1832 the
county returned four members from two divisions, and Maccles-
field and Stockport returned two members each. Birkenhead
secured representation in 1859. From 1868 until the Redistribu-
tion Act of 1885 the county returned six members from three
divisions.
From earliest times the staple products of Cheshire have been
salt and cheese. The salt-pits of Nantwich, Middlewich and
Northwich were in active operation at the time of Edward the
Confessor, and at that date the mills and fisheries on the Dee
also furnished a valuable source of revenue. Twelfth century
writers refer to the excellence of Cheshire cheese, and at the
time of the Civil War three hundred tons at £33 per ton were
ordered in one year for the troops in Scotland. The trades of
tanners, skinners and glove-makers existed at the time of
the Conquest, and the export trade in wool in the 13th and
14th centuries was considerable. The first bed of rock-salt
was discovered in 1670. Weaving and wool-combing were
introduced in 1674.
Antiquities. — The main interest in the architecture of the
9 2
CHESHUNT— CHESNEY, C. C.
county lies in the direction of domestic buildings rather than
ecclesiastical. Old half-timbered houses are common in almost
every part of the county; many of these add to the picturesque-
ness of the streets in the older towns, as in the case of the famous
Rows in Chester, while in the country many ancient manor-
houses remain as farm-houses. Among the finest examples
are Bramhall Hall, between Stockport and Macclesfield, and
Moreton Old Hall, near Congleton (see House, Plate IV., fig. 13).
The first, occupying three sides of a quadrangle (formerly
completed by a fourth side), dates from the 13th and 14th
centuries, and contains a splendid panelled hall and other rooms.
Of Moreton Hall, which is moated, only three sides similarly
remain; its date is of the 16th century. Other buildings of the
Elizabethan period are not infrequent, such as Brercton and
Dorfold Halls, while more modern mansions, set in fine estates,
are numerous. Crewe Hall is a modern building on an ancient
site, and Vale Royal near Winsford incorporates fragments of a
Cistercian monastery founded in 1277. A noteworthy instance
of the half-timbered style applied to an ecclesiastical building
is found in the church of Lower Peovcr near Knutsford, of which
only the tower is of stone. The church dates from the 13 th
century, and was carefully restored in 1852. Cheshire has no
monastic remains of importance, save those attached to the
cathedral of Chester, nor are its village churches as a rule of
special interest. There is, however, a fine late Perpendicular
church (with earlier portions) at Astbury near Congleton, and
of this style and the Decorated the churches of Bunbury and
Malpas may be noticed as good illustrations. In Chester, besides
the cathedral, there is the massive Norman church of St John;
and St Michael's church and the Rivers chapel at Macclesfield
are noteworthy. No more remarkable religious monuments
remain in the county than the two sculptured Saxon crosses in
the market-place at Sandbach. Ruins of two Norman castles
exist in Beeston and Halton.
Authorities. — Sir John Doddridge, History of the Ancient and
Modern Siiiti of the Principality of Wales, Duchy of Cornwall, and
Earldom of Chester (London, 1630; 2nd ed., 17*4); D. King, The
VoJe-Royalt of England, or ihc County Palatine of Cheshire Illustrated,
4 part 4 (London, 1056) ; L> and S. Lysons, Magna Britannia, vol. ii.
pt. ti. (London. 1810J ; J. H- llanshafi, History of the County Palatine
fit Chester (Chester, 1S1 7-1823); J. O. Ha Hi well. Palatine Anthology
[LoodoDi itt,£oj; G. QrcneriM, History of the County Palatine and
Ctty of Clutter (London, 1&19; new ed., London. 1875-1882);
J. P. E&rwaktr, Eait Cheshire (a vols., London, 1877); R. Wilbraham,
denary (London, i-.-^ r jnd cd., London, 1826); and Glossary
founded an tyilfrraham by E, Leigh (London, 1877); J. Croston.
Hiiicrir Si in oj Cheshire (Manchester, 1883) ; and County Families of
Chfihtrt (Manchester, tMj); W. E. A. Axon, Cheshire Cleanings
(Manchester, 1884) ; Holland, Glossary of Words used in the County
of Cheshire (London, 1884-1886); N. G. Philips, Views of Old Halls
tn Cheshire (London, 1893) ; Victoria County History, Cheshire.
See also various volumes of the Chetham Society and of the Record
Society of Manchester, as well as the Proceedings of the Cheshire
Antiquarian Society, and Cheshire Notes and Queries.
CHESHUNT, an urban district in the Hertford parliamentary
division of Hertfordshire, England, on the Lea, 14 m. N. of
London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1891) 9620;
(1001) 12,292. The church of St Mary is Perpendicular and
has been enlarged in modern times. A college was founded,
for the education of young men to the ministry of the Connexion,
by Selina countess of Huntingdon in 1768 at Trcvccca-isaf near
Talgarth, Brecknockshire. In 1792 it was moved to Cheshunt,
and became known as Cheshunt College. In 1904, as it was
felt that the college was unable properly to carry on its work
under existing conditions, it was proposed to amalgamate it
with Hackney College, but the Board of Education refused to
sanction any arrangement which would set aside the require-
ments of the deed of foundation, namely that the officers, and
students of Cheshunt College should subscribe the fifteen articles
appended to the deed, and should take certain other obligations.
In 1905 it was decided by the board to reorganize the college
and remove it to Cambridge.
Nursery and market gardening, largely under glass, brick-
making and saw-mills are the chief industries of Qhcshunt.
Roman coins and other remains have been found at this place,
mod MnumappcAn built into the wall of an inn. A Romano-
British village or small town is indicated. There was a Bene-
dictine nunnery here in the 13th century. Of several interestinf
mansions in the vicinity one, the Great House, belonged t<
Cardinal VVolsey, and a former Pcngelly House was the residenci
of Richard Cromwell the Protector after his resignation. Theo
balds Park was built in the 18th century, but the origina
mansion was acquired by William Cecil, Lord Burghley, it
1 561; being taken in 1607 by James I. from Robert Cecil, first
earl of Salisbury, in exchange for Hatfield House. James diet
here in 1625, and Charles I. set out from here for Nottingham ii
1642 at the outset of the Civil War. One of the entrances t<
Theobalds Park is the old Temple Bar, removed from Fleel
Street, London, in 1878.
CHESIL BANK (A.S. ceosol, pebble bank), a remarkabk
beach of shingle on the coast of Dorsetshire, England. It u
separated from the mainland for 8 m. by an inlet called the Fleet
famous for its swannery, and continues in all for 18 m. south
eastward from Abbot sbury, terminating at the so-called Ish
of Portland. The height of the bank at the Portland end h
35 ft. above spring-tide level, and its breadth 200 yds. The
greater height at this end accords with the general movement
of shingle along this coast from west to east; and for the same
reason the pebbles of the bank decrease in size from x to 3 in
in diameter at Portland to the size of peas at the western end
where the breadth is only 170 yds.
CHESNELONG. PIERRE CHARLES (1820-1804), Freud
politician, was born at Orthez in the department of the Basses-
Pyrenees, on the 14th of April 1820. In 1848 he proclaimed
himself a Republican; but after the establishment of the Seconc
Empire he changed his views, and in 1865 was returned to th<
chamber as the official candidate for his native place. He at
once became conspicuous, both for his eloquence and for nil
uncompromising clericalism, especially in urging the necessit)
for maintaining the temporal power of the papacy. In 1869 1m
was again returned, and, devoting himself with exceptional
ability to financial questions, was in 1870 appointed to report
the budget. During and after the war, for which he voted, he
retired for a while into private life; but in 2872 he was again
elected deputy, this time as a Legitimist, and took his seal
among the extreme Right. He was the soul of the reactionary
opposition that led to the fall of Thiers; and in 1873 it was he
who, with Lucien Brun, carried to the comte de Chambord the
proposals of the chambers. Through some misunderstanding,
he reported on his return that the count had accepted all the
terms offered, including the retention of the tricolour flag, and
the count published a formal dcniaL Chesnelong now devoted
himself to the establishment of Catholic universities and to the
formation of Catholic working-men's clubs. In 1876 he was
again returned for Orthez, but was unseated, and then beaten
by the republican candidate. On the 24th of November, how-
ever, he was elected to a seat in the senate, where he continued
his vigorous polemic against the progressive attempts of the
republican government to secularize the educational system of
France until his death in 1894.
CHESNEY, CHARLES CORNWALL!* (1826-1876), British
soldier and military writer, the third son of Charles CornwaUb
Chesney, captain on the retired list of the Bengal Artillery, and
nephew of General F. R. Chesney, was born in Co. Down, Irelandi
on the 29th of September 1826. Educated at BlundelTs school,
Tiverton, and afterwards at the Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, he obtained his first commission as second lieutenant
of engineers in 1845, passing out of the academy at the head of
his term. His early service was spent in the ordinary course
of regimental duty at home and abroad, and he was stationed
in New Zealand during the Crimean War. Among the various
reforms in the British military system which followed from that
war was the impetus given to military education; and in 1858
Captain Chesney was appointed professor of military history
at Sandhurst. In 1864 he succeeded Colonel (afterwards Sir
Edward) Hamley in the corresponding chair at the Staff College.
The writings of these two brilliant officers had a great influence
not only at home, but on the continent and in America. CheaMgr*l
CHESNEY, F. R.— CHESS
93
first published work (1863) was an account of the Civil War in
Virginia, which went through several editions. But the work
which attained the greatest reputation was his Waterloo Lectures
(1868), prepared from the notes of lectures orally delivered at
the Staff College. Up to that time the English literature on the
Waterloo campaign, although voluminous, was made up of
personal reminiscences or of formal records, useful materials
for history rather than history itself; and the French accounts
had mainly taken the form of fiction. In Chesney's lucid and
vigorous account of the momentous struggle, while it illustrates
both the strategy and tactics which culminated in the final
catastrophe, the mistakes committed by Napoleon arc laid bare,
and for the first time an English writer is found to point out that
the dispositions of Wellington were far from faultless. And in
the Waterloo Lectures the Prussians are for the first time credited
by an English pen with their proper share in the victory. The
work attracted much attention abroad as well as at home, and
French and German translations were published.
Chesney was for many years a constant contributor to the
newspaper press and to periodic literature, devoting himself
for the most part to the critical treatment of military operations,
and professional subjects generally. Some of his essays on
military biography, contributed mainly to the Edinburgh Review,
were afterwards published separately (1874). In 1868 he was
appointed a member of the royal commission on military educa-
tion, under the presidency first of Earl Dc Grey and afterwards
of Lord Dufferin, to whose recommendations were due the
improved organization of the military colleges, and the develop-
ment of military education in the principal military stations
of the British army. In 187 1, on the conclusion of the Franco-
German War, he was sent on a special mission to France and
Germany, and furnished to the government a series of valuable
reports on the different siege operations which had been carried
out during the war, especially the two sieges of Paris. These
reports were published in a large volume, which was issued
confidentially. Never seeking regimental or staff preferment,
Colonel Chesney never obtained any, but he held at the time of
his death a unique position in the army, altogether apart from
and above his actual place in it. He was consulted by officers
of all grades on professional matters, and few have done more
to raise the intellectual standard of the British officer. Con-
stantly engaged in literary pursuits, he was nevertheless laborious
and exemplary in the discharge of his public duties, while
managing also to devote a large part of his time to charitable
and religious offices. lie was abstemious to a fault; and,
overwork of mind and body telling at last on a frail constitution,
he died after a short illness on the 10th of March 1876. He had
become lieutenant-colonel in 1873, and at the time of his death
he was commanding Royal Engineer of the London district.
He was buried at Sandhurst.
CHESNEY, FRANCIS RAWDON (1780-1872), British general
and explorer, was the son of Captain Alexander Chesney, an
Irishman of Scottish descent who, having emigrated to South
Carolina in 1772, did brilliant service under Lord Rawdon
(afterwards marquess of Hastings) in the War of Independence,
and subsequently received an appointment as coast officer at
Annalong, Co. Down, Ireland. There F. R. Chesney was born
on the 16th of March 1 789. Lord Rawdon gave the boy a cadet-
ship at Woolwich, and he was gazetted to the Royal Artillery
in 1805. But though he rose to be lieutenant-general and
colonel-commandant of the 14th brigade Royal Artillery (1864),
and general In 1868, Chesney's memory lives not for his military
record, but for his connexion with the Suex Canal, and with the
exploration of the Euphrates valley, which started with his being
sent out to Constantinople in the course of his military duties
in 1829, and his making a tour of inspection in Egypt and Syria.
His report in 1830 on the feasibility of making the Suez Canal
was the original basis of Lcsseps' great undertaking (in 1869
Lesseps greeted him in Paris as the "father" of the canal);
and in 1831 he introduced to the home government the idea of
opening a new overland route to India, by a daring and ad-
venturous journey (for the Arabs were hostile and he was ignorant
of the language) along the Euphrates valley from Anah to the
Persian Gulf. Returning home, Colonel Chesney (as he then
was) busied himself to get support for the latter project, to
which the East India Company's board was favourable; And
in 1835 he was sent out in command of a small expedition, for
which parliament voted £20,000, in order to test the navigability
of the Euphrates. After encountering immense difficulties, from
the opposition of the Egyptian pasha, and from the need of
transporting two steamers (one of which was lost) in sections
from the Mediterranean over the hilly country to the river,
they successfully arrived by water at Bushirc in the summer of
1836, and proved Chesney's view to be a practicable one. In
the middle of 1837 he returned to England, and was given the
Royal Geographical Society's gold medal, having meanwhile
been to India to consult the authorities there; but the preparation
of his two volumes on the expedition (published in 1850) was
interrupted by his being ordered out in 1843 t0 command the
artillery at Hong Kong. In 1847 his period of service was
completed, and he went home to Ireland, to a life of retirement;
but both in 1856 and again in 1862 he went out to the East to
take a part in further surveys and negotiations for the Euphrates
valley railway scheme, which, however, the government would
not take up, in spite of a favourable report from the House of
Commons committee in 187 1. In 1868 he published a further
volume of narrative on his Euphrates expedition. He died on
the 30th of January 1872.
His Life, edited by Stanley Lane Poole, appeared in 1885.
CHESNEY, SIR GEORGE TOHKTNS (1830-1895), English
general, brother of Colonel C. C. Chesney, was born at Tiverton,
Devonshire, on the 30th of April 1830. Educated at BIundelTs
school, Tiverton, and at Addiscombe, he entered the Bengal
Engineers as second lieutenant in 1848. He was employed for
some years in the public works department and, on the outbreak
of the Indian Mutiny in 1857, joined the Ambala column, was
field engineer at the battle of Badli-ke-serai, brigade-major of
engineers throughout the siege of Delhi, and was severely
wounded in the assault (medal and clasp and a brevet majority).
In i860 he was appointed head of a new department in connexion
with the public works accounts. His work on Indian Polity
(i868),dealingwith the administration of the several departments
of the Indian government, attracted wide attention and remains
a permanent text-book. The originator of the Royal Indian
Civil Engineering College at Cooper's Hill, Staines, he was also
its first president (1871-1880). In 187 1 he -contributed to
Blackwood's Magazine, "The Battle of Dorking," a vivid
account of a supposed invasion of England by the Germans
after their victory over France. This was republished in many
editions and translations, and produced a profound impression.
He was promoted lieutenant-colonel, 1869; colonel, 1877;
major-general, 1886; lieutenant-general, 1887; colonel-com-
mandant of Royal Engineers, 1800; and general, 1892. From
1881 to 1886 he was secretary to the military department of
the government of India, and was made a C.S.I, and a CLE.
From 1886 to 1892, as military member of the governor-general's
council, he carried out many much-needed military reforms.
He was made a C.B. at the jubilee of 1887, and a K.C.B. on
leaving India in 1892. In that year he was returned to parlia-
ment, in the Conservative interest, as member for Oxford, and
was chairman of the committee of service members of the House
of Commons until his death on the 3 1st of March 1895. He wrote
some novels, The Dilemma, The Private Secretary, The Lester s t
&c, and was a frequent contributor to periodical literature.
CHESS, once known as " checker," a game played with certain
" pieces " on a special " board " described below. It takes its
name from the Persian word shah, a king, the name of one of the
pieces or men used in the game. Chess is the most cosmopolitan
of all games, invented in the East (see History, below), intro-
duced into the West and now domiciled in every part of the
world. As a mere pastime chess is easily learnt, and a very
moderate amount of study enables a man to become a fair player,
but the higher ranges of chess-skill arc only attained by persistent
labour. The real proficient or " master " not merely must know
94
CHESS
the subtle variations in which the game abounds, but must be able
to apply his knowledge in the face of the enemy and to call to his
aid, as occasion demands, all that he has of foresight, brilliancy
and resource, both in attack and in defence. Two chess players
fighting over the board may fitly be compared to two famous
generals encountering each other on the battlefield, the strategy
and the tactics being not dissimilar in spirit.
The Board, Pieces and Moves.— The chessboard is divided
(sec accompanying diagrams) into sixty-four chequered squares.
In diagram x, the pieces, or chess-men, arc arranged for the
beginning of a game, while diagram a shows the denomination of
the squares according to the English and German systems of
notation. Under diagram i arc the names of the various " pieces "
—each side, White or Black, having a King, a Queen, two Rooks
(or Castles), two Knights, and two Bishops. The eight men in
front are called Pawns. At the beginning of the game the queen
always stands upon a square of her own colour. The board is so
set that each player has a white square at the right hand end of
the row nearest to him. The rook , knight and bishop on the right
of the king arc known as King's rook, King's knight, and King's
bishop; the other three as Queen's rook, Queen's knight, and
Queen's bishop.
Briefly described, the powers of the various pieces and of the
pawns are as follows.
The king may move in any direction, only one square at a time,
except in castling. Two kings can never be on adjacent squares.
BLACK The queen moves in any dircc-
■ i — - — tt= — -i tion square or diagonal, whether
S^ijfc d" t? &!ft£|! forward or backward. There is
j no limit to her range over vacant
If i fix IV. X squares; an opponent she may
I take; a piece of her own colour
J stops her. She is the most power-
ful piece on the board, for her
action is a union of those of the
rook and bishop. The rooks (from
the Indian rukh and Persian rokh,
meaning a soldier or warrior)
move in straight lines — forward
* or backward— but they cannot
white. diagonally. Their range is
Diagram i. — Showing the ... A . *» * .. ., , ......
arrangement of the nieces at *» kc lhe queen's, unlimited, with
the commencement of a game, the same exceptions.
The bishops move diagonally
in any direction whether backward or forward. They have
an unlimited range, with the same exceptions.
The knights' moves are of an absolutely different kind. They
move from one corner of any rectangle of three squares by two to
the opposite corner; thus, in diagram 3, the white knight can
move to the square occupied by the black one, and vice versa, or a
knight could move from C to D, or D to C. The move may be
made in any direction. It is no obstacle to the knight's move if
squares A and B are occupied. It will be perceived that the
knight always moves to a square of a different colour.
The king, queen, rooks and bishops may capture any foeman
which stands anywhere within their respective ranges; and the
knights can capture the adverse men which stand upon the
squares to which they can leap. The piece which takes occupies
the square of the piece which is taken, the latter being removed
from the board. Hie king cannot capture any man which is
protected by another man.
The moves and capturing powers of the pawns are as follows:—
Each pawn for his first move may advance cither one or two
squares straight forward, but afterwards one square only, and
this whether upon starting he exercised his privilege of moving
two squares or not. A pawn can never move backwards. He can
capture only diagonally — one square to his right or left front. A
pawn moves like a rook, captures like a bishop, but only one
square at a time. When a pawn arrives at an eighth square,
viz. at the extreme limit of the board, he may, at the option of
bis owner, be exchanged for any other piece, so that a player
may, e.g., have two or more queens on the board at once.
" Check and Checkmate." The king can never be captured, but
when any piece or pawn attacks him. he is said to be " in check,"
and the fact of his being so attacked should be announced by the
BLACK.
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8
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WHITE.
Diagram 2.— Showing English and German Methods of Notation.
adverse player saying " check," whereupon the king must move
from the square he occupies, or be screened from check by the
interposition of one of his own men, or the attacking piece must
be captured. If, however, when the king is in check, none of
these things can be done, it is " checkmate " (Persian, skak mat,
the king is dead), known generally as " mate," whereupon the
game terminates, the player whose king has been thus check-
mated being the loser. When the adversary has only his king
left, it is very easy to checkmate him with only a queen and
king, or only a rook and king. The problem is less easy with
king and two bishops, and still less easy with king, knight and
bishop, in which case the opposing king has to be driven into a
corner square whose colour corresponds with the bishop's, mate
being given with the bishop. A king and two knights cannot
mate. To mate with king and rook the opposing king must be
driven on to one of the four side files and kept there with the
rook on the next file, till it is held by the other king, when the
rook mates.
The pawn gives check in the same way as he captures, viz.
diagonally. One king cannot give check to another, nor may a
king be moved into check.
" Check by discovery " is given when a player, by moving one
of his pieces, checks with another of them. "Double check"
means attacking the king at once with two
pieces — one of the pieces in this case giving
check by discovery.
" Perpetual check " occurs when one player,
seeing that he cannot win the game, finds the
men so placed that he can give check ad
infinitum, while his adversary cannot possibly
avoid it. The game is then drawn. A game is
also drawn " if, before touching a man, the ,
player whose turn it is to play, claims that the Km 8 ht * mov€ -
game be treated as drawn, and proves that the existing position
existed, in the game and at the commencement of his turn of play,
twice at least before the present turn."
" Stalemate." When a king is not in check, but his owner has
no move left save such as would place the king in check, it is
" stalemate," and the game is drawn.
" Castling." This is a special move permitted to the king once
only in the game. It is performed in combination with either
rook, the king being moved two squares laterally, while the rook
towards which he is moved (which must not have previously
A
e
D
l
CHESS
95
moved from its square) is placed next him on the other side; the
king must be touched first. The king cannot castle after having
been once moved, nor when any piece stands between him and
the rook, nor if he is in check, nor when he has to cross a square
commanded by an adverse piece or pawn, nor into check. It will
be perceived that after castling with the king's rook the latter
will occupy the KB square, while the king stands on the KKt
square, and if with the queen's rook, the latter will occupy the
queen's square while the king stands on the QB square.
" Taking en passant" This is a privilege possessed by any
of the pawns under the following circumstances. — If a pawn,
say of the white colour, stands upon a fifth square, say upon K5
counting from the white tide, and a black pawn moves from Qa
or KB a to Q4 or KB4 counting from the black side, the white
pawn can take the black pawn en passant. For the purposes of
such capture the latter is dealt with as though he had only moved
to Qj or KB 3, and the white pawn taking him diagonally then
occupies the square the captured pawn would have reached had
he moved but one square. The capture can be made only
on the move immediately succeeding that of the pawn to be
captured.
" Drawn Game." This arises from a stalemate (noticed
above), or from either player not having sufficient force where-
with to effect checkmate, as when there are only two kings
left on the board, or king and bishop against king, or king with
one knight, or two knights against king, or from perpetual
check. One of the players can call upon the other to give check-
mate in fifty moves, the result of failure being that the game is
drawn. But, if a pawn is moved, or a piece is captured, the
counting must begin again.
A " minor piece " means cither a knight or a bishop. ** Winning
the exchange" signifies capturing a rook in exchange for a
minor piece. A " passed pawn " is one that has no adverse
pawn either in front or on either of the adjoining files. A
" file " is simply a line of squares extending vertically from
one end of the board to the other. An " open file " is one on
which no piece or pawn of either colour is standing. A pawn
or piece is en prise when one of the enemy's men can capture it.
u Gambit " is a word derived from the Ital. gambeUo, a tripping
up of the heels; it is a term used to signify an opening in which
a pawn or piece is sacrificed at the opening of a game to obtain
an attack. An " opening," or dibut, is a certain set method
of commencing the game. When a player can only make one
legal move, that move is called a " forced move."
Value of the Pieces.— The relative worth of the chess-men
cannot be definitely stated on account of the increase or decrease
of their powers according to the position of the game and the
pieces, but taking the pawn as the unit the following will be
an estimate near enough for practical purposes: — pawn 1,
bishop 3*25, knight 3* 2 5, rook 5, queen 9- 50. Three minor pieces
may more often than not be advantageously exchanged for the
queen. The knight is generally stronger than the bishop in the
end game, but two bishops are usually stronger than two knights,
more especially in open positions.
Laws. — The laws of chess differ, although not very materially,
in different countries. Various steps have been taken, but as
yet without success, to secure the adoption of a universal code.
In competitions among English players the particular laws to
be observed are specially agreed upon, — the regulations most
generally adopted being those laid down at length in Staunton's
Chess Praxis, or the modification of the Praxis laws issued in
the name of the British Chess Association in 1862.
First Move and Odds. — To decide who moves first, one player
conceals a white pawn in one hand and a black pawn in the
other, his adversary not seeing in which hand the different pawns
are put. The other holds out his hands with the pawns concealed,
and his adversary touches one. If that contains the white pawn,
he takes the white men and moves first. If he draws the black
pawn his adversary has the first move, since white, by convention,
always plays first. Subsequently the first move is taken alter-
nately. If one player, by way of odds, " gives " his adversary
a pawn or piece, that piece is removed before play begins. If
the odds are " pawn and move," or " pawn and two," a black
pawn, namely, the king's bishop's pawn, is removed and white
plays one move, or any two moves in succession. " Pawn and
two " is generally considered to be slightly less in point of odds
than to give a knight or a bishop; to give a knight and a bishop
is to give rather more than a rook; a rook and bishop less than
a queen; two rooks rather more than a queen. The odds of
" the marked pawn" can only be given to a much weaker player.
A pawn, generally KB's pawn, is marked with a cap of paper.
If the pawn is captured its owner loses the gamo; he can also
lose by being checkmated in the usual way, but he cannot give
mate to his adversary with any man except the marked pawn,
which may not be moved to an eighth square and exchanged
for a piece.
Rules.— It a player touch one of his men he must move it,
unless he sxysfadoube (I adjust), or words of a similar meaning,
to the effect that he was only setting it straight on its square.
If he cannot legally move a touched piece, he must move bis
king, if he can, but may not castle; if not, there is no penalty.
He must say fadoubc before touching his piece. If a player
touch an opponent's piece, he must take it, if he can. if not,
move his king. If he can do neither, no penalty. A move is
completed and cannot be taken back, as soon as a player, having
moved a piece, has taken his hand off it. If a player is called
upon to mate under the fifty-move rule, " fifty moves " means
fifty moves and the forty-nine replies to them. A pawn that
reaches an eighth square must be exchanged for some other piece,
the move not being complete until this is done; a second king
cannot be selected.
Modes of Notation.— The English and German methods of
describing the moves made in a game are different. According to
the English method each player counts from his own side of
the board, and the moves are denoted by the names of the files
and the numbers of the squares. Thus when a player for his
first move advances the king's pawn two squares, it is described
as follows:— " 1. P- K4." The following moves, with the aid
of diagram 2, will enable the reader to understand the principles
of the British notation. The symbol X is used to express
" takes "; a dash - to express " to."
White. Black.
1. P-K4 1. P-K4
2. KKt-KB 3 2. QKt-QB3
(i.e. King's Knight to the (i.e. Queen's Knight to the
third square of the King's third square of the Queen's
Bishop's file) Bishop's file)
3. KB-QB4 3. KB-QB4
(King's Bishop to the fourth
equarc of the Queen's
Bishop's file)
4 P-QB3 a. KKt-KB3
5- P-Q4 5- P takes P (or PXP)
(King's pawn takes White's
Queen's pawn)
6. P takes P (or PXP) 6. KB-QKt5 (ch. ( i.e. check)
(Queen's Bishop's pawn
takes pawn: no other pawn
has a pawn en prise)
It is now usual to express the notation as concisely as possible;
thus, the third moves of White and Black would be given as
3. B - B4, because it is clear that only the fourth square of the
queen's bishop's file is intended.
The French names for the pieces are, King, Rot; Queen, Dame;
Rook, Tour; Knight, Cavalier; Pawn, Pion; for Bishop the
French substitute Fou, a jester. Chess is Les £ckecs.
The German notation employs the alphabetical characters
a, b, c, d, e, /, g and A, proceeding from left to right, and the
numerals z, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, running upwards, these being
always calculated from the white side of the board (see diagram
2). Thus the White Queen's .Rook's square is ai, the White
Queen's square is di; the Black Queen's square, 48; the
White King's square, ei ; the Black King's square, eS, and so
with the other pieces and squares. The German names of the
pieces are as follows: — King, Kbnig; Queen, Dame; Rook,
Turm; Bishop, L&ufer; Knight, Springer; Pawn, Bauer;
Chess, Schach.
CHESS
99
ProbUnu.^k diets problem * has been described as " merely
a position supposed to have occurred in a game of chess, being
none other than the critical point where your antagonist announces
checkmate in a given number of moves, no matter what defence
you play," but the above description conveys no idea of the
Position by B. Honoitz.
BLACK.
AV
flftn-
As a rule the game should be
drawn. Supposing by a scries of
checks White were to compel Black
to abandon the pawn, he would
move K-R8j QXP and Black is
stale-mate. Therefore the ingenious
way to win is: —
i. K-B4, P-B8-Q ch; K-
Kt3 and wins. Or 1. . . . K-
R8 (threatening P-B8-Kt); then
2. Q-Q2 preliminary to K-Kt3
now wins.
Position by B. Horoitu
black.
Without Black's pawn White
could only draw. The pawn being
ea the board, White wins as
follows :—
1. Kt-B4. K-Kt sq; 2.
Kt (B4)-K3. K-R sq; 3.
K-Kt* K-Kt sq; 4. K - R3,
K-Rsq; 5. Kt-B*. K-Kt sq;
6\ Kt (B 4 )-Q2, K-R sq; 7.
Kt-Kt3 ch, K-Kt sq; 8.
Kt— B3 mate.
Position by B. Horwitt.
r
S flB H
l
TO
*.
* i -
White wins with two pieces against
one — a rare occurrence.
1. Kt-K6, B-R3; 2. B-Q4
ch, K-R2; 3. B-B3. B moves
anywhere not en prise; 4. B — Kt7
and Kt mates.
Position by 0. Schubert.
BLACK.
WHITE.
White wins as follows:—
1. P-Kl5 r Ki-Kij; 3. K-B3,
Kr-K*.; 3- B-K6, Kt-B8; 4.
BXP* Kt-Q? ^ 5- K-Kt4,
KtXP; 6, P-Kt6. K1-B3. ch;
7. K-KI5. P-Ks; S. KxKt.
P-K6; 9. B-Bj r KxB; 10.
P-Kt7, P-K7: "■ P-Kt8-Q
c4, as>d win* by the simple process
of a scries of checks so timed that
the kins may approach systematic-
#ffy. Tne fine poin(* in this instruc-
tive emiirid art the two bishop's
moves, 3. B-K^, and 9. B — 64,
the latter move enabling White to
queen the pawn with a chock. white.
degree to which problem -composing has become a specialized
study. Owing its inception, doubtless, to the practice of recording
critical phases from actual play, the art of problem composition
has so grown in favour as to earn the title of the " poetry " of
the game.
1 The earliest known problem is ascribed to an Arabian caliph of
the oth century. The first known collection is in a manuscript (in
the British Museum) of King Alphonso of Castile, dated 1250; it
contains 103 problem*. The collection of Nicolas of Lombardy.
dated 1300, comprises 192 problems.
A good chess problem exemplifies chess strategy idealized and
concentrated. In examples of actual play there will necessarily
remain on the board pieces immaterial to the issue (checkmate),
whereas in problems the composer employs only indispensabU
force so as to focus attention on the idea, avoiding all material
Position by P. Amelung.
White with the inferior position
saves the game as follows: —
1. P-R6. PXP; 2. K-Bi dis.
ch, K moves; 3. R-R2, or Kt2 ch,
KXR; 4. K-Kt2 and draw, as
Black has to give up the rook, and
the RP cannot be queened, the Black
bishop having no power on the
White diagonal. Extremely subtle.
The main idea being to checkmate
with the bishop, this is accomplished
thus:— 1. B-K4 ch, K-R4; 2.
QXR, QXQ; 3- K-B7, Q-B sq
en; 4.1<XQ. BXP; 5. K-B7,
BXP;6. B--Kt6matc
Position by B. Horarit*.
BLACK.
#g|
JbUbI
■I-
■SI
■ u
■
® . '1
n^
Position by A. Troittky.
BLACK.
i
S&ft
%t ia
I '
i
White wins as follows: —
I. P-R8-Q, R-Kt7 ch; J.
K-Kt5, RXQ; 3. Kt-Q7 ch,
K-Kt2; 4. P-B6 ch, K-Rsj
5- QPXKt. R-R sq; 6. Kt-Bj
ch, RXKt; 7. PXR-Kt mate.
Position by ff offer.
> . , , black.
A position from actual pUv,
White plays 1. R-B5 threaten a
to win a piece. Black repli with
the powerful Kt — Kt«$, threatening
two mates, and finally White (Mr
Hotter) finds an ingenious sacrifice
of the Queen — the saving clause.
The following are the move* ;—
i. R-B5. Kt-Kt5; 2. Q-Kta
ch, K-Kt3; 3. Q-K6 ch, R-Ri.
4. Q — Kt8 ch, and drawn by per* 1
petual check, as Black cannot cap-
ture the Queen with K or R without
losing the game.
WHITE.
which would tend to "obscure the issue." Hence the first
object in a problem is to extract the maximum of finesse with a
sparing use of the pieces, but " economy of force " must be
combined with " purity of the mate." A very common mistake,
until comparatively recent years, was that of appraising the
" economy " of a position according to the slendcmess of the
force used, but economy is not a question of absolute values. The
true criterion is the ratio of the force employed to the skill
demanded. The earliest composers strove to give their produc-
tions every appearance of real play, and indeed their compositions
r~
Tjt,
£•;
■
■■n
a
mzm
9 6
CHESS
The initials only of the pieces are given, the pawn* (Baucrn)
being understood* The Germans u*e the following signs in their
noutioti, vtt.:—Jor di«k (t); " checkmate " It); " takes "
(:)- t M castles oh king's side (o-o); "castles on queen's side "
(emj-o); for best mov* a note of admiration (I); for '* weak
move f ' a note of interrogation (?). The opening moves just given
in the English will now be given in the German notation: —
White. Black.
1. e2-e4 i. e7-es
2. Sgi-f3 2. Sb8-c6
3. L11-C4 3. Lf8-c5
4. C2-C3 4. Sg8-f6!
f. d2-d4 5. e5-d4:
. C3~d4: 6. Lcs-btf
In both notations the moves are often given in a tabular form,
thus:—
I. £""ift 1. c f ~ c j . the moves above the line being White's
r — K4 C7— e$
and below the line Black s.
Illustrative Cairns. — The text-books should be consulted by
students who wish to improve their game. The following arc
some of the leading openings: —
Giuoco Piano.
White.
Black.
1. P-K4
1.
P-K4
2. KKt-B3
2.
8V J
Kt-KB3
3. B-B4
3.
t P~B 3
4*
I: W
3:
PXP
B-Kts(ch)
BXB (ch)
7. B-Q2
8. QKtXB
9. PXP
I
P-Q4
9-
KKtXP
10, Q-Kt3
11. Castles (K*
s side)
Even
game
10.
11.
QKt-Ka
Castles
Ruy Lopez.
White.
Black.
I. P-K4
t.
P-K4
2. KKt-B3
2.
QKt-B 3
P-QR3
3. B-Kt5
3-
4. B-R4
4-
Kt-B 3
t $--%
5-
6.
PXP
Kt-Ks
7. Castles
7-
B-K2
8. R-Ksq
8.
Kt-B4
9. BXKt
9.
QPXB
Castles
10. KtXP
10.
11. Kt-QB3
Even
game
11.
P-KB3
Scotch Gambit.
White.
Black.
I. P-K4
1.
P-K4
2. KKt-B3
2.
^* P - B3
3- P-Q4
4- B-QB4
3-
4-
B-B4
Kt-B3
§• P-B3
6. PXP
5-
The position here arrived at is
the same as in the Giuoco Piano
opening above.
Evans Gamdit.
White.
Black.
1. P-K4
1.
P-K4
2. KKt-B3
2.
§V 3
3- B-B4
3-
4- P"QKt 4
5- P-B3
6. P-O4
7. Castles
8. PXP
4-
BxKtP
1:
D-B4
PXP
I
l-%
White has for its ninth move three approved continuations, viz.
B - Ku, P - Q5, and Kt - B3. To take one of them :—
9 P-Q5 9- Kt-R4
10. B-Kt2 10. Kt-K2
11. B-O} II. Castles
12. Kt-B3 12. Kt-Kt3
13. Kt-1<2 13. P-QB4
14. Q-Q2 14. P-B3
15. K-Rsq 15. B-B2
16. QR-Bsq 16. R-Kt sq
This game may be considered about even.
Kino's Knight's Gambit (Proper).
White. Black.
1. P-K4 1. P-K4
2. P-KB4 2. PXP
3. KKt-B3 3. P-KK14
4. B-B4 4 B-Kta
5. Castles 5. P-Q3
6. P-Q4 6. P-KR3
7. P-B3 7. Kt-K2
Black has the advantage.
Allgaier-Kiesf.ritzki Gambit.
White. Black.
1. P-K4 1. P-K4
2. P-KB4 2. PXP
3. Kt-KB3 3. P-KKt4
4. P-KR4 4. P-Kts
5. Kt-K 5 5. KKt-%3
6. B-B4 6. P-Q4
7. PXP 7- B-kt2
8. P-Q4 8. Castles
9. BXP 9- KtXP
10. BXKt 10. OXB
11. Castles 11. P-QB4
Black has the better game.
King's Bishop's Gambit.
White.
Black.
1. P-K4
2. P-KB4
1. P-K4
2. PXP
3. B-B4
3. P-Q4
4- BXP
5. K-Bsq
6. KKt-B3
8. P-KR3
8.' P-KR4
9. Kt-B3
9. Kt-Ka
10. K-Kt sq
10. P-Kt5
11. Kt-K5
11. BXKt
12. PXB
ia. QXKP
13. P-B6
13. Q-B sq
14. P-P
14. Q-Kt6(ch)
IS- Q-Kt2
Drawn game.
Salvio Gambit.
White.
Black.
1. P-K4
2. P-KB4
3. KKt-B3
1. P-K4
2. PXP
3. P-KKt4
4/ B-Ba
5- JJ«-*5
4- P-Kt5
5. Q-R.s (ch)
6. Kt-KRr
6. K-Bsq
I. Kt"-$B3
9. Kt-Q3
7. P-B6
8. P-Q3
9. PxP(ch)
10. KXP
10. B — Kt2
11. Kt-KB4
11. Kt-B3
12. B-K3
12. Castles
13. QKt-Q5
14. P-B3
13. Q-Qsq
White has a slight advantage.
Muzio Gambit.
•• ?=g >•
P-KB4 . KKt-B3 . B-B4
PXP 3 \P-KKt 4 4 * f-Kts
White.
Black.
5. Castles
6. QXP
7. P-K 5
5. PxKt
6. Q-B3
7. QXP
9. B-Qa
10. Kt-B3
11. QR-Ksq
12. R-K4
8. B-Ri
•9. Kt-Ka
10. QKt-B3
11. Q-KB4
12. CaMlcs
13- QBXP
13. B-Kt2
14. Q-K2
15. BXBP
,4 - E"~8*
15 Q-Kt4
16. Q-Kt3
17. KtXKt
16. P-KR4
17. KtXP
18. BXKt
18. B-B4
19. QR-KB4
20. BXB
19. B-K3
20. PXB
21. R-K4
21. RXRfch)
22. R-Bsq(ch)
22. KXR
23. K-Kt sq
23- Kt-Q5
And Black has the better game.
CHESS
White.
I. P-
3. P
3- P --,
4. BXP
5. PXP
6. Kt-KB 3
7. Castles
i P-KR3
9. Kt-QB3
Queen's Gambit.
97
a. PXP
4. PXP
7. Castles
8. P-KR3
9. P-QB3
The game is about equal, though White has a somewhat freer
The following is a selection of noteworthy games played by
great masters:—
King's Bishop's Gambit.
White.
Anderssen.
a! P-KB4
3. B-B4
4. K-Bsq
5. BxKtP
6. Kt-F
I. fe*
-KB3
%
9. Kt-B«
10. P-KKtA
11. R-Ktsq
12. P-KR4
** K-5 5
15, BXP
i£ Kt-B3
17. Kt-~
18. B-
19. K-
20. P-K5
White mates in three moves.
Black.
Kiescritzki.
1. P-K4
2. PXP
5. Kt-XB3
i Q-KtJ
9. P-QB3
10. Kt-B3
11. PxB
12. Q-Kt3
13. Q-Kt 4
14. Kt-Kt sq
1*8=5?
17. QXKtP
18. QXR(ch)
19. BXR
20. Kt-QR3
White.
Barnes.
I. P-K4
a. Kt-KB3
J PX$P
5. Kt-Kt5
6. P-K6
7. Kt-B 7
8. B-Kt
9. B-KKt5
10. KtXR
11. B-B4
12. Kt-B7
13. R-B sq
14. P-KB3
16. BXB
17. QXKt
18. Castles
19. B-Kt3
20. K— Ktsq
ai. Kt-K5
22. Kt-03
23. KtXB
Piiilidor's Defence.
And White resigns.
Black.
Morphy.
I. P-K4
* l^h
4. BPXP
t B-QB4
7. Q-B3
9 8~H 4
10. QxB
11. Kt-QB3
12. QXP
13. Kt-Bt
14. Kt-QRt 5
15. BXP
16. Kt-Q6(ch)
17. PXQ
18. BXKt
19. P-Q7 (ch)
20. B-B4
ai. K-Bsq
aa. R-Ksq
a3- QXR
Bishop'
White. Black.
Charousek. Tchigorin.
f. P-Ka P-K4
a. P-K64 PXP
3. B-B4 Kt-QB3
I P-Q4 £1-63
t £=»■
Kt3
I3&
I Rt-^R3 Kt-Kt5
^ Kt-R3
B-K7
9. Q-QB3
la Castles
II. B-R4(ch)P-B3
la. BxP(ch) PXB
This pretty game was played
the Budapest tournament, 1896.
's Gambit.
White.
Charousek.
13. QXP (ch)
14. KtXP
15. BXKt
16. Kt-B3
17. P-K6
18. B-B7
19. BxQ(ch)
20. Q-Rt7 (ch)
21. R-B7(ch)
22. QXR (ch)
23. R-Ksq
24. P-QKt3
in the tie' match for
Black.
Tchigorin.
K-K2
KtXKt
P-R3
B-B5
R-Bsq
PXP
RXB
R-Qa
KxR
B-Ka
R-Ksq
Resigns,
first prize at
Queen's Gambit Declined.
White. Black.
IV. Steislt*. Dr E. Lasker.
9. K1-B3
Wbtte.
\V. Stein j"«,
31 Kt-B3
aa, QXP
*y PxKt
24- QxP
27- B-K4
28. P-B4
29. B-Kia
ftfe-SU
32. R-B3
33- KXR
34- K-Ra
35. K-Kta
36. K-Ra
37. g-QKtsq
38. R-Kts
39- P-R3
Resigns.
This game was played in the St Petersburg tournament, l895 ? a
fine specimen of Lasker 's style. The final attack, beginning with
21. with Kt-Q5, furnishes a gem of an ending.
Rice Gambit.
White.
Professor
Rice.
1. P-Ka
2. P-KBa
3. Kt-KB 3
4. P-KR4
5 Kt-K5
6. B-B4
7. PXP
8. Castles
9. R-Ksq
10. P-B3
13. Kt-63
Black.
Major
Hanham.
P-K4
PXP
P-KKt4
P-Kts
Kt-KB3
BXKt
9-Ka
-Kt6
Kt-Kt5
~XP
-"3
White.
Professor
Rice.
IS- Q-R3
16. RXB (ch)
17. K-Bsq
18. Kt-Kt sq
19. PxKt
20. B-Kt5
21. K-Ksq
22. K-Qa
23. K-Q3
24. PxB(ch)
as- Q-K7 (ch)
26. Q-Q8 (ch)
27. BXQand mates
Black.
Major
Hanham.
Kt-B7
B-Kt
0-R|(ch,
Rt-R6
P-B6
P-B8«Kt
(ch)
K-Qa
K-62
K-Kt3
RXQ
14. Q-R4(ch)P-B3
The Rice Gambit (*o called after it* inventor, Prof. Isaac L. Rice
of New York), whether right or not. is only possible if Black plays
t* B-Oj" Paulsen 1 ! 7, B-KtJ is better, and avoids unnecessary
complications. 8, P-Q4 i* the usual move. Leaving the knight
** ptii£, followed by 9., R-Ksq, constitutes the Rice Gambit.
The interesting point* in the game are that White subjects himself
to a most violent attack with impunity, fur in the end Black could
not save? the game by aa, P-B8 claiming a second queen with a
discovered check, nor by claiming a knight with double check, as
it is equally harmless to White,
Giuoco Piano.
White.
Black.
White.
Black.
Steinitz.
Bardcleben.
Steinitz.
Bardcleben.
1. P-K4
2. Kt-KB3
3. B-B4
P-Ka
Kt-dB 3
B-B4
Kt-§3
14. R-Ksq
IS- Q-Ka
16. OR-Bsq
\t. Kt~-<5 4
19. Kt-R6
P-KB3
mi
4. P-B3
PXP
5. P-Q4
6. PXP
PXP
K-B2
B-Kt5 (ch)
KR-QBsq
P-KRt3
7. Kt-B 3
P-Q4
20. Q-Kt4
21. Rt-Kt5(ch)
22. RxKt (ch)
23. R-B 7 (cM
24. R-KtT.(ch)
25. RXP (ch)
8. PXP
KKtXP
K-Ksq
9. Castles
B-K3
K-Bsq
10. B-KKt5
B-Ka
K-Ktsq
11. BXKt
QBXB
QXKt
RtXB
K-Rsq
12. KtXB
13. BXB
Resigns.
As a matter of fact, Bardcleben left the board here, and lost the
game by letting his clock run out the time-limit; but Steinitz,
who remained at the board, demonstrated afterwards the following
variation leading to a forced win : —
White. Black.
Steinitz. Bardcleben.
25 K-Ktsq
26. R-Kt7(ch) K-Rsq
27. Q-R4 (ch) KXR
28. O-R7 (ch) K-Bsq
29. 0-R8 (ch) K-K2
30. Q-Kt7(ch) K-Ksq
This game was awarded the prize for " brilliancy " at the Hastings
tournament, 1895.
35- Q-Q6mate.
102
tradition about Irene's chessmen. With respect to Harun al-
Rashid, among the various stories told which connect him with
chess, there is one that at first sight may seem entitled to some
degree of credit. In the annals of the Moslems by Abulfeda ( Abu'l
Fida), there is given a copy of a letter stated to be " From
Niccphorus, emperor of the Romans, to Harun, sovereign of
the Arabs," which (using Professor Forbes's translation) after
the usual compliments runs thus:—" The empress (Irene) into
whose place I have succeeded, looked upon you as a Rukh and
herself as a mere Pawn; therefore she submitted to pay you a
tribute more than the double of which she ought to have exacted
from you. All this has been owing to female weakness and
timidity. Now, however, I insist that you, immediately on
reading this letter, repay to me all the sums of money you ever
received from her. If you hesitate, the sword shall settle our
accounts." Harun's reply, written on the back of the Byzantine
emperor's letter, was terse and to the point. " In the name of
God the merciful and gracious. From Harun, the commander
of the faithful, to the Roman dog Nicephorus. I have read thine
epistle, thou son of an infidel mother; my answeT to it thou
shalt see, not hear." Harun was as good as his word, for he
marched immediately as far as Heraclea, devastating the Roman
territories with fire and sword, and soon compelled Nicephorus
to sue for peace. Now the points which give authority to this
narrative and the alleged correspondence are that the relations
which they assume between Irene and Nicephorus on the one
hand and the warlike caliph on the other are confirmed by the
history of those times, while, also, the straightforward brevity
of Harun's reply commends itself as what one might expect
from his soldier-like character. Still, the fact must be remem-
bered that Abulfeda lived about five centuries after the time to
which he refers. Perhaps we may assume that it is not improb-
able that the correspondence is genuine; but that the words
rukh and pawn may have been substituted for other terms of
comparison originally used.
As to how chess was introduced into western and central
Europe nothing is really known. The Spaniards very likely
received it from their Moslem conquerors, the Italians not
improbably from the Byzantines, and in either case it would pass
northwards to France, going on thence to Scandinavia and
England. Some say that chess was introduced into Europe at
the time of the Crusades, the theory being that the Christian
warriors learned to play it at Constantinople. This is nega-
tived by a curious epistle of St Peter Damian, cardinal bishop
of Ostia, to Pope Alexander II., written about a.d. io6i, which,
assuming its authenticity, shows that chess was known in Italy
before the date of the first crusade. The cardinal, as it seems,
had imposed a penance upon a bishop whom he had found
diverting himself at chess; and in his letter to the pope he
repeats the language he had held to the erring prelate, viz.
" Was it right, I say, and consistent with thy duty, to sport away
thy evenings amidst the vanity of chess, and defile the hand
which offers up the body of the Lord, and the tongue that
mediates between God and man, with the pollution of a sacri-
legious game ? " Following up the same idea that statutes of the
church of Elna, in the 3rd vol. of the Councils of Spain, say,
" Clerks playing at dice or chess shall be ipso facto excommuni-
cated." Eudes de Sully, bishop of Paris under Philip Augustus,
is stated in the Ordonn. des Rois de France to have forbidden
clerks to play the game, and according to the Hist. Ecclts. of
Fleury, St Louis, king of France, imposed a fine on all who
should play it. Ecclesiastical authorities, however, seemed to
have differed among themselves upon the question whether
chess was or was not a lawful game according to the canons, and
Peirino {De Proelai. chap. 1) holds that it was permissible for
ecclesiastics to play thereat. Among those who have taken
an unfavourable view of the game may be mentioned John Huss,
who, when in prison, deplored his having played at chess, whereby
he had lost time and run the risk of being subject to violent
passions. Among authentic records of the game may be quoted
the Alexiad of the princess Anna Comnena, in which she relates
how her father, the emperor Alexius, used to divert his mind
CHESS
from the cares of state by playing at chess with his relatives.
This emperor died in 11 18.
Concerning chess in England there is the usual confusion
between legend and truth. Snorre Sturleson relates that as
Canute was playing at chess with Earl Ulf, a quarrel arose, which
resulted in the upsetting of the board by the latter, with the
further consequence of his being murdered in church a few days
afterwards by Canute's orders. Carlyle, in The Early Kings of
Norway, repeats this tale, but van der Linde treats it as a myth.
The Ramsey Chronicle relates how bishop Utheric, coming to
Canute at night upon urgent business, found the monarch and
his courtiers amusing themselves at dice and chess. There is
nothing intrinsically improbable in this last narrative; but
Canute died about 1035, and the date, therefore, is suspiciously
early. Moreover, allowance must be made for the ease with
which chroniclers described other games as chess. William the
Conqueror, Henry I., John and Edward I. arc variously stated
to have played at chess. It is generally supposed that the
English court of exchequer took its name from the doth, figured
with squares like a chess-board, which covered the table in it
(see Exchequer). An old writer says that at the coronation
of Richard I. in n 89, six earls and barons carried a chess-board
with the royal insignia to represent the exchequer court. Accord-
ing to Edmonson's Heraldry, twenty-six English families bore
chess rooks in their coats of arms.
As regards the individual pieces, the king seems to have had
the same move as at present; but it is said he could formerly be
captured. His " castling " privilege is a European invention;
but he formerly leaped two and even three squares, and also to
his Kt 2nd. Castling dates no farther back than the first half of
the 1 6th century. The queen has suffered curious changes in
name, sex and power. In shatranj the piece was called fan or
fin (also farzan, fartin and forzi), signifying a " counsellor/'
" minister " or " general." This was latinized into fania or
fercia. The French slightly altered the latter form into fierce,
fierge, and as some say, vierge, which, if true, might explain its
becoming a female. Another and much more probable account
has it that whereas formerly a pawn on reaching an eighth square
became &farzin, and not any other piece, which promotion was
of the same kind as at draughts (in French, dames), so she became
a dame or queen as in the latter game, and thence damn, donna,
&c. There are old Latin manuscripts in which the terms fertia
and regina are used indifferently. The queen formerly moved
only one square diagonally and was consequently the weakest
piece on the board. The immense power she now possesses
seems to have been conferred upon her so late as about the middle
of the 15th century. It will be noticed that under the old
system the queens could never meet each other, for they operated
on diagonals of different colours. The bishop's scope of action
was also very limited formerly; he could only move two squares
diagonally, and had no power over the intermediate square,
which he could leap over whether it was occupied or not. This
limitation of their powers prevailed in Europe until the 15th
century. This piece, according to Forbes, was called among the
Persians pil, an elephant, but the Arabs, not having the letter
p in their alphabet, wrote it fit, or with their definite article
al-fil, whence alphilus, alfinus, alifiere, the latter being the word
used by the Italians; while the French perhaps get their fd
and fou from the same source. The pawns formerly could move
only one square at starting; their powers in this respect were
increased about the early part of the 16th century. It was
customary for them on arriving at an eighth square to be ex-
changed only for a farzin (queen), and not any other piece;
the rooks (so called from the Indian rukh and Persian rokh,
meaning " a soldier ") and the knights appear to have always
had the same powers as at present. As to the chessboards, they
were formerly uncoloured, and it is not until the 13th century
that we hear of checkered boards being used in Europe.
Development in Play. — The change of shatranj into modern
chess took place most probably first in France, and thence made
its way into Spain early in the 15th century, where the new game
was called Axedret de la dama, being also adopted by the Italians
CHESS
103
under the name of scacci alia rabiosa. The time of the first im-
portan t w riter on modern chess, the Spaniard Ruy Lopez de Segura
(1561), is also the period when the latest improvement, castling,
was introduced, for his book (Libro de la invention liberal y arte
deljuego del Axedrcz), though treating of it as already in use,
also gives the old mode of play, which allowed the king a leap
of two or three squares. Shortly afterwards the old shatranj
disappears altogether. Lopez was the first who merits the name
of chess analyst. At this time flourished the flower of the Spanish
and Italian schools of chess — the former represented by Lopez,
Ceron, Santa Maria, Busnardo and Avalos; the latter by
Giovanni Leonardo da Cutri (il Puttino) and Paolo Boi (il
Syracusano). In the years 1562-1575 both Italian masters
visited Spain and defeated their Spanish antagonists. During
the whole 17th century we find but one worthy to be mentioned,
Giacchino Greco (il Calabrcsc). The middle of the 18th century
inaugurates a new era in chess. The leading man of this time
was Francois Andre Danican Philidor. He was born in 1726
and was trained by M. de Kermur, Sire de Legal, the star of
the Cafi de la Rigenee in Paris, which has been the centre of
French chess ever since the commencement of the 18th century.
In 1747 Philidor visited England, and defeated the Arabian
player, Phillip Stamma, by 8 games to 1 and x draw. In 1 749
he published his Analyse des tehees, a book which went through
more editions and was more translated than any other work
upon the game. During more than half a century Philidor
travelled much, but never went to Italy, the only country where
he could have found opponents of first-rate skill. Italy was
represented in Philidor's time by Ercolc del Rio, Lolli and
Ponziani. Their style was less sound than that of Philidor,
but certainly a much finer, and in principle a better one. As
an analyst the Frenchman was in many points refuted by
Ercole del Rio ("the anonymous Modcncsc"). Blindfold
chess-play, already exhibited in the nth century by Arabian
and Persian experts, was taken up afresh by Philidor, who
played on many occasions three games simultaneously without
sight of board or men. These exhibitions were given in London,
at the Chess Club in St James's Street, and Philidor died in that
city in 1795. As eminent players of this period must be men-
tioned Count Ph. J. van Zuylcn van Nycvelt (1 743-1 826),
and the German player, J. Allgaicr (1763-1823), after whom a
well-known brilliant variation of the King's Gambit is named.
Philidor was succeeded by Alexandre Louis Honore Lcbrcton
Deschapelles (1780-1847), who was also a famous whist player.
The only player who is known to have fought Deschapelles not
unsuccessfully on even terms is John Coclirane. He also lost
a match (1821) to W. Lewis, to whom he conceded the odds of
" pawn and move," the Englishman winning one and drawing the
two others. Deschapelles' greatest pupil, and the strongest player
France ever possessed, was Louis Charles Mahc de laBourdonnais,
who was born in 1797 and died in 1840. His most memorable
achievement was his contest with the English champion,
Alexander Macdonncll, the French player winning in the pro-
portion of three to two.
The English school of chess began about the beginning of the
19th century, and Sarratt was its first leader. He flourished from
1808 to 1821, and was followed by his great pupil, W. Lewis,
who will be principally remembered for his writings. His
literary career belongs to the period from 1818 to 1848 and he
died in 1869. A. Macdonncll (1 798-1835) has been already
mentioned. To the same period belong also Captain Evans,
the inventor of the celebrated " Evans Gambit " (182S), who
died at a very advanced age in 1873; Pcrigal, who participated
in the correspondence matches against Edinburgh and Paris;
George Walker, for thirty years chess editor of Bell's Life in
London; and John Cochrane, who met every strong player from
Deschapelles downwards. In the same pcriodGermany possessed
but one good player, J. Mcndhcim of Berlin. The fifth decade
of the 19th century is marked by the fact that the leadership
passed from the French school to the English. After the death
of la Bourdonnais, Fournie dc Sainl-Amant became the leading
player in France; he visited England in the early part of 1843,
and successfully met the beat English players, including Howard
Staunton (q.v.)\ but the latter soon took his revenge, for in
November and December 1843 a great match between Staunton
and Saint-Amant took place in Paris, the English champion
winning by 1 1 games to 6 with 4 draws. During the succeeding
eight years Staunton maintained his reputation by defeating
Popert, Horwitz and Harrwitz. Staunton was defeated by
Anderssen at the London tournament in 1851, and this con-
cluded his match-playing career. Among the contemporaries of
Staunton may be mentioned Henry Thomas Buckle, author
of the History of Civilization, who defeated Riescritzki, Anderssen
and Lowenthal.
In the ten years 1 830-1840 a new school arose in Berlin, the
seven leaders of which have been called " The Pleiades." These
were Blcdow (1 795-1 846), Bilguer (1815-1840), Hanstcin (1810-
1850), Mayet (1810-1868), Schorn (1802-1850), B. Horwitt
(b. 1809) and von Hcydebrandt und der Lasa, once German
ambassador at Copenhagen. As belonging to the same period
must be mentioned the three Hungarian players, Grimm, Szen
and J. Lowenthal.
Among the great masters since the middle of the 19th century
Paul Morphy (183 7-1 884), an American, has seldom been sur-
passed as a chess player. His career was short but brilliant.
Born in New Orleans in 1837, he was taught chess by his father
when only ten years of age, and in two years' time became a strong
player. When not quite thirteen he played three games with
Lowenthal, and won two of them, the other being drawn. He
was twenty years of age when he competed in the New York
congress of 1857, where he won the first prize. In 1858 he visited
England, and there defeated Boden, Medley, Mongredicn, Owen,
Bird and others. He also beat LSwcnthal by 9 games to 3
and 2 drawn. In the same year he played a match at Paris with
Harrwitz, winning by 5 to 2 and x drawn; and later on he
obtained a victory over Anderssen. On two or three occasions
he played blindfold against eight strong players simultaneously,
each time with great success. He returned to America in 1859
and continued to play, but with decreasing interest in the game,
until 1866. He died in 1884.
Wilhclm Steinitz (b. 1836) took the sixth prize at the London
congress of 1862. He defeated Blackburne in a match by
7 to 1 and 2 drawn. In 1866 he beat Anderssen in a match by
8 games to 6. In 1868 he carried off the first prize in the British
Chess Association handicap, and in 1872 in the London grand
tourney, also defeating Zukertort in a match by 7 games to x
and 4 drawn. In 1873 ne carried off the first prize at the Vienna
congress; and in 1876 he defeated Blackburne, winning 7 games
right off. In 1872-1874, in conjunction with W. N. Potter,
he conducted and won a telegraphic correspondence match for
London against Vienna. In Philidor's age it was considered
almost incredible that he should be able to play three simultaneous
games without seeing board or men, but Paulsen, Blackburne
and Zukertort often played 10 or 12 such games, while as many
as 14 and 15 have been so played.
In 1876 England was in the van of the world's chess army.
English-born players then were Boden, Burn, Macdonncll, Bird,
Blackburne and Potter; whilst among naturalized English
players were Lowenthal, Steinitz, Zukertort, who died in 1888,
and Horwitz. This illustrious contingent was reinforced in
1878 by Mason, an Irish-American, who came over for the
Paris tournament; by Gunsberg, a Hungarian; and later by
Tcichmann, who also made England his home. English chess
flourished under the leadership of these masters, the chief prizes
in tournaments being consistently carried off by the English
representatives.
To gauge the progress made by the game since about 1875
it will suffice to give the following statistics. In London Simpson's
Divan was formerly the chief resort of chess players; the
St George's Chess Club was the principal chess club in the West
End, and the City of London Chess Club in the cast. About
a hundred or more clubs arc now scattered all over the city.
Formerly only the British Chess Association existed; after its
dissolution the now defunct Counties' Chess Association took
104
CHESS
its place, and this was superseded by the re-establishment by
Mr Hoffer of the British Chess Association, which again fell
into abeyance after having organized three international tourna-
ments—London, 1886; Bradford, 1888; and Manchester, 1890
— and four national tournaments. There were various reasons
why the British Chess Association ceased to exercise its functions,
one being that minor associations did not feel inclined to merge
their identity in a central association. The London League
was established, besides the Northern Chess Union, the Southern
Counties' Chess Union, the Midland Counties' Union, the Kent
County Association; and there are associations in Surrey,
Sussex, Essex, Hampshire, Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, Somerset-
shire, Cambridgeshire, Herefordshire, Leicestershire, North-
amptonshire, Staffordshire, Worcestershire and Lancashire. (
All these associations are supported by the affiliated chess clubs
of the respective counties. Scotland (which has its own associa-
tion), Wales and Ireland have also numerous clubs.
Still, England did not produce one new eminent player between !
1875 and 1005. First-class chess remained in the hands of the I
veterans Bum, Blackburne, Mason and Bird. The old amateurs
passed away, their place being taken by a new generation of
powerful amateurs, so well equipped that Great Britain could
hold its own in an amateur contest against the combined forces
of Germany, Austria, Holland and Russia. The terms master
and amateur are not used in any invidious sense, but simply
as designating, in the former case, first-class players, and in the
latter, those just on the borderland of highest excellence. The
professional element as it existed in the heydey of Simpson's
Divan almost disappeared, the reason being the increased number
of chess clubs, where enthusiasts and students might indulge
in their favourite pastime to their heart's Content, tournaments
with attractive prizes being arranged during the season. The
former occupation of the masters vanished in consequence; the
few who remained depended upon the passing visitors from the
provinces who were eager to test their strength by the standard
of the master. Blackburne visited the provinces annually,
keeping the interest in first-class chess alive by his simultaneous
play and his extraordinary skill as a blindfold player — unsur-
passed until the advent of Harry Nelson Pillsbury (187 2-1906),
the leading American master since Morphy.
Germany has produced great chess players in Tarrasch,
E. Lasker, Lipke, Fritz, Bardeleben, Walbrodt and Miescs,
besides a goodly number of amateurs. Austria produced
Max Weiss, Schlechtcr, Marco and Hruby, to say nothing of
such fine players as the Fleissigs, Dr Mertner, Dr Kaufmann,
Fahndrich, Jacques Schwarz and others. Hungary was worthily
represented by Maroczy, Makovetz and Brody, Maroczy being
the best after Charousck's death. Russia, having lost Jaenisch,
Petroff and Schumoff, discovered Tchigorin, Janowsky,
Schiffcrs, Alapin, Winawer and Taubenhaus. France showed
a decline for many years, having only the veteran M. Arnous
de Rividrc and the naturalized M. Rosenthal left, followed by
Goetz and two good amateurs, MM. Didier and Billccard.
Italy had only Signor Sal viol i, although Signor Rcggio came to
the fore. Holland had a fair number of players equal to the»
English amateurs, but no master since the promising young
van Lennep died.
The first modern International Chess Tournament held in
London in 185 1 was the forerunner of various similar contests
of which the following is a complete table: —
Tournaments.
1851. London. 1 Andcrssen, 2 Wyvill, 3 Williams.
1857. Manchester. I Lowenthal, 2 Andcrssen.
1857. New York. 1 Morphy, 2 L. Paulsen.
1858. Birmingham. X Lowenthal, 2 Falkbeer.-
1860. Cambridge. 1 Kolisch, 2 Stanley.
1861. Bristol. .1 L. Paulsen, 2 Bodcn.
1862. London. 1 Andcrssen, 2 L. Paulsen, 3 Owen.
1865. Dublin. I Stcinitz, 2 MacDonnell.
1866. Rcdcar. Dc Vcre.
1866. English Championship Cup. Dc Vcre.
1866. British Chess Association. 1 Steinitz, 2 Green.
1867. Paris. 1 Kolisch, 2 Winawer, 3 Stcinitz.
1S67. Dundee. 1 Neumann, 2 Steinitz, 3 De Vere and MacDonnell.
1868. English Championship Cup. t Blackburne, a De Vere.
1868. British Chess Association Handicap. I Steinitz, 2 Wisker,
3 Blackburne.
1870. Baden-Baden.. I Anderssen, 2 Steinitz, 3 Blackburne and
Neumann.
1870. English Championship Cup. I Wisker, 2 Burn.
1 870-1 87 1. City of London Handicap. 1 Potter, 2 De Vere.
1871-1872. City of London Handicap. I Steinitz, 2 Keats.
1872. London. 1 Steinitz, 2 Blackburne, 3 Zukertort.
1872. English Championship Cup. 1 Wisker (becoming permanent
holder of the cup), 2 De Vere.
1873. Vienna. I Steinitz, 2 Blackburne, 3 Anderssen:
1870. London. I Blackburne, 2 Zukcrtort. 3 Potter.
1878. Paris. 1 Zukcrtort, 2 Winawer (after a tie with Zukertort).
3 Blackburne.
1880. Wiesbaden. 1, 2, and 3, a tie between Blackburne, Englisch
and A. Schwarz.
1 88 1 . Berlin. I Blackburne, 2 Zukertort , 3 Tchigorin a nd Winawer.
Tchigorin made his first public appearance in this contest.
1882. Vienna. X Steinitz and Winawer, 3 Mason.
1883. London. X Zukertort, 2 Steinitz, 3 Blackburne.
1883. Nuremberg. 1 Winawer, 2 Blackburne, 3 Mason. This
tournament is a milestone in modern chess history. The
prizes being comparatively small, it was thought that it
necessarily must be a failure, the munificently endowed
London tournament having just been completed. But,
strange to say, whilst in London fourteen players competed,
there were nineteen entries in Nuremberg. Winawer, not
placed in the former, won the first prize in the latter.
1885. Hamburg. 1 Gunsberg; the next prizes were divided by
Blackburne, Mason, Englisch, Tarrasch and Weiss.
1885. Hereford. 1 Blackburne, 2 and 3 Bird and Schallopp.
1886. London, x Blackburne, 2 Burn, 3 Gunsberg and Taubenhaus.
1886. Nottingham. X Burn, 2 Schallopp, 3 Gunsberg and Zukcrtort.
1887. Frankfort. X Mackenzie, 2 Blackburne and Weiss.
1 888. Bradford. X Gunsberg, 2 Mackenzie, 3 Mason and Bardeleben.
1889. New York. 1 Tchigorin and Weiss, 3 Gunsberg*.
1889. Breslau. I Tarrasch, 2 Burn, 3 Weiss.
1890. Amsterdam. 1 Burn, 2 Lasker, 3 Mason. There were only
nine competitors, Lasker unexpectedly losing to van VUet
by a trap.
1890. Manchester. X Tarrasch, 2 Blackburne. 3 Bird and Mackenzie.
1892. Dresden, x Tarrasch, 2 Makovetz and Porges. Blackburne
received a special prize.
1894. Leipzig. X Tarrasch, 2 Lipke arid Teichmann.
1895. Hastings, x Pillsbury, 2 Tchigorin, 3 Lasker. This tourna-
ment is historical for the first appearance of Pillsbury, the
American champion, and Maroczy, the Hungarian champion.
1896. Nuremberg. 1 Lasker, 2 Maroczy, 3 Pillsbury and Tarrasch.
1896. Budapest. I Tchigorin, 2 Charousek, 3 Pillsbury.
1897. Berlin. 1 Charousek, 2 Walbrodt, 3 Blackburne. Englisch
had to abandon the tournament and return to Vienna ill.
He never recovered and died a few weeks later.
1898. Vienna. X Tarrasch, 2 Pillsbury, 3 Janowsky. Tarrasch
achieved a remarkable victory in this important tournament.
Pillsbury's chances were better than his, but he managed
to run him neck and neck and beat him in the tie match
which followed.
1898. Cologne. I Burn, 2 Charousek. Cohn and Tchigorin.
1899. London. X Lasker, 2 Janowsky, Maroczy and Pillsbury.
Janowsky sacrificed the second prize by trying to win a
game against Steinitz when with an easy draw in hand he
could have secured the second place for himself alone.
1900. Munich. Tie between Maroczy, Pillsbury and Schlechtcr for
three chief prizes.
1900. Paris. 1 Lasker, 2 Pillsbury, 3 Maroczy and Marshall.
1901. Monte Carlo. 1 Janowsky, 2 Schlechtcr, 3 Schcvc and
Tchigorin. A novel rule was introduced at this tournament,
viz. the first drawn game to count i to each player, to be
replayed, and in case of a draw again to count i each, and
in case of win i to the winner. Theoretically this seems
logical, but in practice it did not work well.
1902. Monte Carlo. 1 Pillsbury and Maroczy, 3 Janowsky.
1902. Hanover. X Janowsky, 2 Pillsbury, 3 Atkins.
I9<>3« Monte Carlo. I Tarrasch, 2 Maroczy, 3 Pillsbury.
1904. Monte Carlo. I Maroczy, 2 Schlechtcr, 3 Marshall.
1904. Cambridge Springs, x Marshall, 2 Laakcr and Janowsky.
1905. Ostcnd. X Maroczy, 2 Tarrasch and Janowsky.
1905. Schcvcningcn. 1 Marshall, 2 Lcusscn, 3 Spiclmann.
1906. Stockholm. 1 Schlechtcr and Bernstein, 3 Miescs.
1906. Ostcnd. 1 SchJcchter, 2 Maroczy, 3 Rubenstcin.
1906. Nuremberg. 1 Marshall, 2 Duras, 3 Schlechtcr and Flcisch*
niann.
1907. Vienna, x Micses, 2 Duras, t-Maroczy and Vidmarc.
1907. Ostcnd. 1 Bernstein and Rubenstcin. 3 Miescs.
1907. Ostcnd. 1 Tarrasch, 2 Schlechtcr, 3 Janowsky and Marshall.
1907. Carlsbad. 1 Rubenstcin, 2 Maroczy, 3 Nicmzowitch and
Leonhardt.
; In the absence of any recognized authority to confer the title
CHESS
*°5
of chess champion of the world, it has usually been appropriated
by the most successful competitor in tournaments. On this
ground Tarrasch claimed the title in 1007, although Laskcr, who
had twice beaten Steinitz, the previous champion, in champion-
ship matches, in addition to such masters as Bird, Blackburne,
Mieses and Marshall, was well qualified to assume it. Accord-
ingly in arranging the programme for the tournament at Ostcnd
in 1007 it was agreed that the winner of this contest should
receive the title of tournament champion, and should play a
match with Laskcr for the championship of the world. Tarrasch
having proved successful at Ostend, the match between him
aod Lasker was played at Munich in September 1008, and re-
sulted in the victory of Lasker by 8 games to 3 and 5 draws.
Chess has developed various schools of play from time to time.
The theory of the game, however, did not advance in proportion
to the enormous strides in its popularity. Formerly the theory
of play had been enriched by such enthusiasts as Dr Max Lange,
Louis Paulsen. Professor Anderssen, Neumann, Dr Suhle,
FaOtbeer, Kiescritzki, Howard Staunton, Dr Zukertort, W. N.
Potter and Steinitz, foremost amongst them being Louis Paulsen.
The openings were thoroughly overhauled, new variations dis-
covered and tested in practical play over the board. These
are now things of the past. The masters who find flaws in old
variations and discover new ones bring them to light only in
matches or tournaments, as new discoveries have now a market
value and may gain prizes in matches or tournaments. The
old " romantic " school consequently became extinct, and the
eliminating process resulted in the retention of a small repertoire
only, sufficient for practical purposes in important contests.
Gambits and kindred openings containing elements of chance
were avoided, and the whole stock which a first-class player
requires is a thorough knowledge of the " Ruy Lopez," the
*' Queen's Pawn Openings," and the " French " and " Sicilian
Defences " — openings which contain the Jeast element of chance.
The ripertoire being restricted it necessarily follows that the
scope for grand combinations is also diminished and only
strategy or position play remains. The "romantic" school
invariably aimed at an attack on the king's position at any cost;
nowadays the struggle is to obtain a minute advantage, and the
whole plan consists in finding or creating a weak spot in the
opponent's arrangement of forces; such is the theory of the
modern school, conceived and advocated by Steinitz. But it is
a curious fact that Steinitz founded the modern school rather
late in life. He felt his powers of combination waning, and being
the world's champion and eager to retain that title, he started
the new theory. This novel departure revolutionized chess
entirely. The attacking and combination style was sacrificed
to a sound, sober and dry method; but Steinitz, strange to say,
was not even the best exponent of his own theory, this position
falling to younger players, Siegbert Tarrasch, SchkChter, Amos
Burn and Emanuel Lasker. Pillsbury and Janowsky adhered
to both styles, the former in a high degree, and so did Zukertort
and Charousek; Tchigorin being a free-lance with a style of his
own. The old charm of the game disappeared — in match and
tournament play at least — and beauty was sacrificed to exact
calculation and to scoring points. This is to be regretted, for
the most beautiful games still occur when a player resorts to
the gambits. One of the finest games in the Hastings tourna-
ment was played by Tchigorin against Pillsbury, and this was
a " King's Gambit Declined." Charousek won a " Bishop's
Gambit " against Dr Lasker in the Nuremberg tournament;
and some brilliant games occur in the " Queen's Gambit De-
clined," if either White or Black sacrifices the KP. Another
reason why gambits should be adopted by players in tourna-
ments is that competitors would necessarily be readily prepared
for the regulation openings, so that the gambits might take them
I by surprise. After all, the new school is a natural consequence
of the progress of the game. Paulsen, Anderssen and Tchigorin
devoted a lifetime to the Evans Gambit, volumes of analyses
were written on it, and then Lasker revives an obsolete defence,
and the Evans Gambit disappears I Zukertort achieved a great
with " 1. Kt to KB3" in the London tournament, 1883,
and this, or the kindred " 1. P to Q4 " opening, has since become
the trusty weapon in serious encounters. Lasker wrote Common
Sense in Chess, and gave the best defences of the Ruy Lopez (a
certain form of it); but the " common sense " was demolished^
in the Paris and Nuremberg tournaments, and old forms of that
remarkable opening have to be refurbished. These instances will
suffice to show the reason for the cautious style 'of modern times.
The Moltkes have replaced the Napoleons.
The old versatility of style could be revived if club tournaments
were organized differently. The players might be compelled
to adopt one single opening only in a two-round contest, each
player thus having attack and defence in turn. The next season
another opening would form the programme, and so on. Even
in international tournaments this condition might be imposed;
the theory would be enriched; full scope would be given to
power of combination and ingenuity; whilst the game would be
more interesting.
There are still amateurs who devote their energies to the
theory of the game; but so long as innovations or new dis-
coveries are not tested by masters in serious games, they are of
no value, Steinitz used to keep a number of new discoveries
ready to be produced in masters' contests, the result being that
his novelties were regularly demolished when it came to a
practical test. The mistake was that he did not try his novelties
over the board with an opponent of equal strength, instead of
trusting to his own judgment alone.
The British Chess Federation was instituted in 1904, its
first congress being held at Hastings in that year, when a British
championship, a ladies' championship and a first-class amateur
tournament were played. These competitions have been con-
tinued annually at the congresses of the federation, with the
following results: —
British Championship.
1904. Hastings. 1 H. E. Atkins and W. E. Napier, 3 J. H. Black-
burne.
1905. Southport. 1 H. E. Atkins, 2 G. E. H. Bcllingham and
J. H. Blackburne.
1906. Shrewsbury. 1 H. E. Atkins, 2 R. P. Michell, 3 G. E. Wain-
wrigbt.
1907. Crystal Palace. I H. E. Atkins, 2 J. H. Blackburne, R. P.
Michell, E. G. Sergeant and G. E. Wainwright.
Ladies* Championship.
1904. Hastings. 1 Miss Finn, 2 Mrs Anderson and Mrs Herring.
1905. Southport. I Miss Finn. 2 Mrs Anderson and Mrs Houlding.
1906. Shrewsbury. 1 Mrs Herring, 2 Mrs Anderson, 3 Miss Ellisand
Mrs Houlding.
1907. Crystal Palace, 1 Mrs Herring and Mrs Houlding, 3 Mrs
Anderson.
First Class Amateur Tournament.
'Section A. 1 W. H. Gunston, 2 H. F. Cheshire
.__, u»-»:««- . an d F - Brown.
1904. Hastings SectUm B , G E \Vainwright and C H.
Sherrard, 3 W. P. M'Bean.
Section A. 1 Dr Holmes, 2 J. Mortimer, 3 H. G.
,905. SouU^ ^ fc ^utLEfft. Bn)wn T
I Kelly and C. H. Wall work.
1906. Shrewsbury. 1 G. Shories, J. F. Allcock, P. W. Fairwcathcr
and E. D. Palmer.
In 1896 and following years matches between representative
players of Great Britain and the United States respectively
were played by cable, with the following results: —
1896. America
1897. Great Britain
1898. Great Britain
1899. America
1900. America
1901. Drawn
1902. America
1903. America
1007. Great Britain
1908. America
1909. Great Britain
won by 4} games to 3!
.1 ,!
Since 1809 cable matches have also been played annually
between representatives of English and American universities;
of the first six three were won by England, the remaining three
io6
CHEST
being drawn. In England chess matches nave Ven played
annually since 1S73 between the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge, seven pbycrs on each side, Up to 1007 Oxford
won eleven matches, Cambridge twenty-one, and three were
drawn.
LirEJtAft'RE ow TtJEGAifE. — The nm known writer on chess was
Jacobus de Cessolis. (Jacopo Dacciesok 1 ), whose main object, how-
ever, though lit gives the moves, &c„ was to teach mwats mi her
than ch'.H*. He was a Dominican friar, and his treatise. Solatium
Ludi ScaC(harum t scilicet, Libetlus de Moribus Homimtm et Qjfitiis
NobMum, was written before the year 1200, Tt was afterwards
translated into French, and in the year IJ74 Caxton* under He tSdf
of The Game and Playc of Chcsst, printed an English translation of
the French version.
In J49O we have the G^tlingcr HandsehriU, a work containing nine
different openings and fifty problems. The author of this manure: ri pt
is not known* Thin comes Vieent* a Spanish writer, whose book
bears date 1495- Only the title-page has been preserved, the rest
of the work having been tost in the first Ca rlist war* 01 Lurena t
another Spanish author who wrote in or about 1497, we are better
informed. His treatise, Repetition da A meres y Arte de Axtdres,
comprises various, practical chess nutters, including 150 positions*
Illustrated by too well -executed woodcut b- Various of ibe*c
positions ft ft identical with those in the G&ttinger tfandsehrift. In
the ibth century works upon the game wrre written by Damiano,
Ruy Lopez and Horatio Giartutio dclla Mantia; in the mh ternary
by Salvto, Pulcrio, Guitavu& Selenus, Carrera, Greco, Fr* Antonio
and the authors of the Tratfi de Lausanne] in the 18th century by
Bert in, 5ranvma H ErtoU? del Fio, Lolli, Cojio, PhiUdor* Poniiam,
Stein, fan Nyevek*. Allgaicr and Peter Prati , in Lhe 10th century
by J^ F. W* Koch and L"* F. Koch, Sarratt, John Cochrane, Win*
Lewis, Silberschmidt, Ghuliin Kj^im and Tames Cochrane* George
Walker* A, MacDnnnelll, Jaenisch, Peiroff, von Bilguer, von der
Lasa, Staunton, KSini? and Horwitz, Bledow, Dubois, Kiescrit/lti.
Max Lance, Lo wen thai, Dufrewie, Neumann, Suhlc, Zukertort. Preti
and others
English chess owes much to W. Lewis and George Walker. But
to Howard Staunton must be ascribed the most important flhare in
creating the later popularity which the eame achieved in England*
• Staunton's first wurk. The Chess Player s Handbook, was published
in 1847, and again (revised J in 1848, For want of further adequate
revision many of its variations are now out of date; but taking the
handbook as it was when issued, very high praise must be bestowed
upon the author. His other works are; J** Chess Player's Text-
Book and 7"** Chess Player** Companion (t8*jo) (the latter being a
collection of his own games), the Chess Praxis 1.1*60), republished in.
loot, hip posthumous work. Chess Theory and Praetke, edited by
K . S. Wormald 876) , and vario us sma Her trea t ises. The laws of t he
rami' as laid down in the Praxis formed the basis of the rules adopted
By the Briutii Chess Association in t86j. Besides editing The
Chess Ptayet*s Chronicle and The Chess World, he was the chess
editor of The Illustrated London Arte) from 1*44 till his death in
1874,
Among continental chest authorities von Heydebrandt und der
Lasa (mot* usually known by his second title) flood pre-eminent*
The German Hanahueh wa* com pitted in 1843 by von Biljruer. who
d led before t he first edition was completed . The seco nd , th 1 ml , f ounh
aod fifth editions (the last published in 1674) were edited and revised
by von der Lata.
Among the more important modem works the following may
be mentioned: Vasquel, El Ajedres de memorial La Qdtsea tie
Pablo Aforpky {Havana, 1893): Bauer H Schaehlrxittm (Leipzig*
1693); Jean Dufresne, K feints Ukrbttch des Sckachsjxets (6th ed*.
Leipzig, tflo^); E. Frecborough and Rev. C. E. Rankcn, Ghtss
Openings, Ancient and bi*dern\ Arnelung* Baltiscke Schachblatier,
fife (Btflin. 1803); Bach man, Geistreiche Sthachpariien (containing
a number of brilliant games) (Ansbach. 1803-1899}: H, H- flird.
Chess Hillary and Rcmini seenees (London. iS»iv); The Ststniiz-
lAsker Uaick (1S94); Cheji Nowiliej (1895); Max Lange, P*td
MttrpMy (1604); C\ Bardeltbrn and L Mieses, Lthrbueh des
SckJuhspieli (vcri' useful) ; Jai. Masion, The Principles nf Chess in
Theory artd Practice ((894); The Ah af Chess (1895): Social Chess
(Horace Cos, London) ; Dr Tajrrasch, Dreikundert Sfhathparliert
(Leipzig* 1895); Dr Eugen V- Schmidt, Sysirmaiische Anordunivan
SchacheroJ? nuji$en (Veit & Co., Leipzig, 1895): Numa Preti, ABC
dei echcci (Part*, 1^5}: C. SAlvioC fevrii gmci-ale del xivoto d*iH
Scacchi {Livorno. 180.5); W, Stciniti, Modern Chess Instruettrr [New
York, 1895}: L- HofW, Chest (Ftouiledee); E. Freeborouph, 5ftftl
Chess End-Games (Lrrndon, rS^5 J ; Euchd, The. Chess Endinf Kin$
and Queen a-taimt Ktnt js«d icD*t (London, tSftS): Ta«ilo von
Heydcbrandc und der Lasa, Leisfadea des Sihathpiels and Zur
Gesebiikte and Literatur des Sfkaihspitt'ii LeipEig r 1*07) * ^r, L^ker,
Cimrrufn Sense in Chess (London, 1^96}; Oacar CordcL Nruester
Leiifaden des Sthachipiels ( Berlin , i*kj6j- and a vast number of
ot he r oubl ica [ ion*.
Furthcr, The London Tournament ff<w* {»BSj); Twite Tourna-
ment Books of she. German Chess Association (Veil 4 Co., Lcipiic):
The Hastinis Tournament Booh (London* 1896); The Vienna
Tournament Book, by Halprin and Marco (1900); The Nurtmbert
Tournament Book, by Dr Tarrasch; The Book of th* London
Congress, by L. HotTer (Longman. 1899); The Pans Tournament
Book (Paris, 1900), by Robenthal, Sic.
The following arc some of the best works in English on cheat
probtema— " J. B." ol Itridport. CAor Strategy (1865;; F. Hcalcy,
A CoHcaion of ^00 Chess Problems (1866): Enrlisk Chess Problems.
cdned by James and W* T. Pierce (1876); H. J. C. Andrews, E. N.
Frankenstein, B. G. Laws, and C. Planck, The Chess Problem Text-
Book (1887), A. F. Mackenzie, Chess: its Poetry and its Pros*
(Jamaica, 1SS7): J- A- Miles. Chess Stars (self-mates), (1888):
jnmea Ray act, Che is Problems (1890); B. G. Laws, The Two- M09*
Chess Problem (1H90)* The Chess Bouquet, compiled by F. R.
Giuiu* (1H97) * Mr and Mrs T. B. Rowland, The Problem Art (and
cd-, tSoS); E. B. Cook. T. Hencry and C. A. Gilberg. American
Chess-Nuts (1S68), Samuel Loyd, Chess Strategy (1878); W. H.
Lyons. Chess- Nttl Burr s and how to open them (1886) ; C. A. Gilberg.
Crumbs from the Chess Board (1890); Canadian Chess Problems,
ediied by C. F. Stubbs (1890): W: Puliuer. Chess Harmonies (1894);
G. E. Carpenter {Si. Frcii of Paris), 200 Chess Problems (1900).
CHEST (Gr. darn, Lat. cista, O. Eng. cist, cest, &c), a large
box of wood or metal with a hinged lid. The term is also used
of a variety of kinds of receptacle; and in anatomy is transferred
to the portion of the body covered by the ribs and breastbone
(see Respiratory System). In the more ordinary meaning
chests are, next to the chair and the bed, the most ancient articles
of domestic furniture. The chest was the common receptade
for clothes and valuables, and was the direct ancestor of the
" chest of drawers," which was formed by enlarging the chest
and cutting up the front. It was also frequently used as a seat.
Indeed, in its origin it took in great measure the place of the
chair, which, although familiar enough to the ancients, had
become a luxury in the days when the chest was already an
almost universal possession. The chief use of chests was as
wardrobes, but they were also often employed for the storing of
valuables. In the early middle ages the rich possessed them in
profusion, used them as portmanteaux, and carried them about
from castle to castle. These portable receptacles were often
covered with leather and emblazoned with heraldic designs.
As houses gradually became less sparsely furnished, chests and
beds and other movables were allowed to remain stationary,
and the chest lost its covered top, and took the shape in which we
best know it — that of an oblong box standing upon raised feet
As a rule it was made of oak, but it was sometimes of chestnut
or other hard wood.
There are, properly speaking, three types of chest— the
domestic, the ecclesiastical and the strong box or coffer. Old
domestic chests still exist in great number and some variety,
but the proportion of those earlier than the latter part of the
Tudor period is very small; most of them are Jacobean in date.
Very frequently they were made to contain the store of house-
linen which a bride took to her husband upon her marriage.
In the 1 7th century Boulle and his imitators glorified the marriage-
coffer until it became a gorgeous casket, almost indeed a sarco-
phagus, inlaid with ivory and ebony and precious woods, and
enriched with ormolu, supported upon a stand of equal magnifi-
cence. The Italian marriage-chests (cassone) were also of a
richness which was never attempted in England. The main
characteristics of English domestic chests (which not infrequently
are carved with names and dates) are panelled fronts and ends,
the feet being formed from prolongations of the "stiles' 1 or side
posts. There were, however, exceptions, and a certain number
of 17th-century chests have separate feet, either circular or
shaped after the indications of a somewhat later style. There
is usually a strong architectural feeling about the chest, the front
being divided into panels, which are plain in the more ordinary
examples, and richly carved in the choicer ones. The plinth
and frieze are often of well-de6ned guilloche work, or are carved
with arabesques or conventionalized flowers. Architectural
detail, especially the detail of wainscoting, has indeed been
followed with considerable fidelity, many of the earlier chests
being carved in the lincnfold pattern, while the Jacobean
examples are often mere reproductions of the pilastered and
recessed oaken mantelpieces of the period. Occasionally a
chest is seen which is inlaid with coloured woods, or with
CHESTER, EARLS OF— CHESTER
107
geometrical parquetry. Perhaps the most elaborate type of
English parquetry chest is that named after the vanished Palace
of Nonesuch. Such pieces are, however, rarely met with. The
entire front of this type is covered with a representation of the
palace in coloured woods. Another class of chest is incised, some-
times rather roughly, but often with considerable geometrical
skilL The more ordinary variety has been of great value to the
forger of antique furniture, who has used its carved panels for
conversion into cupboards and other pieces, the history of
which is not easily unravelled by the amateur who collects old
oak without knowing much about it. Towards the end of the
17th century chests were often made of walnut, or even of exotic
woods such as cedar and cypress, and were sometimes clamped
with large and ornamental brass bands and hinges. The chests
of the iSth century were much larger than those of the preceding
period, and as often as not were furnished with two drawers at
the bottom — an arrangement but rarely seen in those of the 17th
century — while they were often fitted with a small internal box
fixed across one end for ready access to small articles. The chest
was not infrequently impanelled and unornamented, and in the
latter period of its history this became the ruling type. It will
not have been forgotten that it was in an old oak chest that the
real or mythical heroine of the pathetic ballad of " The Mistletoe
Bough " concealed herself, to her undoing.
Ecclesiastical chests appear to have been used almost entirely
as receptacles for vestments and church plate, and those which
survive are still often employed for the preservation of parish
documents. A considerable variety of these interesting and
often exceedingly elaborate chests are still left in English
churches. They arc usually of considerable size, and of a length
disproportionate to their depth. This no doubt was to facilitate
the storage of vestments. Most of them arc of great antiquity.
Many go back to the 14th century, and here and there they are
even earlier, as in the case of the coffer in Stoke d'Abernon
church, Surrey, which is unquestionably 13th-century work.
One of the most remarkable of these early examples is in Newport
church, Essex. It is one of the extremely rare painted coffers
of the 13th century, the front carved with an upper row of shields,
from which the heraldic painting has disappeared, and a lower
row of roundels. Between is a belt of open tracery, probably of
pewter, and the inside of the lid is decorated with oil paintings
representing the Crucifixion, the Virgin Mary, St Peter. St John
and St Paul The well-known " jewel chest " in St Mary's,
Oxford, is one of the earliest examples of 14th century work.
Many of these ecclesiastical chests are carved with architectural
motives — traceried windows most frequently, but occasionally
with the linenfold pattern. There is a whole class of chests
known as " tilting coffers," carved with representations of
tournaments or feats of arms, and sometimes with a grotesque
admixture of chivalric figures and mythical monsters. Only
five or six examples of this type are known still to exist in
England, and two of them are now in the Victoria and Albert
Museum. It is not certain that even these few are of English origin
—indeed, very many of the chests and coders of the 1 6th and 17th
centuries are of foreign make. They were imported into England
chiefly from Flanders, and were subsequently carved by native
artisans, as was the case with other common pieces of furniture
of those periods. The hue he or " hutch " was a rough type of
household chest.
The word "coffer" is properly applied to a chest which was
intended for the safe keeping of valuables. As a rule the coffer
is much more massive in construction than the domestic chest;
itis clamped by iron bands, sometimes contains secret receptacles
opening with a concealed spring, and is often furnished with an
elaborate and complex lock, which occupies the whole of the
underside of the lid. Pieces of this type are sometimes described
as Spanish chests, from the belief that they were taken from
ships belonging to the Armada. It is impossible to say that this
may not sometimes have been the case, but these strong boxes
are frequently of English origin, although the mechanism of the
locks may have been due to the subtle skill of foreign locksmiths.
A typical example of the treasure chest is that which belonged
to Sir Thomas fiodley, and is preserved in the Bodleian library at
Oxford. The locks of this description of chest are of steel, and
are sometimes richly damascened. It was for being implicated
in the breaking open and robbing of just such a chest as this,
to which the College de Navarre had confided coin to the value of
500 ecus, that Francois Villon was hanged on the gibbet of
Montfaucon.
CHESTER, EARLS OF. The important palatine earldom of
Chester was first held by a certain Fleming named Gherbod
(fl. 1070), and then by Hugh of Avranches (d. 1101), a son of
Richard, viscount of Avranches. Hugh, who was probably one
of William the Conqueror's companions, was made carl of Chester
in 107 1 ; he had special privileges in his earldom, and he hdd
land in twenty counties. He was called Le Grot on account of
his great bulk and Lupus on account of his ferocity. However,
he regarded St Ansclm as his friend, and he showed the customary
liberality to religious houses. His life was mainly spent in
fighting the Welsh and in Normandy, and he died on the 27th
of July 1101. Hugh's only son Richard, who was childless,
was drowned in the White Ship in November 1 1 20. Among sub*
sequent holders were Ralph, or Randulph, de Gernon (d. 1153),
who took a prominent part in the civil wars of the reign of
Stephen, fighting first on one side and then on the other; and
his son Hugh de Kevelioc (1147-1181), who shared in the rising
against Henry II. in n 73. But perhaps the most celebrated of
the early earls was Ralph, Ranulf, or Randulph, de BlundcviU
(c. 1 1 72-1 232), who succeeded his father Hugh de Kevelioc as
earl in 1181, and was created carl of Lincoln in 1217. Ranulf
married Constance, widow of Henry II. 's son, Geoffrey of Brittany,
and is sometimes called duke of Brittany and carl of Richmond.
He fought in Wales, was on the side of John during his struggle
with the barons over Magna Carta, and was one of this king's
executors; he also fought for the young king Henry III. against
the French invaders and their allies. In 1 2 18 he went on crusade
to the Holy Land and took part in the capture of Damietta;
then returning to England he died at Wallingford in October
1 232. After speaking of Ranulf 's unique position in the kingdom,
which " fitted him for the part of a leader of opposition to royal
or ministerial tyranny," Stubbs sums up his character in these
words: "On more than one occasion he refused his consent to
taxation which he deemed unjust; his jealousy of Hubert (de
Burgh), although it led him to join the foreign party in 1223,
did not prevent him from more than once interposing to prevent
his overthrow. He was, moreover, almost the last relic of the
great feudal aristocracy of the Conquest." Although twice
married he left no children, and his immense possessions passed
to his four sisters. The carl's memory remained green for a long
time, and in the Vision of Piers Plowman his name is linked with
that of Robin Hood. In November 1232 the earldom of Chester
was granted to his nephew John the Scot, carl of Huntingdon
(c. 1207-1237), and in 1246, nine years after John had died
childless, it was annexed to the English crown " lest so fair a
dominion should be divided among women."
In 1254 Prince Edward, afterwards King Edward I., was created
earl of Chester, and since this date the earldom has always been
held by the heirs apparent to the English crown with the single
exception of Simon de Montfort. carl of Leicester* Since 1399
the earls of Chester have been also princes of Wales, although
the act of -Richard II. (130S), which created Chester into a prin-
cipality to be held by the king's eldest son, was revoked by
Henry IV.
CHESTER, an episcopal city and county of a city, municipal,
county and parliamentary borough, and the county town of
Cheshire, England. 170 m. N. W. of London. Pop. ( 1001 ) 38,309.
It lies in a low plain on the Dec, principally on the north (right)
bank, 6 m. above the embouchure of the river into its wide,
shallow estuary. It is an important railway centre, the principal
lines serving it being the London & North -Western, Great
Western, Cheshire Lines and Great Central. The city is divided
into four principal blocks by the four principal streets — North-
gate Street, Eastgate Street, Bridge Street and Watergate Street,
which radiate at right angles from the Cross, and fetuuu*ft.*'UL
io8
CHESTER
the four gates. These four streets exhibit in what are called
*' the Rows " a characteristic feature of the city. Their origin
is a mystery, and has given rise to much controversy. In East-
gate Street, Bridge Street and Watergate Street, the Rows
exist on each side of the street throughout the greater part of
its length, and may be described as continuous galleries open
to the street, over and under which the houses lining the streets
project, and which are formed as it were out of the front first-
floor of the houses, approached by flights of steps from the
roadway. The Rows are flagged or boarded under foot and ceiled
above, thus forming a covered way, standing in the same relation
to the shops, which are at their back, as the foot pavement
does in other towns. In Northgate Street, on the other hand,
the Row on the west side is formed as it were out of the ground
floor of the houses, having cellars beneath, while on the east side
the Row is formed at the same elevation as in the other three
principal streets. In these streets are several examples of old
timbered houses and some good modern imitations of them, —
all combining to give a picturesque and individual character
to the city. Among the most interesting of the ancient houses are
Derby House, bearing the date 1501, Bishop Lloyd's house, and
God's Providence House in Watergate Street, and the Bear and
Billet in Lower Bridge Street; the three last date from the 17th
century. There is also a chamber with stone groined roof of the
14th century in the basement of a house in Eastgate Street, and
another of a similar character in Watergate Street. A mortuary
chapel of the early part of the 13th century exists in the basement
of a house in Bridge Street.
Chester is the only city in England that still possesses its walls
perfect in their entire circuit of 2 m. The gateways have all been
rebuilt at various dates; the north and east gates on the site of
the Roman gates. The Grosvenor bridge, a single span of stone
200 ft. in length, said to be the largest save one in Europe,
carries the road to Wrexham and Shrewsbury over the Dee on the
south-west; while the old bridge of seven arches is interesting
on account of its antiquity and picturesquencss. The castle,
with the exception of " Caesar's Tower," and a round tower with
adjacent buildings, in the upper ward, was taken down towards
the end of the 18th century, and replaced by a gateway, barracks,
county hall, gaol and assize courts.
The cathedral church of Christ and the Virgin Mary, which
stands towards the north of the city within the walls, rose on the
site of a church of extreme antiquity. It appears that the
dedication of this church was altered, perhaps in the reign of
Athelstan, from St. Peter and St Paul to St Werburgh and
St Oswald, St Werburgh being a niece of St Etheldreda of Ely.
In 1093 Hugh Lupus, carl of Chester, richly endowed the founda-
tion as a Benedictine monastery. The bishops of Mercia had
apparently a seat at Chester, but the city had ceased to be epis-
copal, until in 1075 Peter, bishop of Lichfield, removed his seat
thence to Chester, having for his cathedral the collegiate church
of St John. The seat of the sec, however, was quickly removed
again to Coventry (1103), but Cheshire continued subject to
Lichfield until in 154 1 Chester was erected into a bishopric by
Henry VIII., the church of the dissolved abbey of St Werburgh
becoming the cathedral. The diocese covers nearly the whole
of Cheshire, with very small portions of Lancashire and Stafford-
shire. The cathedral does not rank among the most splendid
English churches, but possesses certain details of the highest
interest, and gains in beauty from the tones of its red sandstone
walls and the picturesque close in which it stands. It is cruciform
with a central tower 127 ft. high. The south transept is larger
than the north. The nave is short (145 ft), being of six bays;
the southern arcade is Decorated, while the northern, which
differs in detail, is of uncertain date. The basement of the north-
western toweir — all that remains of it, now used as a baptistery —
is Norman, and formed part of Hugh Lupus' church; and the
fabric of the north wall is also of this period. The north transept
also retains Norman work, and its size shows the original plan,
as the existence of the conventual buildings to the north probably
rendered its extension undesirable. The south transept has
aisles with Decorated and Perpendicular windows. The fine
organ stands on a screen across the north transept; but some
of its pipes are upon the choir screen,, both screens being the
work of Sir Gilbert Scott. The style of the choir is transitional
from Early English to Decorated, and its length is 125 ft. It
is a fine example, and its beauty is enhanced by the magnificent
series of ancient carved wooden stalls unsurpassed in England.
The Lady Chapel, east of the choir, is of rich Early English
workmanship. Of the conventual buildings the cloisters are
Perpendicular. The chapter-house, entered by a beautiful
vestibule from the east cloister, and lined with cases containing
the chapter library, is Early English (c. 1240). The refectory,
adjoining the north cloister, is of the same period, with Perpen-
dicular insertions; it has been curtailed in size, but retains its
beautiful Early English lector's pulpit. An early Norman
chamber, with massive pillars and vaulting, adjoins the west
cloister, and may be the substructure of the abbot's house. The
abbey gateway is of the 14th century.
Within the walls there are several churches of andent founda-
tion; thus St Peter's is said to occupy the site of a church erected
by jEthelflad, queen of Mercia, and St Mary's dates from
the 1 2th century. None, however, is of any special interest;
but the church of St John, outside the walls, which as already
stated became the cathedral in 1075, is a massive early Norman
structure, with later additions, and, especially as regards the
exterior, considerably restored in modern times. Its fine tower
fell in 188 1 . It was a collegiate church until 1 547, and there are
some remains of the adjoining buildings. Among numerous
modern churches there may be mentioned St Mary's without the
walls, built in 1887 by the duke of Westminster, of red sandstone,
with a fine spire and peal of bells.
Among the chief secular buildings, the town hall replaced in
i860 the old exchange, which had been burnt down in 1862.
.The Grosvenor Museum and School of Art, the foundation of
which was suggested by Charles Kingsley the novelist, when
canon of Chester cathedral, contains many local antiquities,
along with a fine collection of the fauna of Cheshire and the
neighbourhood. The King's school was founded by Henry VIII.
(1541). who provided that twenty-four poor scholars should be
taught free of cost. It was reorganized as a public school in
1873, and possesses twelve king's scholarships tenable in the
school, and close scholarships tenable at the universities. Among
other schools may be mentioned the blue-coat school (1700),
the Queen's school for girls (1878), the girls' school attached to
the Roman Catholic convent, and the diocesan training college
for schoolmasters. For recreation provision is made by the New
Grosvenor Park, presented to the city in 1867 by the marquess
of Westminster; Handbridge Park, opened in 1892; and the
Roodee, a level tract by the river at the base of the city wall,
appropriated as a race-course. An annual race-meeting is held
in May and attended by thousands. The chief event is the race
for the Chester Cup, which dates from 1 540, when a silver bell
was given as the prize by the Saddlers' Company. Pleasure
vessels ply on the Dee in summer, and an annual regatta is held,
at which all the principal northern rowing-clubs arc generally
represented. The town gains in prosperity from its large number
of visitors. The principal industries are carried on without the
walls, where there are lead, shot and paint works, leather and
tobacco factories, and iron foundries. The trade gilds number
twenty-four. There is a considerable amount of shipping on the
Dee, the navigation having been much improved in modern
times. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The
municipal council consists of a mayor, zo aldermen and 30
councillors. Area, 2862 acres.
History. — Setting aside the numerous legends with regard to,
the existence of a British city on the site now occupied by
Chester, the earliest authentic information relating to its history
is furnished by the works of Ptolemy and Antoninus. As the
Roman station of Deva it was probably founded about a.d. 48
by Ostorius Scapula, and from its advantageous position, both
as the key to communication with Ireland and as a bulwark
against the hostile tribes of the north, it became a military and
commercial centre of considerable Importance. In a.d. 78-79
CHESTER— CHESTERFIELD, LORD
109
it was the winter-quarters of Agricola , and later became illustrious
as the permanent headquarters of Legio XX. Valeria Victrix.
Many inscriptions and remains of the Roman military occupation
have been found, and the north and east walls stand in great
part on Roman foundations. The Saxon form of the name
was Leganceaster. About 614 the city was captured and
destroyed by jEthclfrith, and henceforth lay in ruins until
£thelfl*9d in 907 rebuilt the walls, restored the monastery of St
Werburgh, and made the city " nigh two such as it was before."
In the reign of JEthelstan a mint was set up at Chester, and in
973 it was the scene of Edgar's truimph when, it is said, he was
rowed on the Dee by six subject kings. Chester opposed a deter-
mined resistance to the Conqueror, and did not finally surrender
until 1070. On the erection of Cheshire to a county palatine
after the Conquest, Chester became the seat of government of the
palatine earls. The Domesday account of the city includes a
description of the Saxon laws under which it had been governed
in the time of Edward the Confessor. All the land, except the
bishop's borough, was held of the earl, and assessed at fifty
aides. There were seven mint-masters and twelve magistrates,
and the city paid a fee-farm rent of £45. It had been much
devastated since the time of Edward the Confessor, and the
number of houses reduced by 205.
The earliest extant charter, granted by Henry II. in 1160,
empowered the burgesses to trade with Durham as freely as they
had done in the reign of Henry I. From this date a large collec-
tion of charters enumerates privileges granted by successive earls
and later sovereigns. One from Ralph or Ranulf dc Blundevill,
granted between 1100 and 121 1, confirms to the citizens a gild
merchant and all liberties and free customs, and three from
John protect their privilege of trading with Ireland. Edward I.
empowered the citizens to elect coroners and to hold courts of
justice, and granted them the fee-farm of the city at a yearly
rent of £100. In the 14th century Chester began to lose its
standing as a port through the gradual silling up of the estuary
of the Dee, and the city was further impoverished by the inroads
of the Welsh and by the necessity of rebuilding the Dec bridge,
which had been swept away by an unusually high tide. In con-
sideration of these misfortunes Richard II. remitted part of the
fee-farm. Continued misfortunes led to a further reduction of
the farm to £50 for a term of fifty years by Henry VI., who also
made a grant for the completion of a new Dee bridge. Henry
VTL reduced the fee-farm to £20, and in 1506 granted to the
citizens what is known as " the Great Charter." This charter
constituted the city a county by itself, and incorporated the
governing body under the style of a mayor, twenty-four aldermen
and forty common council men; it also instituted two sheriffs,
two coroners and a recorder, and the mayor, the ex-mayors
and the recorder were appointed justices of the peace. This
charter was confirmed by James I. and Charles II. A charter of
George III. in 1804 instituted the office of deputy-mayor. The
charter of Hugh Lupus to the abbey of St Werburgh includes
a grant of the tolls of the fair at the feast of St Werburgh
for three days, and a subsequent charter from Ranulf
de Blundevill (12th century) licensed the abbot and monks
to held their fairs and markets before the abbey gates. A
charter of John the Scot, earl of Chester, mentions fairs at the
feasts of the Nativity of St John Baptist and St Michael. For
many centuries the rights claimed by the abbot in connexion
with the fairs gave rise to constant friction with the civic
authorities, which lasted until, in the reign of Henry VIII.,
it was decreed that the right of holding fairs was vested ex-
clusively in the citizens. Charles II. in 1685 granted a cattle-
fair to be held on the first Thursday in February.
In 1553 Chester first returned two members to parliament,
having hitherto been represented solely in the parliament of
the palatinate. By the Redistribution Act of 1885 the representa-
tion was reduced to one member. The trades of tanners, skinners
and glove-makers existed at the time of the Conquest, and the
importation of marten skins is mentioned in Domesday. In
the 14th century the woollen trade was considerable, and in 1674
weavers and wool-combers were introduced into Chester from
Norwich. The restoration of the channel of the Dee opened
up a flourishing trade in Irish linen, which in 1786 was at its
height, but from that date gradually diminished.
See Victoria County History, Cheshire, R. H. Morris, Chester in
the Plantagcnet and Tudor Reigns (Chester, 1894); Joseph Heming-
way, History of the City of Chester (2 vols., Chester, 1831).
CHESTER, a city of Delaware county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
on the Delaware river, about 13 m. S.W. of Philadelphia. Pop.
(1800) 20,226; (1900) 33,088, of whom 5074 were foreign-born
and 4403 were negroes; (U. S. census, 1910) 38,537. It is served
by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Philadelphia & Reading
railways, by the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington division
of the Pennsylvania system, and by steamboat lines. Chester has
several interesting buildings dating from early in the 18th century
— among them the city hall (1724), one of the oldest public
buildings in the United States, and the house (1683) occupied
for a time by William Penn. It is the seat of the Pennsylvania
Military College (1862); and on the border of Chester, in the
borough of Upland (pop. in 1000, 213 1), is the Crozcr Theological
Seminary (Baptist), which was incorporated in 1867, opened in
1868, and named after John P. Crozcr (1793-1866), by whose
family it was founded. Chester has a large shipbuilding industry,
and manufactories of cotton and worsted goods, iron and
steel, the steel-casting industry being especially important, and
large quantities of wrought iron and steel pipes being manu-
factured. Dye-stuffs and leather also arc manufactured. The
value of the city's factory products in 1905 was $16,644,842.
Chester is the oldest town in Pennsylvania. It was settled by
the Swedes about 1645, was called Upland and was the seat of the
Swedish courts until 1682, when William Penn, soon after his
landing at a spot in the town now marked by a memorial stone,
gave it its present name. The first provincial assembly was
convened here in December of the same year. After the battle
of Brandywine in the War of Independence, Washington re-
treated to Chester, and in the "Washington House," still
standing, wrote his account of the battle. Soon afterwards
Chester was occupied by the British. In 1701 it was incorporated
as a borough; in 1795 and again in 1850 it received a new
borough charter; and in 1866 it was chartered as a city. For
a long time it was chiefly a small fishing settlement, its population
as late as 1820 being only 657; but after the introduction of
large manufacturing interests in 1850,. when its population was
only r667, its growth was rapid.
See H. G. Ashmcad, Historical Sketch of Chester (Chester, 1883).
CHESTERFIELD, PHILIP DORMER STANHOPE, 4 tii Earl
OP (1694-1773), son of Philip Stanhope, third carl (1673-
1 726), and Elizabeth Savile, daughter of George Savilc, marquess
of Halifax, was born in London on the 22nd of September 1694;
Philip, the first earl (1584-1656), son of Sir John Stanhope of
Shclford, was a royalist who in 1616 was created Baron Stanhope
of Shclford, and in 1628 earl of Chesterfield; and his grandson
the 2nd carl (1633-1714) was grandfather of the 4th earl. De-
prived at an early age of his mother, the care of the boy devolved
upon his grandmother, the marchioness of Halifax, a lady of
culture and connexion, whose house was frequented by the
most distinguished Whigs of the epoch. He soon began to
prove himself possessed of that systematic spirit of conduct
and effort which appeared so much In his life and character.
His education, begun under a private tutor, was continued
(171 2) at Trinity Hall, Cambridge; here he remained little
more than a year and seems to have read hard, and to have
acquired a considerable knowledge of ancient and modern
languages. The great orators of all times were a special object
of study with him, and he describes his boyish pedantry pleas-
antly enough, but by no means without a touch of sclf-satisfac
tion in the memory. His university training was supplemented
( 1 7 1 4) by a continental tour, untrammelled by a governor;
at the Hague his ambition for the applause awarded to adventure
made a gamester of him, and at Paris he began, from the same
motive, that worship of the conventional Venus, the serious
inculcation of which has earned for him the largest and most
unenviable part of his reputation.
no
CHESTERFIELD, LORD
The death of Anne and the accession of George I. opened up
a career for him and brought him back to England. His relative
James Stanhope (afterwards first Earl Stanhope), the king's
favourite minister, procured for him the place of gentleman of
the bedchamber to the prince of Wales. In 1715 he entered
the House of Commons as Lord Stanhope of Shclford and
member for St Germans, and when the impeachment of James,
duke of Ormonde, came before the House, he used the occasion
(5th of August 1 71 5) to put to proof his old rhetorical studies.
His maiden speech was youthfully fluent and dogmatic; but
on its conclusion the orator was reminded with many compli-
ments, by an honourable member, that he wanted six weeks of
his majority, and consequently that he was amenable to a fine
of £500 for speaking in the House. Lord Stanhope quitted the
Commons with a low bow and started for the continent. From
Paris he rendered the government important service by gathering
and transmitting information respecting the Jacobite plot;
and in 1716 he returned to England, resumed his seat, and took
frequent part in the debates. In that year came the quarrel
between the king and the heir apparent. Stanhope, whose
politic instinct obliged him to worship the rising rather than the
setting sun. remained faithful to the prince, though he was too
cautious to break entirely with the king's party. He was on
friendly terms with the prince's mistress, Henrietta Howard, after-
wards countess of Suffolk. He maintained a correspondence with
this lady which won for him the hatred of the princess of Wales
(afterwards Queen Caroline) . In 1 7 23 a vote for the governmen t
got him the place of captain of the Gentlemen Pensioners. In
January 1725, on the revival of the Bath, the red riband was
offered to him, but was declined.
In 1726 his father died, and Lord Stanhope became earl of
Chesterfield. He took his scat in the Upper House, and his
oratory, never effective in the Commons by reason of its want
of force and excess of finish, at once became a power. In 1728
Chesterfield was sent to the Hague as ambassador. In this place
his tact and temper, his dexterity and discrimination, enabled
htm to do good service, and he was rewarded with Walpolc's
friendship, a Garter and the place of lord high steward. In 1732
there was born to him, by a certain Mile du Bouchct, the son,
Philip Stanhope, for whose advice and instruction were after-
wards written the famous Letters. He negotiated the second
treaty of Vienna in 1731, and in the next year, being somewhat
broken in health and fortune, he resigned his embassy and re-
turned to England.
A few months' rest enabled him to resume his seat in the Lords,
of which he was one of the acknowledged leaders. He supported
the ministry, but his allegiance was not the blind fealty Walpole
exacted of his followers. The Excise Bill, the great premier's
favourite measure, was vehemently opposed by him in the Lords,
and by his three brothers in the Commons. Walpole bent before
the storm and abandoned the measure; but Chesterfield was
summarily dismissed from his stewardship. For the next two
years he led the opposition in the Upper House, leaving no stone
unturned to effect Walpolc's downfall. In 1741 he signed the
protest for Walpolc's dismissal and went abroad on account of
his health. He visited Voltaire at Brussels and spent some
time in Paris, where he associated with the younger Crebillon,
Fontcnelle and Montesquieu. In 1742 Walpole fell, and Carteret
was his real, though not his nominal successor. Although
Walpolc's administration had been overthrown largely by
Chesterfield's efforts the new ministry did not count Chesterfield
cither in its ranks or among its supporters. He remained in
opposition, distinguishing himself by the courtly bitterness of his
attacks on George II., who learned to hate him violently. In
1743 a new journal, Old England; or, the Constitutional Journal
appeared. For this paper Chesterfield wrote under the name of
" Jeffrey Broadbottom." A number of pamphlets, in some of
which Chesterfield had the help of Edmund Waller, followed.
His energetic campaign against George II. and his government
won the gratitude of the dowager duchess of Marlborough, who
Jcft him £20,000 as a mark of her appreciation. In 1744 the king
tras compel/cd to abandon Carteret, and the coalition or " Broad '
Bottom" party, led by Chesterfield and Pitt, came into office
In the troublous state of European politics the earl's conduct
and experience were more useful abroad than at home, and lu
was sent to the Hague as ambassador a second time. The object
of his mission was to persuade the Dutch to join in the War of the
Austrian Succession and to arrange the details of their *ssj*tai*rt.
The success of his mission was complete; and on his return a
few weeks afterwards he received .the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland
— a place he had long coveted.
Short as it was, Chesterfield's Irish administration was of great
service to his country, and is unquestionably that part of his
political life which does him most honour. To have conceived
and carried out a policy which, with certain reservations, Burke
himself might have originated and owned, is indeed no small
title.to regard. The earl showed himself finely capable in practice
as in theory, vigorous and tolerant, a man to be feared and a
leader to be followed; he took the government entirely into Ins
own hands, repressed the jobbery traditional to the office,
established schools and manufactures, and at once conciliated
and kept in check the Orange and Roman Catholic factions.
In 1746, however, he had to exchange the lord-lieutenancy for
the place of secretary of state. With a curious respect for those
theories his familiarity with the secret social history of France had
caused him to entertain, he hoped and attempted to retain a
hold over the king through the influence of Lady Yarmouth,
though the futility of such means had already been demonstrated
to him by his relations with Queen Caroline's " ma bonne Howard."
The influence of Newcastle and Sandwich, however, was too
strong for him; he was thwarted and over-reached; and in
1748 he resigned the seals, and returned to cards and his books
with the admirable composure which was one of his most striking
characteristics. He declined any knowledge of the Apology for
a late Resignation, in a Letter from an English Gentleman to his
Friend at The //<i£itf, which ran through four editions in 1748,
but there is little doubt that he was, at least in part, the
author.
The dukedom offered hira by George II., whose ill-will his
fine tact had overcome, was refused. He continued for some
years to attend the Upper House, and to take part in its proceed-
ings. In 1 75 1, seconded by Lord Macclesfield, president of the
Royal Society, and Bradley, the eminent mathematician, he
distinguished himself greatly in the debates on the calendar, and
succeeded in making the new style a fact. Deafness, however,
was gradually affecting him, and he withdrew little by little
from society and the practice of politics. In 1755 occurred
the famous dispute with Johnson over the dedication to the
English Dictionary. In 1 747 Johnson sent Chesterfield, who was
then secretary of state, a prospectus of his Dictionary, which
was acknowledged by a subscription of £10. Chesterfield appar-
ently took no further interest in the enterprise, and the book
was about to appear, when he wrote two papers in the World in
praise of it. It was said that Johnson was kept waiting in the
anteroom when he called while Cibber was admitted. In any
case the doctor had expected more help from a professed patron
of literature, and wrote the earl the famous letter in defence
of men of letters. Chesterfield's " respectable Hottentot," now
identified with George, Lord Lyttelton, was long supposed,
though on slender grounds, to be a portrait of Johnson. During
the twenty years of life that followed this episode, Chesterfield
wrote and read u great deal, but ucnt little into society.
In 1768 died Philip Stanho|K» t the child of so many hopes.
The constant care bestowed by hi* father on his education
resulted in an honourable but not }v»rlicularly distinguished
career for young Stanhope. Ilia death was an overwhelming
grief to Chesterfield, and the discovery that he had long been
married to a lady of humble origin must have been galling in the
extreme to his father after hi* careful instruction in' worldly
wisdom. Chesterfield, who had no children by his wife, Melusina
von Schulcmbcrg, illegitimate daughter of George L, whom
he married in 1733, adopted his godson, a distant cousin, named
Philip Stanhope (i755-i8«5)i *• heir to the title and estates.
His famous jest (which even Johnson allowed to have merit)—
CHESTERFIELD— CHESTERTON, G. K.
in
* Tyrawley and I have been dead these two yean, but we don't
choose to have it known "—is the best description possible of his
honour and condition during the latter part of this period of
decline; To the deafness was added blindness, but his memory
and his fine manners only left him with life; his last words
(" Give DayroDes a chair ") prove that he had neither forgotten
his friend nor the way to receive .him. He died on the 24th of
March 1773
Chesterfield was selfish, calculating and contemptuous; he
was not naturally generous, and he practised dissimulation till
it became part of his nature. In spite of his brilliant talents
and of the admirable training he received, his life, on the whole,
cannot be pronounced a success. His anxiety and the pains he
took to become an orator have been already noticed, and Horace
Walpole, who had heard all the great orators, preferred a speech
of Chesterfield's to any other; yet the earl's eloquence is not to be
compared with that of Pitt. Samuel Johnson, who was not
perhaps the best judge in the world, pronounced his manners to
have been" exquisitely elegant "; yet as a courtier he was utterly
worsted by Robert Walpole, whose manners were anything but
refined, and even by Newcastle. He desired to be known as a
protector of letters and literary men; and his want of heart or
head over the Dictionary dedication, though explained and ex-
cused by Croker, none the less inspired the famous change in a
famous lire — " Toil, envy, want, the patron, and the jail. "
His published writings have had with posterity a very indifferent
success; his literary reputation rests on a volume of letters never
designed to appear in print. The son for whom he worked
so hard and thought so deeply failed especially where his father
had most desired he should succeed.
As a politician and statesman, Chesterfield's fame rests on his
short but brilliant administration of Ireland. As an author he
was a dever essayist and epigrammatist. But he stands or falls
by the Letters to his Son, first published by Stanhope's widow
in 1774, and the Letters to his Godson (1800). The Letters arc
brilliantly written — full of elegant wisdom, of keen wit, of
admirable portrait-painting, of exquisite observation and deduc-
tion. Against the charge of an undue insistence on the external
graces of manner Chesterfield has been adequately defended by
Lord Stanhope (History, iii. 34). Against the often iterated
accusation of Immorality, it should be remembered that the
Letters reflected the morality of the age, and that their author
only systematized and reduced to writing the principles of
conduct by which, deliberately or unconsciously, the best and
the worst of his contemporaries were governed.
The earldom of Chesterfield passed at his death to his godson,
already mentioned, as 5th carl, and so to the Litter's son and
grandson. On the death of the latter unmarried in 1871, it
passed in succession to two collateral heirs, the 8th and 9th
earls, and so in 1887 to the lattcr's son as 10th earl.
See Chesterfield's Miscellaneous Works (London, 1777, 2 vols. 4*0) ;
Letters to his Son, &c, edited by Lord Mahon (London, 1 845-1 853,
5 vols.); and Letters to his Godson (1890^ (edited by the carl of
Carnarv< *""
l.Br. , ,_ ,„.,.
1 biography, including numerous letters first published from
the Newcastle Papers, was issued by Mr W. Ernst; and in 1007
Carnarvon). There are also editions of the first series of letters
by J. Bradshaw (3 vols., 1892) and Mr C. Strachcy (2 vols., 1901),
" * ' phy, including numerous letters first published fr
In 1803 a
the Newcastle Tapers, was issued by Mr W. fernst; and in 190;
appeared an elaborate Life by W. U. Craig. (A. D.)
CHESTERFIELD, a market town and municipal borough in
the Chesterfield parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England,
24 m. N. by E. of Derby, on the Midland and the Great Central
railways. Pop. (1891) 22,009; (1901) 27,185. It lies at the
junction of two streams, the Rother and Hipper, in a populous
industrial district. It is irregularly built, with narrow streets,
but has a spacious market-place. The church of St Mary and All
Saints is a large and beautiful cruciform building principally of
the Decorated period. Its central tower carries a remarkable
twisted spire of wood covered with lead, 230 ft. high; the dis-
tortion has evidently taken place through the use of unseasoned
timber and consequent warping of the woodwork. The church,
which contains numerous interesting monuments, possesses also
the unusual feature of an apsidal Decorated chapel. There is an
nple of flamboyant tracery in one of the windows. Among
public buildings, the Stephenson memorial hall (1 879) , containing
a free library, art and science class-rooms, a theatre and the
rooms of the Chesterfield Institute, commemorates George
Stephenson, the engineer, who resided at Tapton House, close
to Chesterfield, in his later life; he died here in 1848, and was
buried in Trinity church. Chesterfield grammar school was
founded in 1574. The industries of the town include manu-
factures of cotton, silk, earthenware, machinery and tobacco,
with brass and iron founding; while slate and stone arc quarried,
and there are coal, iron and lead mines in the neighbourhood.
The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 1 8 councillors.
Area, 12 16 acres. In the immediate neighbourhood of Chester-
field on the west is the urban district of Brampton and Walton
(pop. 2698), to the south-east is Hasland (7427), and to the
north-east Brimington (4569).
In spite of the Roman origin suggested by its name, so few
remains have been found here that it is doubtful whether Chester-
field was a Roman station. Chesterfield (Cestrcfdd) owes its
present name to the Saxons. It is mentioned in Domesday only
as a bailiwick of Newbold belonging to the king, and granted to
William Peverell. In 1204 John gave the manor to William
Bruere and granted to the town all the privileges of a free
borough which were enjoyed by Nottingham and Derby; but
before this it seems to have had prescriptive borough rights.
Later charters were granted by various sovereigns, and it was
incorporated by Elizabeth in 1508 under the style of a mayor,
6 brethren and x 2 capital burgesses. This charter was confirmed
by Charles II. (1662), and the town was so governed till the
Municipal Act 1835 appointed a mayor, 3 aldermen and 12
councillors. In 1204 John granted two weekly markets, on
Tuesday and Saturday, and an annual fair of eight days at the
feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross (Sept. 14). This fair,
which b still held, and another on Palm Tuesday, are mentioned
in the Quo Warranto roll of 1330. The Tuesday market has long
been d iscont inued. That Chesterfield was early a thriving centre
is shown by the charter of John Lord Wake, lord of the manor,
granting a gild merchant to the town. In 1 266 the town was the
scene of a battle between the royal forces and the barons, when
Robert de Ferrers, earl of DcTby, was taken prisoner. In 1586
there was a terrible visitation of the plague; and the parlia-
mentarian forces were overthrown here in the Civil War. With
the development of cotton and silk industries the town has
increased enormously, and is now second in importance only to
Derby among the towns of the county. There is no record
that it ever returned representatives to parliament.
Sec Stephen Glover, History and Gazetteer of tlie County of Derby
(Derby, 1831-1833); I. Pym Yeatman. Records of the Borourh of
Chesterfield (Chesterfield and Sheffield, 1884) ; Thomas Ford, Iltstory
of Chesterfield (London, 1839).
CHESTER-LE-STREET, a town in the Chcster-lc-Street
parliamentary division of Durham, England, near the river
Wear, 6 m. N. of the city of Durham on the North-Eastern
railway. Pop. (1901) 11,753. The parish church of St Mary
and St Cuthbert is an interesting building, formerly collegiate,
with a tower 156 ft. high, and a remarkable series of monumental
tombs of the Lumley family, collected here from Durham
cathedral and various ruined monasteries, and in some cases
remade. About 1 m. along the river is Lumley Castle, the seat
of the carl of Scarborough, and about 2 m. north lies Lamb ton
Castle, the residence of the earl of Durham, built in 1797 on the
site of the old House of Harraton. Collieries and iron-works
employ the industrial population. Chest er-le-Street is a place of
considerable antiquity. It lies on a branch of the Roman north
road, on which it was a station, but the name is not known.
Under the name of Cmiccastre it was made the seat of a bishop
in 881, and continued to be the head of the diocese till the
Danish invasion of 905. During that time the church was the
repository of the shrine of St Cuthbert, which was then removed
to Durham.
CHESTERTON. GILBERT KEITH (1874- ), English
journalist and author, who came of a family of estate-agents,
was born in London on the 29th of May 1874. He was educated
112
at St Paul's school, which he left in 1891 with the idea of studying
art. But his natural bent was literary, and he devoted himself
mainly to cultivating that means of expression, both in prose
and verse; he did occasional reviewing, and had some experience
in a publisher's officer. In 1000, having already produced a
volume of clever poems, Tlte Wild Knight, he definitely took to
journalism as a career, and became a regular contributor of signed
articles to the Liberal journals, the Speaker and Daily News.
He established himself from the first as a writer with a distinct
personality, combative to a swashbuckling degree, uncon-
ventional and dogmatic; and the republication of much of his
work in a series of volumes (e.g. Twelve Types, Heretics, Ortho-
doxy), characterized by much acuteness of criticism, a pungent
style, and the capacity of laying down the law with unflagging
impetuosity and humour, enhanced his reputation. His powers
as a writer are best shown in his studies of Browning (in the
'' English Men of Letters " series) and of Dickens; but these
were only rather more ambitious essays among a medley of
characteristic utterances, ranging from fiction (including The
Napoleon of Notling-hill) to fugitive verse, and from artistic
criticism to discussions of ethics and religion. The interest
excited by his work and views was indicated and analysed in an
anonymous volume (G. K. Chesterton: a Criticism) published
in 1908.
CHESTERTON, an urban district in the Chesterton parlia-
mentary division of Cambridgeshire, England, ij m. N. from
Cambridge station, on the north bank of the Cam. Pop. (1901)
959 1 . The church of St Andrew is Decorated and Perpendicular,
retaining ancient woodwork and remains of fresco painting.
Along the river are several boat-houses erected by the Cambridge
University Boat Club. Boat-building and tile manufacture are
local industries.
CHESTNUT (nux Castanea), the common name given to two
sorts of trees and their fruit, (1) the so-called " horse-chestnut,"
and (2) the sweet or " Spanish " chestnut.
(1) The common horse-chestnut, Aesculus Hippocaslanum
(Ger. Rosskastanie; Fr. matronnier d' Indc), has been stated to
be a native of Tibet, and to have been brought thence to England
in 1550; it is now, however, thought to be indigenous in the
mountains of northern Greece, where it occurs wild at 3000 to
4000 ft. above sea-level. Matthiolus, who attributes the origin
of the name of the tree to the use of the nuts by the inhabitants
of Constantinople for the relief of short-windedness and cough
in horses, remarks that no ancient writer appears to have made
mention of the horse-chestnut. Clusius (Rariorum plantarum
hist. i. p. 8, 1601) describes it as a vegetable curiosity, of
which in 1588 he had left in Vienna a living specimen, but of
which he had not yet seen either the flowers or recent fruit.
The dry fruit, he says, had frequently been brought from Con-
stantinople into Europe.
The tree grows rapidly; it flourishes best in a sandy, somewhat
moist loam, and attains a height of 50 to 60 or more ft., assuming
a pyramidal outline. Its boughs are strong and spreading.
The buds, conspicuous for their size, arc protected by a coat of a
glutinous substance, which is impervious to water; in spring
this melts, and the bud-scales arc then cast off. The leaves are
composed of seven radiating leaflets (long-wcdge-shapcd) ; when
young they are downy and drooping. From the early date of
its leafing year by year, a horse-chestnut in the Tuilcrics is known
as the " Marronnicr du 20 mars." The flowers of the horse-
chestnut, which arc white dashed with red and yellow, appear in
May, and sometimes, but quite exceptionally, again in autumn;
they form a handsome erect panicle, but comparatively few of
them afford mature fruit. The fruit is ripe in or shortly before
the first week in October, when it falls to the ground, and the
thrce-valved thorny capsule divides, disclosing the brown and at
first beautifully glossy seeds, the so-called nuts, having a resem-
blance to sweet chestnuts, and commonly three or else two in
number. For propagation of the tree, the seeds may be sown
either when fresh, or, if preserved in sand or earth, in spring.
Drying by exposure to the air for a month has been found to
prevent their germination. Rooks arc wont to remove the nuts
CHESTERTON— CHESTNUT
from the tree just before they fall, and to disperse them in various
directions. The tree is rarely planted in mixed plantations
where profit is an object; it interferes with its neighbours and
occupies too much room. It is generally introduced near man-
sion-houses for ornament and shade, and the celebrated avenues
at Richmond and Bushey Park in England are objects of great
beauty at the time of flowering.
The bark of the horse-chestnut contains a greenish oil, resin, a
yellow body, a tannin, CmHmO**, existing likewise in the seeds
and various parts of the tree, and decomposable into pkhroglucin
and acsciglyoxalic acid, C7H4O1, also aesculetin hydrate, and the
crystalline fluorescent compound acsculin, of the formulaCnH M Ou
(Rochledcr and Schwarz), with which occurs a similar substance
fraxin, the paviin of Sir G. G. Stokes (Q. J, Chan. Soc. xi. 17,
1859; xii. 126, i860), who suggests that its presence may perhaps
account for the discrepancies in the analyses of aesculin given by
different authors. From the seeds have been obtained starch
(about X4%)> gum, mucilage, a non-drying oil, phosphoric acid,
salts of calcium, saponin, by boiling which with dilute hydro-
chloric or sulphuric acid aesculic acid is obtained, quercitrin,
present also in the fully developed leaves, atscigcntH, Ci»HsO«,
and aesculetin, C*H«04, which is procurable also, but in small
quantity only, from the bark. Friedrich Rochleder has described
as constituent principles of the cotyledons aphrodaescin, CuHsjOo,
a bitter glucoside, argyraescin, CsrHaOu* aescinic acid, C M H«0»,
and queraescitrin, QiH«0», found also in the leaves. To prepare
pure starch from the seeds, Flandin (Compt. rend, xxvii. 391,
1848; xxviii. 138, 1849) recommends kneading them, when
peeled and bruised, in an aqueous solution of rl* to ^ of their
weight of sodium carbonate. E. Staffed (Ann. d. Ckcm. u.
Pharm. lxxvi., 1850, p. 379) after drying found, in spring and
autumn respectively, 109 and 3*38% of ash in the wood, 8 68
and 6*57 in the bark, and 7-68 and 7*$2in the leaves of the horse-
chestnut. The ash of the unripe fruit contains 58* 77, that of the
ripe kernel 61*74, and that of the green shell 75*91% of potash
(E. Wolff).
The wood of the horse-chestnut is soft, and serves only for
the making of water-pipes, for turner's work and common
carpentry, as a source of charcoal for gunpowder, and as fuel.
Newly cut it weighs 60 lb, and dry 35 lb per cub. ft. approxi-
mately. The bark has been employed for dyeing yellow and for
tanning, and was formerly in popular repute as a febrifuge and
tonic The powder of the dried nuts was at one time prescribed
as a sternutatory (to encourage sneezing) in the Edinburgh
Pharmacopoeia. It is stated to form with alum-water a size or
cement highly offensive to vermin, and with two parts of wheaten
flour the material for a strong bookbinder's paste. Infusion of
horse-chestnuts is found to expel worms from soil, and soon to
kill them if they are left in it. The nuts furthermore have been
applied to the manufacture of an oil for burning, cosmetic
preparations and starch, and in Switzerland, France and Ireland,
when rasped on ground, to the bleaching of flax, hemp, silk and
wool. In Geneva horse-chestnuts are largely consumed by
grazing stock, a single sheep receiving 2 lb. crushed morning and
evening. Given to cows in moderate quantity, they have been
found to enhance both the yield and flavour of milk. Deer
readily eat them, and, after a preliminary steeping in lime-water,
pigs also. For poultry they should be used boiled, and mixed
with other nourishment. The fallen leaves arc relished by sheep
and deer, and afford a good litter for flocks and herds.
One variety of the horse-chestnut has variegated leaves, and
another double flowers. Darwin observed that A e. Patio, the red
buckeye of North America, shows a special tendency, under
unfavourable conditions, to be double-blossomed. The seeds of
this species are used to stupefy fish. The scarlet-flowered horse-
chestnut, Ac. rubicunda, is a handsome tree, less in height and
having a rounder head than the common form; it is a native of
North America. Another species, possessing flowers with the
lower petals white with a red tinge, and the upper yellow and red
with a white border, and fruit unarmed, is Ae . indica, a native of
the western Himalayas. Among the North American species are
the foetid or Ohio buckeye, Ae. glabra, and Ae.fiava, the sweet
GHETTLE— CHEVALIER
"3
buckeye. At. calif ornica, when full-grown and in flower, h a.
beautiful tree, but its leaves often fall before midsummer.
(2) The Spanish or sweet chestnut, Castanea satin (natural
order, Fagaceae), is a stately and magnificent tree, native of the
countries bordering on the Mediterranean, but also ripening its
fruit in sheltered situations as far north as Scotland. It lives
very Jong, and attains a large size, spreading its branches widely.
It has large glossy lanceolate leaves with a toothed margin. The
flowers, which appear in early summer, are in pendulous, slender
yellowish catkins, which bear a number of stamina te flowers with
a few pistillate flowers at the base. The staminate contain 8 to 20
stamens which produce an enormous amount of dusty yellow
pollen, some of which gets carried by wind to the protruding
stigmas of the pistillate flowers. The latter are borne three
together, invested by a cupule of four green bracts, which, as the
fruit matures, grow to form the tough green prickly envelope
surrounding the group of generally three nuts. The largest
known chestnut tree is the famous Castagno di cento cavalli, or the
chestnut of a hundred horses, on the slopes of Mount Etna, a tree
which, when-measured about 1780 by Grant Borch, was found to
have a circumference of 190 ft. The timber bears a striking
resemblance to that of the oak, which has been mistaken for
chestnut; but it may be distinguished by the numerous fine
medullary rays. Unlike oak, the wood is more valuable while
young than old. When not more than fifty years old it forms
durable posts for fences and gates; but at that age it often begins
to deteriorate, having ring-shakes and central hollows. In a
young state, when the stems are not above 2 in. in diameter at the
ground, the chestnut is found to make durable hoops for casks and
props for vines; and of a larger size it makes good hop-poles.
Chestnuts (the fruit of the tree) are extensively imported into
Great Britain, and are eaten roasted or boiled, and mashed or
otherwise as a vegetable. In a raw state they have a sweet taste,
but are difficult of digestion. The trees arc very abundant in the
south of Europe, and chestnuts bulk largely in the food resources
of the poor in Spain, Italy, Switzerland and Germany. In Italy
the kernels are ground into meal, and used for thickening soups,
and even for bread-making. In North America the fruits of an
sihed species, C. a mericana, are eaten both raw and cooked.
CHETTLE, HENRY (1 564M607?), English dramatist and
aasceOaneoro writer, was the son of Robert Chettle, a London
oyer. He was apprenticed in 1577 to a stationer, and in 1591
became a partner with William Hoskins and John Danter. In
1592 he published Robert Greene's Groatsworth of Wit. In the
preface to his Kind Herts Dreamt (end of 1592) he found it
accessary to disavow any share in that pamphlet, and incidentally
be apologised to three persons (one of them commonly identified
with Shakespeare) who had been abused in it. Piers Plainnes
Seaven Veres Prentiship, the story of a fictitious apprenticeship in
Crete and Thrace, appeared in 1595. As early as 1598 Francis
Meres includes him in his Palladis Tamia as one of the " best for
comedy," and between that year and 1603 he wrote or
collaborated in some forty-nine pieces. He seems to have been
generally in debt, judging from numerous entries in Henslowe's
diary of advances for various purposes, on one occasion (17th of
January 1509) to pay his expenses in the Marshalsca prison, on
another (7th of March 1603) to get his play out of pawn. Of
the thirteen plays usually attributed to Chettle's sole authorship
only one was printed. This was The Tragedy of Hoffmann: or a
Raenge far a Father (played 1602; printed 1631), a share in
which Mr Fleay assigns to Thomas Heywood. It has been
suggested that this piece was put forward as a rival to Shake-
speare's Hamlet. Among the plays in which Chettle had a share
is catalogued The Danish Tragedy, which was probably either
identical with Hoffmann or another version of the same story.
The Pleasant Comedie of Patient GrissUl (1599), in which he
collaborated with Thomas Dckker and William Ha ugh ton, was
reprinted by the Shakespeare Society in 1841. It contains the
r/ric " Art thou poor, yet hast thou golden slumbers," which is
probably Dekker's. In November 1599 Chettle receives ten
*nfi»Hr* for mending the first part of " Robin Hood," i.e. The
Dnmfatt of Robert, Earl of Huntingdon, by Anthony Munday;
VI. t
and in the second part, which followed soon after and was printed
in 1601, The Death of Robert, Earle of Huntingdon, he collaborated
with Munday. Both plays are printed in Dodsley's Select
Collection of Old English Plays (ed. W. C. Hazlitt, vol. viii.). In
1603 Chettle published England's Mourning Garment, in which are
included some verses alluding to the chief poets of the time. His
death took place before the appearance of Dekker's Knight's
Conjurer in 2607, for he is there mentioned as a recent arrival in
limbo.
Hoffmann was edited by H. B(arrett) L(ennard) (1852) and by
Richard Ackermaon (Bamberg, 1894).
CHEVALIER, ALBERT (1861- ), English comedian, began
a connexion with the stage while still a child. In' 1877 he was
engaged as an actor under the Bancrofts in London, and for some
years played " legitimate " parts at the Court theatre and
elsewhere. In 189 1, however, he began a successful music-hall
career as a singer of coster songs of his own invention, a new type
in which be had an immediate success, both in England and
America. He subsequently organized an entertainment of his
own, with sketches and songs, with which he went on tour, estab-
lishing a wide popularity as an original artist in his special line.
CHEVALIER, MICHEL (1806-1879), French economist, was
born at Limoges on the 13th of January 1806. In his early
manhood, while employed as an engineer, he became a convert to
the theories of Saint Simon; these he ardently advocated in the
Globe, the organ of the Saint Simonians, which he edited until his
arrest in 1832 on a charge of outraging public morality by its
publication. He was sentenced to a year's imprisonment, but was
released in six months through the intervention of Thiers, who
sent him on a special mission to the United States to study the
question of land and water transport. In 1836 he published, in
two volumes, the letters he wrote from America to the Journal
des dibats. These attracted so much attention that he was sent
in the same year on an economic mission to England, which
resulted in his publication (in 1838) of Des intirHs tnatericls de la
France. The success of this made his position secure, and in 1840
he was appointed professor of political economy in the College de
France. He sat for a short time (1845-1846) as a member of the
Chamber of Deputies, but lost his seat owing to his enthusiastic
adoption of the principles of free trade. Under Napoleon III. he
was restored to the position of which the revolution of 1848 had
temporarily deprived him. In 1850 he became a member of the
Institute, and in the following year published an important work
in favour of free trade, under the title of Examen du systeme
commercial connu sous le nom de systeme protcctcur. His chief
public triumph was the important part he played in bringing
about the conclusion of the commercial treaty between France
and Great Britain in i860. Previously to this he had served, in
1855, upon the commission for organizing the Exhibition of 1855,
and his services there led to his forming one of the French jury of
awards in the London Exhibition of 1862. He was created a
member of the Senate in i860, and continued for some years to
take an active part in its discussions. He retired from public life
in 1870, but was unceasingly industrious with his pen. He
became grand officer of the Legion of Honour in 1861, and during
the later years of his life received from many quarters public
recognition of his eminence as a political economist. He died at
his chateau near Montpellier (Hfrault) on the 28th of November
1879. Many of his works have been translated into English and
other languages. Besides those already mentioned the more
importan t are : Cours d'iconomie politique ( 1 84 2-1 850) ; Essais de
politique industriette (1843); De la baisse probable d'or (1859,
translated into English by Cobden, On the Probable Fall of the
Value of Gold, Manchester, 1859); V Expedition du Mexique
(1862); Introduction aux rapports du jury international (1868).
CHEVALIER. ULYSSB (1841- ), French bibliographer,
was born at Rambouillet on the 24th of February 1841. He
published a great number of documents relating to the history of
Dauphine*, e.g. the cartularies of the church and the town of Die
(1868), of the abbey of St Andre* le-Bas at Vienne (1869), of the
abbey of Notre Dame at Bonnevaux in the diocese of Vienne
(1889), of the abbey of St Chaffre at Le Moncstier (1884^^
"4
CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE— CHEVIOT HILLS
Inventories and several collections of archives of the dauphins of
Viennais, and a Bibtiotheque liturgique in six volumes (1893-1897),
the third and fourth volumes of which constitute the Repertorium
kymnoloticum, containing more than 20,000 articles. But his
principal work is the Repertoire des sources hUUtriques du moyen
dge. The first part, Bio-bibliogrophie (1877-1886; and cd., 1005),
contains the names of all the historical personages alive between
the years 1 and 1500 who are mentioned in printed books,
together with the precise indication of all the places where they
are mentioned. The second part, Topo-bibliographie (1894-
1003), contains not only the names of places mentioned in books
on the history of the middle ages, but, in a general way, every-
thing not included in the Bio-bibliographie. The Repertoire as a
whole contains an enormous mass of useful information, and is one
pf the most important bibliographical monuments ever devoted to
the study of medieval history. Though a Catholic priest and
professor of history at the Catholic university of Lyons, the Abbe*
{(afterwards Canon) Chevalier knew how to maintain an inde-
pendent critical attitude even in religious questions. In the
controversy on the authenticity of the Holy Shroud (sudario) at
Turin, he worked in the true scientific spirit by tracing back the
history of that piece of stuff, which was undoubtedly used as a
shroud, but which was not produced before the 14th century and
is probably no older (See be Saint Suoire de Lirey-Chambery-
Turin et Us difenseurs de son authenticity). Similarly, in Notre
Dame de Lorette; Hude critique sur I'authenticiti de la Santa Casa
(1906), he dissipated by the aid of authentic documents the
legend which had embellished and falsified the primitive history
of that sanctuary.
CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE (French for "Friesland horses";
the Dutch Y Hesse ruyters, " Frisian horsemen," and German
Spanische Reiter, " Spanish horsemen "), a military obstacle,
originating apparently in the Dutch War of Independence, and
used to close the breach of a fortress, streets, &c. It was formerly
often used in field operations as a defence against cavalry; hence
the name, as the Dutch were weak in the mounted arm and had
therefore to check the enemy's cavalry by an artificial obstacle.
Chevaux-de-frise consist of beams in which are fixed a number of
spears, sword-blades, &c, with the points projecting outwards on
all sides.
CHEVERUS, JEAN LOUIS ANNE MAGDELEINE LEFEBVRE
DE (1 768-1836), French ecclesiastic, was born on the a8th of
January 1768, in Maycnne, France, where his father was general
civil judge and lieutenant of police. He studied at the college of
Mayenne, received the tonsure when twelve, became prior of
Torbechct while still little more than a child, thence derived
sufficient income for his education, entered the College of Louis le
Grand in 1781, and after completing his theological studies at the
Seminary of St Magloire, was ordained deacon in October 1700,
and priest by special dispensation on the 18th of December. He
was immediately made canon of the cathedral of Le Mans and
began to act as vicar to his uncle in Mayenne, who died in 179a.
Owing to the progress of the Revolution he emigrated in 179a to
England, and thence in 1796 to America, settling in Boston, Mass.
His interest had been aroused by Francois Antoine Matignon, a
former professor at Orleans, now in charge under Bishop John
Carroll of all the Catholic churches and missions in New England.
Cheverus, although at first appointed to an Indian mission in
Maine, remained in Boston for nearly a year, and returned thither
after several months in the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy
missions and visits to scattered Catholic families along the way.
During the epidemic of yellow fever in 1708 he won great praise
and respect for his courage and charity; and his preaching was
listened to by many Protestants— indeed the subscriptions for the
Church of the Holy Cross which he founded in 1803 were largely
from non-Catholics. In 1808 the papal brief was issued making
Boston a bishopric, suffragan to Baltimore, and Cheverus its
bishop. He was consecrated on All Saints' day in r8io, at St
Peter's, Baltimore, by Archbishop Carroll. On the death of the
latter his assistant bishop, Ncale, urged the appointment of
.Cheverus as assistant to himself; Cheverus refused and warmly
asserted his desire to remain in Boston; but, much broken by the
death of Matignon in 181 8 and with impaired health, he too
found it necessary to leave the seat of his bishopric. In 18a,
Louis XVI II. having insisted on his return to France, Cheven
became bishop of Montauban, where his tolerance captivated U
Protestant clergy and laymen of the city. He was made aid
bishop of Bordeaux in 1826; and on the 1st of February 1836, i
accordance with the wish of Louis Philippe, he was made
cardinal. He died in Bordeaux on the 19th of July 1836. 1
Cheverus, more than to any other, is due the position that Bostc
now holds in the Roman Catholic Church of America, as well 1
the general growth of that church in New England. Hkcharact
was essentially lovable: the Jews of Bordeaux and Protestan
everywhere delighted to honour him.
See the rather extravagant biography by J. Huen-Duboarg, V
du cardinal de Cheverus (Bordeaux, 1838; English vers*
Stewart, Boston, 1839).
l version by 1
CHEVET, the term employed in French architecture t
distinguish the apsidal end of a church, in which the apses <
chapels radiate round the choir aisle. The two earliest exampb
(nth and iath century) are found in the churches of St Hilair
Poitiers, and Notre Dame-du-Port, Clermont, where there aj
four apses. A more usual number is five, and the central aps
being of larger dimensions, becomes the Lady chapel This wi
the case in Westminster Abbey, where Henry III. introduced tt
chevet into England; Henry VII.'s chapel is built on the site <
the original Lady chapel, which must have been of exception!
size, as it extended the whole length of the present structure. I
Solignac, Foutevrault and Paray-le-Monial there are only thrci
in these cases sufficiently distant one from the other to allow of
window between. The usual number in all the great cathedral
of the 13th century, as in Bourges, Chartres, Reims, Troye
Tours, Bayeux, Antwerp and Bruges, is five. In Beauvah
Amiens and Cologne there are seven apsidal chapels, and I
Clairvaux nine radiating but rectangular chapels. In the X4ti
and 15th centuries the central apse was increased in size am
dedicated to the Virgin Mary, as in St Ouen at Rouen.
CHEVIOT HILLS, a range forming about 35 m. of the borde
between England and Scotland. The boundary generall;
follows the line of greatest elevation, but as the slope is mor
gradual southward and northward the larger part of the range i
in Northumberland, England, and the lesser in Roxburghshiit
Scotland. The axis runs from N.E. to S.W., with a northwan
tendency at the eastern end, where the ridge culminates in th
Cheviot, 3676 ft. Its chief elevations from this point south
westward fall abruptly to 3034 ft. in Windygatc HOI, and thei
more gradually to about 1600 ft. above the pass, followed by 1
high road from Redesdalc. Beyond this arc Carter. Fell (1815
and Peel Fell (1964), after which two lines of lesser elevaUoi
branch westward and southward to enclose Liddesdale. Th
hills are finely grouped, of conical and high-arched forma, am
generally grass-covered. Their flanks are scored with dec|
narrow glens in every direction, carrying the headwaters of tin
Till, Coquet and North Tync on the south, and tributaries of tin
Tweed on the north. The range is famous for a valuable breed
sheep, which find abundant pasture on its smooth declivities
In earlier days it was the scene of many episodes of horde
warfare, and its name is inseparably associated with the ballad o
Chevy Chase. The main route into Scotland from England lie
along the low coastal belt east of the Till; the Till itself provided
another, and Redesdale a third. There are numerous ruins oi
castles and " peel towers " or forts on the English side in this
district.
Geology.— Tht rocks entering Into the geological structure of the
Cheviots belong to the Silurian, Old Red Sandstone and Carbonifer-
ous systems. The oldest strata, which are of Upper Silurian age
form inhere that have been exposed by the denudation of tm
younger palaeozoic rocks. One of these which occurs high up or
the slopes of the Cheviots is drained by the Kale Water and th<
river Coquet and is covered towards the north by the Old Ret
Sandstone volcanic aeries and on the 6outh by Carboniferous strata
Another area is traversed by the Ted Water and the Edgerstot
Burn and is surrounded by rocks of Old Red Sandstone age. Tin
strata consist of greywackes. flags and shales with scams and sood
of graptolite shale which yield fossils sparingly.
CHEVREUI^-CHEYENNE
"5
On tfce upturned and denuded edge* of the Silurian strata a great
pfle of contemporaneous volcanic rocks of Lower Old Red Sand-
stone age rests unconformable which consists chiefly of lavas with
thin partings of tuff. A striking feature is the absence of coarse
sediments, thus indicating prolonged volcanic activity. They cover
an area of about 250 sq. m. in the eastern part of the Cheviots and
rise to a height of 2676 ft. above the sea. The lavas comprise dark
pitchstone. resembling that at Kirk Yet holm, and pprphyritic and
amygdaloidal andesites and basalts. This volcanic platform is
pierced by a mass of granite about 30 sq. m. in extent, which forms
the highest peak in the Cheviot range. It has been described by
Dr Teal! as an augite-biotitc-granite having strong affinities with
the augite-bearing granitites of Laveline and Obcrbruck in the
Vosges. Both the granite and the surrounding lavas are traversed
by dykes and sills of intermediate and acid types represented by
mtca-porphyrites and quartz-felsites.
On their north-west margin the Lower Old Red volcanic rocks
are co v ered unconformably by the upper division of that system
composed of red sandstones and conglomerates, which, when followed
westwards* rest directly on the Silurian platform. Towards the
south and east the volcanic pile is overlaid by Carboniferous strata,
thus indicating a prolonged interval of denudation.
On the northern slopes of the western part of the Cheviots the
representatives of the Cemcntstonc group of the Carboniferous
system come to the surface, where they consist of shales, clays,
Budstones, sandstones with cemcatstones and occasional bands of
■urine limestone. These arc followed in normal order by the Fell
Sandstone group, comprising a succession of sandstones with inter-
calations of red and green clays and impure cementstone bands.
They form the higher part of the Larriston Fells and are traceable
eastwards to Ped r ell, where there is evidence of successive land sur-
faces in the form of dirt beds. They are succeeded by the Lewis-
burn coal-bearing group, which represents the Scremerston coals.
CHEVREUL, MICHEL EUGENE (1786-1889), French chemist,
was bora, on the 31st of August 1786, at Angers, where his father
was a physician. At about the age of seventeen he went to Paris
and entered L. N. Vauquclin's chemical laboratory, afterwards
bf^ -rantn g his assistant at the natural history museum in the
Jardin des Plantes. In 18 13 he was appointed professor of
chemistry at the Lycec Charlemagne, and subsequently under-
took the directorship of the Gobelins tapestry works, where he
; carried out his researches on colour contrasts (De la lot du
(ontrasU HmuUani des coukurs, 1839). In 1826 he became a
member of the Academy of Sciences, and in the same year was
I elected a foreign member of the Royal Society of London, whose
Copley medal he was awarded in 1857. He succeeded his roaster,
Vauquclio, as professor of organic chemistry at the natural
history museum in 1830, and thirty-three years later assumed its
directorship also; this he relinquished in 1879, though he still
retained bis professorship. In 1886 the completion of his
hundredth year was celebrated with public rejoicings; and after
his death, which occurred in Paris on the 9th of April 1889, he was
honoured with a public funeral. In 1901 a statue was erected to
his memory in the museum with which he was connected for so
many years. His scientific work covered a wide range, but his
name is best known for the classical researches he carried out on
animal fats, published in 1823 {Recherche* sur les corps pas
tori fine animate). These enabled him to elucidate the true
nature of soap; he was also able to discover the composition of
stearin and olein, and to isolate stearic and oleic acids, the names
of which were invented by him. This work led to important
improvements in the processes of candle-manufacture. Chevreul
was a determined enemy of charlatanism in every form, and a
complete sceptic as to the " scientific " psychical research or
ipiritualism which bad begun in his time (see his De la baguette
imnatoirc, el des tables lournantes, 1864).
CHEVRON (Fr. from chivre, a goat), in architecture, the beams
or rafters in the roofs of a building, meeting in an angle with a
fancied resemblance to the horns of a butting goat; in heraldry
a bent bar on a shield, used also as a distinguishing badge of
rank on the sleeves of non-commissioned officers in most armies
and navies and by police and other organized bodies wearing
uniform, and as a mark of good conduct in the army and navy.
Chevron is also an architectural term for an inflected ornament,
called also " zig-zag," found largely in romanesque architecture
in France, England and Sicily. It is one of the most common
decorations found in the voussoirs of the Norman arch, and
was employed also on shafts, as in the cloisters of Monreale near
Palermo, those of St Paul outside Rome, and many churches in
Germany. Its earliest appearance was in the tomb of Agamemnon
at Mycenae, where the shafts flanking the entrance doorway
have nine decorative chevron bands; in this case there is no
doubt it was derived from the metal casing of the early wood
columns.
CHEVROTAIN, a name taken from the French to designate the
various representatives of the mammalian ungulate family
Tragulidae. These tiny animals, commonly known as mouse-
deer, are in no wise nearly related to the true deer, but constitute
by themselves a special section of artiodactyle ungulates known
as Tragulina, for the characteristics of which see Axtiodactyla.
The typical genus Tragulus, which is Asiatic, contains the smallest
representatives of the family, the animals having more of
the general aspects and habits of some rodents, such as the
agoutis, than of other ruminants. The longest-known species are
TJavanicus, T. napu, T. kanchil, T. slanleyanus and T. memmina;
but a number of other forms, best regarded for the most part as
races, have been named. Of those mentioned, the first four are
from the Malay Peninsula or the islands of the Indo-Malay
Archipelago, the last from Ceylon and India. Kanchil and nap*
African Water Chevrotain (Dorcatherium aquaticum).
(or napoh) are the Malay names of the species with those specific
titles. The second genus, Dorcatherium (or Hyomosckus), is
African, and distinguished chiefly by the feet being stouter and
shorter, the outer toes better developed, and the two middle
metacarpals not welded together. Its dental formula (as that of
Tragulus) is i.|, c. ±,p.l, m.i = 34. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 13, L. 6,
S. 5, Ca. 1 2-13. The only existing species, D. aquaticum (fig.), in
type is rather larger than any of the Asiatic chevrotains, which
it otherwise much resembles, but is said to frequent the banks of
streams, and have much the habits of pigs. It is of a rich brown
colour, with back and sides spotted and striped with white; and
it is evidently the survivor of an ancient form, as remains of a
species only differing in size (D. crass urn) have been found in the
Miocene deposits of France. For long this species was sup-
posed to be restricted to West Africa, but it has recently been
obtained in East Central Africa, where it is represented by a
local race. (R.L.*)
CHEYENNE (Sioux for " of alien speech"), a tribe of North
American Indians of Algonquian stock. They formerly lived on
the Cheyenne river, North Dakota. Driven west by the Dakota*,
they were found by early explorers at the eastern base of the
Black Hills, South Dakota. Part of them later moved south
and allied themselves with the Arapahoes. Their whole history
has been one of war with their red and white neighbours. They
are a powerful athletic race, mentally superior to the average
American Indian. They are divided into eleven subdivisions and
n6
CHEYENNE— CHHINDWARA
formerly had a council of duets. They number some 3000,
and are divided into northern and southern Cbeyennes; the
former being on a reservation in Montana, the latter in Oklahoma.
In 1879-79 a band of the former revolted, and some seventy-five
of them were killed.
See Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907); also
Indians, Noith American.
CHEYEMHB, the chief city and capital of Wyoming, U.S.A.,
and county-seat of Laramie county, on Crow Creek, about 106 m.
N. of Denver. Fop. (1890) 1 x ,690; ( 1900) 14,087, of whom 1691
were foreign-born; (1005) 13,656; (19x0) 11,320. It is served by
the Union Pacific, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the
Colorado & Southern railways. It is situated near the southern
boundary of the state, on the high plains near the E. foot of the
Laramie range, at an altitude of 6050 ft; the surrounding
country is given up to mining (lignite and iron), grazing and
dry-farming. Among the principal buildings are the capitol,
modelled after the National Capitol at Washington; the United
States government building, the Soldiers' and Sailors' Home, the
Union Pacific depot, the high school, the Carnegie library, St
Mary's cathedral (Roman Catholic), the Convent of the Holy
Child Jesus, the Masonic Temple and the Elks' clubhouse. The
city has two parks, and is connected by a boulevard with Fort
D. A. Russell, an important United States military post, 4 m.
north of the city, established in 1867 and named in honour of
Major-General David Allen Russell (1820-1864) of the Union
army, who was killed at Opequan, Virginia. The industrial
prosperity of Cheyenne is largely due to the extensive railway
shops of the Union Pacific situated here; but the city is also an
important cattle market and has stock-yards. In 1905 the value
of the city's factory products ($924,697) was almost one-fourth
the total value of the factory products of the state. Cheyenne,
settled in 1867, when the Union Pacific reached here, was named
from the Cheyenne Indians. It was chosen as the site for the
capital of the territory in 1869, and was incorporated in the
same year.
CHBYNR, THOMAS KELLY (1841- ), English divine and
Biblical critic, was born in London, and educated at Merchant
Taylors' School and Oxford. Subsequently he studied German
theological methods at Gdttingen. He was ordained in 1 864, and
held a fellowship at Balliol College, Oxford, 1868-1882. During
the earlier part of this period he stood alone in the university as
a teacher of the main conclusions of modern Old Testament
criticism. In 1881 he was presented to the rectory of Tendring,
in Essex, and in 1884 he was made a member of the Old Testa-
ment revision company. He resigned the living of Tendring in
1885 on his appointment to the Oriel professorship, which carried
with it a canonry at Rochester. In 1889 he delivered the
Bampton lectures at Oxford. In 1908 he resigned his professor-
ship. He consistently urged in his writings the necessity of a
broad and comprehensive study of the Scriptures in the light of
literary, historical and scientific considerations. His publications
include commentaries on the Prophets and Hagiographa, and
lectures and addresses on theological subjects. He was a joint
editor of the Encyclopaedia Biblica (London, 1 800-1003), a work
embodying the more advanced conclusions of English biblical
criticism. In the introduction to his Origin of the Psalter (London,
1891) he gave an account of his development as a critical
scholar.
CHEZY, ANTOINE LEONARD DB (1773-1832), French
orientalist, was born at Ncuilly on the 15th of January 1773.
His father, Antoine dc Chezy (1718-1798), was an engineer
who finally became director of the Ecolc des Ponts ct Cbaussees.
The son was intended for his father's profession; but in 1799 he
obtained a post in the oriental department of the national library.
About 1803 he began the study of Sanskrit, though he possessed
neither grammar nor dictionary, and by great labour he obtained
sufficient knowledge of the language to be able to compose in it
verses said to possess great elegance. He was the first professor of
Sanskrit appointed in the College dc France (1815), a chevalier of
the Legion of Honour, and a member of the Acadcmie des
Inscriptions. He died in 183a. Among his works were Uedjouin
ct Leila (1807), from the Persian; YadjanadaUa Badka (1814)
and La Reconnaissance de Sacounlala (1830), from the Sanskrit;
UAntkologie iroliquc d'Amrou (1831), published tinder the
pseudonym d'Apudy.
See the libnoires of the Academic des Inscriptions (new series,
vol. xii), where there is a notice of Chezy by Stlvestre de Sacy.
CHHATARPUR, a native state in the Bundelkhand agency of
Central India. Area, 1118 sq. m.; pop. (ioox) 156,139; esti-
mated revenue, £16,000. The chief, whose hereditary title is
raja, is a Rajput of the Ponwar dan, whose ancestor dispossessed
the descendant of Cbhatar Sal, the founder of Bundelkhand
independence, towards the end of the x8th century. The state
was guaranteed to Kunwar Suni Singh Ponwar in 1806. In 1854
it would have lapsed to the British government for want of
direct heirs, but was conferred on Jagat Raj as a special act of
grace. The town of Chhataxpur, which is named after Chhatar
Sal, and contains his cenotaph,, is 70 m. by road S.W. of Bands.
Pop. (1901) 10,029. There are manufactures of paper and coarse
cutlery, and a high school. The state also contains the British
cantonment of Nowgong.
CHHATTISOARH, a division of the Central Provinces of India,
comprising a British division (21,240 sq. m.) and two small
feudatory states, Raigarh (i486 sq. m.) and Sarangarh (540 sq.
m .) . In 1905 the five Oriya states of Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur,
Patna and Kalahandi were transferred from the Central Pro-
vinces to Bengal. Chhattisgarh, or " the thirty-six forts," is a
low-lying plain, enclosed on every side by hills and forests,
while a rocky barrier shuts it off from the Nagpur plain on the
west. Two great rivers, the Nerbudda and Sone, take their rise at
the side of the Amarkantak hill in the north-west corner of the
division, the Nerbudda flowing nearly due west to the Bombay
coast, the Sone ultimately falling into the Ganges in Lower
Bengal. Protected on both sides by ranges of hills, the district
was, until late years, the least known portion of the most obscure
division of India, but recently it has been opened up by the
Bengal-Nagpur railway, and has developed into a great grain-
producing country. Its population is almost pure Hindu, except
in the two great tracts of hill and forest, where the aboriginal
tribes retired before the Aryan invasion. It remained com-
paratively unaffected either by the Oriya immigration on the
east, or by the later influx of Mahrattas on the west. For though
the Mahrattas conquered and governed the country for a period,
they did not take possession of the land. In xooi the population
of the two remaining feudatory states was 125,281, Raigarh
having 86,543 and Sarangarh 38,738. Much of the soil is still
covered with forest, but it includes fertile rice land.
The British division of Chhattisgarh comprises the three
districts of Drug (created in 1906), Raipur and Bilaspur. In 1905
the district of Sambalpur, together with the five feudatory states,
was transferred to Bengal. In 1901 the population of the
reduced area was 2,642,983.
CHHINDWARA, a town and district of British India, in the
Nerbudda division of the Central Provinces. The site of the town
is 2200 ft. above sea-level, and is surrounded by ranges of low
hills. The European station extends for nearly 2 m. and is well
wooded. It is considered very healthy, and forms a resort for
European visitors from Nagpur and Kampti during the hot
weather.
The area of the District of Chhtndwaka is 4631 sq. m. It
has two natural subdivisions — the hill country above the slopes of
the Satpura mountains, called the Balaghat, and a tract of low
land to the south called the Zerghat. The high tableland of the
Balaghat lies for the most part upon the great basaltic formation
which stretches across the Satpuras as far east as Jubbulpore.
The country consists of a regular succession of hills and fertile
valleys, formed by the small ranges which cross its surface cast and
west. The average height of the uplands is 2500 ft., but there
arc many points of greater elevation. The appearance of the
Zerghat below the hills is generally open and undulating. The
country is intersected by several streams, of which the Kanhan is
the most considerable. Near the hills and along the streams an
strips and patches of jungle; the villages are usually surrounded
CHIABRERA— CHIAPAS
H7
with picturesque groves of tamarind, mango and other shade-
giving trees. In the hill-country the climate is temperate and
healthy. In the cold season ice is frequently seen in the small
links at an elevation of about 2000 ft. Until May the hot wind is
bttle felt, while during the rains the weather is cool and agreeable.
The average annual rainfall amounts to 36 in. Pop. (1001)
407.927. There are manufactures of cotton cloth and brass-
ware. Coal in this neighbourhood began to be worked after the
opening of a branch of the Bengal-Nagpur railway to Chhindwara
and the coalfields to the north in 1005.
Chhindwara formed part of the dominions of the ancient Gond
dynasty of Chhindwara and Nagpur, whose seat was at Deogarh
until, in the 18th century, it was removed by Chand Sultan, son of
Bakht Buland (founder of the short-lived greatness of the
dynasty, and of the dty of Nagpur) to Nagpur (see Gondwana
and Nacktb).
CHIABRERA, GABRIELLO (1 552-1637), Italian poet, some-
times called the Italian Pindar, was of patrician descent, and was
born at Savona, a little town in the domain of the Genoese
republic, twenty-eight years after the birth of Ronsard, with
whom be has far more in common than with the great Greek
those -echo he sought to make himself. As he has told in the
pleasant fragment of autobiography prefixed to his works, in
which, like Caesar, he speaks of himself in the third person, he
vis a posthumous child; he went to Rome at the age of nine
years, under the care of his uncle Giovanni. There he read with
a private tutor, suffered severely from two fevers in succession,
and was sent at last, for the sake of society, to the Jesuits'
.College, where he remained till his twentieth year, studying
philosophy, as he says, " piu per trattenimento che per appren-
dere," — rather for occupation than for learning's sake. Losing
his uncle about this time, Chiabrera returned to Savona, " again
to see his own and be seen by them." In a little while, however,
he returned to Rome, and entered the household of a cardinal,
where he remained for several years, frequenting the society of
Paulus Manutius and of Speronc Speroni, the dramatist and
critic of Tasso, and attending the lectures and hearing the con-
versation of Mureto. His revenge of an insult offered him
obliged him to betake himself once more to Savona, where, to
amuse himself, he read poetry, and particularly Greek. The
poets of his choice were Pindar and Anacrcon, and these he
studied till it grew to be his ambition to reproduce in his own
tongue their rhythms and structures, and so to enrich his country
with a new form of verse — in his own words, " like his country-
man, Columbus, to find a new world or drown." His reputation
was made at once; but he seldom quitted Savona, though often
invited to do so, saving for journeys of pleasure, in which he
greatly delighted, and for occasional visits to the courts of princes
whither he was often summoned, for his verse's sake, and in his
capacity as a dramatist. At the ripe age of fifty he took to
himself a wife, one Lclia Pavese, by whom he had no children.
After a simple and blameless life, during which he produced
a vast quantity of verse — epic, tragic, pastoral, lyrical and
satirical — he died in 1637, at the patriarchal age of eighty-five.
An epitaph was written for him in elegant Latin by Urban VIII.;
but on his tombstone arc graven two quaint Italian hexameters
of his own, in which the gazer is warned from the poet's own
example not to prefer Parnassus to Calvary.
A maker of odes in all their elaborate pomp of strophe and
antistrophe, a master of new and complex rhythms, a coiner
of ambitious words and composite epithets, an employer of
audacious transpositions and inversions, and the inventor of a
new system of poetic diction, — it is not surprising that Chiabrera
f hould have been compared with Ronsard. Both" were destined
to suffer eclipse as great and sudden as had been their glory.
Ronsard was succeeded by Malherbe and by French literature,
properly so-called; Chiabrera was the last of the great Italians,
and after him literature languished till the second renaissance
under Manzoni. Chiabrera, however, was a man of merit, apart
from that of the mere innovator. Setting aside his epics and
dramas (one of the latter received the honours of translation at
the bands of Nicolas Chr6ticn, a sort of scenic du Bartas), much
of his work remains yet readable and pleasant. His grand
Pindarics are dull, it is true, but some of his CanxontUe, like the
anacreontics of Ronsard, are exceedingly elegant and graceful.
His autobiographical sketch is also extremely interesting. The
simple old poet, with his adoration of Greek (when a thing
pleased him greatly he was wont to talk of it as " Greek Verse "),
his delight in journeys and sight-seeing, his dislike for literary
talk save with intimates and equals, his vanities and vengeances,
his pride in the memory of favours bestowed on him by popes
and princes, his " injinila maraviglia " over Virgil's versification
and metaphor, his fondness for masculine rhymes and blank
verse, his quiet Christianity, is a figure deserving perhaps of
more study than is likely to be bestowed on that " new world '*
of art which it was his glory to fancy his own, by discovery and
by conquest.
The best editions of Chiabrera arc those of Rome (1718, 3 vols.
8vo) ; of Venice (173 1, 4 vols. 8vo) : of Leghorn (1781, 5 vols. lamo);
and of Milan (1807, 3 vols. 8vo). Thcte only contain his lyric work;
all the rest he wrote has been long forgotten.
CHIANA (anc. Clanis), a river of Tuscany, which rises in the
Apennines S. of Arezzo, runs through the valley of Chiusi, and
after receiving the Paglia just below Orvieto, falls into the Tiber
after a course of 60 m. In Roman times its waters ran entirely
into the Tiber. It often caused considerable floods in the valley
of Clusium (Chiusi) which were noticeable even in Rome itself,
and in a.d. 15 it was proposed to divert part of its waters into
the Amus, a project which was abandoned owing to the opposi-
tion of the Florentines (Tac. Ann. i. 76, 79). In the middle
ages the whole of its valley from Arezzo to Chiusi was an un-
inhabitable swamp; but at the end of the 18th century the
engineer Count Fossombroni took the matter in hand, and
moved the watershed some 25 m. farther south, so that its waters
now flow partly into the Arno and partly into the Tiber.
CHIAPAS, a Pacific const state of southern Mexico on the
Guatemalan frontier, bounded by the states of Tabasco on the
N. and Vera Cruz and Oaxaca on the W. Pop. (1805) 318,730;
(1900) 360,799, a large proportion of which are Indians;
area, 27,222 sq. m. largely forested. The Sierra Madrc crosses
the southern part of the state parallel with the coast, separating
the low, humid, forested districts on the frontier of Tabasco
from the hot, drier, coastal plain on the Pacific. The mountain
region includes a plateau of great fertility and temperate climate,
which is one of the best parts of Mexico and contains the larger
part of the population of the state. But isolation and lack of
transportation facilities have retarded its development. The
extension of the Pan-American railway across the state, from
San Geronimo, on the Tchuantepec National line, to the Guate-
malan frontier, is calculated to improve the industrial and social
conditions of the people. The principal industries are agriculture,
which is very backward, stock-raising, timber-cutting, fruit-
farming and salt-making. Coffee-planting is a new industry
on the Pacific slope of the Sierra Madrc at elevations of 2000 to
4000 ft., and has met with considerable success. Rubber
plantations have also been laid out, principally by American
companies, the CastUloa clastica doing well. The exports include
cattle, hides, coffee, rubber, fruit and salt. The mineral resources
include gold, silver, copper and petroleum, but no mines were in
operation in 1906. The capital, Tux t la Gutierrez (pop. 9395
in 1000), is on the plateau, 3 J m. from the Rio Sabinas, and 138
m. N.E. of the Pacific port of Tonala. The former capital,
San Cristobal (pop. about 5000 in 1895), about 40 m. £. of
Tuxtla, is an interesting old town and the scat of the bishopric
of Chiapas, founded in 1525 and made famous through its
associations with Las Casas. Tapachula (pop. in 1895, 6775),
the capital of the department of Soconusco, 18 m. from the
Guatemalan frontier, is a rising commercial town of the new
coffee district. It is 24 m. inland from the small port of San
Benito, is 559 ft. above sea-lcvcl, and has a healthy climate.
Other prominent towns with their populations in 1895, are
Comitan, or Comitlan (9316), on the Rio Grijalva about 40 m.
S.E. of San Cristobal, and chiefly distinguished for its fine
church and convent dedicated to San Domingo; Pichucalco
n8
CHIAROSCURO— CHICAGO
(8549), Tcncjapa (7936), San Antonio (6715), Cintalape (6455),
La Concordia (6291), San Carlos (5977), and Ococingo (5667).
CHIAROSCURO (from the Ital. chiaro, light or brightness, and
vscuro, darkness or shade), the disposition of light and shade
in a painting; the term is applied to an early method of printing
wood-engravings from several blocks, and also to a picture in
black and white, or brown and white only.
CHIAVARI, a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of
Genoa, 24 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Genoa. Pop. (1001)
io,397 (town), 12,689 (commune). It is situated near the mouth
of the Entclla, in the centre of a fertile plain surrounded by
mountains except on the S.W., where it comes down to the sea.
Its buildings are mostly modern, but it has a ruined castle of
1 147. It has an active trade in agricultural products, and
manufactures lace, light wicker-seated bentwood chairs, silk, &c.
CHIAVENNA (anc. Clovenno), a towr of Lombardy. Italy,
in the province of Sondrio, 17 m. by rail N. of Colico which lies
at the N. end of the lake of Como. Pop. (1001) town 3140,
commune 4732. It is well situated on the right bank of the
Mera, at the mouth of the Val Bregaglia, through which the road
to the Maloja Pass and the Engadine runs to the east. This
line was partly followed by a Roman road, which at Casaccia,
just below the last ascent to the Maloja Pass, diverged to the
N. by the Septimer Pass, joining the Julier route to Coire (anc.
Curia) at Stalla. The Splilgen route, which was also used by
the Romans, runs N. from Chiavenna to Coire: the modern
road was constructed by the Austrians in 1810-1821. Chiavenna
is crowned by a ruined castle, once an important strategic point,
and the seat of the counts who ruled the valley from the time
of the Goths till 1104, when the district was handed over to the
bishops of Coire. In the 14th century the Visconti, having
become masters of the Voltcllina, bought the " county " (contado
or contca) of Chiavenna from the bishop of Coire; but it was
taken by the canton of the Grisons in 1525, and the castle
dismantled. In 1797 Chiavenna became part of the Cisalpine
republic, and thenceforward followed the fortunes of Lombardy.
The church of S. Lorenzo is baroque in style, but its baptistery
contains a font of 1206 with reliefs. Chiavenna has cotton
factories and breweries, and is a depot for the wine of the district.
CHIBOUQUE, or Chibouk (the Fr. form of the Turk, chibuk,
literally a stick), a long pipe, often ornamented with precious
stones, smoked by the Turks.
CHIC (a French word, either a shortened form of chicane,
or derived from the Gcr. Schick, tact or skill), a term properly
used, in French artistic slang; of a work of art possessing brilliant
but superficial technical ability, or of one executed without
reference to a model or study of nature. The use of the word
in French dates from the reign of Louis XIV. and then denoted
a lawyer who was master of " chicane." " Chic," in general use,
now connotes "smartness," in dress, speech, &c.
CHICACOLE, a town of British India in the Ganjam district
of Madras, situated on the right bank of the river Languliya,
here crossed by a bridge, 4 m. from the sea. Pop. (1901) 18,196.
Under Mahommedan rule it wasthe capital of one of theNorthern
Circars, and afterwards of a British district. Several old mosques
remain. The town was famous for its muslins, but the industry
is now decayed. The roadstead and lighthouse of Calingapatam
are about 16 m. to the north, and the East Coast railway has a
station 9 m. inland.
CHICAGO, a city, a port of entry and the county-scat of Cook
county, Illinois, U.S.A., the second city of the United States in
population, commerce and manufactures; pop. (1900) 1,698,575;
and (1910) 2,185,283. It is situated at the south-west corner
of Lake Michigan (lat. 41° 50'. long. 87 38' \V.) f about
013 m. distant by railway from New York, 912 m. from New
Orleans, 2265 m. from Los Angeles, and 2330 m. from Seattle.
The climate is very changeable and is much affected by the
lake; changes of more than thirty degrees in temperature
within 24 hours arc not at all rare, and changes of twenty arc
common. The city is the greatest railway centre of the United
States, and was for several decades practically the only commer-
cial outlet of the great agricultural region of the northern Missis-
sippi Valley. Trunk lines reach £, to Montreal, Boston, New
York, Philadelphia, Baltimore (the nearest point on the Atlantic
coast, 854 m.); S. to Charleston, Savannah, Florida, Mobile,
New Orleans, Port Arthur and Galveston; W. to the Pacific
at Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle and Vancouver, and to
most of these by a variety of routes. In 1905 about 14% of
the world's railway mileage centred in Chicago.
With its suburbs Chicago stretches along the shore of Lake
Michigan about 40 m. (the city proper 26.5), and the city in
1910 had a total area of 191.4 sq. m. 1 It spreads loosely and
irregularly backward from the lake over a shallow alluvial
basin, which is rimmed to the W. by a low moraine water-parting 1
that separates the drainage of the lake from thatof theMississippi
Valley. The city site has been built up out of the " Lake Chicago "
of glacial times, which exceeded in size Lake Michigan. Three
lakes— Calumet, 3122 acres; Hyde; and part of Wolf — with a
water-surface of some 4100 acres, lie within the municipal
limits. The original elevation of what is now the business
heart of the city was only about 7 ft. above the lake, but the
level was greatly raised— in some places more than 10 ft. — over
a large area, between 1855 and i860. The West Side, especially
in the north-west near Humboldt Park, is much higher (extreme
75 ft.). A narrow inlet from the lake, the Chicago river, runs
W. from its shore about a mile, dividing then into a north and
a south branch, which run respectively to the N.W. and the S.W.,
thus cutting the city into three divisions known as the North,
the West and the South " Sides," which are united by three
car-tunnels beneath the river as well as by the bridges across it.'
The river no longer empties into Lake Michigan since the com*
pletion of the drainage canal. Its commercial importance is
very great: indeed it is probably the most important non-tidal
stream of its length in the world, or if it be regarded as a harbour,
one of the greatest; the tonnage of its yearly commerce far
exceeds that of the Suez Canal and almost equals the tonnage
of the foreign trade (the domestic excluded) of the Thames or
the Mersey. The increase in size of the newer freighters that
ply on the Great Lakes 4 has proved one serious difficulty, and
the bridges and the river tunnels, which hinder the deeper
cutting of the channel, arc others. The improvement of the
outer harbour by the national government was begun in 1833.
Great breakwaters protect the river mouth from the silting shore
currents of the lake and afford secure shelter in an outer road-
stead from its storms, and there is a smaller inner-basin (about
450 acres, 16 ft. depth) as well. But the river itself which has
about 15 m. of navigable channel, in part lined with docks, is
the most important part of the harbour. Its channel has been
repeatedly deepened, and in Tecent years — especially since 1896,
after its control as a navigable stream passed (1800) to the
federal government — widened and straightened by the removal
of jutting building constructions along its shores. Grain elevators
of enormous size, coal yards, lumber yards and grimy warehouses
or factories crowd close upon it. The shipping facilities on the
river are not so good in some ways, however, as on the Calumet
in southeastern (or South) Chicago, whither there has been a
strong movement of manufactures and heavy commerce.
The plan of the city is in general " regular," i.e. rigidly rect-
angular, and the streets are in general wide. The evenness
of the plain has saved Chicago from most of the vast expense
incurred by some American cities (notably Boston and San
Francisco) in the extension or levelling of their sites and the
removal of obstructions unfavourable to their development.
The business district is concentrated in a small area of the South
Side, just below the main river and between the south branch
and the lake. A number of the railway terminals, almost all
the great wholesale and retail houses, the leading hotels and
1 In 1889 the total area (land and water) was increased from 438
to 169-9 sq, m.; in 1890 the land area was 16^49 sq. m.
'About 15 ft. in elevation; hence the possibility of the drainage
canal.
* Among the last are many swing and "jack-knife" bridges,
bascules, and a lift-bridge that can be lifted bodily 155 ft. above the
channel. Steam, compressed air and electricity arc used as power.
4 By 1900 almost all were being built of a length exceeding 400 ft.
CHICAGO
"9
public buildings are crowded within an area of about 1*5 sq. m.
The congestion of the streets— considerably lessened since the
freight-subways have reduced the amount of heavy trucking —
is proportionately great, and their din and crush is characteristic
of the dty. - The residential districts, on the other hand, are
unevenly and loosely spread; many areas well within the city
are only sparsely settled. A belt of " bad lands "—occupied
by factories, shanties, &c— partially surrounds the best business
district. The smoke resulting from the use of soft coal has given
a drab and dingy colour-tone to the buildings. The low and
even relief of the site and the long vistas of the streets do not
lend themselves to the picturesque; yet this quality may be
rlaimrd for the high and broken skyline, varied colour, massive-
ness, bustle and impressive commercialism of the business
district. Chicago is generally credited with being the original
home of the steel-frame "sky-scraper," 1 though there are now
higher buildings elsewhere in America. The unstable soil of
sand, clay and boulders that underlies the city is unfavourable
to tall constructions, and necessitates extraordinary attention
to foundations. The bed-rock lies, on an average, 50 ft. below
the level of the lake (in places more than a hundred). To the
rock the foundations are often sunk in caissons, the buildings
resting on monster columns of concrete and steel. 1 In other cases
great " pads " of the same materials, resting or " floating " upon
the day, sustain and distribute the weight of the building.
The small extent of the business quarter adds to the effect of its
tall structures. The Auditorium (1889; cost, $3,500,000), a huge
Kwii?^***g containing a hotel and a theatre (5000 seats), is one of
the moat massive commercial structures of the country. The
Masonic Temple (cost, $3,000,000) is the tallest in the dty
(30a ft-). In 1909 there were some 475 structures ten or more
storeys high. Not a few are noteworthy, whether for size — as
the Monadnock office building of 16 storeys, with some 6000
occupants, and the new Northwestern Railway station; or for
the luxury of their interior fittings — as the La Salle, Blackstone
and Sherman hotels; or for boldness and originality in the treat-
ment of the steel-frame type, or for association with the city's life
—as the Fine Arts building, given over to varied purposes of
public amusement and artistic or intellectual improvement, or
the Railway Exchange (cased in tiles), the University Club, the
Chamber of Commerce and the Board of Trade; and many
others are handsome and dignified examples of architecture.
The Marquette building, consistently and handsomely decorated
with works of art, is one of the finest office-buildings in the
country. There are a number of enormous retail stores. The
largest, and one of the finest in the world, is that of Marshall
field. The wholesale establishment of the same firm is the
work of H. H. Richardson, considered one of his best, and one
of the most admirable examples among American commercial
buildings. The dty hall and county court house (cost, $4,500,000)
is an enormous double building in a free French Renaissance
style, with columned facades. The new Federal building
(finished in 1005; cost, $4,750,000) is a massive edifice (a low
rectangle surmounted by a higher inner cross and crowned with
a dome). The public library (1 893-1 897, $2. 125,000), constructed
of dark granite and limestone, with rich interior decorations
of varied frescoes, mosaics, ornamental bronze and iron- work,
and mottoes, is one of the handsomest libraries of the country.
The Chicago Art Institute (1892-1893 , Italian Renaissance), the
Chicago Orchestra building (1004), and the Commercial National
Bank, are also noteworthy The finest residence streets are the
Lake Shore Drive of the North Side and the " boulevards " —
broad parkways that connect the parks of the city — of which
Michigan Avenue, Drexel and Grand are the finest. The city*s
1 The highest value ever paid in Chicago for land actually sold, up
to 1901, was $250 per sq. ft (1892); a few rental contracts have
been based upon an assumed higher value. A municipal ordinance
placing the extreme construction at 150 ft. was repealed in 1903.
•This u true of all the new large buildings. The "old post
office, completed in 1880 at a cost of $5,375.°oo. was practically a
crumbling ruin within fifteen years; its foundations were inadequate.
Years were spent in sinking the foundation -of the new Federal
building that replaced the old.
environs are not of particular beauty, but there are bluffs on
the lake to the north, and woods to the south-west, and a fair
variety of pretty hill and plain; and though the Calumet and
Chicago rivers have been given over to commerce, the valley
of the Desplaines will be preserved in the park system. On the
South Side are the Union Stockyards, established in 1865, by far
the largest in the world. They cover about 500 acres, have
about 45 m. of feeding and watering troughs, and can accom-
modate at one time more than 400,000 hogs, cattle, sheep and
horses.
Public Works and Communications. — Local transit is provided
for by the suburban service of the steam railways, elevated
electric roads, and a system of electric surface cars. Two great
public works demand notice: the water system and the drainage
canal. Water is pumped from Lake Michigan through several
tunnels connecting with " cribs " located from 2 to 5 m. from
shore. The " cribs " are heavy structures of timber and iron
loaded with stone and enclosing the in-take cylinders, which
join with the tunnels well below the bottom of the lake, The
first tunnel was completed in 1867. The capacity of the tunnels
was estimated in 1900 by two very competent authorities at
528 and 615 million gallons daily, respectively. The average
daily supply in 1009 was 475,000,000 gallons; there were then
166 m. of tunnels below the lake. The wastes of the city-
street washings, building sewage, the offal of slaughter-houses,
and wastes of distilleries and rendering houses — were originaJly
turned into the lake, but before 2870 it was discovered that the
range of impurity extended already a mile into the lake, half-way
to the water " crib," and it became evident that the lake could
not be indefinitely contaminated. The Illinois and Michigan
Canal, for which the right of way was granted in 182 1 and which
was built in 1836-1841 and 1845-1848, and opened in 1848
(cost, $6,557,68i),was once thought to have solved the difficulty;
it is connected with the main (southern) branch of the Chicago
river, 5 m. from its mouth, with the Illinois river at La Salle,
the head of steamer navigation on the Illinois river, and is the
natural successor in the evolution of transportation of the old
Chicago portage. \ ro. in length, between the Chicago river and
the headwaters of the Kankakee; it was so deepened as to draw
water out from the lake, whose waters thus flowed toward the
Gulf of Mexico. It is about 96 m. long, 40-42 ft. wide, and
4-7 ft- deep, but proved inadequate for the disposal of sewage.
A solution of the problem was imperative by 1876, but almost
all the wastes of the city continued nevertheless to be poured into
the lake. In 1890 a sanitary district, including part of the dty
and certain suburban areas to be affected, was organized, and
preparations made for building a greater canal that should do
effectively the work it was once thought the old canal could do.
The new drainage canal, one of the greatest sanitary works of
the world, constructed between 1892 and 1900 under the control
of the trustees of the Sanitary District of Chicago (cost up to
1901, $35,448,291), joins the south branch of the Chicago with the
Desplaines river, and so with the Illinois and Mississippi, and is
28- 5 m. long,* of which 15 m. were cut through rock; it is 22 ft.
deep and has a minimum width of 164 ft. The canal, or sewer,
is flushed with water from Lake Michigan, and its waters are
pure within a flow of 150 m. 4 Its capacity, which was not at
first fully utilized, is 600,000 cub. ft. per minute, sufficient
entirely to renew the water of the Chicago river daily. A system
of intercepting sewers to withdraw drainage into the lake was
begun in 1898; and the construction of a canal to drain the
Calumet region was begun in 1910. The Illinois and Michigan
canal is used by small craft, and the new drainage canal also may
be used for shipping in view of the Federal government's im-
provements of the rivers connecting it with the Mississippi for
the construction of a ship-canal for large vessels. The canal
also made possible the development (begun in 1903) of enormous
* Total excavation, 42.397,904 cub. yds.; of solid rock, 12,265 000.
4 It has been conclusively proved that the Illinois is purer than
the Mississippi at their junction. The undiluted sewage of the old
c<inal drove the fish from the river, but they have come back since
the opening of the new canal.
120
CHICAGO
hydraulic power for the use of the city. The Illinois and Michigan
Canal has been supplemented by the Illinois and Mississippi
Canal, commonly known as " the Hennepin," from its starting
at the great bend of the Illinois river lj m. above Hennepin,
not far below La Salle; the first appropriation for it was made
in 1840, and work was begun in 1801 and completed in October
1007. Its course from Hennepin is by the Bureau Creek valley
to the mouth of Queen river on the Rock river, thence by the
Rock river and a canal around its rapids at Milan to its mouth
at Rock Island on the Mississippi river. This barge canal is
So ft. wide «t water-line, 5 J ft. wide at the bottom, and 7 ft. deep.
Its main feeder is the Rock river, dammed by a dam nearly
1 500 ft. long between Sterling and Rock Falls, Illinois, where
the opening of the canal was celebrated on the 24th of October
100;.
Beginning with i$oi steam railways began the elevation
(or depression) of their main tracks, of which there were in 1004
some 8j$ m. within the city. Another great improvement was
begun in toot by a private telephone company. This b an
elaborate system of freight subways, more than 65 m. of which,
underlying the entire busincssdistrict.had beenconstracted before
i^oq. It is the only subway system in the world that seeks to
clear the streets by the lessening of trucking, in place of devoting
itself to the ttansportation of passengers. Direct connexion is
made with the freight stations of all railways and the basements
of important business buildings, and coal, building materials,
ashes ami garbage, railway luggage, heavy mail and other kinds
o( heavy freight are expeditiously removed and delivered.
Telegraph and telephone wires are carried through the tunnel,
ami can be readily repaired. The subway was opened for partial
operation in 1005. 1
Parks. The park system may be said to have been begun in
iSco. snd in i$ro aggregated 188? acres. Chicago then acquired
' the name ot " The tiaivlen City," which still clings to her. But
many other cities have later passed her (until in 1004, though
the second largest of the country, she ranked only thirty-second
in her holdings of park area per capita among American cities
of 100,000 population^. In 100S the acreage of the municipal
parks was 3170 acres, and there were 61-4 m. of boulevards.
After 1000 another period of ambitious development began.
The improvement of old and the creation of new * 4 internal "
parks. i.e. within the cordon of those older parks and boulevards
that once girdled the city but have been surrounded in its later
growth; the creation of a huge metropolitan ring — similar to
that of Boston but vaster (j 5.000 acres) — of lake bluffs, hills,
meadows, forests and river valley; and a great increase of
•' neighbourhood parks " in the poor districts, are included in
the new undertakings. The neighbourhood park, usually
located near a school, is almost all-inclusive in its provision for
all comers, from babyhood to maturity, and is open all day.
There are sand gardens and wading ponds and swings and day
nurseries, gymnasiums, athletic ticlds, swimming pools and
baths, reading-rooms — generally with branches of the city library
— lunch counters, civic club rooms, frequent music, assembly
halls for theatricals, lectures, concerts, or meetings, penny savings
banks, and in the winter skating ponds. These social centres
have practically all been created since about 1805. There are
also municipal baths on the lake front and elsewhere. The older
parks include several of great size and beauty. Lincoln Park
(area 55a acres), on the lake shore of the North Side, has been
much enlarged by an addition reclaimed from the lake. It has
fine monuments, conservatories, the only zoological garden in
the city, and the collections of the Academy of Sciences. A
breakwater carriage drive connects with a boulevard to Fort
Sheridan (27 m.) up the lake. Jackson Park (54a acres), on the
lake shore of the South Side, was the main site of the World's
» The cut was almost entirely through firm clay. It was estimated
O905) that the total freight handled weekly in the business district
was nearly 500.000 tons, and the subway was designed to handle
this amount when completed. The tunnels arc 1275X14 and
7-5X6 It., all concrete. The cars arc drawn by trolley' wire loco-
motives on a track of 2 ft. gauge.
Columbian Exposition of 1893, and contains the Field Columbian
Museum, occupying the art building of the exposition. It is
joined with Washington Park (371 acres) by the Midway Plais-
ance, a wide boulevard, intended to be converted into a
magnificent sunken water-course connecting the lagoons of the
two parks with Lake Michigan. Along the Midway are the grey-
stone buildings of the University of Chicago, and of its
(Blaine) School of Education. On the West Side are three fine
parks— Douglas, Garfield (with a fine conservatory), and Hum-
boldt, which has a remarkable rose garden (respectively 182,
187 and 206 acres), and in the extreme South Side several others,
including Calumet (66 acres), by the lake side, and Marquette
(32a acres). Jackson Boulevard, Western Avenue Boulevard
and Marshall Boulevard join the South and the West Park
systems. Neither New York nor Boston has preserved as has
Chicago the beauty of its water front. The shore of the North
Side is quite free, and beginning a short distance above the river
is skirted for almost 30 m. by the Lake Shore Drive, Lincoln
Park and the Sheridan Drive. The shore of the South Side
is occupied by railway tracks, but they have been sunk and the
shore otherwise improved. In addition to Calumet and Jackson
parks there was another just below the river, Lake Park, which
has since been included in Grant Park, mostly reclaimed from
the water. Here are the public library and the building of the
Art Institute (opened in 1S93); the park had also been pro-
posed as the site of a new building for the Field Museum of
Natural History. The park and boulevards along the lake in
1005 stretched 10-78 rn., within the city limits, or almost half
the total frontage. 3 The inner " boulevards " are broad parked
ways. 150 to 300 ft. wide, joining the parks; Chicago was the
first American city to adopt this system.
Art, — Among the monuments erected in public places are a
Columbus by D. C. French and a bronze replica of French's
equestrian statue of Washington in Paris; statues of John A.
Logan and Abraham Lincoln by St Gaudens; monuments
commemorating the Haymarket riot and the Fort Dearborn
massacres; statues of General Grant, Stephen A. Douglas,
La Salle, Schiller, Humboldt, Beethoven and Linnaeus. There
is also a memorial to G. B. Armstrong ( 1822-187 1), a citizen of
Chicago, who founded the railway mail service of the United
States. A city art commission approves all works of art before
they become the property of the city, and at the request of the
mayor acts in various ways for the city's aesthetic betterment.
The Architectural Club labours for the same end. A Municipal
Art League (organized in 1899) has done good work in arousing
civic pride; it has undertaken, among other things, campaigns
against bill-board advertisements,' and against the smoke
nuisance.
The Art Institute of Chicago contains valuable collections
of paintings, reproductions of bronzes and sculpture, architec-
tural casts, and other objects of art. Connected with it is the
largest and most comprehensive art school of the county-
including newspaper illustration and a normal school for the
training of teachers of drawing in the public schools. The
institute was incorporated in 1879, though its beginnings go
back to 1866, while the school dates from 1878. The courses
in architecture are given with the co-operation of the Armour
Institute of Technology. There are also a number of notable
private art collections in the city. In 1894 the Chicago Public
School Art Society was founded to secure the placing of good
works of art in the public schools. Picture collections are also
exchanged among the neighbourhood-park homes.
Music in Chicago owes much to the German element of the
population. Especially noteworthy among musical organizations
» The Illinois Central enters the business centre by tracks laid
along the lake shore. Certain rights as to reclaiming land were
granted it in 1852.. but the railway extended its claims indefinitely
to whatever land it might reclaim. In 1883 began a great legal
struggle to determine the respective rights of the United States, the
state of Illinois. Chicago, and the Illinois Central in the reclaimed
lands and the submerged lands adjacent. The outcome was favour-
able to the city.
* There were 50 m. of them in 1904.
CHICAGO
121
are the Apollo Musical Club (1872) and The Theodore Thomas
orchestra, which has disputed with the Boston Orchestra the
claim to artistic primacy in the United States. Its leader from its
organization in 1891 until his death in 1905 was Theodore Thomas,
who had long been identi6ed with summer orchestral concerts
in the city. In 1004 a fund was gathered by public subscription
to erect a handsome building and endow the orchestra.
The Field Museum of Natural History, established (1804)
largely by Marshall Field, is mainly devoted to anthropol-
ogy and natural history. The nucleus of its great collection
was formed by various exhibits of the Columbian Exposition
which were presented to it. Its collections of American ethnology,
of exceptional richness and value, are constantly augmented by
research expeditions. In addition to an original endowment
of $1,000,000, Mr Field bequeathed to the museum $8,000,000,
to be utilized in part for the new building which is being erected
in Jackson Park.
Libraries. — At the head of the libraries of the city stands the
public library » (established 1872; opened 1874), supported by
taxation, which on the 1st of June 19 10 had 402,848
volumes, and in the year 1910 circulated 1,805,012 volumes.
In 1889 John Crerar (1827-1889), a wealthy manufacturer of
railroad supplies, left to the city for the endowment of a non-
circulating library funds which in 1007 were estimated to
amount to $3,400,000, The library was incorporated in 1804
and was opened in 1897; in February 1908 it had 2 16,000 volumes
sad 60,000 pamphlets. It occupies a floor in the Marshall Field
Building on Wabash Avenue. Another reference library was
established (opened in 1887) with a bequest (1868) of Walter
L. Newberry. It has a rich endowment, and in February 1908
had 191,644 volumes and 43,644 pamphlets. By a plan of
co-operation each of these three libraries devotes itself primarily
to special fields: the John Crerar is best for the natural, physical
and social sciences; the Newberry is particularly strong in
history, music, medicine, rare books and fine editions; the
public library covers the whole range of general literature.
The library of the University of Chicago contained in 1908 some
450,000 titles. Among other collections are those of the Chicago
Historical Society (1856; about 150,000 titles in 1908), the
Athenaeum (1871); the Law Institute and Library (1857),
which in 1908 had about 46,500 volumes; the Art Institute,
the Field Museum of Natural History, the Academy of Sciences
(1857) and the libraries of various schools.
UnioersUies and Colleges. — There are three universities situated
wholly or in part in the city. The leading institution is the
University of Chicago {see Chicago, University or). The pro-
fessional department of North-Western University is in Chicago,
while its academic department is in the suburb of Evanston.
North-Western University was organized in 185 1 and is under
Methodist Episcopal control. Its students in 1908 (exclusive
of pupils in "co-operating' 1 theological schools) numbered
3850; the best equipped departments are those of dentistry,
medicine and pharmacy. There are two Roman Catholic col-
leges in Chicago: Loyola University (chartered in 1870), with a
department of law, called Lincoln College (1908), and a medical
department; and St. Stanislaus College (1870). The College of
Physicians and Surgeons is the medical department of the Uni-
versity of Illinois, at Champaign-Urbana. Theological schools
independent of the universities include the McCormick Theo-
logical Seminary (Presbyterian); the Chicago Theological Sem-
inary (Congregational, opened 1858, and including German,
Danish-Norwegian and Swedish Institutes) ; the Western Epis-
copal Theological Seminary; a German Lutheran theological sem-
inary, and an Evangelical Lutheran theological seminary. There
are a number of independent medical schools and schools of
dentistry and veterinary surgery. The Lewis Institute (bequest
1877, opened 1896), designed to give a practical education to
boys and girls at a nominal cost, and the Armour Institute of
1 Thomas Hughes was a leader in gathering English gifts for such
a library immediately after the " great fire. A nucleus of 10,300
volumes— 7000 from England and 1500 from other countries,
especially Germany— was thus secured.
Technology, one of the best technical schools of the country,
provide technical education and are well endowed. The
Armour Institute was founded in 1892 by Philip D. Armour,
and was opened in 1 893. It comprises the College of Engineering,
including, besides the usual departments, a department' of
chemical engineering and a department of fire protection
engineering, a department of "commercial tests," and the
Armour Scientific Academy (preparatory). In 1007 the Institute
had 1 869 students. The Chicago Academy of Science ( 1 857) has
a handsome building and museum collections in Lincoln Park.
The leading daily newspapers are the Record-Herald, Evening
Post, News (evening) and Journal (evening), all Independent;
the Inter -Ocean and Tribune, Republican; and the Evening
American and Examiner, both Democratic. There are several
journals in German, Bohemian, Polish, Swedish, Norwegian and
Danish. Many trade papers are published in the city, which is
also a centre for much of the religious publishing of the Middle
West. Chicago's position in the labour world has made it the
home of several socialist and anarchistic periodicals.
Industry and Commerce. — Chicago's situation at the head of
the most south-western of the Great Lakes has given it great
importance in trade and industry. The development of its
extraordinary railway facilities was a recognition of its supreme
advantages as the easiest outlet for the products of the Middle
West, on whose wealth its prosperity is founded. The growth
of its trade has been marvellous. The last years of the 19th
century showed, however, an inevitable loss to Chicago in the
growth of Duluth, Kansas City and other rivals in strategic
situations. In particular, the struggle of the North and South
railway lines in the Mississippi Valley to divert to ports on the
Gulf of Mexico grain and other freight caused great losses to
Chicago. An enormous increase in the cereal trade of Phila-
delphia, Baltimore, Newport News and Norfolk was partly
due to the traffic eastward over lines S. of Chicago. The traffic
of the routes through Duluth and Canada does not, indeed,
represent in the main actual losses, for the traffic is largely a
new growth; but there has been nevertheless a considerable
drain to these routes from American territory once tributary
to Chicago. Altogether the competition of the Gulf roads and the
lines running S.W. from Duluth had largely excluded Chicago
by 1899 (according to her Board of Trade) from the grain trade
W. of the Missouri river, and in conjunction with southerly E.
and W. routes had made serious inroads upon trade E. of that
river. Its facilities for receiving and distributing remain never-
theless unequalled, and it still practically monopolixes the
traffic between the northern Atlantic seaboard and the West.
New York alone, among American cities, has a greater trade.
Chicago is the greatest railway centre, the greatest grain market,
the greatest live-stock market and meat-packing centre, and
the greatest lumbe market of the world. The clearings of her
associated banks amounted to $13,781,843,612 in the year 1900.
The wholesale trade was estimated in 1875 at $293,900,000 and
in X005 at $1,781,000,000. The average annual grain receipts
(including flour in wheat equivalent) in the five years 1900-1904
amounted to 265,500,000 bu. (12,902,310 in 1854; 72,369,194
in 187 5), and the shipments to 209,862,966 bu. The first shipment
of wheat was of 78 bu. in 1838. The grain elevators are among
the sights of Chicago. They are enormous storehouses into
which the grain is elevated from ships and cars, sorted into
grades and reloaded for shipment; all the work is done by
machinery. Their capacity in 1904 was 65,140,000 bu.* In
the same quinquennial period, 1900-1904, the average yearly
receipts of lumber aggregated 1,807,066,000 ft.,' and of shingles,
410,711 thousand; of cattle, 3,078,734; of hogs, 8,334,904; of
sheep, 3,338,291; of butter, 239,696,921 lb; the exports of
hides, 167,442,077 lb; of dressed beef, 1,126,995,490 lb; of
• In 1900-1901 the average freight rate per bushel of wheat to
New York was 9004998 by the all- water; $0-10554 by the all-rail
route. In 1859 it cost $0-1575 to send a bushel of corn to Buffalo
by water; in 1890, $0-019.
1 It has been above 1,000,000,000 ft. since 1870, and has in some
years risen to 2,000,000,000.
CHICAGO
123
valuations have been excessively irregular {e.g. the M equalized "
value for 1875 was $55,000,000 greater than that for 1892), and
apparently very low. The average assessment valuation for the
years from 1004 to 1908 was $438,729,897 (403-28 millions in 1004,
and 477*19 millions in 1008), and in 1907 the highest taxing rate
was 8%. The bonded debt in 1908 was $25,157,400, about half
of it old ($11,362,726 in 1870; 4-5 millions contracted to aid
the World's Fair of 1893). In the early years following 1900 the
city paid more than half of its income on police; this expenditure,
per capita of population, was not high (in 1901 Boston $5*03,
New York $3*21, Chicago $2-19), and the results were not
exactly efficient. The difficulty is that the city is poor and can
pay only for strict necessities. Its poverty is due mainly to state
laws. The taxation limit on property is 1 % on the cash value,
thus compelling special dependence upon all sorts of indirect
taxes; the debt limit is 5% on the assessed valuation. Since
1000 relief has been given by state law in some matters, such as
for the park system. The water system has been operated by the
city since 1851 , and has been financially very successful from the
beginning: rates are far lower than in the other great cities of the
country, and a handsome net revenue accrues to the treasury. 1
A municipal electric-lighting plant (1887), which was paid for
gradually out of the general tax levy and was not built by the
sale of bonds, gave excellent results in the city service. The city,
like the state, has power to regulate the price of gas sold by
private companies. The elevation of the railway tracks within
the city was begun in 1892; at the close of 1908 the railway
companies had accepted ordinances of the City Council for the
elevation of 192*77 m. of main tracks and 047*91 m. of all tracks,
and the construction of 724 subways, at an estimated cost of
$65,000,000; at that time the railway companies had completed
the elevation of 133*83 m. of main tracks and 776 m. of all
tracks, and had constructed 567 subways, at a total expense of
$52 .500,000. The system of intercepting sewers begun in 1898 to
complete the service of the drainage canal has been constructed
with the profits of the water system.
In addition to the movement for a new charter to remove the
anomalies and ease the difficulties already referred to, two great
problems have been in the forefront in recent years: the lessening
of municipal corruption and the control of local transit agencies.
The traction question may be said to have begun in 1865,
in which year, and again in 1883, public opinion was bitterly
aroused against an attempt of the traction companies to secure
a ninety-nine year extension of franchises. Following 1883 all
fines were consolidated and enormously over-capitalized (in
1905 about $150,000,000 of stocks and bonds on a 6% basis,
two-thirds of which rested only on the franchise). In 1895-1897
bold attempts to secure a 50-year extension of franchises were
defeated by Governor John P. Altgeld (1847-1902), by the
formation of a Municipal Voters' League, and by a representative
committee of 100 sent from Chicago to attend the legislature
at Springfield. The transit service of the city had for years been
antiquated and inadequate. At the mayor's elections in 1897,
1899, 1 901 and 1003 the victory lay with the opponents of the
companies, and in 1905 the successful party stood for immediate
municipal acquisition of all roads. Meanwhile, under the state
referendum act, the city in 1902 voted overwhelmingly for
municipal ownership and operation (142,826 to 27,090); the
legislature in 1903 by the Mueller law gave the city the requisite
powers; the people accepted the law, again declared for muni-
cipal ownership, and for temporary compulsion of adequate
service, and against granting any franchise to any company,
by four additional votes similarly conclusive. At last, after
tedious negotiations, a definite agreement was reached in 1906
assuring an early acquisition of all roads by the city. The
issue of bonds for municipal railways was, however, declared
unconstitutional that year; and at the municipal elections of
1007 there was a complete reversal of policy*, a large majority
voted this time against municipal ownership in favour of
leaving the working of the street railways in private hands,
and strengthening the powers of municipal control.
' The net revenue per million gallons in 1890-1899 was $35*04.
The active campaign for the improvement of municipal service
and politics may be said to have begun in 1806. A civil service
system was inaugurated in 1 895. The salaries of the councilman
were raised with good effect. Numerous reform associations
were started to rouse public opinion, such as the Citizens' Associa-
tion of Chicago, organized in 1874, the Civic Federation (1804),
the Municipal Voters' League (1806), the Legislative Voters'
League (1901), the Municipal Lecture Association (1002), the
Referendum League of Illinois (1901), the Civil Service Reform
Association of Chicago, the Civil Service Reform Association of
Illinois (1902), the Merchants' Club, the City Club (1903), the
Law and Order League (1904), Society of Social Hygiene (1906),
and many of the women's crabs took an active part. They stood
for the real enforcement of the laws, sanitation, pure food, public
health, the improvement of the schools and the widening of their
social influence, and (here especially the women's clubs) aesthetic,
social and moral progress. The Merchants' Club reformed the
city's book-keeping, and secured the establishment (1809)
of the first state pawnbrokers' society. The Civic Federation
demonstrated (1896) that it could clean the central streets for
slightly over half what the dty was paying (the- city has since
saved the difference); it originated the movement for vacation
schools and other educational advances, and started the Com-
mittee of One Hundred (1897), from which sprang various other
reform dubs. The Munidpal Voters' League investigated and
published the records of candidates for the dty council, and
recommended thdr election or defeat as the case may be. More*
over, a " Munidpal Museum " was organized in 1005, mainly
supported by private aid, but in part by the board of education,
in order to collect and make educational use of materials illustrat-
ing munidpal administration and conditions, physical and social.
Education and Charily. — The school board is appointed by
the mayor. Since 1904 a merit system has been applied in the
advancement of teachers; civil service rules cover the rest of
the employees. Kindergartens were maintained without legal
sanction in connexion with the public schools for several years,
and for more than twenty-five years as private schools, before
their legal establishment as a part of the system in 1809. Free
evening schools, very practical in their courses, are utilized
mainly by foreigners. Vacation schools were begun in 1896.
So far as possible the school buildings are kept open for school,
lectures and entertainments, serving thus as wholesome social
centres; and a more adequate use is made of the large invest-
ment (in 1008 about $44,500,000) which they represent. In all
the public schools manual training, household arts and economy,
and commercial studies are a regular part of the curriculum.
A department of sdentinc pedagogy and child study (1900)
seeks to secure a development of the school system in harmony
with the results of scientific study of children (the combination
of hand and brain training, the use of audi to-visual methods,
an elastic curriculum during the adolescent period, &c). The
expenditure for all purposes by the dty in 1903 for every dollar
expended for schools was only $1*713; » ratio paralleled in only
a few cities of the country.
Hospitals, infirmaries, dispensaries, asylums, shelters and
homes for the defective, destitute, orphaned, aged, erring,
friendless and incurably diseased; various relief societies,
and associations that sift the good from the bad among the
mendicant, the economically inefficient, and the viciously
pauper, represent the charity work of the dty. Among public
institutions are the Cook County hospital (situated in the
" Medical District " of the West Side, where various hospitals
and schools are gathered near together), asylum and poor house.
Since 1883 a Lincoln Park Sanitarium has been maintained for
infants and small children during warm weather. Two legal-aid
societies, the Chicago Bureau of Justice (1888) and the Protective
Agency for Women and Children, collect small wage claims and
otherwise aid the poor or helpless. The most important charit-
able sodeties of the dty are the United Charities of Chicago
(1009), the United Hebrew Charities (1857), and the Assodated
Jewish Charities (1900). The first is the union of the Relief
and Aid Society (1857) and the Bureau of Charities (1894),
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of th* Pullman Car Company, ar.d its leader was Eugene Victor
I Jnb* <h. 1 * ; 5;. When the contentions of the Pullman employees
were takrn up by the American Railway Union the strike
immfliaieJy extended to tremendous proportions. Union men
■ Thrrc wjs an insurance of ^8.634. 122 on the losvv, of which
.itjiiijf a lulf wiii r«.f ovcrcd. F. L. Olmsted ntimatcd that one-third
'.f 1 tic roof surf arc and one-half the cubic contents of the city's
liuilrJing* were destroyed.
CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF
throughout the country refused to handle Pullman cars, and
■nee Pullman cars are almost invariably attached to mail
trains the transportation of the United States mail was thus ob-
structed. Chicago, as the greatest railwaycentre of the country
and the home of the strike, was naturally the seat of the most
serious complications. There was much rioting and destruction
of property, and the railway service was completely disorganized.
President Cleveland, on the ground of preventing obstruction of
the mail service, and of protecting other federal interests,
ordered a small number of federal troops to Chicago. Those
interests were, he contended, menaced by " domestic violence "
evidently beyond the control of the state power. Governor
Altgeld denied the inability of the state to deal with the diffi-
culty, and entered a strong protest against Federal interference;
but he hims elf did nothing to put down the disorder. Federal
troops entered the state, and almost immediately the strike
CTltopif** The high officials of the Railway Union, for ignoring
a court injunction restraining them from interfering with the
movement of the mails, were imprisoned for long terms for
contempt of court.
Out of a strike in the McCormick works in 1886 there sprang
another famous incident in Chicago's history. The "inter-
national " anarchists of Chicago had been organised in "groups"
about two years earlier, and were very active. They were ad-
vocating a " general strike " for an eight-hour day, and the tense
excitement among the labourers of the city, owing to the
McCormick strike, induced unusually ultra utterances. There
was a riot at the McCormick works on the 3rd of May, in which
several men were killed by the police. An anarchist meeting
was called for the next day at the Haymarket, a square in
Randolph Street, and when the authorities judged that the
speeches were too revolutionary to be allowed to continue, the
police undertook to disperse the meeting. A bomb was thrown,
and many policemen were injured, seven fatally. No person
could be proved to have thrown the bomb, or to have been directly
implicated in its throwing; but on the ground that they were
morally conspirators and accomplices in the killing, because they
had repeatedly and publicly advocated such acts against the
servants of government, seven anarchists were condemned to
death. An application to the United States Supreme Court
for a writ of error was unanimously refused. 1
The four-hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America
was commemorated by a World's Columbian Exposition held
at Chicago. The site was in Jackson Park and the adjoining
Midway, and included 686 acres, of which 188 were covered by
buildings. On the axst of October 1892 — corresponding to the
1 ath of October 1492, 0.6.— the grounds were formally dedicated,
and on the following xst of May opened to the public, continuing
open for six months. The number of paid admissions was
11,500,000; of total admissions 27,539,521. The buildings,
planned by a commission of architects— among whom John W.
Root and Daniel H. Burnham of Chicago were responsible for
the general scheme— formed a collection of remarkable beauty,
to which the grounds, planned by F. L. Olmsted, intersected
by lagoons and bordered by the lake, lent an appropriate setting.
The entire cost of the fair is variously estimated at from 33 to
43 million dollars, according to the indusiveness of the estimate;
the local cost may be put at $28,151,169. Of this Chicago gave
about xoj millions, in addition to a preparatory house-cleaning
that cost 3} millions; and finally a very small dividend was
paid to stockholders. The whole undertaking, carried through
with remarkable enterprise, was an artistic and educational
triumph of the first order.
Owing to its position Chicago has long been a favourite con-
1 Four were hanged, 1 committed suicide, 2 had their death
sentence commuted to life-imprisonment, the eighth was sentenced
to imprisonment for I* years. 981 men were panelled in selecting
the jury. Governor T. P. Altgeld in 1893 pardoned the three in
prison on the ground that the jury was " packed " and consequently
incompetent, that no evidence connected the prisoners with the
crime, and that the presiding judge was prejudiced. See an article
by Judge J. E. Gary, who presided at the trial, in the Century
■* * (April 1893).
125
vention city. Lincoln (i860), Grant (1868), Garfield (1880),
Cleveland (1884 and 1892), Harrison (1888), Roosevelt (1004),
and Taft (1908) were all nominated here for president; and in
addition not a few candidates who were unsuccessful. A national
peace jubilee was held here in 1898.
A L"T hob 1 tie 3, — Sw the annual reports of city officials, board of
trade, park com missions, sanitary board, Ac; A- T. Andrea*,
uh t-r the Fergus Rttfarjcal Scriej (1876, fi\): TJ. Rslcy,
ftht Hither Lift of Chicago (Chicago University, doctoral
n, 1 905 J; SL b. Sparling, Afunkiftil History and Frcstnt
jfU '
l8s>2); issue* t
A Study of 4
dissertation, „
Qr&inaaiion of ike City of Chicago TUnivrrcity of Wisconsin* doctoral
dissertation, Madison, iH^B]L Periodical literature contain? a vast
amount of information on Chicago's piOgre** and conditioo.5 ihjt is
elsewhere unobtainable; exact references may be obtained in
Poole 'a Index to Periodical Literature.
CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OP, one of the great educational
institutions of the United States, established under Baptist
auspices in the city of Chicago, and opened in 1892.* Though
the president and two-thirds of the trustees are always Baptists,
the university is non-sectarian except as regards its divinity
school. An immense ambition and the extraordinary organizing
ability shown by its first president, William R- Harper, deter-
mined and characterized the remarkable growth of the univer-
sity's first decade of activity. The grounds include about 140
acres. Of these about 60 acres— given in part by Marshall
Field and laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted— border the
Midway Plaisance, connecting Washington and Jackson parks.
On these grounds the main part of the university stands. The
buildings are mostly of grey limestone, in Gothic style, and
grouped in quadrangles. The Mitchell tower is a shortened
reproduction of Magdalen tower, Oxford, and the University
Commons, Hutchinson Hall, is a duplicate of Christ Church hall,
Oxford. Dormitories accommodate about a fifth of the students.
The quadrangles include clubs, dining halls, dormitories, gym-
nasiums, assembly halls, recitation halls, laboratories and
libraries. In the first college year, 1892-1803, there were 698
students; in that of 1907-1908 there were s°38, a of whom 2186
were women. There are faculties of arts, literature, science,
divinity, 4 medicine (organized in 1001), law (1902), education,
and commerce and administration. The astronomical depart-
ment, the Yerkes Observatory, is located on William's Bay,
Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, about 65 m. from Chicago. It has the
largest refracting telescope in the world (clear aperture 40 in.,
focal length about 61 ft.). The Chicago Institute, founded and
endowed by Mrs Anita McCormick Blaine as an independent
normal school, became a part of the university in 1901. The
school of education, as a whole, brings under university influence,
hundreds of children from kindergarten age upwards to young
manhood and womanhood, apart from the university classes,
proper. Chicago was the second university of the country
to give its pedagogical department such scope in the union
of theory and practice. The nucleus of the library (450,000
volumes in 1908) was purchased in Berlin soon after the univer-
sity's organization, in one great collection of x7S,ooo volumes.
Scholarly research has been fostered in every possible way, and
the university press has been active in the publication of various
departmental series and the following periodicals: — Biblical
World, American Journal of Theology, American Journal of
Semitic Languages and Literatures, American Journal of Sociology t
Journal of Political Economy, Modem Philology, Classical
Philology, Classical Journal, Journal of Geology, Astro physical
Journal, Botanical Gazette, Elementary School Teacher and
School Review. The courses in the College of Commerce and
' A small Baptist college of the same name — established in 1855
on land given by S. A. Douglas— went out of existence in 1886.
• If, however, the total is reckoned on the basis of nine months
of residence the figure for 1907-1908 would be 3202.
• The Divinity School has a graduate department and three under
graduate departments, doing work in English, in Danish and Nor-
wegian, and in Swedish. Allied with the Divinity School of the
University is the " Disciples' Divinity House" (1894), a theological
University is the " Disciples Vv
school of the Disciples of Christ,
126
CHICANE— CHICHELEY
Administration link the university closely with practical life.
In extension work the university has been active from the
beginning, instruction being given not only by lectures but by
correspondence (a novel and unique feature among American
universities); in the decade 1892-1902, 1715 persons were
prepared by the latter method for matriculation in the university
(11 -6% of the total number of matriculants in the decade).
Extension lectures were given in twenty-two states. At Chicago
the work of the university is continuous throughout the year:
the " summer quarter " is not as in other American schools a
supplement to the teaching year, but an integral part; and it
attracts the teachers of the middle western states and of the
south. In the work of the first two years, known together as
the Junior College, men and women are in the main given separate
instruction; but in the Senior College years unrestricted co-
education prevails. Students are mainly controlled by self-
government in small groups (" the house system "). Relations
with " affiliated " (private) colleges and academies and " co-
operating " (public) high-schools also present interesting features.
The value of the property of the university in 1908 was about
$25,578,000. Up to the 30th of June 1908 it had received from
gifts actually paid $29,651,849, of which $22,712,631 were given
by John D. Rockefeller. 1 The value of buildings in 1008 was
$4,508,202, of grounds $4,406,191, and of productive funds
$14,186,235. Upon the death of President Harper, Harry Pratt
Judson (b. 1849), then head professor of political science and
dean of the faculties of arts, became acting president, and on
the 20th of January 1907 he was elected president.
See the Decennial Publications of the University (since 1903), es-
pecially vol. i. for details of history and administration.
CHICANE, the pettifogging subterfuge and delay of sharp
law-practitioners, also any deliberate attempt to gain unfair
advantage by petty tricks. A more common English form of
the word is " chicanery." " Chicane " is technically used also
as a term in the game of bridge for the points a player may score
if he holds no trumps. The word is French, derived either from
chaugdn, Persian for the stick used in the game of " polo," still
played on foot and called chicane in Languedoc (the military use
of chicaner, to take advantage of slight variations in ground,
suits this derivation), or from chic, meaning little or petty, from
the Spanish chico, small, which appears in the phrase '"chic &
chic," little by little.
CHICHELEY, HENRY (1364-1443), English archbishop,
founder of All Souls College, Oxford, was born at Higham Ferrers,
Northamptonshire, in 1363 or 1364. Chicheley told the pope in
1443, in asking leave to retire from the archbishopric, that he
was in his eightieth year. He was the third and youngest son
of Thomas Chicheley, who appears in 1368 in still extant town
records of Higham Ferrers as a suitor in the mayor's court, and
in 1381-1382, and again in 1384-1385, was mayor: in fact, for a
dozen years he and Henry Barton, school master of Higham
Ferrers grammar school, and one Richard Brabazon, filled the
mayoralty in turns. His occupation does not appear; but his
eldest son, William, is on the earliest extant list (1373) of the
Grocers' Company, London. On the 9th of June 1405 Chicheley
was admitted, in succession to his father, to a burgage in Higham
Ferrers. His mother, Agnes Pincheon, is said to have been of
gentle birth. There is therefore no foundation in fact for the
silly story (copied into the Diet. Nat. Biog. from a local historian,
x The words "founded by John D. Rockefeller" follow the title
of the university on all its letterheads and official documents.
Mr Rockefeller would not allow his name to be a part of the title,
nor has he permitted the designation of any building by his name.
President Harper was selected by him to organize the university,
and it was his will that the president and two-thirds of the trustees
should be " always" Baptists. President Harper more than once
stated most categorically that contrary to prevalent beliefs no donor
of funds to the university " has ever (1902) by a single word or act
indicated his dissatisfaction with the instruction given to students
in the university, or with the public expression of opinion made by
any officer of the university ; and certainly so far as the public
press reveals, no other university of the country has had so many
professors who have in various lines, including economics, expressed
radical views in public.
J. Cole, Wellingborough, 1838) that Henry Chicheley was picked
up by William of Wykeham when he was a poor ploughboy
" eating his scanty meal off his mother's lap," whatever that
means. The story was unknown to Arthur Duck, fellow of All
Souls, who wrote Chicheley's life in 161 7. It is only the usual
attempt, as in the cases of Whittington, Wolsey and Gresham,
to exaggerate the rise of a successful man. The first recorded
appearance of. Henry Chicheley himself is at New College, Oxford,
as Chechcley, eighth among the undergraduate fellows, in July
1387, in the earliest extant hall-book, which contains weekly
lists of those dining in Hall. It is dear from Chicheley's posi tion
in the list, with eleven fellows and eight scholars, or probationer^
fellows, below him, that this entry does not mark his first appear-
ance in the college, which bad been going on since 1375 at least,
and was chartered in 1379. He must have come from Winchester
College in one of the earliest batches of scholars from that college,
the sole feeder of New College, not from St John Baptist College,
Winchester, as guessed by Dr William Hunt in the Diet. Nat.
Biog. (and repeated in Mr Grant Robertson's History of Ail
Souls College) to cover the mistaken supposition that St Mary's
College was not founded till 1393. St Mary's College was in
fact formally founded in 1382, and the school had been going on
since 1373 (A. F. Leach, History of Winchester College), while no
such college as St John's College at Winchester ever existed.
Chicheley appears in the Hall-books of New College up to the
year 1392/93, when he was a B.A. and was absent for ten weeks
from about the 6th of December to the 6th of March, presumably
for the purpose of his ordination as a sub-deacon, which was
performed by the bishop of Deny, acting as suffragan to the
bishop of London. He was then already beneficed, receiving a
royal ratification of his estate as parson of Llanvarchell in the
diocese of St Asaph on the 20th of March 1391/92 {Cat. Pot.
Rolls). In the Hall-book, marked 1393/94, but really for 1304/95,
Chicheley's name does not appear. He had then left Oxford
and gone up to London to practise as an advocate in the prin-
cipal ecclesiastical court, the court of arches. His rise was
rapid. Already on the 8th of February 1395/96 he was on a
commission with several knights and clerks to hear an appeal
in a case of John Molton, Esquire v. John Shawe, citizen of London,
from Sir John Cheyne. kt., sitting for the constable of England in
a court of chivalry. Like other ecclesiastical lawyers and civil
servants of the day, he was paid with ecclesiastical preferments.
On the 13th of April 1396 he obtained ratification of the parson-
age of St Stephen's, Walbrook, presented on the 30th of March
by the abbot of Colchester, no doubt through his brother Robert,
who restored the church and increased its endowment. In 1397
he was made archdeacon of Dorset by Richard Mitford. bishop
of Salisbury, but litigation was still going on about it in the papal
court till the 27th of June 1309, when the pope extinguished the
suit, imposing perpetual silence on Nicholas Bub with, master of
the rolls, his opponent. In the first year of Henry IV. Chicheley
was parson of Sherston, Wiltshire, and prebendary of Nantgwyly
in the college of Abergwilly, North Wales; on the 23rd of Feb-
ruary 1 401/2, now called doctor of laws, he was pardoned for
bringing in, and allowed to use, a bull of the pope " providing "
him to the chancellorship of Salisbury cathedral, and canon-
ries in the nuns' churches of Shaftesbury and Wilton in that
diocese; and on the 9th of January 1402/3 he was archdeacon
of Salisbury. This year his brother Robert was senior sheriff of
London. On the 7 th of May 1404, Pope Boniface IX. provided
him to a prebend at Lincoln, notwithstanding he already held
prebends at Salisbury, Lichfield, St Martin's-le-Grand and
Abergwyly, and the living of Brington. On the 9th of January
1405 he found time to attend a court at Higham Ferrers and be
admitted to a burgage there. In July 1405 Chicheley began 4
diplomatic career by a mission to the new Roman pope Innocent
VII., who was professing his desire to end the schism in the
papacy by resignation, if his French rival at Avignon would do
likewise. Next year, on the 5th of October 1406, he was sent
with Sir John Cheyne to Paris to arrange a lasting peace and
the marriage of Prince Henry with the French princess Marie,
which was frustrated by her becoming a nun at Poissy next year.
CHICHELEY
127
la 1406 renewed efforts were made to stop the schism, and
Chicheley was one of the envoys sent to the new pope Gregory
XII. Here he utilised his opportunities. On the 3 xst of August
1407 Guy Mone (he is always so spelt and not Mohun, and was
probably from one of the Hampshire Meons; there was a John
Mone of Havant admitted a Winchester scholar in 1397), bishop
of St David's, died, and on the 12th of October 1407 Chicheley
was by the pope provided to the bishopric of St David's. Another
bull the tame day gave him the right to hold all bis benefices
with the bishopric.
At Siena in July 1408 he and Sir John Cheyne, as English
envoys, were received by Gregory XII. with special honour,
and Bishop Repingdon of Lincoln, ex-Wychffite, was one of the
new batch of cardinals created on the 18th of September 1408,
most of Gregory's cardinals having deserted him. These,
together with Benedict's revolting cardinals, summoned a general
council at Pisa. In November 1408 Chicheley was back at
Westminster, when Henry IV. received the cardinal archbishop
of Bordeaux and determined to support the cardinals at Pisa
against both popes. In January 1409 Chicheley was named with
Bishop Hallum of Salisbury and the prior of Canterbury to
represent the Southern Convocation at the council, which opened
on the 25th of March 1409, arriving on the 24th of April.
Obedience was withdrawn from both the existing popes, and
on the 26th of June a new pope elected instead of them.
Chicheley and the other envoys were received on their return
is saviours of the world; though the result was summed up by
s contemporary as trischism instead of schism, and the Church
as giving three husbands instead of two. Chicheley now became
the subject of a leading case, the court of king's bench deciding,
after arguments reheard in three successive terms, that he could
not hold his previous benefices with the bishopric, and that, spite
of the maxim Papa potest omnia, a papal bull could not supersede
the law of the land ( Year-book ii. H. iv. 37, 59, 79). Accordingly
he had to resign livings and canonrics wholesale (April 28, 14x0).
As, however, he had obtained a bull (August 20, 1409) enabling
him to appoint his successors to the vacated preferments,
including his nephew William, though still an undergraduate
and not in orders, to the chancellorship of Salisbury, and a
prebend at Lichfield, he did not go empty away. In May 14 10
be went again on an embassy to France; on the nth of
September 1411 he headed a mission to discuss Henry V.'s
marriage with a daughter of the duke of Burgundy; and he was
again therein November. In the interval Chicheley found time
to visit his diocese for the first time and be enthroned at St
David's on the nth of May 141 x. He was with the English
force under the earl of Arundel which accompanied the duke of
Burgundy to Paris in October 141 1 and there defeated the
Armagnacs, an exploit which revealed to England the weakness
of the French. On the 30th of November 1411 Chicheley, with
two other bishops and three earls and the prince of Wales, knelt
to the king to receive public thanks for their administration.
That he was in high favour with Henry V. is shown by his being
sent with the earl of Warwick to France in July 1413 to conclude
peace. Immediately after the death of archbishop Arundel he
was nominated by the king to the archbishopric, elected on the
4th of March, translated by papal bull on the 28th of April, and
received the pall without going to Rome for it on the 24th
of July.
These dates are important as they help to save Chicheley from
the charge, versified by Shakespeare (Henry V. act i. sc. 2)
from Hall's Chronicle, of having tempted Henry V. into the
conquest of France for the sake of diverting parliament from
the duendowment of the Church. There is no contemporary
authority for the charge ,which seems to appear first in Redman's
rhetorical history of Henry V., written in 1540 with an eye
to the political situation at that time. As a matter of fact, the
parliament at Leicester, in which the speeches were supposed
to have been made, began on the 30th of April 14 14 before
Chicheley was archbishop. The rolls of parliament show that he
was not present in the parliament at all. Moreover parliament
was so far from pressing disendowment that on the petition of
the Commons it passed a savage act against the heresies " com-
monly called LoUardry " which " aimed at the destruction of
the king and all temporal estates," making Lollards felons and
ordering every justice of the peace to hunt down their schools,
conventicles, congregations and confederacies.
In his capacity of archbishop, Chicheley remained what he
had always been chiefly, the lawyer and diplomatist. He was
present at the siege of Rouen, and the king committed to him
personally the negotiations for the surrender of the city in
January 14x9 and for the marriage of Katherine. He crowned
Kathcrine at Westminster (20th February 1421), and on the 6th
of December baptized her child Henry VI. He was of course a
persecutor of heretics. No one could have attained or kept the
position of archbishop at the time without being so. So he
presided at the trial of John Claydon, Skinner and citizen of
London, who after five years' imprisonment at various times
had made public abjuration before the late archbishop, Arundel,
but now was found in possession of a book in English called
The Lanlerne of Light, which contained the heinous heresy that
the principal cause of the persecution of Christians was the
illegal retention by priests of the goods of this world, and that
archbishops and bishops were the special seats of antichrist.
As a relapsed heretic, he was " left to the secular arm " by
Chicheley. On the 1st of July 14 16 Chicheley directed a half-
yearly inquisition by archdeacons to hunt out heretics. On the
1 2th of February 1420 proceedings were begun before him
against William Taylor, priest, who had been for fourteen years
excommunicated for heresy, and was now degraded and burnt
for saying that prayers ought not to be addressed to saints,
but only to God. A striking contrast was exhibited in October
1424, when a Stamford friar, John "Russell, who had preached
that any religious potest eoncumbere cum muliere and not mortally
sin, was sentenced only to retract his doctrine. Further persecu-
tions of a whole batch of Lollards took place in 1428. The records
of convocation in Chichclcy's time arc a curious mixture of
persecutions for heresy, which largely consisted in attacks on
clerical endowments, with negotiations with the ministers of the
crown for the object of cutting down to the lowest level the
clerical contributions to the public revenues in respect of their
endowments. Chicheley was tenacious of the privileges of his
see, and this involved him in a constant struggle with Henry
Beaufort, bishop of Winchester. In 1418, while Henry V.
was alive, he successfully protested against Beaufort's being
made a cardinal and legate a latere to supersede the legatinc
jurisdiction of Canterbury. But during the regency, after Henry
VI. 's accession, Beaufort was successful, and in 1426 became
cardinal and legate. This brought Chicheley into collision with
Martin V. The struggle between them has been represented
as one of a patriotic archbishop resisting the encroachments of
the papacy on the Church of England. In point of fact it was
almost wholly personal, and was rather an incident in the
rivalry between the duke of Gloucester and his half-brother,
Cardinal Beaufort, than one involving any principle. Chic heley,
by appointing a jubilee to be held at Canterbury in 1420, " after
the manner of the Jubilee ordained by the Popes," threatened
to divert the profits from pilgrims from Rome to Canterbury.
A ferocious letter from the pope to the papal nuncios, on the 19th
of March 1423, denounced the proceeding as calculated " to en-
snare simple souls and extort from them a profane reward,
thereby setting up themselves against the apostolic see and the
Roman pontiff, to whom alone so great a faculty has been granted
by God " (Cat. Pap. Reg. vii. 12). Chicheley also incurred the
papal wrath by opposing the system of papal provision which
diverted patronage from English to Italian hands, but the
immediate occasion was to prevent the introduction of the bulls
making Beaufort a cardinal. Chicheley had been cartful enough
to obtain " Papal provisions " for himself, his pluralities, his
bishopric and archbishopric
But, after all, it is not as archbishop or statesman, persecutor,
papalist or antipapalist that Chicheley 4s remembered, but
for his educational foundations. He endowed a hutch, i.e. chest or
loan-fund for poor scholars at New College, and another for tha
128
CHICHEN-ITZA— CHICHESTER OF BELFAST
«A'-/*r*..f/ *A tnl'JtA *• Urg» He f*.c/hrf bo less than three
'*■ ■'**'. •*•* *^ Or.'',."! *>.v *". ff.gKam f>rren, '■bile tser* is
r« -€■/,.•. »/, *•..« /* «r {• r' i -jyr'.V'.d *r,-l ir.t^.rH the fo<--z.'J*i«r.n
of K'».r. wi of K.- jj •- *ja>i+.. If.*, f r.l 's«*ge At Oxford, ia
jyr. :...' jr £;-,< vr'?, •'/ ',t Jor..*.'*. i. *.'.>%+, why.h Mr* fc/.:?li its
tif^. If..; A*t T;t fc'.rrttrd't '.'„".» J5*. fo;r.dtd by O.i'beley
gi.'!»r Wfs.'f. \u n. f *rirr.i'.:i in 1437 f'#r Cu'eriim mor.fo, en the
mvS'l ',? '»>/\i"-.w If all ar.d Durham 0,i!/:ge for ihe v/:tLern
ai.d /.'/." f.'rrj fWj'/li'tjrirv. Nothing more than & Kit ar/i
h i.M ;.^ *a% req'jirM by way of endovmerit, at th* yo-jng
mor .V*, who wre v:r.t thtre to tludy under a proviw, were
ti.pporf'd by Ik* houvrt of the order to whirh they belonged.
'Mi*- *ite wa% five a/.r>\ and the b'jjJdir.g it d'vribM in the
liilm |,;il#-r,t " a* a fitting and noble folleg* mansion in honour
of lb*- rnoif glorious Virgin Mary and St fi':rnard in North/rates
SifM outadr th«; Norfhjprc of Oxford." It wa* suppressed
with fh* '^ifrriari ahh«-y*. in i',jo, *tA granted on the nth of
lJ<-"Tfiljir 1^46 to f.hri.t f'hurrh, Gilford, who told it to Sir
'Ihorna* fo^- in i'/.s 1'it St John's Colbge.
'I hi* folli-x" at fbgri.trn f*«rr«:r* w»i a murh earlier design.
'On the /nd of May 14*2 Henry V, in right of the du'.hy of
Lunrar.f'r, " Ifiiiog thai ChirheJey inflamed by the pio-js
frrvour of devotion int«-iid<-d to enlarge divine servir? and other
woikfl of pi- ly ;M Mighrirn |-Vr rers, in /or»\id« ration of his fruitful
M-rvi<J-t, ofi'-n r.ro-.i.ing the vai, yielding to no toils, dangers or
ri|*-fr"t . . , es|*vially in the 'ori'lusion of the pn.-v.nt final
\tw f with our de.irr*! father the king of France," granted for
joo marl"t ((.iw) lirri.fe u» found, on three a* res at Jfighim
irt-rtm, a pir|ftual roll'g<* of M'ght 'ha plains and four tb-rks,
/if w If/in ori' was to u a* h grammar and the olh* r «,ong ... and
*ii < hori»f'-r* to pray for himvlf and wife and for Jfr-nry IV.
atid hi* wife M»ry . . . and to a'tjuire the alien priory of
Mi'tvy*- in t.-.-i * lit** \h longing to St Ou^n'n, Kouen," aaendow-
mriil. A pHjr:il hull hiving alv* l*ii » oht^irfd, on the 28th of
Align. f t.\/;, ihf ardihkhop, in the iour-^ of a visitation of
I,in"(ln dii^ r-w, f-xn utrd hi> Irtti-r". p.ili-iil founding the 1 olh-gi*,
ilfilii iitirig it to Ihr Viigin, St 'I hoinas a lit • k«t and St l-^lward
the Ciuif'-.-ior, and haudrd over tin- buildings to its rnrmlx-M, the
vimrol llighain I'lrrrr-. b>iug inadi- the fir%t mn^.ti-ror warden.
Ilr further rndowd it in i|H with lands in Ifrdfordhhire and
Ifmif iri|o|cuv.liirr ( und hit brolhrn, William and Robert, gave
Mitiic Iioiim*-. in I^mmIoii in i.py and i-nK. Th>' foundation was
do 'fly inodi-Ili'd on Wim hi-.tr-r ('olh-gr, with il-. u.irdi-u and
frlliiwi, its giiinitnar and Ming sr hix.Iin.nfrrs, but a Mfp in
ndvanu 1 Wits made by Ihr maslcr-i bring madf fellows mid m>
mrnuVrs of the guvrruing Itody. Altai lied w«i nlv> a Inde or
nlnishousf fur twrlvc |»oor mm. Itnth m honl and iiluiihoiiM' li.ld
CKistfl brfurc, nnd (hit w.ik nirnly an addiliou.il mdowmait.
The whiili- rmlciwmriil was in i^ wotth wiinr /,;f)«ia y«-ar, JiUmt
n lift li cif th.ii of Wiiif hr-.li*r Collfgi*. Unfurl iinnldy, All SouK
lieiiiK a lain fouud.iliiui, tin* college at lligham I'Vrn-rs was not
aflilialftl in it, nnd so fell with nthrr toll<-g<-H mil part of th«>
univi i-.itii'i. On Ihr 1H1I1 of July iyp il wan ?.urrrndiri'd to
llcuiv VIII., and il-; po.'.r--.ioiis gr.iiitfcl to Kobril O.mrK nn
(umlilion 11I niaintnininK tin- gi.imm.ir 1.111001 and paying the
111.1 .Irr / if* a \i-.ir, tin' '..11111' '.;il:irv as the lir.ulma-.lrp, of Win
ilii-.tci itml I'tnii, iiihI ni.iinlaiiiiiig the iiliir-hinist'. Ilnlh still
i'\i >l . Iml tlif si honl h.is briii (lepiiviil uf it*. Imii'.r, uud thr
lit. -Willi 1111 f.uiiily, who i»t»w own llir l.imt-., -.till (oiilinur to p.iy
Ollh f !■> .1 Vi'ill.
All Si'iiK t'plli-gi- was iiuiMili'iablv later. Thr patrul fur it,
iliilnl .'xth u| M.iy 1 1 (H, i<. Im ;i u.iiilcii and /•> mIihI.iis, In br
talliil "I hr Wanli-n nil. I ('iilh-gr nl tin- nu\i1 , o| ;ill llir I. Ill Mill
ih p.u till," to >.luilv .nitl piav " (or I he snul ul Kiiij; llriuy \'|
ami Ihr mimI-i ol IIuhv V . I'lmnui-k, fluke n( ( lairiur, ami all
the iluki"., rail-i, b.MiHi-i, knirhl .. :.i|iiiie^ a in I nlhrt iinbh-i nml
»tili|t-i t ■- nl nut lilher who ilui iiiir thr linn- and in the Mix-in'
i»l mil tit In 1 iitiil imii-.i l\r. « udiil thru liM-. in Ihr waii ol ihr
Uii|-ilmin>l 1-i.iiur, mi>l Im I In- '.mil . ul all thr tailhlul ilipaiti d."
1-m I In ■ . Ihr l>ni|> i:iaiitiil llrilmil'. 1 1 .ill . loimrilv t haili-.tun's
Inn, \s In* ft X linhiliv'-i tin- tn-. Ii.nl )>iautril In him mi us tit
obtain 11 loyal giant and imlilrasiblr title. Kulurd Aiullcw»,
tbc ki^r/s lecretao'- Lke Chicbr^>- 'Tnt'd a xbdLu of Wh-
cbesur zzA It&r* «' New Ccl^ege. wis =oaed u arse vardea
A papal Lull for the college wu dtmistd oc tie zzSL of Juae
uy,: ax.-l further putr.i* for endovxsem fraa the :zth of
May it xi to the :=>:b cf J^uax>- ia*?, vbes a geoexal ccs£rau-
uon charter was oLialr.ei. for wbJca £iooo '.£50-300 a£ least of
o-r Bo.-.eyj was pa: i. It is conmocly repmerred ibal the
endowment was wholly derived from aHcc priories beqsht by
Chicfceley from the crows. In trcth. dot so large a proportion
of the endowment of AH Souls was derived free thai socrce as
was that of New College. The only alien priories graated were
Abberbury in Oxfordihire. Wedon Pinkney in Xorthaz^C:c-
shirc, Romney in Kent, and St Clare and LlacgrsRh ia Wales,
all very small affairs, single manors and rectories, and these
did not form a quarter of the whole endowment. The rest,
particularly the manor of Edgware, which made the fortune of
the college, was bought from private owners, Early in 1443 the
college was opened by Chicheley with four bishops in state.
The statutes, not drawn up until the 2nd of April 1443. raised
the number of the college to forty. Like the college buildings,
they are almost an exact copy of those of New College, rndclis
mutandis. The college is sometimes described as being different
from other colleges in being merely a large chantry to pray for
the souls of the dead warriors. But it was no more a chantry
than the other colleges, all of which, like the monasteries and
colh-giate churche*. were to pray for their founders' and other
sperjficd souls. Indeed, All Souls was more of a lay foundation
than its model. For while at New College only twenty out of
seventy fellows were to study law instead of arts, philosophy and
theology, at All Souls College sixteen were to be " jurists "
and only twenty-four " artists "; and while at New College
(here were ten chaplains and three clerks necessarily, at All
Souls the number was not denned but left optional; so that
there are now only one chaplain and four bible clerks.
Ten days after he scaled the statutes, on the 12th of April
1443, Chifhtlry died and was buried in Canterbury cathedral
on thr north side of the choir, under a fine effigy of himself
erected in his lifetime. There is what looks like an excellent
f ontrmporary portrait in one of the windows of All Souls College,
whi<h is figured in the Victoria County History for Hampshire,
"■ 262. (A. F. L.)
CHICHEN-ITZA, or Chioies*, an ancient ruined city of
Yucatan, Mexico, situated 22 m. W. of Yalladolid. The name
w derived from that of the Itza, a tribe of the great Mayan
stock, which formerly inhabited the city, and chicken, having
rrfi-rrnr v probably to two wells or pools which doubtless origin-
ally supplied the inhabitants with water and are still in existence.
The hUtory of the city is unknown, though it is regarded as prob-
able that it preserved its independence long after the Spaniards
h:ul t aken |H>sM*ssion of the rest of the district. The area covered
by I he ruins is approximately 1 sq. m., and other remains arc
found in the neighbouring forest. (Sec Central America:
Anhnrol-iRV.)
CHICHESTER OP BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER,
IUkon (hoi- i6»s)i lord-deputy of Ireland, second son of Sir
John Chiiiirati-r of Raleigh, Devonshire, by Gertrude, daughter
of Sir William Cnurli nay of Powdcrham, was born at Raleigh
in May iso.i, and was educated at Exeter College, Oxford.
He ( oiiiin.iM.li r| a ship against the Spanish Armada in 1588, and
in said to have M-rved under Drake in his expedition of 1595.
MaviiiK mtii timber service abroad, he was sent to Ireland at
1 he em! of iS'jfl. and was appointed by the earl of Essex to the
Kiivn not ship of Carrk kfergus. When Essex returned to England,
ChiihcNlrr rendered valuable service under Mount joy in the
w.n .iKain^t thr nbellious earl of Tyrone, and in 1601 Mount joy
fnmnmemlvil him to Cecil in terms of the highest praise as the
Mte'.t |MTM>n to be entrusted with the government of Ulster.
On the 15th of October 1604 Chichester was appointed lord-
drputv of Inland He announced his policy in a proclamation
whrn-in he aliolished the semi-feudal rights of the native Irish
rhieftaius, substituting for them fixed dues, while their tenants
were to become dependent " wholly and immediately upon hit
CHICHESTER
129
majesty." Tyrone and other Irish clan chieftains resented this
summary interference with their ancient social organization,
and their resistance was strengthened by the ill-advised measures
against the Soman Catholics which Chichester was compelled
to take by the orders of the English ministers. He himself was
moderate and enlightened in his views on this matter, and it
was through his influence that the harshness of the anti-Catholic
policy was relaxed in 1607. Meantime his difficulties with the
Irish tribal leaders remained unsolved. But in 1607, by " the
flight of the Earls " (see O'Neill), he was relieved of the presence
of the two formidable Ulster chieftains, the earls of Tyrone and
TyTctmnell. Chichester's policy for dealing with the situation
thus created was to divide the lands of the fugitive earls among
Irishmen of standing and character; but the plantation of
Ulster as actually carried out was much less favourable and
just to the native population than the lord-deputy desired.
In 1613 Chichester was raised to the peerage as Baron Chichester
of Belfast, and in the following year he went to England to give
an account of the state of Ireland. On his return to Ireland he
again attempted to moderate the persecuting policy against
the Irish Catholics which be was instructed to enforce; and
although he was to some extent successful, it was probably
owing to his opposition to this policy that he was recalled in
November 1614. The king, however, told him " You may rest
assured that you do leave that place with our very good grace
and acceptation of your services "; and he was given the post
of lord-treasurer of Ireland. After living in retirement for some
years, Chichester was employed abroad in 1622; in the following
year he became a member of the privy council. He died on the
19th of February 1625 and was buried at Carrickfergus.
Lord Chichester married Letticc, daughter of Sir John Perrot
and widow of Walter Vaughan of Golden Grove. He had no
children, and his title became extinct at his death. The heir
to bis estates was bis brother Sir Edward Chichester (d. 2648),
governor of Carrickfergus, who in 1625 was created Baron
Chichester of Belfast and Viscount Chichester of Carrickfergus.
This nobleman's eldest son Arthur(i6oo-i675),who distinguished
himself as Colonel Chichester in the suppression of the rebellion
of 1641, was created carl of Doncgall in 1647, and was succeeded
In bis titles by his nephew, whose great-grandson, Arthur, 5th
earl of Donegall, was created Baron Fisherwick in the peerage
of Great Britain (the other family titles being in the peerage of
Ireland) in 1700, and earl of Belfast and marquess of Donegall
in the peerage of Ireland in 1791. The present marquess of
Donegall is his descendant.
See S. R. Gardiner in Diet. Nat. Biog, and History of England,
1603-1642 (London, 1883); Fyncs Moryaon, History of Ireland.
*S99-lfo3 (Dublin, 1735). (R. J. M.)
CHICHESTER, a city and municipal borough in the Chichester
parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 69 m. S.S.W. from
London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop.
(1001) 12,224. It lies in a plain at the foot of a spur of the South
Downs, a mile from the head of Chichester Harbour, an inlet
of the English Channel. The cathedral church of the Holy
Trinity was founded towards the close of the nth century, after
the see had been removed to Chichester from Selsey in 1075.
The first church was consecrated in 1108, but fires in n 14 and
1187 caused building to continue steadily until the close of the
13th century. Bishop Ralph Luffa (1001-1123) was the first
great builder, and was followed by Seffrid II. (1180-1204).
Norman work appears in the nave (arcade and trifoz&yin), choir
(arcade) and elsewhere; but there is much very beautiful
Early English work, the choir above the arcade and the eastern
part being especially fine. The nave is remarkable in having
double aisles on each side, the outer pair being of the 1 3U1 century.
The church is also unique among English cathedrals in the
possession of a detached campanile, a massive and beautiful
Perpendicular structure with the top storey octagonal. The
principal modern restorations are the upper part of the north-
west tower, which copies the Early English work of that on the
mouth-west; and the fine central tower and spire, which had
been erected at different periods in the 14th century, but col-
lapsed, doing little damage to the fabric, in 1861. Under the
direction of Sir Gilbert Scott and others they were reconstructed
with scrupulous care in preserving the original plan. The Lady
chapel at the east end is in the main early Decorated, but greatly
restored; the library is a fine late Norman vaulted room; the
cloisters are Perpendicular and well restored; and the bishop's
palace retains an Early English chapel. The cathedral is 393 fL
long within, 131 ft. across the transepts, and 90 ft. across the
nave with its double aisles. The height of the spire is 277 ft
At the junction of the four main streets of the town stands
the market cross, an exquisite octagonal structure in ornate
Perpendicular style, built by Bishop Story, c. 1500, perhaps the
finest of its kind in the United Kingdom. The hospital of St
Mary was founded in the 12th century, but the existing buildings
are in a style transitional from Early English to Decorated.
Its use as an almshouse is maintained. Other ancient buildings
arc the churches of St Olave, in the construction of which Roman
materials were used; and of St Andrew, where is the tomb of
the poet William Collins, whose memorial with others by the
sculptor Flaxman is in the cathedral; the Guildhall, formerly
a Grey Friars' chapel, of the 13th century; the Canon Gate
leading into the cathedral close; and the Vicars College. The
city retains a great part of its ancient walls, which have a circuit
of about a mile and a half, and, at least in part, follow the line
of Roman fortifications. The principal modern buildings,
besides churches and chapels, are the council house, corn
exchange, market house, and museum of the Chichester Literary
Society. The grammar school was founded in 1497 by Bishop
Story. There is a large cattle market, and the town has a con-
siderable agricultural trade, with breweries and tanneries. A
canal connects with Chichester Harbour. The diocese includes
the whole county of Sussex except a few parishes, with very
small portions of Kent and Surrey. The municipal borough is
under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area,
x 538 acres.
The Romano-British town on this site was perhaps Regnum
or Regni. Many inscriptions, pottery, coins, &c, have been
found, and part of the medieval walls contain a Roman cave.
An interesting inscription from this site is preserved at Goodwood.
Situated on one Roman road in direct connexion with London
and another leading from east to west, Chichester (Cissoceoster,
Cicestre) remained of considerable importance under the South
Saxon kings. In 067 King Edgar established a mint here.
Though Domesday Book speaks of one hundred and forty-two
burgages in Chichester and a charter of Henry I. mentions the
borough, the earliest extant charter is that granted by Stephen,
confirming to the burgesses their customs and rights of the
borough and gild merchant as they had them in the time of his
grandfather. This was confirmed by Henry II. Under Henry
III. the fee farm rent was £38: 10s., but this was reduced by a
charter of xo Edward II. to £36, the customs of wool, hides and
skins being reserved to the king. Edward III. directed that
the Sussex county court should be held at Chichester, and this
was confirmed in the following year. Confirmations of the
prevjous charters were also granted by Edward III., Richard II.,
Henry VI., Edward IV., and Henry VII., who gave the mayor
and citizens cognizance of all kinds of pleas of assize touching
lands and hereditaments of freehold tenure. A court leet, court
of record and bailiffs' court of liberties still exist. The charters
were also confirmed by Henry VUL, Edward VI., Philip and
Mary, and Elizabeth. In 1604 the city was incorporated under
a mayor and aldermen. Since 1295, when it first returned a
member, Chichester has been regularly represented in parliament.
Throughout the middle ages Chichester was a place of great
commercial importance, Edward III. establishing a wool staple
here in 1348. Fairs were granted by Henry I. and Henry VIL
Fuller mentions the Wednesday market as being famous for
corn, while Camden speaks of that on Saturday as the greatest
for fish in the county. The markets and a fair on the soth of
October are still held.
See Victoria County History, Sussex; Alexander Hay, History oj
Chichester (Chichester. 1804).
13°
CHICKAMAUGA CREEK— CHICKEN-POX
CHICKAMAUGA CREEK, a small tributary of the Tennessee
river, which it joins near Chattanooga, Tennessee, U.S.A. It
gives its name to the great battle of Chickamauga in the American
Civil War, fought on the xo-aoth of September 1863, between
the Federal army of the Cumberland under Major-Ccneral
W. S. Rosecrans and the Confederate army under General
Braxton Bragg. For the general operations of Rosecrans* army
in 1 863 see American Cjvil Was. A successful war of manoeuvre
had brought the army of the Cumberland from Murfreesboro
to Dcchcrd, Tenn., and Bragg's army lay on the Tennessee at
and above Chattanooga. Rosecrans was expected by the enemy
to manoeuvre so as to gain touch with the Union forces in the
upper Tennessee valley, but he formed an entirely different plan
of operations. One part of the army demonstrated in front of
Chattanooga, and the main body secretly crossed the river about
Stevenson and Bridgeport (September 4th). The country was
mountainous, the roads few and poor, and the Federals had to
take full supplies of food, forage and ammunition with them,
but Rosecrans was an able commander, his troops were in good
hands, and he accepted the risks involved. These were intensified
by the want of good maps, and, in the event, at one moment the
army was placed in a position of great danger. A corps under A.
McD. McCook moved south-eastward across the ridges to Alpine,
another under Thomas marched via Trenton on McLemore's
CHICKAMAUGA
» t i * *
ft
Cove. The presence of Federal masses in Lookout Valley caused
Bragg to abandon Chattanooga at once, and the object of the
manoeuvre was thus accomplished; but owing to the want of
good maps the Union army was at the same time exposed to
great danger. The head of Thomas's column was engaged at
Dug Gap, on the nth, against the flank guard of Bragg's army,
and at the time McCook was far away to the south, and Critten-
den's corps, which bad occupied Chattanooga on the 9th, was
also at a distance. Thomas was isolated, but Rosecrans, like
every other commander under whom he served, placed un-
bounded confidence in his tenacity, and if Bragg was wrong in
neglecting to attack him on the 14th, subsequent events went far
to disarm criticism. By the 18th of September Rosecrans had
at last collected his army on Chickamauga Creek covering Chat-
tanooga. But Bragg had now received heavy reinforcements,
and lay, concentrated for battle, on the other side of the Creek.
The terrain of the battle of Chickamauga (19th- 20th of
September) had little influence on its course. Both armies lay
in the plain, the two lines roughly parallel. Bragg's intention
was to force his attack home on Rosecrans' left wing, thus cutting
him off from Chattanooga and throwing him back into the
mountain country whence he had come. On the 19th a serious
action took place between the Confederate right and Rosecrans'
left under Thomas. On the 20th the real battle began. " The
Confederates, in accordance with Bragg's plans, pressed hard
upon Thomas, to whom Rosecrans sent reinforcements. One
of the divisions detached from the centre for this purpose was
by Advertence taken out of the first line, and before the gap
could be filled the Confederate central attack, led by Longstreet
and Hood, the fighting generals of Lee's army, and carried out by
veteran troops from the Virginian battlefields, cut the Federal
army in two. McCook's army corps, isolated on the Federal
right, was speedily routed, and the centre shared its fate. Rose-
crans himself was swept off the field in the rout of half of his
army. But Thomas was unshaken. He re-formed the left wing
in a semicircle, and aided by a few fresh brigades from Rossville,
resisted for six hours the efforts of the whole Confederate army.
Rosecrans in the meantime was rallying the fugitives far to the
rear near Chattanooga itself. The fury of Bragg's assault spent
itself uselessly on the heroic divisions under Thomas, who
remained on the field till night and then withdrew in good order
to Rossville. Here he remained on the 21st, imposing respect
upon the victors. On the 22nd Rosecrans had re-established
order, and Thomas fell back quietly to Chattanooga, whither
Braggslowlypursucd. For the subsequent events of the campaign
see Chattanooga. The losses in the battle bear witness to a
severity in the fighting unusual even in the American Civil War.
Of 70,000 Confederates engaged at least 18,000 were killed and
wounded, and the Federals lost 16,000 out of about 57,000.
The battlefield has been converted into a national park, and was
used during the Spanish American War (1898) as a place of
mobilization for the U.S. volunteers.
CHICKASAWS, a tribe of North American Indians of Musk-
hogcan stock, now settled in the western part of Oklahoma.
Their former range was northern Mississippi and portions of
Tennessee. According to their own tradition and the evidence
of philology, they are closely connected with the Creeks and
Choctaws; and they believe that they emigrated with these
tribes from the west, crossed the Mississippi, and settled in the
district that now forms the north-east part of the state of that
name. Here they were visited by De Soto in 1 540. From the
first they were hostile to the French colonists. With the English,
on the other hand, their relations were more satisfactory. In
1786 they made a treaty with the United States; and in 1793
they assisted the whites in their operations against the Creeks.
In the early years of the 19th century part of their territory
was ceded for certain annuities, and a portion of the tribe
migrated to Arkansas; and in 1832-1834, the remainder,
amounting to about 3600, surrendered to the United States the
6,442,400 acres of which they were still possessed, and entered
into a treaty with the Choctaws for incorporation with that tribe.
In 1855, however, they effected a separation of this union, with
which they had soon grown dissatisfied, and by payment to
the Choctaws of $150,000 obtained a complete right to their
present territory. In the Civil War they joined the Confederates
and suffered in consequence; but their rights were restored by
the treaty of 1865. In 1866 they surrendered 7,000,000 acres;
and in 1873 they adopted their former slaves. They had an
independent government consisting of a governor, a senate,
and a house of representatives; but tribal government virtually
ceased in 1906. The Chickasaws of pure or mixed blood numbered
482b in loco, and with the fully admitted " citizens," i.e. the
freed slaves and adopted whites, the whole nation amounted to
some 10,000.
See Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907).
CHICKASHA, a city and the county-scat of Grady county,
Oklahoma, U. S. A., near the Washita river, about 45 m. S. S. W.
of Oklahoma city. Pop. (1900) 3209; (1907) 786?, including
1043 negroes; (1910) 10,320. Chickasha is served by the St Louis
& San Francisco, the Chicago, Rock Island ft Pacific and the
Oklahoma Central railways. It is the trade centre of a very
fertile section of the Washita Valley, whose principal products
are Indian corn, cotton, fruits and vegetables and live-stock.
The city has various manufactures, including flour, cotton-seed
oil, lumber, furniture and farm implements. Chickasha was
founded in 1802 and was chartered as a city in 1800.
CHICKEN-FOX (Syn. varicella, a Low Latin diminutive of
variola), a specific contagious disease characterized by an
eruption of vesicles in the skin. The disease usually occurs in
epidemics, and b one of childhood, the patients being generally
CHICLANA— CHICORY
131
between two and six years old. The incubation period is from
ten to fifteen days; there are practically no prodromal symptoms,
the only indication being a slight amount of fever for some
twenty-four hours, after which the eruption makes its appearance.
A number of raised red papules appear on the trunk, either on
the back or chest; in from twelve to twenty-four boars these
develop into tense vesicles filled with a clear fluid, which in
another thirty-six hours or so becomes opalescent. During the
fourth day these vesicles dry and shrivel up, and the scabs fall
off, leaving as a rule no scar. Fresh spots appear during the first
three days, so that at the end of that time they can be seen
in all stages of growth and decay. The eruption is most marked
on the chest, but it also occurs on the face and limbs, and on the
mucous membrane of the mouth and palate. The temperature
begins to fall after the appearance of the rash, but a certain slight
amount may persist after the disappearance of all symptoms.
It rarely rises above 102 F. The disease runs a very favourable
course in the majority of cases, and after effects are rare. One
attack does not confer immunity, and in numerous cases one
individual has had three attacks. The diet should be light,
and the patient should be prevented from scratching the spots,
which would lead to ulceration and scarring. After the first
few days there is no necessity to confine the patient to bed.
In the large majority of cases, it is easy to distinguish the disease
from smallpox, but in certain patients it is very difficult. The
chief points in the differential diagnosis are as follows. (1) In
chicken-pox the rash is distributed chiefly on the trunk, and
less on the limbs. (2) Some of the vesicles are oval, whereas in
smallpox they are always hemispherical. They are also more
superficial, and have not at the outset the hard shotty feeling
of the more virulent disease. (3) The vesicles attain their full
growth within twelve to twenty-four hours. (4) The pustules
are usually monocular. (5) There is no prodromal period.
CHICLANA, or Chiclana de la Fkontera, a town of southern
Spain, in the province of Cadiz, 12 m. by rail S.E. of Cadiz.
Pop. (1000) 10,868. Chiclana occupies a fertile valley, watered
by the river Lirio, and sheltered, on the north and south, by
low hills covered with vines and plantations. It faces the gulf
of Cadiz, 3 m. W., and, from its mild climate and pleasant
surroundings, is the favourite summer residence of the richer
Cadiz merchants', its hot mineral springs also attract many
visitors. In the neighbourhood are the Roman ruins of Chiclana
la Vieja, the town of Medina Sidonia (q.v.), and, about 5 m. S.,
the battlefield of Barrosa, where the British under Sir Thomas
Graham (Lord Lyncdoch) defeated the French under Marshal
Victor, on the 5th of March 18x1.
CHICOPEB, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
situated on the E. side of the Connecticut river, at the mouth
of the Chicopee river, immediately N. of Springfield. Pop.
(1800) 14,050; (1900) 19,167, of whom 8x39 were foreign-bom;
(1010, census) 25,401. Chicopee is served by the Boston &
Maine railway. The city, which has an area of about 25
sq. m., contains five villages, Chicopee Center, Chicopee Falls,
Willimansett, Fairview and Aldcnville. Chicopee Falls lies on
both sides of the Chicopee river, which fails some 70 ft. in less
than 3 m. and furnishes valuable power for manufactories. The
most important products are cotton goods (two large factories
having, together, about 200,000 spindles), fire-arms (especially
the Stevens rifles), tools, rubber and elastic goods, sporting
goods, swords, automobiles and agricultural implements. Here,
too, is a bronze statuary foundry, in which some of the finest
monuments, bronze doors, &c, in the country have been cast,
including the doors of the Capitol at Washington. The bronze
casting industry here was founded by Nathan Peabody Ames
(1803-1847), who was first a sword-maker and in 1S36 began
the manufacture of cannon and church hells. The total value
of the city's factory product in 1005 was $7,715,653, an increase
of 43*2% in five years. There is a public library. The muni-
cipality owns and operates the water-works system and the
electric lighting plant. Chicopee was settled about 1638, was
set off from Springfield as an independent township in 1848,
asd was chartered as a city in 1800. Chicopee Falls was the
home of Edward Bellamy. The name of the city is an Indian
word meaning " cedar-tree " or " birch-bark place."
CHICORY, The chicory or succory plant, Cichorium Intybus
(natural order, Compositae), in its wild state is a native of Great
Britain, occurring most frequently in dry chalky soils, and by
road-sides. It has a long fleshy tap- root, a rigid branching hairy
stem rising to a height of 2 or 3 ft.— the leaves around the base
being lobed and toothed, not unlike those of the dandelion.
The flower heads are of a bright blue colour, few in number, and
measure nearly an inch and a half across. Chicory is cultivated
much more extensively on the continent of Europe — in Holland,
Belgium, France and Germany—than in Great Britain; and
as a cultivated plant it has three distinct applications. Its roots
roasted and ground are used as a substitute for, adulterant of,
or addition to coffee; both roots and leaves are employed as
salads; and the plant is grown as a fodder or herbage crop
which is greedily consumed by cattle. In Great Britain it is
chiefly in its first capacity, in connexion with coffee, that chicory
is employed. A large proportion of the chicory root used for
this purpose is obtained from Belgium and other neighbouring
continental countries; but a considerable quantity is cultivated
in England, chiefly in Yorkshire. For the preparation of chicory
the older stout white roots are selected, and after washing they
are sliced up into small pieces and kiln-dried. In this condition
the material is sold to the chicory roaster, by whom it is roasted
till it assumes a deep brown colour; afterwards when ground
it is in external characteristics very like coffee, but is destitute
of its pleasing aromatic odour. Neither does the roasted chicory
possess any trace of the alkaloid caffeine which gives their
peculiar virtues to coffee and tea. The fact, however, that for
over a hundred years it has been successfully used as a sub-
stitute for or recognized addition to coffee, while in the meantime
innumerable other substances have been tried for the same pur-
pose and abandoned, indicates that it is agreeable and harmless.
It gives the coffee additional colour, bitterness and body. It is at
least in very extensive and general use; and in Belgium especi-
ally its infusion is largely drunk as an independent beverage.
The blanched leaves are much esteemed by the French as a
winter salad known by the name of Barbe de capucin. When
intended for winter use, chicory is sown in May or June, commonly
in drills, and the plants are thinned out to 4 in. apart. If at
first the leaves grow very strong, they are cut off, perhaps in
the middle of August, about an inch from the ground, so as to
promote the production of new leaves, and check the formation
of flower-stems. About the beginning of October the plants
are raised from the border, and all the large leaves cut off; the
roots are also shortened, and they are then planted pretty closely
together in boxes filled with rich light mould, and watered when
needful. When frost comes on, the boxes are protected by any
kind of litter and haulm. As the salad is wanted, they are re-
moved into some place having a moderately increased tempera-
ture, and where there is no light. Each box affords two crops
of blanched leaves, and these are reckoned fit for cutting when
about 6 in. long. Another mode of obtaining the young leaves
of this plant in winter is to sow seeds in a bed of light rich mould,
or in boxes in a heat of from 55 to 6o°, giving a gentle watering
as required. The leaves will be fit to be cut in a fortnight after
sowing, and the plants will afford a second crop.
In Belgium a variety of chicory called Wittocf is much pre-
ferred as a salad to the* French Barbe de capucin. The seeds
are sown and the plants thinned out like those of the ordinary
sort. They are eventually planted in light soil, in succession,
from the end of October to February, at the bottom of trenches
a foot or more in depth, and covered over with from t to 3 ft.
of hot stable manure. In a month or six weeks, according to
the heat applied, the heads are fit for use and should be cut
before they reach the manure. The plants might easily be forced
in frames on a mild hot-bed, or in a mushroom-house, in the same
way as sea-kale. In Belgium the fresh roots are boiled and eaten
with butter, and throughout the Continent the roots are stored
for use as salads during winter.
See also Endive (Cichorium endivia).
13a
CHIDAMBARAM— CHI-FU
CHIDAMBARAM, or Chedukbiuk, a town of British India,
in the South Arcot district of Madras, 7 m. from the coast and
151 m. S. of Madras by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,000. The pagodas
at Chidambaram are the oldest in the south of India, and portions
of them are gems of art. Here is supposed to have been the
northern frontier of the ancient Chola kingdom, the successive
capitals of which were Uriyur on the Cauvery, Combaconum
and Tanjore. The principal temple b sacred to Siva, and is
said to have been rebuilt or enlarged by a leper emperor, who
came south on a pilgrimage and was cured by bathing in the
temple tank; upwards of 60,000 pilgrims visit the temple every
December. It contains a " hall of a thousand pillars," one of
numerous such halls in India, the exact number of pillars in
this case being 084; each is a block of solid granite, and the
roof of the principal temple is of copper-gilt. Three hundred
of the highest-caste Brahmins live with their families within
the temple enclosure.
CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput), the head or upper
part of anything, and so, in heraldry, the upper part of the
escutcheon, occupying one-third of the whole. When applied
to a leading personage, a head man or one having the highest
authority, the term chief or chieftain (Med. Lat capitanus,
O. Fr. chevcktinc) is principally confined to the leader of a clan or
tribe. The phrase " in chief " (Med. Lat. in capUt) is used in
feudal law of the tenant who holds his fief direct fronf the lord
paramount (see Feudalism),
CHIBMSBB, also called Bayjusches Mees, the largest lake in
Bavaria, lying on a high plateau 1600 ft. above the sea, between
the rivers Inn (to which it drains through the Alz) and Salzach.
With a length of 6 and a breadth of 9 m., it has an area of about
33 sq. m., and contains three islands, Herrenwdrth, Frauenwdrth
and KrautinseL The first, which has a circumference of 6\ m.
and is beautifully wooded, is remarkable for the romantic castle
which Louis II. of Bavaria erected here. It was the seat of a
bishop from 1215 to 1805, and until 1803 contained a Benedictine
monastery. The shores of the lake are flat on the north and south
sides, but its other banks are flanked by undulating hills, which
command beautiful and extensive views. The waters are dear
and it is well stocked with trout and carp; but the fishing rights
are strictly preserved. Steamers ply on the lake, and the railway
from Rosenheim to Salzburg skirts the southern shores.
CHIENO MAI, the capital of the Lao state of the same name
and of the provincial division of Siam called Bayap, situated in
09° o' £., 1 8° 46' N. The town, enclosed by massive but decaying
walls, lies on the right bank of the river Me Ping, one of the
branches of the Me Nam, in a plain 800 ft above sea-Jevcl,
surrounded by high, wooded mountains. It has streets intersect-
ing at right angles, and an enceinte within which is the palace
of the Chao, or hereditary chief. The east and west banks of the
river are connected by a fine teak bridge. The American Presby-
terian Mission, established here in 1867, has a large number of
converts and has done much good educational work. Chicng
Mai, which the Burmese have corrupted into Zimm6, by which
name it is known to many Europeans, has long been an important
trade centre, resorted to by Chinese merchants from the north
and east, and by Burmese, Shans and Siamese from the west and
south. It is, moreover, the centre of the teak trade of Siam, in
which many Burmese and several Chinese and European firms
are engaged. The total value of the import and export trade
of the Bayap division amounts to abouf £2,500,000 a year. The
Siamese high commissioner of Bayap division has his head-
quarters in Chieng Mai, and though the hereditary chief continues
as the nominal ruler, as is also the case in the other Lao states
of Nan, Pr&, Lam pun, Napawn Lampang and Tern, which make
up the division, the government is entirely in the hands of that
official and his staff. The government forest department,
founded in 1896, has done good work in the division, and the
conservator of forests has his headquarters in Chieng Mai.
The headquarters of an army division are also situated here.
A British consul resides at Chicng Mai, where, in addition to the
ordinary law courts, there is an international court having
Jurisdiction in all cases in which British subjects are parties.
The population, about 20,000, consists mainly of Laos,with many
Shans, a few Burmese, Chinese and Siamese and some fifty
Europeans. Hill tribes (Ka) inhabit the neighbouring mountains
in large numbers.
Chieng Mai was formerly the capital of a united Lao kingdom,
which, at one time independent, afterwards subject to Burma
and then to Siam, and later broken up into a number of states, has
finally become a provincial division of Siam. In 1002 a rising
of discontented Shans took place in Bayap which at one time
seemed serious, several towns being attacked and Chieng Mai
itself threatened. The disturbance was quelled and the malcon-
tents eventually hunted out, but not without losses which in-
cluded the commissioner of Pre and a European officer of
gendarmerie.
CHIERI, a town and episcopal sec of Piedmont, Italy, in the
province of Turin, 13 m. S.E. by rail and 8 m. by road from the
town of Turin. Pop. (xooi) 11,929 (town), 13,803 (commune).
Its Gothic cathedral, founded in 1037 and reconstructed in 1405,
is the largest in Piedmont, and has a 13th century octagonal
baptistery. Chieri was subject to the bishop of Turin in the 9th
and xoth centuries, it became independent in the nth century.
In 1347 it submitted voluntarily to Count Amcdcus VI. of Savoy
to save itself from the marquis of Monferrato, and finally came
under the dominion of Savoy in the 16th century. In 1785 it
was made into a principality of the duke of Aosta. It was an
early centre of trade and manufacture; and in the middle of
the 15th century produced about 100,000 pieces of cotton
goods per annum.
See L. Cibrario, Dells ttorie di Chieri (Turin, 1855).
CHIETI, a city of the Abruzai, Italy, the capital of the province
of Chieti, and the scat of an archbishop, 140 m. E.N.E. of Rome
by rail, and 9 m. W. of Castcllammarc Adriatico. Pop. (1001)
26,368. It is situated at a height of 10S3 ft. above sea-level,
3 m. from the railway station, from which it is reached by an
electric tramway. It commands a splendid view of the Apennines
on every side except the cast, where the Adriatic is seen. It is
an active modern town, upon the site of the ancient Teats
Marrucinorum (q.v.), with woollen and cotton manufactories
and other smaller industries. The origin of the sec of Chieti dates
from the 4th century, S. Justinus being the first bishop. The
cathedral has been spoilt by restoration, and the decoration of
the exterior is incomplete; the Gothic campanile of 1335 is,
however, fine. The cathedral possesses two illuminated missals.
Close by is the town hall, which contains a small picture gallery,
in which, in X905, was held an important exhibition of ancient
Abruzzcse art. The dc Laurentiis family possesses a private
collection of some importance. To the north of Chieti is the
octagonal church of S. Maria del Tricaglio, erected in 131 7, which
is said (without reason) to stand upon the site of a temple of
Diana. The order of the Theatines, founded in 1524, takes its
name from the city. Under the Lombards Chieti formed part
of the duchy of Bencvento; it was destroyed by Pippin in 801,
but was soon rebuilt and became the scat of a count. The
Normans made it the capital of the Abruzzi.
CHI-FU, Chefoo, or Yen-t'ai (as it is called by the natives),
a seaport of northern China, on the southern coast of the Gulf
of Chih-li, in the province of Shan-tung, near the mouth of the
Yi-ho, about 30 m. E. of the city of Teng-chow-fu. It was
formerly quite a small place, and had only the rank of an un-
walled village; but it was chosen as the port of Teng-chow, opened
to foreign trade in 1858 by the treaty 9f Tientsin, and it is now
the residence of a Tao-t'ai, or intendant of circuit, the centre of
a gradually- increasing commerce, and the seat of a British
consulate, a Chinese custom-house, and a considerable foreign
settlement The native town is yearly extending, and though
most of the inhabitants are small shop-keepers and coolies of the
lowest class, the houses arc for the most part well and solidly
built of stone. The foreign settlement occupies a position
between the native town and the sea, which neither affords a
convenient access for shipping nor allows space for any great
extension of area. Its growth, however, has hitherto been
steady and rapid. Various streets have been laid out, a large
CHIGI-ALBANI— CHIHUAHUA
«33
hotel erected for the reception of the visitors who resort to the
place as a sanatorium in summer, and the religious wants of the
community are supplied by a Roman Catholic and a Protestant
church. TTiough the harbour is deep and extensive, and possessed
of excellent anchorage, large vessels have to be moored at a
considerable distance from the shore. Chi-fu has continued to
show fair progress as a place of trade, but the total volume is
inconsiderable, having regard to the area it supplies. In 1880
the total exports and imports were valued at £2,724,000, in
1800 they amounted to £4,228,000, and in 1004 to £4,900,908.
In 1895 there entered the port 905 vessels representing a tonnage
of 835,348 tons, while in 1005 the number of vessels had risen to
184a, representing a tonnage of 1,492,514 tons. The imports
are mainly woollen and cotton goods, iron and opium, and the
exports include bean cake, bean oil, peas, raw silk, straw-braid,
walnuts, a coarse kind of vermicelli, vegetables and dried fruits.
Communication with the interior is only by roads, which are
extremely defective, and nearly all the traffic is by pack animals.
From its healthy situation and the convenience of its anchorage,
Chi-fu has become a favourite rendezvous for the fleets of the
European powers in Chinese waters, and consequently it has
at times been an important coaling station. It lies in close
proximity to Korea, Port Arthur and Wci-hai-Wci, and it
shared to some extent in the excitement to which the military
and naval operations in these quarters gave rise. The Chi-fu
convention was signed here in 1876 by Sir Thomas Wade and
Li-Hung-Chang.
CHIGI-ALBANI, the name of a Roman princely family of
Sienese extraction descended from the counts of Ardcnghesca.
The earliest authentic mention of them is in the 13th century,
and they first became famous in the person of Agostino Chigi
(d 1520), an immensely rich banker who built the palace and
gardens afterwards known as the Farnesina, decorated by
Raphael, and was noted for the splendour of his entertainments;
Pope Julius II. made him practically his finance minister and
gave him the privilege of quartering his own (Delia Rovere)
arms with those of the Chigi. Fabio Chigi, on being made pope
(Alexander VII.) in 1655, conferred the Roman patriciate on his
family, and created his nephew Agostino prince of Farncsc and
duke of Ariccia, and the emperor Leopold I. created the latter
Reicksjiirst (prince of the Holy Roman Empire) in 1659. In
1712 the family received the dignity of hereditary marshals of
the Church and guardians of the conclaves, which gave them a
very great importance on the death of every pope. On the
marriage in 1735 of another Agostino Chigi (1710-1769) with
Giulia Albani, heiress of the AJbani, a Venetian patrician family,
said to be of Albanian origin, her name was added to that of Chigi.
The family owns large estates at Siena.
See A. von Reumont, Ceschichle der Sladt Rom, vol. iii. (Berlin,
1868); Almanack de Cotha.
CHIGWELL, a parish and residential district in the Epping
parliamentary division of Essex, England; with stations
(Chigwell Lane and Chigwcll) on two branches of the Great
Eastern railway, 12 m. N.E. from London. Pop. (1901) 2508.
The old village church of St Mary, principally Perpendicular,
has a Norman south door. The village lies in a branch of the
Roding valley, fragments of Hainault Forest lying to the south
and east, bordering the village of Chigwell Row. The village of
Chigwell appears in the Domesday survey. The pleasant scenery
of the neighbourhood, which attracts large numbers both of
visitors and of residents from London, is described in Dickens's
novel, Barndby Rudge, and the King's Head Inn, Dickens's
** Maypole," still stands. The old grammar school, founded by
Samuel Harsnett, archbishop of York (d. 1631), whose fine
memorial brass is in St Mary's church, has become one of the
minor modern institutions of the English public school type.
William Perm attended school at Chigwcll from his home at
Wanstead. .
CHIH-II ("Direct Rule"), the metropolitan province of
China, in which is situated Peking, the capital of the empire.
It contains eleven prefectural cities, and occupies an area of
58,950 sq. m. The population is 29,400,000, the vast majority
of whom are resident in the plain country. This province forms
part of the great delta plain of China proper, 20,000 sq. m. of
which are within the provincial boundaries; the remainder of
the territory consists of the mountain ranges which define its
northern and western frontier. The plain of Chih-li is formed
principally by detritus deposited by the Pei-ho and its tributary
the Hun-ho (" muddy river "), otherwise known as the Yung-
ting-ko, and other streams having their sources in mountains of
Shan-si and other ranges. It is bounded E. by the Gulf of
Chih-li and Shan-tung, and S. by Shan-tung and Ho-nan. The
proportion of Mahommedans among the population is very
large. In Peking there are said to be as many as 20,000 Mahom-
medan families, and in Pao-ting Fu, the capital of the province,
there are about 1000 followers of the prophet. The extremes of
heat and cold in Chih-li are very marked. During the months of
December, January and February the rivers are frozen up, and
even the Gulf of Chih-li is fringed with a broad border of ice.
There are four rivers of some importance in the province: the
Pei-ho, with the Hun-ho, which rises in the mountains in Mongolia
and, flowing to the west of Peking, forms a junction with the
Pei-ho at Tientsin; the Shang-si -ho, which rises in the mountains
on the north of the province of Shan-si, and takes a south-easterly
course as far as the neighbourhood of Ki Chow, from which point
it trends north-east and eventually joincs the Hun-ho some 15 m.
above Tientsin; the Pu-to-ho, which rises in Shan-si, and after
running a parallel course to Shang-si-ho on the south, empties
itself in the same way into the Hun-ho; and the Lan-ho, which
rises in Mongolia, enters the province on the north-east after
passing to the west of Jehol, passes the city of Yung-p'ing Fu
in its course (which is south-easterly) through Chih-li, and from
thence winds its way to the north-eastern boundary of the Gulf
of Chih-li. The province contains three lakes of considerable
size. The largest is the Ta-lu-tsze Hu, which lies in 37 40' N.
and 1 1 5 20' E.; the second in importance is one which is
situated to the east of Pao-ting Fu; and the third is the Tu~
lu-tsze Hu, which lies east by north of Shun-tc Fu. Four high
roads radiate from Peking, one leading to Urga by way of
Siian-hwa Fu, which passes through the Great Wall at Chang-kiu
K'ow; another, which enters Mongolia through the Ku-pei K'ow
to the north-cast, and after continuing that course as far as
Fungning turns in a north-westerly direction to Dolonnor; a
third striking due east by way of Tung-chow and Yung-p'ing Fu
to Shan-hai Kwan, the point where the Great Wall terminates
on the coast; and a fourth which trends in a south-westerly
direction to Pao-ting Fu and on to T'ai-yucn Fu in Shan-si*.
The mountain ranges to the north of the province abound with
coal, notably at Chai-tang, T'ai-gan-shan, Miao-gan-ling, and
Fu-tao in the Si-shan or Western Hills. " At Chai-tang," wrote
Baron von Richthofen, " I was surprised to walk over a regular
succession of coal-bearing strata, the thickness of which, estimat-
ing it step by step as I proceeded gradually from the lowest to
the highest strata, exceeds 7000 ft." The coal here is anthracite,
as is also that at T'ai-gan-shan, where are found beds of greater
value than any in the neighbourhood of Peking. In Stian-bwa
Fu coal is also found, but not in such quantities as in the places
above named. Iron and silver also exist in small quantities in
different parts of the province, and hot and warm springs are
very common at the foot of the hills along the northern and
western edges of the province. The principal agricultural pro-
ducts are wheat, kaoliang, oats, millet, maize, pulse and
potatoes. Fruits and vegetables are also grown in large
quantities. Of the former the chief kinds are pears, apples,
plums, apricots, peaches, persimmons and melons. Tientsin is
the Treaty Port of the province.
CHIHUAHUA, a northern frontier state of Mexico, bounded
N. and N.E. by the United States (New Mexico and Texas),
E. by Coahuila, S. by Durango, and W. by Sinaloa and Sonora.
Pop. (1895) 260,008; (1900) 327,784. Area, 87,802 sq. m.
The surface of the state is in great part an elevated plateau,
sloping gently toward the Rio Grande. The western side, how*
ever, is much broken by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which
form elevated valleys of great fertility. c\a. «x\& weA^j t^kbx
*3*
CHIHUAHUA— CHILD, SIR F.
extending from the Rio Grande inland for 300 to 350 m. is quite
destitute of vegetation where irrigation is not used. There is
little rainfall in this region and the climate is hot and dry. The
more elevated plateaus and valleys have the heavier rainfall,
but the average for the state is barely 39 in.; an impermeable
clay substratum prevents its absorption by the soil, and the
bare surface carries it off in torrents. The great Bolson dc
Mapimf depression, in the S.E. part of the state, was once
considered to be an unrcciaimable desert, but experiments with
irrigation have shown its soil to be highly fertile, and the con-
version of the narrow valleys of the sierras on the west into
irrigation reservoirs promises to reclaim a considerable part of
its area. The only river of consequence is the Conchos, which
flows north and north-east into the Rio Grande across the whole
length of the state. In the north there are several small streams
flowing northward into lakes. Agriculture has made little
progress in Chihuahua, and the scarcity of water will always
be a serious obstacle to its development outside the districts
where irrigation is practicable. The climate and soil are favour-
able to the production of wheat, Indian corn, beans, indigo,
cotton and grapes, from which wine and brandy are made.
The principal grape-producing district is in the vicinity of
Ciudad Judrez. Stock-raising is an important industry in the
mountainous districts of the west, where there is excellent
pasturage for the greater part of the year. The principal in-
dustry of the state, however, is mining— its mineral resources
including gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead and coal. The
silver mines of Chihuahua arc among the richest in Mexico, and
include the famous mining districts of Batopilas, Chihuahuilla,
Cosihuiriachic, Jesus Maria, Parral, and Santa Eulalia or
Chihuahua el Viejo. There are more than one hundred of these
mines, and the total annual yield at the end of the 19th century
was estimated at $4,500,000. The state is traversed from
north to south by the Mexican Central railway, and there are
short branches to some of the mining districts.
Chihuahua originally formed part of the province of Nucva
Viscaya, with Durango as the capital. In 1777 the northern
provinces, known as the Provincias Internas, were separated
from the viccroyalty, and in 1786 the provinces were reorganized
as intendencias, but Chihuahua was not separated from Durango
until 1^23. An effort was made to overthrow Spanish authority
in 1810, but its leader Hidalgo and two of his lieutenants were
captured and executed, after which the province remained
passive until the end of the struggle. The people of the state
have been active partisans in most of the revolutionary outbreaks
in Mexico, and in the war of 1862-66 Chihuahua was loyal to
Juarez. The principal towns are the capital Chihuahua, El
Parral, 120 m. S.S.E. of the state capital, in a rich mining district
(pop. 14,748 in 1900), Ciudad Juarez and Jimenez, 120 m. S.E.
of Chihuahua (pop. 5881 in 1900).
CHIHUAHUA, a city of Mexico, capital of the above state,
on the Chihuahua river, about 1000 m. N.W. of Mexico City
and 22$ m. S. by E. of El Paso. Pop. (1895) 18,279; (1900)
30,405. The city stands in a beautiful valley opening northward
and hemmed in on all other sides by spurs of the Sierra Madrc.
It is 4635 ft. above sca-lcvcl, and its climate is mild and healthy.
The city is laid out regularly, with broad streets, and a handsome
plaza with a monument to Hidalgo and his companions of the
revolution of 1810, who were executed here. The most note-
worthy of its public buildings is the fine old parish church of
San Francisco, begun in 17 17 and completed in 1789, one of the
best specimens of 18th-century architecture in Mexico. It was
built, it is said, with the proceeds of a small tax on the output of
the Santa Eulalia mine. Other prominent buildings are the
government palace, the Porfirio Diaz hospital, the old Jesuit
College (now occupied by a modern institution of the same
character), the mint, and an aqueduct built in the 18th century.
Chihuahua is a station on the Mexican Central railway, and has
tramways and telephones. Mining is the principal occupation
of the surrounding district, the famous Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua
el Viejo mines being about 1 2 m. from the city. Next in im-
jx>rtance is agriculture, especially fruit-growing. Manufacturing
is making good progress, especially the weaving of cotton fabrics
by modern methods. The manufacture of cotton and woollen
goods are old industries in Chihuahua, but the introduction of
American skill and capital toward the end of the 19th century
placed them on an entirely new footing. The manufacture
of gunpowder for mining operations is another old industry.
Chihuahua was founded between 1703 and 1705 as a mining
town, and was made a villa in 1715 with the title San Felipe el
Real de Chihuahua. Because of the rich mines in its vicinity
it soon became one of the most prosperous towns in northern
Mexico, although the state was constantly raided by hostile
Indians. In 1763 it had a population of nearly 5000. The war
of independence was followed by a period of decline, owing to
political disorder and revolution, which lasted until the presidency
of General Porfirio Diaz. In the war between Mexico and the
United States, Chihuahua was captured on the 1st of March
1847, by Colonel A. W. Doniphan, and again on the 7th of March
by General Price. In 1864 President Juarez made the city his
provisional capital for a short time.
CHILAS, a hilt village in the North-West Frontier Province
of India. It is dominated by a fort on the left bank of the
Indus, about 50 m. below Bunji, 4100 ft above sea-level. It
was occupied by a British force early in 1893, when a determined
attack was made on the place by the Kohistanis from the Indus
valley districts to the south-west, aided by contingents from
Darel and Tangir west of Gilgit and north of the Indus. Its
importance consists in its position with reference to the Kashrair-
Gilgit route via Astor, which it flanks. It is now connected with
Bunji by a metalled road. Chilas is also important from its
command of a much shorter and more direct route to Gilgit
from the Punjab frontier than that of Kashmir and the Burzil
pass. By the Kashmir route Gilgit is 400 m. from the rail-head
at Rawalpindi. The Kagan route would bring it 100 m. nearer,
but the unsettled condition of the country through which the
road passes has been a bar to its general use.
CHILBLAINS (or Kibe; Erythema pernio), a mild form of
frostbite, affecting the fingers or toes and other parts, and causing
a painful inflammatory swelling, with redness and itching of
the affected part. The chief points to be noticed in its aetiology
arc (1) that the lesions occur in the extremities of the circulation,
and (2) that they are usually started by rapid changes from
heat to cold or vice versa. The treatment is both general and
local. In the general treatment, if a history' of blanching fingers
(fingers or hands going " dead ") can be obtained, the chilblains
may be regarded as mild cases of Raynaud's disease, and these
improve markedly under a course of nitrites. Cardiac tonics are
often helpful, especially in those cases where there is some
attendant lesion of the heart. But the majority of cases improve
wonderfully on a good course of a calcium salt, e.g. calcium
lactate or chloride; fifteen grains three times a day will answer
in most cases. The patient should wash in soft tepid water, and
avoid extremes of heat and cold. In the local treatment, two
drugs arc of great value in the early congestive stage — ichthyol
and formalin. Ichthyol, 10 to 20% in lanoline spread on linen
and worn at night, often dispels an attack at the beginning.
Formalin is equally efficacious, but requires more skill in its use.
It can be used as an ointment, 10 to 50 %fordclicate skins, stronger
for coarser skins. It should be replaced occasionally by lanoline.
If the stage of ulceration has been reached, a paste made from
the following prescription, spread thickly on linen and frequently
changed, soon cures:— Hydrarg. ammoniat. gr. v., ichthyol
TUx, pulveris zinci oxidi 3iv, vaseline 5ss.
CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1 7 13), English banker, was a
Wiltshire man, who, having been apprenticed to a goldsmith,
became himself a London goldsmith in 1664. In 167 1 he married
Elizabeth (d. 1720), daughter of another goldsmith named
William Wheeler (d. 1663), and with his wife's stepfather,
Robert Blanchard (d. 1681), took over about the same time the
business of goldsmiths hitherto carried on by the Wheelers.
This was the beginning of Child's Bank. Child soon gave up
the business of a goldsmith and confined himself to tliat of a
banker. He inherited some wealth and was very successful in
CHILD, F. J.— CHILD, L. M.
business; he was jeweller to the king, and lent considerable
sums of money to the government Being a freeman of the city
of London, Child was elected a member of the court of common
council in 2681; in 1689 he became an alderman, and in the
same year a knight. He served as sheriff of London in 1601
and as lord mayor in 1699. His parliamentary career began
about this time. In 1698 he was chosen member of parliament
for Devizes and in 1702 for the city of London, and was again
returned for Devizes in 1705 and 17x0. He died on the 4th of
October 1713* and was buried in Fulham churchyard. Sir
Francis, who was a benefactor to Christ's hospital, bought
O&terley Park, near Isle worth, now the residence of his descendant
the earl of Jersey.
Child had twelve sons. One, Sir Robert, an alderman, died
in 1721. Another, Sir Francis (c. 1684- 1740), was lord mayor
of London in 1732, and a director of the East India Company.
He was chosen member of parliament for the city of London in
1722, and was member for Middlesex from 1727 until his death.
After the death of the younger Sir Francis at Fulham on the
20U1 of April 1740 the banking business passed to his brother
Samuel, and the bank is still owned by his descendants, the
principal proprietor being the earl of Jersey. Child's Bank was
at first conducted at the Marygold, next Temple Bar in Fleet
Street, London; and the present bank occupies the site formerly
covered by the Marygold and the adjacent Devil tavern.
CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896), American scholar and
educationist, was born in Boston on the 1st of February 1825.
He graduated at Harvard in 1846, taking the highest rank in his
class in all subjects; was tutor in mathematics in 1846-1848;
and in 1848 was transferred to a tutorship in history, political
economy and English. After two years of study in Europe, in
185 1 he succeeded Edward T. Channing as Boylston professor
of rhetoric, oratory and elocution. Child studied the English
drama (having edited Four Old Plays in 1848) and Germanic
philology, the latter at Berlin and Gottingen during a leave of
absence, 1840-1853; and he took general editorial supervision
of a large collection of the British poets, published in Boston in
1853 and following years. He edited Spenser (5 vols., Boston,
1855), and at one time planned an edition of Chaucer, but con-
tented himself with a treatise, in the Memoirs of the American
Academy of Arts arid Sciences for 1863, entitled " Observations
on the Language of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales," which did
much to establish Chaucerian grammar, pronunciation and
scansion as now generally understood. His largest undertaking,
however, grew out of an original collection, in his British Poets
series, of English and Scottish Ballads, selected and edited by
himself, in eight small volumes (Boston, 1857-185S). Thence-
forward the leisure of his life— much increased by his transfer,
in 1876, to the new professorship of English— was devoted to
the comparative study of British vernacular ballads. He ac-
cumulated, in the university library, one of the largest folklore
collections in existence, studied manuscript rather than printed
sources, and carried his investigations into the ballads of all
other tongues, meanwhile giving a sedulous but conservative
hearing to popular versions still surviving. At last his final
collection was published as Tlie English and Scottish Popular
Ballads, at first in ten parts (1882-1898), and then in five quarto
volumes, which remain the authoritative treasury of their
subject. Professor Child worked — and overworked — to the last,
dying in Boston on the nth of September 1896, having com-
pleted his task save for a general introduction and bibliography.
A sympathetic biographical sketch was prefixed to the work by
his pupil and successor George L. Kittrcdge.
CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690), governor of Bombay, and in fact
if not in name the first governor-general of the British settlements
in India, was born in London. He was sent as a little boy to his
uncle, the chief of the factory at Raja pur; and in 16S2 was
appointed chief of the East India Company's affairs at Surat
and Bombay, while at the same time his brother, Sir Josiah
Child (?.*.), was governor of the company at home. TTie two
brothers showed themselves strong men and guided the affairs
of the company through the period of struggle between the
135
Moguls and Mahrattas. They have been credited by history
with the change from unarmed to armed trade on the part of the
company; but as a matter of fact both of them were loth to
quarrel with the Mogul War broke out with Aurangzeb in 1689,
but in the following year Child had to sue for peace, one of the
conditions being that he should be expelled from India. He
escaped this expulsion by his death in 1690.
CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (1630-1699), English merchant,
economist and governor of the East India Company, was born in
London in 1630, the second son of Richard Child, a London
merchant of old family. After serving his apprenticeship in
the business, to which he succeeded, he started on his own account
at Portsmouth, as victualler to the navy under the Common-
wealth, when about twenty-five. He amassed a comfortable
fortune, and became a considerable stock-holder in the East India
Company, his interest in India being accentuated by the fact
that his brother John (q.v.) was making his career there. He
was returned to parliament in 1659 for Petersfield; and in later
years sat for Dartmouth (1673-1678) and for Ludlow (1685-
1687). He was made a baronet in 1678. His advocacy, both by
speech and by pen, under the pseudonym of Philopatris, of the
East India Company's claims to political power, as well as to
the right of restricting competition with its trade, brought him
to the notice of the shareholders, and he became a director in
1677, and, subsequently, deputy-governor and governor. In
this latter capacity be was for a considerable time virtually the
sole ruler of the company, and directed its policy as if it were his
own private business. He and his brother have been credited
with the change from unarmed to armed traffic; but the actual
renunciation of the Roe doctrine of unarmed traffic by the
company was resolved upon in January 1686, under Governor
Sir Joseph Ash, when Child was temporarily out of office. He
died on the 22nd of June 1699. Child made several important
contributions to the literature of economics; especially Brief
Observations concerning Trade and the Interest of Money (166S),
and A New Discourse of Trade (1668 and 1690). He was a
moderate in those days of the " mercantile system/' and has
sometimes been regarded as a sort of pioneer in the development
of the free-trade doctrines of the x8th century. He made various
proposals for improving British trade by following Dutch ex-
ample, and advocated a low rate of interest as the " causa causans
of all the other causes of the riches of the Dutch people." This
low rate of interest he thought should be created and maintained
by public authority. Child, whilst adhering to the doctrine of
the balance of trade, observed that a people cannot always sell
to foreigners without ever buying from them, and denied that
the export of the precious metals was necessarily detrimental.
He had the mercantilist partiality for a numerous population,
and became prominent with a new scheme for the relief and
employment of the poor; it is noteworthy also that he advocated
the reservation by the mother country of the sole right of trade
with her colonies. Sir Josiah Child's eldest son, Richard, was
created Viscount Castlemain in 1718 and earl of Tylney in 1731.
Sec also Macautay, History of England, vol. iv.; R. Grant, Sketch
of the History of the East India Company (1813): D. Macphcrson,
Annals of Commerce (1805); B. Willson, Ledger and Sword (1903).
(T. A. f.)
CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880), American author, was
born at Medford, Massachusetts, on the nth of February 1802.
She was educated at an academy in her native town and by her
brother Convers Francis (1795-1863), a Unitarian minister and
from 1842 to 1863 Parkman professor in the Harvard Divinity
School. Her first stories, Hobomok (1824) and The Rebels (1825),
were popular successes. She was a schoolmistress until 1828,
when she married David Lee Child (1794-1874), a brilliant but
erratic Boston lawyer and journalist. From 1826 to 1834 she
edited The Juvenile Miscellany, the first children's monthly
periodical in the United States. About 183 1 both she and her
husband began to identify themselves with the anti-slavery
cause, and in 1833 she published An Appeal for that Class of
Americans called Africans, a stirring portrayal of the evils of
slavery, and an argument for immediate ab<jlU\<y^ Vs\\Ocv\*^
136
CHILD
t powerful influence in winning recruits to the anti-slavery cause.
Henceforth her time was largely devoted to the anti-slavery
cause. From 1840 to 1844, assisted by her husband, she edited
the A nti-Slavery Standard in New York City. After the Civil War
she wrote much in behalf of the freedmen and of Indian rights.
She died at Wayland, Massachusetts, on the 20th of October
X 880. In addition to the books above mentioned, she wrote many
pamphlets and short stories and The (American) Frugal House-
tvife (1829), one of the earliest American books on domestic
economy, The Mother's Book (1831), a pioneer cook-book
republished in England and Germany, The Girls' Own, Book
(1831), History of Women (2 vols., 1832), Good Wives (1833),
The Anti-Slavery Catechism (1836), Philothea (1836), a romance
of the age of Pericles, perhaps her best book, Letters from New
York (2 vols., 1843-1845), Fact and Fiction (1847), The Power
of Kindness (1851), Isaac T. Hopper: a True Life (1853), The
progress of Religious Ideas through Successive Ages (3 vols., 1855),
Autumnal Leaves (1857), Looking Toward Sunset (1864), The
frtedman's Booh (1865), A Romance of the Republic (1867),
and Aspirations of the World (1878).
See The Letters of Lydia Maria Child, with a Biographical Intro-
duction by J. C. H hittier (Boston, 1883) : and a chapter in T. W.
Higginson's Contemporaries (Boston, 1899).
CHILD* the common term for the offspring of human beings,
generally below the age of puberty; the term is the correlative
of " parent/ ' and applies to cither sex, though some early dialecti-
cal uses point to a certain restriction to a girl. The word is
derived from the A.S. did, an old Teutonic word found in English
only, in other Teutonic languages kind and its variants being used,
usually derived from the Indo-European root ken, seen in Gr.
ytrot, Lat. genus, and Eng. " kin "; did has been held to be a
modification of the same root, but the true root is kilth, seen
in Goth, kilthei, womb, an origin which appears in the expressions
"chiM-birth," "to be with child,'* and the like; the plural
in A.S. was cild, and later cildru, which in northern M.E. became
childre or childcr, a form dialcctically extant, and in southern
English childeren or children (with the plural termination -en,
as in " brethren "). There are several particular uses of " child "
in the English version of the Bible, as of a young man in the
" Song of the three holy children," of descendants or members
of a race, as in " children of Abraham/' and also to express
origin, giving a description of character, as " children of dark*
ncss." During the 13th and 14th centuries " child " was used, I
In a sense almost amounting to a title of dignity, of a young man
of noble birth, probably preparing for knighthood. In the
York Mysteries of about 1440 (quoted in the New English
Dictionary) occurs " be he churl ot child," obviously referring
to gentle birth, cf. William Bellcnden's translation (1553) of
Livy (ii. 124) "than was in Rome ane nobill childe. . . namit
Caius Mucius." The spelling " childe " is frequent in modern
usage to indicate its archaic meaning. Familiar instances are
in the line of an old ballad quoted in King Lear, " childe Roland
to the dark tower came," and in Byron's Childe Harold. With
this use may be compared the Spanish and Portuguese Infante
and Infanta, and the early French use of Valet (q.v.).
Child-study. — The physical, psychological and educational
development of children, from birth till adulthood, Jias provided
material in recent years for what has come to be regarded as
almost a distinct part of comparative anthropological or socio-
logical science, and the literature of adolescence (q.v.) and of
" child-study " in its various
aspects has attained consider-
able proportions. In England
the British Child Study
Association was founded in
1894, its official organ being
the Paidologist, while similar
work is done by the Childhood
Society, and, to a certain
extent, by the Parents'
National Educational Union
(which issues the Parents'
Review). In America, where specially valuable work has
been done, several universities have encouraged the study
(notably Chicago, while under the auspices of Professor John
Dewey); and Professor G. Stanley Hall's initiative has
led to elaborate inquiries, the principal periodical for the move-
ment being the Pedagogical Seminary. The impetus to this
study of the child's mind and capacities was given by the classic
work of educationists like J. A. Comenius, J. H. Pestalozri, and
F. W. A. Froebel, but more recent writers have carried it
much further, notably W. T. Preyer ( The Mind of the Child, 1 881 ),
whose psychological studies stamp him as one of the chief
pioneers in new methods of investigation. Other authorities of
first-rate importance (their chief works only being given here)
are J. Sully (Studies of Childhood, 1896), Earl Barnes (Studies in
Education, 1896, 1002), J. M. Baldwin (Mental Development in the
Child and the Race, 1895), Sigismund (Kind und Welt, 1897),
A. F. Chamberlain (TheChUd, 1000), G.Stanley Hall (Adolescence,
1904; be had from 1882 been the leader in America of such
investigations), H. Holman and R. Langdon Down (Practical
Child Study, 1899), E. A. Kirkpatrick (Fundamentals of Child-
study, 1903), and Prof. Tracy of Toronto (Psychology of Childhood,
5th ed., ioox); while among a number of contributions worth
particular attention may be mentioned W. B. Drummond's
excellent summary, Introduction to Child Study ( 1 907) , which deals
succinctly with methods and results; Irving King's Psychology
of Child Development (1006, useful for its bibliography); Prof.
David R. Major's First Steps in Mental Growth (1006); and
Miss M. Shinn's Notes on the Development of a Child (1893) and
Mrs Louise E. Hogan's Study of a Child (1898), which are note-
worthy among individual and methodical accounts of what
children will do. In such books as those cited a great deal of
important material has been collected and analysed, and a
number of conclusions suggested which bear both on psychology
and the science of education; but it must be borne in mind,
as regards a great deal of the voluminous literature of the subject,
that it is often more pertinent to general psychology and
hygiene than to any special conclusions as to the essential nature
of a child— whatever " a child " generically may be as the special
object of a special science. The child, after all, is in a transition
stage to an adult, and there is often a tendency in modern " child
students " to interpret the phenomena exhibited by a particular
child with a parti pris, or to exaggerate child -study — which is
really interesting as providing the knowledge of growth towards
full human equipment— as though it involved the discovery of
some distinct form of animal, of separate value on its own account.
Growth. — Into the psychical characteristics and development
of the child and all the interesting educational problems involved
it is impossible to enter here, and reference must be made to the
works cited above. But a knowledge of the more important
features of normal physical development has a constant import-
ance. Some of these, as matters of comparative physiology or
pathology, arc dealt with in other articles in this work. One of
these chief matters of interest is weight and height, and this is
naturally affected by race, nutrition and environment. But
while the standard in different countries somewhat differs, the
British average for healthy children may here be followed.
At birth the average weight of a baby is a little over 7 lb and the
length about 20 in. The following are the averages for weight
and height, taking the age in years of the child at the last
birthday?—
leight, in inches.
Age.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Girls . .
Boys . .
287
29
325
32-5
35
35
3 ?
38
40-5
41
42-8
44
44*5
46
466
47
487
49
51
518
531
535
55-6
55
577
57
59-8
593
60-9
6a
Weight, in pi
9unds.
Age.
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
M
15
Girls . .
Boys . .
198
205
255
2O5
30
312
34
35
39*2
41-7
444
475
497
521
549
555
60-4
62
675
68
72
764
7^7
872
82-6
967
92
1027
106
CHILDEBERT— CHILDERS, H. C. E.
'37
See also Children, Law relating to; Children's Courts;
Children's Games; Infant; &c
T, the name of three Frank ish kings.
Childebert L (d. 558) was one of the four sons of Govts.
In the partition of his father's realm in 511 he received as his
share the town of Paris, and the country to the north as far as
the river Somme, and to the west as far as the English Channel,
with the Armorican peninsula. In 524, after the murder of
Chlodomer's children, Childebert annexed the cities of Chartres
and Orleans. He took part in the various expeditions against
the kingdom of Burgundy, and in 534 received as his share
of the spoils of that kingdom the towns of Macon, Geneva and
Lyons. When Vitiges, the king of the Ostrogoths, ceded Provence
to the Franks in 535, the possession of Aries and Marseilles was
guaranteed to Childebert by his brothers. Childebert also made
a series of expeditions against the Visigoths of Spain; in 542 he
took possession of Pampeluna with the help of his brother
Clotaire I., and besieged Saragossa, but was forced to retreat.
From this expedition he brought back to Paris a precious relic,
the tunic of St Vincent, in honour of which he built at the gates
of Paris the famous monastery of St Vincent, known later as St
Germain-des-Pres. He died without issue in 558, and was
buried in the abbey he had founded, where his tomb has been
discovered.
See " Nouveaux documents lur 1c tombeau de Childebert a Saint-
Germain-des-Pres," in the Bulletin da la Sociili des Antiquaires
(1887).
Childebert II. (570-595)* king of Austrasia, was a son of
Sigebert. When his father was assassinated in 575, Childebert
was taken from Paris by Gundobald, one of his faithful Uudes,
to Metz, where he was recognized as sovereign. He was then
only five years old, and during his long minority the power
was disputed between his mother Brunhilda and the nobles.
Chilperic, king at Paris, and King Gontran of Burgundy, sought
alliance with Childebert, who was adopted by both in turn.
But after the assassination of Chilperic in 584, and the dangers
occasioned to the Frankish monarchy by the expedition of
Gundobald in 585, Childebert threw himself unreservedly into
the arms of Gontran. By the pact of Andelot in 587 Childebert
was recognized as Gontran's heir, and with his uncle's help he
quelled the revolts of the nobles and succeeded in seizing the
castle of Woewre. Many attempts were made on his life by
Fredegond, who was anxious to secure Gontran's inheritance
for her son Clotaire II. On the death of Gontran in 592 Childe-
bert annexed the kingdom of Burgundy, and even contemplated
seizing Clotaire's estates and becoming sole king of the Franks.
He died, however, in 595. Childebert II. had had relations with
the Byzantine empire, and fought in 585 in the name of the
emperor Maurice against the Lombards in Italy.
Childebert III. was one of the last and feeblest of the
Merovingians. A son of King Theudcrich III., he succeeded
his brother Clovis III. in 695, and reigned until 711.
See B. Krusch, " Zur Chronologic der merowingischen Kdnige,"
in Forsckungen xur deutschen Gesckuhte, xxii. 451-490. (C. Pf.)
CHILDERIC, the name of three Frankish kings.
Cbxlderic L (c. 437-481), king of the Salian Franks, succeeded
his father Merwich (Merwing) as king about 457. With his tribe
he was established around the town of Tournai, on lands which
he had received ks & focdcralus of the Romans, and for some time
he kept the peace with his allies. About 463, in conjunction
with the Roman general Egidius, he fought against the Visigoths,
who hoped to extend their dominion along the banks of the Loire;
after the death of Egidius he assisted Count Paul in attempting
to check an invasion of the Saxons. Paul having perished in the
struggle, Childeric delivered Angers from some Saxons, followed
them to the islands at the mouth of the Loire, and massacred
them there. He also stopped a band of the Alamanni who
wished to invade Italy. These are all the facts known about him.
The stories of his expulsion by the Franks; of his stay of eight
years in Thuringia with King Basin and his wife Basinc; of his
return when a faithful servant advised him that he could safely
do so by sending to him half of a piece of gold which he had broken
with him; and of the arrival at Tournai of Queen Bastne, whom
he married, are entirely legendary. After the fall of the Western
Empire in 476 there is no doubt that Childeric regarded himself
as freed from his engagements towards Rome. He died in 481
and was buried at Tournai, leaving a son Clovis (q.v.), afterwards
king of the Franks. His tomb was discovered in 1653, when
numerous precious objects, arms, jewels, coins and a ring with a
figure of the king, were found.
Childeric II. (c. 653-673), king of Austrasia, was a son of
the Frankish king Clovis II., and in 660, although a child, was
proclaimed king of Austrasia, while his brother, Clotaire III.,
ruled over the rest of the dominions of Clovis. After the death
of Clotaire in 670 he became ruler of the three Frankish kingdoms,
Austrasia, Ncustria and Burgundy, but soon quarrelled with
some supporters in Neustria, and was assassinated whilst
hunting. He was buried at St Germain near Paris.
Childeric III. (d. c. 751), king of the Franks, was the last king
of the Merovingian dynasty. The throne had been vacant for
seven years when the mayors of the palace, Carloman and Pippin
the Short, decided in 743 to recognize Childeric as king. We
cannot say whose son he was, or what bonds bound him to the
Merovingian family. He took no part in public business, which
was directed, as before, by the mayors of the palace. When in
747 Carloman retired into a monastery, Pippin resolved to take
the royal crown for himself; taking the decisive step in 751
after having received the celebrated answer of Pope Zacbarias
that it were better to name king him who possessed the power
than him who possessed it not. Childeric was dethroned and
placed in the monastery of St Omer; his son, Theuderich, was
imprisoned at Saint-Wandrille.
See W. Junghans Dia Ctschuhta der frinkiscken Komge Ckilderick
und Clodavech ^Gottingen, 1857) ; J. I. Chiflet, Anastasis Ckilderici L
Francorum regis (Antwerp, 1655) ; J. B. D. Cochct, Le Tombeau da
Childeric J, rot des Francs (Pans, 1859); and E. Lavisse. Histoin
da Franca, tome iL (Paris, 1903).
CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING BARDLET (1827-1806), British
statesman, was born in London on the 25th of June 2827. On
leaving Cambridge he went out to Australia (1850), and became
a member of the government of Victoria, but in 1857 returned
to England as agent-general of the colony. Entering parliament
in i860 as Liberal member for Pontcfract (a seat that he con-
tinued to hold till 1885), he became civil lord of the admiralty In
2864, and in 2865 fi na n c i al secretary to the treasury. Childers
occupied a succession of prominent posts in the various Gladstone
ministries. He was first lord of the admiralty from 1868 to 1 87 r ,
and as such inaugurated a policy of retrenchment. Hi-health
compelled his resignation of office in 1871, but next year he
returned to the ministry as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster.
From 1880 to 1882 he was secretary for war, a post he accepted
somewhat unwillingly; and in that position he had to bear the
responsibility for the reforms which were introduced into the
war office under the parsimonious conditions which were then
part of the Liberal creed. During his term of office the Egyptian
War occurred, in which Childers acted with creditable energy;
and also the Boer War, in which he and bis colleagues showed to
less advantage. From 1882 to 1885 he was chancellor of the
exchequer, and the beer and spirit duty in his budget of the latter
year was the occasion of the government's fall. Defeated at
the general election at Pontefract, he was returned as a Home
Ruler (one of the few Liberals who adopted this policy before
Mr Gladstone's conversion) in x886 for South Edinburgh, and
was home secretary in the ministry of 1886. When the first
Home Rule bill was introduced he demurred privately to its
financial clauses, and their withdrawal was largely due to his
threat of resignation. He retired from parliament in 1892, and
died on the 29th of January 1896, his last piece of work being
the drafting of a report for the royal commission on Irish financial
relations, of which he was chairman. Childers was a capable and
industrious administrator of the old Liberal school, and he did his
best, in the political conditions then prevailing, to improve the
naval and military administration while he was at the admiralty
and war office. His .own bent was towards finance^ tax <u*
138
CHILDERS, R. C— CHILDREN, LAW FOR
striking reform is associated with his name. His most ambitious
effort was his attempt to effect a conversion of consols in 1884,
but the scheme proved a failure, though it paved the way for the
subsequent conversion in 1888.
The Life (1901) of Mr Childen, by his son, throws some interesting
side-lights on (he inner history of more than one Gladstonian
cabinet.
CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR (1838-1876), English Oriental
scholar, son of the Rev. Charles Childers, English chaplain at
Nice, was born in 1838. In i860 he received an appointment in
the civil service of Ceylon, which he retained until 1864, when
he was compelled to return to England owing to ill-health. He
had studied Pali during his residence in Ceylon, under Yatra-
mull£ Unnanse\ a learned Buddhist for whom he cherished
a life-long respect, and he had gained an insight into the Sinhalese
character and ways of thought. In 1869 he published the first
Pali text ever printed in England, and began to prepare a Pali
dictionary, the first volume of which was published in 1872, and
the second and concluding volume in 1875. In the following
year it was awarded the Volncy prize by the Institute of France,
as being the most important philological work of the year. He
was a frequent contributor to the Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society, in which he published the Mahd-parinibbdna Sulla ,
the Pali text giving the account of the last days of Buddha's
life. In 1872 he was appointed sub-librarian at the India Office,
and in the following year he became the first professor of Pfili
and Buddhist literature at University College, London. He died
in London on the 25th of July 1876.
CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO. English law has always
in theory given to children the same remedies as to adults for
Hi-usage, whether by their parents or by others, and has never
recognized the patria potestas as known to the earlier Roman
law; and while powers of discipline and chastisement have been
regarded as necessarily incident to paternal authority, the father
is civilly liable to his children for wrongs done to them. The only
points in which infancy created a defect in civil status were that
infants were subject to the restraints on complete freedom of
action involved in their being in the legal custody of the father,
and that it was and is lawful for parents, guardians, employers
and teachers to inflict corporal punishment proportioned in
amount and severity to the nature of the fault committed and
the age and mental capacity of the child punished. But the
court of chancery, in delegated exercise, of the authority of the
sovereign as parens patriae, always asserted the right to take
from parents, and if necessary itself to assume the wardship of
children where parental rights were abused or serious cruelty
was inflicted, the power being vested in the High Court of
Justice. Abuse of the power of correction was regarded as
giving a cause of action or prosecution for assault; and if
attended by fatal results rendered the parent liable to indictment
for murder or manslaughter.
The conception of what constitutes cruelty to children un-
doubtedly changed considerably with the relaxation of the
accepted standard of severity in domestic or scholastic discipline
and with the growth of new ideas as to the duties of parents to
children, which in their latest developments tend enormously
to enlarge the parental duties without any corresponding increase
of filial obligations.
Starting from the earlier conception, which limited ill-treat-
ment legally punishable to actual threats or blows, the common
law came to recognize criminal liability in cases where persons,
bound under duty or contract to supply necessaries to a child,
unable by reason of its tender years to provide for itself, wilfully
neglected to supply them, and thereby caused the death of the
child or injury to its health, although no actual assault had been
committed. Questions have from time to time arisen as to what
could be regarded as necessary within this rule; and quite apart
from legislation, popular opinion has influenced courts of justice
in requiring more from parents and employers than used to be
required. But parliament has also intervened to punish
abandonment or exposure of infants of under two years, whereby
the'v lives are endangered, or their health has been or is likely
to be permanently injured (Offences against the Person Act of
1861, s. 27), and the neglect or ill-treatment of apprentices or
servants (same act, s. 26, and Conspiracy and Protection of
Property Act 1875, s. 6). By the Poor Law Amendment Act
1868, parents were rendered summarily punishable who wilfully
neglected to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid or
lodging for their children under fourteen years of age in their
custody, whereby the health of the child was or was likely to be
seriously injured. This enactment (now superseded by later
legislation) made no express exception in favour of parents who
had not sufficient means to do their duty without resort to the
poor law, and was construed as imposing criminal liability on
parents whose peculiar religious tenets caused them advisedly
to refrain from calling in a doctor to a sick child.
The chief progress in the direction of adequate protection for
children prior to 1889 lay less in positive legal enactment on the
subject than in the institution of an effective system of police,
whereby it became possible to discover and repress cruelty
punishable under the ordinary law. It is quite inaccurate to
say that children had very few rights in England, or that animals
were better protected. But before the constitution of the present
police force, and in the absence of any proper system of public
prosecution, it is undeniable that numberless cases of neglect
and ill-treatment went unpunished and were treated as nobody's
business, because there was no person ready to undertake in
the public interest the protection of the children of cruel or
negligent parents. In 1889 a statute was passed with the special
object of preventing cruelty to children. This act was superseded
in 1894 by a more stringent act, which was repealed by the
Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act 1004, in its turn superseded
for the most part by the Children Act 1008, which introduced
many new provisions in the law relating to children and specific-
ally deals with the offence of " cruelty " to them. This offence
can only be committed by a person over sixteen in respect of a
child under sixteen of whom he has " custody," " charge " or
" care." The act presumes that a child is in the custody of its
parents, step-parents, or a person cohabiting with its parent,
or of its guardians or persons liable by law to maintain it; that
it is in the charge of a person to whom the parent has committed
such charge (e.g. a schoolmaster), and that it is in the care of a
person who has actual possession or control of it. Cruelty is
defined as consisting in assault, ill-treatment (falling short of
actual assault), neglect, abandonment or exposure of the child
in a manner likely to cause unnecessary suffering or injury to
health, including injury to or loss of sight, hearing or limb, or
any organ of the body or any mental derangement; and the
act or omission must be wilful, i.e. deliberate and intentional,
and not merely accidental or inadvertent. The offence may be
punished either summarily or on indictment, and the offender
may be sent to penal servitude if it is shown that he was directly
or indirectly interested in any sum of money payable on the
death of the child, e.g. by having taken out a policy permitted
under the Friendly Societies Acts. A parent or other person
legally liable to maintain a child or young person will be deemed
to have " neglected " him by failure to provide adequate food,
clothing, medical aid, or lodging, or if in the event of inability
to provide such food, &c, by failure to take steps to procure the
same under acts relating to the relief of the poor.
These statutes overlap the common law and the statutes
already mentioned. Their real efficacy lies in the main in the
provisions which facilitate the taking of evidence of young
children, in permitting poor law authorities to prosecute at the
expense of the rates, and in permitting a constable on arresting
the offender to take the child away from the accused, and the
court of trial on conviction to transfer the custody of the child
from the offender to some fit and willing person, including any '
society or body corporate established for the reception of poor
children or for the prevention of cruelty to children. The pro-
visions of the acts as to procedure and custody extend not only !
to the offence of cruelty but also to all offences involving bodily *
injury to a child under sixteen, such as abandonment, assault, \
kidnapping and illegally engaging a child in a dangerous public t
CHILDREN, LAW FOR
«39
performance. The act of 1008 also makes an endeavour to
check the heavy mortality of infants through "overlaying/' *
enacting that where it is proved that the death of an infant
under three years of age was caused by suffocation whilst the
infant was in bed with some other person over the age of sixteen,
and that that person was at the time of going to bed under the
influence of drink, that other person shall be deemed to have
neglected the child in manner likely to cause injury to its
health, as mentioned above. The acts have been utilized with
great zeal and on the whole with much discretion by various
philanthropic societies, whose members make it their business
to discover the ill-treated and neglected children of all classes
in society, and particularly by the Society for the Prevention
of Cruelty to Children, which is incorporated under royal charter
of the 28th of May 1895, for the purposes inter alia of preventing \
the public and private wrongs of children, and the corruption
of their morals and of taking action to enforce the laws for
their protection.
The act of 1908 enacted more stringent provisions against
baby-farming (q.v.). The Infant Life Protection Act of 1897
did not apply where only one child was taken, but now by the
act of 1008, where a person undertakes for reward the nursing
and maintenance of one or more infants under the age of seven J
years apart from their parents ot having no parents, he must |
give notice in writing to the local authority within forty-eight
hours from the reception of the child. If an infant is already
in the care of a person without reward and he undertakes to
continue the nursing for reward, such undertaking is a reception
of the child. The notice to the local authority must state the
name, sex, date and place of birth of the infant, the name and I
address of the person receiving the infant and of the person from
whom the infant was received. Notice must also be given of j
any change of address of the person having the care of the infant,
or of the death of the infant, or of its removal to the care of some
other person, whose name and address must also be given. It
is the duty of local authorities to provide for the carrying-out
in their districts of that portion of the act which refers to nursing
and maintenance of infants, to appoint infants' protection
visitors, to fix the number of infants which any person may
retain for nursing, to remove infants improperly kept, &c.
Relatives or legal guardians of an infant who undertake its
nursing and maintenance, hospitals, convalescent homes, or
institutions, established for the protection and care of infants,
and conducted in good faith for religious and charitable purposes,
as well as boarding schools at which efficient elementary education
is given, are exempt from the provisions of the act
The acts of 1004 and 1908 deal with many other offences in
relation to children and young persons. The act of 1904 intro-
duced restrictions on the employment of children which lie on
the border land between cruelty and the regulation of child
labour. It prohibits custodians of children from taking them,
or letting them be, in the street or in public-houses to sing,
play, perform or sell between 9 p.m. and 6 a.m. These pro-
visions apply to boys under fourteen and girls under sixteen.
There are further prohibitions (1) on allowing children under
eleven to sing, play, perform or be exhibited for profit, or offer
anything for sale in public-houses or places of public amuse-
ment at any hour without a licence from a justice, which is
granted only as to children over ten and under stringent condi-
s; (2) on allowing children under sixteen to be trained as
1 There has been some doubt a? to whether it is more correct to
My a person " overlays " or " overlies " a child, and the question
came up in committcc'on the bill. According to Sir J. A. H. Murray
(jce Letter in The Times. 12th of May 1908) " to lie. ' an intransitive
verb, becomes transitive when combined with a preposition, e.g.
a nurse lies over a child or overlies a child ; " to lay ' is the causal
derivative of " to lie," and is followed by two objects, e.g. to by the
table with a cloth, or to lay a cloth on the table; similarly, to over-
lay a surface with varnish, or to overlay a child with a blanket, or
wtch the nurse's or mother's body. The instrument can be left un-
expressed, arid a person can be said to overlay a child, i.e. with
her own body, a pillow. &c. Thus, while " overlie " covers the ca«c
where the woman herself lies over the child, " overlay " is the more
■acrobats, contortionists, or circus performers, or for any dangerous
performance; and the Children's Dangerous Performances Act
1879, as amended in 1897, makes it an offence to employ a male
young person under sixteen and a female under eighteen in a
dangerous public performance.
The act of 1908 renders liable to a fine not exceeding £25, or
alternatively, or in addition thereto, imprisonment with or with-
out hard labour for any term not exceeding three months, any
custodian, &c, of any child or young person who allows him to
be in any street, premises or place for the purpose of begging
or receiving alms, or of inducing the giving of alms, whether
or not there is a pretence of singing, playing, performing or
offering anything for sale. An important departure in the act
of 1908 was the attempt to prevent the exposure of children
to the risk of burning. Any custodian, &c, of a child under
seven who allows that child to be in a room containing an open
grate not sufficiently protected to guard against the risk of
burning or scalding is liable on summary conviction to a fine
not exceeding £ro. Provision is made against allowing children
between the ages of four and sixteen to be in brothels; it is also
made a misdemeanour if any custodian, &c., of a girl under
sixteen causes or encourages her seduction or prostitution, and
any person having the custody of a young girl may be bound
over to exercise proper care if it is shown to the satisfaction of a
court of summary jurisdiction, on the complaint of any person,
that she is exposed to such risk.
The act of 1908, following legislation in many parts of the
United States and in some of the British colonies, places a penalty
on selling tobacco to any person apparently under the age of
sixteen, whether for his own use or not. It empowers constables
and park keepers to seize tobacco in the possession of any
person apparently under sixteen found smoking in any street
or public place, as well as to search them; it also empowers
a court of summary jurisdiction to prevent automatic machines
for the sale of tobacco being used by young persons. The act
also contains useful provisions empowering the clearing of a
court whilst a child or young person is giving evidence in certain
cases (e.g. of decency or morality), and the forbidding children
(other than infants in arms) being present in court during the
trial of other persons; it places a penalty on pawnbrokers taking
an article in pawn from children under fourteen; and on vagrants
for preventing children above the age of five receiving education.
It puts a penalty on giving intoxicating liquor to any child
under the age of five, except upon the orders of a duly qualified
medical practitioner, or in case of sickness, or other urgent
cause; also upon any holder of the licence of any licensed
premises who allows a child to be at any time in the bar of the
licensed premises, or upon any person who causes or attempts
to cause a child to be in the bar of licensed premises other than
railway refreshment rooms or premises used for any purpose
to which the holding of a licence is merely auxiliary, or where
the child is there simply for the purpose of passing through to
some other part of the premises. It makes provision for the
safety of children at entertainments, and consolidates the law
relating to reformatory and industrial schools, and to juvenile
offenders (sec Juvenile Offenders).
In the act of 1908, " child " is defined as a person under the
age of fourteen years, and " young person " as a person who is
fourteen years and upwards and under the age of sixteen years.
I The act applies to Scotland and Ireland. In the application of
the act to Ireland exception is made relative to the exclusion
of children from bars of licensed premises, in the case of a child
being on licensed premises where a substantial part of the business
carried on is a drapery, grocery, hardware or other business
wholly unconnected with the sale of intoxicating liquor, and the
child is there for the purpose of purchasing goods other than
I intoxicating liquor.
British Possessions.— Legislation much on the lines of the acts
of 1S80-1908 has been passed in many British possessions, e.g.
Tasmania (1S95, 1906), Queensland (1806, 1905)1 Jamaica
(1S96), South Australia (1899, 1004), New South Wales (189s
and 1000), New Zealand (1906), Mauritius (1906), Yfctas**
140
CHILDRENITE— CHILDREN'S COURTS
(1905, 1906). In South Australia a State Children's Department
has been created to care for and manage the property and persons
of destitute and neglected children, and the officials of the
council may act in cases of cruelty to children; the legislation
of Victoria and Queensland is based on that of South Australia.
See also Children's Courts, Education and Labour Legis-
lation. (W. F. C. ; T. A. I.)
CHILDRENITE, a rare mineral species; a hydrous basic
aluminium iron phosphate, orthorhombic in crystallization.
The ferrous oxide is in part replaced by manganous oxide and
lime, and in the closely allied and isomorphous species eosphorite
manganese predominates over iron. The general formula for
the two species is Al(Fe, Mn)(OH),P0 4 +H»0. Childrenite
is found only as small brilliant crystals of a yellowish-brown
colour, somewhat resembling chalybite in general appearance.
They are usually pyramidal in habit, often having the form of
double six-sided pyramids with the triangular faces deeply
striated parallel to their shorter edges. Hardness 4'5-SJ
specific gravity 3- 18-3- 24. The mineral, named after the
zoologist and mineralogist J. G. Children (1 777-1852). secretary
of the Royal Society, was detected in 1823 on specimens obtained
some years previously during the cutting of a canal near Tavi-
stock in Devonshire. It has also been found in a few copper
mines in Cornwall and Devonshire.
Eosphorite occurs as crystals of prismatic habit with angles
very nearly the same as those of childrenite. Unlike childrenite,
it has a distinct cleavage in one direction, and often occurs in
compact masses as well as in crystals. The colour is sometimes
yellowish-white, but usually rose-pink, and on this account the
mineral was named from 4<*r46p<*> dawn-bearer. Hardness 5;
specific gravity 3- 11-3- 145. It was discovered in 1878 in a
pegmatite-vein at B ranch ville, Connecticut, where it is associated
with other rare manganese phosphates. (L. J. S.)
CHILDREN'S COURTS, or Juvenile Courts, a special
system of tribunals for dealing with juvenile offenders, first
suggested in the United States. The germ of such institutions
was planted in Massachusetts in 1869, when a plan was introduced
at Boston of hearing charges against children separately, and
apart from the ordinary business of the lesser tribunals. No
great progress was made in the development of the idea in Massa-
chusetts, as the legal authorities were not fully convinced of
the utility or need for a separate court so long as the children
were kept strictly apart from adults, and this could be assured
by a separate session. But the system of "probation," by
which children were handed over to the kindly care and guardian-
ship of an appointed officer, and thus escaped legal repression,
was created about the same time in Boston and produced
excellent results. The probation officer is present at the judge's
side when he decides a case, and is given charge of the offender,
whom he takes by the hand, either at his parent's residence or
at school, and continually supervises, having power if necessary
to bring him again before the judge. The example of Massa-
chusetts in due course influenced other countries, and especially
the British colony of South Australia, where a State Children's
Department was created at Adelaide in 1895, and three years
later a juvenile court was opened there for the trial of persons
under eighteen and was conducted with great success, though
the system of probation officers was not introduced. A juvenile
court was also established at Toronto (Canada) on the South
Australian model.
The movement when once fully appreciated went ahead very
rapidly. In the United States Illinois was the first state to call
a distinct children's court into existence, and Judge Richard
Tuthill was the pioneer at Chicago, where the court was estab-
lished in 1809. Many states followed suit, including New York,
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Kansas, Colorado,
Indiana and others, till the number rose to nineteen in 1006.
In New York, where juvenile probation is supervised by the
Society for the Protection of Children, there is a separate
children's court with rooms attached, where the children for
detention wait till they are brought in for trial. Brooklyn has
also a children's court. In Pennsylvania, where the juvenile
court was at first opposed as unconstitutional, the difficulty
was met by first bringing the child before the magistrate in the
police court, a course which (though followed by his transferring
the case to the special court) perpetuated the very evils the chil-
dren's court was intended to avoid; the work of probation was,
however, most effectively carried out, chiefly by female officers.
The Chicago Juvenile Court sits twice weekly under an especially
appointed judge, and policemen act as probation officers to some
extent. The court of Indianapolis, however, gained the reputa-
tion of being the most complete and perfect in the United States.
It works with a large and highly efficient band of volunteer
probation officers under a chief. The juvenile court of Denver,
Colorado, attained remarkable results under Judge B. Lindsey,
whose magnetic personality, wonderful comprehension of boy
nature, and extraordinary influence over them achieved great
results. The court meets once a fortnight, when fresh cases are
tried and boys already on probation report themselves, often
to the number of two hundred at a time. The latter appear
before the judge in batches, each hands in his school report in a
sealed letter, and according to its purport receives praise or
blame, or he may be committed to the Detention House. An
efficient court was also constituted at Baltimore, Maryland, with
a judge especially chosen to preside, probation being for fixed
periods, varying from three months to three years, and children
being brought back to the court for parole or discharge, or, if
necessary, committal to the house of one of the philanthropic
societies. In Washington, D.C., the system of having no
distinct court or judge, but holding a separate session, was
followed, and it was found that numbers of children came to the
court for help and guidance, looking upon the judge for the time
being as their friend and counsellor. Probation in this instance
offered peculiar difficulties on account of the colour question,
two-thirds of the children having negro blood and a white boy
being always preferred for a vacant situation. Throughout,
the action of juvenile courts in the United States has been to
bring each individual into " human touch " with kindly helpful
workers striving to lead the young idea aright and train it to
follow the straight path. It was the result always of the effort
of private persons and not due to government initiative, indeed
the advocates and champions of the system only established it
by overcoming strong opposition from the authorities.
Progress in the same direction has been made in England.
The home office had recommended London police magistrates
to keep children's cases separate from those of adults; the
same practice or something analogous obtained in many county
boroughs, such as Bath, Birmingham, Bristol, Bolton, Bradford,
Hull, Manchester, Walsall, Halifax and others, and the Children
Act 1008 definitely established children's courts. This act
enacted that courts of summary jurisdiction when hearing charges,
&c, against children or young persons should, unless the child
or young person is charged jointly with an adult, sit in a different
building or room from that in which the ordinary sittings of the
court are held, or on different days or at different times. Further-
more, provision must be made for preventing persons apparently
under the age of sixteen years whilst being conveyed to or from
court, or whilst waiting before or after their attendance in court,
from associating with adults, unless such adults are charged
jointly with them. The act prohibits any persons other than
members and officers of the court, the parties to the case, their
solicitors, counsel and other persons directly concerned in the
case, from being present in a juvenile court, except by leave
of the court. Bona-fide press representatives arc also excepted.
The main object of the whole system is to keep the child, the
embryotic offender who has probably erred from ignorance or
the pressure of circumstances or misfortune, altogether free
from the taint or contagion that attaches to criminal proceedings.
The moral atmosphere of a legal tribunal is injurious to the
youthful mind, and children who appear before a bench, whether
as accused or as witness, gain a contemptuous familiarity with
legal processes.
The most beneficial action of the children's court comes from
its association with the system of personal guardianship and
CHILDREN'S GAMES— CHILDS
141
dose supervision exercised by the probation officers, official
and voluntary. Where the intervention of the newly consti-
tuted tribunal can not only save the child from evil association
when first arrested, but can rescue him without condemnation
and committal to prison, its functions may be relied upon to
«iiwiini«h crime by cutting it off at the source. Much depends
upon the quality and temperament of the presiding authority.
Where a judge with special aptitude can be appointed, firm,
sympathetic, tactful and able to gain the confidence of those
brought before him, he may do great good, by dealing with each
individual and not merely with his offence, realizing that the
court does not exist to condemn but to strengthen and give a
fresh chance. Where the children's court is only a branch of the
existing jurisdiction worked by the regular magistrate or
judge fulfilling his ordinary functions and not specially chosen,
the beneficial results are not so noticeable. (A. G.)
CHIiDREirS GAMES. The study of traditional games has in 1
recent years become an important branch of folklore research in
England, and has contributed not a little towards elucidating
many unrecorded facts in early history. These games may
be broadly divided into two kinds — dramatic games, and games
of skill and chance. These differ materially in their object.
Games of skill and chance are played for the purpose of
winning property from a less fortunate player. The dramatic
games consist of non-singing and singing games; they are divided
between boys' games and girls' games. Boys' games are mostly
of a contest character, girls' of a more domestic type. The boys'
dramatic games have preserved some interesting beliefs and
customs, but the tendency in these games, such as " prisoner's
base/' has'becn to drop the words and tunc and to preserve only
that part (action) which tends best for exercise and use in school
playgrounds. The girls' singing-games have not developed on
these lines, and have therefore not lost so much of their early
characteristics. The singing games consist of words, tune and
action. The words, in verse, express ideas contained in customs
not now in vogue, and they may be traced back to events taking
place between men and women and between people of different
villages. The tunes arc simple, and the same tunc is frequently
used for different games. The actions are illustrat ivc of the ideas
10 be expressed. The players represent various objects— animals,
villages and people. The singing game is therefore not a game
in the usual sense of the word. There is no element of
" gambling " or playing " to win " in it— no one is richer or
poorer for it; it also requires a number of children to play
together. It is really a "play," and has survived because
it has handed down some instances of custom and belief which
were deeply rooted and which made a strong appeal to the
imagination of our ancestors. The singing games represent in
dramatic form the survival of those ceremonial dances common
to people in early stages of development. These dances celcbra ted
events which served to bind the people together and to give them
a common interest in matters affecting their welfare. They were
dramatic in character, singing and action forming a part of them,
and their performers were connected by ties of place or kindred.
They are probably survivals of what we might call folk drama.
In these times it was held imperative to perform religious
ceremonies periodically; at sowing and harvesting to ensure
good crops; in the care of cattle and on occasions of marriage,
birth and death. These were matters affecting the welfare of
the whole community. Events were celebrated with dance,
song and feasting, and no event was too trivial to be unconnected
with some belief which rendered ceremony necessary.
At first these ceremonial dances had deep religious feeling for
their basis, but in process of time they became purely secular
and were performed at certain seasons only because it was the
custom to do so. They then became recognized as beautiful
or pleasing things in the life of the people, and so continued,
altering somewhat in ideas but retaining their old dramatic
forms. They were danced by old and young at festivals and
holidays, these being held about the same time of year as
that at which the previous religious ceremonies had been
held.
Singing games are danced principally in one of two methods,
" line *' and " circle." These represent two of the early forms
of dramatic action. The " line " form (two lines of players
standing opposite each other having a space of ground between
them, advancing and retiring in turn) represents two different
and opposing parties engaged in a struggle or contest. This
method h used in all cases where contest is involved. The
" circle " form, on the other hand, where all players join hands,
represents those occasions when all the people of one place were
engaged in celebrating events in which all were interested. Thus
games celebrating sowing and harvest, and those associated with
love and marriage, arc played in this form. Both these methods
allow of development. The circle varies from examples where
all perform the same actions and say the same words to that
where two or more players have principal parts, the others
only singing or acting in dumb show, to examples where the
singing has disappeared. The form or method of play and the
actions constitute the oldest remaining parts of the game (the
words, bring subject to alterations and loss through ignorance of
their meaning), and it is to this form or method, the actions
and the accompaniment of song, that they owe their survival,
appealing as they do to the strong dramatic instinct of children
and of uncultured folk.
It will be convenient to give a few instances of the best-known
singing games. In. " line " form, a fighting game is " We are the
Rovers." The words tell us of two opposing parties fighting
for their land; both sides alternately deride one another and end
by fighting until one side is victorious. Two other "line"
games, " Nuts in May " and " Here come three dukes a-riding,"
are also games of contest, but not for territory. These show an
early custom of obtaining wives. They represent marriage by
capture,, and arc played in " line " foim because of the element
of contest contained in the custom. Another form, the " arch,"
is also used to indicate contest.
Circle games, on the contrary, show such customs as harvest
and marriage, with love and courting, and a ceremony and
sanction by assembled friends. " Oats and beans and barley "
and " Sally Water " are typical of this form. The large majority
of circle games deal with love or marriage and domestic life.
The customs surviving in these games deal with tribal life and
take us back to ,[ foundation sacrifice," " well worship," " sacred-
nesa of fire/ 1 besides marriage and funeral customs.
Details may be found in the periodical publications flf the Folk-
lore Sficicty, and particularly in ihe futluwing works: — A, 0.
Gummc's Traditional Games of Great Britain (a vol*., Nmt. 1894-
189a); Go rtime's Children's Singing Games (Nutt, 1904); Ecken-
ntem's Comparative Studies in Nuncry Rhymes i Duckworth, 1906);
-M aetata n. Gamti nf Argyllshire, Folk-lore Society (1900); Newel l'i
Games of American Children (Harper Bros.. New York* 1684). In
Mr* Go mine's Traditional Games, several versions of each game*
together with a abort account of the suggested origin and of the
custom or belief indicated, are given lor each MOM f » vol. n. (pp,
♦S'-M 1 ) a memoir of the history of game* is given, and the tuf Corns
and belief 1 which originated them, reviewing the whole subject from
the a nth repel apical point of view, and showing th* place which
games occupy among the evidences of early man. In Miss Eckcn-
stein's comparative study of nursery thyme? suggested origins are
given for many of these, and an attempt made to IocliIjac certain of
the customs and events. In several of the publication* of the Folk-
lore Society local collections of game* are given, all of which may
be studied with advantage. Stubbcs and other early writers give
many instance! of boys' games in thrir days, many of which still
exist. Tylur and other writers on anthropology, in dealing with
lavage custom , confirm the views here expressed. For nursery
rhymes see Halllucll, Nursery Rttymti O&45), and Chambers!
Popular Rhymes (lirst printed 1841, reprinted in 1070)* The recently
collected Morris Dances by Mr Cecil Sharp should also be
consulted. One of the morris dances, hron-setting, evidently dealing
with planting or harvest, is danced in circle form, while others
indicating fighting; or rivalry are danced in Line form, each line danc-
ing in circle before crossing over To the opposite sMe, and thus
conforming to the Uws already shown to exist in the more ordinary
game. (A, B. G.*>
CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1820-1894). American publisher,
was bom in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 12th of May 1829.
He was educated in the public schools, and after a brief term of
service in the navy, he became in 1843 a clerk in a book-shop at
Philadelphia. There, in 1847, he estah\ista& «&. Vuta^eutasft.
142
CHILE
book-shop, and two years later organized the publishing house of
Childs & Peterson. In 1864, with Anthony J. Drexel, he pur-i
chased the Public Ledger, at that time a little known newspaper;
he completely changed its policy and methods, and made it
one of the most influential journals in the country. He died at
Philadelphia on the 3rd of February 1804. Childs was widely
known for his public spirit and philanthropy. In addition to
numerous private benefactions in educational and charitable
fields, he erected memorial windows to William Cowper and
George Herbert in Westminster Abbey (1877), and to Milton in
St Margaret's, Westminster (1888), a monument to Leigh Hunt)
at Kensal Green, a Shakespeare memorial fountain at Stratford*
on- A von (1887/, and monuments to Edgar Allan Poe and to
Richard A. Proctor. He gave Woodland Cemetery to the
Typographical Society of Philadelphia for a printers' burial'
ground, and with Anthony J. Drexel founded in 1892 a home foil
Union printers at Colorado Springs, Colorado.
His Recollections were published at Philadelphia in 1890.
CHILE, or Chili (derived, it is said, from the Quichua chiri,
cold, or t chili, snow), a republic of South America, occupying the
narrow western slope of the continent between Peru and its
southern extremity. (For map see Argentina.) It extends
from the northern boundary of the province of Tacna, about
17 25* S., to Cape Horn at the extreme southern point of the
Fuegian archipelago in 55 58' 40* S., with an extreme meridian
length of 2661 m., and with a coast line considerably exceeding
that figure owing to a westward curve of about 3 J* and an
eastward trend south of 50 S. of nearly 8°. Its mainland width
ranges from about 46 to 228 m., and its area, including the
islands of the southern coast, is officially computed to be 307,774
sq. m., though the Gotha computation (1004) places it at 293,062
sq. m. Chile is thus a ribbon-like strip of territory between the
Andes and the Pacific, comparatively regular north of the 42nd
parallel, but with an extremely ragged outline south of that line.
It is bounded N. by Peru, E. by Bolivia and Argentina, S. and W.
by the Pacific. Its eastern boundary lines are described under
Argentina and Bolivia. The war of 1879-81 with Peru and
Bolivia gave to Chile 73,993 sq. m. of territory, or one-fourth
her total area. By subsequent agreements the Bolivian depart-
ment of the Litoral, or Atacama, and the Peruvian department
of Tarapaca, were formally ceded to Chile, and the northern
frontier was removed to the river Camarones, which enters the
Pacific at 19 12' S. Under the treaty of Ancon (20th October
1883) Chile was to retain possession of the provinces of Tacna
and Arica belonging to the Peruvian department of Moquegua
for a period of ten years, and then submit "to popular vote
whether those territories are to belong to Chile or Peru." At the
expiration of the period (1893) Chile evaded compliance with the
agreement, and under various pretexts retained forcible posses-
sion of the territory. This arbitrary retention of Tacna and
Arica, which became the province of Tacna under Chilean
administration, removed the frontier still farther north, to the
river Sama, which separates that province from the remaining
part of the Peruvian department of Moquegua. Starting from
the mouth of that river, in 17 57' S., the disputed boundary
follows its course in an irregular N.E. direction to its source in
the Alto do Toledo range, thence S. and E. along the water
parting to the Bolivian boundary line in the Cordillera Silillica.
Physiography.— For purposes of geneVal topographical description
Chile may be divided into three regions: the desert region of the
north, the central agricultural region between the provinces of
Coquimbo and Uanquihuc, and the heavily-forested rainy region
south of lat. 41 • S. The desert region is an elevated arid plateau
descending gradually from the Andes towards the coast, where it
breaks down abruptly from elevations of 800 to 1500 ft. From the
sea this plateau escarpment has the appearance of a range of flat
topped hills closely following the coast line. The surface is made
up of extensive plains covered with sand and deposits of alkaline
salts, broken by ranges of barren hills having the appearance of spurs
from the Andes, and by irregular lateral ranees in the vicinity of
the main cordillcra enclosing elevated saline plateaus. This region
is rainless, barren and inhospitable, absolutely destitute of vege-
tation except in some small river valleys where irrigation is possible,
and on the slopes of some of the snow-covered peaks where the
water Srom the melting snows nourishes a scanty and coarse vege-
tation before it disappears in the thirsty sands, It is very rich in
mineral and. saline deposits, however. The eastern parts of this
region lie within the hip her ranges of the Andes and include a large
district awarded to Chile in itfoq (sec Argentina and Atacama).
This arid, bleak area it apparently a continuation southward of the
frcat Bolivian aitaplaninc. and is known as the Tuna de Atacama.
c<i average elevation is estimated at 11,000 to 12,000 ft. A line
of volcanoes crosses it from north to south, and rx tensive lava beds
cover a considerable part of in surface- Large shallow saline lakes
are also characteristic feat iters of this region, From 28° S. the spurs
from the cordillcra toward the cua*t are more sharply defined and
enclose deeper valleys, where the cultivation of the soil becomes
possible, at first through irrigation and then with the aid of light
periodical rain*, The slopes of the Andes arc precipitous, the
general surface is rough, and in the north the higher ground and
coast are still barren. Beginning with the province of Aconcagua
the coast elevations crystallize into a range of mountains, the
Cordillera Marifima, which follows the shore line south to the
province of Llano uihue, and is continued si ill farther south by the
mountain range of Chiloe and the islands of I he western coast, whkh
are the peaks of a submerged mountain chain, Lying between this
coast range and 1 he Andes is a broad valley, or plain, extending from
ihe Aconcagua river south to the Gulf of Ancud, a distance slightly
over 6ao m. with an average width of about 60 m. ft is some lime*
railed the " Vale of Chile*" and is the richest and most thickly -
populated part of the republic It is a highly fertile region, is well
watered by numerous streams from the Andes, has a moderate rain-
fall, and forms an agricultural and grazing region of great pro-
ductiveness. It slopes toward the souths and its lower levels arc
filled with lakes and with depressions where lakes formerly existed.
It is an alluvial plain for the greater part, but contains some sandy
tract?, as in Ruble and Arauco; in the north very little natural
forest is found except in the valleys and on the slopes of the enclosing
mountain ranges, but in the south, where the rainfall is heavier, the
plain is well covered with forest. South of 41* S. the country is
mountainous, heavily 'forested and inhospitable. There are only
a few scattered settlement? within it* bordm, and a few nomadic
tribes of savages eke out a miserable existence on the coast* The
deeply-indented, coast line is filled with island;* which preserve
the general outline of the continent south ward to the Fuegian
;o p the outside groups forming a continuation of the Cor-
dillera Mariiima. The heavy and continuous rainfall throughout
this region, especially in the latitude of Chiloe, gives rise to a Large
number of risers and lakes. Farther south this excessive precipi-
tation is in the form of snow in the Cordilleras, forming glaciers at
a comparatively low level which in places discharge into the inlets
and bays of I he sea* The extreme southern part of this region
extends eastward to the Atlantic entrance to the Straits of Magellan,
and includes the greater part of the large island of Tierra ddFuego
with all the islands lying south and west of it. There arc some com-
paratively level stretches of country immediately north of the
Straits, partly forested and partly grassy plains, where sheep fanning
has been established with some degree of success, but the greater
part of this extreme southern territory is mountainous, cold, wet
and inhospitable* The perpetual snow-line hero descends to 3500
to 4000 ft, above sea 'level, and the forest growth docs not rise above
an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft.
ft has been officially estimated that the arable lands of Chile
comprise about twenty-fire millions of acres f slightly over 39,000
so, m.), or very nearly one-eighth of its total area. „
The desert regions of the north include ecmj>ara lively M<mat ** atm
large areas of plains and gently sloping surfaces, traversed by
ranges of barren hills. The remainder of The* republic, probably
more than three-fifths of its surface, is extremely mountainous.
The western slopes of the And« H with its spurs find lateral ranges,
cover a broad zone on the eastern side of the republic, and the
Cordillera Marhima covers another broad jone on its western side
from about lat, 33* to the southern extremity of Chiloe, or below
lat, 43*. This maritime range is traversed by several river valleys,
some of which, like the Bio- Bio, are broad and have so gentle a slope
as to be navigable- The Andes* however^ present an unbroken
barrier on the east, except at a few points in the south where the
general elevation j» not over 5000 to c*jOO ft,, and where some of the
Chilean rivers, as the Palcna and Las Heras, have their sources on its
eastern side- From the find to about the 31st parallel this great
mountain system, known locally as the Cordillera de los Andes,
apparently consists of a single chain, though in reality it includes
short lateral ranges at several points; continuing northward several
parallel ranges appear on the Argentine ride ana one on the Chilean
side which are ultimately merged in the great Bolivian plateau.
The Chilean lateral range, whkh extends from the 79th to the 19th
parallels, Traverse* an elevated desert region and possesses several
noteworthy peaks, among which arc Cerro Bolson. 16,017 ft., and
Cerrd Dana f nes, 16,706 ft. ft is broken to some extent in crossing
the province of Antofagasta, the southern division being known
as the Siena de rfuatacoodo* At the southern frontier of Bolivia
the main chain, which has. served as the boundary line between
Argentina and Chilcr divides into two great ranges, the principal
one continuing almost due north along the eastern, side of the great
Bolivian oiux-pUnkit, and the other forming ii* western rim, where
■RANIYI
CHILE
H
it i> known as the Cordillera Sililli>:a, and then following the trend i
of the coast north-wtbtward into Peru becomes the Cordillera
Occidental The western slopes of the Andes are precipitous, with
■hurt spun enclosing deep valleys. The whole system is volcanic, ■
and a, cooskkrabk number of volcanoes are still intermittently
active, noticeably in central and southern Chile. The culminating
point of the Chilean Andes is Aconcagua, which rises to a height of
33,097 ft.
In southern Chile the coast is highly mountainous, but the relation
of these elevations to the Andes has not been clearly determined.
The highest of these apparently detached groups arc Mt. Maca (lat.
45* S.), 971 1 ft., and Mt. Arcnales (about 47° S. lat.), 11.286 ft.
Cathedral Peak on Wellington Island rises to a height of 3838 ft.
and the highest point on Taytao peninsula to 3937 ft. The coast
range of central Chile has no noteworthy elevations, the culminating
mint in the province of Santiago being 7316 ft. Between central
Chile and the* northern desert region there is a highly mountainous
district where distinct ranges or elongated spurs cross the republic
from the Andes to the coast, forming transverse valleys of great
beauty and fertility. The most famous of these is the " Vale of
guillota " between Valparaiso and Santiago. The Chilean Andes
'tween Tacna and Valdivia are crossed by 24 passes, the majority
i.f them at elevations exceeding 10.000 ft. The best-known of these
ii the Uspallata pass between Santiago and the Argentine city of
Mcndoza, 12.870 ft. above sea-level. The passes of central and
southern Chile are used only in the summer season, but those of
northern Chile are open throughout the whole year.
The volcanic origin of the Andes and their comparatively recent
elevation still subject Chile, in common with other parts of the
western coast region, to frequent volcanic and seismic disturbances.
In some instances since European occupation, violent earthquake
shocks have resulted in considerable elevations of certain parts of I
the coast. After the great earthquake of 1835 Captain Robert
FitzRoy (1805-1S65) of H.M.S. "Beagle" found putrid mussel-
shells still adhering to the rocks 10 ft. above high water on the island
of Santa Maria, 30 m. from Conception, and Charles Darwin declares.
in describing that disaster, that " there can be no doubt that the land !
round the bay of Concepcion was upraised two or three feet." These
upheavals, however, are not always permanent, the upraised land
sometimes settling back to its former position. This happened on the
island "of Santa Maria after 1835. The existence of sea-shells at ele-
vations of 350 to 1300 ft. in other parts of the republic shows that
these forces, supplemented by a gradual uplifting of the coast, have
been in operation through long periods of time and that the greater 1
put of central and southern Chile has been raised from the sea inj
this way. These earthquake shocks have two distinct character-
istics, a slight vibration, sometimes almost imperceptible, called a,
tembfar, generally occurring at frequent intervals, and a violent,
boruoataJ or rotary vibration, or motion, also repeated at frequent 1
intervals, called a lemmoto, which is caused by a fracture or displace-
ment of the earth's strata at some particular point, and often results'
in considerable damage. When the earthquake occurs on the coast ,
or beneath the sea in its vicinity, tidal waves arc sometimes formed,,
which cause even greater damage than the earthquake itself. Arica
has been three times destroyed by tklal waves, and other small
towns of the north Chilean coast have suffered similar disasters.
Coquimbo was swept by a tidal wave in 1849, and Concepcion and
-Talcahuano were similarly destroyed in 1835. The great earth-
quake which partially destroyed Valparaiso in 1906, however, was
not followed by a tidal wave. These, violent shocks are usually
limited to comparatively small districts, though the vibrations may
be felt at long distances from the centre of disturbance. In this
respect Chile may be divided into at least four great earthquake
areas, two in the desert region, the third enclosing Valparaiso, and
the fourth extending from Concepcion to Chiloe. A study of Chilean
earthquake phenomena, however, would probably lead to a division
of southern Chile into two or more distinct earthquake areas.
The coast of Chile is fringed with an extraordinary number of
islands extending from ChiloeS. to Cape Horn, the grouping of which
f^ mwt shows that they are in part the summits of a submerged
CB1 ' mountain chain, a continuation southward of the Cor-
dillera Maritima. Three groups of these islands, called the Chiloe,
Guaytecas and Chonos archipelagoes, lie N. of the Taytao peninsula
(lat. 45* 50' to 46* 55' S.). and with the mainland to the E. form the
province of Chiloe. The largest of these is the island of Chiloe, which
U inhabited. Some of the smaller islands of these groups are also in-
habited, though the excessive rainfall of these latitudes and the
violent westerly storms render them highly unfavourable for human
occupation. Some of the smallest islands arc barren rocks, but the J
majority of them are covered with forests. These archipelagoes arc
separated from the mainland in the north by the gulfs of Chacao
(or Ancud) and Corcovado, 30 to 35 m. wide, which appear to be a
submerged part of the great ccntrafvalley of Chile, and farther south
by the narrower Moraleda channel, which terminates southward
in a confusing network of passages between the mainland and the,
islands of the Chonos group. One of the narrow parts of the Chilean
mainland is to be found opposite the upper islands of this group,
where the accidental juxtaposition of Mugdalena island, which in-
dents the continent over half a decree at this point, and the basin
of Lake Fontana, which gives the Argentine boundary a sharp'
wedge-soaped projection, westward, narrows the distance bti^i
the two to- about 30 m. "the T Avian peninsula, incorrectly call
the Tres Montea on some maps* i* * westward projection of t
mainland, with which it it connected by the narrow isthmus of Ofq
over which the: natives and early missionaries were accustomed
carry their boats between the Moralcda Channel and Gulf of tVrfu
A short ship canal here would give an uninterrupted and protect
insjde passage from Chacao Channel all the way to the Strait*
Magellan, a distance of over 7O0 iu. A southern incurving pi
lection of the outer shore-line of this peninsula is known as Tj
Monies peninsula, the most southern point of which is a cape of t
same name- Below the Taytao peninsula is the broad open C
of Fer1i.ii. which carries the coast 'line eastward futly 100 m. arid
noticeably free from islands- The northern entrance to Mess
Channel 11 through this gulf* Messier, Pitt, Sarmicnto and Sinyt'
Channels, which form a comparatively safe and remarkably picli
esquc inside route for small steamers, about 338 m, in itng;
separate another series of arch ipefa cow from the mainland. Tin
channel i are in places narrow and tort uou*. Among the i*lar
which thickly fringe this part of the coast, the largest are Aiorxir
(I vine; within Baker Inlet), Prince Henry, Cam porta. Lit
Wellington, Great Wellington and Mornington foF the Welling!
archifjelago), Mod re de Dios, Duke of York, Chatham, Hanov
Cambridge, Contrtras, Rennell and the Queen Adelaide group
small barren rocks and islands lying immediately north of I
Pacific entrance to the Straits of Magellan* The large number
tln^libh names on this coast i* due to the fact that the earli
detailed survey of this region was made by English naval office
the charts prepared from their surveys arc still in use and form I
basis of all subsequent maps. None of theve islands is inhabit
J though some of (hern arc of Urge sitt. the Largest (Great Wellii
ton) l»ting about loom. long, ft hat likewise been determined, til
the boundary dispute with Argentina called attention to these t
ri tunes and let I to their careful ettploraljon at the points in dispu
that Skyring Water, in Int. 5J* S. h opens westward into the C
of Xaultcgua, which Lransfof m* Ponsonby I -and and Cordoba
Croker) peninsula into an island, 10 which the name of Hiesco I
hr en g i vc n . T he c^ Ulenw ol such a eha n nel was considered prob*
when these inlind waters were first explored in itfjo by Capt;
Fit* Roy. but it was not discovered and surveyed unit I three 'quart
of a century had elapsed. Belonging to the Fuegian group tot
of the Sir j its of Magellan are Desolation, Santa Inc-s, Claren
Dawson, Londonderry, Hoste, Navarin and Wo] last on island s r w
innumerable smaller islands and rocks fringing their shores a
filling the channels between them, Admirable descriptions of 1
inhospitable region, the farthest south of the inhabited parts
the globe, may be found in the Narraiipe ff the Survey i*£ TVjw
0/ Hit Majcityi Skips "Afeeniuri" and M JBea^Te" Ixf&etrt tktye
1826 and iSjO (i vols-, igjg).
The western and larger part of Tierra del Fuego (e.v.) belongs
Chile. About 63 m. S.W. of Cape Horn, in lat. 50* 7$* 5«, is
Diego Rami re* group of small, rocky islands, the most south'
possession of the republic, Its westernmost possesions are Sab
Gomez and Piaster islands, the former in about 2j" S., 105" W M *
the latter, the easternmost inhabited Polynesian island, in 77* 6*
109* 17' W. Much nearer the Chilean coast (306 m.), lying betwi
the tjrd and 34th parallels, are the three islands of the Juan F
nancfec group* and rising apparently from the same submen
plateau about 500 m, farther north of the latter are the rocky isl
of San Amhrosio and San Felix, all belonging to Chile. North
Chiloe there are few islands in close proximity to the coast- 1
more imijoriant of the-* arc La Mocha, off the southern coast
Arauco, m lat. j,8° *o' S-, which is 8 m. long and rises to art elevat
of taao ft. above the sea; Santa Maria, jq m, south-west of C
cepciom which partially encloses the Bay of Araueo and is 1
cultivated; and Quinquina, lying oil the port of Talcahuano in
entrance to Conccpdcm bay. There are a few barren Lttands on
desert coast, the largest of which art bet ween Coquimbo and Cold*
Since the removal of their guana deposits they have become pra
cally Worthless, except where they serve to shelter anchorages.
The coast of northern and central Chile is singularly deficient
good harbour^ Those of the desert region are only slight bid
ta lions irt a remarkably uniform coast- hnc, sheltered on
one side by a point of land, or small island. The landings:
are generally dangerous because of the surf, and the anchorages
unsafe from storms on the unproneiud side. Among the m
frequented of these are Valparaiso, Coqupubo, Caldera, Iquique ;
Arica. There are some small harLwurs for coasting veaseU of ti :
draught along the coast of central Chile, usually nt the parti;
obstruaed mouths ol the larger rivers, as San Antonio near
mouth of the Muip6„ Const it ucion at the mouth of the Manic, i
Llico oft the outlet n{ Lake Vichuquen, but there is no harboui
importance until Concepcion (or Talcahuano) Bay is reach
There are ihrce harbours on this bay t E5 Tome, Penan and Tal
buano (q.v,), the Ust being the largest and best -protected poet
the inhabited parr of the Chilean roast. Immediately sooth of 1
bay is the large Bay erf Araueo, into which the Bio-Bi^ rivtr i
charges, and on which # sheltered by the island of Sama Maria,
the twrti of Coronel and Lota- The rte*t important hirhour ii t
of El Corral, at the mouth of the Valdivia rivet axtd \^ta.. \*
1+4-
tlit city of Vntrfivia. The Bay of San Carlo* tin the northern toast
of Chiloe, which opens upon t he narrow Charao channel, has the port
of Ancud, or San Carlos, and is rated an excellent harbour for
vessels tif light and medium draught. Inside the island of Chiloe
the large gulfs of Chacao tor Ancud} and Corcovado are well pro-
tected from the- severe westerly storrrts of these latitudes, but they
ire Little used because the approach through the Chacao channel its
tortuous and only 2 to 3 m, vide, and the two gulfs, though over 30 m.
wide and I So in. long, arc beset with small rocky island?. At the
north end of the first 1* the Reloncavf, a large and nearly landlocked
bay t on which stand* Puerto Montt, the southern terminus or the
Chilean central railway. The large Gulf of Peftai, south of Taytao
peninsula, is open to the westerly storms of the Pacific, but it affords
entrance to several natural harbours. Among these aie the Gulfs
or Trcs Montes and San Est e van. and Tarn Bay at the entrance to
M easier Channel. The next 300 m. of the Chilean coast contain
numerous frays and inlet * affording safe harbours* but the mainland
■ nd islands are uninhabited and the climate inhospitable. Behind
Rti i,. M N.md 1-1 la( v- S„ however, ii a succession of navigable
estuaries which penetrate inland nearly t-j the Argentine front icr.
The central part of this group of estuaries is called Worsley Sound,
and the last and farthest inland of k* arms is Last Hope Inlet
(I'Ttlma Esperanzah on which is situated the Chilean agricultural
colony u f V urrt o Consuelo. T he St ra i t s of Micella n , a bo ut 300 m. in
teneth\ lie wholly within Chilean territory* Midway of them is situ-
ated Punta Arenas, the most southern lown and port of the republic.
w Except in the extreme south thc^ hydrography of Chile is of the
simplest description* all the larger rivers having their sources in the
jBt—* Andes and flowing westward to the Pacific. Their courses
are necessarily short, and only a few have navigable
channels, the aggregate length of which is only 705 m. Nearly all
rivers in th* rlesert region are lost In the sands long before reaching
the coa.it, Their waterier channel* are interesting, howovtf , as evi-
dence of a time when r iimamldgicAt condition* on this coast were
different. The principal rivers ofthU region an? 5a ma (which forms
the provisional boundary line with Peru). Tarrta, Camarones, Loa,
Cepiapd* Hua*ro. Elqui, Limari and Choapa. The Loa h the
lafgrii, ha vine its sources on the slope* of the Cofdillera fcouth of
the Minho volcano, between si* and J*° Jo' S. lat., and flowing
south an an elevated plateau to CMuchlu, and thence west and
north in a grrat curve to Quillaga, whence in dry channel turns
westward again and readies (he F'acihc in Lat. Ji* aS r S., a few miles
south of the small port uf HuaniHo^ ft* total length is estimated at
350m. The u pper courses of the ri ver a re a t a con %idera hi* cle vat ion
above the sea and receive a large volume of water from the Cor-
dilleras. The water of it* upper course and tributaries it sweet,
and is conducted across the desert in pipes to some of the coast towns,
but in its lower course, as in all the rivers of this region, it becomes
brackish. The Copiap6, which once discharged into the sea, is now
practically exhausted in irrigating a small fertile valley in which
stands the city of that name. The Copiapo and Huasco have com-
paratively short courses, but they receive a considerable volume of
water from the higher sierras. The latter is also used to irrigate a
•mall, cultivated valley. The rivers of the province of Coquimbo —
the Elqui or Coquimbo, Limari and Choapa — exist under less arid
conditions, and like those of the province of Aconcagua — the Ligua
and Aconcagua — are used to irrigate a much larger area of culti-
vated territory. The central agricultural provinces are traversed by
several important rivers, all ofthem rising on the western slopes of
the snow-clad Andes and breaking through the lower coast range
to the Pacific after being extensively used to irrigate the great
central valley of Chile. These are the Maipo (Maypo or Maipu),
Rapel. Mataquito, Maulc, Itata, Bio-Bio, Imperial, Token, Valdivia
or Callc-Calle, Bueno and Maullin. With the exception of the first
three, these rivers have short navigable channels, but they are open
only to vessels of light draught because of sand-bars at their mouths.
The largest is the Bio-Bio, which has a total length of 220 m., 100 of
which are navigable. These rivers have been of great service in the
agricultural development of this part of Chile, affording means of
transportation where railways and highways were entirely lacking.
Some of the larger tributaries of these rivers, whose economic value
has been equally great, are the Mapocho, which flows through
Santiago and enters the Maipo from the north; the turbulent
Cachapoal, which joins the Rapel from the north; the Claro, which
waters an extensive part of the province of Talca and enters the
Maule from the north: the Ruble, which rises in the higher Andes
north of the peak* of Chilian and flows entirely across the province
of Nublc to join the Itata on its western frontier; the Laja, which
rises in a lake of the same name near the Argentine frontier in about
J»t. 35° 30' S. and flows almost due west to the Bio-Bio; and the
Cautin, which rises in the north-cast corner of Cautin and after a
tortuous course westward nearly across that province forms the
principal confluent of the Imperial. The unsettled southern regions
of Chiloe (mainland) and Magallancs are traversed by a number of
important rivers which have been only partially explored. They
have their sources in the Andes, some of them on the eastern side
of the line of highest summits. The Puelo has its origin in a lake of
the same name in Argentine territory, and flows north-west through
the Cordilleras into an estuary (Rcloncuvi Inlet) of the Gulf of
Keloncavi at the northern end of the Gulf of Chacao. Its lower
CHILE (GEOGRAPHY
course* b impeded in tuch a manner as to form three small lake*,
railed Superior, Inferior and TagiiatSgdft, A large northern tribu-
tary of the Puclo, the M,in», ha* it* sources in Lake Mascardi and
other lakes and streams south-east of the Ccrm Tronador, also in
Arecntina, and flows south-west through the Cordillera* to unite
with the Puelo a Jew miles west of the ?Jnd meridian. The Rclon*
cavi Inlet also receive! the outflow of Lake Totjn* los Santos through
a short tortuous stream called the Fctrdhue, The Comau Inlet and
river form the boundary line between the provinces of Llano, mhue
and Chiloe, and traverse a densely wooded country in a north-
westerly direction from the Andes to the north-eastern shore of the
Gulf of Chacao. Continuing southward, the Vekho is the neat
important river to traverse this res ion. It drains a large area of
A rgeut ine temt ocy , w here i t is ca lied the Rio Fetale u J u or Fclalauquen,
its principal source being a large lake of the same name. It Hows
south-west through the Andes, and then north-wctt through Lake
Yelcho to the Guff of Corcovado. The Argentine colony of the 1 6th
of October, settled principally by Welshmen From Chubut, is located
on some of the upper tributaries of this river, in about lat* 43 ° S-
The Palcna is another river of the same character, having k* source
in a large frontier lake called General Pat and (lowing for wine
distance through Argentine territory before crossing, unto Chile,
ft receives one large tributary from the south, the Rio Pico* and
enters an estuary of the Gulf of Corcovado a little north of the 44th
parallel. The Frias is wholly a Chilean river, draining an extensive
Andean region between the 4.4th and 45th para If els and discharging
into the Puyu^uapl channel, which separates Magdalcna inland
from the mainland, The Ai*cn also has its source in Argentine
territory near the 461 h parallel, and drains a mountainous region a*
far north a* the 45th parallel, receiving numerous tributaries, and
discharging a large volume of water into the Moraleda channel in
about lat. 45° +0 S, The lower course of this river is essentially an
inlet, and is navigable for a short distance. The neat large river if
the Las Unas, or Baker, through which the waters of Lakes Buenos
Aires and Pucyrrcdon* or Cochrane, find their way to the Pacific*
Both of these large lakes nre crossed by the boundary 'inc. The
Las H eras discharges into Martinez. Inlet, the northern part of a large
Ufiiajy called Baker or Calcn inlet which penet rales the mainland
about 75 m. and opens into Tarn Bay at the south-cast corner of the
Gulf of renas. Aiopardo (or Merino Jarpa) island lie* wholly within
this great estuary, while at its mouth lies a group of smaller islands,
called Baker Islands, which separate it frotn Mcs&irr Channel. The
course of the Las Heras from Lake Buenos Aire* is south and south-
west, the short range of mountains in which art found the Cerros
San Valentin and Arenales forcing it southward for an outlet.
Baker Inlet also receives the waters of still another large Argentine-
Chilean lake, San Martin, whose far-reaching fjord -I ike arms extend
from lat. 49' 10' to 48* sr/ S*; its north-wcit arm drain* into the
Toro, of La Pascua, nver. Lake San Martin lies in a crooked deeply
cut passage through the Andes, und the divide between its southern
extremity f Laguna Tar) and Lake Vied ma, which discharge* through
the Santa CruE river into the Atlantic, is so flight as to warrant the
hypothesis that this wet* once a strait bet wet n the two ocean*.
After a short north-westerly course the Torn discharges into Baker
Inlet in bt. 48* ij* 5,, long. 73' 24* W, South of the Toro there are
no Urge river* on this coast, but the narrow fjords penetrate deeply
into the mountain* and bring a way the drainage of their snow-capped,
storm-swept elevations. A peculiar network of f|ordiand connecting
channel* terminaTing inland in a peculiarly &har*»d body nf water
with long, widely branching arms, called Worsley Sound. tJbstrueltofi
Sound and Last Hnpe InleL cover* on rxtenihve urea between the
5 tit and 5jrd parallels, and est ends nearly to the Argentine frontier."
It has the characteristic * nf a tidewater river and drain* an extensive
region. The sources of the Argentine river Code are to be found
among' the lakes and *lrcajna nf this same region, within Chilean
territory. A noteworthy peculiarity of southern Chile, from (he
Taytao peninsula (about 46" 50' 5. fat.) to Tierra del Fucgo, is the
large number of glaciers formed on the western and southern slopes
of the Cordilleras and other high elevations, which discharge direct
into these deeply cut estuaries. Some of the larger lakes of the
Andes have glaciers discharging into them. The formation of these
Icy streams at comparatively low levels, with their discharge direct
into tidewater estuaries, is a phenomenon not to be found elsewhere
in the same latitudes.
The lakes of Chile are numerous and important, but they are
found chiefly in the southern half of the republic In the north the
only lakes are large lagoons, or morasses, on the upper f-s*.
saline plateaus between the 23rd and 28th parallels. *■**»*
They are fed from the melting snows and periodical storms of the
higher Andes, and most of them are completely dry port of the year.
Their waters are saturated with saline compounds, which in wme
cases have considerable commercial value. In central Chile above
the Bio-Bio river the lakes are 6tnall and have no special geographical
interest, with the exception perhaps of the Laguna del Maule. in
36' 7' S., and Laguna de la Laja, in 37 20' .which lie in the Andes
near the Argentine frontier and are sources of the two rivers of the
same names. Below the Bio- Bio river there is a line of large pictur-
esque lakes extending from the province of Cautin, south through
that of Llanquihue, corresponding in character and position to the
dry lacustrine depressions extending northward in the same valley.
GEOLOGY: CLIMATE] CHILE
They lie on the eastern side near the Cordilleras, and serve the
purpose of great reservoirs for the excessive precipitation of rain
and snow on their western slopes. With one exception they all drain
westward into the Pacific through short and partly navigable rivers,
and some of the lakes are also utilized for steamship navigation.
These lakes are VUTarica on the southern frontier of Cautin, Kinihue
and Ranco in Valdivia, and I'uyehue, Rupanco, Llanquihuc and
Todos los Santos in Llanquihuc. The largest of the number are Lakes
Ranco and Llanquihue, the former with an estimated area of 200
sq. m. and the latter of 300 so. m. Lake Todos los Santos is situated
well within the Andean foothills north-east of Puerto Montt and at an
elevation of 509 ft., considerably above that of the other lakes,
Lake Ranco being 230 ft. above sea-level. The great Andean lakes of
General Paz (near the 44th parallel), Buenos Aires (in lat. 46* 30' S.),
Pucyrredon, or Cochrane (47* 15' S.) and San Martin (49* S.), lie
Krtly within Chilean territory. In the extreme south are Lagoa
anca. a large fresh-water lake in lat. 52* 30' S., and two large
Inland salt-water sounds, or lagoons, called Otway Water and
Skyring Water, connected by FitzRoy Passage.
Utcloty. — Chile may be divided longitudinally into two regions
which differ from each other in their geological structure. Along
the coast lies a belt of granite and schist overlaid unconformably
by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits; inland the mountains are
formed chiefly of folded Mesozoic beds, together with volcanic rocks
of later date. The great longitudinal valley of Chile runs approxi-
mately, but only approximately, along the boundary between the
two zones. Towards the north the coastal zone disappears beneath
the va and the Andean rone reaches to the shore. The t orient
rocks which form the most characteristic feature of the former do
indeed occur upon the coast of Peru, hut in the north of Chile th»y
are found on! y in isolated masses standing close to t he *h one or* as a t
Meii Hones,, projecting into the s*a. South of Antofagtota the oM
'45
rocks form m nearly continuous hand along file toaat H extending as
far as Cape Horn and but en Island, and occupying the greater part
of the iriands of southern Chile. Uthuloficfilty they are crystalline
schists, together with granite, dioritc, gabbro and other igneous rocks.
They are known to be pre -Jurassic but whether they are Pafauojoic
or Archaean i* uncertain. They are strongly folded and are overlaid
unconformably by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. In the nnrth
both the OctaccHjft and Tertiary beds nf this tone are limited in
evtcnin bol toward? the south Mesosoicbi-d*, which are at least in part
Ctrtaceoui. form a band uf considerable width. The Tertiary beds
inrtude both murine and terrestrial deposits, and appear to be chiefly
c£ Miocene and Pliocene age. The whole of the north part of Twrra
elel Fuego ii occupied by plateaus of horizontal Tertiary utrata.
The Chilean Arsdr* correspond with the Western Corditjera of
Bolivia and Peru, and consist almost entirely ofjurassic and Cfc-
taerou? bed* h together with the products cf the Tertiary eruptions.
The Mewioic beds are thrown into a series of para I Tel folds which ron
in the direction of the chain and which are generally free from any
complications such as owrthrusting or overfoMing. The Cretaceous
beds form a synclinal upon the eastern ajdr of the chain (and, tn
I, beyond the Chilean boundary ), white the Jurassic beds are
1 into 1 number of folds which form the aii* and the western
flank. Through the Mesozoic beds are intruded granitic and other
Igneous rocks of Tertiary age, and upon the folded Mesoioic founda-
tion rise the volcanic cones of Tertiary and later dat^ The Trias
Is known only at La TernL-ra near ConiapHi, where coal-seam&iwith
Khaetic plants have been found ; but the rest of the Mesnfok* series.
from (be Lias to the Upper Cretaceous, appears to be represented
without a break of more than local importance. The deposits are
marine, consisting mainfy of sandstone and limestone , together with
tuff* and conglomerate* of porphyry aod porphyTite, The* porphy-*
rftic rocks form a characteristic feature of the southern Andci,
and were it one time supposed to bo metamorphic; but they are
certainty volcanic, and a* they contain marine fossils they must have
been laid down beneath the sea. They are not confined to any one
horizon, but occur irregularly throughout the Jurassic and occasion-
ally also amongst the Cretaceous strata. They form, in fact, a special
factes which may frequently be traced laterally into the more normal
marine deposit of the same age. The fauna of the Mesozoic beds
is very rich, and includes forms which are found in northern Europe,
others which occur in central Europe, and others again which arc
characteristic of the Mediterranean region. It lends no support to
Neumavr's theory of climatic zones. A large part of the chain is
covered by the products of the great volcanoes which still form the
highest summits of the Chilean and Argentine Andes: The rocks are
liparites, dacites, hornblende and pyroxene andesites. lite recent
lavas of the still active volcanoes of the south are olivine-bearing
Iqrpersthene-andesite and basalt. 1
Climate. — The climate of Chile varies widely, from the tropical
1 See A. Plssis, " Sur la constitution geologique dc la chalne
<Sea Andes entre le 16" et le 5V degre dc latitude sud," Ann.
4u mines, ser. 7, vol. iii. (Mem.), 1873, PP- 402-426, pis. be., x.;
R. A. PhilippL Die Urti&rtn und quartiircn Venteinerun^en Chiles
(Leipzig, 1887), (includes also descriptions of some Cretaceous
fossils), and Los FSsiles sccondarios de Chile (Santiago, 1899); Karl
Borckhardt, " Profils geologiques transversaux de la Cordillere
Stratigrapbie et tectonique," Anales Mus,
heat and extreme arid conditions of the northern coast to the low
temperatures and extreme humidity of western Tierra del Fuego
and the southern coast. The high altitudes of the Andean region
also introduce vertical cones of temperature, modified to some extent
by the rainless plateaus of the north, and by the excessive rainfall
of the south. In general terms it may be said that the extremes of
temperature are not so great as in corresponding latitudes of the
northern hemisphere, because of the greater expanse of water in
comparison with the land areas, the summers being cooler and the
winters warmer. The cold antarctic, or Humboldt, current sweeps
northward along the coast and greatly modifies the heat of the and,
tropical plateaus. The climate of northern and central Chile is
firofoundly affected by the high mountain barrier on the eastern
rentier and by the broad treeless pampas of Argentina, which raise
the easterly moisture-laden winds from the Atlantic to so high an
elevation that they sweep across Chile without leaving a drop of
rain. At very rare intervals light rains fall in the desert regions
north of Coquimbo, but these arc brought by the prevailing coast
winds. With this exception these regions arc the most arid on the
face of the globe, highly heated by a tropical sun during the day
and chilled at night by the proximity of snow-covered heights and a
cold ocean current. Going south the temperature slowly falls and the
rainfall gradually increases, the year being divided into a short
rainy season and a long, dry, cloudless season. At Copiapo, in
27° 22' S., 1300 ft. above the sea, the mean annual temperature is
60* and the rainfall about 1 in., but at Coquimbo, in 29° 56' S., the
temperature is 592* and the rainfall 1 ) in. At Santiago, in 33° 27'
S-. 1755 ft. above the sea, the mean temperature is 54° and the
annual rainfall i6| in., though the latter varies considerably.
The number of rainy days in the year averages about 21. At Talca,
in 35° 36' S. and 334 ft. above sea-level, the mean annual temperature
is nearly one degree above that of Santiago, but the rainfall has
increased to 19-7 in. The long dry season of this region makes ir-
rigation necessary, and vegetation has something ofa subtropical
appearance, palms growing naturally as far south as 37* The
climate is healthy and agreeable, though the death-rate among the
common people is abnormally high on account of personal habits and
unsanitary surroundings. In southern Chile the climate undergoes
a radical change — the prevailing winds becoming westerly, causing a
long rainy season with a phenomenal rainfall. The plains as well
as the western slopes of the Andes are covered with forest, the riven
become torrents, and the sky is covered with heavy clouds a great
part of the year. At Valdivia, in 39° 49' S. and near the sea-level,
the mean annual temperature is 52-9° and the annual rainfall 108
to 115 in., with about 150 rainy days in the year. These meteoro-
logical conditions are still more accentuated at Ancud, at the north
end of the island of Chiloe, in 41 • 46' S., where the mean annual
temperature is 50*7° and the annual rainfall 134 in. The equable
character of the climate at this point is shown by the limited range
between its summer and winter temperatures, the mean for January
being 56-5° and the mean for July 45*9°. The almost continual
cloudiness is undoubtedly a principal cause, not only of the low
summer temperatures, but also of the comparatively high winter
temperatures. Fmtits are infrequent, and snow does not lie long.
The climate is considered to be healthful notwithstanding the
excessive humidity. The 600 ra. of coast from the Chonos Archi-
pclago south to the Fucgian islands have a climate closely approxi-
mating that of the litter. It is wet and stormy all the year through,
though the rainfall is much less than that of Ancud and Valdivia.
The fine of perpetual snow, which is 6000 ft. above sea-level between
laL 41* and 43°. descends to 3500 (to 4000) ft. in Tierra del Fuego,
affording another indication of the low maximum temperatures ruling
during the summer. At the extreme south, where Chilean territory
extends across to the Atlantic entrance to the Straits of Magellan,
a new climatic influence is encountered in the warm equatorial
current flowing down the cast coast of South America, which gives
to eastern Tierra del Fuego a higher temperature than that 01 the
western shore. The Andes, although much broken in these latitudes,
also exert a modifying influence on these eastern districts, sheltering
them from the cold westerly storms and giving them a drier climate.
This accounts for the surprising meteorological data obtained from
Punta Arenas, in 53° l& S., where the mean annual temperature is
43-2° and the annual rainfall only 22-5 in. Other observations reduce
this annual precipitation to less than 16 in. According to observations
made by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition (1001-1903), at Orange
Bay, Hoste Island, in lat. 55° 31' S., long. 68*05' W., which is more 1
exposed to the westerly storms, the mean temperature for 1 1 months
was 41-98° and tho total precipitation (rain and snow) 53*1 in.
The mean maximum temperature was 49*24*, and the mean minimum
35*83°. The observations showed 284 days with rain or snow, of
which 70 were with snow.
Flora." The indigenous flora of Chile is less extensive and lest
interesting than those of Argentina and Brazil, but contains many
peculiar genera and species. A classification of th is flora necessitates
La Plata, 1900, and " Beit rage zur Kenntnis dcr Jura- und Kreide-
formation dcr Cordiflcre," Palaeontographica, vol. I. (1903-1904),
pp. 1-144. P-** i*~ xv «*t &cc also a series of papers on South American
ology by G. Steinmann and his collaborators in Ntmx J«kih«^te
in. Beil.-band viii. et acq.
146
CHILE
(FLORA AND FAUNA
ft 4 division into at least three general Jones — the desert provinces
of the north + central Chile, and the humid region*, of the south.
Tile nf>t is oil Arid desert absolutely barren along part of the roast,
between Tacna and Copiapo, but with a coarse scanty vegetation
Hear the Cordilleras along watercourses and on the sfripcs where
moisture from the melting, snows above percolates through the sand.
In the valleys of the Copiapoand Huasco rivers a meagre vegetation
is to be found near their channel*, apart from what is produced by
irrigation* but the surface of the plateau and the dry river channels
below the sierras are completely barren. Continuing southward
j n to t he prov incc of Coq u i mbo a grad ual cha ngc in the arid condi t ions
may be observed. The higher summits of the Cordillera* afford a
larger and more continuous supply of water, and so dependent ^n
the people in the cultivated river valleys on this source of water
supply that they watch for snowstorms in the Cordilleras as an
induction of what the coming reason is to be. The arborescent
growth near the mountains U larger and more vigorous in whkh are
to be found the " atgarrobo " {Prosopii siliquastrvttt) and " chaJiaj "
{Goxrlica ,h i!c»jii). but the only shrub to be found on the coast is a
species of Skytattlkus. Near the sierras where irrigation is possible*
fruit-growing is so successful, especially the grape and fig, that the
product is considered the best in Chile. In regard to the indigenous
flora of this region John Halt 1 says: "The species which grow here
are the more or less modified representatives of plants whkh at
some former period existed under very different conditions of life,"
Proceeding southward cacti become common, first a dwarfed species,
and then a larger columnar form (Grrrur cuiira). The streams art:
fringed with willows; fruit trees and alfalfa fields fill the Irrigated
valleys, and the tower mountain slopes arc better covered with a
thorny arborescent growth. The divides between the streams,
however, continue barren as far south as the transverse ranges of
mountains across the province of Aconcagua.
To some degree the flora of central Chile is of a transition character
between the northern and southern semes, Jt is much more than
this , however, for it hasa large number of genera and species peculiarly
it 9 own. A large majority of the tog genera peculiar to the South
American temperate regions belong exclusively to central Chile,
This rone extends from about the joth to the 36th parallel, per haps
a tittle farther south to include some characteristic types. The
evergreens largely predominate here as well as in the extreme south,
and on the open, sunburnt plains the vegetation takes on a sub-
tropical aspect. One of the most characteristic trees of this eono is
the peumo {Cryptwatya pcumui), whose dense evergreen foliage is
everywhere conspku ou s. The qvittay {QuiUaja sapanaria) is another
characteristic evergreen tree of this region h whose bark possesses
saponaceous properties In earlier times the coqulto palm {Jub&ra
fpcctabilit) was to be found throughout this part of Chile, but it ha*
been almost completely destroyed for its saccharine tap, from which
a treacle was made. One of the most striking forest trees is the
prhuen or Chilean pine (Arauiarui. imbricate)* which often grows
to a height of 100 ft. and is prired by the native* for it A fruit. Three
indigenous species of the beech — the rohle {Fi}£U5 ebli^va) t coykue
[F. Dvmbryi), and rauii [E prArrra)— are widely diffused and highly
prized for their wood, especially the hrst, which is misleading ly called
rvbte (oak). Most of the woods used in construction and manu-
factures art found between the Bio- Bio river and the Taytao
peninsula, among which arc the ttftrcs iFitxr&ya paLagoitica), aprts
or Chiloe cypress (Libottdrus tttra£<ma), the Chilean cypress (L.
Ckilt7uis) t hngxt {Per tea iingw£} T laurel (Lomtuj: Q.r&matiiti'i, uvclhno
{Guevina avttland). luma {Myrtui turn*), (Spine (Acacia cavenia) and
many others. Several exotic species have been introduced into this
part of t hile, some of which have thriven even better than in their
native habitats. Among these are the oak, elm, beech £r~. iyhxitica),
walnut, chestnut, poplar, willow and eucalyptus. Through the
central sane the plains are open and there are forests on the mountain
■lopes, hut in the southern zone there are no plains, with the excep-
tion of small areas near the Straits or Magellan, and the forests are
universal, f n the variety, size and density of their growth these
forests remind one of the tropics. They are made up, in great part,
oJ the evergreen beech (Faem hctttloidt*\ t the deciduous antarctic
beech (F, awtarclica},* and Winter' a bark (Drimyi Wintcri), inter-
mingled with a den.Ht- undergrowth composed of a great variety of
shrubs and plants, among which are Maytrnns mti&tilarticffi Arbutus
tigida, Mvrttts memmofariti, two or three species of BrrfieriJ* wild
currant {Aifas antarttiia). a trailing blackberry, tree ferns, reed-like
grasses and^ innumerable parasites. On the eastern side of I he
Cordillera, in J he extreme south, the climate is drier and open,
and grassy plains are found, but on the western side the dripping
forests extend from an altitude of tooo to 1500 ft. down to the level
of 1 he sea, A peculiar vegetable product of this inclement region
15 a small globular fungus growing on the hark of the twecn, which
It a staple article ol food am^ng the Fuegians — probably the only
instance where a fungus is the bread of a people.
ft is generally conceded that the potato originated in southern
Chile, as it is found growing wild in Chiloe and neighbouring islands
and on the adjacent mainland. The strawberry is also indigenous
to these latitudes on both sides of the Andes, and Chile is credited
' rvon-j of a PtaturaJill in Soulh America, p, 134.
* Ai« classified as Nothnfagit* (MirbJ.
with a species from which the cultivated strawberry derive* some of
its best qualities. M.u;e and quinoa (Chtnopodium qutnoa) were
known in Chile before the arrival of European*, but it is not
certain that they are indigenous. Species of the bean and pepper
plant are also indigenous, and the former is said to have been
cultivated by the natives. j Among the many economic plants
which have been introduced into Chile and have become important
additions to her resources, the more prominent are wheat, barley,
hem p a nd alfalfa {Mcdica^a lattva ) , together wi th the sta pie E uropean
fruits, such as the appk H pear h peach, nectarine, grape, fig, olive
and orange, The date-palm has also been introduced into the
southern province* of the desert region* Among the marine pro-
duct ions <sti the southern coast, a species of kelp, AfuCTocyitis pyrijera,
merits special mention because of its extraordinary length, its habit
of clinging to the rocks in strong currents and turbulent teas, and
i t » bei ng a shelte r for inn u met able species of marine a ni mals. Captain
Fitr.Roy found it growing from a depth of j^o ft.
Fauna. — The fauna of Chile is contiJaratively poor, both in species
and individuals, A great part of the northern deserts is as barren
of animal life as of vegetation, and the den*: hutnid forests of the
south shelter surprisingly few species. There are no large mammals
in all this extensive region except the Cetacca and a species of the
Pkwidat of southern waters. Neither are there any dangerous
species of Carnivora, which are represented by the timid puma
{Ffiis ranrolor), three species of wildcats, three of the fox, two of
Cvnepatui, a weasel, sea -otter and six species of seal. The rodents
are the most numerously represented order, which includes the coyyu
or nutria (Alyapoiamju vaypui}, the chinchilla {CkincJtiiia laniger),
the tuco'tuco {Citnomys brasilitnsii} t a rabbit, and x? species of
mice — in all some ta genera and J 5 species. The coypu, sometimes
called the South American beaver, inhabits the river-banks, and is
highly prized for its fur. Jt is also found along the river-courses
of Argen tina. The rumi nan ts are represcn led by a few species only —
the guanaco (Amhcitiii hti&nato}, v it una (A* I'tiuitta). hitfmul (Cervus
chiltHiii}, which appears on the Chilean cscutcneon, and! tIk pudu
deer, a scnall and not very numerou* species. There are two species
of the Edentata, D^ypus and Pfcfcfoajfk the latter very rare, and
one of the opossums, European animals, such as horses, cattle,
sheep, swine and gloats, have been introduced into the country and
do well- Sheep-raising has also been inaugurated with some degree
of success in the vicintty of the Straits of Magellan. The avifauna,
with the exception of waterfowl, in also limited to comparatively
few species. Birds of prey arc represented by the condor, vulture,
two species of the carrion- hawk [Palybf>n*i) r and owL The Chilean
slopes of the Andes appear to be a favourite haunt of the condor,
where neighbouring stock-raiscra suffer severe losses at times from
its attacks. The tnwa&tts arc represented by a number of species.
Parrots are found as far couth as Ticrra del Fuego, where Darwin
saw them feeding on seeds of the Winter's bark. Humming-birds
have a similar range on this coast, one species iMdlim$a Kingti)
being quite nu merous a s far south as Tierra del Fuego. A character-
istic genus is that of Ftewpliwhust of which there are three or four
species each characterised by some conspicuous peculiarity. These
are P. mfgapfdiuj. called EJ Tutce by the natives, which is noticeable
for^ its ungainly appearance and awkward gait; the P„ albic^lis,
which inhabits barren hi II sides and is called tapaccUo from Lhe manner
of e^rrying its tail turned far forward over its back; the P, rubecula,
of Chiloe, a small timid denizen of the gloomy forest, called the
chateau, or cAwa, whose two or three notes are believed by the
superstitious natives to be auguries of impending inco: •• ' isaster;
and an allied species {ffrlaeUa Tamii* King) calf ted the giiUlfuid or
barking bird, whose ay fs a close imitation of the yelp of a snail dog.
The southern coast and its inland waters are frequented by several
species of petrel, among which are the Frozrifaria. xt^'intcx, whose
strength and rapacity led the Spaniards to call it ohebranta fatsos
(bceakbonesK the Fujftnits tincreus, which inhabits the inland
channels in Large flocks, and an allied species (Ftt^nnria B.+rardiiy
which inhabits the inland sounds and resembles the auk in some
particulars of habit and appearance. There are numerous species
in these sheltered channels, inlets and sounds of geese* ducks, swans,
cormorants, ibises.^ bitterns, red- beaks, curie w> snipe, plover and
[U'.Mirhcn*. t,'>Ti-.|jicu:0U* among ih. v .ir.,- the greal white swan
(Cytntu anateidfi}, the black-necked swan (A nier nigrhaXts), the
antarctic koosc (Ahoj antarctica) and the " race~horse ' or " steamer
duck ** (Mitrtpkrus bnuhypterttt).
The marine fauna is less known than the others, but it is rich in
species and highly interesting in it* varied forms and characteristics.
The northern coast has no sheltered waters of any considerable
extent, and the shore Elopes abruptly to a great depth, which gives
k a marine life of no special importance. In the shoal " ' ■ 1 about
Juan Fernandez are found a species of codfish (pos&ibly Cadtis
■Mdcrvcephalus), differing in some particulars from the Newfoundland
cod, and a large crayfish, both of which are caught for the Valparaiso
market. The sheltered waters of the broken southern coast, however,
arc rich in fi*h and molluscs, especially in mussels, limpets and
barnacles 1 which arc the principal food resource of the r. >madic
Indian tribes of thou? regions. A large species of barnacle, Halanus
paitaxui, is found in great abundance frnrn Conception to Puerto
Montt, and is not only eaten by the natives, by whom it 11 called
£*T5, but is also esteemed a great delicacy in the markets oi Valparaiso
POPULATION!
CHILE
H7
inJ Santiago, Oy st eric J cacv Ik nt flji'otir arc found in the sheltered
• 4tcrm of Chilot, The Cetacja T winch frequent these southern
«*ter*, are represented by four ipcde*— two dolphins and the sperm
and rigJiE whate— aad the Phtttda* by iu species, one of which
iPk&a tufina) differs but lit tit from the comiooa teal. Another
if n rttm {MacwkimM* Uo*i*Hih popularly known at the tea-elephant,
u provided with abort tusks and a short trunk and sometime* crows
to a length of 20 ft. Still another specie*, the sea-lion (Otariajubata),
furnishes the natives of Titrra del Fui-go with an acceptable article
of food, but like the Fhxa lupina it ia oecoraing scarce.
Ot Rcptilia Chile is sinpularly free, there being recorded only eleven
iTAtie*— five saurian*, four ophidians, one frog and one toad 7 —
but a more thorough survey of the uninhabited territories of the
touch may increase thia list. There are no alligators in the streams*
and the tr opical north has very few lixanJi, There are no poisonous
snakes in the country, and, in a region so filled with lakes and rivers
as the rainy south, only two species of batrachians. The insect life
of these strangely associated regions is likewise greatly restricted by
advene climatic conditions, a considerable part of the northern •
desert being absolutely barren of animal and vegetable life, while the
climate of Tierra del Fuego and the southern coast is highly unfavour-
able to terrestrial animal life, for which reason comparatively few
species are to be found. Writing of a journey inland from Iquique,
Charles Darwin says {Journal of Researches, &c, p. 444) : " Excepting
the Vultmr aura, ... I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor ■
iased." Of hb entomological collection in Tierra del Fuego, which
was not large, the majority were of Alpine species. Moreover, he
did not find a single species common to that island and Patagonia.
These conditions subsist with but few modifications, if any, from the
Straits northward to the 42nd parallel, the extreme humidity,
abnormal rainfall and dark skies being unfavourable to the develop-
ment of insect life, while the Andes interpose an impassable barrier
to migration from the countries of the eastern coast. The only
venomous species to be found in central Chile is that of a spider
which frequents the wheat fields in harvest time.
Population.— The population of Chile is largely concentrated
in the twelve agricultural provinces between and including
Coquimbo and Concepci6n, though the next six provinces to the
south, of more recent general settlement, have received some
foreign immigrants, and are rapidly growing. In the desert
provinces the population is limited to the mining communities,
and to the ports and supply stations maintained for their support
and for the transport, smelting and export of their produce.
The province of Atacama has, in addition to its mining popula-
tion, a considerable number of agriculturists located in a few
irrigated river valleys, which class is largely increased in the
adjoining province of Coquimbo. The more northern provinces,
however, maintain their populations without the Support of such
small cultivated areas. In the southern territories unfavourable
conditions of a widely different character prevail, and the
population is restricted to a few small settlements and some
nomadic tribes of Indians. Here, however, there are localities
where settlements could be maintained by ordinary means and
the population could be greatly increased. Since the census]
of 1895 the population of Punta Arenas has been largely increased
by the discovery of gold in the vicinity. The twelve provinces
first mentioned, which include the celebrated " Vale of Chile,"
comprise only 17% of the area of the republic, but the census
of 1895 showed that 72% of the total population was con-
centrated within their borders. The four desert provinces north
of Coquimbo had only 8% of the total, and the seven provinces
and one territory south of Concepci6n had 20%. According
to the census of 1895 the total population was 2.712,145, to
which the census officials added 10% to cover omissions. This
shows an increase slightly over 7% for the preceding decennial
period, the population having been returned as 2,527,320m 1885.
The census returns of 1875 and 1866 gave respectively 2,068,447
and 2,084,043, showing an actual decrease in 'population.
During these years Chile held the anomalous position of a country
spending large stuns annually to secure immigrants while at the
same time her own labouring classes were emigrating by
thousands to the neighbouring republics to improve their
condition. Writing in 1879, a correspondent of The Times 1
stated that this emigration then averaged 8000 a year, and in
bad times had reached as many as 30,000 in one year. The
condition of the Chilean labourer has been much improved since
then, however, and Chile no longer suffers so serious a loss of
1 A. Callenga. South America (London. 1880), p. 181.
population. In 1805, the foreigners included in the Chilean
population numbered 72,8x2, of which 42,105 were European,
29,687 American, and 1020 Asiatic, &c According to nation-
ality there were 8269 Spanish, 7809 French, 7587 Italian, 7049
German, 6241 British, 2570 Swiss, 2490 Austro-Hungarian,
13,695 Peruvian, 7531 Argentine, 6054 Bolivian, 701 American
(U.S.), 797 Chinese. According to residence, 1,471,792 were
inhabitants of rural districts, and 1,240,353 of towns. The
registration of births, marriages and deaths is compulsory since
the 1st of January 1885, but the provisions of the law are
frequently eluded. Notwithstanding the healthiness of the
climate, the death-rate is high, especially in the large cities.
In Santiago and Valparaiso the death-rate sometimes rises to
42 and 60 per 1000, and infant mortality is very high, being
73 % of the births in some of the provincial towns. This
unfavourable state of affairs is due to the poverty, ignorance
and insanitary habits of the lower classes. The government has
made repeated efforts to secure immigrants from Europe, but
the lands set apart for immigrant settlers are in the forested
provinces south of the Bio-Bio, where the labour and hardships
involved in establishing a home are great, and the protection
of the law against bandits and criminal assaults is weak. The
Germans have indeed settled in many parts of these southern
provinces since 1845, and by keeping together have succeeded
in building up several important towns and a large number of
prosperous agricultural communities. One German authority
(Httber) estimates the number of Germans in two of these pro-
vinces at 5000. The arrivals, however, have been on the whole
discouragingly small, the total for the years 1001-1005 being
only 14,00a
Although Chileans claim a comparatively small admixture
with the native races, it is estimated that the whites and Creoles
of white extraction do not exceed 30 to 40% of the population,
while the mestizos form fully 60%. This estimate is unquestion-
ably conservative, for there has been no large influx of European
blood to counterbalance the race mixtures of earlier times.
The estimated number of Indians living within the boundaries
of Chile is about 50,000, which presumably includes the nomadic
tribes of the Fuegian archipelago, whose number probably
does not reach 5000. The semi-independent Araucanians,
whose territory is slowly being occupied by the whites, are
concentrated in the eastern forests of Bio-Bio, Malleco and
Cautin, all that remains to them of the Araucania which they
so bravely and successfully defended for more than three
centuries. Their number does not much exceed 40,000, which
is being steadily reduced by drunkenness and epidemic diseases.
A small part of these Indians live in settled communities and
include some very successful stock-raisers, but the greater part
live apart from civilization. There are also some remnants of
tribes in the province of Chiloe, which inhabit the island of that
name, the Chonos and Guaytecas archipelagoes and the adjacent
mainland, who have the reputation of being good boatmen and
fishermen; and there are remnants of a people called Changos,
on the desert coast, and traces of Calchaqui blood in the
neighbouring Andean foothills.
There is a wide difference in every respect between the upper
or ruling class and the common people. The former includes
the landed proprietors, professional men and a part of those
engaged in commercial and industrial pursuits. These educated
classes form only a small minority of the population. Many of
them, especially the landed proprietors, are descendants of the
original Spanish settlers and are celebrated for their politeness
and hospitably. The political control of the republic was secured
to them by the constitution of 1833. The common people were
kept in ignorance and practically in a state of hopeless servitude.
They were allowed to occupy small leaseholds on the large estates
on condition of performing a certain amount of work for the
landlord. Every avenue toward the betterment of their con-
dition was practically closed. The condition of the itinerant
labourers {peons) was still worse, the wages paid them being
I hardly sufficient to keep them from starvation. The Chilean
I peon, however, comes from a hardy stock, and has borne all
INDUSTRY} CHILE
Uspallata past. A further Traniandine scheme provides for a line
through the Pino Hachado pass (38° 30' to 39° S.), and the Argentine
Great Southern Company obtained a concession in 1909 to extend its
Neuquen line to the frontier of Chile. The railways of the republic
had a total mileage at the end of 1906 of 2950 m., of which 1495 m.
were owned by the state, and 1455 m. belonged to private companies.
The private lines are located in the northern provinces and are for
the most part built and maintained for the transportation of raining
products and supplies.
In addition to her railway lines Chile has about 21,000 m. of public
roads of all descriptions, 135 m. of tramways, and 705 m. of navigable
river channels, besides a very considerable mileage of lake and coast
navigation. Telegraphic communication between all the important
towns of the republic, initiated in 1855 with a line between Santiago
and Valparaiso, is maintained by the state, which in 1903 owned
0306 m. of line in a total of 11,080 m. Cable communication with
Europe by way of Buenos Aires was opened in 1875. and b now
maintained by means of two underground cables across the Andes,
32 m. in length. A West Coast cable also connects with Europe and
North American states by way of Panama. There were 15,853 m.
of telephone wires in the republic in 1906, all the principal cities
having an admirable service. Modern postal facilities date from
1853. The Chilean post-office is administered by a director-general
at Santiago, and has a high degree of efficiency and liberality, com-
pared with those of other South American states. The postal rates
are low, and newspa|>crs and other periodical publications circulate
free, as a means of popular instruction. The postal revenues for
1904 amounted to 2,775.730 pesos and the expenditures to 2407,753
pesos. Chile is a member of the International Postal Union, and has
arrangements with the principal commercial nations for the exchange
of postal money values.
The sea has been the only means of communication with distant
parts of the country, and must continue to be the chief transporta-
tion route. There arc said to be 56 ports on the Chilean coast,
of which only 12 are prominent in foreign trade. Many of the so-
called ports are only landing-places on an open coast, others are on
shallow bays and obstructed river-mouths, and some are little-known
harbours among the channels and islands of the south. The pro-
sperity of Chile is intimately connected with her ocean-going trade,
and no elaborate system of national railway lines and domestic
manufactures can ever change this relationship. These conditions
should have developed a large merchant marine, but the Chileans
are not traders and are sailors only in a military sense. In 1905 their
ocean-going merchant marine consisted of only 148 vessels, of which
54 were steamers of 42,873 tons net, and 94 were sailing vessels of
39,346 tons. Nineteen of the 54 steamers belonged to a bubti.Ji/.tr.i
national line whose West Coast service once extended to San Fran-
cisco, California, and a large part of the otht-r* belonc* to a Lota
coal-mining and copper-smelting company which employs them in
carrying coal to the northern ports and bringing back metallic ores
for smelting. The navigable rivers and inland tokejempluya number
of small steamers. The foreign commerce of [he republic U carried
chiefly by foreien vessels, and the coasting trade 1= alio open to them.
Three or four foreign companies maintain a regular steamship ser-
vice to Valparaiso and other Chilean ports. The shipping entries
at all Chilean ports during the > year 1904. both optional and
Chilean.
Commerce. — In the aggregate, the commerce of Chile is large and
important; in proportion to population it is exceeded among South
American states only by Argentina, Uruguay and the Guianas.
Unlike those 6tates, it depends in great part on mining and its allied
occupations. The values of imports and exports (including bullion,
specie and re-exports) in peso* of i8d. during the five years 1901-
1905 were as follows
Imports.
Exports.
Year.
pesos.
pesos.
1901 .
. 139.300,766
171.844.976
1902 .
. 132,428,204
185.879.965
1903 .
. 149,081,524
210.442.144
232.493.598
1904 .
. 164.874.928
1905 . .
. 188,596,418
265,209.192
The principal imports comprise live animals, fish, coffee, mati
{flex faraguayensis), tea. sugar, wood and its manufactures, struc-
tural iron and steel, hardware and machinery, railway and telegraph
supplies, lime and cement, glass and earthenware, cotton, woollen
and silk manufactures, coal, petroleum, paints, &c. Import duties
are imposed at the rates of 60, 35, 15, 5 and 25%, and certain
classes of merchandise are admitted free. The higher rates are
designed chiefly to protect national industries, while wines, liquors,
cigars and tobacco are admitted at the lowest rate. The 25% rate
covers all articles not mentioned in the schedules, which number 2260
items. The duty free list includes raw cotton, certain descriptions
of live animals, agricultural machinery and implements, metal wire,
fire engines, structural iron and steel, and machinery in general.
The tariff is nominally ad valorem, but as the rates are imposed on
fisted official valuations it is essentially specific The duties on
"49
imports In 1905 amounted to 91,321,860 pesos, and in 1906 to
103,507,556 pesos. The principal exports are gold, silver, copper
(bars, regulus and ores), cobalt ana its ores, lead and its ores,
vanadium ores, manganese, coal, nitrate of soda, borate of lime,
iodine, sulphur, wheat and guano. Nitrate of soda forms from 70
to 75% of the exports, and the royalty received from it is the
principal source of national revenue, yielding about £4,000,000 per
annum. In 1904 mineral products made up fully seven-eighths of
the exports, while agricultural and pastoral products did not quite
reach one-eighth.
Agriculture. — According to the census returns about one-half the
population of Chile lives in rural districts, and is engaged nominally
in agricultural pursuits. What may be called central Chile it
singularly well adapted to agriculture. The northern part of this
region has a sub-tropical climate, light rainfall and a long, dry
summer, but with irrigation it produces a great variety of products.
Alfalfa, or lucerne (Medicago saliva), is grown extensively for ship-
ment to the mining towns of the desert provinces. There were no
less than 108,384 acres devoted to it in 1904, a considerable part of
which was in the irrigated river valleys of Coquimbo and Aconcagua.
Considerable attention is also given to fruit cultivation in these sub-
tropical provinces, where the orange, lemon, fig, melon, pineapple
ana banana are produced with much success. Some districts,
especially in Coquimbo, have gained a high reputation for the excel-
lence of their preserved fruits. The vine is cultivated all the way
from Atacama and Coquimbo, where excellent raisins are produced,
south to Concepci6n, where some of the best wines of Chile are
manufactured. In 1904 there were 93,370 acres devoted to grape
production in this region, the product for that year being 30. 184.70a
g lions of wine and 212,366 gallons of brandy. The universal
vcrage of the people — chicha— is made from Indian corn.
Although wheat is produced in the northern part of this region, it
is grown with greater success in the south, where the rainfall is
heavier and the average temperature is lower. There were 1 ,044,025
acres devoted to this cereal in 1903. which produced 17,910,614
bushels, or an average of 17 bushels (of 60 lb) to the acre. In 1904
the production was increased to 19.999.324 bushels, but in 1005 it
fell off to I5,77M77 bushels. At one time Chile supplied Argentina
and the entire West Coast as far north as California with wheat, but
Argentina and California have become wheat producers and ex-
porters, and Chile has been driven from all her old consuming
markets. Great Britain is now her best customer, and Brazil takes
a small quantity for milling mixtures. Chile has been badly handi-
capped by her crude methods of cultivation, but these arc passing
away ana modern methods arc taking their place. Formerly wheat
was grown chiefly in the region of long rainless summers, and the
ripened grain was thrown upon uncovered earth floors and threshed
by hordes driven about ever the straw, but this antiquated ; "ocess
was not suited to the climate and enterprise of the more m thorn
provinces T and the modern threshing-machine bat been introduced.
Barley is largely produced, chiefly for home consumption- Maize
(Indian corn) la grown in every part of Chile except the rainy south
where the grain cannot ripen, and is a principal article of food. The
green maux furni*hea two popular national difthes, dlocfos and
hvmiUjs, which are eaten by both rich and poor* Potatoes r>l-o are
widely cultivated, but the humid regions of the south, particularly
from valdivia to Chiln*\ produce the greatest quantity. The total
annual production exceeds three million bushels. The kidney bean
{Phtisffltui vulgaris) is another staple product in every part -if the
country, and is perhaps the most popular article of food fining all
cfcjaes of Chi leans. Pea* art largely cultivated south of the I laule.
Walnuts have become another important product and are i\[ Drted,
the average annual produce being 48,000 to 50.000 bushel- The
olive was introduced from Spain in colon ial limes and is widely
distributed through the north central provinces, but its economic
importance is not great. Of the European fruits introduced into
the southern provinces* the apple has been the most KOCtssfuI.
[t grows with little care and yields even better than in it* iginal
home. The peach, apricot* plum, quince and cherry an culti-
vated with success. Wild strawberries are found on both >nlcs of
the Andes ; the cultivated varieties are unsurpassed, e^ dally
those of the province of Conception,
The pastoral industries of Chile have been developed chiefly for
the home market* The t limate is ad mirabty suited to ca 1 1 le r ising,
as the winters are mild and pasture is to be found through, it the
whole year, but the proumltyof the Argentine pampas ia fatal to
its profitable development. The government has been trying to
promote cattle*breeding by levying duties {as high a* to pesos a
head} on cattle imported from Argentina, but with no great success.
The importation, which formerly numbered about (40,000 per annum,
1 til I numbers not far from iqq.qoo head. There are some districts
in central Chile where cattle-raising is the principal occupation, but
the long dry summers limit the pasturage on the open plains and
prevent the development which perhaps would otherwise result.
As in Argentina, beef is generally dried in the sun to make char qui
{ jerked been, in which form it is exported to the desert provinces,
tlarse and mule breeding are carried on to a limited exiein, and
S'nce the opening of the far South more attention has been given to
lecp. Goats and swine are raised in small numbers on the large
estates, but in Chile* swine-raising is one of the cJWrit cjc»av*tae»
i5o
of the people. Some attention has been given to the production of
butter and cheese, but the industry has attained no great importance.
A new industry which has made noteworthy progress, however, it
that of bee-keeping, which is greatly favoured by the mild climate
and the long season and abundance of flowers.
Manufactures. — The manufacturing interests of Chile have become
influential enough to force a high tariff policy upon the country.
They have been restricted principally to articles of necessity — food
E reparations, beverages, textiles and wearing apparel, leather and
latherwork, woodwork, pottery, chemicals, ironware, &c. In earlier
days, when Chile had less competition in the production of wheat,
flour mills were to be found everywhere in the wheat-producing
provinces, and flour was one of the leading exports. Concepci6n,
Talca, and other provincial capitals developed important milling
industries, which were extended to all the chief towns of the newer
provinces south of the Bio-Bio. There are over 500 large flour mills
in Chile, the greater part of which are equipped with modern roller-
process machinery. The development of the coal deposits in the
provinces of Conocpci6n and Arauco has made possible other in-
dustries besides those of smelting mineral ores, and numerous small
manufacturing establishments have resulted, especially in Santiago,
Valparaiso, Copiapo and other places where no permanent water
power exists. Tanning leather is an important industry, especially
in the south, some of the Chilean trees, notably the algarrobiUa
{BalsamocarpoH brevifolium) and lingue {Per sea lingue), being rich in
tannin. To provide a market for the leather produced, factories
have been established for the manufacture of boots and shoes, harness
and saddles, and under the protection of a high tariff are doing well.
Brewing and distilling have made noteworthy progress, the domestic
consumption of their products being very large. The breweries are
generally worked by Germans and are situated chiefly in the south,
though there are large establishments in Santiago and Valparaiso.
Small quantities of their products arc exported. Furniture and
carriage factories, cooperages, and other manufactories of wood are
numerous and generally prosperous. There are likewise a large
number of factories for canning and preserving fruits and vegetables.
Foundries and machine shops have been established, especially for
the manufacture of railway material. The sugar beet bas heen
added to the productions of Chile, and with it the manufacture on
a small scale of beet sugar. There is one large refinery at Vifla del
Mar, however, which imports raw cane sugar from Peru for refining.
The manufacture of textiles is carried on at Santiago and El Tom?,
and numerous small factories are devoted to clothing of various
descriptions. The great mining industries have led to a noteworthy
development in the production of chemicals, and a considerable
number of factories are engaged in the production of pharmaceutical
preparations, perfumeries, snaps, candles, &c.
Mining.— The most important of alt the national industries,
however, is that of mining. In 190,) (here were 1 1 .74G registered
mines, on which mining dun were paid, the aggregate produce being
valued at 178,768,170 pesos. These mines gave employment to
46,543 Labourers, of whom 74,44s were employed by the nit rale
companies, [3,710 in various metalliferous mines, 6437 in coal
mines, and JOtxo in other mines. Gold is found in nearly all the
provinces from Antofagasta to Conception, and in Uanquihue,
Qwoe and Magallanes territory, but the output is not Urge, There
arc a great many placer washings, among which are some extensive
deposits near the Straits of Magellan. Silver is found principally
on the elevated slopes and ptate&us of the Andes in the desert
provinces of the north. The second most Important mining industry
in Chile, however, is that of copper, which is found in the provinces of
Antofagasta. Atacama, Cocjuimbo, Aconcagua, Valparaiso. Santiago,
O'tiiggms, Colchagua, Curico and Talca, but the richest deposits
are in the three desert provinces. Chile was once the largest pro-
ducer of copper in the world, her production in 1860^1864 being
rated at 60 to 67% of the total. Low prices afterwards caused a
large shrinkage in the output, hut she is still classed among the
principal producers. Iron mining has never been developed in Chile,
although extensive deposits are said to o*ist. Manganese ores are
mined in Atarjm;i and Coquimbo, and their export is large. The
other metals reported m the official returns are lead, cobalt and
vanadium, of which anly small quantities are produced. Bolivian
tin is exported from Chilean porta. Among the non-mc tal!tc minerals
are nitrate of sod.i. borate of lime, coal, salt and sulphur, tot ether
with various products derived from these minerals, such as iodine,
sulphuric acid, &c. Guano is classed among the mineral products
and still! figures as an export, though the richest Chilean deposits
Were exhausted long before the war with Peru, Of non-metal lie
products nitrate nf soda Is by far the most important. Extensive
deposits of the salt (called talithc in its crude, impure state) in the
provinces of Tacna, Tarapaca^ Antofagaeta and Ataeama owe their
existence totherainlmc haracter of [ he c f imat c< Those of t he first -
named province have been d Uncovered since the war between Chile
and Peru, and have greyly extended the prospeclrve life of the in'
dustry. The nitrate fields t which he between %o and too nv from
the roast and at elevations exceeding 200a ft. above sea -level, have
been officially estimated at 89.177 hectares (344 sq. m.) and to con-
tain 2316 millions of metric quintals ( 254.760,000 short tons). The
first export of nitrates was in 1830, and in 1884 it reached an aggre- j
gate of 350,000 tons, and in 1905 of 1,603,140 tons. The latter J
CHILE [GOVERNMENT
figure is apparently about the production agreed upon between the
Chilean government and the nitrate companies to prevent over-
production and a resulting decline in price. Nearly all the oficinas,
or working plants, are owned and operated by British companies,
and ihcr railways of this desolate region are generally on ned by the
panic companies and form a part 01 the working plant. Borate of
fui
limp also furnishes another important export, though a less vai
„one than nitrate of soda. Lxtensive deposits of borax and coi
salt have been found in the same region, which with several other
products of these saline deposits, such as iodine, add considerably
to its exports. The coal deposits of Chile are found chiefly in the
provinces of Conception and Arauco, the principal mines being on
1 he coast of the Bay of Arauco at Corond and Lota, Cual is found
also in Valdivia, on the island of Chiloe, and in the vicinity of Punt a
Arenas on the Straits of Magellan. Sulphur is found in the volcanic
regions of the north > but the |
el Talca.
regions of the north, but the principal mines are in the provinces
The relative magnitude and value of these mineral products may
be seen in the following abstract from the official returns of 1903 .-
Unit-
Quantity,
Vatue pesos
<of t8d).
Gold , . .
!"- 1 1 - T
Copper .
Lead ....,,
Cobalt one „
Lead and Vanadium ores
Manganese ore
Coal
Nitrates . - - • a
Iodine ♦ ♦,.,,
Borate* , „ , . .
Salt
Sulphur
Sulphuric acid . .
Guano
Various . , . * „
gra names
kilogTS.
tuns
metric
quintals
Lilogrs.
metric
quintals
kilogrs.
metric
quintals
Lilogrs
i .424,62 s
39.012,382
29-923.13*
70,934
284,990
3,000
t ;, 1 10,000
>o;,i \2
1 4.449. Joo
T57-444
16.678*913
16a ,633
3440,64*
1.60U.OOO
tit ,335
200
I-74S-M5
1 ,784,304
2MJ8-397
9.097
9**95
681,400
8*250,730
140,102,012
I.687J37
J>3W>4&
3*4*170
3J7.5J5
176,000
267, 4 '"<>
voemmeni. — Chile is a centralized republic, whose govern-
ment is administered under the provisions of the constitution
of 833 and the amendments of the oth of August 1888, the nth
of August 1890, the 20th of August 1890, the 22nd of December
iBot, and the 7th of Jury 1892. According to this constitution
the sovereignty resides in the nation, but suffrage is restricted
to married citizens over twenty-one and unmarried citizens over
twenty-five years of age, not in domestic service, who can read
and write, and who are the owners of real estate, or who have
capital invested in business or industry, or who receive salaries
or incomes proportionate in value to such real estate as invest-
ment; and as 75% of the population is classed as illiterate, and
a. great majority of the labouring classes is landless, badly paid,
and miserably poor, it is apparent that political sovereignty
i n Chile is the well-guarded possession of a small minority. The
dominant element in this minority is the rich landholding interest,
and the constitution and the laws of the first half-century were
framed for the special protection of that interest.
The supreme powers of government are vested in three distinct
branches — legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative
power is exercised by a national congress, which consists of two
chambers — a senate of 32 members, and a chamber of deputies
of Q4 members. The membership of the lower house is in the
proportion of one deputy for each 30,000 of the departmental
population, and each fraction over 15,000; and the senate is
entitled to one-third the membership of the chamber. The
senators are elected by provinces and by a direct cumulative vote,
an.! hold office for six years, one-half of the senate being renewed
every three years. The deputies are elected by departments and
by a direct cumulative vote, and hold office for three years.
Dot h senators and deputies must have reached the age of thirty-
six, must have a specified income, and are required to serve
without salary. A permanent committee of 14 members repre-
sents the two chambers during the congressional recess and
excises certain supervisory and advisory powers in the ad-
ministration of public affairs. Congress convenes each year on
the 1st of June and sits until the 1st of September, but the
president may prorogue an ordinary session for a period of 50
ADMINISTRATION] CHILE
days, and with the consent of the council of state may convene it
in extraordinary session. Congress has the privilege of giving
or withholding its confidence in the acts of the government.
The executive is a president who is elected for a term of five
years and is ineligible for the next succeeding term. He is chosen
by electors, who are elected by departments in the manner
prescribed for deputies and in the proportion of three electors for
each deputy. These elections are held on the 25th of June in
the last year of a presidential term, the electors cast their votes on
the 25th of July, and the counting takes place in a joint session
of the two chambers of congress on the 30th of August, congress
in joint session having the power to complete the election when
no candidate has been duly chosen by the electors. The formal
installation of the president takes place on the 18th of September,
the anniversary of the declaration of national independence.
In addition to the prerogatives commonly invested in his office,
the president is authorized to supervise the judiciary , to nominate
candidates for the higher ecclesiastical offices, to intervene in
the enforcement of ecclesiastical decrees, papal bulls, &c, to
exercise supervisory police powers, and to appoint the intendants
of provinces and the governors of departments, who in turn
appoint the sub-delegates and inspectors of subordinate political
divisions. The president, who is paid £2250 per annum, must
be native-born, not less than thirty years of age, and eligible
for election to the lower house. He is assisted and advised by a
cabinet of six ministers whose departments are: interior, foreign
affairs, worship and colonization, justice and public instruction,
war and marine, finance, industry and public works. In case
of a vacancy in the presidential office, the minister of interior
becomes the " vice-president of the republic " and discharges
the duties of the executive office until a successor can be legally
elected. A council of state of 12 members, consisting of the
president, 6 members appointed by congress and 5 by the
president, has advisory functions, and its approval is required
in many executive acts and appointments.
The provinces are administered by intendentes, and the depart-
ments by gobernadores, both appointees of the national executive.
The sub-delegacies are governed by sub-deUgados appointed by
the governors, and the districts by ins pre tores appointed by the
sub-delegates. ' Directly and indirectly, therefore, the administra-
tion of all these political divisions is in the hands of the president,
who, m like manner, makes and controls the appointments of
all judicial functionaries, subject, however, to receiving recom-
mendations of candidates from the courts and to submitting
appotrjtraents to the approval of the council of state. This gives
the national executive absolute control of all administrative
matters in every part of the republic. The police force also
is a national organization under the immediate control of
the jniniater of interior, and the public prosecutor in every
department is a representative of the national government.
There is no legislative body in any of these political divisions, nor
any administrative official directly representing the people, with
this exception: under the law of the 22nd of December 1891,
municipalities, or communes,are created and invested with certain
specified powers of local government affecting local police services,
sanitation, local improvements, primary instruction, industrial
and business regulations, &c; they are authorized to borrow
money for sanitary improvements, road-making, education,
&c, and to impose certain specified taxes for their support ;
these municipalities elect their own alcaldes, or mayors, and
municipal councils, the latter having legislative powers within
the limits of the law mentioned.
Justice.— The judicial power consists of a Supreme Court of Justice
of seven members located in the national capital, which exercises
supervisory and disciplinary authority over all the law courts of the
republic: six courts ot appeal, in Tacna, Serena, Valparaiso. Santiago.
Tales and Conception; tribunals of first instance in the department
capitals; and minor courts, or justices of the peace, in the sub-
deJegacies and districts. The jury system does not exist in Chile,
and juries are unknown except in cases where the freedom of the
preas has been abused. All trials, therefore, are heard by one or
more judges, and appeals may be taken from a lower to a higher
court. "Ae government is represented in each department by a
public prosecutor. The police officials, who are under the direct
151
control of the minister of interior, also exercise some degree of judicial
authority. This force is essentially military in its organization, and
consisted in 190 1 of 500 officers, 934 non-commissioned officers and
Moo police soldiers. Small forces of local policemen are supported
by various municipalities. The judges of the higher courts are ap-
pointed by the national executive, and those of the minor tribunals
by the federal official governing the political division in which they
are located.
Army. — For military purposes the republic is divided into five
districts, the northern desert provinces forming the first, the central
provinces as far south as the Bio-Bio the second and third, and the
southern provinces and territory the fourth and fifth. Large sums
of money have been expended in arms, equipment, guns and
fortifications. The army is organized on the German model and has
been trained by European officers who have been employed both
for the school and regiment. Though the president and minister of
war are the nominal heads of the army, its immediate direction is
concentrated in a general staff comprising six service departments,
at the head of which is a chief of staff. After the triumph of the
revolutionists in the civil war of 1891, the army was reorganized
under the direction of Colonel Emit Korncr, an accomplished German
officer, who subsequently served as chief of the general staff. In
1904 the permanent force consisted of 12 battalions of infantry,
6 regiments of cavalry, 4 regiments of mountain artillery, I regiment
of horse artillery, 2 regiments of coast artillery, and 5 companies of
engineers— aggregating 915 officers and 4757 men. To this nucleus
were added 6160 recruits, the contingent tor that year of young men
twenty-one years of age compelled to serve with the colours, under
the law of the 5th of September 1900. military service is obligatory
for all citizens between eighteen and forty-five years, all young men
of twenty-one years being required to serve a certain period with the
regular force. After this period they are transferred to the 1st
reserve for 9 years, and then to the 2nd reserve. The military rifle
adopted for all three branches of the service is the Mauser, 1895
model, of 7 mm. calibre, and the batteries are provided with Krupp
1 guns of 7 and 7-5 cm. calibre. Military instruction is given in a welt-
organized military school at Santiago, a war academy and a school
of military engineering.
Navy. — The Chilean navy is essentially British in or^ruzatktft
and methods, and all its best fighting ships wen? built in British
yard*.i In 1906 the effective fighting for™ consisted uf t battle-
ship, 2 belted cruisers, 4 protected cruiser*. 3 torpedo gunboat*, 6
destroyers and 8 modern torpedo bo.iT*, In add it wit to tJwse there
are several inferior armed vessels cf various kinds which bring ihc
total up to 40, not including transports nnd ctkr auxiliaries. The
administration of the navy, under the president and mi niftier of wax
and marine, is confided to a general naval staff, called the V Direction
jeneral de la Armada," with headquarters at Valparaiso, hi duties
.also include the military protection of the ports, the hydrographic
survey of the coast, and the lighthouse service. The personnel com-
prises about 465 officers, including those of the staff, and 4000 petty
officers and men. There is a military port at Talcahuano, in Con-
ception Day, strongly fortified, and provided with arsenal and repair
'shops, a large dry dock and a patent slip. The naval school, which
•occupies one of the noteworthy edifices of Valparaiso, is attended
by 90 cadets and is noted for the thoroughness of its instruction.
f Education. — Under the old conwrvativc regime very little was
done for the public school outside the larger towns. Am a large pro-
portion of the labouring classes lived in the small towns and rural
communities, they received comparatively little attention. The
I increasing influence of more liberal ideas greatly improved the
'situation with reference to popular education, and the government
1 now makes vigorous efforts to tiring its public school system within
the reach of all. The constitution provides that free instruction
must be provided for the people. School attendance is not com-
I pulsory, however, and the gain upon illiteracy (75 %) appears to be
I very slow. # The government also gives primary instruction to recruits
when serving with the colours, which, with the increasing employ-
ment of the people in the towni 4 helps to stimulate a desire for
education among the lower clatter btWaiion in Chile is very
la reel y^ under the control of the national grjvernmL'nt f the minister
ot justice and public inn ruction being charged with the direction of
all public school* from the university, down to the smallest and most
remote primary *chool- The system includes the University of
Chile and National Institute at Santiago, Lyceums or high schools in
all the provincial capitaUand larger towns, normal schools at central
fiuint* lor the training of public school teacher*, professional and
industrial schools, military school; and primary schools. Instruction
in alt these is free, and under cert 31 in conditions tent-books arc
supplied. In the normal Behoofs, wiVrc the pupils are trained to
enter the public service at primary teachers, not only it ihe > tuition
free, but also books, board, lodging and everything nettled in their
school work. The national university at Santiago comprises faculties
of theology, law and political science, medicine and pharmacy,
natural sciences and mathematics, and philosophy. The range of
Btudies is wide, and the attendance large. The National Institute
at Santiago is the principal high school of the secondary grade in
Chile. There were 30 of these high schools for males and 12 for
females in 1903, with an aggregate of 11.904 matriculated students.
The normal schools for males are located at S**\*.v>* OKafe* «at\
~£Z Z [FINANCE
— "~— " .— - -— -. - rv aj i»-rve w. :j : '•*= :<ecamc an important part of the national
■ - - — — — — -r *:._•: ::z ;*_.-* uicr (1902) reached an a^gre^atc 0!
jt— -=i. • \~ *•>.-:? -•.":•; . -A which 105,072^32 pe*js were, in fcold.
_ ~~ - — • - "Tf •**:*.« \-:t. ai! sources were estimated at 1 40,1 06,000
"•- . •- — "i \-..'j* 12 20c oco pesos gold wire credited to the tax on
"— _ -~ - - -...-. u..h'x :eo pe*o»g«>ld to im|iurt dunes, and 23,50*1,000 pc— ;■$
~ • "~ ." _— :.- : n..j% *> rtccij't*. During these > cars of fw»d prosjierity
i-- - • jt ••• ..• - >.f:r='i rvjch from financial crimes caused by induftrul
- " - » -. - "-^-j. . "it j.i ex«-ssi\e and depreciated paper currency ;md
~. ■ • - ■ — r r. -.ci carrier. To ensure an income that would meet it* foreign
i.~ -~- :— - --^3,^;*"*""*** l ^* e po\-»:rnnicnt colleci».-cI thtr nitrate and kxJtne taxc^
--_ - * *•-— .-* i.- : .-:«;rt i-::e* in gold. A» a considerable part of the cxpendit urts
. . ._. % _ m .„. . ..4 ^practice was adopted of keeping the gold andcurrency
. -. -. .. -- .- .* z -:--::« separate. In 1895 a conversion law was passed in which
:-- -. _- * - . * :?* «t:r*.r.s \alueof the peso was reduced to i8d., at which rate the
_ r- — - •: : _:-:ar:Lr.£ paper »hould be redeemed. A conversion fund wa*aUo
~rr -c -\i. — «_- rf —-a*-^. and. although the government afterwards authorized two
, .— i* : ; " .* r*r t n. lar^ij*ucs, the beneficial effect* of this law were so pronounced
•.•*• . - :ne-! a^ a ' rhs: :ho customs regulations were modified in 1007 to permit the pav-
r .n.-'. yt- .;« jr»: .- <r.\ i -jer.toj import duties in paper. The national re\enueisderi\ ed chiefly
-_ • t^kkt- jt ;r • *:e J fr.^rr. the nitrate taxes, customs duties, alcohol tax, and from railway,
' rcsta! and telegraph receipts. There i*. no land tax. and licence or
b -»>.*»# taxes are levied by the municipalities for local purposes.
• The ntional expenditures are chicflv for the interest and arr.orma-
t".:n charges on the public debt. oJrcial <ilarie*. military expense*
ir. % — .nexion with thearrayar.d r.av> . pulli; works including railway
c:r.struction. port iir.prov crr.cr:?. wa'.cr and sewage works.' 1 , the
adr\:r*i?>:ration of the state ra "•* a> «. :: ■• £rarh '.ir.es and pi»*t office,
' church subsidies, public ir*rr:c* :- ir '. !rc:£r. reprint ntation.
The ordinary and extra.-r:.--ar r^:<:r:» ar.i ex;<rditi:rcs for the
five \ears 1899-1903, in gcic ire : -rr;- .> ir. pesos ci ltd. were as
follows: —
- r^.- -«.-? ->-i^ » '.
:•-.*.
- - : •:•* ..^Tsr*- it-: tre
.• • :.• >~r * i% :*«r t 1- *
- .- :•.;..:* : •.-»:•. :< r.r.:c '
-~ * ?'*-l -..rt— 's*:c cwr the I
•:— •.-• *.•*•"» •.- :* — --s: &?.i tine '
.-•- 1: sl'-as. ».th 110. ?co
-*r i".r in x-:h er.cienrly •
•1; ?:m r—:--. :I*<re were 41
- . l -^ :»„:»-•: x"*! collection*. 1
— • n ivx c v 're were *$ hos- ■
-. ■*' a'J-.>-:rp.* dninc the !
- -- i'-f-t at i m * c'-»«e; 628.536
— • i .-yi a: the r-ub!:c dis- J
-. - ;± -.-:-; h>:i:.t!s with [
Receipts. pe»c«.
E\per.2.!'jrcs. po«os.
Cold.
Paper.
C>1±
Paper.
ib99
1900
1901
1002
1903
83.051.604
89.b69.i7S
74.665.061
io5.07»>32
108,503,565
45.239,070
4t.515.102
35.3at.4M
33.4.U.3*t»
3r .400. 145
31.732.797
30 504.S21
39.H"»*>.517
45.CK53.278 1
12.5c* 075
76.740.793
82.143.74^
91.0S7.171
89.170,0*7 '
84.721.437
pt-l.-.n. '
«.r in % . it..,
■W„.
' 1
•>ll II,.
,:.,
'•I ll„
tf'" 1 "^.! mij IH , ,
IH||
For 1906 the expenditures were t:\ci at 149.000 000 pesos, and the
-v: S t^e con- ' revenues were estimated to produce I40.icc.000 pe«.os, which in-
•:.:.n' cath of eluded 62.200,000 pesos gold from nitrate taxe*. 39.S00.000 pe*os
-i' •• *c.-. ci rt» gold and 200.000 pesos paper from import duties, 23.500.000 pe*cw
- 1-- .i" b-f^tt pap*,. f rom the state railways, 2.500,000 pesos paper from postal
- . -a- . :t?.<r sr% i telegraph receipts, and 15,000,000 pesos gold from loans. How
• ,- * — -..r^-i t v c rexenuc* arc expended is shown in the estimates for 1907, in
. .... ^ . .. T x *hi; v . the total expenditures were estimated at 134.830,532 poos
•; - .; : * ?*• *•'* Taper and \S.706.780 pesos gold, the principal appropriations being
.. •: :-.; v-.-:* *c.ic:.7So*pe«s paper and 99.733 K«»W for the war department.
• ■*< :>:..'' s*:-: :;4:c-Sl ?±?ct and 6.315.731 gold for the marine department,
„-.-*» *n*" " ■" .';y:-! rapr*" * n « I6.0S4.671 gold for railways, and 6,324.817
. ,• •: :"-. .-•-- ?«.-vr r^*r-r! - w.'rk?. In addition to these the budget of 1906
■ «*.-. - -^"i ~r. . .^«i " :r cold expenditures in 1007 of 7.000.000 pesos on sanitary
• ,- - •-»:*• — . m-K*a-->.«v .xc- pe#..-4 on the Arica-LaPai railway. ThecuMom
•• -.* "r: c-s -; ; •;.-; nv< ;** ar - expenditure* into ordinary and extra-
••. ■ : -?r;:.» --.- -~r> <i :rei: ; *^t v e rectirts from loans as revenue, of adding six
- r .-..--• r-* --v - —-. s ., : w., f VJ j Xf , r f cr c!c-*irg up accounts, and of di\iding
.• _• :: v. i.-.. r ., ... i- t t \?<TSii~T<* into separate gold and currency accounts,
■ 7- ■■ ' - •-?-'. IJIii ~? — .;!». »-o-.:u*wfl and complication in the returns, and is the
> -. :•» '-T~rf V. ;-ii\.-:iab!e d:sc«par.cic* and contradictions.
• -'.'.•» " I- Vi\ ixt» the cxttrral debt of the republic aggregated
' •■- r » -. ^ ..: ;. T - <» xc :rc!--i>.g the Km as of 1905 and 1906, amounting to
"•■ • -.* . ■ \-:> ,*5--v «o. :'.r viritarv works and railway construction. At the
• -^r. • •■-. • •- ^ ir ... .._,.* t C c ..-.tcrnal deist wa* 107.000.000 pesos (£8,025.000).
.-..„... j. -^ ._• v '. . ;: - a<ei i the funded indebtedness to /20,725.ooo. Like
, " ■ -.. ■" •: ;. • ^-j./. ». a * tx-^r. careful to preserve hir foreign cretlit. and
, ■ , " i# - , r •'"■ •«• .;- ..- average -rdebtedne** of about fio per capita may f-ecm
A- .. ... V • " ' .-... • : .1 r.^i n w.th s> much absolute po\iTty among its people.
■»• ! .. '.» ," "' * * . .- %..:■ T--rt :» frn.'-ns r..» ditficulty in negotiating new loans, the
' •■'»••- r .. Tj : r , y .. rc ., > c * the country and the conservative instincts of
•'-• r ■. .;.!l- }- .-.t .•r>idertd sat^factorv 1 guarantees. According to
« ::■■ nl rcu-r:>.Y.c reil-cs:a'.e valuations in l903->904 aggrefatcd
• 7rr.2i7.7«>4 ;-*>•:•*. of which I.020.K>9.2I5 pevxs were in urban
•m-1 7^|,i„,., iv> yocs. in r::ral propertv. Of the total returned.
i' 77 h 21 ' £'"* '* ,il ^ r ' l '* >, l J* taxable, and 262.626.576 p«os as non-
.l!.n', '"' T ''e Ijr^r and ttia^ilv increasing receipts from import
1}
f';. w| M .
I
■Ml i ,..,„
•I'l-Ml,
"'•■ .1111111,1!
" , "••■
:;; v. I::;:;::.;!,
r . ,r "!»'»ri.,rii
*.he..f .-xiw/k V "' r "« I.,' I I "'v »' '<*. nV.i , ■ , " ,, • IH '"-
i,l '"«' t» 2 «.'/oo io'? IH 79-m'«.ni, IIK ;,''»•«« ..I ,, w lnilli ^
^ Pew*. I he revenu,,' V^SL^' «««
"»" the eaptur^
C utrrniy. -.-"II,,.
wl..»lly '■' iMo.rV, 1 rr"n! r v ar ^/ i r ,,, ,V tIon « n Chile consists almost
■ I'm- 'x,.;,r l ^ f -;.r.^^^ ; l , L>:.l ^d on a gold standard of
and ii*».»44.^i peso* currVnc^' ** * ivcn °* as.882.702 pesos gold.
mstory] CHILE
iSci. per peso. The conversion law of 1805 made the currency con-
vertible at this rate, although the gold: peso was rated at a8d.
previous to that date; but the financial crisis of 1808 caused the sus-
pension of specie payments, and a forced issue of additional paper
tod to a further postponement of conversion and the prompt with-
drawal of speck from circulation. The paper circulation consists
of national and bank issues. The former owes its existence very
largely to the war with Peru, the civil war of 1891, and the financial
troubles of 1898. On the 1st of January 1890 the national issues
stood at 22,487,916 pesos, and the bank issues at 16,679,790 pesos,
making a total of 39,167,706 pesos currency in circulation. This
total was largely increased by President Balmaceda in 1891. On
the 31st of July 1898 the convention of paper notes, under the law
of 1st June 1895, was suspended, and the government issued
27,980,929 pesos to the banks of issue, which was described as a loan
at 2 %. and raised their outstanding circulation to 40,723,089 pesos,
and at the same time issued on its own account 17,693,890 pesos and
assumed responsibility for 1,193,641 pesos which had been illegally
put into circulation before 1896. This gave an aggregate registered
circulation of 86,045,166 pesos in 1898. In 1904- another issue of
30.000,000 pesos was authorized and the date of conversion was
still further postponed, and in 1907 a more general act provided that
the maximum paper circulation should not exceed 150,000.000 pesos
of the value ot i8d. per peso, and that new issues should be made
only through the issue department and against deposits of gold,
which deposits would be returned to depositors on the presentation
of the currency issued. The redemption of this issue was guaran-
teed by a conversion fund of 100,000,000 pesos, and by an authoriza-
tion to issue a loan of 50,000,000 pesos to redeem the balance, if
The conversion fund under the act of 1895 stood at
""lay 1907. There aic
;ate registered capital
i53
77,282.257 pesos (£5.796,170) on the 31st of May 1907. There di c
21 joint-stock banks of issue, with an aggregate registered capital
of 40,689.665 pesos (£3,05 1 ,724). Their circulating notes arc secured
by deposits in the national treasury of gold, government notes and
other approved securities. There is no state bank, thuugh the Bank
of Chile, with its numerous agencies and its paid-up capital at
20,000,000 pesos, may be said to fill the place of such an institution.
Betides these, there arc four non-issue banks, two foreign banks and
their agencies, and three mortgage banks, with agencies at the
important provincial centres, which loan money on real-estate
security and issue interest bearing hypothecary notes to bearer.
There are 8 savings banks in the republic, whose aggregate deposits
on the 31st of December 1906 were 14,709,728 pesos.
The monetary unit, the gold peso, does not form a part of the
actual coinage. The gold coins authorized by this law are the condor
of 20 pesos, the medio condor, or doblon, of 10 pesos, and the tscudo of
5 pesos. The silver coins arc the peso of 100 centavos and its
"ractional parts of 20, 10 and 5 centavos. The bronze coins are of
I
2}, 2, I, and \ centavos.
The metric system of weights and measures is the legal standard
in Chile, but the old Spanish standards are still widely used, especially
in handling mining and farm produce. Nitrate of soda is estimated
in Chilean quintals (101-41 lb) in the field, and metric quintals
(220-46 lb) at the port of shipment. In silver and copper mining
the marc (8 oz.) is commonly used in describing the richness of the
ores. Farm produce is generally sold by the arroba or fanrga; the
sura is used in lineal measurement, and the cuadra is used by country
people in land measurement. (A. J. L.)
History.
Chile was the recognized name of the country from the
beginning of its known history. The land was originally in-
habited by tribes of Indians, who, though not mere savages,
were far below the level of civilization distinguishing the races
of Mexico and Peru. When the country first became known
to the Spaniards in the 16th century the northern tribes were
found to be more civilized and much more submissive than
those of the south. The difference was no doubt due to the
invasion and conquest of northern Chile in the 15th century by
tm ^ Yupanqui, Inca of Peru, grandfather of Atahualpa,
p^ wgf ruler of Peru at the time of its conquest by Pizarro.
The dominion of the Incas in Chile was probably
bounded by the Rapel river (lat. 34 id S.), and, though their
control of the country was slight, the Peruvian influence led to
the introduction of a higher civilization, and, by weakening the
power of the tribes, paved the way for the invasion of the
Spaniards. Beyond the limits of the Inca conquest the Indians
of Chile were distinguished by fierce independence of character
and by their warlike qualities. Rude and ignorant as they were,
they possessed a rough military organization; each community
was led by its vJmen (chief), and in war the tribes fought together
under an elected leader (toqui). The name of the Araucanians,
the most powerful of the tribes, came to be applied to the whole
confederation of Indians living south of the Bio-bio river.
The first Spanish invasion of Chile took place in 1535, when
Diego de Almagro, the companion and rival of Pizarro in the
conquest of Peru, marched into ChQe in search of gold.
Disappointed in his quest, and meeting with obstinate
resistance from the southern tribes, he returned to
Peru with his whole force in 1538. In 1540 Pizarro sent Pedro
de Valdivia to make a regular conquest and settlement of Chile.
Valdivia founded Santiago, the present capital of Chile, in
February 1541, and proceeded to build the towns of La Serena,
Concepci6n, Villarica, Imperial, Valdivia and Angol, in order
to secure his hold on the country. But the Indians fought
desperately for their independence, and in 1553 a general rising
of the tribes ended in the defeat and death of Valdivia and in
the destruction of most of his settlements. This was the
beginning of nearly a century of continuous warfare. As there
was no gold in the country the number of settlers was small,
the loose tribal organization of the natives made it impossible
to inflict a vital defeat on them, and the mountainous and
thickly wooded country lent itself admirably to a warfare of
surprises and ambuscades. General after general and army
after army were despatched from Spain and Peru; Chile was
given a government independent of the viceroy of Lima; attack
after attack was made on the Indians, their lands were laid
waste, and the struggle was conducted with merciless ferocity:
all in vain. Settlements and forts were never free from assault
and were taken and retaken; if one Indian army was destroyed
another took its place, if one toqui was killed another was chosen;
when defeated, the Indians retired to their forests, marshes and
hills, recruited their forces, and fell on the pursuing Spaniards.
In lor 2 an attempt was made by a Jesuit missionary to negotiate
a peace, but not till 1640 was the desperate struggle ended by
the treaty of Quillin, which left the Indians all the land south
of the Bio-bio river. Up to 1800 the peace was broken by three
wars, in 1655, in 1723 and in 1766, the last ended by a treaty
which actually gave the Araucanians the right to have a minister
at Santiago.
It was this constant warfare with the Indians and the necessity
for hard continuous work, owing to the lack of precious metals
in Chile, that no doubt helped to produce in the settlers the
strength and hardihood of character that distinguishes the
Chileans among South American races. But not unnaturally
the material condition of the country was the reverse of
prosperous. The expenditure far exceeded the revenue. The
Indian warfare occupied nearly the whole attention of the
governors and much of the time of the settlers. By the Spanish
colonial system the development of manufactures was prohibited
and the trade of the colony was limited not only to
Spain but to the one port of Cadiz. Till the 18th
century ships were not allowed to sail round Cape
Horn, so that the Chileans had to trade indirectly through Peru
and the Argentine. Agriculture was the one resource of the
colony, and wheat was grown for export to Peru, but the land
was concentrated in the hands of a few big landowners, and the
cultivation of the vine and olive was forbidden. At the end of
the 1 7 th century Santiago was a town of poor one-storeyed nouses
and had only 8000 inhabitants; the other towns, Valparaiso,
Concepri6n, La Serena, were only large villages. Books were
not allowed to be imported, and education was limited to such
as was given here and there by priests and monks. The Indians
within the limits of the Spanish colony were treated like slaves,
and horribly mutilated to prevent their escape; but at the
same time a gradual fusion of races was taking place, and the
Chilean peasant (peon) of to-day is as much of Indian as of
Spanish descent The Araucanians, however, continued to
preserve their independence; they jealously resented the intro-
duction of Spanish influence, and the missionary efforts of the
Jesuits met with little success.
During the 18th century the condition of the colony was
improved in many ways. The Bourbon kings of Spain were
more liberal in their colonial policy. Merchant-ships were
allowed to sail direct to Chile, trade with France was sometimes
permitted, and a large batch of hardy emigrants was sent oa&1
*54
CHILE
(HISTORY
from the Biscay provinces of Spain. Freed from the preoccupa-
tion of the Indian wars, the governors gave more attention to
the general welfare of the country, a university was started
in Santiago in 1747, many towns were built about the same
time, agriculture and industries were promoted and a coasting
trade grew up. In 1778 Charles III. threw open all the ports of
Spain to the colonies and allowed freedom of trade with France.
But in general the administration of the colony was burdensome,
oppressive and inefficient. The people had no voice in the
government. Ruling with the help of the Royal Audience, the
governor was absolute master of the country, and regulated
the smallest details of life. Such time as the officials could spare
from the main object of enriching themselves by extortion and
corruption was given up to endless official and religious ceremonies
and to petty disputes of etiquette and precedence. All the high
posts and offices were filled by men sent from Spain, with the
result that bitter jealousy reigned between them and the native-
born colonists (criollos). The criolloz as a rule filled the posts
In the municipalities (cabildos), disposed of by sale, so that
when the revolution broke out the cabildos naturally became
the centres of the movement. As in all Spanish colonies, so in
Chile, the Church played a large part in the public life. Chile
was divided into the two bishoprics of Santiago and Concepd6n t
and the Church managed to accumulate most of the wealth of
the country. At the same time the monks and Jesuits did
useful work in teaching industrial and agricultural arts, and in
giving the people a certain degree of education; but the influence
of the Church was used to bolster up the traditional narrow
colonial system, and the constant quarrels between the clergy
and the secular powers often threw the country into confusion.
At the opening of the 19th century Chile was a colony whose
resources had hardly been touched, with a population of about
500,000 persons, of Spanish and mixed Spanish and Indian
blood: a people endowed with the vigour of character bred by
a mountainous country and a bracing climate and by a hard
struggle for existence, but ignorant through lack of education,
ihut out by a narrow-minded commercial system from knowledge
of the outside world, and destitute of the character-training
that free institutions afford.
The national independence of Chile dates from the second
decade of the 19th century. The revolt of England's North
American colonies, and the events of the French
jjj^jjjjl Revolution naturally suggested the idea of a struggle
P9o4tmc*. for independence to the Spanish colonists, and the
deposition of Ferdinand VII. by Napoleon, and the
ensuingdisorganizationof Spain, supplied thedesiredopportunity.
In 1809 risings took place in Venezuela, in Ecuador, in Upper
Peru and In the Argentine; the revolutionary fever spread
to Chile, und on the 18th of September 1810 the cabildo of
Santiago secured the resignation of the governor and vested his
powers in an elected Junta (board) of seven members. This
event was the beginning of the independence of Chile. But it
was some time More independence was fully attained. The
muxs of the people were ignorant, intercourse between them was
•Unlit, and there was a strong section attached to the old regime.
The parly determined on independence was at first small, and
compiled to conceal its aims till the ground had been prepared
for open drcMvc action. Further, there were divisions between
the pittiftitM of Santiago and those of Conccpci6n, and bitter
Jealousies between the leaden, the chief of whom were Juan
MntlififXilc RoravJosr* Miguel Carrcra and Bernardo O'Higgins.
Owing to the apathy of the people and the enmities existing
among the leaders, the Spanish forces, sent by the viceroy of
Peru to crush the revolutionary movement, succeeded after two
years' Indecisive fighting in completely defeating the patriots
at Rutu'iigua In 1 R 14. l'" or lniw y«-'» r » tne Spaniards maintained
their hold on Chile, ruling the country with tyrannical harshness,
but In the spring of 181 7 a patriot force which had been organized
at MemWa In the Argentine by Jose deSan Martin, an Argentine
oRitri, and by O'lHgglm, crossed the Andes and overwhelmed
the mynli.HU at the battle of Charaburo. O'Higgins was named
*, ' . 1 ..# /«kii- wklln Sun M.irtin. realizing that the
<//rr<r<>rfiiftrra) of Chile, while San Martin, realizing that the
independence of each colony depended on the Spanish being
expelled from the whole of South America, set about prepar-
ing an invasion of Peru. The viceroy of Lima made one more
effort to uphold the power of Spain in Chile, but the army he
despatched under Mariano Osorio, the victor of Rancagua, was
decisively defeated at the river Maipo on the 3rd of April 1818.
By this battle the independence of Chile, formally proclaimed by
O'Higgins in the previous February, was finally secured.
The next few years witnessed the expulsion of the royalists
from the south of Chile, the equipment of a small fleet, placed
under the command of Manuel Blanco Encalada and
Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald), and the invasion JJlafc
of Peru by San Martin with the help of the fleet, npm&m
ending in the proclamation of Peruvian independence in iSrr;
though the Spanish power was not finally broken until Bolivar's
victory at Ayacucho in 1824. Relieved from all fear of Spanish
attacks from the north, the new republic of Chile entered upon
a period of internal confusion and dissension bordering upon
anarchy. As soon as the necessity for establishing a stable
government arose the lack of training in self-government among
the Chileans became painfully obvious. O'Higgins as director-
general, rightly perhaps, considered that firm orderly government
was more important than the concession of liberal institutions,
but his administration roused strong hostility, and in 1823 he was
compelled to resign. From that date up to 1830 there were no
less than ten governments, while three different constitutions
were proclaimed. The nation was divided into small mutually
hostile parties; there were ecclesiastical troubles owing to the
hostility of the Church to the new republic; there were Indian
risings in the south and royalist revolts in the island of Cbiloe";
the expenditure exceeded the revenue, and the employment
of the old Spanish financial expedients naturally increased the
general discontent Up to 1830 the Liberal party, which favoured
a free democratic regime, held the upper hand, but in that year
the Conservatives, backed by a military rising led by General
Joaquin Prieto, placed themselves in power after a sanguinary
battle at Lircay. Prieto was elected president in 183 1, and a new
constitution was drafted and promulgated in 1833, which, with
some modifications, remains the constitution of Chile at the
present time. This constitution invested the executive with
almost dictatorial powers, and the Conservatives entered upon
a long term of office.
The aim of the Conservative policy was to secure above all a
strong administration; power was concentrated in the hands
of a small circle; public liberties were restricted and all opposi-
tion crushed by force. Inaugurated under General Pricto's
administration (1831-1841) by his able minister Diego Portales,
this policy was continued by his successors General Manuel
Bulnes (1841-1851) and Manuel Montt (1851-1861), each of«
whom like Prieto was elected to a double term of office. In
spite of the discontent of the Liberals, the Conservative ascend-
ancy secured a long period of firm stable government, which was
essential to put an end to the confusion in public life and to give
time for the people to awake to a fuller realization of the duties
and responsibilities of national independence. The internal
peace of the country was only disturbed three times, by Liberal
risings in 1835, »n 1851 and in 1859, all of which were crushed, but
not without severe fighting. In 1836 Chile also became involved
in a war with a confederation of Peru and Bolivia, which ended in
the victory of Chile and the dissolution of the confederation.
While refusing to allow the people any share in, or control
over, the government, the Conservative leaders devoted them-
selves to improving the condition of the people and of the
country, and under their firm rule Chile advanced rapidly in
prosperity. The government established a department for
education, a training college for teachers, and numerous schools
and libraries; literary magazines were started and a school of
art and an academy of music founded. By the consolidation
of the foreign debt, by the regular payment of interest, by the
establishment of several banks, and by the negotiation of
commercial treaties, the financial position of the country was
improved. Interna] development was promoted by the working
HISTORY]
CHILE
«55
of the silver mines of Copiapo and the coal mines of Lota, by
the building of railways and erection of telegraphs, and by the
colonisation of the rich Valdivia province with German settlers.
The Straits of Magellan were occupied; under an American
engineer, William Wheelwright, a line of steamers was started on
the coast, and, by a wise measure allowing merchandise to be
landed free of duty for re-exportation, Valparaiso became a
busy port and trading centre; while the demand for food-stuns
in California and Australia, following upon the rush for gold,
gave a strong impetus to agriculture. A code of law was drawn
up and promulgated, and the ecclesiastical system was organized
under an archbishop appointed by the pope. To Montt, as
minister under Bulnes and afterwards as president, must be
given the main credit for the far-seeing policy which laid the
foundations of the prosperity of Chile; and though the adminis-
tration was in many ways harsh and narrow, firm government,
rather than liberty that would have tended to anarchy, was
essential for the success of the young republic.
After 1861, however, a Liberal reaction set in, aided by
divisions in the Conservative party arising mainly over church
questions. Montt's successors, Jose* Joaquin Peres ( 1 86 1-1 87 1 ) ,
Fcderico Errazuriz (1871-1876) and Anfbal Pinto (1876-1881),
abandoned the repressive policy of their predecessors, invited
the co-operation of the Liberals, and allowed discontent to vent
itself freely in popular agitation. Some democratic changes
were made in the constitution, notably a law forbidding the
re-election of a president, and the gradual and peaceful transition
to a liberal policy was a proof of the progress which the nation
had made in political training. Outside the movement for con-
stitutional reform, the most important internal question was the
successful Liberal attack on the privileged position and narrow
views of the Church, which led to the birth of a strong ultra-
montane party among the clergy. The government continued to
be animated by a progressive spirit: schools, railways, telegraphs
were rapidly extended; a steamship mail service to Europe
was subsidized, and the stability of the government enabled it
to raise new foreign loans in order to extinguish the old high
interest-bearing loans and to meet the expenses of public works.
In 1877 a financial crisis occurred, met by the emission of paper
money, but the depression was only temporary, and the country
soon rallied from the effects.
During this period there was desultory fighting with the
Indians; there was a long boundary dispute with the Argentine,
settled in x88o; and in 1865 Chilean sympathy with Peru in a
quarrel with Spain led to a foolish war with Spain. The blockade
of their ports and the bombardment of Valparaiso by a Spanish
squadron impressed the Chileans with the necessity of possessing
an adequate fleet to defend their long coast-line; and it was
under President Errazuriz that the ships were obtained and the
officers trained that did such good service in the great war with
Pern. With a population of over two millions, a rapidly increas-
ing revenue, ruled by a government that was firm and progressive
and that enjoyed the confidence of all classes, Chile was well
equipped for the struggle with Peru that began in 1879.
The war of 1879-82 between Chile and Peru is the subject
of a separate article (see Chile-Peruvian War). By the
beginning of 1881 the war had reached a stage when
Smwae ^ *' na * stru 8^ c was c * osc at nan d- On the 13th of
wikPtm. January of that year the Chilean forces under command
of General Baquedano attacked the entrenched
positions of the Peruvians at daybreak in the vicinity of Chorillos,
a village some few miles from Lima, and forming the outer line
of defence for the capital. After a stubborn fight the day ended
in victory for the attacking forces; but the losses on both sides
were great, and on the following day negotiations for peace were
attempted by the representatives of the foreign powers in Lima,
the object being to avoid, if possible, any further bloodshed.
This attempt to end the conflict proved, however, abortive,
and on the 15th of January at 2 p.m. hostilities recommenced in
the neighbourhood of Miraflores. After severe fighting for some
four hours the Chileans again proved victorious, and drove the
Peruvians from the second line of defence back upon the city of
Lima, Lima was now at the mercy of the Chileans, and on the
x 7 th of January a division of 4000 men of all arms, under the
command of General Cornel io Saavcdra, was sent forward to
occupy the Peruvian capital and restore order within the town
limits. A portion of the Chilean forces was shortly afterwards
withdrawn from Peru, and the army of occupation remaining
in the conquered country was in charge of Admiral Patricio
Lynch, an officer who had been specially promoted for dis-
tinguished services during the war. President Anibal Pinto of
Chile now set about to find means to conclude a treaty of peace
with Peru, but his efforts in this direction were frustrated by
the armed resistance offered in the country districts to the
Chilean authorities by the remainder of the Peruvian forces
under command of General Caceres. So matters continued —
the Chileans administering on the seaboard and in the principal
towns, the Peruvians maintaining a guerilla warfare in the
mountainous districts of the interior. In September 1881 the
term of office of president Pinto expired, and he was succeeded
in the post of chief executive of Chile by President Domingo
Santa Maria. Ex-President Pinto died three years later in
Valparaiso, leaving a memory respected and admired by all
political parties in his country. The name of Pinto will always
occupy a prominent place in the annals of Chilean history,
not only because the war with Peru took place during his term
of office, but also on account of the fact that it was largely due
to the intelligent direction of all details by the president during
the struggle that the Chilean arms proved so absolutely successful
by land and sea.
Sefior Domingo Santa Maria, who now acceded to the presi-
dency of Chile, was a Liberal in politics, and had previously
held various important posts under the government.
Under the rule of President Montt he had been an QmS**'
active member of the opposition and involved in mmHb.
various revolutionary conspiracies; for his participa-
tion in these plots he was at one time exiled from the country,
but returned and received official employment under President
Perez. The principal task confronting President Santa Maria
on assuming the presidency was to negotiate a treaty of peace
with Peru and provide for the evacuation of the Chilean army
of occupation. The presence of the Peruvian general Caceres
and his forces in- the interior of Peru prevented for some two
years the formation of any Peruvian national administration
in Lima with which the Chilean authorities could deal. In
August of 1883 the Peruvians were defeated by the forces
commanded by Admiral Lynch, and a government was then
organized under the leadership of General Iglcsias. A provisional
treaty of peace was then drawn up and signed by General Iglesias
and the Chilean representative, and this was finally ratified by
the Chilean and Peruvian congresses respectively in April 1884.
By the terms of this treaty Peru ceded to Chile unconditionally
the province of Tarapaca, and the provinces of Tacna and Arica
were placed under Chilean authority for the term of ten years,
the inhabitants having then to decide by a general vote whether
they remained a part of Chile or elected to belong once more to
Peru. In the event of the decision being favourable to Peru a sum
of 10,000,000 dollars was to be paid by Peru to Chile. On the
ratification of this treaty the Chilean forces were immediately
withdrawn from Lima and other points of occupation in Peruvian
territory. The government of Bolivia also attempted to negotiate
a treaty of peace with Chile in 1884, and for this purpose sent
representatives to Santiago. No satisfactory terms, however,
could be arranged, and the negotiations ended in only an arm is t ice
being agreed to, by which Chile remained in occupation of the
Bolivian seaboard pending a definite settlement at some future
period.
The administration of President Santa Maria met with violent
opposition from the Conservatives, who included the Clerical
party in their ranks, and also from a certain section of the Liberals.
The dislike of the Conservatives to President Santa Maria was
occasioned by his introduction of the law of civil marriage, the
civil registration of births and deaths, and the freeing of the
cemeteries. Hitherto no marriage was legal unless celebrated
156
CHILE
fHISTORY
according to the rites of the Roman Catholic religion, and alt
registers of births and deaths were kept by the parish priests.
Civil employees were now appointed under the new laws to attend
to this work. Formerly the cemeteries were entirely under the
control of the Church, and, with the exception of a few places
specially created for the purpose, were reserved solely for the
burial of Roman Catholics. Under the new regime these
cemeteries were made common to the dead of all religions.
Under President Feres, in 1865, a clause in the law of constitution
had been introduced permitting the exercise of all creeds of
religion, and this was now put into practice, all restrictions
being removed. On several occasions, notably in 1882 and 1885,
President Santa Maria used his influence in the elections of
senators and deputies to congress for the purpose of creating
a substantial majority in his favour. He was induced to take
this course in consequence of the violent opposition raised in
the chambers by the liberal policy he pursued in connexion
with Church matters. This intervention caused great irritation
amongst the Conservatives and dissentient Liberals, and the
political situation on more than one occasion became so strained
as to bring the country to the verge of armed revolution. No
outbreak, however, took place, and in 1886 the five years of office
for which President Santa Maria had been elected came to an
end, and another Liberal, Sefior Jose Manuel Balmaceda, then
succeeded to power.
The election of Balmaceda was bitterly opposed by the
Conservatives and dissentient Liberals, but was finally success-
fully carried by the official influence exercised by
1 President Santa Maria. On assuming office President
Balmaceda endeavoured to bring about a reconciliation
of all sections of the Liberal party in congress and so
form a solid majority to support the administration, and to this
end he nominated as ministers representatives of the different
political groups. Six months later the cabinet was reorganized,
and two most bitter opponents to the recent election of President
Balmaceda were accorded portfolios. Believing that he had
now secured the support of the majority in congress on behalf
of any measures he decided to put forward, the new president
initiated a policy of heavy expenditure on public works, the
building of schools, and the strengthening of the naval and
military forces of the republic. Contracts were given out to the
value of £6,000,000 for the construction of railways in the
southern districts; some 10,000,000 dollars were expended in
the erection of schools and colleges; three cruisers and two
sea-going torpedo boats were added to the squadron; the
construction of the naval port at Talcahuano was actively pushed
forward; new armament was purchased for the infantry and
artillery branches of the army, and heavy guns were acquired
for the purpose of permanently and strongly fortifying the
neighbourhoods of Valparaiso, Talcahuano and Iquique. In
itself this policy was not unreasonable, and in many ways
extremely beneficial for the country. Unfortunately corruption
crept into the expenditure of the large sums necessary to carry
out this programme. Contracts were given by favour and not
by merit, and the progress made in the construction of the new
public works was far from satisfactory. The opposition in
congress to President Balmaceda began to increase rapidly
towards the close of 1887, and further gained ground in 1888.
In order to ensure a majority favourable to his views, the
president threw the whole weight of his official influence into
the elections for senators and deputies in 1888; but many of
the members returned to the chambers through this official
influence joined the opposition shortly after taking their seats.
In 1889 congress became distinctly hostile to the administration
of President Balmaceda, and the political situation became grave,
and at times threatened to involve the country in civil war.
According to usage and custom in Chile, a ministry does not
remain in office unless supported by a majority in the chambers.
Balmaceda now found himself in the impossible position of being
unable to appoint any ministry that could control a majority
in the senate and chamber of deputies and at the same time be
in accordance with his own views of the administration of public
affairs. At this juncture the president assumed that the con-
stitution gave him the power of nominating and maintaining
in office any ministers he might consider fitting persons for the
purpose, and that congress had no right of interference in the
matter. The chambers were now only waiting for & suitable
opportunity to assert their authority. In 1890 it was stated
that President Balmaceda had determined to nominate and
cause to be elected as his successor at the expiration of his term
of office in 189 x one of his own personal friends. This question
of the election of another president brought matters to a head,
and congress refused to vote supplies to carry on the government.
To avoid trouble Balmaceda entered into a compromise with
congress, and agreed to nominate a ministry to their hieing on
condition that the supplies for 1890 were voted. This cabinet,
however, was of short duration, and resigned when the ministers
understood the full amount of friction between the president
and congress. Balmaceda then nominated a ministry not in
accord with the views of congress under Sefior Claudio Vicuna,
whom it was no secret that Balmaceda intended to be his
successor in the presidential chair, and, to prevent any expression
of opinion upon his conduct in the matter, he refrained from
summoning an extraordinary session of the legislature for the
discussion of the estimates of revenue and expenditure for 1891.
When the 1st of January 1891 arrived, the president published
a decree in the Diario Oficial to the effect that the budget of
1800 would be considered the official budget for 1891. This act
was illegal and beyond the attributes of the executive
power. As a protest against the action of President 2/jSw:
Balmaceda, the vice-president of the senate, Sefior
Waldo Silva, and the president of the chamber- of deputies;
Sefior Ramon Barros Luco, issued a proclamation appointing
Captain Jorje Montt in command of the squadron, and stating
that the navy could not recognize the authority of Balmaceda
so long as he did not administer public affairs in accordance
with the constitutional law of Chile. The majority of the
members of the chambers sided with this movement, and on the
7th of January Sefiores Waldo Silva, Barros Luco and a number
of senators and deputies embarked on board the Chilean warship
" Blanco Encalada," accompanied by the " Esmeralda " and
" OHiggins " and other vessels, sailing out of Valparaiso harbour
and proceeding northwards to Tarapaca to organize armed
resistance against the president (see Chilean Civil War). It
was not alone this action of Balmaceda in connexion with
congress that brought about the revolution. He had alienated
the sympathy of the aristocratic classes of Chile by his personal
vanity and ambition. The oligarchy composed of the great
landowners have always been an important factor in the political
life of the republic; when President Balmaceda found that he
was not a persona grata to this circle he determined to endeavour
to govern without their support, and to bring into the adminis-
tration a set of men who had no traditions and with whom hb
personality would be all-powerful. The Clerical influence was
also thrown against him in consequence of his radical ideas in
respect of Church matters.
Immediately on the outbreak of the revolution President
Balmaceda published a decree declaring Montt and his com-
panions to be traitors, and without delay organized an army of
some 40,000 men for the suppression of the insurrectionary
movement. While both sides were preparing for extremities,
Balmaceda administered the government under dictatorial
powers with a congress of his own nomination. In June 1891
he ordered the presidential election to be held, and Sefior Claudio
Vicuna was duly declared chosen as president of the republic for
the term commencing in September 1891. The resources of
Balmaceda were running short on account of the heavy military
expenses, and he determined to dispose of the reserve of silver
bullion accumulated in the vaults of the Casa de Moneda in
accordance with the terms of the law for the conversion of the
note issue. The silver was conveyed abroad in a British man-
of-war, and disposed of partly for the purchase of a fast steamer
to be fitted as an auxiliary cruiser and partly in payment for
other kinds of war material.
HISTORY) CHILE
The organization of the revolutionary forces went on slowly.
Much difficulty was experienced in obtaining the necessary arms
and ammunition. A supply of rifles was bought in the United
States, and embarked on board the " Itata," a Chilean vessel
in the service of the rebels. The United States authorities
refused to allow this steamer to leave San Diego, and a guard
was stationed on the ship. The " Itata," however, slipped away
and made for the Chilean coast, carrying with her the repre-
sentatives of the United States. A fast cruiser was immediately
sent in pursuit, but only succeeded in overhauling the rebel ship
after she was at her destination. The " Itata " was then forced
to return to San Diego without landing her cargo for the insur-
gents. The necessary arms and ammunition were arranged for
in Europe; they were shipped in a British vessel, and transferred
to a Chilean steamer at Fortune Bay, in Tierra del Fuego, close
to the Straits of Magellan and the Falkland Islands, and thence
carried to Iquiquc, where they were safely disembarked early in
July 1801. A force of 10,000 men was now raised by the junta
of the revolution, and preparations were rapidly pushed forward
for a move to the south with the object of attacking Valparaiso
and Santiago. Early in April a portion of the revolutionary
squadron, comprising the " Blanco Encalada " and other ships,
was sent to the southward for reconnoitring purposes and put
into the port of Caldcra. During the night of the 23rd of April,
and whilst the " Blanco Encalada " was lying quietly at anchor,
a torpedo boat called the " Almirante Lynch," belonging to the
Balmaceda faction, steamed into the bay of Caldera and dis-
charged a torpedo at the rebel ship. The " Blanco Encalada "
sank in a few minutes and 300 of her crew perished.
In the middle of August 1891 the rebel forces were embarked
at Iquique (where a provisional government under Captain
Jorje Montt had been set up), numbering in all about 9000 men,
and sailed for the south. On the 20th of August the congressist
army was disembarked at Quinteros, about so m. north of
Valparaiso, and marched to Concern, where the Balmacedists
were entrenched. A severe fight ensued, in which the troops
of President Balmaceda were defeated with heavy loss. This
reverse roused the worst passions of the president, and he ordered
the arrest and imprisonment of all persons suspected of sympathy
with the revolutionary cause. The population generally were,
however, distinctly antagonistic to Balmaceda; and this feeling
had become accentuated since the 17th of August 1891, on
which date he had ordered the execution of a number of youths
belonging to the military college at San Lorenzo on a charge of
seditious practices. The shooting of these boys created a feeling
of horror throughout the country, and a sensation of uncertainty
as to what measures of severity might not be practised in the
future if Balmaceda won the day. After the victory at Concon
the insurgent army, under command of General Campos, marched
in a southerly direction towards Vina del Mar, and thence to
PlaciJ la, , where the final struggle in the conflict took place.
Balmaceda's generals Barbosa and Alcemca had here massed
their troops in a strong position. The battle, on the 28th of
August, resulted in victory for the rebels. Both the Balmacedist
generals were killed and Valparaiso was at once occupied.
D0hfa4 Three days later the victorious insurgents entered
Baku* *t Santiago and assumed the government of the republic.
BMJmm- After the battle of Placilla it was dear to President
c * dM " Balmaceda that he could no longer hope to find a
sufficient strength amongst his adherents to maintain himself in
power, and in view of the rapid approach of the rebel army he
abandoned his official duties to seek an asylum in the Argentine
legation. The president remained concealed in this retreat until
the 1 8th of September. On the evening of that date, when the
term for which he had been elected president of the republic
terminated, he committed suicide by shooting himself. The
excuse for this act, put forward in letters written shortly before
bis end, was that he did not believe the conquerors would give
him an impartial trial. The death of Balmaceda finished all
cause of contention in Chile, and was the closing act of the most
severe and bloodiest struggle that country had ever witnessed.
In the various engagements throughout the conflict more than
»57
10,000 lives were lost, and the joint expenditure of the two
governments on military preparations and the purchase of war
material exceeded £10,000,000 sterling.
An unfortunate occurrence soon after the close of the revolution
brought strained relations for a short period between the govern-
ments of the United States and Chile. A number of men of the
U.S-S. "Baltimore" having been given liberty on shore, an
argument arose between some of them and a group of Chilean
sailors in a drinking den in Valparaiso. Words led to blows.
The Americans were badly handled, one of their number being
killed and others severely hurt. The United States government
characterised the affair as an outrage, demanding an indemnity
as satisfaction. The Chilean authorities demurred at this
attitude, and attempted to argue the matter. James G. Blaine,
then secretary of state, refused peremptorily to listen to any
explanations. In the end Chile paid an indemnity of $75,000
as asked, but the affair left bad feeling in its train.
The close of the revolution against Balmaceda left the govern-
ment of Chile in the hands of the junta under whose guidance
the military and naval operations had been organized.
Admiral Jorje Montt had been the head of this JSjJ* -
revolutionary committee, and he acted as president mZl
of the provisional government when the administration
of the country changed hands after the victory of the Congres-
sional party. An election was now immediately ordered for the
choice of a president of the republic and for representatives in
the senate and chamber of deputies. Admiral Montt, as head
of the executive power, stanchly refused to allow official influence
to be brought to bear in any way in the presidential campaign.
The great majority of the voters, however, required no pressure
to decide who was in their opinion the man most fitted to ad-
minister the affairs of the republic. For the first time in the
history of Chile a perfectly free election was held, and Admiral
Montt was duly chosen by a nearly unanimous vote to be chief
magistrate for the constitutional term of five years. The senate
and chamber of deputies were formally constituted in due course,
and the government of the republic resumed normal conditions
of existence. The new president showed admirable tact in dealing
with the difficult problem he was called upon to face. Party
feeling still ran high between the partisans of the two sides of the
recent conflict. Admiral Montt took the view that it was politic
and just to let bygones be bygones, and he acted conscientiously
by this principle in all administrative measures in connexion
with the supporters of the late President Balmaceda. Early in
1802 an amnesty was granted to the officers of the Balmaceda
regime, and they were freely permitted to return to Chile without
any attempt being made to molest them. The first political act
of national importance of the new government was the grant
of control to the municipalities, which hitherto had possessed
little power to direct local affairs, and were not even permitted
to dispose of the municipal revenues to any important amount
without first obtaining the consent of the central government.
Almost absolute power was now given these corporations to
manage their own concerns, and the organization of the police
was placed in their hands; at a later period, however, it was
found necessary to modify this latter condition.
President Montt next turned his attention towards the
question of how best to repair the damage occasioned to the
country by eight months of civil warfare. The plan of public
works authorized in 1887 was reconsidered, and the construction
of portions of the various undertakings recommenced. The
army and navy were reorganized. Additional instructors were
brought from Germany, and all arms of the military service
were placed on a thoroughly efficient footing in matters of drill
and discipline. Several new and powerful cruisers were added
to the navy, and the internal economy of this branch of the
national defence was thoroughly inspected and many defects
were remedied. President Montt then took in hand the question
of a reform of the currency, the abolition of inconvertible paper
money, and the re-establishment of a gold basis as the monetary
standard of the republic. This reform of the currency became
the keynote of the president's policy during the temauvtet dL
i S 8
CHILE
(HISTORY
his term of office. Great opposition was raised by the repre-
sentatives of the debtor class in congress to the suppression of the
inconvertible paper money, but in the end President Montt
carried the day, and on the nth of February 1895 a measure
finally became law establishing a gold currency as the only legal
tender in Chile. In July 1896 the Conversion Act was put in
force, a dollar of i8d. being the monetary unit adopted. In 1895
relations with the neighbouring republic of Argentina began to
become somewhat strained in regard to the interpretation of the
treaty concerning the boundary between the two countries.
The treaties of 1881, 1893 and 1895 left doubts in the minds of
both Chileans and Argentines as to the position of the frontier
line. On the 17 th of April 1896 another protocol was drawn
up, by which the contending parties agreed to submit any differ-
ences to the arbitration of Great Britain, at the instance of one
or both governments. President Montt had now fulfilled his
term of office, and on the 18th of September 1896 he handed
over the presidential power to his successor, Sefior Federico
Err&zuriz, who had been duly elected in the month of June
previously.
The election for the position of president of the republic was
closely contested in 1896 between Sefior Err&zuriz and Sefior
P ^ M ^ Reyes, and ended in the triumph of the former candi-
*?rrf TOr ^r date by the narrow majority of one vote. The father
of the new president had been chief magistrate of
Chile from 187 x to 1876, and his administration had been one
of the best the country had ever enjoyed; his son had therefore
traditions to uphold in the post he was now called upon to fill.
At the beginning of 1897 the public attention was absorbed by
foreign political questions. The problems to be solved were the
frontier difficulty with Argentina, the question of the possession
of Tacna and Arica with Peru, and the necessity of fulfilling the
obligation contracted with Bolivia to give that country a seaport
on the Pacific coast. The treaty made in 1896 with the Argentine
government, referring to the arbitration of disputed points con-
cerning the boundary, became practically for the moment a dead
letter, and both Argentines and Chileans began to talk openly
of an appeal to arms to settle the matter once for all. The
governments of both countries began to purchase large supplies
of war material, and generally to make preparations for a possible
conflict. In these circumstances no final settlement with Peru
and Bolivia was possible, the authorities of those republics
holding back to see the issue of the Chile-Argentine dispute, and
Chile being in no position at the time to insist on any terms being
arranged. So matters drifted until the beginning of 1898. In
July of that year the crisis reached an acute stage. Both Chile
and Argentina put forward certain pretensions to territory in the
Atacarna district to the north, and also to a section of Patagonia
in the south. Neither side would give way, nor was any dis-
position exhibited to refer the matter to arbitration under the
protocol of 1896. The cry of an acute financial crisis emanating
from the fear of war with Argentina was now raised in Chile.
The president was advised that the only way of averting the
financial ruin of the banking institutions of the republic was to
suspend the conversion law and lend from the national treasury
inconvertible notes to the banks. Sefior Err&zuriz weakly gave
way, and a decree was promulgated placing the
with currency once more on an inconvertible paper money
Aijiadam. basis until 1902. In August of 1898 the Chilean
government determined to insist upon the terms of the
protocol of 1896 being acted upon, and intimated to Argentina
that they demanded the fulfilment of the clause relating to
arbitration on disputed points. This was practically an ulti-
matum, and a refusal on the part of the Argentine government
to comply with the terms of the 1896 agreement meant a declara-
tion of war by Chile. For a few days the issue hung in the
balance, and then the Argentine government accepted the
provisions made in 1896 for arbitration. The dispute concerning
the Atacarna district was submitted to an arbitration tribunal,
consisting of the representative of the United States in Argentina,
assisted by one Argentine and one Chilean commissioner. This
tribunal, after due investigation, gave their decision in April
1899, and the verdict was accepted unreservedly by both govern-
ments. The dispute regarding the Patagonian territory was
submitted to the arbitration of Great Britain, and a commission
— consisting of Lord Macnaghten, Sir John Ardagh and Sir T. H.
Holdich — was appointed in 1899 to hear the case.
The Argentine difficulty was ended, but Chile still had to find
a settlement with Peru and Bolivia. The treaty made with the
former country in 1893 was not ratified, as it was thought to
concede too much to Peru, and the subsequent ad referendum
treaty was rejected on account of Peru claiming that only
Peruvians, and not all residents, should have the right to vote
in the plebiscite to be taken by the terms of the treaty of 1883
for the possession of Tacna and Arica. By the terms of the
armistice of 1883 between Chile and Bolivia, a three years'
notice had to be given by either government wishing to denounce
that agreement. By the protocol of 1895 Chile agreed to give
to Bolivia the port of Arica, or some other suitable position on
the seaboard. On these lines a settlement was proposed. Vitor,
a landing-place a little to the south of Arica, was offered by the.
Chilean government to Bolivia, but refused as not complying
with the conditions stated in the protocol of 1895; the Bolivians
furthermore preferred to wait and see if Arica was finally ceded
by Peru to Chile, and if so to claim the fulfilment of the terms of
the protocol.
After the accession to office of President Err&zuriz there was
no stability of any ministry. Political parties in congress were
so evenly balanced and so subdivided into groups that a vote
against the ministry was easy to obtain, and the resignation of
the cabinet immediately followed in accordance with the so-called
parliamentary system in vogue in Chile. The president of the
republic has no power to dissolve the chambers, to endeavour to
remedy the evil by one or another political party obtaining a
substantial working majority, but must wait to see the results
of the triennial elections. As a consequence of these conditions
Conservative, Liberal and coalition ministries held office at short
intervals. These unsettled political circumstances checked any
continuity of policy, and tended to block the passage of all useful
legislation to help forward the economic development of the
country and inhabitants; on the other hand, the financial
situation was better by the end of 1899 than in the previous year,
since all proposals for a fresh paper issue had been vetoed;
and the elections for congress and municipal office at the opening
of 1900 returned a majority favourable to a stable currency
policy.
In September 1900 a fresh outburst of hostile feeling against
Chile was created in Argentina by a note addressed by the Chilean
government to Bolivia, intimating that Chile was no longer
inclined to hand over the port of Arica or any other port on the
Pacific, but considered the time ripe for a final settlement of the
questions connected with the Chilean occupation of Bolivian
territory, which had now been outstanding for sixteen years.
The foreign policy of Chile, as indicated by this note, was con-
sidered by Argentina to be grasping and unconciliatory, and there
were rumours of an anti-Chilean South American federation.
Chile disclaimed any aggressive intentions; .but in December the
Bolivian congress declined to relinquish their claim to a port,
and refused to conclude a definite treaty of peace. The year
closed with a frontier incident between Chile and Argentina
in the disputed territory of Ultima Espcranza, where some
Argentine colonists were ejected by Chilean police; but both
governments signed protocols agreeing not to take aggressive
action in consequence.
At the opening of 1901 the country was chiefly interested in
the forthcoming presidential election, for which the candidates
were Don Pedro Montt (Conservative and Clerical)
and Sefior German Riesco (Liberal). The relations
between President Err&zuriz and congress became
rather strained, owing to the former's inclination to retain in
office a ministry on which congress had passed a vote of censure;
but Err&zuriz had been in ill-health for more than a year, and
on the 1 st of May he resigned, and died in July. At the ensuing
election Riesco was elected president. The attitude of Chile
HISTORY)
CHILE
"59
towards the Pan-American Congress at Mexico became a matter
of interest in the autumn, particularly in connexion with the
proposal for compulsory arbitration between all American
governments. The Chilean government made it quite dear that
they would withdraw from the congress if this proposal was
meant to be retroactive; and their unyielding attitude testified
to the apprehensions felt by Chile concerning United States
interference. In October the Chilean government announced
that the contemplated conversion scheme, for which gold had
been accumulated, would be postponed for two years (till October
1003), the gold being held as a reserve fund pending the result 1
of the arbitration over the Argentine frontier. This was generally
considered to be a reasonable and statesmanlike course. Un-
fortunately, a recrudescence of the excitement over the boundary
dispute was occasioned by the irritation created in Argentina J
by the fact that, pending a decision, Chile was constructing roads
in the disputed territory. During December 1001 relations were
exceedingly strained, and troops were called out on both sides.
But at the end of the month it was agreed to leave the question
to the British arbitrators, and the latter decided to send one of
their number, Sir T. H. Holdich, to examine the territory.
The survey occupied some eight months, and it was not until
the autumn that Sir T. H. Holdich returned to England to make
his report. The difficulty of ascertaining the true line
of the watershed had been very great, but the result
was eminently successful. The award of King Edward
was signed on the 20th of November 1902, and both
parties to the litigation were satisfied. In order that future
disputes might be amicably settled, a treaty was signed by
which it was agreed that any question that might arise should be
submitted to the arbitration of Great Britain or in default of
that power to the Swiss Confederation. The removal of this
source of irritation and the restoration of friendly relations
between the two republics was a great relief to the finance of
Chile. Had it not been for the political instability of the country,
the effects of the diminution of expenditure on military and naval
preparations would have effected a rapid improvement in its
financial position. The constant change of ministry (there
being no stable majority in the congress) prevented during 1003
any settled policy, or that confidence in the government which
is the basis of commercial prosperity. In 1004, however, both
trade and revenue showed signs of improvement, and the sale
of the warships " Esmeralda " and " Chambuco " for £1,000,000
furnished a surplus, which was devoted to the improvement of
the port of Valparaiso. This was the beginning of a period of
steady industrial growth and development. The settlement of
the long outstanding dispute with Bolivia in a treaty of peace
signed on the 17th of October 1905 was very advantageous to
both countries. By this treaty Bolivia ceded all claims to a
seaport and strip of the coast, on condition that Chile constructed
at her own charges a railway to Lapax from the port of Arica,
giving at the same time to Bolivia free transit across Chilean
territory to the sea. A cash indemnity of £300,000 was also paid,
and certain stipulations were made with regard to the construc-
tion of other railways giving access from Chile to the Bolivian
interior.
The prosperity of Chile was to suffer a rude shock. On the
17th of August 1006 a terrible earthquake visited Valparaiso
and the surrounding district. The town of Valparaiso
vitpmnlm was a | most entirely destroyed, while Santiago and
other towns were severely shaken and suffered much
damage. It was estimated that about 3000 persons
were killed, a still larger number injured, and at least 100,000
rendered homeless. The loss of property was enormous. The
fire which broke out after the earthquake shock had subsided
added to the horror of the catastrophe. Measures were, however,
promptly taken for succouring the people, who had been driven
from their homes, and the task of restoration was vigorously
taken in hand. Before the end of the year the rebuilding of the
city was rapidly progressing.
In 1006 Sefior Tedro Montt was elected president and entered
upon his office on the 17th of September. The personality of
the president, however, had become of much less Importance in
modem Chile than in earlier days. Up to 1870 the government
was in the hands of a small oligarchy of Santiago
families, but the president enjoyed large powers
of initiative. Nowadays the congress has virtually
absorbed the executive power, with the result that the
cabinet is olten changed many times in one year. This prevents
indeed any continuity of policy , for the majority in congress is
perpetually fluctuating, and ministerial crises rapidly follow one
another, Chilc> however, except in the Balmaccdist civil war,
is happily distinguished by its freedom from revolution and
serious politic*! unrest. Its history in this respect is in marked
contract to that of the neighbouring South American states.
The completion of the Trans- An dean railway between Valparaiso
and Buenos Aires was bound to be of immense commercial and
industrial value; and eventually the making of a longitudinal
railway route uniting the nitrate province of the north with
Santiago, and Santiago with Puerto Montt in the distant south,
opened up further important prospects. Such a line of through
communication, binding together the different provinces forming
the long narrow strip of territory stretching along more than
?ooo tn of the Pari fie littoral, could only be looked forward to,
both politically and economically, as an inestimable benefit to
the country,
BitJUOCtiafriiY.— General History. — The most valuable authority
ts D. Karros Arana 1 a Hiitoria jeneral de Chile (15 vols., Santiago,
tS§4>, from the earliest days up to 1830. Smaller handbooks cover-
i nil the whole period are : A. LL Hancock, a History of Chile (Chicago,
tJ*tj3), the only general hiitory in English, and containing a bibuo»
graphy; Caspar Tom, Compendia dela historic de Chile {(Santiago,
ifi-Ql. a good clear abstract of Chilean history; and F. Valdca
Wtrpak, Hhtoria de Chile (Valparaiso, 1898), written primarily
for *i.-hools,but containing useful sketches of leading figures in Chilean
history.
Works on Special Periods* — Colonial Period; M. L* Amunatequi.
Deicubti mienio y conguiita dt Chile (Santiago, rHft^X a valuable
detailed account of the Spanish conquest; by same author, Los
Prtctit sorts de la independettfia de Chile (Santiago, ifl?o), a dear
useful description of the evils of the Spanish colonial system;
Hcracio l,ara, Cronica de la Araitcania (Santiago, ibfeoh a history
of the Araucanian End tans right up to recent date?; Abbe Eyra*
guime, Hijtoire du Vhiii (Lille, 1855), mainly dealing with the
position of the Church during the colonial period. TVrei Garcia "a
miajmm dri trim* de Chile (Santiago, 1900), an old history by a
Spanish officer written about 1780, and Molina's History of Chi U in
the English translation (London, 1809}, will also be found useful.
Useful material for research exists in j. T. Medina's "Cetef-cion^dt
documentors para la historic de Chile (Santiago, tftoS), a collection
of despatches and official document*; hit Cows de la cohnia
(Santiago, t&So). an accumulation of undigested information about
life in the colonial period; and Historiadores de Chile (21 vols.,
Santiago, i860, a collection of ancient chronicles and official
documents up to the early part of the 1 7th century.
Revolutionary Period.— A. Roldan, Las Primeras Asambleas
na^ionaies (Santiago, 1890), an ncrrturvt uf the simtgliri in ihe first
national nsscmblic*; A + Valdrs, Revolution Cftitena _i )as dt
ta independettria (Santiago, iSflSK an account nf 11 '•■ • ;httng
and rivalry of the revolutionary leader*] \V. filling. > ■ iation
of South A Merita (London* i8g^h a translation of ii. Mitre'"- life of
S\nn Martin, describing the fighting in the mars ot independence;
Lord Cochrane, Narrative of Services in Civic, Peru and Brazil
(London, 1659), an autobiography describing thr naval exploits that
helped to secure the expulsion of the Spaniard*; B. Vicuna
Machcnna, Vtda de O'lliuini (Santiago, iS8?h giving a useful
account of the revolutionary struggle and the main actors; and the
same aulhor T s Histaria jeneral de ta TtpnhUta de Chile ; a collection
of cviays on theearfv republican history by various writers.
Later History. — R. Sdtonuyor Valdr* r Historia da Chili, j£jr-
i$?i* n detailed account of the period (Sanitago, in 75); \U. same
author's CampaSa del tjercite CbUeno en r*j7 (Santiago, 1896),
describing the fighting of the fir*t Peruvian War; I*. Vicuna
Marheftna. B. DietA PorUtles (Valparaiso, tfto3). a good accountof
the life and time of Portalts, the famous minister of the Conservative
party; P. 13. Fiqticroa, Histaria de la m^oltirion convaviytnU
iH$$^$Ct (Santiago, i&flo,), an account of the revolution at tIk end of
Monti a pregdenry ; F* Fonch, Chile in derCegetnrurt (Berlin.. 1870),
ft description of Chile at the time; Statement on Behalf of <. I He (tn
the Chilean' Argentine- Boundary Arbitration) (6 vols., London,
looi-njdj); Sir Thomas Holdich, Countries of ike Kintfs Award
(1904): Beltran y Krapido, Los Pwbioi htspana-ameriranoJ en el
sigto XX, { Madrid , 1904}; P. F- Martin, Through Five Republics of
South Amerira (London, luoo^t Wright. The Republic rf Chut
(London, 1905); G. F. Scott Elliot 1 Chili (London, 1907); Sir W. M.
CHILEAN CIVIL WAR— CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR
ay. Aconcagua and Tierra del Fuego (London. 1902); " Chile-
c -ntinc Arbitration" in the G«\*c. Journal (January 1903);
■^1. Pepper. Piiiwm.s to Pctizonin (London. 1907); C. £. Akcr*.
^3ty of Souih America, 1854-1004 (London, 1904); M. Hume,
-mre on the Repn^u of Chile (London. 1902).
IE. G. J. M.; C. E. A.; G. E.)
-^ILEAN CIVIL WAR (1891). The Chilean civil war grew
<^f political dissensions between the president of Chile. J. M.
laccda. and his congress (sec Chile: History), and began
nuary 1S91. On the 6th, at Valparaiso, the political leaders
: Congressional party went on board the ironclad " Blanco
lada," and Captain Jorjc Montt of that vessel hoisted a
! I>cnnant as commodore of the Congressional fleet. Frcpara-
had long been made for the naval pronunciamento, and in
0d but few vessels of the Chilean navy adhered to the cause
1 dictator " Balmaceda. But amongst these were two
and fast torpedo gunboats, " Almirante Condcll " and
irante Lynch." and in European dockyards (incomplete)
c most powerful vessel of the navy, the " Arturo Prat,"
m 'o fast cruisers. If these were secured by the Balmaccdists
^aval supremacy of the congress would be seriously
nged For the present, and without prejudice to the future,
ind of the sea was held by Monti's squadron (January),
nk and nle of the army remained faithful to the executive,
-«4S in the early part of the war the '* Gobeniistas,'* speaking
j^v, possessed an army without a licet, the congress a
^thout an army. Balmaceda hoped to create a navy; the
»s took steps to recruit an army by taking its sympathizers
_ i.rd the licet. The first shot was fired, on the 16th of
r— y> by l ^e " Blanco " at the Valparaiso batteries, and
^jS parties from the warships engaged small parties of
^ aiu'iit troops at variom places during January and
-, ry. The dictator's principal forces were stationed in
I ^ «mt Iqniquc. Coquimho, Valparaiso, Santiago and Con-
, -■ . The troops at Iquique and Coquimlto were necessarily
^--^ € I from the rot and from each other, and military opcra-
"^ ^,»K.in, as in the campaign of 1S70 in this quarter, with a
^^ c |i scent upon Pisagua followed by an advance inland to
"^^ — -•». The Congressional forces failed at first to make good
n. "*" footing (idth-jjtrd of January*, but, though defeated in
■— ^ r three act ions, they brought olT many recruits and a
^ it vol munitions of wir. On the joth they retook Pisagua,
""•" fc m the >S»» »«f February the Balmaccdist commander,
i i*» KobUs, who olToicd battle in the expectation of receiving
,__. ^ **, m'nuntH irom lac 11.1 . was completely defeated on the old
*^ % - tii Id of San Fr.ineisi o. Roblcs fell back along the railway,
^K» j up tioop* from Iquique, ami be.\t the invaders at Haura
-*-~ "•!•.* ! " tM ' ^ Ult Millie Ul l "»* meanwhile fell to the Congres-
^* % l lleet »»" the lCitli. The Piagua line of operations was at
m "» ^ ;ilu»»«loncd. and the military (ones of the congress were
- *" 4 \ by mm to Iquique. whence, under the command of Colonel
v "^" * 4l ,..l.io IVl Cinio. 1 hey started inland. The battle of Pozo
^ *\,nie. longhl on I he 71I1 of Man h. was desperately contested,
<«. "* * "j ,,.| Canto was superior in numbers, and Koblrs was himself
m • ^ .ni.l his ai in v di >peised. Aflet this the other Balmacedist
tm^ ^\I»* »»» ,n,t ,l,> "'' giw up the struggle. Some were driven
^» '•^ |\ \«. othets into Uolivi.i, and one column made a lalnirious
_.. ♦ ** t tiom I'.il.im.t to Santiago, in the lourse of which it twice
. — * *_* <1 .,ith»*iii.nn*hiiiioi the \nde<
*""" ngn NsUm.il iwti.i,!. t.V.S.-fi.'iww established in Iquique
^^ \i\\d ih»" w.n \ igoiousK , and by the end of April the whole
l. **" k *| l i% u« m the hand* oi the " irhel* " from the Peruvian
""^V ^.j i,t «V out post « o! 1 he B.ilni.it'edists at Coquimbo and La
— ~\ . % Vh." ''*•:«.: now bi-gan the formation of a pro|K'rly
■ '-.^ .... .1 . ._.i ■ .u :» ^ 1 1:^ 1
,d jiuo\ lot the next
which, it was believed
. x --..im <■»'»"■ i»-i mi hv\i lanquiiciv
"*".,, ^.i* »»*' is»th »ide*. wouUI be due* ted ag.imst Coquimbo.
. t v» '" "" >* t^e attival ol the new >hi|* from Europe
.- x-.s • ■>,• v:-.-. iji'c tv»i vvmmar.d ot the m.i. the /.TfeAr.w
.:• \\ « V hid alKsid\ weikuuM the Congres-
^ . ■ ■ %.\ ■%:» ^o\ * Air.R th. '" Blaiito Vni-alada " in
.. \ ... -^ ^... t tni: ("oii S h-s;.m;.,1 p.mv could
■ - - Vv: . i\ »\s<«;-„« ^t ot s-.i. iv-.iN e pu»\ in^ es.
, [ ... ,\ .\ ..• j...-.-.\ u- c:u4» lh*' duialor at a blow.
Where this blow was to fall was not decided up to the las
moment, but the instrument which was to deliver it was prepare,
with all the care possible under the circumstances. Del Cant
was made commander-in-chief, and an ex-Prussian officer, Em
Korncr. chief of staff. The army was organized in three brigade
of all arms, at Iquique, Caldcra and Vallenar. Kdrner supci
intended the training of the men, gave instruction in tactics t
the officers, caused maps to be prepared, and in general too
every precaution that his experience could suggest to ensur
success. Del Canto was himself no mere figurehead, but
thoroughly capable leader who had distinguished himself a
Tacna(i88o)andMiraflores(i88i),aswcllasinthe present wji
The men were enthusiastic, and the officers unusually numerous
The artillery was fair, the cavalry good, and the train an
auxiliary services well organized. About one-third of the inf antr
were armed with the (Mfinnlicher) magazine rifle, which now mad
its first appearance in war, the remainder had the Gras and othc
breech-loaders, which were also the armament of the dictator
infantry. Balmaceda could only wait upon events, but he pr<
pared his forces as best he was able, and his torpederas constantl
harried the Congressional navy. By the end of July Del Cant
and Kdrner had done their work as well as time permitted, an
early in August the troops prepared to embark, not for Coquimtx
but for Valparaiso itself.
The expedition by sea was admirably managed, and Quintero;
N. of Valparaiso and not many miles out of range of its batteries
was occupied on the 20th of August 1S01. B|lmaceda wa
surprised, but acted promptly. The first battle was fought
the Aconcagua at Concon on the 2 1 st. The eager infantry of th
Congressional army forced the passage of the river and storme
the heights held by the Gobcrnistas, capturing 36 guns. Th
killed and wounded of the Balmaccdists numbered 1600, an
nearly all the prisoners, about 1500 men, enrolled thcmselvc
in the rebel army, which thus more than made good its loss c
1000 killed and wounded. The victors pressed on toward
Valparaiso, but were soon brought up by the strong fortinc
position of the Balmaccdist general Barbosa at Vina del Mai
whither Balmaceda hurried up all available troops from Valparai:
and Santiago, and even from Concepci6n. Del Canto and Ktfrm
now resolved on a daring step. Supplies of all kinds were brougl
up from Quintcros to the front, and on the 24th of August tfc
army abandoned its line of communications and marched inlan<
The flank march was conducted with great skill, little oppositio
was encountered, and the rebels finally appeared to the soutl
cast of Valixiraiso. Here, on the 28th, look place the decisis
battle of La Placilla. Concon had been perhaps little more tha
the destruction of an isolated corps; the second battle was a fa
trial of strength, for Barbosa was well prepared, and had und<
his command the greater part of the existing forces of the dictato
But the splendid fighting qualities of the Congressional trooj
and the superior generalship of their leaders prevailed in tl
end over every obstacle. The government army was practical!
annihilated, 941 men were killed, including Barbosa and h
second in command, and 2402 wounded. The CongressibD
army lost over 1800 men. Valparaiso was occupied the san
evening and Santiago soon afterwards. There was no furth
fighting, for so great was the effect of the battles of Concon ar
La Placella that even the Coquimbo troops surrendered withoi
firing a shot.
Hiiiuograhiy.— Lieut. Sears and Ensign Wells, U.S.N.. T
t fci.'ian Revolution of 1891 (Office of Naval Intelligence, Washingtoi
^3): Tkt Capture of Valparaiso, 1S91 (Intelligence Departmcn
War Office. London, 1892); Hermann Kunz. Taklische Bmptele m
den Kiiecen der nemsten Zeit; der Burgerknsg in Chile (Uorli
lpoi); Revista rmlilar de Chile (February- March 1892): Hui
Kun*. Per Bur^irkricf> in Chile (Vienna, 1892); Miittdr Wochtnbl*
(jlh supplement. i%z); Sir VV. Laird Clowes, Four Modern Sat
CmtpMfzns (London, 1902); Proceedings of V. S. Naval Intliii
Ittaj) ifur La Placilla); and the military and naval periodicals
1892.
CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR (1870-1882). The proximate cau
of this war was the seizure, by the authorities of Bolivia, of tl
cflccts of the Chilean Nitrate Company at Antofagasta, th
part of the Bolivian province of Atacama. The first act
CHILIASM— CHILLIANWALLA
i6i
hostility was the despatch of 500 soldiers to protect Chilean
interests at Antofagasta. This force, under Colonel Sotomayor,
landed and marched inland; the only resistance encountered
was at Calama on the river Loa, where a handful of newly raised
militia was routed (23rd March 1879). About the same time
Chilean warships occupied Cobija and Tocapilla, and Sotomayor,
after his victory at Calama, marched to the latter port. Bolivia
had declared war on the 1st of March, but Peru not till the 5th
of April: this delay gave the Chileans time to occupy every
port on the Bolivian coast. Thus the Chilean admiral was able
to proceed at once to the blockade of the southern ports of Peru,
and in particular Iquique, where there took place the first naval
action of the war. On the 21st of April the Chilean sloop
" Esmeralda "and the gunboat " Covadonga "—both small and
weak ships — engaged the Peruvian heavy ironclads " Huascar "
and " Indepcndencia "; after a hot fight the " Huascar " under
Miguel Grau sank the " Esmeralda " under Arturo Prat, who
was killed, but Carlos Condcll in the " Covadonga " manoeuvred
the " Independcncia " aground and shelled her into a complete
wreck. The Chileans now gave up the blockade and con-
centrated all their efforts on the destruction of the " Huascar,"
while the allies organized a field army in the neighbour-
hood of Tacna and a large Chilean force assembled at Anto-
fagasta.
On the 8th of October 1879 the " Huascar" was brought to
action off Angamos by the " Blanco Encalada," and the " Al-
mirante Cochrane." Grau was outmatched as hopelessly and
made as brave a fight as Prat at Iquique. Early in the action
a shot destroyed the Peruvian's conning tower, killing Grau
and his staff, and another entered her turret, killing the flag
captain and nearly all the crew of the turret guns. When the
" Huascar " finally surrendered she had but one gun left in
action, her fourth commander and three-quarters of her crew
were killed and wounded, and the steering-gear had been shot
away. The Peruvian navy had now ceased to exist. The
Chileans resumed the blockade, and more active operations were
soon undertaken. The whole force of the allies was about
20,000 men, scattered along the seaboard of Peru. The Chileans
on the other hand had a striking force of 16,000 men in the
neighbourhood of Antofagasta, and of this nearly half was
embarked for Pisagua on the 2.6th of October. The expeditionary
force landed, in the face of considerable opposition, on the
2nd of November, and captured Pisagua. From Pisagua the
Peruvians and Bolivians fell back along the railway to their
reinforcements, and when some 10.000 men had been collected
they moved forward to attack the Chilean position of San
Francisco near Dolores station (19th November). In the end
the Chileans were victorious, but their only material gain was
the possession of Iquique and the retreat of the allies, who fell
back inland towards Tarapaca. The tardy pursuit of the
Chileans ended in the battle of Tarapaca on the 27th. In this
the allies were at first surprised, but, rapidly recovering them-
selves, took the offensive, and after a murderous fight, in which
more men were killed than were wounded, the Chileans suffered a
complete defeat. For some inexplicable reason the allies made
no use of their victory, continued to retreat and left the Chileans
in complete possession of the Tarapaca region. With this
the campaign of 1879 ended. Chile had taken possession of the
Bolivian seaboard and of the Peruvian province of Tarapaca,
and had destroyed the hostile navy.
The objective of the Chileans in the second campaign was the
province of Tacna and the field force of the allies at Tacna and Arica.
The invasion was again carried out by sea, and 12,000 Chileans were
landed at Pacocha (Ylo). far to the N. of Arica. Careful prepara-
tions were made for a desert march, and on the 12th of March 1880
the advanced corps started inland for Moqucgua, which was occupied
on the 20th. Near Moqucgua the Peruvians, some 2000 strong, took
up an unusually strong position in the defile of Cucsta de los Angeles.
But the great numerical superiority of the assailants enabled them
to turn the flanks and press the front of the Peruvian position, and
after a severe struggle the defence collapsed (March 22nd) In
April the army began its advance southward from Moquegua to
Tacna, while the Chilean warships engaged in a scries of minor
naval operations in and about the bay of Callao* Arica was also
watched, and the blockade was extended north of Lima. The
land campaign had ere this culminated in the battle of Tacna (May
26th), in which the Chileans attacked at first in several disconnected
bodies, and suffered severely until all their forces came on the field.
Then a combined advance carried all before it. The allies engaged
under General Narciso Campero, the new president of Bolivia, lost
nearly 3000 men, and the Chileans, commanded by Manuel Baque-
dano, lost 2000 out of 8500 on the field. The defeated army was
completely dissolved, and it only remained for the Chileans to march
on Arica from the land side. The navy co-operated with its long-
range guns, on the 7th of June a general assault was made, and before
nightfall the whole of the defences were in the hands of the Chileans.
Their second campaign had given them entire possession of another
strip of Peru (from Pisagua to Ylo), and they had shown themselves
greatly superior, both in courage and leadership, to their opponents.
While the army prepared for the next campaign, the Chilean navy
was active; the blockade became more stringent and several fights
took place, in one of which the " Covadonga " was sunk; an expe-
ditionary force about 3000 strong, commanded by Patricio Lynch,
a captain in the Chilean navy, carried out successful raids at various
places on the coast and inland.
The Chilean army was reorganized during the summer, and prepared
for its next operation, this time against Lima itself. General
Baqucdano was in command. The leading troops disembarked at
Pisco on the 18th of November 1880, and the whole army was ready
to move against the defences of Lima six weeks later. These defences
consisted of two distinct positions, Chorrillos and Miraflores, the
latter being about 4000 yds. outside Lima. The first line of defence
was attacked by Baqucdano on the 13th of January 1881. Recon*
naissanccs proved that the Peruvian fines could not be turned, and
the battle was a pure frontal attack. The defenders had 22,000 men
in the lines, the Chileans engaged about 24,000. The battle of
Chorrillos ended in the complete defeat of the Peruvians, less than a
quarter of whose army rallied behind the Miraflores defences. The
Chileans lost over 3000 men. Two days later took place the battle
of Miraflores (January 15th). Here the defences were very strong,
and the action began with a oaring counter-attack by some Peruvians.
Neither party had intended to fight a battle, for negotiations were in
progress, but the action quickly became general. Its result was, as
before, the complete dissolution of the defending army. Lima, in-
capable of defence, was occupied by the invaders on the 17th, and
on the 18th Callao surrendered. The resistance of the Peruvians was
so far broken that Chile left only a small army of occupation to deal
with the remnants of their army. The last engagement took place
at Caxacamara in September 1882, when the Peruvians won an
unimportant success.
Sec T. B. M. Mason. The War on the Pacific Coast, 1879-1881
(U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, 1883); Captain
Chatrauminois (transl.). MCmotre du Ministre de la Guerre du Chili
sur la guerre Chilo-Prrttvienne (188.2): Karros Arana, Hist, de la
guerre du Pacifique (1884); Sir W. Laird Clowes, Four Modern Natal
Campaigns (London, 1902): Anon., Prfcis de la guerre du Pacifique
(Pans, 1886) ; Clements R. Markham, The War between Peru and Chile.
CHILIASM (from Gr. xtXiaa/Jtos; *JX/ot, a thousand), the
belief that Christ will return to reign in the body for a thousand
years, the doctrine of the Millennium (q.v.).
CHILLAN, a city and the capital of the province of ftuble,
in the southern part of central Chile, 35 56' S., 71 37' W.,
246 m. by rail S.S.W. of Santiago and about 56 m. direct (108 by
rail) N.E. of Conccpci6n. Top. (1895) 28,738; (1902, official
estimate) 36,382. Chilian is one of the most active commercial
cities of central Chile, and is surrounded by a rich agricultural
and grazing country. Chilian was founded by Ruiz dc Gamboa
in 1594. Its present site was chosen in 1836. The original site,
known as Chilian Vie jo, forms a suburb of the new city. The
hot sulphur springs of Chilian,, which were discovered in
i79S. are about 4s m. E.S.E. They issue from the flanks
of the " Volcan Viejo," about 7000 ft. above sea-level. The
highest temperature of the water issuing from these springs is
a little over 135 . The principal volcanoes of the Chilian
group arc the Ncvado (9528 ft.) and the Viejo. After a repose
of about two centuries the Ncvado dc Chilian broke out in
eruption early in 1861 and caused great destruction. The
eruption ceased in 1863, but broke out again in 1864.
CHILLIANWALLA, a village of British India in the Punjab,
situated on the left bank of the river Jhelum, about 85 m. N.W.
of Lahore. It is memorable as the scene of a battle on the 13th
of January 1849, between a British force commanded by Lord
Gough and the Sikh army under Shcr Singh. The loss of the
Sikhs was estimated at 4000, while that of the British in killed
and wounded amounted to 2800, of whom nearly 1000 were
Europeans and 89 were British and 43 native officers. An
CHILON— CHILTERN HUNDREDS
163
range and the Andes, the fulfs of Chacao, or Ancud and Corcovado
(average width. 30 m.) separate the island from the mainland. Chiloc
has an extreme length north to south of about 1 18 m., and an average
width of 35 to 40 m„ with an area of about 4700 sq. m. There are
several lakes on the island— Cucao, 12 m. long, being the largest, —
and one small river, the Pudcto, in the northern part of the island,
is celebrated as the scene of the last engagement in the war for in-
dependence, the Spanish retaining possession of Chiloe until 1826.
CHILON, of Sparta, son of Damagetus, one of the Seven
Sages of Greece, flourished about the beginning of the 6th century
B.C. In 560 (or 556) he acted as cphor, an office which he is
even said to. have founded. The tradition was that he died of
joy on hearing that his son had gained a prize at the Olympic
games. According to Chiton, the great virtue of man was
prudence, or well-grounded judgment as to future events.
A collection of the sayings attributed to him will be found in
F. W. Mullach, Fragmenia Philosopkorum Craecorum. i.; see Hero*
dotus L 69; Diogenes Laertius i. 68; Pausanias iii. 16. x. 24.
CHILPERIC, the name of two Frankish kings.
Chilperic I. (d. 584) was one of the sons of Clotaire I. Im-
mediately after the death of his father in 561 he endeavoured
to take possession of the whole kingdom, seized the treasure
amassed in the royal town of Berny and entered Paris. His
brothers, however, compelled him to divide the kingdom with
them, and Soissons, together with Amiens, Arras, Cambrai,
Therouanne, Tournai and Boulogne, fell to Chilperic's share,
but on the death of Charibert in 567 his estates were augmented.
When his brother Sigcbert married Brunhilda, Chilperic also
wished to make a brilliant marriage. He had already repudiated I
his first wife, Audovcra, and had taken as his concubine a J
serving-woman called Fredegond. He accordingly dismissed
Fredegond, and married Brunhilda's sister, Galswintha. But
he soon tired of his new partner, and one morning Galswintha
was found strangled in her bed. A few days afterwards Chilperic
married Fredegond. This murder was the cause of long and
bloody wars, interspersed with truces, between Chilperic and
Sigebert. In 575 Sigebcrt was assassinated by Fredegond at
the very moment when he had Chilperic at his mercy. Chilperic '
retrieved his position, took from Austrasia Tours and Poitiers
and some places in Aquitaine, and fostered discord in the king-
dom of the east during the minority of Childebert II. One
day, however, while returning from the chase to the town of
Cbellcs, Chilperic was subbed to death.
Chilperic may be regarded as the type of Merovingian
sovereigns. He was exceedingly anxious to extend the royal
authority. He levied numerous imposts, and his fiscal measures
provoked, a great sedition at Limoges in 579. He wished to
bring about the subjection of the church, and to this end sold
bishoprics to the highest bidder, annulled the wills made in
favour of the bishoprics and abbeys, and sought to impose upon
his subjects a rationalistic conception of the Trinity. He
pretended to some literary culture, and was the author of some
halting verse. He even added letters to the Latin alphabet,
and wished to have the MSS. rewritten with the new characters.
The wresting of Tours from Austrasia and the seizure of ecclesi-
astical property provoked the bitter hatred of Gregory of Tours,
by whom Chilperic was stigmatized as the Nero and the Herod
of his time.
Sec Ser<5sia, L'Eglise et VEiat sous hs rots francs au VI' stole
(Ghent, 1888).
Chilperic II. (d. 720) was the son of Childcric II. He
became king of Neustria in 71s, on which occasion he changed
his name from Daniel to Chilperic. At first he was a tool in the
hands of Ragenfrid, the mayor of the palace. Charles Mart el,
however, overthrew Ragenfrid, accepted Chilperic as king of
Neustria, and, on the death of Clotairc IV., set him over the whole
kingdom. The young king died soon afterwards. (C. Pf.)
CHILTERN HILLS, or The Chiltexns, a range of chalk' hills
in England, extending through part of Oxfordshire, Bucking-
hamshire and Bedfordshire. Running from S.W. to N.E., they
form a well-marked escarpment north-westward, while the
south-eastern slope is long. The name of Chiltems is applied
to the hills between the Thames in the neighbourhood of Goring
bid the headwaters of its tributary the Lea between Dunstable
and Hitchin, the crest line between these points being about
55 m. in length. But these hills are part of a larger chalk system,
continuing the line of the White Horse Hills from Berkshire,
and themselves continued eastward by the East Anglian ridge.
The greatest elevation of the Chilterns is found in the centra
from Watb'ngton to Tring, where heights from 800 to 850 ft.
are frequent. Westward towards the Thames gap the elevation
falls away but little, but eastward the East Anglian ridge does
not often exceed 500 ft., though it continues, the northward
escarpment across Hertfordshire. There are several passes
through the Chilterns, followed by main roads and railways
converging on London, which lies in the basin of which these
hills form part of the northern rim. The most remarkable
passes are those near Tring, Wcndover and Prince's Risborough,
the floors of which are occupied by the gravels of former rivers.
The Chilterns were formerly covered with a forest of beech,
and there is still a local supply of this wood for the manufacture
of chairs and other articles in the neighbourhood of Wycombe.
CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An old principle of English parlia-
mentary law declared that a member of the House of Commons,
once duly chosen, could not resign his seat. This rule was a
relic of the days when the local gentry had to be compelled to
serve in parliament. The only method, therefore, of avoiding
the rule came to be by accepting an office of profit from the
crown, a statute of 1707 enacting that every member accepting
an office of profit from the crown should thereby vacate his seat,
but should be capable of re-election, unless the office in question
had been created since 1705, or had been otherwise declared to
disqualify for a scat in parliament. Among the posts of profit
held by members of the House of Commons in the first half of the
1 8th century are to be found the names of several crown steward-
ships, which apparently were not regarded as places of profit
under the crown within the meaning of the act of 1707, for no
seats were vacated by appointment to them. The first instance
of the acceptance of such a stewardship vacating a seat was in
1740, when the house decided that Sir W. W. Wynn, on inheriting
from his father, in virtue of a royal grant, the stewardship of the
lordship and manor of Bromficld and Yale, had ipso facto vacated
his seat. On the passing of the Place Act of 1742, the idea of
utilizing the appointment to certain crown stewardships (possibly
suggested by Sir W. W. Wynn's case) as a pretext for enabling a
member to resign his*seat was carried into practice. These
nominal stewardships were eight in number, but only two sur-
vived to be used in this way in contemporary practice — those
of the Chilterns and Northstead; and when a member wished
to vacate his seat, he was accordingly spoken of as taking the
Chiltern Hundreds.
1. Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, County Bucks.—'
The Chiltern Hundreds formed a bailiwick of the ordinary type.
They are situated on the Chiltern Hills, and the depredations 01 the
bandits, who found shelter within their recesses, became at an early
period so alarming that a special officer, known as the steward of the
Chiltern Hundreds, was appointed for the protection of the inha-
bitants of the neighbouring districts. It is doubtful at what date
the necessity for such an appointment disappeared, but the three hun-
dreds of Stoke, Burnham and Desborough are still distinguished by
the old name. The appointment of steward was first used Tor parlia-
meni.ir\ 11 oses in 1750, the appointment being made by the
chancellor of the exchequer (and at his discretion to grant or .not),
and the warrant bestowing on the holder " all wages, fees, allowances
and othc<- privileges and pre-eminences." Up to the 19th century
t litre was a nominal salary of 20s. attached to the post. It was laid
down in [846 by the chancellor of the exchequer that the Chilterns
could not be granted to more than one person in the same day, but
this rule has not been strictly adhered to, for on four occasions
*-ubM-'|iivrit to 1850 the Chiltems were granted twice on the same day.
The Chilterns might be granted to members whether they had taken
Mm* path or not, or during a recess, though in this case a new writ
could not be issued until the House met again. Each new warrant
expressly revoked the grant to the last holder, the new steward
retaining it in his turn until another should be appointed.
2. Steward and Bailiff of the Manor. of East Hundred, or Hendred,
Berks. — This stewardship was first used for parliamentary purposes
in 1763, and was in more or less constant use until 1840, after which
it disappeared. This manor comprised copyholds, the usual courts
were held, and the stewardship was an actual and active office, the
duties being executed by a deputy steward. The manor was •aldb^
164
CHILWA— CHIMERE
public auction in 1*23 fnr £910, but in some manner the crown
retained the ri^ht «.■( appointing a steward for seventeen years after
th.it date.
3. Slcxrard cni Biiu'ijF of the Manor of Nortkitead, Yorkshire. —
Thii manor *a* crown property before 1750, but was in lease until
1*3$. It hj? no copyhold land>. nor arc there any records of manor
courts. There are no traces of any profits having ever been derived
from the otticc. It was used for parliamentary purposes in 1844 an d
sub>c\]iH'nily.
4. .S.vu-vj of Ike Manor of Hempheime, Yorkshire. — This manor
appears to have been of the same nature as that of Northstead. It
wa> in li-.tf-c until 1835. It was first used for parliamentary purposes
in 1S45 >""! *>i s i" constant u<e until 1865. It was sold in 1866.
5. b.yikt'Uor of Munster. — Eacheators were officers commissioned
to Mvure the rights of the crown oyer property which had legally
1 >c heated to it. In Ireland mention is made of esc hca tors as early as
1250. In 1(105 the cschcaturship of Ireland was split up into four,
one for each province, hut the duties soon became practically nominal.
The eschcatorship of Munster was first used ior parliamentary pur-
poM'» in the Irish parliament from 1703 to 1 800, and in the united
parliament (24 times for Irish seats and once for a Scottish seat) from
1 80 1 to iii.?o. After 1820 it was discontinued and finally abolished
in 183H.
6. Strward of Ike Manor of Old Shorthorn, Sussex. — This manor
Itcloiigi'il to the duchy of Cornwall, and it is difficult to understand
how it came to lie regarded as a crown appointment. It was first
u-«d for parliamentary purj*»cs in 1756, and then, occasionally,
until 17OU, in whivh year it was sold by the duchy to the duke of
Norfolk.
7. Steward of the Manor of Poynin&. Sussex.— This manor reverted
to the crown on the death of Lord Montague about 1804, but was
leased up to alnuit 1835. It was only twice used for parliamentary
purposes, in 1H41 and 1S43.
8. Ksehealor of Vhter. — This appointment was used in the united
parliament three times, for Irish seats onl> : the last time in 1819.
Se parliamentary |viper — Ref**rt from Ike Select Committee on
House of Commons (Vtnattne, of Stats) (1894). (T* A. 1.)
CHILWA (incorrectly Shirwa), a shallow lake in south-cast
Africa, S.S.K. of Lake Xyasa, cut by 35 20' E., and lying between
15° a»«l 1 V* .i>' 5>. The lake is undergoing a process of desiccation,
and in some dry seasons ^as in 1S70 and 1003) the " open water "
is reduced 10 a munltcr of large |x>oI*. Formerly the lake seems
to have found un outlet north wards to the Lujcnda branch of
.the Kovuma, but with the sinking of its level it is now sepa-
rated fiom the Lujcnda by a wooded ridge sonic 30 to 40 ft.
above the surrounding plains. There arc four islands, the
l.uge*t 1 Mug joo ft. aUuc the water. The lake was discovered
b\ Pax id l.i\ ingstonc in 1850 and was by him called Shirwa,
I10111 a misdealing ol the natixe name.
CHIMAERA. m iluvk mythology, a- fire breathing female
liioiiMei n-M-iuMing a lion in the fore part, a goat in the middle,
and a id agon behind \/.'i.:./. vi. i;o\ with three heads corrcspond-
ing. Mic .!« \ attaint fan.iaud l.yiia until >hc was finally slain by
Itrlli-ioplion is U « 11. \. r,sihcr. fi'i.Vif.'/'Ai'ii. 1S51). The origin
i«l the muli was the \ oh aim- natuic ol the soil of l.ycia (Pliny,
,\.;i Ifnf. 11 11,,, Sr\iui on .!<««: \t, vi iSS), where works
liave bien b>und tout. lining icpicscntalions of the Chimacra
n the -impl,- i,.,,!, t ,| t j ul „ | n modem art the Chimacra is
.imi.iII\ t.pi. .. in,. I .,„ ., in,,,. *,(h a goal's head in the middle
>l the li.nl. a. in the bion/c i'hiiiiaria of Aie/.-o l«h century)-
IV moid h now u.id gem tally to denote A fantastic idea or
IlitlOll ot the iiiiae.ni iIiom
CHIMaY. a io»n 111 i he 1 vtietnc south east of the province of
lUuuut. Uil n iiiiii. dating Horn the ;lh tcntury. 1'op- (_io*m)
jw*v ll i« moie tomnioiiU s|H»ken ol as Imng in the district
*w* &«>•* ,-| || il|lt ii«,i,, : to us |iio\inuty to I he l-'icinh
?.w.vt \\ t\*» imdtigoiii iimm\ ».!. >*es. the laM of «hiih was in
-«*•* »Vc« IWnur Raw 01. 1, 1. iImi it should l»o 1 educed to
•»»•* ^m -.W. a wuU iiewi ••■ tu.l .i-i..!lu 1 IV town is chiefly
•>* *w.W »«A\*iV id ti K 11 us name. Originally a
P« * A* C*> u-n4js,V\ h 1- p 1 . . I 1 hi .nigh I he h'Aicn-
a fa> rrk »Ktk \V* p.,,,,, . ol Oiaman Chinuy.
a aia ' < ^ l - a •«a«« TtKABi^,,,!, 1 10 .:, nxohsli it |vwscs>ed
' " sw= - ^^^ tt * ■•awib i...l a modem JiAtcau
^-.: "=* '"^.*p- *^«^V ».■.:-.... v I his domain
^^ ~ ' ^^ S~_ " ^ V a **'*^% l- ! »%•»" ol ll.iiiuul.
■=-r — ^T^ T*^* r ' rM -*>*W* 1 1 '•* "« Ihctniidof.
. .^, * ~ ~,_ ^r* "* "^^ *• * ■ '■'"■ vxA ,u * , ' ,
memorial to her in the church, which also contains a fine monu-
ment of Phillippc dc Croy, chamberlain and comrade in arms of
the emperor Charles V. John Froissart the chronicler died and
was buried here. There is a statue in his honour on the Grand
Place. Chimay is situated on a stream called the White Water,
which in its lower course becomes the Viroin and joins the Mcuse.
CHIME. (1) (Probably derived from a mistaken separation
into two words, ckimbe Ml, of chymbal or chymbcl, the old form
of "cymbal," Lat. cymbalum), a mechanical arrangement by
which a set of bells in a church or other tower, or in a dock, are
struck so as to produce a sequence of musical sounds or a tune.
For the mechanism of such an arrangement in a clock and in a
set of bells, sec the articles Clock and Bkll. The word is also
applied to the tune thus played by the bells and also to the
harmonious " fall " of verse, and so, figuratively, to any harmoni-
ous agreement of thought or action. (2) ( From Mid. Eng. ckimb,
a word meaning " edge," common in varied forms to Teutonic
languages, cf. Ger. Kimmc), the bevelled rim formed by the
projecting staves at the ends of a cask.
CHIMERE (Lat. chimera, chimacra; O. Fr. ckamarrc, Mod. Fr.
si mar re; Ital. zimarra; cf. Span, zamarra, a sheepskin coat;
possibly derived ultimately from Gr. x«M<P*ot, "wintry,"
i.e. a winter overcoat), in modern English use the name of a
garment worn as part of the ceremonial dress of Anglican bishops.
It is a long sleeveless gown of silk or satin, o[>cn down the front,
gathered in at the back between the shoulders, and with slits
for the arms. It is worn over the rochet (q.r.), and its colour is
either black or scarlet (convocation robes). By a late abuse the
sleeves of the rochet were, from motives of convenience, some-
times attached to the chimcre. The origin of the chimere has
been the subject of much debate; but the view that it is a
modification of the cope (</.r.) is now discarded, and it is practic-
ally proved to be derived from the medieval tabard (tabardum,
taberda or collobium), an upper garment worn in civil ljfe by all
classes of people both in England and abroad. It has there-
fore a common origin with certain academic robes (see Robes,
§ Academic dress).
The word " chimcre," which first appears in England in the
14th century, was sometimes applied not only to the tabard
worn over the rochet, but to the sleeved cassock worn under it.
Thus Archbishop Scropc is described as wearing when on his way
to execution (1405) a blue chimere with sleeves. But the word
properly applies to the sleeveless tabard which tended to super-
sede, from the 15th century onwards, the inconvenient eappa
clausa (a long closed cloak with a slit in front for the arms) as the
out-of-doors upper garment of bishops. These chimeres, the
colours of which (murrey, scarlet, green, &c.) may possibly have
denoted academical rank, were part of the civil costume of
prelates. Thus in the inventory of Walter Skirlawe, bishop of
Durham (1405-1406), eight chimeres of various colours are
mentioned, including two for riding (pro equilatura). The
chimere was, moreover, a cold weather garment. In summer its
place was taken by the tippet.
In the Anglican form for the consecration of bishops the newly
consecrated prelate, hitherto vested in rochet, is directed to put
on " the rest of the episcopal habit," i.e. the chimcre. The robe
has thus become in the Church of England symbolical of the
episcopal office, and is in effect a liturgical vestment. The rubric
containing this direction was added to the Book of Common
Prayer in 1662; and there is proof that the development of the
chimcre into at least a choir vestment was subsequent to the
Reformation. Foxe, indeed, mentions that Hooper at his
consecration wore " a long scarlet chymcre down to the foot "
(.1(75 and Men., ed. 1563, p. 105 1), a source of trouble to himself
and of scandal to other extreme reformers; but that this was
no more tlian the full civil dress of a bishop is proved by the
fait that Archbishop Parker at his consecration wore surplice
and tip|K't, and only put on the chimcre, when the service was
over, to go away in. This civil quality of the garment still
survives alongside the other; the full dress of an Anglican prelate
at civil functions of importance {e.g. in parliament, or at court)
is »till rochet and chimcre.
CHIMESYAN— CHIMNEYPIECE
i*5
The continental equivalent of the chimere is the timarra or simarre,
which is defined by foreign ecclesiologists (Moroni, Barbkr de
Montauk) asa kind of soutane (cassock), from which it is distinguished
by having a small cape and short, open arms (manckes-fausses) reach-
ing to the middle of the upper arm and decorated with buttons. In
France and Germany it is fitted more or less to the figure; in Italy
it is wider and falls down straight in front. Like the soutane, the
timarra b not proper to any particular rank of clergy, but in the case
of bishops ana prelates it is ornamented with red buttons and bind-
rags. It never has a train (cauda). It is not universally worn, e.g. in
Germany apparently only by prelates. G. Moroni identifies the
u'marru with the epilogium which Domenico Magri, in his Hierolcxicon
(ed. 1677), calls the uppermost garment of the clergy, worn over the
soutane (toco) instead of the mantdlum (testis suprema clerieorum loco
palM), with a cross-reference to Tabardum, the "usual" upper
garment (pallium usuale) ; and this definition is repeated in the 8th
edition of the work (1732). From this it appears that so late as the
middle of the 18th century the timarra was still in common use as an
out-of-doors overcoat. But, according to Moroni, by the latter half
of the 1 Oth century the zimarra, though still worn by certain civilians
(&f . notaries and students), had become in Italy chiefly the domestic
garment of the clergy, notably of superiors, parish priests, rectors,
certain regulars, priests of congregations, bishops, prelates and
cardinals. It was worn also by the Roman senators, and b still worn
by university professors. A black timarra lined with white, and
sometimes ornamented with a white binding and gold tassels, b worn
by the pope.
More analogous to the Anglican chimera in shape, though not in
significance, b the purple mantellelum worn over the rochet by bishops,
ana by others authorized to wear the episcopal insignia, in presence
of the pope or hb legates. Thb symbolizes the temporary suspension
of the episcopal jurisdiction (symbolized by the rochet) so long as the
pope or his representative is present. Thus at the Curia cardinals and
prelates wear the mantelletum, while the pope wears the zimarra, and
the first act of the cardinal camcrlengo after the pope's death is to
expose his rochet by JjyiiiR a*.'u.Ie the mvniAlclum, the other cardinals
f.-,!li;\vir.c his example, as a symbol that during the vacancy of the
papacy the pope's jurisdiction is- vc&trd in the SrtCrcd College, _ On
the analogy ot the mantelittHm certain Anglican prelates, American
sad colonial, have from lime to time appeared in purpkchimerts;
vhich. as the Rev. N, F. Robinson justly points out, is a most un*
happy innovation, since it has no historical justification, and its
tymbclism Is rather unfortunate.
AVTHoairres.— See the Report of the sub-committee of Con*
vocation on the ornaments of the church and its minister?, p, j[
(London, 1 90S); die Rev, N< F, Robin»u t " The black chimere of
Anglican Prelates: a plea for its retention and proper use/ 1 la
Transactions of the St Paul 1 j Ecdetfakpad Sac, voL Jv. pp, 161-720
(London, 1808): Herbert Druitt, Costume on Brasses {London,
1906); C* NforonL Disionarie deli' erudizinnm storko-ecdesiastka
¥/enice, 1S01J1 vol, 103, 1.0. "Zimarra"; X. Barbicr do Montault,
raiii praticae da la tomtriuithn. &c** des teHscs* ju 538 (Paris,
ifljS). {W. A. PJ
CHIMESYAN (Tsimshian), a tribe of North American Indians,
now some 3000 in number, living around the mouth of the
Skeena river, British Columbia, and on the islands near the
coast. They are a powerfully built people, who tattoo and wear
lab rets and rings in noses and ears. They are skilful fishermen,
and live in large communal houses. They are divided into
dans and distinct social orders.
CHIMKENT, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of
Syr-darya, 70 m. by rail N.N.E. of Tashkent. Pop. (1897)
10,756, mostly Sarts. It occupies a strategical position at the
nest end of the valley between the Alexander range and the
Ala-tau (or Talas-tau), at the meeting of commercial routes
from (1) Vyernyi and Siberia beyond, from the north-east,
(a) the Aral Sea and Orenburg (connected with it by rail since
1905) to the north-west, and (3) Ferghana and Bokhara to the
south. The citadel, which was stormed by the Russians in 1864,
stands on high ground above the town* but is now in ruins.
Chi rake nt is visited by consumptive patients who wish to try
the koumiss cure. It has cotton miUs and soap-works.
CHIMNEY (through the Ft. chcminU, from caminata, sc.
camera, a Lat. derivative of cam in us, an oven or furnace), in
architecture, that portion of a building, rising above the roof,
in which are the flues conveying the smoke to the outer air.
Originally the term included the fireplace as well as the chimney
shaft. At Rochester Castle (1130) and Heddington, Essex,
there were no external chimney shafts, and the flue was carried
through the wall at some height above the fireplace. In the
early examples the chimney shaft was circular, with one flue only,
and was terminated with a conical cap, the smoke issuing from
openings in the side, which at Sherborne Abbey (a.d. 1300)
were treated decoratively. It was not till the 15th century that
the smoke issued at the top, and later in the century that more
than one flue was carried up in the same shaft. There are a few
examples of the clustered shaft in stone, but as a rule they are
contemporaneous with the general use of brick. The brick
chimney shafts, of which there are fine specimens at Hampton
Court, were richly decorated with chevrons and other geometrical
patterns. One of the best examples is that at Thornton Castle,
Gloucestershire.
In the 15th and 16th centuries in France the chimney shaft
was recognized as an important architectural feature, and was
of considerable elevation in consequence of the great height of
the roofs. In the chateau of Meillant (1503) the chimney shafts
are decorated with angle buttresses, niches and canopies, in the
late Flamboyant style; and at Chambord and Blois they are
carved with pilasters and niches with panelling above, carved
with the salamander and other armorial devices. In the Roman
palaces they are sometimes masked by the balustrades, and
(when shown) take the form of sepulchral urns, as if to disguise
their real purpose. Though not of a very architectural character,
the chimneys at Venice present perhaps the greatest variety of
terminations, and as a rule the smoke comes out on the sides
and not through the top. (R. P. S.)
Factory Chimneys. — Chimneys, besides removing the products of
combustion, also serve to provide the fire with the air requisite for
burning the fuel. The hot air in the shaft, being lighter than the cold
air outside it, tends to rise, and as it does so air flows in at the bottom
to take its place. An ascending current is thus established in the
! chimney, its velocity, other things being equal, varying as the square
> root of the height of the shaft above the grate. The velocity also
increases with increase of temperature in the gas column, but since
the weight of each cubic foot grows less as the gases expand, the
I amount of smoke discharged by a chimney does not increase inde-
finitely with the temperature; a maximum is reached when the
difference in temperature between the gases in the shaft and the out-
side air b about ooo° F., but the rate ofincrcase is very slow after the
difference has passed about 300° F. In designing a chimney the
I dimensions (height and sectional area) haw to be so proportioned to
[the amount of fuel to be burnt in the various furnaces connected
' with it that at the temperature employed the products of combustion
I are effectively removed, due allowance being made for the f fictional
1 retardation of the current against the sides of the flues and shafts
I and in passing through the fire. The velocity of the current in actual
I chimneys vanes widely, from 3 or 4 to 50 or 60 ft. a second. Increased
velocity, obtainable by increasing the height of the shaft, gives
increased delivering capacity, but a speed of 10 or 12 ft. a second
is regarded as good practice. Ordinary factory chimneys do not in
general exceed 180 or 300 ft. in height, but in some cases, especially
I when, as in chemical works, they arc employed to get rid of objection-
; able vapours, they have been made double that height, or even more.
In section they are round, octagonal or square. The. circular form
offers the least resistance to wind pressure, and for a riven height
and sectional area requires less material to secure stability than the
octagonal and still leas than the square; on the other hand, there is
I more liability to cracking. Brick is the material commonly used, but
• many chimneys are now made of iron or steel. Reinforced concrete
is also employed.
CHIMNEYPIECE, the term given to the projecting hood which
in medieval times was built over a fireplace to catch the smoke,
and at a later date to the decorative framework, often carried
•up to the ceiling. " Chimneypiece " or " mantelpiece " is now
the general term for the jambs, mantelshelf and external acces-
sories of a fireplace. For many centuries the chimneypiece
was the most ornamental and most artistic feature of a room,
but as fireplaces have become smaller, and modern methods of
heating have been introduced, its artistic as well as its practical
significance has grown less.
1 Up to the 12th century rooms were warmed entirely by a hypo-
caust, or with braziers, or by fires on the hearth, the smoke finding
its way up to a lantern in the roof. The earliest chimneypiece known
is that in the King's House at Southampton, with Norman shafts in
the joints carrying a segmental arch, which is attributed to the first
.half of the iath century. At a later date, in consequence of the
greater width of the fireplace, flat or segmental arches were thrown
across and constructed with voussoirs, sometimes joggled, the thrust
of the arch being resisted by bars of iron at the back. In domestic
[work of the 14th century the chimneypiece was greatly increased
in order to allow of the members of the family sitting on either side
of the fire on the hearth, and in these cases great beams of timber
were employed to carry the hood; in such cases the fireplace was so
CHIMPANZEE— CHINA
o.-l K\ ^ ■ •
V.:.,
vv!o-. :
r^.- .-.
: fc -.
W"*v*.
V
- ■*■ - e ■ _*: -! . £!■- iz Important architectural
- -.. . . :.:_ .*.■;-.•: ;-.— zi">r:«* existing u
'. _.- ;"» J — -> :-. ?: ::;r«. thich « nearly
-.-£. — -r;^-; t-.-'XT.i t? cirri- the hood;
_ — .- : . : _:<-*?=- —.s :ra.-cr\- c: an immense
. -i \^- _ ?.*'.\i._?.si= :s #v. le. :hc chimney piece
--.. i. 3 .-.;.» ^ i r-i^-^.e-: example; the
: - .i '. •:• is •.!■: *r.;".s ».i:h of the room.
.. .--..- J-_:-:-*Y iri e'.'-.ers of the royal
-•**-: :-. f-r — m:— •*.-£*. gztr of chimney pieces
: : .: : "■:* r .: .-•so*?; a .arge serifs, on which at a
.■- -r - .- r;- :-; %is Ss«\:. In France the finest
*_ --■v.-oi :*- :-i :? :? Se found in the chimncy-
-■-■ ■ -at* .> : w c early 17th century, when the
» -- .-:r:c-oc«c by Irago ) one*, were extremely.
■ .» .-.':^_»:--r.£ cr'.y 01 the ordinary mantcl-
.-. ■ ..-i.> xri * V .-:I:. the upper part of the
c :»:-'. .»i *.»s ;i< rest of the room. In the
- .-■ :>s .-J.S**: architrave wa» abandoned in
•■•■::r i^i rrnr c£*ctive moulding, as in the
--■.■= v\--.-. xr. J the shelf »as omitted.
~ ::: i.-:.-. :o.:* re:umed to the Inigo Tones
-:--■?; r . :>c Frtroh work of Louis Alv. and
-* c: T.-i' v presented by graceful figures on
<.v :.- n— > tie *hclf. wa* introduced, and the
*■ * 1- < lixrate irame for the family portrait
7. * -ri* the close of the iSth century the
"■* \ .v.- j.^tvrK'dcd all others, and a century
■ - :.- "Aso...*r.. The Adam mantel* are in mood
• : .-.: *• ' *. ^eclds, sometimes copied from the
- . ..:>.». (R. P.S.)
•"-.■• r " . tie vernacular name of the
»■' :*.-o -i»-J^ ar**. fcrsung the typical repre-
:>c ?::.* .i\.f*.-p:fiivcuSn Chimpanzees, of
^ * " : " ^< i: ..'£*: :*o species, range through the
- -«• ." V.r-,-1 :>.•= :he west coast to Uganda.
--■■> -"«- .. : >is Ssr. Icr^; known to European
*" ' . . : r-i:o.. *_:.^pc»c ir.i anatomist of his time, I
*^ • .; - . .. . . .: _ l. . xr.JL described it . as a pigmy
*. i r-.v's r-M.jhed in xooo. Of this baby .
^ **■•'•:*" r.:.*y be s«n in the Natural History
? : '-.>> Mukv.5 aIonp»:Jc the volume in which
I : i* .- j. r ,. y . A cvc - till 17SS that the chimpanzee
" * v r.v."*;r:.v.i ^5 a svicntinc name, having been I
•'-■■*. >;.-.: <;".'„• r.;\\!\Hs by the naturalist I
■"■ *.*'":vl.-:. X:: r.;* v!a^:ncation it was included
*■•* «* lN» ,•:;.■■ c-u: an: ard it has recently been
• «' '. — : 4 ^;- ,• jv-:.;irs of right to the chim-
■ ". .»* :>o »t.'.-^: u:.»r.. l>c:wcvn the typical West
'-■•'* »-..: ;hc ^ot-.ila i,".?.^ there is no difficulty
>: "v..o:-.. :ho duV.cuhy come* in when wc have
•"■■*»■::.:■ ; ra»«. or species, of chimpanzee, some
js*":. '.'..; l.',.c 1 ^; i; i$ by no means easy to dcter-
^ r ^"]"» :'*.»•> really pertain. In height the adult
«■* » x : w e t\ ^u-a! :>rm docs not exceed 5 ft ., and the
• > •*■ :...". V*.:.k. *h : '.c the skin, especially that of
'• •"*"»*..:.• '■. ;'v c.-.rs are remarkably large ar.vl
: »• '■..:.* : % v,*:: o;-.'.> a slvri d.>:.uicc below the
; v •**«•■.»;.■,• av..{ >":o:t. «i:hout proa'.inent beet- '
"• '•„• e\ e<. v r ,; >: r»«::.i *:»>*. along : he middle line of
• *■■*.: :!v :u>k> %i ; u .e o'.d ma'.es are of no very
. ■ - s *'- : , .r.\\\ Mo:«.v\ i-'f. there is- r.o very marked
' * -* *■■ :>e two ,*.\i*. Oentlene** and docility
•'■"'■*' »■■.■»*: 1 ho >-.vvie*. e\i*a when fuM-grown;
il \..-
■■■> !:.
I .-..■ ■
1« X
I<M-. v .^ V* xv -'-» a* the ix- ,. it
IM-..V 1 , N >' Via«:s Ate ». ;i ...
*'- • ...''••« ^ L»\w* ■'
*>' V^e t«.v.
l horou^Viy a r boreal .
more or k** inarkexl
T.i ■'.: :\ ;v« is>!xhuiinfurth , s
.-.-...;' "i'-'^i*. which in-
■.V-.:v , i exiA-ntlv bejoncing
. \'> 01: « certain gorilla-like
;■»»■' «,>\1 in the bald c'aim-
,i»». •. .i:id other regions of
\:--i •: ::\ thc^virx c\»wring
v« .■; .il! tS> iac\ * i«. ho*c\ er.
■ , ■^^ .^! .!.i ChaiMu. which
.1 v ' M '.!..ka." which li\ed
: . •.. ! .ii-i . i" ^ ^.■•.!..i-v::-. -.1 l.\M';.iO.
• ■» % s x> K *^ , '"- " - ,: '' w - 1 " Ai * r -'' t '""'°
,. r - 1 »-Sini|\n--« ' •>■'•: » .:."iHa. These .
iw .vvvvuiht'I m ' Johauiu," a female I
I chimpanzee living in Barnum & Bailey's show in 1699, which has been
described and figured by Dr A. Keith. The heavy ridges over the
brow, originally supposed to be distinctive of the gorilla, arc particu-
larly well marked in "Johanna." and they would doubtless be still
' more noticeable in the male of the same race, which seems to be
I undoubtedly du Chaillu's kulu-lcamba. Still the large size and
prominence of the ears proclaim that both " Mafuka " and
' Johanna " were chimpanzees and not gorillas. A gorilla-like
' feature in " Johanna " is, however, the presence of large foldi at
the sides {ala) of the nostrils, which are absent in the typical chim-
panzee, but in the gorilla extend down to the upper lip. Chimpanzees
exhibit great docility in confinement, where, however, they seldom
survive Tor any great length of time. They likewise display a much
higher degree ot intelligence than any of the other man-like apes.
(See Primates.) (R. L. 1 )
CHINA, a country of eastern Asia, the principal division of
itbe Chinese empire. In addition to China proper the Chinese
Empire includes Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet and Sin-kiang
1 (East Turkestan, Kulja, Dzungaria, &c, i.e. all the Chinese
'dependencies lying between Mongolia on the north and Tibet on
the south). Its most southern point is in 18 50' N.; its most
northern in 53 as' N.; its most western in 74° E., and its most
eastern in 135° E. It lies, however, mainly between 20 and
,50° N. and 8o° and 130° E. It is considerably larger than the
whole of Europe- Though its area has not been exactly ascer-
tained the various estimates closely approximate, varying
between 4.277,000 and 4.300,000 sq. m. It is bounded X.W.,
N. and N.E. by Asiatic Russia, along a frontier extending some
6000 m.; E. by Korea and those parts of the Pacific known as
the Yellow Sea and China Sea; S. and S.W. by the China Sea,
French Indo-China, Upper Burma and the Himalayan states.
It is narrowest in the extreme west. Chinese Turkestan along
the meridian of Kashgar (76° E.) has a breadth of but 250 m.
It rapidly broadens and for the greater part of its area is over
1800 m. across in a direct N. and S, line. Its greatest length is
from the N.E. corner of Manchuria to the S.W. confines of Tibet,
a distance of 3100 m. in a direct line. Its seaboard, about 5000
m. following the indentations of the coast, is almost wholly in
China proper, but the peninsula of Liao-tung and also the western
shores of the Gulf of Liao-tung arc in Manchuria.
China 1 proper or the Eighteen Provinces (Shik-pa-shtng)
occupies the south-eastern part of the empire. It is bounded N.
by Mongolia, W. by Turkestan and Tibet, S.W. by Burma, S.
by Tongking and the gulf of that name, S.E. by the South China
Sea, E. by the East China Sea, the Yellow Sea, Gulf of Chih-li
and Manchuria. Its area is approximately 1,500,000 sq. m.
This vast country is separated from the rest of continental
Asia by lofty tablelands and rugged mountain ranges, which
determine the general course — west to east — of its principal
rivers. On the north and west the Mongolian and Tibetan
tablelands present towards China steep escarpments across
which are very few passes. On the S.W. and S., on the borders
of Yun-nan, high mountains and deep valleys separate China
from Burma and Tongking. On the narrow N.E. frontier the
transition from the Manchurian plateau to the alluvial plain of
northern China is not abrupt, but, before the advent of railways.
Manchuria afforded few and difficult means of access to other
regions. Thus China was almost cut off from the rest of the
world save by sea routes.
I. The Country
Western China consists of highlands often sparsely, and eastern
China of lowlands densely peopled. Western China contains the
only provinces where the population is under zoo per sq. m.
From the Tibetan and Mongolian tablelands project mountain
ranges which, ramifying over the western region, enclose elevated
level tracts and lower basins and valleys. East of this mountain-
ous region, which extends into central China and covers probabh/
1 As to the origin of the names China and Cathay (the medieval
nanu-l s-ee Mow 8 //is/ory. According to one theory the name
I'liina i* of Malay origin, designating originally the region now called
Indo-China. but transferred in early times to China proper. By the
Chinese thv country is often called Skih-pa-shcng, " the Eighteen
the number of it* great territorial division*, b
lgdom," properly used ot
the Flowery Kingdom."
I Provinces." from I
is also called CAwi£*aw, " the Middle r
the central part of China, and Hva-kwo,
GEOGRAPHY)
CHINA
167
folly half of the kingdom, are, in the north a great alluvial plain
and in the south a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill
ranges of moderate elevation (see 5§ Mountains and Geology).
In north-eastern China there is only one mountain system, the
group of hills— highest peak 5060 ft.— forming the Shan-tung
peninsula. This peninsula was formerly an island, but has been
attached to the mainland by the growth of the alluvial plain.
Besides the broad division of the country into western and
eastern China it may also be considered as divided into three
regions by the basins of its chief rivers, the Hwang-ho (Yellow
river) in the north, the Yangtsze-kiang in the centre, and the
Si-kiang (West river) in the south. In the northern provinces of
Kan-suh and Shen-si the basins of the Hwang-ho and Yangtsze-
kiang are separated by a mountain chain with various names —
the eastern termination of the Kuen-lun range of central Asia.
These mountains, in China, attain, in the Tsing-ling Shan, a
maximum elevation of 13,000 ft. East of Shen-si, in Ho-nan the
Fu-niu-shan continue the range, but with decreasing elevation,
and beyond this the deltaic plain is entered.
The watershed between the Yangtsze-kiang and that of the
Si-kiang is less clearly marked. It traverses the immense table-
land which occupies a great part of the south-west provinces of
Yunnan and Kwei-chow and is continued eastward by the lower
tableland of Kwang-si and the Nanshan hills (whose elevation
seldom exeeeds 6000 ft.). The basin of the Yangtsze-kiang forms
the whole of central China. Its western border, in Sze-ch'uen
and Yun-nan, is wholly mountainous, with heights exceeding
10,000 ft. Central Sze-ch'uen, which is shut in by these moun-
tains on the west, by the Yun-nan and Kwei-chow plateau on the
south, by the Kiu-lung range on the north, and by highlands
eastward (save for the narrow valley through which the Yangtsze-
kiang forces its way), is a vast red sandstone tableland of about
1600 ft. elevation. It is exceedingly fertile and supports a dense
population. Eastward of Sze-ch'uen the Yangtsze valley is
studded with lakes. Finally it enters the deltaic plain. The
basin of the Si-kiang fills the two southern provinces of Kwang-si
and Kwang-tung and contains no very striking orographic
features. It may be added that in the extreme S.W. portion of
China Is part of a fourth drainage area. Here the Mekong,
Salween, Song-koi (Red river), &c. flow south to Indo-China.
Thi Coast.— The Coast-tine, following alt the minor indentation*,
b reckoned at over 4500 m. ; if only the larger inlet 1 and pro-
mon tones be regarded, the coast -tine is about 2iv> m. in length*
Its shape is that of a semicircle* with its most easterly point midway
(30° N.) between its northern and southern extremities* At either
end of this semicircular iwcep lies a peninsula, and beyond the
peninsula a gulf. Irt the north are the peninsula of Shan-tung and
the gulf of Chih-li; in the south the Lien -chow poo insula and the
gulf of Tongldng. Due south of Lien-chow peninsula, separated
from it by a narrow strait, is Hal-nan., the only considerable island
of China. From the northern point of the gulf of Chih-li to 30* N,.
where is Hang-chow bay, the chores are Rat and alluvial save where
the Shan-tung peninsula jut* qui. Along this stretch there are few
good natural harbours, except at the mouths of rivers and in the
Shan-tung promontory; the sea is shallow and has many shoals.
The waters bordering the coast of Chih-li arc partly frozen in winter;
at 10 m. from the shore the water is only 20 ft. deep. The proximity
of Peking gives its few ports importance; that of Taku is at the
mouth oft he Peiho. In bhan-tung, deeply indented on its southern
coast, are the ports of Chi-fu, Wei-hai-wci and Tsing-tao (the last in
Kiao-chow bay). South of Shan-tung and north of the mouth of the
Yangtsze huge sandbanks border the coast, with narrow channels
between them and the shore. The estuary of the Yangtsze is 60 m.
across; it contains islands and sandbanks, but there is easy access
to Wusung (Shanghai) and other river ports. The bay of Hang-
chow, as broad at its entrance as the Yangtsze estuary, forms the
mouth of the Tsicn-tang-kiang. The Chusan and other groups of
islands lie across the entrance of the bay.
South of Hang-chow bay the character of the coast alters. In
place of the alluvial plain, with flat, sandy and often marshy shores,
the coast is generally hilly, often rocky and abrupt; it abounds
in small indentations and possesses numerous excellent harbours;
in this region are Fu-chow, Amoy, Swatow, Hongkong, Macao,
Canton and other well-known ports. The whole of this coast is
bordered by small islands. Formosa lies opposite the S.E. coast,
the channel between it and Fu-kien province being about 100 m. wide.
Formosa protects the neighbouring regions of China from the typhoons
experienced farther north and farther south.
Surfact.—Kt already indicated, one of the most noticeable features
in the surface of China is the immense deltaic plain in the north*
eastern portion of the country, which* curving round the mountain*
ous districts of Shan-Lung, extends for about 700 m. in a southerly
direction from the neighbourhood of Peking and varies
from 1 50 to 5'JO m. in breadth. This plain is the delta of
the Yellow river and, to some extent, that of the Yangtuc-
kiang atio. Beginning in the prefecture of Yung-ping Fu, in the
province of Chih-li, ii» outer limit passe? in a westerly direction a*
far as Chang -p'ing Chow, north- west of Peking* Thence running
a south-south- westerly course it potacs westward of Cheng-ting Fu
and Kwang-p*ing Fu till it reach M the uppcf waters of the Wei river
in Ho-nan. From this point it turn* westward and crosses the
Hwang-ho or Yellow river in the prefecture of Hwai-k ing< Leaving
this river it lakes a course a little to the east of Hutjih, and pasting
west of ju-ning Fu, in the province of Ho-nan, it turns in a more
easterly direction as far as Luchow Fu. From this prefecture an
arm of the plain, in which lies the Chao Lake, stretcher *nuthward
from the Hwai river to the Yangtsie-kiang, and trending eastward
occupies the region between that river and Hangehow Bay. To the
north of thk arm rises a hilly district, in the centre of which stands
Nanking* The greater part of this va*t plain descends very gently
towards the sea, and is general Ey below the level of the Yellow
river, hence the disastrous inundations which so often accompany
the rise of that river* Owing to the great quantity of soil which it
brought down by the water* *■[ the Yellow river* and to. the abxmco
of oceanic currents this delta is rapidly increasing an d the adjoining
seas are as rapidly becoming shallower* As an instance, it is said
that the town of r'utal was one Chinese mile 1 west of the seashore
in the year too b.c, and in 17JO it was 140 rn* inland, thus giving a
yearly encroachment upon the sea of about 100 ft. Again, Sien-
F.hwuy-)iow on the (Vino was on the seashore in a.u. 500* and it is
now about 18 m. inland.
Some of the ranges connected with the mountain system of
central Asia which enter the western provinces of China have been
mentioned above, others may be indicated here. In the
eastern portion of Tibet the Kuen-lun range ihrowa off
a number of branches, which spread first of all in a south- " **
easterly direction and eventually take a north and south course,
partly m the provinces of S«Mih"ucn and Yun-iun. when? they divide
(be beds of the rivers which now into Sinin and French Indo-China,
as well as the principal northern tributaries of the Yangtsic-kiang.
In tie north-west, traversing the western portion of the province of
Kan-suh, arc parallel ranges running N.W, and S.E. and forming a
prolongation of the northern Tibetan mountains. They are known
as the Lunci-shan, Rkhthofcn and Nan^bau, and join on the autith-
east the Kuen-lun range* The Kisrhthofen range (locally called
Tien-shan, or Celestial Mo untaiiuOattain^ elevations of over jofioo it.
Several of its peaks arc snowclad, and there are many glaciers.
Forming the northern frontier of the province of Sze-ch'uen run the
Min*fch,-inaivd the Kiudung(or Po-mlng} ranges, which, entering China
in loa" £., extend in a general easterly course as far as t J? J K- in tho
province of Hu-peh, These ranges have an average elevation of
8000 and Upooo ft. respectively. In the south a number of parallel
ranges spread from the Yun-nan plateau, in an easterly direct Iom ai
far as the province of Kwang-tuiig. Then turning north-e ait ward
they run in lines oftcnparjllel with the coast, and cover large areas
of the prmince* of Fu-kien, Kian^— i, L'hch-kiau^. Hii-nan ami
400 them N'gnn-hui. until they reach the Yangtsiokiang; the valley
of that river from the Tung-ting Lake to Chinkiaug Fu forming
their northern boundary, fn Fu-kien these hills attain the character
of a true mountain range with heights of from 6500 to nearly 10,000
ft. Besides the chief range* there are the Tai-lung Mountains in
5han-*i,and many other** among which may be mentioned the ranges
— part of the escarpment of the Mongolian ptaieau— which form the
nor 1 hern frontier nf Chih-li. Here the highest peak is Ta-fcuang*
tin^-tju (o^oo ft.), about 300 m, N.fc.E. of Peking and immediauTy
north of Wei Ch'ang (the imperial hunting grounds).
Ktvers and canals. — The rivcra ot China are very numerous and
there are many canals. In the north the rivers are only navigable by
small caitj rlscirhcrc thty form some of the most fre- —, v.rra^
ouented highways in the counl ry. The two largest rivers, Jr* y** 9 *
the Yaiigti^e-kiangand ihc Hwang-ho (YcUaw river), arc
separately; noticed. The Hwang- bo (length about aaoo m.) baa
only one important tributary in China, ihe Wei- ho, which rises ill
Kan-nuh and flows through the centre of Shcn-si. Below the con-
fluence the Hwang-ho enters the plains. According to the Chinese
records this portion of the river has changed its course nine timet
during 2500 years, and has emptied itself into the sea at different
mouths, the most northerly of whirh is i (presented as having been
in about w° N, + or in the neighbourhood of the present mouth of the
IV 1 ho, and the most southerly bring that which existed before the
change in 1851-18M, in 34* H. Owing to its small value as a navi-
gable highway and to its propensity to inundate the regions in its
rieithbourhooo, there are no considerable towns on its lower course.
The Yangtze- tiarti; is the- chief u.net^ay v<\ China. The river,
flowing through the centre of the country, after a course of 2000 m.,
empties itself into the Yellow Sea in about $1° N. k Unlike the
Yellow river, the Yangtsze- kiang is dotted along its navigable
portions with many rich and populous cities, among which are
Nanking, An-ch'ing (Ngank'ing). kiu-kiang, Hankow and I-ch'ang.
1 A Chinese mile, ti t or U *=0 36 English mile.
GEOLOGY]
CHINA
169
Great Deep Lake In ancient tiroes it went by the name of the
Klu-tdang Hu, or Lake of the Mine Riven, from the fact that nine
liven Bowed into it, It* thiei arHuemi are the Siang-kiang, which
rises in the highlands in the north of Kwang-si and flaws in a general
N,NJu direction , and the Vuen-kiang, whicn flows N, and then E.
from the eastern border of KwcJ-chow* The like is connected with
the Yaogtsic-kiang by two canal*, die Taping and the Yochow Fu,
In mj miner it La ft^J by the overflow from the Yangt*4e-kiang; in
winter it pours It* waters bio that river through the Yochow Fu
canal. During the » inter and spring the water of the lake is to low
that the shallow portions become i»umi» r separated by rivers such
as the Siaug and Vucn, and numberless st reams; but in summer,
owing to the rue in the water* of the Yingi striding, the whole basin
of the lake is filled* U is then about 75 ra* long and 60 m» bmad.
About [So m* E. of the Tung-t'ing lake is the Poyang lake, which
occupies the Tow- lying pa.it of the province of Kiang-si, and is con*
netted with the \an£tszc by the Hu-kow canal. The Poyang lake
is also subject to a wide difference between high and low water, but
40 1 quite to the same extent as the Tung- ting lake, an* I its land-
marks arc more distinctly defined, ft is about 90 m. long by 30
broad* The T'ai lake, in the neighbourhood of Su-chow Fu, is also
celebrated for its size and the beauty of its surroundings. It is
about J Jo ra. in circumference, and! is dotted over with islands,
on which are builf temple* For the devotees of religion, and summer-
houses for the votaries of pleasure from the rich and voluptuous
cities of Hang<how and 5u-chow. The boundary line between the
provinces of Che h-kiang and Kiang-su crosses its blue waters, and
its shores are divided among thirteen prefectures. Besides these
takes there are, among others, two in \ un-nan, the Kun-yang-hai
(Ticn-chi) near Yun-nan Fu, which is 40 m. long and is connected
with the Yangt*ize-kianjt by the I'u-to river, and the Erh-hai tUrh-
bai)to the east of the city of Tali.
the Great Wall. — Along the northern provinces of Chih-li, Shan-si r
Shen-si and Kan-suh, over 22° of longitude (98° to 120° E.), stretches
the Great Wall of China, built to defend the country against foreign
aggression. It was begun in the 3rd century B.C., was repaired in
the 15th century, and in the 16th century was extended by 300 m.
Following the windings the wall is 1500 m. long. Starting near the
seashore r at Shan-hai-kwan on the gulf of Liao-tung, where the
Chinese and Manchurian frontiers meet, it goes eastward past Peking
(which is about 15 m. to the south) and then trends S.and E. across
Shan-si to the fiwsng-hu. From the n<"
fi
the Hwang-ho there is an inner and an outer
{northern) wall passes through Kalgan. thus guarding the past
ntO Mongolia. A branch wall separates the greater part of the
western: frontier of Chih-li from Sh.in iL West of the Hwang-ho
the Great Wall forms the northern frontier of Shcn-si, and west of
Sben-si it keeps near the northern frontier of Kan-suh, following
for some distance in that province the north bank or the Hwang-ho,
It ends at Kiayu-kwan (98* 14' !£,) ju&t west of Su-cliow. This part
of the wall was built to pniiccr the one main artery leading from
central Asia to China through Kan-suh and Shcn**i by the valley
of the Wei-ho, tributary of the Hwang-ho, There is a branch wall
In Kan-auh running west and ivout h to protect the Tibetan Frontier.
Tne height of the « all ii generally from jo to 30 ft- and at intervals
of socne 200 yds. arc towers about 40 Ft. high. Its ba*e is from
15 to 2$ ft. tnick and tea sumniit u ft. wide. The wall is carried
over valleys and mountains, and in places is over 400a ft. above
•ea-level. Military posts are stilt maintained at the chief gatea or
paases— at Shan-hai-kwan, the Kalgan pass, the Yenmun pass (at
the N. of Shan-si) and the Kaiyu pass in the extreme west, through
which runs the caravan route to Barkal in Turkestan. Colonel
A. W. S. Wingate, who in the opening years of the 20th century
visited the Great Wall at over twenty places widely apart and
gathered many descriptions of it in other places, states that its
position is wrongly shown " on the maps of the day " (1907) in a
number of places; while in others it had ceased to exist, " the only
places where it forms a substantial boundary being in the valley
bottoms, on the passes and where it crosses main routes. These
remarks apply with particular force to the branch running south-
west from the Nan-k'owpass and forming the boundary of Chih-li
and Shan-si provinces." In Colonel Wingate's opinion the wall
was originally built by degrees and in sections, not of hewn stone,
but of round boulders and earth, the different sections being repaired
as they fell into ruin. " Only in the valley bottoms and on the
passes was it composed of masonry or brickwork. The Mings
rebuilt of solid masonry all those sections through which led a likely
road for invading Tatars to follow, or where it could be seen at a
distance from the sky-line." The building of the wall "was a
sufficiently simple affair," not to be compared with the task of
building the pyramids of Egypt.'
l Thc portion of the wall which abutted on to the sea has been
destroyed.
• Sec the Gcog. Jnl. (Feb. and March 1907). For a popular account
•he wall, with numerous photographs, see The Great Wall of
■ (London, 1909), by \V. E. Gicl, who in 1908 followed its course
^t to west. Consult also A. Williamson, Journey in North
<ndon, 1870); Martin, " La Grande Muraille dc la Chine,"
tiftque (1891).
Climate — The climate over so vast an area as China necessarily
varies greatly. The southern parts of Yun-nan, Kwang-si and
Kwang-tung (including the city of Canton) lie within the tropics.
The northern zone (in which lies Peking) by contrast has a climate
which resembles that of northern Europe, with winters of Arctic
severity. The central zone (in which Shanghai is situated) has a
generally temperate climate. But over both northern and central
China the influence of the great plateau of Mongolia tends to establish
uniform conditions unusual in so large an area. The prevailing winds
during summer/ — the rainy season — arc south-easterly, caused by
heat and the ascending current ol air over the sandy deserts of
central Asia, thus drawing in a current from the Pacific Ocean.
Jn the winter the converse takes place and the prevailing winds,
descending from the Mongolian plateau, are north and north-west,
and arc cold and dry, From October to May the climate of central
China is bracing and enjoyable. The rainfall 19 moderate and regular.
In northern China the inrx)ua]hiei both of temperature and rainfall
arc greater than in the central provinces. In the province of Chih-li,
for example, the heat of summer is as intense as is the cold of winter.
In summer the rains often render the plain swampy, while the dry
persistent westerly winds of spring create dust storms (experienced
vn Peking from March to June). The rainfall is, however, uncertain,
and thus the harvests are precarious. The provinces of Shan-tung
and Shan-si are peculiarly liable to prolonged periods of drought,
with consequent severe famines such at that of 1877-1878, when
many millions diecL In these regions the air is generally extremely
dry, and the daily variations of temperature consequent on excessive
radiation are much greater than farther south.
Accurate statistics both of heat and rainfall are available from a
few stations only. The rainfall on the southern coasts is said to be
about 100 in. yearly; at Peking the rainfall is about 24 in. a year.
In the coast regions the temperatures of Peking, Shanghai and
Canton may be taken as typical of those of the northern, central
and southern zones. In Peking (39° N.) the mean annual temperature
is about 53°F.,the mean for January 23°, for July 79°. In Shanghai
(31 ° 11' N.)* the mean annual temperature is 59°. the mean for
January 36«a , for July 80-4°. In Canton (23 15* N.) the mean
annual temperature is 70°, the mean for January 54 , for July 82*.
The range of temperature, even within the tropics, is noteworthy.
At Peking and Tientsin the thermometer in winter falls sometimes
to 5* bduw icro and rises in summer 10 J05" (at Taku 107° has
been recorded); in Shanghai jn winter the thermometer fall* to 18*
ami in summer rises to 102 9 T In Canton frost is said to have been
record wi, but according to the China Sta Directory the extreme range
is from 3& a to tooV The climate of Shanghai, which resembles,
but Is not so good as, that of the Yangtsze-kiang valley generally, is
fairly healthy, but there ii an almost constant excess of moisture.
The summer months, July to September, are very hot, while snow
usually falls in December and January.
At Canton and along the south Coast the hot season corresponds
with the S.W. monwon; the cool season— mid October 10 end of
Anril— wkh 1 lie NtL monsoon. Farther r nonh* at Shanghai, the
S,W. monsoon is sufficiently felt to make the prevailing wind in
su mnicr southerly,
Prtmnte$. — China pre per is divided into the following provinces:
Chcli-kianc. Chihdi. FVtien, Ngan-hui (An-hui), Ho- nan, Hu-nan»
Hu-peb h Kfln--iiih F Kiang-si, kiang-su. Kwang-ai, Kwang-tung*
Kwei-vbnw, Shan^si* Shan-tune, 5hen-si, Sre-ch'uen and Yun-nan,
See the separate notice* of eaA province and the article on She rig.
king, the southern provi nee of Maach uria, X.
Geology.
The Palaeozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part
of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mcsozoic and
Tertiary deposits are cstuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial
origin. From the close of the Palaeozoic period down to the present
day the greater part of the empire has been dry land, and it is only
in the southern portion of Tibet and in the western Tian Shan that
any evidence of a Mcsozoic sea has yet been found. The geological
sequence may be summarized as follows: —
Archean.— -Gneiss, crystalline schists, phyllites, crystalline lime-
stones. Exposed in Liao-tung, Shan-tung, Shan-si. northern Chih-li
and in the axis of the mountain ranges, e.g. the Kucn-lun and the
ranges of southern China.
Sinian. — Sandstones, quart rites, limestones. Sometimes rests
unconformably upon the folded rocks of the Archaen system ; but
sometimes, according to L6czy, there is no unconformity. Covers
a large area in the northern part of China proper; absent in the
eastern Kuen-lun; occurs again in the ranges of S.E. China. In
Liao-tung Cambrian fossils have been found near the summit of the
scries: they belong to the oldest fauna known upon the earth,
the fauna of the Oknellus zone. It is, however, not improbable
that in many places beds of considerably later date have been
included in the Sinian system. .^____^_____
' For Shanghai the figures are compiled from twenty-six years' ob-
servations. Sec China Sea Directory, vol. iii. (4th ed., 1904) p. 660.
* The thermometer registered 23* F. in January 1893. on the river
28 m. below Canton. This is the lowest reading known. Ibid.
pp. 104-105.
CHINA
[FAL-NA
A-
of
ci'
di:
ki
•1'.
an
ki.:
pi,
its
ecu
kiai
the.
difTi
the «
from
hiRhci
The r
river)
Ssia-ho
the «ur|
tli** Ion..
Yellow':
follows ll
nrcM - nt ri«*.
the hisM.ir.
of b^oon-. \
th it l.ik<* on t •
About ?r> m. \
:it the to-.sn of N
fli." e-.»t. and a'.
On tin- u»-t *id«; ■■
n..'W « i:t •• .«•' ro-s it, i
centmv a div chatif.'
Ly t Is*- Yi-Hi.-a- riv.r. .
tying north of that *tre •
Fauna.
C w: -a !!c« within two zcKilo^iral province"; or rrciins. its southern
7«t:. -r. '. ?-r.'.~± a part of tin- Oriental «..- Indi.in region and having 1
■ i..-i •.! <• a*;-.:. : i that ot the v.*. -tern Himalaya, Ilurma and >i.im,
•* -• -ea* ::.-.■ d.-* riots to th'* north of Fu-<how and s-nrh of tlv;
Y-- „••*.• •'»":-.; he within th* * -a -tern llolarcti* iPalaearcri<\: re.;io.n,
:r --.:-. r tho -^.:th-.rn lri:'.,:e of the Litter, which has l*-en -» r.aratt d
-..» :'"•• M ■;.:.:.«■: .r.eart tr.msitionil region. Ot t Ii«*~o two divi.-i'in- of
•- C ■•:■: fj-"..i. the northern era- is the more interesting, 'inc.- it
— •.» ::.e ;h. : '.' .•rr.-.: ■.■:" a number of peculiar generic- type-*, and al»o
j •'*-• :> '.v- rej-n.-.r.v.d ebewhere at thr present diy '.exclusive in
:-.':i?< : Japan * :.!y in North Amcri<a 1 ho occurrence in China
* :'-.v>o txp*:-* ci-nir: n to th*.' *.«st».rn ami we: t» rn hemispheres is
• r-:r".".t ir. r:.c.."-: ' • *''••• J "rnur exist* r.*e of a Iand-I»r:d;'C b* twe* n
t :.-• : : A«!i .\r. : V.r'h An « r:.;a bv wav of Hrriny, ^trait.
.!.ar t *< China and North Aim tin the a'li^.ror
Y.i
Tr
■•-n..:"^ i> cer.erically identiial wish i» < M i •:«».• -ij.ji
»* ..•t.-I caked -!i:r t :«->n of the Yan£tf/i- and Ilw.tr.^-i.o
. w Mpantid. as Pt-fhurus, from the c!om'1v a'.L d
. •i' , • , . Arr.e :kt insectivorous mammals the Crfiin»--«j
"•• u-T'iel* >. r* *p«vti\oly forming th.- i'.eriera tVi-/;-.7:-i
are r- Mre*«.n!*d in America l..\ S>-urjtti:hns. TJ:e
. r i f the r:\crs of China and Japan ami the Chiu'-e
are ' v ^.>^l^• ins':id«'d in the same cen«'ra as th> ir
> g»«
•■ -- ' -• . s .::k .
A" :. ' - :■•• V'' - n:.:':\c*. wh:!.- by other* rhey arc n-U rnxl to
.: -":. W "•'':*•.'. . r view wo takedi.x % = no! alt« r th«ir« \o-v rel.«
^- •: - ..- *.. ■" r< on the Tibetan frontier, and othci- in M inehurla
^ ... .• .. j
A- '.;..- !s rr.am«n"»!i a-id birds, the lanjr^t number of i;cni.rii- and
*;-. •:•.■ <;»•• :!..:r to China are nut with in S/i-ih'inn. Fon.-ni'vt
: •. ■; •'" - *' J he ^nat j-anda (Aflur^pu* mcliino!. m :uus). n pre en r-
• ^ .. ;• -'"'•' «••*• h\ probably related to I mars and to the true pir.da
.1 ." •- . t:-.-. !..:r- r ot" wlu-.-h has a loi.il rare in ^/<'-rh"ufn. N.:>t
. . . , .-. . <..,.» .-.„, .t ntankey* (RfnnopHhtrus), (#1 whiih t !*«-- typi-.il
. • •.<!?.*. :.a*;\^ -^f S.-c-ch'urn, whi!-- a M.«e«in«l is found on the upper
M„* ' ,:. .'" '• a t'-lr-.l in the mountains of u.-ntral Cliina. In the In-
<:.:iv. rx : l .e sw-v.min^-shrcw (AV«/"jf *?/#•) fr>rms an<»ihi-r neni rie tvr-e
:---• >-..!-— r '..- <.•••»•!• *;:«.n. wh;.h is al-*> tho sole habitat of t7u- n.oli'-J.ke
!"". i •: ■• "»• • • I '•. , .^.- ;.'••«:, niar akin to the Japan. -e f.>W» VAif*. of
>* : *..•■ • v. v.'-. h eonr.ects the Utter with tho m«.h-$ (Ti:!f>,;\ ana cf
.V. : :•.: :..•. i : .! :ti\<-of the Mala> rat— hrows {(iywxitr.i). H«*iv iba
' J- ;\ le —» ". ! thj r.u.oop.-d-.»ii. forming the s'i!yi'!ius r.'yritTt'u!--:,
i ^-. :• » : • ■ C!.- • i a:: I Japan. The Himalayan l.'aek ami the Mal..v
';<.'.: "..»«.• iah a I -:al i.ive in Szc-rh'iun, whero tlu- lonj-hair.d
Fo— ..: ' "'." ■"'•* yF''- ( .''»»':«) and the Tibet cat (F. si ':>'■-•; ronni-.t
Ir. : *-M :' 'v «r* •"•• * w >''» tHl> Anii'tican «v« Ms, whilo th«" bay rat (F.
..••• •■ -. \-. . a M .'ay type, is n presented by Io..\il for»tis in >A-i h'uou
.-- ' i .:■ : -a. The Arauiland Ieo[Hinl and Man-'hurian ti^cr likevsibc
*.,«,-:• -v l.val r..:e> of tluir w-spivtiw spc< irs.
" A- • ^ r;:::-. i :-a is'.*. theSze-rh'mn takin npu -ont* a genu.< (BmJ-.t-
. -.- :.•..•. ! «.' • wlure in the Mi-hrai 11:11s an<l lihutan. while "-.rows
v, ":.."...»'• and porals lt>i'.'».:c;<.0, allu-d to Himalayan and
»:. -N!a'av f»pv5. ab.u:nd. Ihe Himalavan fauna i- al-^o rp:c-
1/ •.• '. l-va ra/e of the Ka-hmir han/ul deer. l»f olh« r de,r. the
.- . ••:! '•i!;;.! 1 . i»f Tire PavidV milu > (^/.:^»rni) l formerly kept in
■ • i\\'.: i park, i^ unknown. The sika n r oup, wl-.irh != p^ruliar to
w J\p:n a-.-l Formosa, is rcpre-i nt«d by Or..v> kcrtul rum in
V- *c'-;t..i and the stralkr C. v:ar.churitu% ami \ik<i in that pr.j\incc
.•: :V Ya«vt>.'e \all>y; while nui'-k-deer iMosch:^) al>ound in
"s--?..h M'l S-e-rh'u.n. The «-mall wator-d«or (IlyJrcf:- ,vi or
"* ■•..'. -'::.^ ot the Yau^tsze valhy represents a t-eniis peculiar to
♦• .-.'.I't.-v. as dv> the three frnteic-s of tufted d or (Fs,i;>h,\!m),
.-•wr t.Jru'^e extends fr«imSzc-eh*u«n to Niny-i>«iuiid I-ch'anjj.
* "• ** % t,Vr :..': s) are likewUc verv th tract* ri-tic of the country,
• s '- :ae white-tailetl. plum-colourcil .-jxi ie*. like the Tena-serirn
• . - -. -. : « t are |>t-rT.liar. The otrurrenrc of r;iu * nf tlu: wapiti in
\ .-.. • ••;.! and Amurland has been already mention**].
•"• .-.::: :»!e f ail to the numerous form«ol rx)d'-nt-» inhabiting China
. • .v~: .'c hire, and it must .suffice to mention th.'t tin: tlyin?-
- . :\wk\%) are renrcs*nted bva lar«;e and haiulsome >j>>cks
*. *..;..- ..•:', w'ht-rv is al-o found tne lar^o-t kind of bair.b-'o-rat
". .••"-'. 'he other s-jK'cks of whkh .ire native* of the w<-t*rn
•'.- a a- 1 the Malay countries. Dwarf hamstir- of th-.- jjenui
: .. .--.* rati\es of the northern proving. ■. In the *\i:en»e
, • • :: ... ; -na. is found a gibUm ape (//>.'-: .'.-.• \, whi!«- lar';::r
• -. ' and maraque monk*>y< iSfacacu ) likewi.e *K.xur in
* . -e M the latter a\*o inhabiting Sze-ch'in. n.
• ••* a%!« N ;'Mtc a*vount of Chinc.-e ornitholo^" would rem ire
*• • •'•"^ ;h«« lrna»h «f this article. The co:-, i U - man<b?in
. •; ■•;.;^ ha* alieatly Uen mentioned anionv; j;en*ric t\ •.**•*
' . ■ "*»••. r:ca. In marked distinction to this i-! thr- iramU-r of
'...•v-!? inhabiting: north-we«tern China, win no* the
..-, ":.. »S'ea*t*Tii Himalaya. Amor.: Chim*?.. >p«.cies..re
. * • .. ,; O :osof liUy»d-ph*aints i/;/;.;^ »•,-.-.>, t«.: tra K .»j-i:>
• "• :'; ^»:'>. a monal (.Lophiifl:,r U ^\, t'm-o out u f the hve
•- i'uni, the other two l»*.ii:^ 1 ihotan. two kind? of
.. '...^u-i s'Mdcn and Amherst ">. ph*as.mt- alone rejirt".
• ■ , ^.^'•ry»o.'.' , / , /'M«•, together with «cvcial specie" of the
* -;*..i*ius, among whith it will Miffice to mention the
FtORAJ
CHINA
171
lung-tailed P. reevesi. The Himalayan bamboo-partridge* (Bam-
tusuota) have also a Chinese representative. The only other large
bird that can be mentioned is the Manchurtan crane, misnamed
Grusjaponensis. Pigeons include the peculiar subgenus Dendroteron ;
while among smaller birds, warblers, tits and finches, all of an
Eastern Holarctic type, constitute the common element in the avi-
fauna. Little would be gained by naming the genera, peculiar or
otherwise.
China has a few peculiar types of freshwater tortoises, among
which Ocadia sinensis represents a genus unknown elsewhere, while
there is also a specks of the otherwise Indian genus Damonia. The
Chinese alligator, Alligator sinensis, has been already mentioned.
Among lizards, the genera Plestiodon, Mabuia, Tackydromus and
Gecko, of which the two latter are very characteristic of the Oriental
region, range through China to Japan ; and among snakes, the Malay
python {Python reticulatus) is likewise Chinese. The giant sala-
oundcr (Cryptobranchus, or Megalobatrachus, maximus) represents,
as mentioned above, a type found elsewhere only in North America,
while ilynobius and Onychodactylus arc peculiar generic types of
salamanders. Among fishes, it must suffice to refer to the spoon-
beaked sturgeon (Psephurus) of the Yangtsze-kiang, and the numerous
members of the carp family to be found in the rivers of China. From
these native carp the Chinese have produced two highly coloured
breeds, the goldfish and the tclescopc-cycd carp.
Among the invertebrates special mention may be made of the great
aibnthus silk-moth (Attacut cynthia) of northern China and Japan,
and also of its Manchurian relative A. pernyi ; while it may be added
that the domesticated " silkworm " (Bombyx mori) is generally
believed to be of Chinese origin, although this is not certain. Very
characteristic of China is the abundance of handsomely coloured
swallow- tailed butterflies of the family Papilionidae. The Chinese
kermes (Coccus sinensis) is also worth mention, on account of it
yielding wax. As regards land and freshwater snails, China exhibits
a marked similarity to Siam and India; the two groups in which the
Chinese province displays decided peculiarities ofits own being Helix
(in the wider sense) and Clausilia. There arc, for instance, nearly
half a score of subgenera of Helix whose headquarters are Chinese,
while among thesc.lorms with sinistral shells are relatively common.
The genus Clausilia is remarkable on account of attaining a second
centre of development in China, where its finest species, referable to
several subgenera, occur. Carnivorous molluscs include a peculiar
slug (Ralhouisia) and the shelled genera Ennea and Strep taxis. In
the western provinces species of Buliminus arc abundant, and in the
operculate group Heudeia forms a peculiar type akin to Helicina, but
with internal foldings to the shell.
Lastly, it has to be mentioned that the waters of the Yangtsze-
kiang are inhabited by a small jelly-fish, or medusa (Limnocodium
kavaii), near akin to L. sower bit, which was discovered in the hot-
bouse tanks in the Botanical Gardens in the Regent's Park, London,
but whose real home is probably the Amazon. (R. L.*)
Flora.
The vegetation of China is extremely rich, no fewer than 0000
species of flowering plants having been already enumerated, of which
nearly a half are endemic or not known to occur elsewhere. Whole
provinces are as yet only partially explored ; and the total flora is
estimated to comprise ultimately 12,000 species. China is the con-
tinuation eastward of the great Himalayan mass, numerous chains of
mountains running irregularly to the sea-board. Thousands of deep
narrow valleys form isolated areas, where peculiar species have been
evolved. Though the greater part of the country has long ago been
cleared of its primeval forest and submitted to agriculture, there still
remain some extensive forests and countless small woods in which
the original flora is well preserved. Towards the north the vegetation
is palaearctic, and differs little in its composition from that of
Germany, Russia and Siberia. The flora of the western and central
provinces is closely allied to that of the Himalayas and of Japan ;
while towards the south this clement mingles with species derived
from Indo-China. Burma and the plain of Hindostan. Abovea certain
elevation, decreasing with the latitude, but approximately 6000 ft. in
the Yangtsze basin, there exist in districts remote from the traffic of
the great rivers, extensive forests of conifers, like those of Central
Europe in character, but with different species of silver fir, larch,
spruce and Cembran pine. Below this altitude the woods are com-
posed of deciduous and evergreen broad-leafed trees and shrubs,
mingled together in a profusion of species. Pure broad-leafed forests
of one or two species are rare, though small woods of oak, of alder
and of birch arc occasionally seen. There is nothing comparable to
the extensive beech forests of Europe, the two species of Chinese
beech being sporadic and rare trees. The heaths, Calluna and Erica,
which cover great tracts of barren sandy land in Europe, arc absent
from China, where the Ericaccous vegetation is made up of numerous
species of Rhododendron, which often cover vast areas on the moun-
tain slopes. Pine forests occur at low levels, but arc always small in
extent.
The appearance of the vegetation is very different from that of
the United States, which is comparable to China in situation and in
extent. Though there are 60 species of oak in China, many with mag-
nificent foliage and remarkable cupules, the red oaks, so characteristic
of North America, with their bristle-pointed leaves, turning beautiful
colours in autumn, are quite unknown. The great coniferous forest
west of the Rocky Mountains has no analogue in China, the gigantic
and preponderant Douglas fir being absent, while the giant Sequoias
are represented only on a small scale by Cryptomeria, which attaint
half their height.
Certain remnants of the Miocene flora which have disappeared
from Europe are still conspicuous and similar in North America and
China. In both regions there arc several sjxxies of Magnolia ; one
species each of Liriodendron, Liquidambar and Sassafras; and curious
genera like Nyssa, Hamamelis, Decumaria and Gymnociadus. The
swamps of the south-eastern states, in which still survive the once
widely spread Taxodium or deciduous cypress, arc imitated on a
small scale by the marshy banks of rivers near Canton, which are
clad with Glyptostrobus, the " water-pine "of the Chinese. Pstudo-
larix, Cunninghamia and Keteleeria are coniferous genera peculiar to
China, which nave become extinct elsewhere. The most remarkable
tree in China, the only surviving link between ferns and conifers.
Ginkgo biloba, has only been seen in temple gardens, but may occur
wild in some of the unexplored provinces. Its leaves have been
found in the tertiary beds of the Isle of Mull.
Most of the European genera occur in China, though there are
curious exceptions like the plane tree, and the whole family of the
Cistaceae, which characterize the peculiar maquis of the Mediterranean
region. The rhododendrons, of which only four species are European,
have their headquarters in China, numbering 130 species, varying in
size from miniature shrubs 6 in. high to tall trees. Lysimachia,
Primula, Clematis, Rubus and Gentiana have each a hundred species,
extraordinary variable in habit, in size and in colour of the flowers.
The ferns are equally polymorphic, numbering 400 species, and
including strange genera like ArchnngioMcris and Cheiropteris,
unknown elsewhere. About 40 species of bamboos have been dis-
tinguished; the one with a square stem from Fu-kien is the most
curious.
With a great wealth of beautiful flowering shrubs and herbaceous
plants, the Chinese at an early period became skilled horticulturists.
The emperor Wu Ti established in in B.C. a botanic garden at
Ch'ang-an, into which rare plants were introduced from the west
and south. Many garden varieties originated in China. The
chrysanthemum, perhaps the most variable of cultivated flowers, is
derived from two wild species (small and inconspicuous plants), and
is mentioned in the ancient Chinese classics. We owe to the skill of
the Chinese many kinds of roses, lilies, camellias and peonies; and
have introduced from China some of the most ornamental plants in
our gardens, as Wistaria, Diervilla, Kerria, Jncarvillea, Dcutzia,
Primula sinensis, HemerocoMis, &c. The peach and several oranges
are natives of China. The varnish tree (Rhus vernicifera), from
which lacquer is obtained; the tallow tree (Sapium sebiferum); the
white mulberry 1 on which silkworms are fed; and the tea plant were
all first utilized by the Chinese. The Chinese have also numerous
medicinal plants, of which ginseng and rhubarb are best known.
Nearly all our vegetables and cereals have their counterpart in China,
where there are numerous varieties not yet introduced into Europe,
though some, like the Soy bean, are now attracting great attention.
(A.HB.*)
Authorities.— L. Richard (5.J.), Giographie de I 'empire da China
(Shanghai, 1905) — the first systematic account' of China as a whole in
modern times. The work, enlarged, revised and translated into
finish by M, Kctinrlly (S.JJ, wu reissued in 1908 as Richard's
CufHprchmsiiv G*-*>g'<ipky of lite Chine te Empitt and Dependent****
This is the standard an charity for iIil- country and Rivts for carlt
section bibliographical notes. It has been uwl-c! in the revision of the
present article* Valuable information, on northern central and
we*t*rri China is fu rut* lied by Col. C, C Manifold and CoL A* W* S»
Wingntc in the Gear, Jottwn. vol. xxiiL (1904) and vol* kkUh (1007),
Consult also Marshall Broom hall fed.), The Chinese Empire: a
Central and Missionary Survey (London* 1907); B* Willis, E* Bisck-
wetftrr and others* Rt search in China, vol. 1, part i. " Descriptive
Topograph y and Geology," part ii T " Petrography and Zoology, ,T
acid Atlas (Washington. Carnegie Institution. IQ06-J907); Forbes
and Hcmsley, " Enumeration, of Chinese Plants*, ' in Journ.
Linnean Sx. (BoiX vols, xiiiL and xsxvi,; Brtrtschneidcr, History
of European Botanical Discoveries in China ; E. Ticsaen, China dat
Reuh der achtxhn Proviwxn, Teil L " Die alfecnu-ine Geographic)
des Lande*" (Berlin. 1001); and 7'he China Sea Directory (published
by the British Admiralty), a valuable guide to the coasts: vol. ii
(5th ed-, 1906} duals with Hong- Kong and places south thereof, vol. iiL
Sdl ed., trjo4, supp, 1907) with the rest of thw Chinese coa*t ; vol. i.
(■jrh cd., 1006I treats of the inland* and stmii-, in the SAV. approach
to the China Sea. Much of China has not been surveyed, but con-
siderable progress has been made since 1900. The Atlas of the
Chinese Empire (I,ondon. 1908), a good general atlas, which, however,
has no hill shading, gives maps of each province on the scale of
1 : 1,000,000. The preface contains a list of the best regional maps.
The Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society con-
tains papers on all subjects relating to China.
II. The People
China is noted for the density of its population, but no accurate
statistics are forthcoming. The province of Sban-tung is reputed
172
CHINA
{SOCIAL LIFE
to have a population of 680 per sq. m. The provinces of central
China, in the basin of the Yangtszc-kiang — namely Szc-ch'ucn,
Hu-peh, Ngan-hui, Kiang-su and Chch-kiang — contain
tha, probably a third of the total population, the density
of the people in these provinces being represented
as from 400 to 310 per sq. m. llo-nan, which belongs partly to
the basin of the Hwang-ho and partly to that of the Yangtszc-
kiang, as well as the S.E. coast provinces of Fu-kicn and Kwang-
tung, arc also densely peopled, Ho-nan being credited with 520
persons per sq. m., Fu-kicn with 400 and Kwang-tung with
about 3 jo.
The Chinese government prints from time to time in the Pekint
Gazette returns of the imputation made by the various provincial
authorities. The method of numeration is to count the households,
and from that to make a return of the total inhabitants of each
province. There would be no great difficulty in obtaining fairly
accurate returns if sufficient care were taken. It does not appear,
however, that much care is taken. Mr E. H. Parker published in the
Statistical Society's Journal for March 1899 tables translated from
Chinese records, giving the population from year to year between
1651 and i860. These tables show a gradual rise, though with many
fluctuations, up till 1851, when the total population is stated to be
43 J millions. From that point it decreases till i860, when it is put
down at only 261 millions. The Chinese Imperial Customs put the
total population of the empire in 1906 at 438,2 14,000 and that of
China proper at 407,253,000. It has been held by several inquirers
that these figures are gross over-estimates. Mr Kockhill, American
minister at Peking (1905-1909), after careful inquiry 1 concluded
that the inhabitants of China proper did not exceed, in 1904,
270,000,000. Other competent authorities are inclined to accept
the round figure of 400,000,000 as nearer the accurate number.
Eleven cities were credited in 1908 with between 500,000 and
1,000,000 inhabitants each, and smaller cities are very numerous,
but the population is predominantly rural. In addition to the
Chinese the population includes a number of aboriginal races such
as the Lolos (q.v.), the Miaotsze (q.v.), the Iki.is of Kwei-chow and
Kwang-si, the Hakka, found in the south-east provinces, and the
Iloklos of Kwang-tung province. 1 The Manchus resident in China
arc estimated to number 4,000.000. According to the Imperial
Customs authorities, the number of foreigners resident in China in
1908 was 69.852. Of these 44.143 were Japanese, 9520 Russian,
9043 British. 3637 German. 3545 American, 3353 Portuguese, 2029
French. 554 Italian and 282 Belgian.
The Chinese are a colonizing race, and in Manchuria, Mongolia and
Turkestan they have brought several districts under cultivation. In
.. . the regions where they settle they become the dominant
5z!~^" race — thus southern Manchuria now differs little from a
* province of China proper. In lndo-China, the Malay
Peninsula and throughout the Far East Chinese are numerous as
fanners. labourers and traders; in some places, such as Singapore,
Chinese arc among the principal merchants. This colonizing spirit
is probably due more to the enterprise of the people than to the
density of the population. There were Chinese settlements at places
on the east coast of Africa before the 10th century A.D. Following
the discovery of gold in California there was from 1850 onwards a
large emigration ot Chinese to that state and to other parts of America.
But in 1879 Chinese exclusion acts were passed by the United States,
an example followed by Australia, where Chinese immigration was
also held to l« a public danger. Canada also adopted the policy
of excluding Chinese, but not before there had been a considerable
immigration into British Columbia. Two factors, a racial .and an
economic, arc at work to bring about these measures of exclusion.
As indentured lalxiurers Chinese have been employed in the West
Indies, South America and other places (see Coolie).
In addition to several million Chinese settlers in Manchuria, and
smaller numlx-rs in Mongolia, Turkestan and Tibet, it was estimated
in i'jo8 that there were over 9.000,000 Chinese resident beyond the
empire. Of these 2.250.000 were in Formosa, which for long formed
.a part of the empire, and over 6,000,000 in neighbouring regions of
Afcia and in Pacific Islands. In the West Indies (chiefly Cuba) the
numlxr of Chinese was estimated at 100,000. iA South America
(Brazil. P«ru and Chile) at 72.000. in the United States at 150.000. in
Canada at 12,000. and in Australia and New Zealand at 35.000.
"I here arc < "n 1 j*a rati vol y few Chinese in Japan (if Formosa be ex-
cepted/ and Korea. The number is given in 1908 at 17,000 in Japan
and 11,000 tn Korea.
Social Life.
The awakening of the Kast which has followed the Russo-
Japanese War of 1904-5 has afl«ci*d China also. It is too soon
to say how far the influx of European ideas will be able to modify
'See W. W. Rockhill, Inquiry into tU Population of China
(Washington. 1904). . . , .
■ For a bi bhography °t™™*buns to the aboriginal races of
China see Richard's Comprthms** Goognpky of lb Ckinue Emttrt
/jp*ed.). pp. 371-373. ^^
the immemorial customs and traditions of perhaps the most
conservative people in the world; but the process has begun,
and this fact makes it difficult to give a picture of Chinese habits
and customs which shall be more than historical or provisional.
Moreover, the difficulty of presenting a picture which shall be
true of China as a whole is enhanced by the different character-
istics observable in various regions of so vast a country. 1 he
Chinese themselves, until the material superiority of Western
civilization forced them to a certain degree to conform to its
standards, looked down from the height of their superior culture
with contempt on the " Western barbarians." Nor was their
attitude wholly without justification. Their civilization was
already old at a time when Britain and Germany were peopled
by half-naked barbarians, and the philosophical and ethical
principles on which it was based remain, to all appearances, as
firmly rooted as ever. That these principles have, on the whole,
helped to create a national type of a very high order few-
Europeans who know the Chinese well would deny. The Chinese
are naturally reserved, earnest and good-natured; for the
occasional outbursts of ferocious violence, notably against
foreign settlements, are no index to the national character.
There is a national proverb that "the men of the Four Seas are
all brothers," and even strangers can travel through the country
without meeting with rudeness, much less outrage. If the
Chinese character is inferior to the European, this inferiority lies
in the fact that the Chinaman's whole philosophy of life dis-
inclines him to change or to energetic action. He is industrious;
but his industry is normally along the lines marked out by
authority and tradition. He is brave; but his courage does
not naturally seek an outlet in war. The jealously exclusive
empire, into which in the 19th century the nations of the West
forced an entrance, was organized for peace; the arts of war had
been all but forgotten, and soldiers were of all classes the most
despised.
The whole social and political organization of the Chinese is based,
in a far more real sense than in the West, on the family. The supreme
duty is that of the child to its parent; on this the whole Chinese
moral system is built up. Filial piety, according to the teaching of
Confucius, is the very foundation of society; the nation itself is
but one great family, and the authority of the government it self U
but an extension of the paternal authority, to which all its children
are bound to yield implicit obedience. The western idea of the liberty
and dignity of the individual, as distinct from the community to
which he belongs, is wholly alien to the Chinese mind. The political
unit in China is not the individual but the family, and the father of
the family is supposed to be responsible for the qualities and views of
all his km. He is rewarded lor their virtues, punished for their
faults; the deserts of a son ennoble the father and all his ancestors,
and conversely his crimes disgrace them.
An outcome of this principle is the extraordinary importance in
China of funeral rites, especially in the case of the father. The eldest
son, now head of the family, or, failing him. his first-born or adopted
son, fixes one of the three souls of the dead in the tablet commemor-
ating his virtues, bunts incense to his shade, and supplies him with
paper money and paper representations of everything (clothes,
servants, horses) that he may require in his journey to the other
world. Mourning lasts for three years, during which the mourners
wear white garments and abstain from meat, wine and public
Satherings. Custom, too, dictates that wherever the Chinaman may
ie he must be brought back for burial to the place of his birth ; one
of the objects of the friendly societies is to provide funds to charter
ships to transport home the bodies of those who have died abroad.
Annually, in May, the white-clad people stream to the graves and
mortuary temples with flowers, fruit and # other offerings for the
dead. Christian missionaries have found in this ancestor worship
the most serious obstacle to the spread of a religion which teaches
that the convert must, if need be, despise his father and his mother
and follow Christ
The same elaborate ceremonialism that characterises the Chinese
funeral customs is found also in their marriage rites and the rules of
t heir social i nicrcou rte generally. Confucius is reported to have said
that " all virtues have their source in etiquette," and the due
observance of the " ceremonial " (ft) in the fulfilling of social duties
is that which, in Chinese opinion, distinguishes civilized from bar-
barous peoples. The Board of Kites, one of the departments of
tbi central govern mem, exists for the purpose of giving decisions is
matters of et iquettc and ceremony. As to marriage, the rule that the
individual counts for nothing obtains here in its fullest significance,
The breeding of sons to carry on the ancestral edit is a matter of
prime importance, and the nuvrriage of a young man U arranged at
the earliest possible age. The bride and bridegroom have little yoke
SOCIAL LIFE]
CHINA
173
in the matter, the match being arranged by the parents of the
parties; the lifting of the bride's veil, so that the bridegroom may
see her face, is the very last act of the long and complicated
ceremony.
In the traditional Chinese social system four classes arc dis-
tinguished: the literary, the agricultural, the artisan and the
trading class. Hereditary nobility, in the European sense, scarcely
cost*, and the possession of an hereditary title give* in itself fio
special privileges. Official position is mare highly esteemed ihnti
bath MO the bureaucracy takes the ptace of the aristocracy in the
vest. There arc, nevertheless besides personal decorations for
merit, such as the yellow jacket, Ave 1 hereditary rewards for merit;
these last only for a fixed number of lives. A few Chinese families,
however, enjoy hereditary titles in the fujl sense, the chief among
them being the Holy Duke of Yen (the descendant of Confucius!.
The Imperial Clam mm consist of these who trace their descent
direct from the founder of the Man chu dynasty , and* ace distinguished
by the privilege of wearing a yellow girdle; collateral rt Utiles
of the imperial house wear a red girdle* Twelve degree! of nobility
fin a descending scale as one generation succeed* anothetj are
conferred on the descendants of every emperor in the thirteenth
generation the descendant ■ of emperors are merged 'in the general
population, save that they retain the yellow girdle. The heads of
eight houses, the " Iron-capped " (or nelmeted) princes, maintain
their titles in perpetuity by rule of primogeniture in virtue of hating
helped the Stanch u in the conquest of China, Imperial princes
apart, the highest class is that forming the civil service. (Sec also
\ Gvptr* mfni and A dm m i tfwiitm. ) The peasant clan forms the bullcaf
the pope I a [ ion. The majority of Chinese are small landowners : their
ftj ndard of living is very low in comparison with European standards.
This is in part due to the *y«cm of land tenure A parent cannot,
even if be wished to do so, leave all his land to one son. There must
be substantially an equal division, the will of the father notwith-
standing As early marriages and large families are the rule, this
process of continual division and subdivision has brought things down
to the irreducible minimum in many places. Small patches of one-
tenth or even one-twentieth of an acre arc to be found as the
estate of an individual landowner, and the vast majority of holdings
run between one and three acres. With three acres a family is
deemed very comfortable, and the possession of ten acres means
luxury.
The only class which at all resembles the territorial magnates of
other countries is the class of retired officials. The wealth of an
official is not infrequently invested in land, and consequently there
are in most provinces several families with a country seat and the
usual insignia of local rank and influence. On the decease of the
heads or founders of such families it is considered dignified for the
sons to live together, sharing the rents and profits in common. This
b sometimes continued for several generations, until the country seat
becomes an agglomeration of households and the family a sort of
dan. A family of this kind, with literary traditions, and with the
means to educate the young men, is constantly sending its scions
into the public service. These in turn bring their earnings to
swell the common funds, while the rank and dignity which they
may earn add to the importance and standing of the group as a
whole. The members of this class are usually termed the literati or
gentry.
The complex character of the Chinese is shown in various ways.
Side by side with the reverence of ancestors the law recognizes the
right of the parent to sell his offspring into slavery and among the
poor this is not an uncommon practice, though in comparison with
the total population the number of slaves is few The kidnapping of
children for sale as slaves is carried on, but there is no slave raiding.
There are more female than male slaves; the descendants of male
slaves acquire freedom in the fifth generation. While every Chinese
man is anxious to have male children, girls are often considered
superfluous.
The position of women is one of distinct inferiority; a woman it
always subject to the men of her family — before marriage to her
father, during marriage to her husband, in widowhood to hrr son;
these states being known ns " the three obediences." Sons who do
not, however, honou r t heir mothers ou t rage public opi nion . Polygam y
is tolerated, secondary wives being sometimes provided by the
first wife when she i* growing old. Secondary wives are subordinate
to first wives. A wife may be divorced for any one of seven reasons.
The sale of wives is practiced, but i* not recognized by law. Women
of the upper das* - are treated with much respect. The home of a
Chinese man Is of -n in reality ruled by his mother, or by his wife as
she approaches ok! sge. a state held in veneration. Chinese women
frequently prove of excellent business capacity, and those of high
ran k as the recent history of China has conspicuously proved—
exerc ise considerable influence on public affairs.
Deforming the feet of girls bv binding and stopping their growth has
been co m mon for centuries. The tottering walk of the Chinese lady
ultinc from this deformation of the feet is the admiration of her
tana and friends. Foot 'bindingis practised by rich and poor in all
parts of the country, but is not universal, tn southern and western
Chlmi Hakka women and certain others never hi ve iheir Feet bound
It has been D oted that officials N ho all serve on the itinerary system)
tote for secondary wives natural-footed women, who are frequently
slaves. 1 Every child is one at birth, and two on what Europeans
call its first birthday, the period of gestation counting as one year.
In their social intercourse the Chinese are polite and ceremonious;
they do not shake hands or kiss, but prostrations (kotowing), salu-
tations with joined hands and congratulations are common. They
have no weekly day of rest, but keep many festivals, the most im-
portant being that of New Year's Day. Debts are supposed to be
paid before New Year's Day begins and for the occasion new clothes
are bought. Other notable holidays are the Festival of the First
Full Moon, the Feast of Lanterns and the Festival of the Dragon
Boat. A feature of the festivals is the employment of thousands
of lanterns made of paper, covered with landscapes and other scenes
in gorgeous colours. Of outdoor sports kite- flying is the most
popular and is engaged in by adults; shuttle-cock is also a favourite
game, while cards and dominoes arc indoor amusements. The
theatre and marionette shows are largely patronised. The habit of
opium smoking is referred to elsewhere; tobacco smoking is general
among both sexes.
Except in their head-dress and their shoes little distinction is made
between the costumes of men and women. 2 Both sexes wear a long
loose jacket or robe which fits closely round the neck and has wide
sleeves, and wide short trousers. Over the robe shorter jackets—
often sleeveless — arc worn, according to the weather. For winter
wear the jackets arc wadded, and a Chinaman will speak of " a
three, four or six coat cold day." A man's robe is generally longer
than that of a woman. Petticoats are worn by ladies on ceremonial
occasions and the long robe is removed when in the house. " It is
considered very unwomanly not to wear trousers, and very indelicate
for a man not to have skirts to bis coat." No Chinese woman ever
bares any part of her body in public — even the hands arc concealed
in the large sleeves — and the evening dress of European ladies is
considered indelicate; but Hakka women move about freely without
shoes or stockings. A Chinese man will, however, in warm weather
often strip naked to the waist. Coolies frequently go bare-legged;
they use sandals made of rope and possess rain-coats made of palm
leaves. The garments of the poorer classes are made of cotton,
generally dyed blue. Wealthy people have their clothes made of silk.
Skirts and jackets are elaborately embroidered. Costly furs and fur-
lined clothes are much prized, and many wealthy Chinese have fine
collections of furs. Certain colours may only be used with official
permission as denoting a definite rank or distinction, e.g. the yellow
jacket. The colours used harmonize — the contrasts in colour seen in
the clothes of Europeans is avoided. Dark purple over blue are usual
colour combinations. The mourning colour is white. Common shoes
arc made of cotton or silk and have thick felt soles; all officials wear
boots of satin into which is thrust the pipe or the fan — the latter
carried equally by men and women. The fan is otherwise stuck at
the back of the neck, or attached to the girdle, which may also hold
the purse, watch, snuff-box and a pair of chop-sticks.
Formerly Chinese men let their hair grow sufficiently long to gather
it in a knot at the top; on the conquest of the country by the Manchu
they were compelled to adopt the queue or pigtail, which is often
artificially lengthened by trie employment of silk thread, usually
black in colour. The front part of the head is shaved. As no
Chinese dress their own hair, barbers arc numerous and do a thriving
trade. Women do not shave the head nor adopt the queue. Men
wear in general a close-fitting cap, and the peasants large straw hats.
Circular caps, larger at the crown than round the head and with an
outward slope arc worn in winter by mandarins, conical straw hats in
summer. Women have elaborate head ornaments, decking their hair
with artificial flowers, butterflies made of jade, gold pins and pearls.
The faces of Chinese ladies are habitually rouged, their eyebrows
glinted. Pearl or bead necklaces are worn both by men and women,
fticials and men of leisure let one or two finger nails grow long and
protect them with a metal case.
The staple food el the majority of the Chinese in the south and
central provinces is rice; in the northern provinces millet as well
as rice is much eaten. In separate bowls are placed morsels of pork,
fish, chicken, vegetables and other relishes. Rice-flour, bean-meal,
macaroni, and shell fish are all largely used. Flour balls cooked in
sugar are esteemed. Beef is never eaten, but Mahommedans cat
mutton, and there is hardly any limit to the things the Chinese use
as food. In Canton dogs which have been specially fed are an article
of diet. Eggs are preserved for years in a solution of salt, lime and
wood-ash, or in spirits made from rice. Condiments are highly
prized, as are also preserved fruits. Special Chinese dishes are
soups made from sea-slugs and a glutinous substance found in
certain birds' nests, ducks' tongues, sharks' fins, the brains of
chickens and of fish, the sinews of deer and of whales, fish with
pickled fir-tree cones, and roots of the lotus lily. A kind of beer
brewed from rice is a usual drink; samshu is a spirit distilled from
the same grain and at dinners is served hot in small bowls. Excellent
1 Evidences of the social changes taking place in China are to be
found in the strong movement for the education of girls, and inthe
formation of societies, under official patronage, to prevent the bind-
ing of women's feet.
* It must be remembered that there is great variety in the
costumes worn in the various provinces. The particulars here given
are of the most general styles of dress.
'74
CHINA
(RELIGION
E
native wines are made. The Chinese arc, however, abstemious with
regard to alcoholic liquors. Water is drunk hot by the very poor, as
a substitute for tea. Tea is drunk before and after meals in cups
without handle or saucer; the cups arc always provided with a cover.
Two substantial meals are taken during the day— luncheon and
dinner; the last named at varying hours* from four till seven o'clock.
At dinner a rich man will offer his guest twenty-four or more dishes
(always a multiple of 4), four to mx dishes being served at a time.
Food is eaten from bowls and with chop-sticks (g.v.) and little
porcelain spoons. Men dine by themselves when any guests arc
present; dinner parties are sometimes given by ladies to ladies.
Chinese cookery is excellent; in the culinary art the Chinese arc
reputed to be second only to the French.
Eihnologically the Chinese arc classed among the Mongolian races
(in which division the Manchus are also included), although they
rodent many marked contrasts to the Mongols. The Tatars,
,'ibetans, Burmese, Shans, Manchu and other races — including the
Arab and Japanese — have mingled with the indigenous population to
form the Chinese type, while aboriginal tribes still resist the pressure
of absorption by the dominant race (sec ante, Population). The
Chinese are in tact ethnically a very mixed people, and the pure
Mongol type is uncommon among them. Moreover, natives of
different provinces still present striking contrasts one to another,
and their common culture is probably the strongest national link.
By some authorities it is held that the parent stock of the Chinese
came from the north-west, beyond the alluvial plain; others hold
that it was indigenous in eastern China. Notwithstanding the
marked differences between the inhabitants of different provinces
and even between those livingin the >iroe province, certain feature*
arc common to the race. "Tl --uture h below the average and
seldom exceeds 5 ft. 4 in., except in the Ntfrth. The head is normally
brachycephalic or round horizontally* And the forehead low and
narrow. The face is round, the mouth Lartje h and the chin small and
receding. The check-bones arc I'rurmncnt, the eyes almond-shaped,
oblique upwards and outwards, and the bak coarse, lank and inva-
riably black. The beard appears late in life, and remains gener-
ally scanty. The eyebrows are straight and the iris of the eye is
black. The nose is generally short, broad and flat* Tho hands and
feet are disproportionately small, and the body early inclines to
obesity. The complexion varies from an at must pale-yellow to a
dark-brown, without any red or ruddy lin^e. Yellow, however,
predominates." l
A few words may be added concerning the Manchus, who are the
ruling race in China. Their ethnic affinities are not precisely known,
but they may be classed among the Ural-Alcaic tribes, although the
term Ural-Altaic {q.v.) denotes a linguistic rather than a racial group.
By some authorities they are called Tung-tatze, i.e. Eastern Tata ra-
the Tatars of to-day being of true Mongol descent. Manchu is the
name adopted in the 13th century by one of several tribes which
led a nomadic life in Manchuria and were known collectively in the
nth century as Niichihs. Some authorities regard the Khitans
(whence the European form Cathay), who in the 9th and loth
centuries dwelt in the upper Liao region, as the ancestors of this race.
It was not until the 16th century that the people became known
generally as Manchus and obtained possession of the whole of the
country now bearing their name (see Manchuria). They had then a
considerable mixture of Chinese and Korean blood, but had developed
a distinct nationality and kept their ancient Ural-Altaic language.
In China the Manchus retained their separate nationality and semi- ,
military organization. It was not until the early years of the 20th
century that steps were officially taken to obliterate the distinction
between the two races. The Manchus arc a more robust race than the
inhabitants of central and southern China, but resemble those of
northern China save that their eyes are horizontally set. They are a
lively and enterprising people, but have nut in general the intellectual
or business ability of the Chinese. They arc courteous in their
relations with stringers. The common people are frugal and
industrious. The Manchu family is generally large. The women's
feet arc unbound; they twist their hair round a silver bangle placed
cross-wise on the top of the head. The Manchus have no literature
of their own, but as the language of the court Manchu has been
extensively studied in China.
Authorities.— Sir John F. Da™. China (2 vd*. 6 London. 1857);
E. keclus. The UnivcrialGiofr&PhiVoL viL (Eng. trans, ed, by E„ G +
Ravcnstcin and A. H. Kcanc); £► and O. K&clus, V Empire du
milieu (Paris, 1902); Sir R. K. Dougl^ Society in China (London,
»8q5): J. Doolittlc, Sociid Lift of the Chinese {2 vols.. New York,
1807); rl. A. Giles. China and the Chinese 09^>- E- Bard. Les
Chinois ches eux (Paris, tooo) 1 A. G, JofiR t Desultory Notes on
Chinese Etiquette (Shanghai, looG) ; Mrs Archibald Little, Ixiimale
China (London, 1699) and The Land of the Bine Goim 'London,
1902); E. H. Parker, John Chinaman and a Few Other* (London,
1901); J. Dyer- Ball, Thing? Chtvt* (Shanghai, loojh Cheng
Kitung, The Chinese Painted by Itanurfuvi (Gng. trans- by J.
Millington, London, 18*51: L. Richard, Comprehensive Ceagrapny
of the Chinese Empire (Shanghai; 1508J, ;X)
> Richard's Comprehensive Geography, &c. (1908 edition), pp.
J4°-J4*.
Religion.
The earliest traces of religious thought and practice in China
point to a simple monotheism. There was a Divine Ruler of
the universe, abiding on high, beyond the ken of man.
This Power was not regarded as the Creator of the **f
human race, but as a Supreme Being to whom wicked- tank?
nesswas abhorrent and virtuous conduct a source of
joy, and who dealt out rewards and punishments with unerring
justice, claiming neither love nor reverence from mankind. If
a man did his duty towards his neighbour, he might pass his
whole time on earth oblivious of the fact that such a Power was
in existence; unless perchance he wished to obtain some good
or attain some end, in which case he might seek lo propitiate
Him by sacrifice and prayer. There was no Devil to tempt nun
astray, and to rejoice in his fall; neither was there any belief
that righteous behaviour in this world would lead at death to
absorption in ihe Deity. To God, understood in this sense, the
people gave the name T iVu," which in the colloquial language
was used of the sky; and when, in the first stages of the written
character, it became necessary to express the idea of Tien, they
did not attempt any vague picture of the heavens, but set down
the rude outline of a man. Perhaps about this period the tide
Shane Ti, or Supreme Ruler, came into vogue as synonymous
with Tien. But although the two terms were synonyms, and
both may be equally rendered by " God," there is nevertheless
an important distinction to be observed, much as though Tun
and Skang Ti were two Persons in one substance. Tien is far
more an abstract Being, while Skang Ti partakes rather of the
nature of a personal God, whose anthropomorphic nature is
much more strongly accentuated. Skang Ti is described as
walking and talking, as enjoying the flavour of sacrifices, as
pleased with music and dancing in his honour, and even as taking
sides in warfare; whereas Tien holds aloof, wrapped in an
impenetrable majesty, an ignotum pro tnirijico. So much for
religion in primeval days, gathered scrap by scrap from many
sources; for nothing like a history of religion is to be found in
Chinese literature.
Gradually to this monotheistic conception was added a worship
of the sun, moon and constellations, of the five planets, and of
such noticeable individual stars as (e.g.) Canopus, which is now
looked upon as the home of the God of Longevity. Earth, too —
Mother Earth — came in for her share of worship, indicated
especially by the God of the Soil, and further distributed among
rivers and hills. Wind, rain, heat, cold, thunder and lightning,
as each became objects of desire or aversion, were invested with
the attributes of deities. The various parts of the house — door,
kitchen-stove, courtyard, Arc— were also conceived of as shelter-
ing some spirit whose influence might be benign or the reverse.
The spirits of the land and of grain came to mean one's country,
the commonwealth, the state; and the sacrifices of these spirits
by the emperor formed a public announcement of his accession,
or of his continued right to the throne. Side by side with such
sacrificial rites was the worship of ancestors, stretching so far
back that its origin is not discernible in such historical documents
as we possess. In early times only the emperor, or the feudal
nobles, or certain high officials, could sacrifice to the spirits
of nature; the common people sacrificed to their own ancestors
and to the spirits of their own homes. For three days before
performing such sacrifices, a strict vigil with purification was
maintained; and by the expiration of that time, from sheer
concentration of thought, the mourner was able to see the spirits
of the departed, and at t he sacrifice next day seemed to hear their
movements and even the murmur of their sighs. Ancestral
worship in China has always been, and still is, worship in the
strict sense of the term. It is not a memorial service in simple
honour of the dead; but sacrifices are offered, and the whole
ceremonial is performed that the spirits of former ancestors may
be induced to extend their protection to the Irving and secure to
them as many as possible of the good things of this world.
For Confucianism, which cannot, strictly speaking, be classed
as a religion, see CoKJuaos,
REIJGIONJ
CHINA
'75
Around the scanty utterances of Lao Tkfl or Lao-tsze (q.v.;
see also § Chinese LiUraituc 14 PkiSosopkj) an attempt was made
m ^_ t _ by later writers to weave a scheme of thought which
*■•*■ should serve to satisfy the cravings of mortal* for some
definite solution of the puzzle <jf hfe. Lao T*u hi m*el f had en u ncia led
a criterion which he called Tog. or the VVav t from which it derived the
word Taoism; and in his usunt paradoxical style he had asserted
that the secret of this Way, which was at the be&inning apparently
nothing more than a line of right conduct, could not possibly be inv
Eirted, even by those who understood it. Hi* disci pfes h however, of
tcr days proceeded to interpret the tens in the sense of the Absolute,
the First Cause, and finally as One, in whose obliterating unity all
seemingly opposed conditions of time and space were indlstingvish-
ably blended. This One, the source of human lire, was placed beyond
the limits of the visible universe; and for human life to return
thither at death and to enjoy immortality, it was only necessary to
refine away all corporeal grossness by folfowing the doctrines of Lao
Tzfl. m By and by, this One came to be regarded as a fixed point of
dazzling luminosity in remote ether, around which circled for ever
and ever, in the suprcmest glory of motion, the souls of those who
had left the slough of humanity behind them. These transcendental
notions were entirely corrupted at a very early date by the intro-
duction of belief in an elixir of life, and Liter still by the practice of
alchemistic experiments. Opposed by Buddhism, which next laid a
claim for a share in the profits of popular patronage. Taoism rapidly
underwent a radical transformation. It became a religion, borrowing
certain ceremonial, vestments, liturgies, the idea of a hell, arrange-
ment of temples, &c, from its rival ; which rival was not slow in re-
turning the compliment. AsChu Hsisaid," Buddhism stoic the best
features of Taoism; Taoism stole the worst features of Buddhism.
It is as though onc # took a jewel from the other, and the loser
recouped the loss with a stone."- At the present day there is not
much to choose between the two religions, which flourish peaceably
together. As to their temples, priests and ceremonial, it takes an
expert todistinguish one from the other.
There is no trustworthy information as to the exact date at which
Buddhism first reached China. It is related that the emperor Ming
_ ^_._ _ Ti (a.d. 58-76) had a dream in which a golden man ap-
ntvMsa jp An & to nim, and this mysterious visitant was interpreted
by the emperor's brother to be none other than Shakyamuni Buddha,
the far-famed divinity of the West. This shows that Buddhism must
then have been known to the Chinese, at any rate by hearsay. The
earliest alleged appearance of Buddhism in China dates from 217 B.C.,
when certain Shamans who came to proselytize were seized and
thrown into prison. They escaped through the miraculous inter-
vention of a golden man, who came to them in the middle of the night
and opened their prison doors. Hsfl Kuan, a writer of the Sung
dyna*ty, quotes in his Tunf Chat Chi passage* to support the view
that Buddhism was known in China some centuries before the rrign
of Ming- Ti; among others, the following from the Sui Ska Cktng
Cki Cktki "These Buddhist writings had Jong been circulated far
and wide, but disappeared with the advent or the Ch 'in. dynasty , ,J
under which (sec f Chintz Lilftctttre t f 6 /fijlwy}oceurrcd the Burn-
ing of the Books. 1 1 m . h oweve r, con venient to begi n w tt h the alleged
dream of Ming Ti. a 5 it was only subsequent to that date that
Huddhism became a recognized* religion or the people. It is certain
That in a.d. 05 a mission of eighteen members was despatched to
Khotan to make inquiries on the subject , and that in 67 the mission
returned, bringing Buddhist writings and images, and accompanied
by an Indian -pnest, Ka-ihtapmadanga. who was followed shortly
afterwards by another priest, Gobharana. A temple was built for
these two at Lo-yang,, then the capital of China* and they settled
down to the work of translating portions of the Buddhist scriptures
into Chinese: but all that now remains of their work is the Sutra of
Forty-two Sections, translated by Kashiapmadanga. During the
neat two hundred and fifty years an unbroken line of foreign priests
came to China to continue the task of translation, and to assist in
spreading the faith, Such work wns indeed entirely In their hands,
for until the 4th century the Chinese people were prohibited from
taking orders as priests; but by that date Buddhism had taken a
irm hold upon the masses, and many Chinese priests were attracted
towards India, despite the long and dangerous journey* partly to
visit the birthplace of the freed and to see with their own eyes the
<e*ne* which had to fired their i marina [irms and partly in the hope
of addlnrffo the store of book* and images already available in China
(«e f Chine a Littralurt, 5$ Grpgrnphy and 7VatW). Still, the train
of Indian missionaries, moving in the opposite direction, did not
cease. 1 a 401 1 K u maraj iva , t h e n [ neteent h of the Western Pa r nan: hs
and translator of the Diamond Sutra, finally took up his residence
at the court of the (toi-disant emperor Yao H*.ing> In 405 he became
State Preceptor and dictated his commentaries on the sacred books
of Buddhism to some eight hundred priests* besides torn posing a
xhiftra on Reality anrj Semblance. Dying in +17, his body wai
cremated, as is *fiH usual with priests, but his tongue, which had done
^uch eminent service during life* remained unharmed in the midit of
the fbm.es. In the year 510 B^dhidhairna, or Ta-mo, as he h
affectionately known to the Chinese r being aTw railed the White
Buddha., reached Canton, bringing with hhn the saeird bowl nf ih*
Buddhist Patriarchate, of which he was the last representative in the
writ and lb* first to bold office in the east, Summoned to Nanking ,
he offended the emperor by asserting that real merit lay, not in works,
but solely in purity and wisdom combined. He therefore retired to
Lo-yang, crossing the swollen waters of the Yangtsze on a reed, •
feat which has ever since had a great fascination for Chinese painters
and poets. There he spent the rest of his life, teaching that religion
was not to be learnt from books, but that man should seek and find
the Buddha in his own heart. Thus Buddhism gradually made its
way. It had to meet first of all the bitter hostility of the Taoists;
and secondly, the fitful patronage and opposition of the court.
Several emperors and empresses were infatuated supporters of the
faith 1 one even went so far as to take vows and lead the life of an
ascetic, further insisting that to render full obedience to the Buddhist
commandment, " Thou shalt not kill," the sacrificial animals were to
be made of dough. Other emperors, instigated by Confucian advisers,
went to the opposite extreme of persecution, closed all religious
houses, confiscated their property, and forced the priests and nuns to
return to the world. From about t he 1 1 th century onwards Buddhism
ha9 enjoyed comparative immunity from attack or restriction, and it
now covers the Chinese empire from end to end. The form under
which it appears in China is to some extent of local growth ; that is to
say, the Chinese have added and subtracted not a little to and from
the parent stock. The cleavage which took place under Kanishka,
ruler of the Indo-Scythian empire, about the 1st century a.d.,
divided Buddhism into the Mahayana, or Greater Vehicle, and the
Hinayana, as it is somewhat contemptuously styled, or Lesser
Vehicle. The latter was the nearer of the two to the Buddhism of
Shakyamuni, and exhibits rather the mystic and esoteric sides of the
faith. The former, which spread northwards and on to Nepaul,
Tibet, China, Mongolia and Japan, leaving southern India. Burma
and Siara to its rival, began early to lean towards the deification of
Buddha as a personal Saviour. New Buddhas and Bddhisatvas were
added, and new worlds were provided for them to live in; in China,
especially, there was an enormous extension of the mythological
element. In fact, the Maliayana system of Buddhism, inspired, as
has been observed, by a progressive spirit, but without contradicting
the inner significance of the teachings of Buddha, broadened its scope
and assimilated other rcligio-philosophical beliefs, whenever this
could be done to the advantage of those who came within its influ-
ence. Such is the form of this religion which prevails in China, of
which, however, the Chinese layman understands nothing. He goes
to a temple, worships the gods with prostrations, lighted candles,
incense, «c., to secure his particular ends at the moment; he may
even listen to a service chanted in a foreign tongue and just as in-
comprehensible to the priests as to himself. He pays his fees and,
departs, absolutely ignorant of the history or dogmas of the religion
to which he looks tor salvation in a future state. All such knowledge,
and there is now not much of it, is confined to a few of the more
cultured priests.
The 7th century seems to have been notable in the religious
history of China. Early in that century, Mazdaism, or the religion
of Zoroaster, based upon the worship of fire, was intro- .
duoed into China, and in 621 the first temple under that «**•«"■»•
denomination was built at Ch'ang-an in Shensi, then the capital.
But the harvest of converts was insignificant; the religion tailed
to bold Its ground, and in the oth century disappeared altogether.
Mahommcdana first settled in China in the Year of the Mission,
a.d. 628, under Wahb-Abi-Kabha, a maternal uncle of Mahomet,
who was sent with presents to the emperor. Wahb-Abi- ^^
Kabba travelled by sea to Canton, and thence over« ^**f^_
laud to Ch'ang-an, the capital, where he was well re- •*•■*■"■*■
reived. The first mnaijue was built at Canton, where after several
restorations, it still exists. Another mosque was erected in 742;
but many of the Mahommedans went to China merely as traders,
and afterwards returned to their own country. The true stock* 01
the present Chinese Mahommcdans was a small army of 4000 Arab
soldiers sent by the caliph Abu Ciafar l in 755 to aid in putting down
a rebellion. These soldiers had permission to settle in China, where
they married native wives; and four centuries later, with the
conquests of Jcnghix Khan, Ijurp numbers of Arabs penetrated
into the empire and swelled the Mahommedan community. Its
members arc now indict in ^u Pliable from the general population;
they are under no civic disabilities, and are free to open mosques
wherever they please* so lone as, in common with Buddhists and
TaoittE* they exhibit the tablet of the emperor's sovereignty in
tome conspicuous position,
In a,D. 6ji the Ncstoriam sent i mission to China and intro-
duced Christianity under the name of the Luminous Doctrine*
In 6j6 they were allowed to settle at Ch'ang-an; and in
oj(8 an Imperial Decree was issued* stating that Olopun,
a Nestorian priest who is casually mentioned as 1 Persian,
had presented a form of religion which his Majesty had carefully
examined and had found to be in every way satisfactory, and that
it would hence Forth be permissible to preach this new doctrine within
the boundaries of the empire, Further, the establishment of a
monastery was authorized, to be served by twenty-one priests.
I r or more than a century after this, Ncstorian Christianity seems to
have flourished in China. In 781 the famous Nestorian Tablet,
1 Otherwise Abfl Jafar Ibn Mahommed al-Mansflr (see Caliphate,
176
CHINA
(EDUCATION
giving a rough outline of flie object and scope of the faith, was sel
up at Ch'ang-an (the modern Si-gan Fu), disappearing soon after-
wards in the political troubles which laid the city in ruins, to be)
brought to light again in 1625 by Father Semcdo, S. J. The genuine-
ness of this tablet was for many years in dispute, Voltaire, Renan,
and others of lesser fame regarding it as a pious Jesuit fraud; bub
all doubts on the subject have now been dispelled by the exhaustive
monograph of Pore Havret, S. f ., entitled La Stele de Si-ntan. The
date of the tablet seems to mark the zenith of Ncstorian Christianity
in China; after this date it began to decay. Marco Polo refers
to it as existing in the 13th century; but then it fades out of
sight, leaving scant traces in Chinese literature of ever having
existed.
The Manichaeans, worshippers of the Chaldaean Mani or Manes,
who died about a.d. 274, appear to have found their way to China
Meskh- in tne * car ^^ * fl ^*f fln eni ' ov f rom Tokharcstanl
reached Ch"an£ an, bringing a letter to the emperor, in
which a request was made that an astronomer who
accompanied the mission might be permitted to establish places of
worship for persons of the Mamchacan faith* Subsequently, a
number of such chapels were opened at various, centres; but little,
it known of the history of this religion, which is often confounded
by Chinese writers wit h Majdrism, the fate of which it seems to haw
shared* also disappearing about the middle of the 9th century.
By " the sect of those who take out the sinew," the Chinese refer
to the Jews and their peculiar method ol preparing meat in order
j*. > to make is koiker. Wild stories have been told of their
arrival in China seven centuries before the Christian era,
after one of the numerous* upheaval* mentioned in the Old Testa- 1
ment; and again, of their having carried the Pentateuch to China
shortly after the Babylonish captivity, arid having founded a!
colony in Mo- nan in a.d. 72. The jews really re ched China for the
first time in the year a.d. 1 163, and were permitted to open a syna-
gogue at the modern K'ai-feng Fu in 1 164- There they seem to
have lived peaceably, enjoying the protection of the authorities
and making tome slight efforts to spread their tenets. There their
descendants were found, a dwindling community, by the Jesuit
Fathers at the 17th century; and then? again they were visited in
1850 by a Protectant mission, which succeeded in obtaining from
them Hebrew roll a of partial the Pentateuch in the square character,
with vowel points. After this, it was generally believed that the
few remaining stragglers. wno seemed to be entirely ignorant of
everything connected with their lakh* had become merged in the
ordinary population. A recent traveller, however, asserts that in
[909 he found at K'ai-feng Fu a Jewish community, the members
of which keep as much a* possible to themselves, worshipping in
secret, and preserving their ancient ritual and formulary.
See H. Hackmann, Buddhism as a Religion (1910); H. A. Giles,
Religions of Ancient China (1905); G - Smith, The Jews at K'ae-funr
fro {1851); Dabry de Thtersant,' Le MahonuHismc en Chine (1878;;
" " " " '■'Wa.co
, Havret, S.J., La Stile ckritienne de Si-ngan-fou (189O.
(Christian missions, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, are
established in every province in China. Freedom to embrace the
ChHMtimm Christian faith has been guaranteed by the Chinese govern-
aUMstom t ment ** ncc l8oo > and as a rule tne missionaries have free
scope in teaching and preaching, though local disturbances
are not infrequent. The number of members of the Roman Catholic
Church in China was reckoned by the Jesuit fathers at Shanghai to
be, in 1907, " about one million ; in the same year the Protestant
societies reckoned in all 250,000 church members. By the Chinese,
Roman Catholicism h called the " Religion of the Lord of Heaven " ;
Protestantism the " Religion of Jesus. For the progress and effects
of Christianity in China sec fi History, and Missions, $ China. Ed.]
Education and Ike Press.
The educational system of China till nearly the close of the
19th century was confined in its scope to the study of Chinese
classics. Elementary instruction was not provided by the state.
The well-to-do engaged private tutors for their sons; the poorer
boys were taught in small schools on a voluntary basis. No
curriculum was compulsory, but the books used and the pro-
gramme pursued followed a traditional rule. The boys (there
were no schools for girls) began by memorizing the classics for
four or five years. Then followed letter-writing and easy
composition. This completed the education of the vast majority
of the boys not intended for the public service. The chief
merit of the system was that it developed the memory
and the imitative faculty. For secondary education some-
what better provision was made, practically the only method
of attaining eminence in the state being through the schools
(sec $ Civil Service). At prcfectural cities and provincial
capitals colleges were maintained at the public expense, and
at these institutions a more or less thorough knowledge of
the classics might be obtained. At the public examinations
held periodically the exercises proposed were original poems
and literary essays. Three degrees were conferred, Six-is K ai
(budding talent), CkA-jin (promoted scholar) and Ckia-ikth
(entered scholar). The lost degree was given Lo those who
passed the final ex:! mi nation at Peking, and the successful can.'
didaies were also called metropolitan graduates.
The fir bt edu cation on western lines was given by the Roman
Carhdic missionaries. In, 1853 they founded a college for ihe
education of native priests; they also founded and maintained many
primary and some higher school* — mainly if not exclusively for the
benefit of their converts The Protestant minion* full a wed the ex-
ample ol the Roman Catholics, hut a new departure, which has had
a wide success, was initiated by the American Protectant missionary
societies in founding sdiouls— primary and higher— and colleges in
which western education wan given equally to all comer*. Christian,
or oon- Christian. Universities and medical schools have also been,
established by the mi^ionary societies. They also initialed a move-
ment for the education ol girls and opened special schools for their
instruction.
Missionary dTort apart, the first step towards western education
was the establishment of two colleges in iflSt* one at Peking, the
other at Canton in connexion with the Imperial maritime custom*.
These 1 tint it ut ions were known asT'ung Wen Kwan, and were pro-
vided with a staff of foreign professors and teachers. These colleges
were mainly schools of language* tq enable young Chinese to qualify
as interpreters in English, French, &t- Similar schools wcrtf
established at Canton, Fuchow? and one or two other places, with hue
indifferent results. A more promising plan was conceived irt 1&H0,
or 1 hereabouts, by the then viceroy of N anting, who sent a fc»tch of
thirty c*r forty students ta America to receive a regular training of*
the understanding that on their return they would receive omdal
appointments. The prom be was not kept. A report was spread that
these students were becoming too much Americanized* They were,
hastily recalled, and when they returned they were left in obscurity.
The next step wai taken by the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the
ChinoTapanese War of 1804-95. The viceroy wrote a bouk. China*!
Only Hope, which he circulated throughout the empire, and in which
he strongly advocated a reform of the traditional educational
system. If is scheme was to make Chinese learning the foundation
on which a western education should be imparted*' The book was
one of the factors tn the J Soft reform movement, and Chang Chth-
tung'i proposals were condemned when that movement was sup-
pressed. But niter the Boxer rising the Peking government adopted
n is views, and in tooa regu lit ions were issued for the reform of the otd
system of public instruction, A university on western Hnea was
established in that year at Peking, the T'ung Wen Kwan at
the capital being incorporated, in it. The new educational move-
ment gained enormously in strength as the result of the Russo-
Japanese War, and in ioofi a new system, theoretically almost
perfect, was established- The new system comprises the study
of the Chinese language, literature and composition, modern
sciences, history and geography, foreign languages,* gymnastics
drill and. in the higher grades, political economy, and civil and
i iitc mat ional law.
By jo to primary and secondary government schools and schools
for special subjects {such as agriculture and engineering) had been
es,Lablishcdinccin»idefatjlenumbers. tn e very province an 1 m pcrui
University was also established. The I mperial University at Peking
now teaches not only languages and Chinese subjects but also taw,
chemistry 1 mathematics, &o A medical school was founded at
Peking in 1906 through the energy of Hritith Protesiant mistiohane
and U called the Union Medical Collect When in looS, the Uniii
Sut.es, finding that the indemnity for the Boxer outrages awards h
was excessive, agreed to forgo the payment of £2.500,000, C*url
undertook to spend an equal amount in .sending student 3 to Amen.- -a.
The general verdict of foreign observers on the working of the n<w
system up to 1910 was that in many instances the teach'
ineffective, but there were notable except ions. The best 1
riuxt to Europeans, were foreign or mission- trained Chin*
Japanese, employed ai teachers were often, ignorant ol Ch
vere not as^ a rule very successful* (£*«. further f Hit
rL-nutrkable indication of the thirst for western learning ■
turc was the translation into Chinese and t Vr>
the country of numerous foreign standard a rid other w..r
modern fiction.
The Pet mi Gazette t which is sometimes called the otdnt paper in
the world, is not a newspaper in 1 k- «irjin,i ry m r, \»,t mi
eourt gazette for publishing imperial decrees and - li k
ments as the government may with to give out* *
original artictes nor any discussion of public
'For a summary of Chang Cliih-tung + 4 li
China (1^ to edition), chap. kjeiL
1 h was announced in June to 10 that the
a recommendation of the Board uf liducar
l>e the official language for *ci&ntifk and t
that the study of English should be com"
tcienlific and technical schooli.
«jt. it never eo<
W
AGRICULTURE)
CHINA
«77
Ecamne native newspaper was published at Shanghai about 1870* It
was termed the Sktn Poo or Shanghai N<wi r and was * Chines
speculation under foreign protection, the first editor being
an Englishman. It was tome years btfnrc it made much
headway, but success came, and it was followed by various
imitators, come published at Shanghai . some at other treaty port*
and at Hong-Kong. In into there wen? over 300 daily* weekly or
mootbty journals in. China. The effect of this maw of literature on
the public mind! of China is of nrrt-ratc importance*
Toe attitude of the central government towards the native
press it somewhat undefined, Official reg i At ration of a newspaper is
required beforepostal facilities are given. There are no pres* Jaws,
but as every official is a Jaw unto himj-ctf in these matters, there ts
nothing to prevent him from summarily suppressing an obnovious
newspaper and putting the editor in prison. The emperor, among
other reform edicts bhirh provoked the coup d'ttat of tH«jH, declared
that newspaper* were a boon to the public a nd appointed one of them
1 government organ. The empress-dowager revoked this decree, and
declared that the public discussion of affairs of state in the news-
Eper* was an impertinence, and ought to lie suppressed. Ncvcrthc-
a the newspapers continued to flourish, and their outspoken
criticism had a salutary effect on the public and on the government.
The official classes seem to have become alarmed at the independent
atritude of the newspapers, but insipid uf a campaign of suppression
the method was adopted, about iuo-8, of bringing the vernacular
pfecft under official control. This was accomplished ch telly by the
purchase of the newspapers by the mandarins, with the result that at
the beginning of 1*) 10 there wa* said to be hardly an independent
native daily newspaper left in China. The uv or gov ernment funds
to subsidize or to purchase new -papers and thu^ Eo s-tifle or mislead
public opinion provoked strong protests from mcmljcr* of the Nanking
provincial council at its first sitting in the autumn »f 1009. Tbc
Smrnpriation by the Shanghai Taot'ai of moneys belonging to the
uangpu conservancy fund for subsidising paper* led tOflN im>
peajchment by a censor and to the return of thu moneys, 1 (X+)
III. Economics
AgTicidiurt and Industry.
China is pre-eminently an agucult ural country. The great
majority of its inhabitants arc cultivators of the soil. The
holdings are In general very small, ami the methods ol farming
primitive. Water is abundant and irrigation common over
Large areas, Stock-racing, except in Sxe-ch'ucn and Kwang-ttmg,
it only practised to a small ea&G&Aj there arc few large herds of
cattle or flocks of sheep, nor are there any large mcadows T natural
or cultivated. In Szt-cVucn yaks, sheep and goals arc reared
in the mountains, and buffaloes and a fine breed of ponies on
the plateau. Cattle are extensively reared in lhe mountainous
districts or Kwang-tung. The camel, bora and donkey are
reared in Chih-li, Forestry is likewise neglected. While the
existing forests, found mainly in high regions in the provinces
of Hu-nan, Fu-kien and Kwei-chow, are disappearing and limber
baa to be imported, few trees are planted. This does nut apply
lo fruit trees, which arc grown in great variety, while horticulture
is also a favourite pursuit.
The Chinese farmer, if bis methods be primitive, is diligent
and persevering* In the richer and moat thickly populated
districts terraces are raised on the saountain aide*, and even
the topi of lofty hilb art CDkfaittafckAittMtoM the soil and
means of irrigation
the nature of tbc
are grown in the mo
districts of Ci,
region has its characb
The loesa ntf free 1
the agricultur,.:
~* ',;■..;
peasant
u the annual Mflk^H
-jttiiia
sariW I
the soil may contain, and thus the vegetation has an indefinite ctore
to draw upon. 1
There is no one dominant deposit in south China, where red sand-
stone and limestone formations are frequent. Cultivation here is
not possible on the high elevations as in the north, but in the plains
and river valleys the soil is exceedingly fertile, while the lower
slopes of the mountains are also cultivated. In the north, moreover,
but one crop, in general, can be raised in the year. In the centre
two and sometimes three crops are raised yearly, and in the south,
especially in the lower basin of the Si-kiang. three crops are normally
gathered. In the north, too, the farmer has frequently to contend
with drought or with rain or floods, in the central and southern
regions the weather is more sell ltd.
In the north uf China wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat and maize
are the staple crop*. Beans and peas are also cultivated. Rice
thrives in nurth-east Kan-tub, in some districts of Shan-
si, in the extreme south of Shantung and in parts of
the Wei- ho plain in Shen-si. Cot tun h grown in Shcn-si
and Shan-lung, fn Kan-sub and Shen-si two crops are
raided in favoured localities, cereals in spring and cotton or rice in
summer, Tolurro anil the poppv are al^o grown in several of the
northern provinces. Rhubarb and fruit trees are largely cultivated
in the western part ol north China,
In the central provinces lea, cot ten, rice and ramie fibre are the
chief crop*, Tea is must largely cultivated in Ngan-hui, Kiang-si,
1 1 u-peh . M i s-nan , 5«-eh*ucn a nd Y u n-nan, Cott on is chiefly grown
in kiang-su, Ngan-hui and Ku-peh, The seed is sown in May and
the crops gathered in September. The cotton is known as white
and yellow, ihe white variety being the better and the most cultivated.
The poppy it largely cult Lvatcil and. in connrrJon with the silk
industry, the mulberry tree. The mulberry is found principally in
the provinces of S*e-cu , 'uen, Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang. The central
provinces are also noted for their gum -lac. varnish and tallow trees.
The crc|rt of the south-eastern provinces are much the same as
those of Mil' central provinces, but are predominantly rice, the sugar-
cane, grutind-nuts and cinnamon. Tea is the chief crop in Fu-kien.
The sugar-cane is principally cultivated in Kwang-tung, Fu-kien
and Szc-ch'ucn. In the south-western provinces the poppy, tea,
tobacco and rice are the chief crops. Wheat, maize and barley are
aUo largely raised.
While rice does not, unlike tea and cotton, form the principal
crr>p of any one province it is more universally cultivated than any
other plant and forms an important item in the products of all the
central and southern provinces. Regarding China as a whole it
far/iis the staple product and food of the country. Two chief
Varieties are grown, that suited only to tow-lying regions requiring
ample water and the red dee cultivated in the uplands. Next to
rice the most extend vely cultivated plants are tea and cotton, the
sugar-cane^ poppy and bamboo. Besides the infinite variety of
uses to whirh the w<md of the bamboo is applied, its tender shoots
and Us fruit are articles uf diet.
Fruit is extensively cultivated througliout China. In the northern
provinces the chief fruits grown pre pears, plums, apples, apricots,
peaches . medlar*, walnuts and chestnut*, and in Kan -sun Fhdta.
and Shan-tung th* jujube ty-rX Strawberries are an ^^
important crop in Kan-suh. fn Shan-*i, S.W, ChhVli and Shan-tung
the vine is cultivated; the grapes of Shin-*i are reputed to produce
the best wine of China, Oranges are also grown in favoured localities
in the north. The chief fruits of the central and southern provinces
are the orange, lichi, mango, persimmon, banana, vine and pine-
apple, but the fruits of the northern regions are also grown. The
coco-nut and other palms flourish on the southern coast.
As shown above, the poppy has l>cen grown in almost every
district of China, In tooG it was chiefly cultivated in the following
Erovinoes: Yun-nan, Kwei-chow, Sie-ch H uen. Kan-suh, —^
hen -si, 5hnn-si, Shan-tung, No-nan, KUng-su {.northern
(Q06 1 i
part) ana 1 Chch-kiung. The poppy is fiirt mentioned in
Chine* literature in n book written in the lir*t lialf of the 8th
tuury A & , and its medicinal qualities are referred to in the H*r-
rtemury of 07 J. It was not tbsn nor for centuries later
i ', China for the preparation of opium. 1 There is no evidence
it the Chine* ever took opium in the shape of pills
■ -I- ( .i JiVinally). Th** cuttiv,ni-m of the poppy for the
mi. I... . J fjciiij rn began in China in the 17th century, but it
n< -Hi.' I790, whk L n I hi: in^-ittation of foreign opium was
!■•■ 1 •• .: ■!■■ ' ■ ■■ he plant was cultivated on an extensive scale.
vhich had btt-n devoted to the poppy were
I, in consequence of the imperial edict aimed
"m-smoking (sec | History).
csourccs of China are great, but the
narked repugnance to allow foreigners
■ loesa So China is that it lends itself
,-'of dwellings for the people. In many
J In cave dwellings dug out in the vertical
lecting places
chambers and
alubrious.
:; m,Th*Trads
i 7 8
CHINA
[COMMERCE
to work mines, and the mineral wealth has been very inadequately
exploited. Mining operations arc controlled by the Board of
Commerce. In 1007 this board drew up regulations respecting
the constitution of mining and other companies. They contained
many features against which foreign powers protested.
Coal, iron, copper and tin arc the principal minerals found in)
China; there arc also extensive deposits of coal and other minerals
ffr-y in Manchuria. In China proper the largest coal measures
^^ arc found in Shan-si. Hu-nan, Kwei-chow and Sze-ch'ucn,
There are also important coalfields in Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shcn-si,.
Ho-nan, Yun-nan, Hu-pch and Kwang-tung— and almost all of the
seven oihcr provinces have also coal measures of more or less value.
The lack of tran-jvort facilities as well as the aversion from the
employment of foreign capital has greatly hindered the development
of mining. Numerous small mines have been worked for a long;
period by the natives in the province of Hu-nan. There are two
principal local fields in this province, one lying in the basin of the
Lei river and yielding anthracite, and the other in the basin of the
Siang river yielding bituminous coal. Both rivers drain into the
Yantjtsae. and there is ihua an easy outlet by water to Hankow.
The quality of the coal, however, is inferior, as the stratification ha*
been much disturbed, and the coal-seams have been in consequence
crushed and broken. The larec*t coalfield in China lies in the province
of 5han-*L Coal and iron have here Ixx-n worked by the natives
from time immemorial, but owing to the difficulty of transport they
In v-c attained only a limited local circulation. The whole of southern
5harv*t, extending over 30,000 *]. m., is one vast coalfield, and
contains, according to the estimate of Baron von Richthofen, enough
coal to last the world at the present rate of consumption for several
thousand years* The coal-seams, which arc from 20 to 36 ft. in
thkkneat, rest conformably on a substructure of limestone. The
stratification is throughout undi?turl>cd and practically horizontal.
As the limestone bed 1*. niMrd t-jihc 2000 ft. alK>vc the neighbouring
plain the coal-^cam* crop out in j II directions. Mining is thus carried
on by adit* driven into the face of the formation, rendering the
mining of the coal entremcJy easy. The coalfield is divided into two
by a mountain range of ancient granitic formation running north-
east and south-west, termed the ilo-shan. It is of anterior date to
the limestone and coal formations, and has not affected the uni-
formity of the Gratification, but it has this peculiarity, that the coal
on the east side is anthracite, and that on the west side is bituminous.
A concession to work coal and iron in certain specified districts in
this area was granted to a British company, the Peking Syndicate,
together with the right to connect the mines by railway with water 1
na\ igation. The syndicate built a railway in Shan-si from P'ingyang
to TM-chow-fu, the centre of a vast coalfield, and con nectecT with
the main Peking-Hankow line; lines to serve coal mines have also
been built in Hu-nan and other provinces. The earliest in date was
that to the K'aip'ing collieries in the east of the provinccof Chih-li,
the railway connecting the mines with the seaport of Taku. The
cail at K'aip'ing i:> a soft bituminous coal with a large proportion
of du^t. The output is alwut 1,500,000 tons per annum. A
mine has alio been opened in the province of Hu-pch, about 60 m.
below Hankow, and near the Yangtszc, in connexion with iron-
works.
Iron ore of various qualities is found almost as widely diffused
as coal. The districts where it is most worked at present lie within
* the coalfield of Shan-si, viz. at Tsi-chow-fu and P'ing-
* ting-chow. The ore is a mixture of clay ironore and
spathic ore, together with limonitc and hematite. It is found
abundantly in irregular (lcposits in the Coal Measures, and is easily
tini-lied by the natives in crucibles laid in open furnaces. This
r^ji-ui s<ip[>liei nearly the whole of north China with the iron required
for agricultural and domestic use. The out-turn must be very
coiiMfU-rabli", but no data arc available for forming an accurate
estimate. The province of Sre-ch'uen aU) yields an abundance of (
iron ores of various kinds. They are worked by the natives in
numerous plac-s, but always on a small scale and for local eon- 1
f umpti>m only. The ore* occur in the Coal Measures, predominant J
among them \n inga clay iron ore. Hu-nan, Fu-kien, Cheh-kiang and j
Shan-lung all furnish imn ores. Iron (found in conjunction with I
Co.il) is worked in Manchuria.
Copper i i fi.nnil < hiefly in the provinces of Kwci-chow and Yun-nan, •
where a rif h l>*:lt of cop[>cr-bcaring ores runs east and west across j
f both provinces, and including south Src-ch'ucn. The
Tujl^ rhii-f enures of production arc at the cities of Tung- 1
• f.h'ut-n-fu, Chow-t'ung and Ning-yu^n. The mines arc
worked as a government monopoly, private mining being nominally
prohibited. 'I lie output is considerable, but no statistics are pub-
lished by government. Kirh vin-; of copper ore are al:-o worked
near Kiu-kiang. Tin i« min-.d in Yun-nan. the headquarters of the
industry being the city r ,{ m< ng.t.:ze. which -incc 1009 has been
connected with Hanoi by nilwav. This is an important industry,
the value of tin exported in 190ft. |, L j nK /r,oo.ooo. Tin is also mined
in Hai-nan and lead^ in Ynn-nin. Antimony ore is exported from
Hu-nan; petroleum is foun-1 in the uprnr Yangtsze region. Quick-
•ilvcr in obtained in Kwei-chw. Salt is obtained from brine wells
ia Shan-*/ and Ste-ch'ucn. and by evaporation from sea water. I
' Excellent kaolin abounds in the north-eastern part of Kiang-si, and
I is largely used in the manufacture of porcelain.
The Chinese government has opened small gold mines at Hai-nan,
in which island silver is also found. A little gold-washing is donj
I in the sandy beds of certain rivers, for instance, the Han
; river and the upper Yangtsze, above Su-chow (Suifu), ^Ji^ s
I which here goes by the name of the " Goldsand " river. ■»«'«*■
The amount so extracted is extremely small and hardly pays the
labour of washing, but the existence of gold grains points to a matrix
higher up. The whole of south-western China has the reputation of
being highly metalliferous. Gold is obtained in some quantities on
the upper waters of the Amur river, on the frontier between China
and Siberia. The washings are carried on by Chinese. Gold has
also been found in quartz veins at P'ing-tu, in Shan-tung. but hardly
in paying quantities. There are silver mines in Yun-nan.
Manufactures. — The principal native manufactures before the
competition of western nations made itself felt were — apart from
the preparation of tea and other produce for the market — ^^
those of porcelain and silk. The silks and gauzes of Su- s "»* flrf
chow and Nanking in the province of Kiang-su, and those F ***** 1 *'
of Hang-chow in Cheh-kiang, are highly esteemed throughout China.
Silk-weaving is still carried on solely in native lix>ms and chiefly in
the cities mimed. The greater jurt of the silk spun is used in China,
but a considerable export trade has grown up and 27 % of the world's
supply of raw silk is from China. The reeling of silk cocoons by
steam-machinery is supplanting native methods. There are filatures
for winding silk at Shanghai. Canton, Chifu and other cities.
The most famous porcelain came from the province of Kiang-si,
the seat of the industry being the city of King-te-ehen. Imperial
works were established here about the year a.d. 1 000, and the finest
porcelain is sent to Peking for the use of the emperor. At one time
i,oex),ooo work-people uerc said to In? employed, and the kilns
numbered 600. The Taiping rebels destroyed the kilns in 1850.
Some of them have been rebuilt. " Activity begins to reign anew,
but the iiorcclain turned out is far from equalling in colour and finish
that of former times. At the present day Kmg-te-chen has but 160
furnaces and employs 160,000 workmen. ' l The common rice bowls
sold throughout China are manufactured here. The value of the
export sales is said to be al>out £500,000 yearly.
The spinning and weaving of cotton on hand-looms is carried on
almost universally. Be-sides that locally manufactured, the whole of
the large import of Indian yarn is worked up into cloth by
the women of the house-hold. Four-fifths of the clothing ^ tm *
of the lower classes is supplied by this domestic industry. •"•
Of minor industries Indian ink is manufactured in Ngan-hui and Sae-
ch'uen, fans, furniture, lacquer ware and matting in Kwang-tung.
d>es in Cheh-kiang and Chih-li, and varnished tiles in Hu-nan.
Paper, bricks and earthenware arc made in almost all the provinces.
Of industries on a large scale — other than those indicated— the
most important arc cotton-spinning and weaving mills established
by foreign companies at Shanghai. Permission to carry on this
industry was refused to foreigners until the right was secured by
the Japanese treaty following the war of 1894-95. Some native-
Owned mills had been working before that date, and were reported
to have made large profits. Nine mills, with an aggregate of 400,000
spindles, were working in 1906, five of them under foreign manage-
ment. There are al>o four or five mills at one or other of the ports
Working fco.ooo spindles more. These mills are all engaged in the
manufacture of yarn for the Chinese market, very little weaving
)>cing done. Chincsc-gn.wn cotton is used, the staple of which h
short; only the coar&er counts can be spun.
At certain large rcntrcs flour and rice mills have been erected and
arc superseding native methods of treating wheat and rfo; at
Canton there arc sugar refineries. At Hanyang near Hankow are
large iron-works owned by Chinese. They arc supplied wit h ore from
the mines at Ta-yc, 60 m. distant, and turnout (1909) about 300 steel
rails a day.
Commerce.
The foreign trade_ of China i* conducted Through the " treaty
port*," <-f- sea and river porta and a few inland cities which by the
treaty of Nanking {i&4~) that of Tientsin (iSfo) and tubsequent
treat it's have been thrown open to foreigner* for purposes of trade.
(The Nanking treaty rrcognUcd five porta only as open to foreigner*—
Canton, 1 Amoyi Fa-chow, JSing-po and Shanghai.) These places are
as follow*, treaty port* in Manchuria being included: Anioy,
Antung, Canton,^ Chan^-sha. Dotren, Chin-kiang, Cliinwamao,
Ch"ungk 4 ing, Chnfu, Fu<hnw, Fiinmg (Sanruao), Haflg-cfcow,
Hankow, I-ch'ang, Kang-mnon, KLiO'chow, Kiu-kiang. K'iuiie-chow 4
Kow-loon, Lappa, Lung-chow t Menglsie H Mukden, Nanking, Nan-
ning, fting-po* \'m-chwang + Pafchoi, Sanshui, Shanghai, Sh^-a. Su-
chow, Swalow, Siemao, Tatunnkow, Tientsin, Teng-yuth* Wen-
chow, Wu -chow* Wuhu, Yo-chow,
1 Richard's Comprehensive. Geography, &c. (1906 edition), p. 144.
» In the 1 8th century foreign trade was restricted to Canton.
In the 17th ccniurv, however, the Dutch traded to Formosa and
Vmoy, and the English to Amoy also. The Portuguese traded with
Canton as early as 1517. For the early intercourse between Portugal
and China see the introductory chapter In Donald Ferguson's
Letters from Portuguese Captives in Canton (Bombay, 190a).
COMMERCE! CHINA
The pr o gress of the foreign trade of China is set out in the following
table. The values are given both in currency and sterling, but it
b to be remarked that during the period when silver was falling,
that is, from 1875 to 1893. the silver valuation represents much more
accurately variations in the volume of trade than docs the gold
valuation. Gold prices fell continuously during this period, while
stiver prices were nearly constant. Since 1893 silver prices have
tended to rise, and the gold valuation is then more accurate. The
conversion from silver to gold is made at the rate of exchange of
the day, and therefore varies from year to year.
Talie of Imports and Exports, exclusive of Bullion.
'79
Year.
Imports.
Exports.
Value in
Taeis.
Equivalent in
Sterling.
Value in
Tads.
Equivalent in
Sterling.
'K 5
1885
1890
!§i
•1904
•1005
66,344.000
84,803,000
113,082,000
154,685,000
x 89.991. 000
344,060.000
447.100.791
£19,903,000
22,618.000
29.213.000
25,136,000
38,498,000
49.315.000
67.065,118
77.308.000
73,899,000
96,695,000
154.964,000
1 70,743 ,000
239.486 000
227.888,197
£23.193.000
19,206.000
24,980,000
25,181.000
25,612,000
34.326.000
34,183.229
• This marked increase is partly owing to a more complete pre-
sentation of statistics; in 1903 an additional number of vessels were
placed under the control of the imperial maritime customs.
In 1907 the net imports were valued at £67,664.222 and the exports
at £42,961,863. In 1908 China suffered from the general depression
in trade. In that year the imports were valued at £52.600,730, the
exports at £36,888.050. The distribution of the trade among the
various countries of the world is shown in the table which is given
below. Hong-Kong is a port for trans-shipment. The imports
into China from it come originally from Great Britain, India,
Imports into China, (coo's omitted.)
35.000,000 lb and in 1004 it reached 317,171,066 lb. The imports
into China from all countries for 1908 were as follows: —
Coal and coke
Opium
Cotton goods .
Raw cotton .
Woollen goods
Metals , .
£4.563.000
14,786,000
232,000
717.000
2,956,000
Oil, kerosene
Rice . .
Sugar
Fish, &c.
£1,124,000
2,666,000
3.543.000
3.54,000
1,028,000
The principal exports from China arc silk and tea. These two
articles, indeed, up to 1880 constituted more than 80% of the whole
export. Owing, however, mainly to the fall in silver, and partly also
to cheap ocean freights, it has become profitable to place on the
European market a vast number of miscellaneous articles of Chinese
produce which formerly found no place in the returns of trade. The
silverpriccs in China did not change materially with the fall in silver,
and Chinese produce was thus able to compete favourably with the
produce of other countries. The following table shows the relative
condition of the export trade in 1880 and 1908: —
Exports of
1880.
1908.
Silk
Tea
Miscellaneous . .
£9,750,000
11.774,000
4.058,000
£11.055,000
4.384.000
21448.000
Total . . .
£25.582,000
£36,888,000
Imports from
1875.
1880.
1885.
1890.
1895-
1905.
1908.
United Kingdom • .
Hong-Kong • • • •
India
Other British possessions
United States . . .
Continent of Europe (ex-
cept Russia) . . .
Russian Empire . . .
Japan ......
£6340
8282
396
304
230
746
£6382
8829
6039
346
351
671
1021
£6396
9404
4306
884
671
1404
£6.357
18.615
2,661
571
949
638
231
1,909
£5.518
» 4.33 1
2.753
732
827
1.227
309
2.794
£1,971
22,240
5.220
963
",538
4.295
302
9.197
£9.647
20.033
4,066
5.499
3.332 1
422
7.000
Exports from China, (ooo's omitted.)
Export* to
1875.
I--:-.
IS* s.
tfloo.
1*95.
1905.
1908,
United Kingdom . .
£*74'>
£*i J5
£5B">4
£j3«3
*5"7
£1718
£j-7ta
£1,673
Hong- Kong ....
3^24
4844
4232
565 »
12. n"
1^**1
India - .
7*
W3
157
273
44*)
40H
647
545
Other Bnti*h possession*
948
*74
ni
Hfi
5S6
United Sutra - . .
23113
2906
2213
2109
*499
4.P55
3.176
Continent cif Europe (ex-
cept Russia)
*S24
376o
194&
30"4
J44*
4fo?
7-1 28 t
Russian Empire . . -
MM
isGo
1J93
328S
*M5
1.4-tn
1,1 ?3
japan , * * . .
5fl*
642
39»
ujfl
3408
Sr3=f
•i (h'Q
In the miscellaneous class the chief items of exports in 1908 were
beans and bcancakc, £3,142,000; raw cotton, £1.379,000; hides,
£1,028,000; straw braid. £1,002,000; furs and skin rugs, £760,000;
paper, £458,000; and clothing, £177,000. ' Sugar, tobacco, mats
and matting arc also exported. The export of all cereals except
pulse is forbidden. Of the tea exported in 1908 the greater part
went to Russia and Siberia, the United States and Great Britain.
There is a regular export of gold amounting on an average to about
a million sterling per annum. A part of it would seem to be the
hoardings of the nation brought out by the high price of gold in
terms of silver, but a part is virgin
gold derived from gold workings
in Manchuria on the upper waters
of the Amur river.
Customs duty is levied on ex-
ports as well as imports, both
being assessed at rates based on a
nominal 5 % ad val.
Shipping and Navigation. —
Besides the over-sea trade China
has a large coasting and river
trade which is largely carried on
by British and other foreign
vessels. During the year 1908,
207,605 vessels,, of 83.991,280
tons (86.600 being steamers of
77.955.525 tons), entered and
cleared Chinese ports. 1 Of these
28,445 vessels of 34405,761 tons
were British; 33,539 of 1 1 ,998,588
tons, Chinese vessels of foreign
type; 103,124 of 4.947,272 tons,
Chinese junks; 5496 vessels of
6.585,671 tons, German; 30,708
of 18,055,138 tons, Japanese; 653
of 998,775 tons. American; 3901
of 5.071,689 tons, French; 1033
t Germany, France, Belgium and Italy only,
Germany, France, America. Australia, the Straits Settlements, &c,
and the exports from China to it go ultimately to the same
countries.
The chief imports arc cotton goods, opium, rice and sugar, metals,
oil, coal and coke, woollen goods and raw cotton, and fish. Cotton
goods are by far the most important of the imports. They come
chiefly from the United Kingdom, which also exports to China
woollen manufactures, metals and machinery. China is next to
India the greatest consumer of Manchester goods. The export of
plain cotton cloths to China and Hong-Kong has lor tabic years
averaged 500,000,000 yds., per annum. The only competitor which
Great Britain has in this partic l..r hr.-inrh of trade is the United
States of America, which has been tupplying China with increasing
Cjuantities of cotton goods. The value in ^erfing of the total import b
into China from the United Kingdom, long remained nearly constant,
but inasmuch as the gold prices were fal ting the volume oi the raport
was in reality steadily growing. The import! into England, however,
of Chinese produce nave fallen off, mainly bet au&e' China ten hau
been driven out of the English market by the growth of the India
and Ceylon tea trade, and also became the bulk of the China silk is
now shipped directly to Lyons and other continental ports instead
of to London, as formerly was the rule. The growth of the import of
Indian yarn into China has been very rapid. In 1884 the import was
of 980,635 tons, Norwegian.
Ofvc * •• - -
vessels engaged in the foreign
trade only the entrances during
the year numbered 38,556 of 12,187.140 tons, and the clearances
46,602 of 12,057,126 tons. The nationality of the vessels (direct
foreign trade) was mainly as follows: —
Nationality
1908.
Entrances.
Clearances.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
British . . .
German . . .
Norwegian . .
French . . .
American • .
Japanese . .
Chinese . . .
*8S?
29.775
4.678,094
1,195.775
254.211
629,680
440,602
2,587,818
2,001,672
4.614
928
3
131
2,046
27.888
4.754.087
1,124,872
439.947
2.461,132
1.315.258
The tonnage of the Dutch. Austrian and Russian vessels cleared
and entered was in each case between 102,000 and 127.000.
Communications.
.External communication is carried on by ancient caravan routes
crossing Central Asia, by the trans-Siberian railway, which is
1 From Tk» SlaUsman'sli'ear Book, 1910 edition.
i8o
CHINA
(COMMUNICATIONS
increasingly used for passenger traffic, but chiefly by steamship, the
steamers being almost entirely owned by foreign companies. There is
regular and rapid communication with Europe (via the Suez canal
route) and with Japan and the Pacific coast of America. Other lines
serve the African and the Australasian trade. The only important
Chinese-owned steamers are those of the Chinese Merchants Steam
Navigation Company, which has its headquarters at Shanghai.
Internal communications arc by river, canal, road and railway, the
railways since the beginning of the 20th century having become a very
important factor. In 1898 the Chinese government agreed that all
internal waterways should be open to foreign and native steamers,
and in 1907 there were on the registers of the river ports for inland
water traffic 609 steamers under the Chinese flag and 255 under
foreign flags.
Railways. — A short line of railway between Shanghai and Wusung
was opened in 1875. The fate of this pioneer railway may be
mentioned as an introduction to what follows. The railway was
really built without any regular permission from the Chinese govern-
ment, but it was hoped that, once finished and working, the
_.. irregularity would be overlooked in view of the manifest
Pioneer b* nc fo to the people. This might have been accomplished
Lined** but for an unfortunate accident which happened on the
ttfoyta ^ line a few months after it was opened. A Chinaman was
^^ run over and killed, and this event, of course, intensi-
fied the official opposition, and indeed threatened to bring about a
riot. The working of the line was stopped by order of the British
minister, and thereupon negotiations were entered into with a view
to selling the line to the Chinese government. A bargain was struck
sufficiently favourable to the foreign promoters of the line, and it
was further agreed that, pending payment of the instalments which
were spread over a year, the line should continue to be worked by
the company. The expectation was that when the officials once got
the line into their own hands, and found it a paying concern, they
would continue to run it in their own interest. Not so, however,
did things fall out. The very day that the twelve months were
up the line was closed; the engines were dismantled, the rails and
sleepers were torn up, and the whole concern was shipped off to the
distant island of Formosa, where carriages, axles and all the rest
of the gear were dumped on the shore and left for the most part to
disappear in the mud. . The spacious area of the Shanghai station
was cleared of its buildings, and thereon was erected a temple to
the queen of heaven by way of purifying the sacred soil of China
from such abomination. This put a stop for nearly twenty years
to all efforts on the part of foreigners to introduce railways into
China. The next step in railway construction was taken oy the
Chiaa'M Chinese themselves, and on the initiative of Li Hung-
fl— t chang. In 1886 a company was formed under official
efforts. patronage, and it built a short line, to connect the coal-
mines of K'aip'ing in Chih-li with the mouth of the
Peiho river at Taku. The government next authorized the formation
of a Native Merchants' Company, under official control, to build a
line from Taku to Tientsin, which was opened to traffic in 1888.
It was not, however, ill! nine years later, vi*, in 1807, that the line
was completed as far as Peking, A British BwfnMt^ Mr KSndef.
was responsible for the construction of the railway, Meantime,
however, the extension had been, continued north-east along the
coast as far as Shan hal^Kwan* and a [art her extension subsequently
connected with the treaty port of Niu-chwang- The money for
these extensions was mostly found by the government, and (he
whole line is now known as the Imperial Northern railway* The
length of the line is rV>., m , Memwhilc the high officials of the empire
had gradually been brought round to the idea that railway develop-
ment was in itself a £ood thing. Chang Chili-lung, then viceroy of
the Canton province, memorialised strongly in tin* sen**, with the
condition, however, that the railways should be built with Chines
capital and of Chinese material*. In particular, he urged the
Tbeerm making ■ a line to connect Peking with Hankow for
of co n- strategic purposes* The government took him at his
cesttons. wor d' anf » nc wa9 transferred from Canton to Hankow,
with authority to proceed forthwith with his railway.
True to his purpose, he at once set to work to construct iron-works
at Hankow. Smelting furnaces, rolling mills, and all the machinery
necessary for turning out steel rails, locomotives, &c, were erected.
Several years were wasted over this preliminary work, and over
£1,000,000 sterling was spent, only to find that the works after all
were a practical failure. Steel rails could be made, but at a cost
two or three times what they could be procured for in Europe.
After the Japanese War the hope of building railways with Chinese
capital was abandoned. A prominent official named Shcng Hsuan-
hwai was appointed director-general of railways, and empowered to
enter into negotiations with foreign financiers for the purpose of
raising loans. It was still hoped that at least the main control
would remain in Chinese hands, but the diplomatic pressure of
France and Russia caused even that to be given up, and Great
Britain insisting on equal privileges for her subjects, the future of
railways in China remained in the hands of the various concession-
aires. But after the defeat of Russia by Japan (1904-1905) the
theory of the undivided Chinese control of railways was resuscitated.
The new spirit was exemplified in the contracts for the financing
and construction of three railwavs— the Canton-Kowloon line in
j 007, And the Tieotwn-Vangtsze and the Shanghai- Hangrhow-
Ning-po lines jn 190IL En i!ie frrM uf the.** instances the railway
was mortgaged as security for the loan raided (or its construction
und ils finance and working were to bu mo< Idled on the arrangement*
obtaining in the case of the Imperial Northern railway, under which
the administration* wbik vusted in the Chinese government. *as
supervised by a British accountant and chief engineer. Jji the other
two Ounces, however, no such security was aftercd; the Chinese
government undertook ihe unfettered admin ist ration of (he foreign
capital invested in the line*, and the Europeans connected with
these works became rik&ply Chinese employ**. Moreover, in 1908
the Peking- Hankow line was redeemed from Belgian concessionaires,
a 5% loan of £5,000,000 being raised foe the purpose in London
and Paris. In that year there was ranch popular outcry apinst
foreign eonccssinnaircs being allowed to carry out the terms of their
contract t and the British and Chinese corporation in consequence
parted with their concession for the Su*chow, N ing-po and Hang-chow
railway, making Instead a loan of £1,500,000 to the ministry' of
communication* for the provinces through which the line would run.
A double difficulty was encountered in ihe construction and manage-
ment of the railways; the reconciliation of the privileges accorded
to foreign syndicates and governments pith the "Recovery of
Rights" campaign, and the reconciliation of the claims of the
central government at Peking with the demands of the
provincial authorities. As to the foreigners, Great
Britain, France, Germany, the United States, Russia and
Japan, all had claims and concessions, many of them conflicting;
while as between Peking and the provinces there was a quarrel
mainly concerned with the spoils and " squeezes " to be obtained
by railway construction; in some instances the provinces pro\ed
more powerful than the central government, as in the case of the
Su-chow-Ning-po line, and notably in the matter of the Tientsin-
Pukau (Nanking) railway. In that case the provincial authorities
overrode the central government, with the result that " for whole-
sale jobbery, waste and mismanagement the enterprise acquired
unenviable notoriety in a land where these things arc generally
condoned." The good record of one or two lines notwithstanding, the
management of the railways under Chinese control had proved, up
to 1910, inefficient and corrupt. 1 Nevertheless, so great was the
economic development following the opening of the line, that in
Chinese hands the Peking-Hankow railway yielded a profit.
The main scheme of the railway systems of China is simple. It
consists of lines, more or less parallel, running roughly north and
The
south, linked by cross lines with coast ports, or abutting
on navigable nvcrs. One great east and west line will
run through central China, from Hankow to Sze-ch'uen.
Connexion with Europe is afforded by the Manchuria-
trans-Sibcria main line, which has a general cast and west direction.
From Harbin on this railway a branch runs south to Mukden, which
since 1908 has become an important railway centre. Thence one
line goes due south to Port Arthur; another south-east to An-tung
(on the Yalu) and Korea; a third south and west to Tientsin and
Peking. A branch from the Mukden-Tientsin line goes round the
head of the Gulf of Liao-tung and connects Niu-chwang with the
Mukden-Port Arthur line. By this route it is 470 m. from Peking
to Niu-chwang.
From Poking the trunk line (completed in 190O runs south
through the heart of China to Hankow on the Yangtsze-kuing.
This section (754 m. long) is popularly known as " the La«Haa
line," from the first part of the name* nf the terminal stations.
The continual ion south of this line from Hankow to Canton was in
19*0 under construction. Thus a great north and south connexion
nearly 7000 m. Long is established from Canton to Harbin. From
Mukden southward the line is owned and worked by China.
A railway (German concession) starts from KiAO-chow and runs
westward through Shan-lung to Chinan Fu t whence an extension
farther west to join the main Lu-Han line at Cheng-ting Fu in
Chih-li was undertaken. Westward from Cheng-ting Fu a line
financed by the Russa-Chinem: Bank runs to T'ai-yucn Fu in Shan-si.
Another main north and &outh railway parallel u>, but east of,
the Lu-Han line and following more or less the route of the Grand
Canal, is designed to connect Tientsin, Su-chow (in Kiang-su),
Chtn-Jdangt Nanking, Shanghai, Hang-chow and Ning-po. The
tmit hern section (Nanking, Shanghai. &e.) was open in 1909. This
1 ient*in- Ning-po railway connects at ChinajM^u with the Shan-
tung lines.
A third north and south line starts from Kiu-Kiang on the Yangtsse
below Hankow and traversing the centre of Kiang-si province will
join the Canton-Hankow line at Shao-Chow in Kwang-tung province.
The construction of the first section, Kiu-Kiang to Nanchaog
(76 m.), began in 1910.
In southern China besides the main Canton to Hankow railway
(under construction) a line (120 m. long) runs from Canton to
Kowloon (opposite Hong-Kong), and there arc local lines running
inland from Swatow and Fuchow. The French completed in 1909
a trunk line (500 m. long) from Haiphong in Tong King to Yun-nan Fu,
the capital of Yun-nan, some 200 m. being in Chinese territory. The
French hold concessions for railways in Kwang-si and Kwang-tung.
1 See The Times of the 28th of March 1910.
GOVERNMENT] CHINA
The British government has the right to extend the Burma railway
system through Yun-nan and north to the Yangtsze.
. There are local lines in Hu-nan and Ho-nan which connect with
the trunk line from Canton to Peking. The Pcking-Kalgan line
(m m. long) is a distinct undertaking. The Chinese propose to
continue it another 530 m. north-westward to Urga in Mongolia,
ami an eventual junction with the trans-Siberian railway in the
neighbourhood of Lake Baikal is contemplated. This line would
greatly shorten the distance between Moscow and Peking.
In 1910 there were open for traffic in China (not reckoning the
Russian and Japanese systems in Manchuria, q.v.) over 3000 m. of
railway, and 1500 m. of trunk lines were under construction.
China is traversed in all directions by roads. Very few are paved
of metalled and nearly all are badly kept ; speaking generally, the
!> . government spends nothing in keeping either the roads
^Znlmm^ or c*™l1» in repair. The roads in several instances are
'JZTJZ ^^ subsidiary to the canals and navigable rivers as a means
of communication. The ancient trade routes were twelve
in number, viz. 1 : —
X. The Wat river route tW. from Canton).
2. The Cheling l J a« rouu- (N\W_ from I anton).
3. The Meiling Pa» route (N, from Canton).
4. The Mm riv« <ouic {X.W. itum In ihow).
5. The Lower Yaogtue route (a* far W. as Hu-pch and Hu-nan).
6. The Upper Yangtze futile (from IV hang to Sze-ch'uen).
7. Thi» Kwei^'how route.
8. The Hid river fuuil- {Hankow to 5hcn-si).
9. The Grand Canal (already described,).
10. The Shan-ii route.
11. The Kiakhta route.
13. The Ma fichu run route.
Of the routes named, that by the West river commands the trade
of Kwang-si and penetrates to Yun-nan (where it now has to meet
the competition of the French railway from Tong King) and Kwci-
chow. The Chcling Pass route from Canton is so named as it crosses
that pass (1500 ft. nigh) to reach the water-ways of Hu-nan at Chen-
chow on an affluent of the Siang, and thus connects with the Yangtszc.
The trade of this route — whence in former times the teas'of Hu-nan
fOonam) and Hu-pch (Oopack) reached Canton — has been largely
diverted via Shanghai and up the Yangtsze. The Canton-Hankow
railway also supersedes it for through traffic. The route by the
Meiling Pass (1000 ft. high) links Canton and Kiu-kiang. This route
i» usedby the King-te Chen porcelain works to send to Canton the
commoner ware, there to be painted with florid and multicoloured
destgmv The Min river route serves mainly the province of Fu-kien.
The Lower Yangtszc is a river route, now mainly served by steamers
(though the salt is still carried by junks), and the Upper Yangtsze
if a river route also, but much more difficult of navigation. The
Kwei-chow route is up the river Yuen from Changtc and the Tung-
t'ing lake. The Han river route becomes beyong Sing-naen Fu a land
route over the Tsingling mountains to the capital of Shcn-si, and
tbenceon to Kan-suh, Mongolia and Siberia. The Shan-si route from
Peking, wholly by road, calls for no detailed account ; the Man-
churian route is now adequately served by railways. There remains
the important Kiakhta route. From Peking it goes to Kalgan (this
section is now served by a railway), whence the main route traverses
Mongolia, while branches serve Shan-si,Shen-si, Kan-suh, Turkestan,
Ac. By this route go the caravans bearing tea to Siberia and
Russia. Other routes arc from Yun-nan to Burma and from Sze-
ch'uen province to Tibet.
The government maintains a number of courier roads, which,
like the main trade roads, keep approximately to a straight line.
These courier roads arc sometimes cut in the steep sides of mountains
or run through them in tunnels. They arc, in the plains, 20 to 25 ft
wide and are occasionally paved. The chief courier roads starting
from Peking go to Sze-chu'en, Yun-nan, Kweilin (in Kwang-si),
Canton and Fu -chow. Canals are numerous, especially in the deltas
of che Yangt&te and Si-kiang.
In the centre and south of China the road 9 are rarely more than
5 ft. broad and wheeled traffic is seldom possible. Bridges are
generally of stone, lometimes of wood; large rivers are crossed by
bridges of boats. In the ncrtb Carta drawn by ponies, mules or oxen
are employed ; in the centre and south passcngrrs travel In sedan-*
chain or in wheelbarrows, or ride un ponies. Orrasiooally the local
authorities employ the corvto system, to dig nut the bed of a canal,
but as a rule road* are left to take care of themselves.
Pant and Ttit£rapkt-—*F*vctY important city is now connected
by telegraph with the capilal H and the Mrrviee is reasonably efficient.
In 1907 there were 25.9*3 mu of telegraph line*. Connexion is al*o
established with the British lines in Burma and the Russian lines in
Siberia, The Great Northern Ttlcgraph Company (Danish) and the
Eastern Extension Telegraph Company { Urit Un l connect Shanghai by
cable with Hong-Kong, Japan, Singapore and Europe, An imperial
pajtoi MtTvia waft established in Ittoo under the general control of
the maritime customs, 1 By an edict of November 1906 the control
1 See Morse, op. cit. chap. x.
* The maritime customs had established a postal service for its
own convenience in 1861, and it first gave facilities to the general
181
of the postal services was transferred to the Board of Communication.
The Post Office serves all the open ports, and every important city
in the interior. There were in 1010 some 4000 native post-offices,
employing 15,000 persons, of whom about 200 only were foreigners.
The treaty powers however, still maintain their separate post offices
at Shanghai, and several other treaty ports for the despatch and
receipt of mails from Europe. During the years 1901-1908 mail
matters increased from ten millions to two hundred and fifty- two
millions of items; and the 250 tons of parcels handled to 27, 155 tons.
In postal matters China has adopted a most progressive attitude.
The imperial post conforms in all respects to the universal Postal
Union regulations. (G. J.; X.)
IV. Government and Administration
Changes in the traditional form of government in China — an
autocracy based on parental rule — were initiated in 1005 when a
commission was appointed to study the forms of government in
other countries.' On the 1st of September 1906 an imperial
edict was issued in which the establishment of parliamentary
institutions in China was foreshadowed. In 1007 an advisory
council — as a sort of stepping-stone to representative government
— was established by another edict. On the 27th of August
190S an edict announced the convocation of a parliament in
the ninth year from that date. An edict of the 3rd of December
1008 reaffirmed that of the 27th of August. An edict of the 31st
of October 1909 fixed the classes from which an Imperial
Assembly (or Senate) was to be selected, and an edict of the
9th of May 1910 gave the names of the senators, all of whom
had been nominated by the throne. The assembly as thus con-
stituted consisted of 200 members drawn from eight classes: (1)
princes and nobles of the imperial house — 16 members; (a)
Manchu and Chinese nobles — 12 members; (3) princes and nobles
of dependencies — 14 members; (4) imperial clansmen other
than those mentioned— 6 members; (5) Peking officials — 32
members; (6) eminent scholars— 10 members; (7) exceptional
property owners — 10 members; (8) representatives of provincial
assemblies — 100 members. The national assembly, which was
opened by the regent on the 3rd of October 1910, thus contained
the elements of a two-chambered parliament. The edict sum-
moning the assembly contained the following exhortations: —
The members should understand that this assemblage of the senate
is an unprecedented undertaking in China and will be the fore-
runner of the creation of a parliament. They are earnestly desired
to devote to it their patriotism and sincerity, to observe proper
order, and to fulfil their duties in representing public opinion. Thus
it is hoped that our sincere wish to effect constitutional reforms in
their proper order and to aim at success may be duly satisfied.
Concurrently with these steps towards a fundamental altera-
tion in the method of government, changes were made in
many departments of the state, and an elective clement was intro-
duced into the provincial administrations. The old conception
of government with such modifications as had been made up to
1 9 10 arc set forth below.
The laws of the state prescribe the government of the country to
be based on the government of the family. 4 The emperor is the sole
and supreme head of the state, his will being absolute -_
alike in the highest affairs and in the humblest details of 1??
private life. The highest form of legislation was an ifJc^JL^
imperial decree, whether promulgated in general terms or ^ ^Tl^ j
to meet a special case. In either form it was the law of m fl L
the land, and no privilege or prescriptive right could be
E leaded against it. AH officers of state, all judges and magistrates,
old their offices entirely at the imperial pleasure. They can be
dismissed, degraded, punished, without reason assigned and without
form of trial — even without knowing by whom or of what they are
accused. The monarch has an advisory council, but he is not bound
by its advice, nor need he pretend that he is acting by and with its
I advice and concurrence. This condition of affairs dates back to a
! primitive state of society, which probably existed among the Chinese
who first developed a civilized form of government. That this
system should have been maintained in China through many centuries
public in 1876. An organized service for the conveyance of govern-
ment despatches has existed in China for many centuries, and the
commercial classes maintain at their own expense a system (" letter
hongs") for the transmission of correspondence.
' For the causes leading to this movement and the progress of
reform sec $ History.
4 For recent authoritative accounts of the government of China
see H. B. Morse, The Trad* and Administration of the Chinese Empire.
chap, iii.; Richard's 'Comprehensive Geography, etc., Blc I. | v., ana
The Statesman's Year Book.
182
CHINA
[GOVERNMENT
is a fact into the causes of which it is worth while to inquire. We
find it pictured in the records which make up the Book of History,
and we find it enforced in the writings of the great apostle of patri-
archal institutions, Confucius, and in all the other works which
go to make up the Confucian Canon. The reverence with which
these scriptures are viewed was the principal means of perpetuating
the primitive form of Chinese imperialism. The contents of their
pages formed the study of every schoolboy, and supplied the themes
at the competitive examinations through which every one had to
pass who sought an official career. Thus the mind of the nation
was constantly and almost exclusively turned towards them, and
their dogmas became part and parcel of the national training. The
whole theory of government is the embodiment of parental love and
filial piety. As the people arc the children of the emperor, so is he
the rien-tsze or the Son of Heaven.
In practice the arbitrary power of the emperor is tempered in
several ways. Firstly, although the constitution conferred this
-^ absolute and unchecked power on the emperor, it was not
* for his gratification but that he might exercise it for the
mm * cr9r% good of his people. He rules by divine authority, and
as the vicegerent of heaven upon earth. If he rules corruptly or
unjustly, heaven will send disasters and calamity on the people as
a reproof; if the rule becomes tyrannical, heaven may withdraw its
favour entirely, and then rebellion may be justified. The Manchu
dynasty came to the throne as foreign conquerors, nevertheless they
base their right to rule, not on the power of the sword, but on divine
approval. On this moral ground they claim the obedience of their
subjects, and submit themselves to the corresponding obligations.
The emperor, unless he has gained the throne by conquest, is selected
by his predecessor or by the imperial family in conclave. He is
usually a son (but seldom the eldest son) of his predecessor, and need
not be the child of the empress-consort, 1 though (other things being
equal) a son of the empress is preferred. Failing a son another prince
of the imperial house is chosen, the choice being properly among the
princes of a generation below that of the preceding emperor, so that
the new emperor may be adopted as the son of his predecessor, and
perform for him the due ceremonies at the ancestral tablets. Apart
from this ancestor-worship the emperor worships only at the Altar
of 1 leaven, leaving Buddhism, Taoism, and any other form of worship
to his subjects. The emperor's sacrifices and prayers to heaven arc
conducted with great parade and ceremony. The chief of these state
observances is the sacrifice at the winter solstice, which is performed
before sunrise on the morning of the 21st of December at the Temple
of Heaven. The form of the altar is peculiar.
" It consists of a triple circular terrace, 210 ft. wide at the base,
150 in the middle, and 90 at the top. . . . The emperor, with his
immediate suite, kneels in front of the tablet of Shang-ti (The
Supreme Being, or Heaven), and faces the north. The platform is
laid with marble stones, forming nine concentric circles; the inner
circle consists of nine stones, cut so as to fit with close edges round
the central stone, which is a perfect circle. Here the emperor kneels,
and is surrounded first by the circles of the terraces and their
enclosing walls, and then by the circle of the horizon. He then seems
to himself and to his court to be in the centre of the universe, and
turning to the north, assuming the attitude of a subject, he acknow-
ledges in prayer and by his position that he is inferior to heaven,
and to heaven alone. Round him on the pavement arc the nine
circles of as many heavens, consisting of nine stones, then eighteen,
then twenty-seven, and so on in successive multiples of nine till the
square of nine, the favourite number of Chinese philosophy, is
reached in the outermost circle of eighty-one stones."
On this occasion, also, a bullock of two years old, and without
blemish, is offered as a whole burnt-offering in a green porcelain
furnace which stands close beside the altar. The emperor's life is
largely occupied with ceremonial observances, and custom ordains
that except on state occasions he should not leave the walls of the
palace.
For his knowledge of public affairs the emperor is thus largely
dependent upon such information as courtiers and high officers of
state permit to reach him.* The palace eunuchs have often exercised
great power, though their influence has been less under the Manchus
than was the case during previous dynasties. Though in theory the
throne commands the services and money of all its subjects yet the
crown as such has no revenues peculiarly its own. It is dependent
on contributions levied through the high officials on the several
provinces, subject always to the will of the people, and without their
concurrence and co-operation nothing can be done.* The power of
the purse and the power of the sword are thus exercised mediately,
and the autocratic power is in practice transferred to the general body
of high functionaries, or to that clique which for the time being has
l The empress-consort is chosen by the emperor from a number
of girls selected by his ministers from the families of Manchu nobles.
From the same candidates the emperor also selects secondary-
empresses (usually not more than four). Concubines, not limited in
number, are chosen from the daughters of Manchu nobles and free-
men. All the children are equally legitimate.
1 Recent emperors have been children at accession and have been
kept in seclusion.
• See " Democratic China " in H. A. Giles, China and the Chinese.
the ear of the emperor, and is united enough and powerful enough
to impose its will on the others.
The functionaries who thus really wield the supreme power are
almost without exception civil officials. Naturally the court has
shown an inclination to choose Manchu rather thanChincsc, Ca , am
but of late years this preference has become less marked, ^^
and in the imperial appointments to provincial administra- f" ^
tions the proportion of Manchus chosen was at the begin- clvll
ning of the 20th century not more than one-fifth of the ^trvkx.
whole number. The real reason for this change is the
marked superiority of the Chinese, in whose hands the administration
is stated to be safer for the Manchu dynasty. Practically all the
high Chinese officials have risen through the junior ranks oi the civil
service, and obtained their high position as the reward — so it must
be presumed — of long and distinguished public service.
Through the weakness of some of the emperors the functions of
the central government gradually came to be to check the action
of the provincial governments rather than assume a Faact t oaM
direct initiative in the conduct of affairs. " The central ^ th9
government may be said to criticize rather than to gg^^
control the action of the provincial administrations, - # ^ ero .
wielding, however, at all times the power of immediate m€a ^
removal from his post of any official whose conduct may
be found irregular or considered dangerous to the stability of the
state." 4 This was written in 1877, and since then the pressure of
foreign nations has compelled the central government to assume
greater responsibilities, and the empire is now ruled from Peking in
a much more effective manner than was the case when Lord Napier in
1834 could find no representative of the central government with
whom to transact business.
If the central authorities take the initiative, and issue orders to
the provincial authorities, it, however, does not follow that they will
be carried out. The orders, if unwelcome, are not directly disobeyed,
but rather ignored, or specious pleas are put forward, showing the
difficulty or impossibility of carrying them out at that particular
juncture. The central government always wields the power of
removing or degrading a recalcitrant governor, and no case lias
been known where such an order was not promptly obeyed. But
the central government, being composed of officials, stand by their
order, and arc extremely reluctant to is>sue such a command,
especially at the bidding of a foreign power. Generally the opinion
of the governors and viceroys has great weight with the central
government.
Under the Ming dynasty the Nuiko or Grand Secretariat formed
the supreme council of the empire. It is now of more honorific
than actual importance* Active membership is limited n mmmrt
to tix person** namely, four grand Mcretarics and two f*F°
assistant grand secretaries* hall oi whom, according to a ^/*l!f
general rule formerly applicable to nearly all the high ctatni
offices in Peking* must be Manchu ami half Chincfc. It attaint**
constitutes the imperial chancery or court of archives, trmUma.
and admission to its ranks confers the highest distinction
attainable by Chinese officials, though with functions that are almost
{jurely nominal. Members of Lhc grand secretariat arc distinguished
ty the honorary title of Ckunt-t'auf, The most distinguished
Viceroys are usually advanced to the dignity of grand secretary while
continuing to occupy their post* in the provinces. The best known
of recent grand secretaries was Li Hting-chang.
Under the Manchu dynasty the Grand Council (Chun Chi Ch'u)
became the actual privy council of the sovereign, in whose presence
its members daily transacted the business of the state. This council
is composed of a small knot of men holding various high offices in
the government lioards at Peking. The literal meaning of Chun
Chi Ch'u is " place of plans for the army," and the institution derives)
its name from the practice established by the early emperors of the
Manchu dynasty of treating public affairs on the fooling of a military-
council . The usual time of transacting business is from 4 to 6 a.m.
In addition to the grand council and the grand secretariat there were
boarc m supervise particular di-i^rimcm*. My a decree of the 6th
of November 1006 the central administration was remodelled, subse-
quent decrees making other change*. The administration in 1910
was carried on. by the following Agencies: — ■
A. Councils. — ft) The grand council Its title was modified in
1906 -ind it is now known as the Grand Council of State Affairs or
Privy Council. It haa no special function, but deals with all matters
of general ad ml nist ration and is presided over by the emperor (or
regent), (j) The Grand Secretariat, This body gained no increase
of power in 1 006. (3,} The advisory council or senate {Tu China
Yuen 1 created in 1*907 and containing rrprrscntativea of each
province. It includes all members of the grand council and the
¥-and secretariat and the heads of all the executive departments. 1
he members of these three bodies form advisory cabinets to the
emperor.
B. Boards. — Besides boards concerned with the affaire of the court
there were, before the pressure of foreign nations and the movement
for reform caused changes to be made, six boards charged with the
4 \V. F. Mayers, The Chinese Government (1878).
'This body is superseded by the Imperial Senate summoned to
Aol Cf\~ »Iia £»«» #inr«a An t llA *%mA nt AnlnklWi tfVVA
1 uis uwiy i» au)R.iM.-iii-ii uy mc imperial ovih
meet for the first time on the 3rd of October 1910
PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT]
CHINA
183
conduct of public affairs. They were: (1) Li Pu, the Board of Civil
Appointments controlling all appointments in the civil service from
the rank of district magistrate upwards. (2) Hu Pu, the Board of
Revenue, dealing with all revenues which reached the central
government. (3) Li Pu, the Board of Ceremonies. (4) Ping Pu, the
Board of War. It controlled the provincial forces. The Manchu
forces were an independent organization attached to the palace.
(5) Using Pu t the Board of Punishments. It dealt with the crim-
inal Law only, especially the punishment of officials guilty of
malpractices. (6) Kung Pu, the Board of Works. Its work was
limited to the control of the construction and repair of official
As rearranged and enlarged there are now the following boards,
given in order of precedence: —
1. Wai-wu Pu. — This was established in 1901 in succession to the '
Tsung-li Yamen, 1 which was created in 1861 after the Anglo-Chinese
War in 1 860 as a board for foreign affairs. Previous to that war, which
established the right of foreign powers to have their representatives I
in Peking, all business with Western nations was transacted by
provincial authorities, chiefly the viceroy at Canton. The only
department at Peking which dealt specially with foreign affairs was
the Li Fan Yuen, or board of control for the dependencies, which
regulated the affairs of Mongolia, Tibet and the tributary states
generally. With the advent of formally accredited ambassadors
from the European powers something more than this was required,
and a special board was appointed to discuss all questions with the
foreign envoys. The number was originally four, with Prince Kung,
a brother of the emperor I lien FC-ng, at their head. It was subse-
qucntly raised to ten, another prince of the blood. Prince Ching,
becoming president. The members were spoken of collectively as
the prince and ministers. For a long time the board had no real
power, and was looked on rather as a buffer between (he foreign
envoys and the real government. The importance of foreign affairs,
however, especially since the Japanese War, identified the Yamen J
reore with the grand council, several of the most prominent men being I
members of both. At the same time that the Tsung-li Yamen was'
created, two important offices were established in the provinces for
dealing with foreign commercial questions, viz. the superintendencics
of trade for the northern and southern port*. The negotiations con-
nected with the Boxer outbreak proved so conclusively that the
Machine ry to the Tsung-li Yamen was of too antiquated a nature to
■cm ibe new requ icemen ts H that it was determined to abolish the
Yumfn and to substitute for k a board {Pu) to be styled the Wai-wu '
Pttr or " board of foreign affairs*"
2* Board of Civil Appoint merits,
3. Board of Home Alf.iir*.
4. Board of Finanrc and I'aynuiter General's Department.
5. Board of Ceremonies.
6. Army Board or Ministry of War (instituted loo6)-'
7. Board of Judicature.
6. Board of Agriculture, Works and Commerce (instituted 1903).
g. Board cf dependencies,
10, Board of Education (instituted 1 003).
11, Board of Communications (instituted 1906).
Each board has one president and two vice-presidents, with the
exception of the Wai-wu l J u T which has a comptroller-general and
two presidents, and the Board* of War and Education, each of which
ia* * comptroller- general in addition to the president. According
to the decree of iyok no dial ina ion H in filling up the various boards,
is to be made between Manchu and Chinese.
Betides the boards named there are other departments of state,
tome of them not limited to any one branch of the public service.
The more important are those that folllow: —
The Censorate (Tu Ch'a Yuen). — An institution peculiar to China.
The constitution provides a paid body of men whose duty it is to in-
form the emperor of all facts affecting the welfare of the people and
the conduct of government, and in particular to keep an eye on the
malfeasance of his officers. These men are termed Yu shih (imperial
recorder), generally translated censors. Their office has existed since
the 3rd century B.C. The body consists of two presidents, a Chinese
and a Manchu, 34 supervising censors attached to the ministries at
Peking, and 56 censors, divided into fifteen divisions, each division
taking a particular province or area, so as to embrace the whole
eighteen provinces, besides one metropolitan division. The censors
are privileged to animadvert on the conduct even of the emperor
himself; to censure the manner in which all other officials perform or
neglect their duties and to denounce them to the throne. They
receive appeals made to the emperor, either by the people against the
officials or by subordinate officials against their superiors. They
exercise, in accord with the Board of Justice, an oversight over all
criminal cases and give their opinion whenever the death penalty is
1 Yamen is the name given to the residences of all high officials.]
Tmng-li Ya men -the bureau for managing each (foreign) kingdom's 1
affairs.
* An edict of the 15th of July 1909 created a naval and military
advisory board. Up to that time the navy was controlled by the
viceroys at Canton. Nanking. Fu-chow and Tientsin; the viceroys
at Canton and Tientsin being ministers superintendent of the
southern and northern ports respectively.
to be pronounced. They superintend the working of the different
boards and are sometimes sent to various places as imperial in-
spectors, hence they arc called erh mu kuan (the eyes and ears of the
emperor). The censors exercise their office at times with great
boldness; ' their advice if unpalatable may be disregarded and the
censor in question degraded. The system of the censorate lends itself
to espionage and to bribery 1 and it is said to be more powerful for
mischief than for good. With the growth in influence of the native
press the institution appears to lose its ration d'etre.
The grand court of revision (Ta-li sze) or Court of Cassation exer-
cises, in conjunction with the Board of Justice and the Censorate, a
general supervision over the administration of the criminal law.
These bodies arc styled collectively San-fah sze (the Three High
Justices).
The Hanlin College (Hanlin Yuen, literally Forest of Pencils) is
composed of all the literate who have pa'^ed the palace examination
and obtained the title of Hanlin or imperial academist. It has two
chancellors — a Manchu and a Chinese. Its functions arc of a purely
literary character and it is of importance chiefly because the heads of
the college, who arc presumably the most eminent scholars of the
empire, have the right of advising the throne on all public affairs,
and arc eligible as members of the grand council or of the Wai-wu
Pu. The Chinese set tire to it during the fighting in Peking in June
.1900 in the hope of burning out the adjoining British legation.
The whole of the library, containing some of the most valuable
manuscripts in the world, was destroyed.
Each of the eighteen provinces of China proper, the three provinces
of Manchuria and the province of Sin-kiang are ruled by a viceroy
placed over one, two and in one instance three provinces, - . . .
or by a governor over a single province either under a jT ^ lfr^
viceroy or depending directly on the central government, „ rafc "
the viceroy or the governor being held responsible to the
emperor for the entire administration, political, judicial, military and
fiscal. The most important viceroyaltics arc those of Chih-li, Liang-
kiang and Liang-kwang. The viceroyalty of Liang-kiang comprises
the provinces of Kiang-su, Xgan-hui and Kianc-si. The viceroy
resides at Nanking and hence is sometimes called the viceroy of
Nanking. Similarly the viceroy of Liang-kwang (construing the
provinces of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si) through having his residence
at Canton is sometimes styled the viceroy of Canton. The three
trovinces adjoining the metropolitan province of Chih-li — Shan-tung,
han-si and Hon-an — have no viceroys over them; seven provinces —
including Chih-li — have no governors, the viceroy officiating as
governor. In provinces where there arc both a viceroy and a
governor they act conjointly, but special departments are ad-
ministered by the one rather than the other. The viceroy controls
the military and the salt tax; the governor the civil service
generally.
The viceroy or governor is assisted by various other high officials,
all of whom down to the district magistrate arc nominated from
Peking. The chief officials arc the treasurer, the judicial com-
missioner or provincial judge, and the commissioner of education
(this last post being created in 1003). The treasurer controls the
finances of the whole province, receiving the taxes and paying the
salaries of the officials. The judge, the salt commissioner, and the
grain collector arc the only other officials whose authority extends
over the whole province. Each province is subdivided into pre-
fectures ruled by prefects, and each prefecture into districts ruled
by a district magistrate, Chih-hsien, the official through whom the
people in general receive the orders of the government. Two or
more prefectures are united into a tao or circuit, the official at the
head of which is called a Taot'ai. Each town and village has also
its unofficial governing body of " gentry."* The officials appointed
I from Peking hold office for three years, but they may be re-appointed
once, and in the case of powerful viceroys they may hold office for
a prolonged period. Another rule is that no official is ever appointed
to a post in the province of his birth; a rule which, however, did
not apply to Manchuria. The Peking authorities take care also in
making the high appointments to send men of different political
parties to posts in the same province.
The edict of the 6th of November 1906 initiating changes in the
central administration was accompanied by another edict outlining
changes in the provincial government, and an edict of the 22nd of
July 1908 ordered the election of provincial assemblies. The edict
made it clear that the functions of the assemblies were to be purely
consultative. The elections took place according to the regulations,
the number of members allotted to each province varying from 30
I Kirin province, Manchuria, and two others) to 140 in Chih-li. The
franchise was restricted, but the returns for the first elections showed
nearly 1000 voters for each representative. The first meetings of
the assemblies were held in October 1909.
1 Thus in 1910 Prince Ching, president of the grand council, was,
for the third time, impeached by censors, being denounced as an
" old treacherous minister," who filled the public service with a
crowd of men as unworthy as himself. The censor who made the
charge was stripped of his office (see The Times of the 30th of March
191 o).
♦For details of local government tee Richard's Comprehensive
Geography, 1908 edition, pp. 301 et seq.
184,
CHINA
(CIVIL SERVICE
The Civil Service.— The bureaucratic clement is a vital feature
in the government of China, the holding of office being almost
the only road to distinction. Officials are by the Chinese called
collectively Krcan (rulers or magistrates) but are known to
foreigners as mandarins (g.v.). The mandarins are divided into
nine degrees, distinguished by the buttons worn on the top of
their caps. These are as follows:— first and highest, a plain
red button; second, a flowered red button; third, a transparent
blue button; fourth, an opaque blue button; fifth, an un-
coloured glass button; sixth, an opaque white shell button;
seventh, a plain gilt button; eighth, a gilt button with flowers in
relief; ninth, a gilt button with engraved flowers. The buttons
indicate simply rank, not office. The peacock feathers worn in
their hats are an order granted as reward of merit, and indicate
neither rank nor office. The Yellow Jacket similarly is a decora-
tion, the most important in China.
The ranks of the civil service are recruited by means of examina-
tions. Up to the beginning of 1006 the subjects in which candi-
dates were examined were purely Chinese and literary with a
smattering of history. In 1906 this system was modified and
an official career was opened to candidates who had obtained
honours in an examination in western subjects (see § Education).
The old system is so closely identified with the life of China that
some space must be devoted to a description of it.
As a general rule students preparing for the public examination
read with private tutors. Then.- wrrr rich her high school? nor uni-
versities where a regular training t-ould be cut. In mo^t of the pro-
vincial capitals, and at some other places, there were indeed institu-
tions termed colleges, supported to wrai- extent from public funds,
where advanced students could prosecute their studies; but before
the movement initiated by the viceroy Chang Chin tung after the
China- Japan War of 1894, they hardly counted a* factor* in the
national education. The private tutors, on the other band, were
plentiful and cheap. After a scries of preliminary trials the student
obtained his first qualification by rumination held before the
literary chancellor in the prefecture to wtneh he belonged. This was
termed the Siuts'ai, or licentiate'* degree, and was merely a quali-
fication to enter for the higher examinations. The number of
licentiate degrees to be given wn, however, strictly limited; those
who failed to get in were set brck to try again, which they might do
at often as they pirated. There was no limit of. age. Those selected
rwsi proceeded to the great examination held at the capita* of each
province, once in three years, before examiners sent from Peking
lor the purpose. Here again the number who passed was strictly
limited. Out of to.Ooo or 1 3,000 competitors only some too or 350
could obtain degrees. The others, as before , must go back and try
again. ThU dtgree, germed Chi jln, or provincial graduite, was the
first *ob*Untraf reward of the student's ambition, and of itself
qualified for the public service, though it did not immediately nor
necessarily lead to active employment. The third and final examina-
tion took place at Peking, and was open to provincial graduates from
all parts of the empire. Out of 6000 competitors entering for this
final test, which war held iriennially, some 325 to 350 succeeded in
ubuining the degree o( Chin shift, or metropolitan graduate. These
were th* finally selected men who became the officials of the empire.
Several other doors were, however, open by which admission to the
ratifcs of bureaucracy could be obtained. In the first place, to en-
courage scholars to pemverv, a certain number of those who failed to
reach the r *«l jht. or second degree, were allowed, as a reward of
repeated efforts, to get into a special class from which selection for
office might be made. Further, the government reserved to itself the
right to nominate the sons and grandsons of distinguished deceased
public servants without examination. And, lastly, by a system of
u recommendation," young men from favoured institutions or men
who had served as clerks in the boards, might be put on the roster
for substantive appointment. The necessities of the Chinese govern-
ment also from time to time compelled it to throw open a still wider
door of entry into the civil service, namely, admission by purchase.
During the T'aip'ing rebellion, when the government was at its wits'
end for money,' formal sanction was given to what had previously
been only intermittently resorted to, and since then immense sums
of money Rave been received by the sale of rxticm* of rank, to secure
either admission to office or more rapid promotion of those already
employed. As a result of this policy, the country has been saddled
with thousands of titular officials far in ckc« of the number of
appointments to be given away. Deserving men were kept waiting
for years, while inferior and less capable official* were pushed ahead,
because they had money wherewith to bribi \ heir, way. Nevertheless
the purchase system admitted into the M-niic a numlicr of men
free from that bigoted adherence to I 'i-nfm i.in dx trine which
characterizes the literary classes, and m-.r^ in ( ■ ■«■. h ujth nimH-m
ress.
11 candidates who succeed in entering the official ranks arc eligible
"TBS
for active employment, but as the number of candidates is far in
excess of the number of appointments a period of weary waiting
ensues. A few of the best scholars get admitted at once into the
Hanlin college or into one or other of the boards at Peking. The rest
are drafted off in batches to the various provinces to await their turn
for appointment as vacancies occur. During this period of waiting
they are termed " expectants " and draw no regular pay. Occasional
service, however, falls in their way, as when tncy are commissioned
for special duty in outlying districts, which they perform as Wei
yutns, or deputies of the regular officials. The period of expectancy
may be abridged by recommendation or purchase, and it is generally
supposed that this last lever must invariably be resorted to to secure
any lucrative local appointment. A poor but promising official is
often, it is said, financed by a syndicate of relations and friends,
who look to recoup themselves out of the customary perquisites
which attach to the post. Appointments to the junior provincial
posts are usually left to the provincial government, but the central
f;ovcrnment can always interfere directly. Appointments to the
ucrative posts of customs, taot'ai, at the treaty ports are usually
made direct from Peking, and the officer selected is neither necessarily
nor usually from the provincial staff. It would perhaps be safe to
say that this appointment has hitherto always been the result of a
pecuniary arrangement of greater or less magnitude.
During the first five years (1906-19 10) of the new method, by
which candidates for the civil service were required, in addition to
Chinese classics, to have a knowledge of western science, „...
great efforts were made in severalprovinccs to train up ***»**?
a better class of public official. The old system of acf- ttrtan
ministration had many theoretical excellencies, and there
had been notable instances of upright administration, but the
regulation which forbade a mandarin to hold any office for more than
three years made it the selfish interest of every office-holder to get
as much out of the people within his jurisdiction as he possibly
could in that time. This corruption in high places had a thoroughly
demoralizing effect. While among the better commercial classes
Chinese probity in business relations with foreigners is proverbial,
the people generally set little or no value upon truth, and this has
led to the use of torture in their courts of justice; for it is argued
that where the value of an oath is not understood, some other
means must be resorted to to extract evidence.
Justice. — The Chih-Hsien or district magistrate decides ordinary
police cases; he is also coroner and sheriff, he hears suits for divorce
and breach of promise, and is a court of first instance in all civil cases;
" the penalty for taking a case first to a higher court is fifty blows
with the bamboo on the naked thigh." 1 Appeal from the Hiien
court lies to the Fit, or prefectural court, and thence cases may be
taken to the provincial judge, who signs death warrants, while there
are final courts of appeal at Peking. Civil cases are usually settled
by trade gilds in towns and by village elders, or by arbitration in
rural districts. Reference has been made to the use of torture.
Flogging is the only form of torture which has been allowed under
the Manchus. The obdurate witness is laid on his face, and the
executioner delivers his blows on the upper part of the thighs with
the concave side of a split bamboo, the sharp edges of which muti-
late the sufferer terribly. The punishment is continued until the
nun either supplies the evidence required or becomes insensible.
Punishment by bamboo wjs formally abolished by imperial edict
in 11/05, and other judicial reforms were instituted. They remained
largely inoperative, and even in Shanghai, under the eyes of foreign
residents, gross cases of the infliction of torture occurred in 1909.*
For capital offences the umjjI modes of inflicting the extreme
penalty of the law arc— in bad caw*, such as parricides, " cutting to
pieces, ' end for less aggravated crimes either strangulation or
decapitation, The culprit why is condemned to be " cut to pieces *'
is fastened to a cross, and while thus suspended cuts are made* by the
executioner on the fleshy parts of the body; and he is then beheaded.
Strangulation i* reserved for le&wr degrees of guilt, it being con-
si dcred a privilege to pass out . ■■!' tii\ mth a whole body. When it has
tjocn granted to a criminal of rank thus to meet his end, a silken cord
U tent to him at his own home. No explanatory message is con-
sidered necessary, and he is left to consummate his own doom.
Popular sentiment regards decapitation as a peculiarly disgraceful
tnodu of death. Constant practice makes the executioners wonder-
fully expert in the performance of their office. No block or resting-
place for the head is used. The neck is simply outstretched to its
full length by the aid of an assistant, and one blow invariably leaves
the body headless.
The U*s an? in accord with the principle which regards the
family 3* a unit. Thus there is no bankruptcy law — if a debtor's own
est site will not suffice to pay his debts the deficiency must
lie made good by his relatives; if a debtor absconds his
irnm.-.lntr family are imprisoned. By analogy if one
mrmbcr of a party commits an offence and the guilty
person cannot be detected, the whole party must suffer. Foreigners
residing in China resented the application of this principle of law
to themselves. As a result extra-territorial rights were sought by
Kuropc.in powers. They w ere secured by Rus sia as early as 1689,
1 More, op. cit., 1008 edition, p. 70.
• Sec The Times of the 28th of February 1910.
FINANCE) CHINA
but it was not until 1843 that any other nation acquired them. In
that year Great Britain obtained the right to try British subject* by
its own consuls, a right secured in more explicit terms by the United
States and France in 1844. Now eighteen powers, including Japan,
have consular courts for the trial of their own subjects according to
the laws of their native lands. Mixed courts have also been estab-
lished, that is. a defendant is tried in the court of his own nationality,
the court giving iu decision under the supervision of a representative
of the plaintiffs nationality. In practice the Chinese have seldom
sent representatives to sit on the bench of consular courts, but, as the
Europeans lack confidence in the administration of Chinese justice, no
suit brought by a foreigner against a Chinese is decided without the
p n. s e ncc of an assessor of the plaintiff's nationality.
Dtjewu.— The Chinese constitution in the period before the
reform edicts of 1905-1006 provided for two independent sets of
military organizations — namely, the Manchu army and
***• the several provincial armies. On the establishment
of the dynasty in 1644 the victorious troops, composed mainly of
Manchus, but including also Mongols and Chinese, were permanently
quartered in Peking, and constituted a hereditary national army.
The force was divided into eight banners, and urtd^r one or other of
these all Manchus and all the descendants of the members of other
nationalities were enrolled. They form the bulk of the population
of the "Tatar city" of Peking. Each adult male was by birth
entitled to be enrolled as a soldier, and by virtue of his enrolment
had a right to draw rations — ix. his allowance ul the tribute rice,
whether on active service or not. Detachment* from one of other
of the banners were stationed as garrisons in the chief provincial
centres, as at Canton, Fuchow and Hang-chow, &c, and their
descendants still occupy the same position. As a fighting force
the Manchu garrisons Doth in the capital and in the provinces
had long become quite effete. In the capital, however, the it tie ol
the Manchu soldiery were formed into a special corps termed the
Peking Field Force. Its nominal strength was 20,000. the men were
armed and drilled after the European fashion, and fairly well paid.
There were other corps of picked Manchus better paid and better
armed than the ordinary soldier, and it was computed that in 1901
the Manchu army in or near Peking could muster 40,000, all more
or leas efficient.
The second organization was termed the army of the Green
Standard, being the Chinese provincial forces. The nominal strength
was from 20,000 to 30.000 for each province, or about 500,000 in all :
the actual strength was about one-third of this. They were enrolled
to keep the peace within their own province, and resembled a militia
or local constabulary rather than a national army. They were
generally poorly paid and equally badly drilled and armed.
The only real fighting force which China possessed at the beginning
of the 20th century was made up r.I certain ,.•■ i l1 coim unl'Th were
not provided for m the constitution, and foniequenriy used to be
termed yv*£. " bravcs, ,h or irregulars, but had acquired various
dkiinctite names. They were enlisted by provincial governors, and
all had some una tiering of foreign drill. They were also fairiy well
paid and airned. After the Chi no- Japanese War of [894-0.5 some
el these corps were quartered near Peking an J Tientsin, and came
RDeralTy to be spoken vi as the Army of the North.
An imperial decree issued in 1001 after the Bo iter rising ordered
the reorEaniaatioti of live military force* of the empire, and on pn>
vtnrial uncs something was accomplished — especially in Chih-li
tinder Yuan Shih-b*ai< who practically created " the Army of the
KortJl*** It was not. however, until after the Ruuo-Japam-* War
that determined efforts were made to organise a national army on
■cetera lines: an army which should be responsible to the central
rt*-enuneni and not dependent upon the provincial a rim i nutritions.
A decree of 1905 provided (on ["pert for training at hod 5 fur omccrs
' 1 each of the province*, rmrhllc grade military schools in selected
ovinces, and a training coTleee and military htgh school in Peking.
be Army Board wa* reorganized and steps taken to form a general
ica/L Considerable progress had been made by 19 to in the evolution
of a body of efficient officers. In practice the administration re-
trained brgely provincial— for instance the armament of the troops
was provided oy the provincial governors and was lar from uniform.
The scheme* contemplated the creation of a force about 400,000
crone til ,36 divisions and in two armies, the northern and the
southern. Retnjiimcnt is tin the voluntary principle, except in
the cav of the Manchus, who apparently enter the new army instead
of the " eight banner;*-'* The terms of service are thrw years with
the colours, three in the reserve and four in the territorial army.
The Japanese system of training is followed. Reservists are called
out for y> days every year and the territorialists for 30 days every
Up to 1909 six divisions and one mixed brigade of the northern
r had been organized in Shan-tung, Chih-li and Ho- nan; elsc-
e three divisions and six mixed bn trades; total strength about
185
provi
The i
where three divisions and six mixed brigades; total
tojooo with 350 guns. (These figures do not include all the pro-
vincial foreign trained troops.) The efficiency of the troops varied :
the northern army was superior to the others in training and arma*
■sent. About n third of the 60,000 men of the new army were in
tops stationed In Manchuria. (Sec also § History.)
•Sot ft* Statesman's Year-Booh (1910 edition).
An imperial edict of the 15th of September 1907 reorganized the
army of the Green Standard. It was placed under the control of
the minister of war and formed in battalions and squadrons. The
duty of the troops in peace time remained much as previously. In
war they pass under the control of regular officers, though their use
outside their own provinces does not seem to be contemplated.
The Chinese navy in 1909 consisted ol the 4300 ton cruiser " Hai
Chi " (two 8-in., ten 47-in. guns) of 24 knot original speed, three
3000 ton cruisers, " Hai Yung, " Hai Scbcw and ~.
*' Hai Shen " (three 6-in., eight a-in. guns) of 19*5 knot "a»T»
original speed, some modern- gunboats built in Japan, a few mis-
cellaneous vessels and some old torpedo boats. With the destruction
of the northern fleet by the Japanese at the capture of Wei-hai-wei
in 1895, the Chinese navy may be said to have ceased to exist.
Previously it consisted of two divisions, the northern and southern,
of which the former was by far the more formidable. The southern
was under the control of the viceroy of Nanking, and took no part
in the Chino-Japanese War. While the northern fleet was grappling
in a death-struggle, the southern was lying snugly in the Yangtsxc
waters, the viceroy of Nanking apparently thinking that as the
Japanese had not attacked him there was no reason why he should
risk his ships.
The New Scheme.— An edict of the 15th of July 1909 created a
naval and military advisory board- Ni retrod SouncL centrally
situated on the coa&t of C he h- Viang, was chosen as naval base, and
four naval schools were ordered to be established; a navigation
school at Chilu, an engineering school at Whampoa. a school for
naval artificers at Fuchow . and a gunnery and musketry school at
Nimrod Sound, A superior naval college was founded at Peking.
The coast defences were placed under the control of the naval
department, and the reorganization of the dockyards undertaken.
During 1910 orders for cruisers were placed abroad.
Aneuafs and Dtxbyards—Mtw the Ims of fort Arthur, China
po*$csied no dockyard which could dock vessels over 3000 tons.
Many years ago the Chinese government established at Fuchow a
shipbuilding yard, placing it in the hands of French engineers.
Training <<hoois both for languages and practical navigation were
at the same time organised, and a training ship wa * procured and
put under the command of a British naval officer* Some twenty-
five or thirty small vciael* were built in the court? of a* many years,
but gradually the whole organist ion was allowed to fall into decay.
Except lor petty repairs this establishment was in 1909 valueless
to the Chinese government. There were also small dockyards at
Klang-nan (near Shanghai). \Yham[ton and Taku There are wcll-
equipped arsenals at Shanghai and at Tientsin, but as they are both
placed up shallow riven they are useless for naval repairs. Both
arc capable of turning out hca vy gu n*. and a l«o rifles and ammunition
in large quantities. There arc also military arsenal* at Nanking*
Wuchang, Canton and Chengtu.
Forts. — A great number of forts and batteries have been erected
along the coast and at the entrance to the principal rivers. Chief
among these, now that the Taku forts formerly commanding the
entrance to Tientsin have been demolished, are the Kiangyin forts
commanding the entrance to the Yangtsze, the Min forts at the
entrance of the Fuchow river, and the Bogue forts at the entrance
to the Canton river. These are supplied with heavy armament from
the Krupp and Armstrong factories.
Finance.
In fiscal matters, as for many other purposes, the Chinese
empire is an agglomeration of a number of quasi-independent
units. Each province has a complete administrative staff,
collects its own revenue, pays its own civil service, and other
charges placed upon it, and out of the surplus contributes
towards the expenses of the imperial government a sura which
varies with the imperiousness of the needs of the latter and with
its own comparative wealth or poverty. The imperial govern-
ment does not collect directly any part of the revenues, unless
the imperial maritime customs be excepted, though these, too,
pass through the books of the provincial authorities.'
It has hitherto been extremely difficult to obtain anything
like trustworthy figures for the whole revenue of China, for the
reason that no complete statistics are published by the* central
government at Peking.* The only available data are, first, the
returns published by the imperial maritime customs for the duties
levied on foreign trade; and, secondly, the memorials sent to
Peking by the provincial authorities on revenue matters, certain
of which are published from time to time in the Peking Gazette.
■ A few of the old native customs stations, which are deemed
perquisites of the imperial court, may also be excepted, as, for
instance, the native custom-house at Canton, Hwei Kwan on the
Grand Canal, and various stations in the neighbourhood of Peking.
1 The production of a budget in 1915 was promised in one ol wa
reform edicts of 1908.
FINANCE)
CHINA
i8 7
■ tax on inland trade levied while in transit from one district to
another. It was originally a war tax imposed as a temporary
measure to meet the military expenditure required bytheT'aip'ing
and Mahommedan rebellions of 1850-1870. It is now one of the
permanent sources of income, but at the same time it is in form as
objectionable as a tax can be, and is equally obnoxious to the native
and to the foreign merchant. Tolls or barriers are erected at frequent
intervals along all the principal routes of trade, whether by land or
wager, and a small levy is made at each on every conceivable
— '-» of commerce. The individual levy is small, but over a long
t it may amount to 15 or 20 %. The objectionable feature is
the frequent stoppages with overhauling of cargo and consequent
delays. By treaty, foreign goods may commute all transit dues for
a single payment of one-halfthc import tariff duty, but this stipula-
tion is but indifferently observed. It must also be remembered, per
contra, that dishonest foreign merchants will take out passes to cover
matht^Bwmd goods. The difficulty in securing due observance of
treat/ rights lies in the fact that the likin revenue is claimed by the
provincial authorities, and the transit dues when commuted belong
to the central government, so that the former arc interested in
opposing the commutation by every means in their power. As
a further means of neutralizing the commutation they have devised
a new form of impost, viz. a terminal tax which is levied on the
goods after the termination of the transit. The amount and fre-
quency of likin taxation are fixed by provincial legislation — that is,
by a proclamation of the governor. The levy is authorized in general
terms by an imperial decree, but all details are left to the local
authorities. The yield of this tax is estimated at taels 13,000,000
(iliOSOiOOO), a sum which probably represents one-third of what is
actually paid by the merchants, the balance being costs of collection.
4. Imperial Maritime Customs. — The maritime customs is the
one department of finance in China which is managed with probity
and honesty, and this it owes to the fact that it is worked under
foreign control. It collects all the duties leviable under the treaties
on the foreign trade of China, and also all duties on the coasting
trade so far as carried on by vessels of foreign build, whether Chinese
or foreign owned. It docs not control the trade in native craft, the
so-called junk trade, the duties on which are still levied by the native
custom-house officials. By arrangement between the British and
Chinese governments the foreign customs levy at the port of entry
a likin on Indian opium of taels 80 per chest, in addition to the tariff
duty of taels 30. This levy frees the opium from any further duty on
transit into the interior. The revenue of the maritime customs rose
from taels 8,200,000 in 1865 to taels 35,1 1 1,000 in 1905.
5. Native Customs. — The administration of the native customs
continues to be similar to what prevailed in the maritime customs
before the introduction of foreign supervision. Each collector is
constituted a farmer, bound to account for a fixed minimum sum,
but practically at liberty to retain all he may collect over and
above. If he returns more he may claim certain honorary rewards
s* for extra diligence, but he generally manages to make out hJ3
accounts so as to show a small surplus, and no more. Only imperfect
and fragmentary returns of the native electorates have been
published, but the total revenue accruing to the Chinese government
From this source, did not appear up to 1900 mi'ch to exceed two
million taels (£300,000). In November 1001 native customs offices
within 15 m. of a treaty port were placed under the control of the
maritime customs, their revenues having been hypothecated for
the service of the Boxer indemnity. The result was that the amount
of the native customs collected by the commi«*i oners of customs
increased from taels 2,206,000 in 1902 to taels 3.690,000 in 1906.
6. Duty on Native Opium. — The collection of the duty on opium
b in the hands of the provincial officials, but they are required to
render a separate account of duty and likin collected on the drug,
and to hold the sum at the disposal of the board of revenue at
Peking. The annual import into China of Indian opium used
to amount to about 50,000 chests, the exact amount of opium
imported in 1904 being 54.750 pic u Is on which the Chinese govern;
ment received from duty and likin com I lined about 5} million taels
'£825.000). The total amount of native-grown opium was estimated
in IOX) I at about 400.000 chests (53.000.000 lb), and if this were
taxed at taels 60 per chest, which in proportion to it* price was
a similar rate to that levied on Indian opium, it should give a revenue
of 24 million taels. Compared with tin- the sums actually levied,
or at least returned by the local officials as levied, were insignificant.
The returns gave a total levy for all the eighteen province of only
taels 2.200,000 (£330,000). The anti-opium smoking campaign
initiated by the Chinese government in 1905 affected the revenue
both by the decreased importation of the drug and the decrease in
the area under poppy cultivation in China. In 1908 the opium likin
revenue had fallen to taels 3.800,000.
7. Miscellaneous.— Besides the main and regular sources of in-
come, the provincial officials levy sums which must in the aggregate
amount to a very large figure, but which hardly find a place in the
returns. The principal are land transfer fees, pawnbrokers' and
Other licences, duties pn rtcd flats, commutation of corvee and
personal services, &c. The fee on land trans(er> is 3 %, and it could
be shown, from a calculation based on the extent and value of the
arable land and .the probable number of sales, that this item alone
ought to yield an annual return of between one and two millions
sterling. Practically the whole of this is absorbed in office expenses.
Under this heading should also be included certain items which
though not deemed part of the regular revenue, have been so often
resorted to that they cannot be left out of account. These arc the
sums derived from sale of office or of brevet rank, and the sub-
scriptions and benevolences which under one plea or another the
government succeeds in levying from the wealthy. Excluding these,
the government is always ready to receive subscriptions, rewarding
the donor with a grant of official rank entitling him to wear the appro-
priate " button.' The right is much sought after, and indeed there
are very few Chinamen of any standing that arc not thus decorated,
for not only does the button confer social standing, but it gives the
wearer certain very substantial advantages in case he should come
into contact with the law courts. The minimum price for the lowest
grade is taels 120 (£18), and more of course for higher grades. The
proceeds of these sales go directly to the Peking government, and
do not as a rule figure in the provincial returns. The total of the
miscellaneous items accruing lor the benefit of the government is
estimated at taels 5,500,000.
Expenditure.— in regard to expenditure a distinction has to be
drawn between that portion of the revenue which is controlled by
the central government, and that controlled by the several provincial
authorities. As the provinces collect the revenue, and as the
authorities theic are held responsible for the peace, order and good
government of their respective territories, it follows that the necessary
expenses of the provinces form a sort of first charge on the revenue.
(As the tables given show, the provinces spend the greater part of the
revenue collected.) The board of revenue at Peking, which is charged
with a general supervision of finance matters all over the empire,
makes up at the end of the year a general estimate of the funds
that will be required for imperial purposes during the ensuing year,
and apportions the amount among the several provinces and the
several collcctoratcs in each province. The estimate is submitted
to the emperor, and, when sanctioned, instructions arc sent to all the
viceroys and governors in that sense, who, in turn, pass them on to
their subordinate officers. In ordinary times these demands do not
materially vary from year to year, and long practice has created
a sort of equilibrium between imperial and provincial demands.
The remittances to the capital are, as a rule, forwarded with reason-
able regularity, mostly in the form of hard cash. There is, however, a
constant pull going on between Peking and the provinces — the
former always a&king for more, the latter resisting and pleading
impecuniosity, yet generally able to find the amounts required.
The expenses which the central government has to meet are: —
(1) Imperial household; (2) pay of the Manchu garrison in and about
Peking; (3) costs of the civil administration in the capital; (4)
cost of the army so far as the expenses are not borne by the pro-
vinces; (5} naval expenses; ' (6) foreign loan* — interest and
sinking fund. To meet all these charges the Peking government
for several years up to £900 drcw on the provinces for about taels
20,000,000 (£3,000.000)* including the value of the tribute rice,
which goes to th<? support of the Manchu twnnermrn. 1 No estimates
arc furnikhed of the turns allowed under such heading. The imperial
household appcarMo ret* U e in silver about tacit 1 ,500,000 (£225,000)
but it draw* brides large supplies in kind from tbr provinces, e.g.
silks and r-i!ms from the imperial factories at Su-chow and Hang-
chow, porcelain from the Kiang-st potteries, Ac., the c^t of which is
defrayed by the provinces. The imperial government has also at its
disposal the revenue of the foreign customs. Prior to the Chino-
Japanese war ol 1B94-95 this revenue, which, alter allowing for the
costs of collection, amounted to about 20,000,000 taels (£3 .000,000),
was nominally shared with the provinces in the proportion of four-
tenths and six-tenths. The whole of the customs revenue is now
pledged to foreign bondholders and absorbed by the service of the
several loans. Besides supplying its own wants the imperial govern-
ment has to provide for outlying portions of the empire which are
unable to maintain themselves— (1) Manchuria, (2) Kan-suhand the
central Asian dominion, (3) the south-western provinces ol Yun-nan,
Kwei-chow and Kwang-si. Manchuria, or, as it is termed, the
north-cast frontier defence, costs about taels 2,000,000 over and
above its own resources. The central Asian territories constitute a
drain on the imperial government of about taels 4,000,000 a year.
This is met by subsidies from Szc-ch'ucn. Shan-si. Ho-nan and other
wealthy provinces. Yun-nan, Kwei-chow and Kwang-si require aids
aggregating taels 2,000,000 to keep things going.
External Debt. — Prior to the war with Jawn in 1894 the foreign
debt of China was almost nil. A few trifling loans bad been con-
tracted at 7 and 8%, but they had been punctually paid off, and
only a fraction of one remained. The expenses of the war, however,
and the large indemnity of taels 230,000,000 (£34,500,000) which
Japan exacted, forced China for the first time into the European
market as a serious borrower. The sum of £6,635,000 was raised in
1894-1895 in four small loans at 6 or 7% interest. In 1895 a
1 Information a» to what extent the expenses of the new army
and navy are met by the central government is lacking.
% » To meet the expenditure on interest and redemption of the
indemnities for the Boxer outrages the Peking government required
the provincial authorities to increase their annual remittances by
taels 18,700,000 during the years 1902-1910.
i88
CHINA
{HISTORY
Franco- Russian loan of fr, 440,000,000 (£15,^^0.000) was raised in
Paris. Two Anslo-Cennafi faons, each 01/16,000.000 (one in 1806,
the other in t&o*} were raised through the Hong Kong and Shanghai
Bank. The l-ranco-Kus&an loan bears 4% interest, the first
Anglo-German 5%, the «cond *J%- The foreign loans contracted
up to 1900 amounted altogether to £54,453,000" The charges for
interest and linking fund, which arooiintea to over £3,000,000, were
secured on the revenue of the maritime customs, and on the likin
taxes of certain specified provinces. The ni>t income from these
two sources j mounted to over t.itls 24.000,000, equivalent at
existing rate of exchange to £3,400,000, which was amply sufficient.
Between 1899 and 1907 (both years inclusive) £12,200,000 was
raised on loan (or railway purposes. The charges on the first loan —
for £2,300,000 — were secured on the revenue of the Imperial
Northern railway, the interest being 5%. The same interest was
secured on the other loans, save one for £1,000,000 in which the
Hong Kong government was concerned, which bears 4 % interest.
The foreign debt also includes the indemnities exacted in 1901
by the powers for the Boxer outrages. These indemnities, secured
on imperial revenue, are divided into five series amounting alto-
gether to £67,500,000, the amount payable on these indemnities
(at 4% interest) in 1907 being £2,824,425. The burden of meeting
this amount was apportioned between the eighteen provinces— the
sums allocated ranging from tacts 2,500,000 for Kiang-su to taels
300,000 for Kwei-chow. In 1909 the grand total of China's indebted-
ness exceeded £140,000,000 and the interest called for the payment
of £7.427.450 i" g° ,d -
Banks and Banking. — Native banks for purposes of inland ex-
change arc to be found in most large cities. They are private banks
using their own capital, and seldom receiving deposits from the
public. The best known are the Shan-si banks, which have branches
all over the empire. They work on a small capital, seldom over
£50.000 each, and do a small but profitable business by selling their
drafts on distant places. None of them issues notes, although they
are not debarred from doing so by law. They lend money on personal
security, but do not advance against shipments of goods. In some
places there arc small local banks, usually called cash shops, which
issue paper notes for small sums and lend money out on personal
security. The notes never reach more than a very limited local
circulation, and pass current merely on the credit of the institution.
There is no law regulating the formation of banks or the issue of
notes. Pawnshops occupy a prominent position in the internal
economy of China. They lend on deposit of personality at very high
rates. 18 and 24%, and they receive deposits of money from the
public, usually allowing 6 to 10%. They are the real banks of
deposit of the country, and the better class enjoy good credit.
Foreign Banks do a large business at Shanghai and other treaty
ports, and a Government Bank has been established at Peking.
Currency. — In the commercial treaty between Great Britain and
China of 1902 China agreed to provide a uniform national coinage.
An imperial decree of October 1908 commanded the introduction of
a uniform tad currency; but another decree of May 1910 established
a standard currency dollar weighing 72 candareens (a candarcen is the
100th part of the tael ounce) and subsidiary coins of fixed values in
decimal ratio. This decree properly enforced would introduce a much
needed stability into the monetary system of China.
The actual currency (1910) consists of (1) Silver, which may be
cither uncoined ingots passing current by weight, or imported coins.
Mexican dollars and British dollars; and (2) Copper " cash. " which
has no fixed relation to silver. The standard is silver, the unit beine
the Chinese ounce or tael, containing 565 grains. The tael is not a
coin, but a weight. Its value in sterling consequently fluctuates
with the value of silver; in 1870 it was worth about 6s. 8d., in 1907
it was worth 3s. 3d. 1 The name given in China to uncoined silver
in current use is " syecc." It is cast for convenience sake into
ingots weighing one to 50 taels. Its average fineness is 916-66
per 1000. When foreign silver is imported, say into Shanghai it
can be converted into currency by a very simple process. The bars
of silver are sent to a quasi-public office termed the " Kung K'u "
or public valuers, and by them melted down and cast into tneots'of
the customary size. The fineness is estimated, and the premium or
bettcrncss, together with the exact weight, is marked in ink on
each ingot. The whole process only occupies a few hours, and the
silver is then ready to be put into use. The Kung K'u is simply a
local office appointed by the bankers of the place, and the weight
and fineness arc only good for that locality. The government takes
no responsibility in the matter, but leaves merchants and bankers
to adjust the currency as they please. For purposes of taxation
and payment of duties there is a standard or treasury tael, which is
about 10 / 9 heavier than the tael of commerce in use at Shanghai.
Every large commercial centre has its own customary tael, the
weight and therefore the value of which differ from that of every
other. Silver dollars coined in Mexico, and British dollars coined
in Bombay, also circulate freely at the open ports of trade and for
some distance inland, passing at a little above heir intrinsic value.
Carolus dollars, introduced long ago and no longer coined, arc
retained in current use in several parts of the interior, chiefly the
tea-growing districts. B eing preferred by the people, and as the
1 It must be remembered that the Haikwan tael is here indicated.
supply cannot be added to, they have reached a considerable
premium above their intrinsic value. Provincial mints in Canton,
Wuchang, and other places have issued silver coins of the same
weight and touch as the Mexican dollar, but very few have gone into
use. As they possess no privilege in debt-paying power over im-
ported Mexican dollars there is no inducement tor the people to take
them up unless they can be had at a cheaper rate than the latter,
and these are laid down at so small a cost above the intrinsic value
that no profit is left to the mint. The coinage has in consequence
been almost discontinued. Subsidiary coins, however, came largely
into use. being issued by the local mints. One coin " the hundredth
part of a dollar " proved very popular (the issue to the end of 1906
being computed at 12,500,000,000), but at rates corresponding closely
to the intrinsic value of the metal in it. The only coin officially
issued by the government — up to 1910— was the so-called copper
cash. It is a small coin which by regulation should weigh \\ of a
tael, and should contain 50 parts of copper, 40 of zinc* and 10 of
lead or tin, and it should bear a fixed ratio to silver of 1 000 cash to
one tael of silver. In practice none of these conditions was observed.
Being issued from a number of mints, mostly provincial, the standard
was never uniform, and in many cases debased. Excessive issues
lowered the value of the coins, and for many years the average
exchange was 1600 or more per tael. The rise in copper led to the
melting down of all the older and superior coins, and as for the same
reason coining was suspended, the result was an appreciation of the
cash," so that a tael in 1909 exchanged for about 1220 cash or
L " " ■ '* Inasmuch as the " cash " bore no
cash, so that a tael in 1909
about 35 to a penny English.
fixed relation to silver, and was, moreover, of no uniform composition,
it formed a sort of mongrel standard of its own, varying with the
volume in circulation. (G. J. ; X.)
V. History
(A) — European Knowledge of China up to 1615.
Chine as known to the A ncients. — The spacious seat of ancient
civilization which we call China has been distinguished by
different appellations, according as it was reached by the southern
sea-route or by the northern land-route traversing the longitude
of Asia. In the former aspect the name has nearly always been
some form of the name Sin, Chin, Since, China. In the latter
point of view the region in question was known to the ancients
as the land of the Seres, to the middle ages as the empire of
Cathay. The name of Chin has been supposed (doubtfully) to
be derived from the dynasty of TsHn, which a little more than
two centuries before the Christian era enjoyed a vigorous exist-
ence, uniting all the Chinese provinces under its authority, and
extending its conquests far beyond those limits to the south and
the west. The mention of the Chinas in ancient Sanskrit
literature, both in the laws of Manu and in the Mahabharata,
has often been supposed to prove the application of the name
long before the predominance of the Ts'in dynasty. But the
coupling of that name with the Daradas, still surviving as the
people of Dardistan, on the Indus, suggests it as more probable
that those Chinas^ were a kindred race of mountaineers, whose
name as Shinas in fact likewise remains applied to a branch
of the Dard races. Whether the Sinim of the prophet Isaiah
should be interpreted of the Chinese is probably not susceptible
of any decision; by the context it appears certainly to indicate
a people of the extreme east or south. The name probably
came to Europe through the Arabs, who made the China of the
farther east into Stn, and perhaps sometimes into TAJ*. Hence
the Thtn of the author of the Pcriplus of the Erythraean Sea,
who appears to be the first extant writer to employ the name
in this form (i.e. assuming Max Mullcr's view that he belongs
to the 1st century) ; hence also the Sinae and Thinae of Ptolemy
It has often indeed been denied that the Sinae of Ptolemy really
represented the Chinese. But if we compare the statement of
Marcianus of Heraclea (a mere condenser of Ptolemy), when he tells
us that the " nations of the Sinae lie at the extremity of the habitable
world, and adjoin the eastern Terra Incognita," with that of Cosmas,
who says, in &poaking of Tunisia, a name of which no one can
question the application to China, that " beyond this there is neither
Habitation nor navigation "—we cannot doubt the same region to
De meant by both. The fundamental error of Ptolemy's conception
°£ 1 , ln ? ian jca as a closed basin rendered it impossible but that be
« r 1? ""'P** 00 thc Chinese coast. But considering that the name of
Stn has come down among the Arabs from time immemorial as
applied to the Chinese, considering that in the work of Ptolemy this
name certainly represented the farthest known East, and considering
how inaccurate arc Ptolemy's configurations and longitudes nuch
nearer home it seems almost as reasonable to deny the identity of
his India with ours as to deny that his Sinae were Chinese.
If we now turn to the Sew we find this name mentioned by classic
HISTORY]
CHINA
189
authors Audi more frequently and at an earlier date, for the passages
of Eratosthenes (in Strabo), formerly supposed to speak of a parallel
passing through Tkituu—bA 8tWi»— are now known to read correctly
fc'AApwr. The name&res indeed is familiar to the Latin poets of the
» poets
Augustan age, but always in a vague way, and usually with a general
reference to Central Asia and the farther E.ist- We find, however,
that the first endeavours to assign more accurately the position of
this people, which, are rh.>*c or Mela and Pliny , gravitate distinctly
Toward* China in its northern aspect as the true ideal involved. Thus
Mela describes Che remotest east of Asia as occupied by the three
races (proceeding hum south to north)* Indians. Seres and Scyths;
just as in a general way we might still say that eastern Asia is
occupied by the Indies, China andTsrtary.
Ptolemy firet use* the ram** o£ Sc*a ant! Serior, the former for the
chief dEy, the in ut for tht-- country of ihe Sore*, and as usual defines
their position with a precision, far beyond what his knowledge
justified — the necessary result of hi* system- Vet even his definition
of Serice it most consistent with the >icw that this name indicated
the Chinese empire in its northern aspect, for he carries it eastward
to the 1 80th degree of longitude, which is also t according to his
calculation, in a lower Latitude the casern boundary of the Sinac.
Ammianut MarceHinu* devote* tome paragraphs to a description
nf the Seres and thfir country, one passage of which is startling at
first sight in its seeming allusion to the Great Wall, and in this sense
it has been rashly interpreted by Lassen and by Reinaud. But
Ammianu* is merely converting Ptolemy's dry tables into fine
writing, and apoks only of an encircling rampart of mountains
within which the spacious and happy vaLey of the Seres lies. It is
inse that Ptolemy makes his Serice irwend westward to Imaus, i.e.
to Pamir- Hut the Chinese empia- did so extend at that epoch, and
we find Lieut. John Wood in tcljS speaking of " China ' as lying
immediately beyond Pamir, j u *r, a* the Ar*hs or the 8th century
■poke of the country beyond the Ja*artt* a* " Sin," and as Ptolemy
spoke of " Stfite " as immediately beyond Imaus.
If we fuse into one the ancient notice* of the Seres and their
country, omitting anomaJoo* statements and manifest fables, the
result will be somewhat a* fotbw*: " The region of the Seres is a
vast and populous country, touching on the ea&t the ocean and the
limits of the habitable world, and extending west to Imaus and the
confines of Baciria. The people are civilized, mild, just and frugal,
eschewing collisions with their neighbour*, and even shy of dose
intercourse, but not averse to dispose of their own^ products, of
which raw aiJk i> Lhe staple, but which included also silk-stuffs, fine
Juri, and iron of remarkable quality." That is manifestly a definition
of the Chinese.
That Greek and Roman knowledge of the true position of so
remote a nation should at best have been somewhat hazy is nothing
wonderful. And it is worthy of note that the view entertained by
the ancient Chinese of the Roman empire and its inhabitants, under
the name of Ta-thsin, had some striking points of analogy to those
views of the Chinese which arc indicated in the classical descriptions
of the Seres. There can be no mistaking the fact that in this case
also the great object was within the horizon of vision, yet the details
ascribed to it are often far from being true characteristics, being
only the accidents of its outer borders.
The Medieval Cathay. — " Cathay " is the name by which the
Chinese empire was known to medieval Europe, and it is in its
1 form (Kitai) that China is still known in Russia and to
t of the nations of Central Asia. West of Russia this name
has long ceased to be a geographical expression, but it is asso-
ciated with a remarkable phase in the history of geography and
commerce. The name first became known to Europe in the 13th
century, when the vast conquests of Jenghia Khan and his
house drew a new and vivid attention to Asia. For some three
centuries previously the northern provinces of China had been
detached from indigenous rule, and subject to northern con-
querors. The first of these foreign dynasties was of a race
", Khiidn issuing from the basin of the Sungari river, and
(but doubtfully) to have been of the blood of the
modern Tunguses. The rule of this race endured for two centuries
and originated the application of the name Khitdt or Khit&i to
northern China. The dynasty itself, known in Chinese history
0, or " Iron," disappeared from China 1123, but lhe name
1 attached to the territory which they had ruled.
The KhitAn were displaced by the Nilchih (Nytichi or Chtirckf)
race, akin to the modern Manchus. These reigned, under the
title of Kin, or " Golden," till Jenghiz and his Mongols invaded
them in turn. In 1234 the conquest of the Kin empire was
fniiyittrd. and the dynasty extinguished under Ogdai (Ogotai),
the ton and successor of Jenghiz Khan. Forty years later, in
the reign of Kublai, grandson and ablest successor of Jenghiz,
tht Mongol rule was extended over southern China (1276),
which till then had remained under a native dynasty, the Sung,
holding its royal residence in a vast and splendid city, now
known as Hang-chow, but then as Ling-nan, or more commonly
as King-sxe, i.e. the court. The southern empire was usually
called by the conquerors Alanisi (or as some of the old travellers
write, Mangt), a name which western Asiatics seem to have
identified with Mdchln (from the Sanskrit Mahdchln), one of
the names by whkh China was known to the traders from
Persian and Arabian ports.
The conquests of Jenghiz and his successors had spread not
only over China and the adjoining East, but westward also over
all northern Asia, Persia, Armenia, part of Asia Minor and
Russia, threatening to deluge Christendom. Though the Mongol
wave retired, as it seemed almost by an immediate act of Provi-
dence, when Europe lay at its feet, it had levelled or covered
all political barriers from the frontier of Poland to the Yellow
Sea, and when western Europe recovered from its alarm, Asia
lay open, as never before or since, to the inspection of Christen-
dom. Princes, envoys, priests — half-missionary, half-envoy —
visited the court of the great khan in Mongolia; and besides
these, the accidents of war, commerce or opportunity carried
a variety of persons from various classes of human life into the
depths of Asia. " Tis worthy of the grateful remembrance
of all Christian people," says an able missionary friar of the next
age (Ricold of Monte Crocc), " that just at the time when God
sent forth into the Eastern parts of the world the Tatars to slay
and to be slain, He also sent into the West his faithful and blessed
servants, Dominic and Francis, to enlighten, instruct and
build up in the faith." Whatever on the whole may be thought
of the worlds debt to Dominic, it is to the two mendicant
orders, but especially to the Franciscans, that we owe a vast
amount of information about medieval Asia, and, among other
things, the first mention of Cathay. Among the many strangers
who reached Mongolia were (1245-1247) John de Piano Carpini
and (1253) William of Rubruk (Rubruquis) in French Flanders,
both Franciscan friars of high intelligence, who happily have
left behind them reports of their observations.
Carpini, after mentioning the wars of Jenghiz against the Kitai,
goes on to speak of that people as follows: Now these Kitai are
heathen men, and have a written character of their own. . . . They
seem, indeed, to be kindly and polished folks enough. They have
no beard, and in character of countenance have a considerable
resemblance to the Mongols " [are Mongoloid, as our ethnologists
would say], " but are not so broad in the lace. They have a peculiar
language. Their betters as craftsmen in every art practised by man
are not to be found in the whole world. Their country is very rich
in corn, in wine, in gold and silver, in silk, and in every kind of
produce tending to the support of mankind." The notice of Rubruk,
shrewder and more graphic, runs thus: " Farther on is Great
Cathay, which I take to be the country which was anciently called
the Land of the Seres. For the best silk stuffs are still got from
them. . . . The sea lies between it and India. Those Cathayans are
little fellows, speaking much through the nose, and, as is general with
all those eastern people, their eyes are very narrow. They are first-
rate artists in every kind, and their physicians have a thorough know-
ledge of the virtues of herbs, and an admirable skill in diagnosis by
the pulse. . . . The common money of Cathay consists of pieces
of cotton-paper, about a palm in length and breadth, upon which
certain lines are printed, resembling the seal of Mangu Khan. They
do their writing with a pencil, such as painters paint with, and a single
character of theirs comprehends several letters, so as to form a whole
word."
Here we have not only what is probably the first European notice
of paper-money, but a partial recognition of the peculiarity of
Chinese writing, and a perception that puts to shame the perverse
boggling of later critics over the identity of these Cathayans with
the Seres of classic fame.
But though these travellers saw Cathayans in the bazaars
in the great khan's camps, the first actual visitors of Cathay
itself were the Polo family, and it is to the book of Marco
Polo's recollections mainly that Cathay owed the growing
familiarity of its name in Europe during the 14th and 15th
centuries. It is, however, a great mistake to suppose, as has
often been assumed, that the residence of the Polos in that
country remained an isolated fact. They were but the pioneers
of a very considerable intercourse, which endured till the decay
of the Mongol dynasty in Cathay, i.e. for about bail *. e*eKsrj v
190
CHINA
[HISTORY
We have no evidence that either in the 13th or 14th century
Cathayans, i.e. Chinese, ever reached Europe, but it is possible
that some did, at least in the former century. For, during the
campaigns of Hulagu in Persia (1 256-1 265), and the reigns
his successors, Chinese engineers Were employed on the banki
of the Tigris, and Chinese astrologers and physicians could be
consulted at Tabriz. Many diplomatic communications passct
between the Hulaguid Ilkhans and the princes of Christendom,
The former, as the great khan's liegemen, still received from
him their seals of state; and two of their letters which survive
in the archives of France exhibit the vermilion impressions of
those seals in Chinese characters — perhaps affording the earliest
specimen of that character which reached western Europe.
Just as the Polos were reaching their native city (1295), after
an absence of a quarter of a century, the forerunner of a new
series of travellers was entering southern China by way of the
Indian seas. This was John of Monte Corvino, another Franciscan
who, already some fifty years of age, was plunging single-handed
into that great ocean of paganism to preach the gospel according
to his lights. After years of uphill and solitary toil converts
began to multiply; coadjutors joined him. The Papal See
became cognizant of the harvest that was being reaped in the
far East. It made Friar John archbishop in Cambaluc (or
Peking), with patriarchal authority, and sent him batches of
suffragan bishops and preachers of his own order. The Roman
Church spread; churches and Minorite houses were established
at Cambaluc, at Zayton or Tsuan-chow in Fu-kien, at Yang-
chow and elsewhere; and the missions flourished under the
smile of the great khan, as the Jesuit missions did for a time
under the Manchu emperors three centuries and a half later.
Archbishop John was followed to the grave, about 1328, by
mourning multitudes of pagans and Christians alike. Several
of the bishops and friars who served under him have left letters
or other memoranda of their experience, e.g. Andrew, bishop
of Zayton, John of Cora, afterwards archbishop of Sultania in
Persia, and Odoric of Pordcnone, whose fame as a pious traveller
won from the vox populi at his funeral a beatification which
the church was fain to seal. The only ecclesiastical narrative
regarding Cathay, of which we arc aware, subsequent to the time
of Archbishop John, is that which has been gathered from the
recollections of Giovanni de' Marignolli, a Florentine Franciscan,
who was sent by Pope Benedict XII. with a mission to the great
khan, in return for one from that potentate which arrived at
Avignon from Cathay in 1338, and who spent four years (1342-
1346) at the court of Cambaluc as legate of the Holy See. These
recollections are found dispersed incoherently over a chronicle
of Bohemia which the traveller wrote by order of the emperor
Charles IV., whose chaplain he was after his return.
But intercourse during the period in question was not confined
to ecclesiastical channels. Commerce also grew up, and flourished
for a time even along the vast line that stretches from Genoa
and Florence to the marts of Chch-kiang and Fu-kien. The
record is very fragmentary and imperfect, but many circum-
stances and incidental notices show how frequently the remote
East was reached by European traders in the fi.-st half of the
14th century— a state of things which it is very difficult to
realize when we see how all those regions, when reopened to
knowledge two centuries later, seemed to be discoveries as new
as the empires which, about the same time, Cortes and Pizarro
were conquering in the West
This commercial intercourse probably began about 1310-1320.
John of Monte Corvino, writing in 1305, says it was twelve years
since he had heard any news from Europe; the only Western
straa&r who had arrived In all that time being a certain Lombard
chirorreoa (probably one of the Palatini who got hard measure at
koine in those days), who had spread the most incredible blasphemies
about the Roman Curu and the order of St Francis. Yet even on
hi 1 £r« eatnnce to Cathay Friar John had been accompanied by one
Matter Y#mx of LocJongo. whom be describe* a* a faithful Christian
scan aed • tr*A" r-T/hac*. a ad who wrtrn to have remained many
>**m *» rains;. T** letter <A Andre*. Liihop of Zayton (1326),
<frf£«* ?*• q^i.wm f4 Onomt merthsnt* at that port regarding a
V« * >-*•. ' I *v "'-* r W* Odorie. who »a» In C *■*-*>• about 13*3-1327.
*«-<i-.- <> '/iK.ifT.A'svr. 'J ***> %-ju*^r\ -*}'*■*-. v j- r<-U!*d 'if the great
■**v -• <Af«* 7 *je K;*z-*m. 4r K*r.z<-iw*t to the many persons
whom he had met at Venice since his return, who had themselves
been witnesses of those marvels. And Marignolli. some twenty years
later, found attached to one of the convents at Zayton, in Fu-kien. a
fondaco or factory for thcaccommodationof the Christian merchants.
But by far the most distinct and notable evidence of the import-
ance and frequency of European trade with Cathay, of which silk
and silk goods formed the staple, is to be found in the commercial
hand-book (c. 1340) of Francesco Balducci Pegolotti. a clerk and
factor of the great Florentine house of the Bardi, which was brought
to the ground about that time by its dealings with Edward III. of
England. This book, called by its author Libra di dnisamenli di
Paesi, is a sort of trade-guide, devoting successive chapters to the
various ports and markets of his time, detailing the nature of imports
and exports at each, the duties and exactions, the local customs of
business, weights, measures and money. The first two chapters of
this work contain instructions for the merchant proceeding to Cathay ;
and it is evident, from the terms used, that the raid thither was
not unfrequcntly travelled by European merchants, from whom
Pegolotti had derived his information. The route which he describes
lay by Azov, Astrakhan, Khiva, Otrar (on the Jaxartes), Almalik
(Gulja in Hi), Kan-chow (in Kan-suh), and so to Hans-chow and
Peking. Particulars are given as to the silver ingots which formed
the currency of Tatary, and the pa per 'money 0/ Cathay. That the
venturer on thin trade were not insignificant is plain from the example
taken by the author to illustrate the question of expenses on [be
journey, which is thnt of a merchant investing in goods there to the
amount of some £12,000 (i\*. in actual goH value, not as calculated
by any fanciful and fallacious equation of values).
Of the came remarkable phaw of history that we are here con-
sidering we have at*o a number or notices by M<ihommcdan writer*.
The c^tabHihrneni of the Mongol dynasty in Persia, by which the
great khan wa* acknowledged as lord paramount, ted fat we h*ve
already nw Iced In part) 10 a good deal of intercourse. And some of
the l\rti.in historians, writing at Tabriz, under the patronage of ihe
Mongol princes, have told us much al>oijt Cnthay. especially Raahi-
durtdin, the great minister and historian of the dynasty (died J ji8).
We have also in the liook of the Moorish traveller Ibn Batuta* who
visited China about 1347-^48, very many curious and in great part
true notices^ though It ji not possible to give credence to the whole of
thi* epi«do in his extenuve in vela.
fir?t named: the throne of the
degenerate descendants of Jenghiz began to totter to its fall, and we
have no knowledge of any Frank visitor to Cathay in that age later
than Marignolli ; missions and merchants alike disappear from the
Seld. We hear, indeed, once and again of ecclesiastics despatched
from Avignon, but they go forth into the darkness, and are heard
of no more. Islam, with all its jealousy and cxclusivcness. had
recovered its grasp over Central Asia; the Nestorian Christianity
which once had prevailed so widely was vanishing, and the new rulers
of China reverted to the old national policy, and held the foreigner
at arm's length. Night descended upon the farther East, covering
Cathay with those cities of which the old travellers had told such
marvels, Cambaluc and Cansay, Zayton and Chinkalan. And when
1 he veil rose before the Portuguese and Spanish explorers of the 16th
century, those names are heard no more. In their stead we have
China, Peking, Hangchow, Chinchew, Canton. Not only were the old
names forgotten, but the fact that those places had ever been known
>cforc was forgotten also. Gradually new missionaries went forth
from Rome — Jesuits and Dominicans now; new converts were
made, and new vicariates constituted; but the old Franciscan
hurches, and the Ncstorianism with which they had battled, had
ilikc been swallowed up in the ocean of pagan indifference. In time
a wreck or two floated to the surface — a MS. Latin Bible or a piece
1 if Catholic sculpture; and when the intelligent missionaries called
Marco Polo to mind, and studied his story, one and another became
I onvinccd that Cathay and China were one.
But for a long time all but a sagacious few continued to regard
I Tathay as a region distinct from any of the new-found Indies; whilst
map-makers, well on into the 17th century, continued to represent it
s a great country lying entirely to the north of China, and stretching
to the Arctic Sea.
It was Cathay, with its outlying island of Zipangu (Japan), that
1 Columbus sought to reach by sailing westward, penctratedas he was
I y his intense conviction of the smallness of the earth, and of the vast
1 xtcnMon of Asia eastward: and to the day of his death he was full
f the imagination of the proximity of the domain of the great khan
to the islands and coasts which he had discovered. And such imagina-
ions are curiously embodied in some of the maps of the early 16th
1 cntury, which intermingle on the same coast-line the new discoveries
from Labrador to Brazil with the provinces and rivers of Marco Polo's
Caihay.
Cathay had been the aim of the first voyage of the Cabots in 1496,
and it continued to be the object of many adventurous voyages by
English and Hollanders to the N.W. and N.E. till far on in the 16th
century. At least one memorable land-journey also was made by
Englishmen, of which the exploration of a trade-route to Cathay
rat a chief object— that in which Anthony Jenkinson and the two
Johnsons reached Bokhara by way of Russia in 1558-1550. The
ountry of which they collected notices at that city was still known
to them only as Cathay, and its great capital only as Cambaluc.
HBTORYI
CHINA
191
Cathay as a supposed separate entity may be considered to come
to an end with the journey of Benedict Goes, the lay-Jesuit. This
admirable person was, in 1603, despatched through Central Asia by
his superiors in India with the specific object of determining whether
the Cathay of old European writers and of modern Mahommedans
was or was not a distinct region from that China of which parallel
marvels had now for some time been recounted. Benedict, as one
of his brethren pronounced his epitaph, " seeking Cathay found
Heaven." He died at Suchow, the frontier city of China, but not
before he had ascertained that China and Cathay were the same.
After the publication of the narrative of his journey (in the Expeditio
Christian* afiud Stnas of Trigault, 161 5) inexcusable ignorance alone
could continue to distinguish between them, but such ignorance
"""■ any years longer. (H. Y.)
(B) — Chinese Origins.
Chinese literature contains no record of any kind which
might justify us in assuming that the nucleus of the nation
may have immigrated from some other part of the world; and
the several ingenious theories pointing to Babylonia, Egypt,
India. Khotan, and other seats of ancient civilization as the
starting-points of ethnical wanderings must be dismissed as
untenable. Whether the Chinese were seated in their later
homes from times immemorial, as their own historians assume,
or whether they arrived there from abroad, as some foreign
scholars have pretended, cannot be proved to the satisfaction
of historical critics. Indeed, anthropological arguments seem
to contradict the idea of any connexion with Babylonians,
Egyptians, Assyrians, or Indians. The earliest hieroglyphics
of the Chinese, ascribed by them to the Shang dynasty (second
millennium B.C.). betray the Mongol character of the nation
that invented them by the decided obliquity of the human eye
wherever it appears in an ideograph. In a pair of eyes as shown
in the moat ancient pictorial or sculptural representations in
the west, the four corners may be connected by a horizontal
straight line; whereas lines drawn through the eyes of one of the
oldest Chinese hieroglyphics cross each other at a sharp angle,
as shown in the accompanying diagrams:—
-<SX'®v-
Efypfun.
This does not seem to speak for racial consanguinity any more
than the well-known curled heads and bearded faces of Assyrian
sculptures as compared to the straight-haired and almost beardless
Chinese. Similarities in the creation of cultural elements may, it
is troe, be shown to exist on cither side, even at periods when
mutual intercourse was probably out of the question; but this
any be due to uniformity in the construction of the human brain,
which leads man in different parts of the world to arrive at
smflar ideas under similar conditions, or to prehistoric connexions
which it is as impossible for us to trace now as is the origin of
mankind itself. Our standpoint as regards the origin of the
Chinese race is, therefore, that of the agnostic. AH we can do is
to reproduce the tradition as it is found in Chinese literature.
This tradition, as applying to the very earliest periods, may
be nothing more than historical superstition, yet it has its
historical importance. Supposing it were possible to prove
that none of the persons mentioned in the Bible from Adam
down to the Apostles ever lived, even the most sceptical critic
would still have to admit that the history of a great portion of
the human race has been materially affected by the belief in the
examples of their alleged lives. Something similar may be said
of the alleged earliest history of the Chinese with its model
taipc i uis and detestable tyrants, the accounts of which, whether
based on reality or not, have exercised much influence on the
dmsopment of the nation.
The CM*"-* have developed their theories of prehistoric life,
as to the origin and gradual evolution of their
1 has resulted in the expression of views by authors
have reconstructed their systems from remnants of
ancestral life revealed by excavations, or from observation of
neighbouring nations living in a state of barbarism. This may
account for a good deal of the repetition found in the Chinese
mythological and legendary narratives, the personal and chrono-
logical part of which may have been invented merely as a frame-
work for illustrating social and cultural progress. The scene of
action of all the prehistoric figures from P'an-ku, the first human
being, down to the beginning of real history has been laid in a
part of the world which has never been anything but Chinese
territory. P'an-ku'a epoch, millions of years ago, was followed
by ten distinct periods of sovereigns, including the " Heavenly
emperors," the " Terrestrial emperors," and the " Human
emperors," the Yu-ch'au or " Nest-builders," and Sui-jtn,
the " Fire Producer," the Prometheus of the Chinese, who
borrowed fire from the stars for the benefit of man. Several
of the characteristic phases of cultural progress and social
organization have been ascribed to this mythological period.
Authors of less fertile imagination refer them to later times,
when the heroes of their accounts appear in shapes somewhat
resembling human beings rather than as gods and demigods.
The Chinese themselves look upon Fu-hi as their first historical
emperor; and they place bis lifetime in the years 2852-2738 B.C.
Some accounts represent him as a supernatural being; and we
see him depicted as a human figure with a fish tail something
like a mermaid. He is credited with having established social
order among his people, who, before him, had lived like animals
in the wilds. The social chaos out of which Chinese society
arose is described as being characterized by the absence of
family life; for " children knew only their mothers and not
their fathers." Fu-hi introduced matrimony; and in so doing
he placed man as the husband at the head of the family and
abolished the original matriarchatc. This quite corresponds
with his views on the dualism in natural philosophy, of which
he is supposed to have laid the germs by the invention of the
so-called pa-kua, eight symbols, each consisting of three parallel
lines, broken or continuous. The continuous lines represented
the male clement in nature; the broken ones, the female. It
is characteristic that the same ruler who assigned to man his
position as the head of the family is also credited with the
invention of that natural philosophy of the " male and female
principles," according to which all good things and qualities
were held to be male, while their less sympathetic opposites were
female, such as heaven and earth, sun and moon, day and night,
south and north. If these traditions really represent the oldest
prehistoric creations of the popular mind, it would almost seem
that the most ancient Chinese shared that naive sentiment
which caused our own forefathers to invent gender. The differ-
ence is that, with us, the conception survives merely in the
language, where the article or suffixes mark gender, whereas
with the Chinese, whose language docs not express gender, it
survives in their system of metaphysics. For all their attempts
at fathoming the secrets of nature arc based on the idea that
male or female powers are inherent in all matter.
To the same Emperor Fu-hi are ascribed many of the
elementary inventions which raise man from the life of a brute
to that of a social being. He taught his people to hunt, to fish,
and to keep flocks; he constructed musical instruments, and
replaced a kind of knot-writing previously in use by a system
of hieroglyphics. All this cannot of course be considered as
history; but it shows that the authors of later centuries who
credited Fu-hi with certain inventions were not quite illogical
in starting from the matriarchal chaos, after which he is said
to have organized society with occupations corresponding to
those of a period of hunting, fishing and herding. This period
was bound to be followed by a further step towards the final
development of the nation's social condition; and we find it
quite logically succeeded by a period of agricultural life, personi-
fied in the Emperor, Shon-nung, supposed to have lived in the
twenty-eighth century B.C. His name may be freely translated
as " Divine Labourer" ; and to him the Chinese ascribe the
invention of agricultural implements, and the diacoN^rj ^VCfc*.
medicinal properties of numctoMi pWiVv
IC)2
CHINA
(HISTORY
The third historical emperor was Huang-ti, the " Yellow
emperor," according to the literal translation. Ssl-ma Ts'ien,
the Herodotus of the Chinese, begins his history with him; but
Fu-hi and Shon-nung are referred to in texts much older than
this historian, though many details relating to their alleged
reigns have been added in later times. Huang-ti extended the
boundaries of the empire, described as being originally confined
to a limited territory near the banks of the Yellow river and the
present city of Si-an-fu. Here were the sites of cities used as
capitals of the empire under various names during long periods
since remote antiquity. To Huang-ti, whose reign is said to have
commenced in 2704 according to one source and in 2491 according
to another, are ascribed most of the cultural innovations which
historians were not able otherwise to locate within historical
times. Under Huang-ti we find the first mention of a nation
called the Hun-yu, who occupied the north of his empire and with
whom he is represented to have engaged in warfare. The Chinese
identify this name with that of the Hiung-nu, their old hereditary
enemy and the ancestors of Attila's Huns. Even though the
details of these legendary accounts may deserve little confidence,
there must have been an old tradition that a nation called the
Hun-yu, occupying the northern confines of China, were the
ancestors of the Hiung-nu tribes, well known in historical times,
a scion of whose great khans settled in territory belonging to the
king of Sogdiana during the first century B.C., levied tribute from
his neighbours, the Alans, and with his small but warlike horde
initiated that era of migrations which led to the overrunning of
Europe with Central- Asiatic Tatars.
Fu-hi, Shon-nung and Huang-ti represent a group of rulers
comprised by the Chinese under the name of San-kuang, i.e.
" The Three Emperors." Although we have no reason to deny ■
their existence, the details recorded concerning them contain
enough in the way of improbabilities to justify us in considering,
them as mythical creations. The chronology, too, is apparently
quite fictitious; for the time allotted to their reigns is much
too long as a term of government for a single human life, and,
on the other hand, much too short, it we measure it by the.
cultural progress said to have been brought about in it. Fu-hi's
period of hunting life must have lasted many generations before
it led to the agricultural period represented by the name Sh6n-
nung; and this period in turn could not possibly have led within
a little more than one hundred years to the enormous progress'
ascribed to Huang-ti. Under the latter, ruler a regular board
of historians is said to have been organized with Ts'ang-ki6
as president, who is known also as Shi-huang, Lt. " the Emperor'
of Historians," the reputed inventor of hieroglyphic writing
placed by some authors into the Fu-hi period and worshipped as*
TzI-shon, i.e." God of writing," to the present day. Huang-ti
is supposed to have been the first builder of temples, houses and
cities; to have regulated the calendar, to which he added the*
intercalary month; and to have devised means of traffic by
cars drawn by oxen and by boats to ply on the lakes and rivers
of his empire. His wife, known as " the lady of Si-ling," is
credited with the invention of the several manipulations in the
rearing of silkworms and the manufacture of silk. The invention
of certain flutes, combined to form a kind of reed organ, led to a
deeper study of music; and in order to construct these instru-
ments with the necessary accuracy a system of weights and
measures had to be devised. Huang-ti's successors, Shau-hau,
Chuan-hti, and Ti-k'u, were less prominent, though each of them
had their particular merits.
The Model Emperors. — Most of the stories regarding the " Three
Emperors " are told in comparatively late records. The Shu- king.
sometimes described as the " Canon of History," our oldest source of
pre-Confuctan history, supposed to Have been edited by Confucius
himself, knows nothing of Fu-hi, ShSn-nung and -Huang-ti; but it
begins by extolling the virtues of the emperor Yau and his successor
Shun. Yau and Shun are probably the most popular names in
Chinese history as taught in China. Whatever good Qualities may
be imagined of the rulers of a great nation have been heaped upon
their heads: and the example of their lives has at all times been held
up by Confucianists as the height of perfection in a sovereign's
character. Yau, whose reign has been placed by the fictitious stan-
dard chronology of the Chinese in the years 2357-2258, and about
aoo years later by the less extravagant " Annals of '.:<< 3 imboo
Booki." is represented as the pdtron of certain astronomers *iio bad
to watch the heavenly bodies; and much ho J been written si* ut the
reputed astronomical knowledge of the Chinese in this remote period.
Names like Dcguignes,. fjaubil. Btut and Schlegtl are among those of
the investigator*. On the other side are the sceptics, who maintain
that later editors interpolated statements which could haw been
made only with the astronomical knowledge possessed hy th< ir own
contemporaries. According to an old techno, Shun banish:' " the
four wicked ones '* to distant territories,. One of these bore the name
Fait-iit, i.e. "Glutton": called also San- mi a u. T'au-i'ii is also the
name of an ornament, very common on the iurface of the most
ancient brume vessels, showing tht distorted face of some ravenous
animal. The Saft-foiaii a* a tribe arc *aid to have been the lore lathers
of the Tangutans. the Tibetans and the Miau-tzii in the Fouth-west of
China* This legend may be interpreted as Indicating that the non-
Chinese races in the *ou(h-wrat have come to their present » ats by
migration from Central China in remote antiquity. During Yau s
ol the biblical delude th: itened
the Chinese world, The emperor held his minister of WXlBfc Kun,
reign a catastrophe reminding 1
responsible for this misfortune, probably an inundation of the Yellow
river euth as ha* been witnessed by the present general ion. Its
horrors are described with poetical efcaggcrjitiort in the Shu-king.
When the efforts %a stop the floods had proved futile for nine years,
Yau wished to abdicate, and he selected a virtuous young man of the
name of Shun as his successor. Among the legend* told about this
second model emperor is the story that he had a board before his
Klace on which every subject was permitted to note whatever faults
had to And with his government, and that hy means of ■ drum
suspended at his palace gate attention might be drawn to any com-
plaint that was to be made to him. Since Kun had not succeeded in
stopping the floods, he was dismissed and his son Yo was ap| jointed
in m5 stead* Probably the waters began to subside of tin ir own
accord, but YO has been praised up as the national hero who, by his
engineering works, saved his people from utter destruction. His
labours in this direction are described in a special section 0/ the Con-
fucian account known as Ytl-kvHg. i>e> ' Tribute of YU." Yfi's
merit has in the sequel been exaggerated so as to credit him with
more than human powers. He is supposed to ha we cut canals through
the hills, in order to furnish outlets to the floods, and to have per-
formed feats of engineering compared to which, according to Von
Kichtholcn, the construction of the St Gou hard tunnel without blast-
ing materials would be child's play, and all this within a feu years.
The Hia Dynasty,— As a reward for his services Yd was
selected to succeed Shun as empcror> He divided the empire
into nine provinces, flie description of which in the 1 ii-kung
chapter of the " Canon of History pt bears a suspicious resemblance
to later accounts, Yli'i reign his been assigned to the years
3305-3198, and the Hia Dynasty, of which he became tho head,
has been made to extend to the overthrow in 1766 B.C. of Ki6,
its eighteenth and last emperor, a cruel tyrant of the most
vicious and contemptible character. Among the Hia emperors
we find Chung-Wang (3159-2147), whose reign has attracted
the attention of European scholars by the mention of an eclipse
of the sun t which his court astronomers bad failed to predict.
European astronomers and sinologues have brought much
acumen to bear on the problem involved in the Shu-king account
in trying to decide which of the several eclipses known to have
occurred about that time was identical with the one observed
in China under Chung-k'ang.
The Sha*i£t or Yin % Dynasty, — This period, which preceded the
classical Chfio dynasty, is made to extend from 1766 to n 22
ut.-. We must now be prepared to see an energetic or virtuous
ruler at the head of n dy natty and either a cruel tyrant or a
contemptible weakling at the end of it. It seems natural that
this should be so; but Chinese historians, Like the writers of
Roman history, have a tendency to exaggerate both good and
Lad qualities, Ch*ong-tang, its first sovereign, is represented
as a model of goodness and of humane feeling towards his
subjects. Even the animal world benefited by his kindness,
inasmuch as he abolished all useless toilure in the chase. His
great minister I Yin, who had greatly assisted him in securing
the throne, served two of his successors- Fan-Long (1401)
and Wu-Jing ( 1 124) are described as good rulers among a some-
what indifferent set of monarchy. The Shang dynasty, bite
the Hia, came to an end through the reckless vice and cruelty
of a tyrant (Ch6u sin with his consort Ta-kiJ. China hud evtn
in those days to maintain her position as a civilized nation by
keeping at bay the barbarous nations by which she urns sur-
rounded . Chief among these were the ancestors of the Hiung-nu
HISTORY)
CHINA
193
tribes, or Huns, on the northern and western boundaries. To
fight them, to make pacts and compromises with them, and to
befriend them with gifts so as to keep them out of the Imperial
territories, had been the role of a palatinate on the western
frontier, the duchy of Ch6u, while the court of China with its
vicious emperor gave itself up to effeminate luxury. Ch6u-sin's
evil practices had aroused the indignation of the palatine,
subsequently known as Wdn-wang, who in vain remonstrated
with the emperor's criminal treatment of his subjects. The
strength and integrity of Wdn-wang's character had made him
the corner-stone of that important epoch; and his name is one
of the best known both in history and in literature. The courage
with which he spoke his mind in rebuking his unworthy liege
lord caused the emperor to imprison him, his great popularity
alone saving his life. During his incarceration, extending over
three years, he compiled the I-king t or " Canon of Changes,"
supposed to be the oldest book of Chinese literature, and certainly
the one most extensively studied by the nation. WOn-wang's
son, known as Wu-wang, was destined to avenge his father and
the many victims of Ch6u-sin's cruelty. Under his leadership
the people rose against the emperor and, with the assistance of
his allies, " men of the west," possibly ancestors of the Huns,
overthrew the Shang dynasty after a decisive battle, whereupon
Ch6u-sm committed suicide by setting fire to his palace.
Ch6u Dynasty. — Wu-wang, the first emperor of the new
dynasty, named after his duchy of Ch6u on the western frontier,
was greatly assisted in consolidating the empire by his brother,
Ch6u-kung, i.e. " Duke of Ch6u." As the loyal prime-minister
of Wu-wang and his successor the duke of Ch6u laid the founda-
tion of the government institutions of the dynasty, which became
the prototype of most of the characteristic features in Chinese
public and social life down to recent times. The brothers and
adherents of the new sovereign were rewarded with fiefs which
in the sequel grew into as many states. China thus developed
into a confederation, resembling that of the German empire,
inasmuch as a number of independent states, each having its
own sovereign, were united under one liege lord, the emperor,
styled " The Son of Heaven," who as high priest of the nation
reigned in the name of Heaven. The emperor represented the
nation in sacrificing and praying to God. His relations with his
vassals and government officials, and those of the heads of the
vassal states with their subjects as well as of the people among
themselves were regulated by the most rigid ceremonial. The
dress to be worn, the speeches to be made, and the postures
to be assumed on all possible occasions, whether at court or in
private life, were subject to regulations. The duke of Ch6u,
or whoever may have been the creator of this system, showed
deep wisdom in his speculations, if he based that immutability
of government which in the sequel became a Chinese character-
istic, on the physical and moral immutability of individuals by
depriving them of all spontaneous action in public and private
life. Originally and nominally the emperor's power as the ruler
over his vassals, who again ruled in his name, was unquestion-
able; and the first few generations of the dynasty saw no decline
of the original strength of central power. A certain loyalty
based on the traditional ancestral worship counteracted the
desire to revolt. The rightful heir to the throne was responsible
to his ancestors as his subjects were to theirs. " We have to
do as our ancestors did," the people argued; " and since they
obeyed the ancestors of our present sovereign, we have to be
loyal to him." Interference with this time-honoured belief would
have amounted to a rupture, as it were, in the nation's religious
relations, and as long as the people looked upon the emperor as
the Son of Heaven, his moral power would outweigh strong armies
sent against him in rebellion. The time came soon enough when
central power depended merely on this spontaneous loyalty.
Not all the successors of Wu-wang profited by the lessons
given them by past history. Incapacity, excessive severity and
undue weakness had created discontent and loosened the rela-
tions between the emperor and his vassals. Increase in the
extent of the empire greatly added to this decline of central
power. For the emperor's own dominion was centrally situated
and surrounded by the several confederate states; its geogra-
phical position prevented it from participating in the general
aggrandisement of China, and increase in territory, population
and prestige had become the privilege of boundary states.
Tatar tribes in the north and west and the aboriginal Man
barbarians in the south were forced by warfare to yield land,
or enticed to exchange it for goods, or induced to mingle with
their Chinese neighbours, thus producing a mixed population
combining the superior intelligence of the Chinese race with the
energetic and warlike spirit of barbarians. These may be the
main reasons which gradually undermined the Imperial authority
and brought some of the confederate states to the front, so as to
overshadow the authority of the Son of Heaven himself, whose
military and financial resources were inferior to those of several
of his vassals. A few out of the thirty-five sovereigns of the
Ch6u dynasty were distinguished by extraordinary qualities.
Mu-wang of the 10th century performed journeys far beyond
the western frontier of his empire, and was successful in warfare
against the Dog Barbarians, described as the ancestors of the
Hiung-nu, or Huns. The reign of Suan-wang (8*7-782 B.C.)
was filled with warfare against the Tangutans and the Huns,
called Hien-ytin in a contemporaneous poem of the "Book of
Odes"; but the most noteworthy reign in this century is that
of the lascivious Yu-wang, the oppressiveness of whose govern-
ment had caused a bard represented in the " Book of Odss "
to complain about the emperor's evil ways. The writer of this
poem refers to certain signs showing that Heaven itself is indig-
nant at Yu-wang's crimes. One of these signs was- an eclipse
of the sun which had recently occurred, the date and month being
clearly stated. This date corresponds exactly with August 29,
776 B.C.; and astronomers have calculated that on that precise
date an eclipse of the sun was visible in North China. This,
of course, cannot be a mere accident; and since the date falls
into the sixth year of Yu-wang's reign, the coincidence is bound
to increase our confidence in that part of Chinese history.
Our knowledge of it, however, is due to mere chance; for the
record of the eclipse would probably not have been preserved
until our days had it not been interpreted as a kind of tckd
upharsin owing to the peculiarity of the political situation.
It does not follow, therefore, as some foreign critics assume,
that the historical period begins as late as Yu-wang's reign.
China has no architectural witnesses to testify to her aritiquity
as Egypt has in her pyramids and temple ruins; but the sacri-
ficial bronze vessels of the Shang and Ch6u dynasties, with their
characteristic ornaments and hieroglyphic inscriptions, seem
to support the historical tradition inasmuch as natural develop-
ment may be traced by the analysis of their artistic and paJeo-
graphic phases. Counterfeiters, say a thousand years later,
could not have resisted the temptation to introduce patterns and
hieroglyphic shapes of later periods; and whatever bronzes have
been assigned to the Shang dynasty, i.e. some time in the second
millennium B.C., exhibit the Shang characteristics. The words
occurring in their inscriptions, carefully collected, may be shown
to be confined to ideas peculiar to primitive states of cultural
life, not one of them pointing to an invention we may suspect
to be of later origin. But, apart from this, it seems a matter
of individual judgment how far back beyond that indisputable
year 776 B.C. a student will date the beginning of real history.
In the 7th century central authority bad declined to such
an extent that the emperor was merely the nominal bead of the
confederation, the hegemony in the empire falling in turn to
one of the five principal states, for which reason the Chinese
speak of a period of the " Five Leaders." The state of Ts'i,
corresponding to North Shan-tung, had begun to overshadow
the other states by unprecedented success in economic enterprise,
due to the prudent advice of its prime minister, the philosopher
Kuan-tzT. Other st atcs attained leadership by success in warfare.
Among these leaders we see duke Mu of Tsin (659 B.C.), a
state on the western boundary which was so much influenced
by amalgamation with its Hunnic neighbours that the purely
Chinese states regarded it as a barbarian country. The emperor
was in those days a mere shadow; several of his vassal ^»&
194
CHINA
(HISTORY
grown strong enough to claim and be grunted the title " king/'
and they all tried to annihilate their neighbours by ruse in
diplomacy and by force of arms, without referring to their
common ruler for arbitration, as they were in duty bound. In
this belium omnium centra vmnts the state of TV in, in spite of
repeated reverses, remained in possession of the fit Id.
The period of this general struggle is spoken of by Chinese historian*
as that of " The Contending States. 1 ' Like that of the " Five
Leaders " it is full of romance; and the examples of heroism,
cowardice, diploma lie skill and philosophical equanimity which fill
the pages of its history have become the subject of elegant literature
in prose and poetry. The political development of i he Chou dynasty
is the exact counterpart of that of its spiritual life as shown in the
contemporaneous literature. The orthotic* conservative spirit which
reflects the ethical views of the empvror and. his royal partisans is
represented by the name Confucius (55 J -470 fl.cj. The great sage
had collected old traditions and formulated the moral principles
which had been dormant in the Chinese nation for centuries. His
doctrines tended to uupport up maintenance of central power ^ so
did (hose of other tnencuben of hfo school optcially Mencma. Filial
love showed itself .15 obedience to the parents in the family and as
loyalty to the emperor and his government in public life, ft was the
highest virtue, according to the Cynf ucian school The history of the
nation as taught in the SmtrUrtg was in its early part merely an
illustration of Confucian ist idc*ts iibouc good and bad govern me nt r
The perpetual advice to rulers wai: '* Jfc like Yan, Shun and Yu.
and you will be right." Confucianism was dominant during the
earlier centuries of the ChOu dynasty, whose lucky star began to
wane when doctrines opposed to it got the upper hand. The philo-
sophical schools built up on the doctrines of Lau-t ;i had in the course
of generations become antagonistic, and found favour with those who
did not endorse that loyally u> the enifieror demanded by Mcnri.it*;
so had other thinker*, some of whom had preauhed murals which
were bound to break up aU twcial relations, like the philosopher oi
egotism, Yang Chu, according to Mem: jus disloyal ry personified and
the very reverse of Sis ideal* the duke of Chou. The egotism recom-
mended by Yang Chu to lite individual had begun to be practised
on a large scale by the contending states, their governments and
sovereigns, some of whom had long discarded Confucian rites under
the influence of Tatar neighbours. It appears that the anti-
Confucian spirit which paved the way towards the final extinction
of Wu-wang s dynasty received its chief nourishment frpm the Tatar
element in the population of the northern and western boundary
states. Among these Ts'in waa the most prominent. Having placed
itself in the possession of the territories of nearly all of the remaining
states, Ts'in made war against the List shadow emperor* Namwaug
who had attempted to form an alliance against the powerful usurper,
with the result that ihe western part of the Chou dominion was lost
to the aggressor.
Nan-wang died soon after (256 B.C.), and a relative whom he had
appointed regent was captured in 2 40 B.C., when the king of Ts'in
put an end to this last remnant of the once glorious Chou dynasty
by annexing its territory. The king had already secured the posses-
sion of the Nine Tripods, huge bronze vases aid to have been cast
by the emperor Yu as representing the nine divisions of hit empire
and since preserved in the treasuries of all the various emperors as a
symbol of imperia I power. Wi t h t he toss of t hese tri pods N a n-wa ng
had forfeited the right to call himself " Son nf Heaven," Another
prerogative was the offering of sacrifice to Sking-li. the Supreme
Ruler, or God, with whom only the emperor wa* supposed to com-
municate. The king of Ts'in bad performed the ceremony as early
as 253 B.C. (F. H.»)
(C) — From the Ts'in Dynasty h i$f$*
After the fall of the Chou dynasty a kind of interregnum
followed during which China was practically without an emperor
f^. to This was the time when the state of Ts'in asserted
4ymmMty itself as the leader and finally as the master of all lite
249*10 contending states. Its king, Chau-siang, who died in
^^ 251 B.C-, though virtually emperor, abstained from
adopting the imperia] title. He was succeeded by his son, Hiao-
w£n Wang, who died after a three days 1 reign* Chwan-siang
Wang, his son and successor, was a man of. no mark* He died
in 246 B.C. giving place to Shi Hwang-ti, rt the first unjvct&a)
emperor." This sovereign was then only thirteen, but he
speedily made his influence felt everywhere. He chose Hien-
yang, the modern Si-gan Fu„ as bis capital, and built there a
-. . magnificent palace* which was the wonder and admlra-
HwmartL t> on °f his contemporaries. He abolished the feudal
system, and divided the country into provinces over
whom he set officers directly responsible to himself. He con-
structed roads through the empire, he formed canals, and erected
numerous and handsome public buildings-
Having settled the internal affairs of his kingdom, he turned his
I attention to the enemies beyond his frontier. Chief among these
] were the Hiung-nu Tatars, whose attacks had for years disauietcd
the Chinese and neighbouring principalities. Against these Iocs he
marched with an army of 300,000 men, exterminating those in the
neighbourhood of China, and driving the rest into Mongolia. On his
return from this campaign he was called upon to face a formidable
I rebellion in Ho-nan, which had been set on foot by the adherents
of the feudal princes whom he had dispossessed. Having crushed the
rebellion, he marched southwards and subdued the tribes on the
south of the Nan-shan ranges, i.e. the inhabitants of the modern
Erovinces of Fu-kien, Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. The limits of
is empire were thus as nearly as possible those of modern China
1 proper. One monument remains to bear witness to his energy*.
Finding that the northern states of Ts'in, Chao and Yen were
building lines of fortification along their northern frontier for pro-
; tcction against the Hiung-nu, he conceived the idea of building one
gigantic wall, which was to stretch across the whole northern limit
ofthe huge empire from the sea to the farthest western corner of the
1 modern province of Kan-suh. This work was begun under his
immediate supervision in 214 B.C. His reforming zeal made him
unpopular with the upper classes. Schoolmen and pedants held up
to the admiration of tne people the heroes of the feudal times and
the advantages of the system they administered. Seeing in this
propaganda danger to the state Shi Hwang-ti determined to break
once and for all with the past. To this end he ordered the destruc-
tion of all books having reference to the past history of the empire,
and many scholars were put to death for failing in obedience to it.
(See infra $ Chinese Literature, §§ History.) The measure was
unpopular and on his death (210 B.C.) rebellion broke out. His
son and successor Erh-shi, a weak and debauched youth, was
murdered after having offered a feeble resistance to his enemies.
' His son Tsze-yung surrendered to Liu Pang, the prince of Han. one
of the two generals who were the leaders of the rebellion. He after-
wards fell into the hands of I Hang Yu, the other chieftain, who put
him and his family and associates to death. Hiang Yu aspiring to
imperial honours, war broke out between him and Liu Pang.
After five years' conflict Hiang Yu was killed in a decisive battle
before Wu-kiang. Liu Pang was then proclaimed emperor (206 B.C.)
under the title of Kao-ti, and the new line was styled the Han
dynasty.
Kao-ti established his capital at Lo-yang in Ho-nan, and
afterwards removed it to Chang-an in Shen-si. Having founded
his right to rebel on the oppressive nature of the laws
promulgated by Shi Hwang-ti, he abolished the JjJJ,^
ordinances of Ts'in, except that referring to the jo6%.a
destruction of the books— for, like his great pre-
decessor, he dreaded the influence exercised by the literati — and
he exchanged the worship of the gods of the soil of Ts'in for that
of those of Han, his native state. His successor Hwci-ti (104-
179 B.C.), however, gave every encouragement to literature, and
appointed a commission to restore as far as possible the texts
which had been destroyed by Shi Hwang-ti. In this the com-
mission was very successful. It was discovered that in many
cases the law had been evaded, while in numerous instances
scholars were found to write down from memory the text of
books of which all copies had been destroyed, though in some
cases the purity of the text is doubtful and in other cases there
were undoubted forgeries. A period of repose was now enjoyed
by the empire. There was peace within its borders, and its
frontiers remained unchallenged, except by the Hiung-nu, who
suffered many severe defeats. Thwarted in their attacks on
China, these marauders attacked the kingdom of the Yueh-chi,
which had grown up in the western extremity of Kan-suh, and
after much fighting drove their victims along the T'ien-shan-
nan-lu to the territory between Turkestan and the Caspian Sea.
This position of affairs suggested to the emperor the idea of
forming an offensive and defensive alliance with the Yueh-chi
against the Hiung-nu. With this object the general Chang
K'ien was sent as an ambassador to western Tatary. After
having been twice imprisoned by the Hiung-nu he returned to
China. Chang K'ien had actually reached the court of the
,Yueh-chi, or Indo-Scythians as they were called owing to their
having become masters of India later on, and paid a visit to the
kingdom of Bactria, recently conquered by the Yueh-chi. His
report on the several kingdoms of western Asia opened up a new
world to the Chinese, and numerous elements of culture, plants
and animals were then imported for the first time from the west
into China. While in Bactria Chan K'ien's attention was first
drawn to the existence of India, and attempts to send expeditions,
HISTORY)
CHINA
«95
: at first fruitless, finally led to its discovery. Under
Wo-U (140-86 b.c.) the power of the Hiung-nu was broken and
eastern Turkestan changed into a Chinese colony, through which
caravans could safely pass to bring back merchandise and art
treasures from Persia and the Roman market. By the Hans the
feudal system was restored in a modified form; 103 feudal
principalities were created, but they were more or less under
the jurisdiction of civil governors appointed to administer the
thirteen ckaws (provinces) into which the country was divided.
About the beginning of the Christian era Wang Mang rose in
revolt against the infant successor of P'ing-ti (aj>. i), and in
AJX 9 proclaimed himself emperor. He, however, only gained
the suffrages of a portion of the nation, and before long his
oppressive acts estranged his supporters. In aj>. 23 Liu Shi;,
one of the princes of Han, completely defeated him. His head
was cut off, and his body was torn in pieces by his own soldiery.
Liu Siu, was proclaimed emperor under the title of Kwang-
wu-ti, reigned from a.d. 58 to 76. Having fixed on Lo-yang
gg^gg^f in Ho-nan as his capital, the line of which he was the
Mm first emperor became known as the Eastern Han
4rmvto dynasty. It is also known as the Later Han dynasty.
* J *** > During the reign of his successor Ming-ti, aj>. 65,
Buddhism was introduced from India into China (see ante
IRdigum). About the same time the celebrated general Pan
Ch'ao was sent on an embassy to the king of Shen-shen, a small
state of Turkestan, near the modern Pidjan. Before long he
added the states of Shen-shen, Khotan, Kucha and Kashgar as
apanages to the Chinese crown, and for a considerable period the
country enjoyed prosperity. The Han dynasty (including in
the term the Eastern Han dynasty) has been considered the first
national dynasty and is one of the most famous in China; nor
has any ruling family been more popular. The Chinese, espe-
cially the northern Chinese, still call themselves " the sons of
Han." The wealth and trade as well as the culture of the
country was greatly developed, and the competitive examina-
tions for literary degrees instituted. The homogeneity of the
nation was so firmly established that subsequent dissensions
and conquests could not alter fundamentally the character of
the nation.
Towards the end of the and century the power of the Eastern Hans
declined. In 173 a virulent pestilence, which continued for eleven
years, broke out. A magical cure Tor this plague was said to have
been discovered by a Taoist priest named Chang Chio, who in a
single month won a sufficiently Urge following to enable him to gain
possession of the northern provinces of the empire. He was, how-
ever, defeated by Ts'aou Ts'aou, another aspirant to imperial
honours, whose son, Ts'aou P'ei, on the death of Hien-ti (a.d. 220),
i himself emperor, adopting the title of Wei as the appella-
tion of his dynasty. There were then, however, two other
claimants to the throne, Liu Pei and Sun Ch*uan, and the
three adventurers agreed to divide the empire between
them. Ts'aou P'ei, under the title of WGn-ti, ruled over the kingdom
of Wei (220}, which occupied the whole of the central and northern
portion of China. Liu Pei established the Shuh Han dynasty in the
modern province of Sze-ch'uen (221), and called himself Chao-
fieh-ti; and to Sun Ch*uan fell the southern provinces of the empire,
from the Yangtsze-kiang southwards, including the modern Tong-
king, which he formed into the kingdom of Wu with Nan-king for
his capital, adopting for himself the Imperial style of Ta-tc (a.d.
*22).
China during the period of the " Three Kingdoms " was a house
divided against itself. Liu Pei, as a descendant of the house of
-r%MmM H* n ' footad u I?°n himself as the rightful sovereign of
** t9m # the whole empire, and he despatched an army under
Chu-ko Liang to support his claims. This army was met
by; an opposing force under the Wei commander Szc-ma I,
of whom Chinese historians say that " he led armies like a god,
and who, by adopting a Fabian policy, completely discomfited his
adversary. But the close of this campaign brought no peace to the
country. Wars became chronic, and the reins of power slipped out
of the hands of emperors into those of their generals. Foremost
among these were the members of t he Szc-ma family of Wei. Sze-ma
I left a son, Sze-ma Chao, scarcely less distinguished than himself,
and when Sze-ma Chao died his honours descended to Sze-ma Yen,
who deposed the ruling sovereign of Wei, and proclaimed himself
emperor of China (a.d. 265). I lis dynasty he styled the Western
Tan dynasty, and he adopted for himself the title of Wu-ti. The most
noticeable event in this reign was the advent of the ambassadors of
the emperor Diocletian in 28a. For some years the neighbouring states
r to have transferred their allegiance from the house of Wei to
that of Tun. Wu-tiV successors proving, however, weak and incap-
able, the cou ntry soon fe Li again into d worder. The Hiung-nu rune wed
incursion* into the empire at the beginning of the 4th Bta—
century, and in the confusion which followed, an adventurer J^"**
naned Liu Yuen established himself (in 3 11) as ttmperojv I ^
first at Ping-yang in Shan-si and afterwards in Lo- w***r~
yang and Chaiig-aa* The history of this period t* very chaotic.
Numerous states sprang into existence* some founded by the Hiung-
nu and others by the 5ien-ni tribe, a Tungusie clan, inhabiting a
territory to the north of China, which afterwards established the
Liao dynasty in China, fa 419 the Eastern Tan dynasty came to
an end, and with it disappeared for nearly two ho ndred years alt
semblance of united authority. The country became divided into
two parts, the north and the sooth. En the n&rth four families
reigned successively, two of which were of Sien-pt origin, via. the Wei
and the Haw Chow, the other two, the f'ih TVi and the How Liang,
being Chinese. In the south five different houses supplied ruler**
who were nil of Chinese descent.
This period of disorder was brought to a close by the establish-
ment of the Suy dynasty (JW). Among the officials of the ephemeral
dynasty of Chow was one % ang Kien, who on his daughter ^^
becoming empress (578) was created duke of Suy. Two ~^
years later. Yang Idea proclaimed himself emperor* The *****&•
country, weary of content ion, was jjlad to acknowledge his undi-
vided authority 1 and during the sixteen years of his reign the
internal affairs of China were com parativyly peaceably administered.
The emperor instituted an improved code of laws, and added $000
volumes to the 10,000 which composed the imperial Ubrary. Abroad*
his policy was equally aucceWuL He defeated the Talari and
chastised the Koreans* who had for a long period recosni/ed Chinese
suzerainty* but were torn by civil wars and were disposed to reject
her authority* After his death in 604. bis second son forced the heir
to the throne to strangle him*. If, and then seized the throne. This
usurper, Yanj^ti* sent expedition* against the Tatars, and himself
headed an expedition against the Uigntirs, while one of his generals
annexed the Lu- hu Islands to the imperial crown. During his
reign the volumes in the imperial library were increased to 54,000,
a M he spent vast sunns in erecting a magnificent palate at Lo*yang,
and in constructing unprofitable canals. These and other extrava-
gances laid so heavy a burden on the country that discontent began,
again to prevail, and on the emperor's return from a successful
expedition against the Korean*, he found the empire divided into
rcbtlliou* factions, Jn the trouble* which followed General Li
Yuen became prominent, n t ht deat h of t h s em neror by assassina-
tion this man set Kuiig-ti, the rightful heir, on the throne (6*7)
until such time as he should have matured his schemes,
Kung-li was poisoned in the following year and Li Yuen
proclaimed himself as Kao-tsu, the first emperor of the T'ang
dynasty. At this time the Turks were at the height of
their power in Asia (see Tub its: lfutory) i and Kao- ^much
tsu was glad to purchase their alliance with money.
But divisions weakened the power of the Turks, and TaMsung
(reigned 617-^650), Kao-tsu'sson and successor, regained much of
the position in Central Asia which had formerly been held by
China. In 640 Kami , Tu r fan and the rest of t he Turkish t crrito ry
were again included within the Chinese empire, and four military
governorships were appointed in Central Asia, viz. at Kucha,
Khotan, Kharastan and Kashgar* At the same time the frontier
wis extended as far as eastern Persia and the Caspian Sea* So
great was now the fame of China, that ambassadors from Nepal,
Magadha, Persia and Constantinople (645) came to pay their
court to the emperor Under T'ai-lsuug there was national unity
and peace, and in consequence agriculture and commerce as well
as literature flourished. The emperor gave direct encourage-'
incuts to the Nest Brians, and gave a favourable reception to an
cm bossy from Ma hammed (gee nxile \ Rtli%im). On the accession
of Kao-tsung (050) his wife, Wu How, gained supreme influence,
and on the death of her husband in 08 j she set aside his lawful
successor, Chung-tsung , and took possession of the throne. This
was the first occasion the country was ruled by a dowager
empress, She governed with discretion* and her armies defeated
the Khitan in the north-east and also the Tibetans, who hid
Latterly gained possession of Kucha, Khotan and Kashgar. On
her death, in 705. Chung-tsung partially left the obscurity in
which be had lived during his mother's reign. But bis wife,
desiring Lo play a similar role to that enjoyed by her mother-in-
law, poboned him and set bis son, Jui4sung (710), on the thronei
This monarch, who was weak and vicious,, was succeeded by Yuen-
tsung (713.), who introduced reform into the administration and
encouraged literature and learning. The king of Khokand
applied for aid against the Tibetans and Arabs, and Yuen - 1 sun (
196
CHINA
(HISTORY
sent an army to his succour, but his general was completely
defeated. During the disorder which arose in consequence of
the invasion of the northern provinces by the Khit&n, General
An Lu-than, an officer of Turkish descent, placed himself at the
head of a revolt, and having secured Tung-kwan on the Yellow
river, advanced on Chang-an. Thereupon the emperor fled, and
placed his son, Su-tsung (756-762), on the throne. This
sovereign, with the help of the forces of Khotan, Khokand and
Bokhara, of the Uighurs and of some 4000 Arabs sent by the
caliph Mansur, completely defeated An Lu-shan. During the
following reigns the Tibetans made constant incursions into the
western provinces of the empire, and Tai-tsung (763-780)
purchased the assistance of the Turks against those intruders by
giving a Chinese princess as wife to the khan.
At this epoch the eunuch* of the palace gained an unworn cd degree
of powti - , and several of the subsequent emperor* fell victim* to their
plots. The Tang dynasty, which for over a hundred years Imd
governed firmly and for the good of the nation, began to decline*
The hi«ory of the 8th and 9,10 centuries is for the meat part a
monotonous record offerbte government.*, oppressions and rebellions,
Almost the only event worth chronicling Is the iconoclastic policy of
the emperor Wu-tsung (841-847). Viewing the increase of monasteries,
and ccckviast iral establishment* as an evil, he abolished all temples,
closed the monasteries and nunntriM, and sent the inmates back to
their families. Foreign priests were subjected to the same repressive
legislation, am i Christians, Buddhists and Magi were bidden to return
whence they came. Buddhism again revived during the reign of the
emperor 1-tsung (A60-874), who, having discovered a bone of
Buddha, brought it to the capital in great state. By intemdrfis-
sensions the empire became so weakened that the prince of Liang
found no difficulty in gaining possession of the throne (907) h ^ He
took the title of T T ai-tsu. being the first emperor of the Later Liang
dynasty. Thus ended the T'ang dynasty, which is regarded as being
tie golden age of Chinese literature.
Five dynasties, viz. the Later Liang, the Later T'ang, the Later
Tsin, the Later Han and the Later Chow, followed each other between
the «ears 907 and 060. Though the monarchs of these lines nominally
held sway over the empire, their real power was confined to very
narrow limits. The disorders which were rife during the time when
the T'ang dynasty was tottering to its fall fostered the development
of independent states, and so arose Liang in Ho-nan and Shan-tung,
Ki in Sncn-si, Hwai-nan in Kiang-nan, Chow in Sze-ch'ucn and parts
of Shen-si and Hu-kwang, Wu-yuS in Cheh-kiang, Tsu and King-nan
in Hu-kwang, Ling-nan in Kwang-tung and the Uighurs in Tangut.
A partial end was made to this recognized disorganization
when, in 060, General Chao Kw'ang-yin was proclaimed by
^^ the army emperor in succession to the . youthful
JJUstr- Kung-ti, who was compelled to abdicate. The circum-
stances of the time justified the change. It required
a strong hand to weld the empire together again, and to resist
the attacks of the Khitin Tatars, whose rule at this period
extended over the whole of Manchuria and Liao-tung. Against
these aggressive neighbours Tai-tsu (ni Chao Kw'ang-yin)
directed his efforts with varying success, and he died in 976,
while the war was still being waged. His son T'ai-tsung (976-997)
entered on the campaign with energy, but in the end was com-
pelled to conclude a peace with the Khitin. His successor,
Chen-tsung (997-1022), paid them tribute to abstain from
further incursions. Probably this tribute was not sent regularly;
at all events, under Jcn-tsung (1023-1064), the Khit&n again
threatened to invade the empire, and were only bought off
by the promise of an annual tribute of taels 200,000 of silver,
besides a great quantity of silken piece goods. Neither was this
arrangement long binding, and so formidable were the advances
made by the Tatars in the following reigns, that Hwei-tsung
(1101-1126) invited the Nuchih Tatars to expel the Khitin from
Liao-tung. This they did, but having once possessed themselves
of the country they declined to yield it to the Chinese, and the
result was that a still more aggressive neighbour was established
on the north-eastern frontier of China. The Nuchih or Kin,
as they now styled themselves, overran the provinces of Chih-li,
Shen-si, Shan-si and Ho-nan, and during the reign of Kao-tsung
(n 27-1 163) they advanced their conquests to the line of the
Yangtsze-kiang. From this time the Sung ruled only over
southern China; while the Kin or " Golden " dynasty reigned
in the north. The Kin made Chung-tu, which occupied in part
tb» site of the modern Peking, their usual residence. The Sung
fixed their capital at Nanking and afterwards at Hangchow.
Between them and the Kin there was almost constant war.
During this period the Mongols began to acquire power in
eastern Asia, and about the beginning of the 1 2th century the
forces of Jenghiz Khan (q.v. ) invaded the nort h-westcrn Momgmi
frontier of China and the principality of Hia, which JovjuIm.'
at that time consisted of the modern provinces of "JJL^
Shen-si and Kan-suh, To purchase the good- will C9atmfy '
of the Mongols the king of Hia agreed to pay them a tribute,
and gave a princess in marriage to their ruler. In consequence
of a dispute with the Kin emperor Wei-shao Wang, Jenghiz
Khan determined to invade Liao-tung. He was aided by the
followers of the Khitin leader Yeh-lii Ts'u-ts'ai, and in alliance
with this general he captured Liao-yang, the capital city.
After an unsuccessful invasion of China in 12 12, Jenghiz Khan
renewed the attack in 1213. He divided his armies into four divi-
sions, and made a general advance southwards. His soldiers swept
over Ho-nan, Chih-li and Shan-tung, destroying upwards of ninety
cities. It was their boast that a horseman might ride without
stumbling over the sites where those cities had stood. Panic-
stricken, the emperor moved his court from Chung-tu to K'ai-feng
Fu, much against the advice of his ministers, who foresaw the
disastrous effect this retreat would have on the fortunes of Kin.
The state of Sung, which up to this time had paid tribute, now
declined to recognize Kin as its feudal chief, ^nd a short time after-
wards declared war against its quondam ally. Meanwhile, in 1215,
Yeh-lu Ts'u-ts'ai advanced into China by the Shan-hai Kwan, and
made himself master of Peking, one of the few cities in Chih-li which
remained to Kin. After this victory his nobles wished him to pro-
claim himself emperor, hut he refused* beiiijr mindful of an oath
which he had sworn to jenghii Khan. In 1216 Tung-kwan, a
mountain pass on the frontier* of Ho-nan and Shcii-si, fend the scene
or numerous dynastic bat lies {as it is the only gateway between
north-eastern and north- western China), was taken by the invader*.
As the war dragged on the resistance offered by the Kin grew weaker
and weaker, in 1220 Chi-nan Fu, the capital of Shan^tungi was
taken, and five years later Jenghii: Khan marched an army westward
into Hia and conquered the forces of the king. Two years later
U*7J} JcflRhLs Khan died.
VWh the view to the romplcte conquest of China by the Mongols,
jenghiz 1 tec lined to nominate either of (he eldest two sons who had
been bom to his Chinese wives as his heir, but chose his third soa
Ogdai, whose mother was 1 Tatar* On hearing of the death of
Jenghiz Khun the Kin sent an embassy to his successor desiring
peace but Ogdai told them there wouH be no peace for them until
their dynasty should be overthrown. H Itherto the W ongola had been
without any code of laws. But the consolidation of the nation by
the conquests of Jenghii Khan made it necessary to establish a
recognized code of laws, and one of the first acts of Ogdai was to
form such a code* With the help also of Yeh-lu TVu*rVai, he c*iab~
Uhhcd custom -houses in ChihOi, Shan-tun g h Shan~ti and Liao-tung;
and for this purpose divided these provinces into ten departments.
Meanwhile the war with the Kin was carried on with energy. In
t j 30 Si-gan Fu was taken, and sixty important posts were captured.
Two years later, Tu-k*. brother of" Ogdji, took Fenc-*tang Fu and
Han-chu
f-i
100,000
persons arc said to have pemhed. hollowing the course of the river
Han in his victorious career, this general destroyed 1 40 towns and
fortresses, and defeated the army of Kin at Mount San-feng.
In 1252 the Mongols made an alliance with the state of Sung, by
which, on condition of Sung helping to destroy Kin. Ho-nan was to
be the property of Sung Tor ever. The effect of this -^ ^^
coalition soon became apparent. Barely had the Kin ^^r
emperor retreated from K'aUfeng Fn to Jii-ning Fu in Ho- gx-Zri'
nan when the former place fell into the hands of the allies.
Next fell Loyangi and the victorious generals then marched
on to besiege J u-ning Fu- The presence of the emperor gave energy
to the defender*, and ihey held out until every animal in the city
Had been tilled for food, until every old and useless person had
suffered death to lessen the number of hungry mouths, until so many
able-bodied men had fallen that the women manned the ramparts,
and then the allies tt armed the walls. The emperor burned himself
to death in hia palace, that hi* body mitjit not fall into the hands of
hi* c nemies. For a few da ys the shadow of the imperial crown rested
on the head of his heir Changdin, but in a tumult which broke out
amongst his followers he lost his life, and with him ended the
"Golden *' dynasty.
Notwithstanding the treaty between Ogdai and Sung, no sooner
were the spoils ol Kin to be divided than war broke out again
between them, in prosecuting which rhe Mongol armies swept over
the provinces of SztsctTucn* Hu-kwang, Kiang-nan and Ho-nan,
and were checked only when they reached the walls of Lu-chow Fu
in Ngan-hui. Ogdai died in ijji h and was nominally su cce e d ed by
his grandson Cheliemcn, But one of his widows. Tolickonm, took
possession of the throne, and after exercising rule for four years,
established her son Kwei*yew at great khan. In 1348 his life was
hbsoby) CHINA
cut tbort, and the nobles, disregarding the claims of Cheliemen,
proclaimed as emperor Mangu. the eldest son of Tu-le. Under this
monarch the war against bung was carried on with energy, and
Kublai, outstripping the bounds of Sung territory, made his way
into the province of Yun-nan, at that time divided into a number of
independent states, and having attached them to his brother's
crown he passed on into Tibet, Tongking and Cochin-China, and
thence striking northwards entered the province of Kwang-si.
On the death of Mangu in 1259 Kublai (g.v.) ascended the
throne. Never in the history of China was the nation more
illustrious, nor its power more widely felt, than under
his sovereignty. During the first twenty years of
his reign Sung kept up a resistance against his
authority. Their last emperor Ping-ti, seeing his
cause lost, drowned himself in the sea. The Sung dynasty,
which had ruled southern China 320 years, despite its misfortunes
is accounted one of the great dynasties of China. During its
sway arts and literature were cultivated and many eminent
writers flourished. His enemies subdued, Kublai Khan in 1280
assumed complete jurisdiction as emperor of China. He took
the title of Shit-su and founded what is known as the Yuen
dynasty. He built a new capital close to Chung-tu, which
became known as Kaanbaligh (city of the khan), in medieval
European chronicles, Cambaluc, and later as Peking. At this
time his authority was acknowledged " from the Frozen Sea,
almost to the Straits of Malacca. With the exception of
Hindustan, Arabia and the westernmost parts of Asia, all the
Mongol princes as far as the Dnieper declared themselves his
vassals, and brought regularly their tribute." It was during
this reign that Marco Polo visited China, and he describes in
glowing colours the virtues and glories of the " great khan."
His rule was characterized by discretion and munificence.
He undertook public works, he patronized literature, and relieved
the distress of the poor, but the Chinese never forgot that he
was an alien and regarded him as a barbarian. He died un-
regretted in 1204. His son had died during his lifetime, and
after some contention his grandson Timur ascended the throne
under the title of Yucn-cheng. This monarch died in 1307 after
an uneventful reign, and, as he left no son, Wu-tsung, a Mongol
prince, became emperor. To him succeeded Jtn-tsung in 1312,
who made himself conspicuous by the honour he showed to the
memory of Confucius, and by distributing offices more equally
between Mongols and Chinese than had hitherto been done.
This act of justice gave great satisfaction to the Chinese, and his
death ended a peaceful and prosperous reign in 1320. At this
time there appears to have been a considerable commercial
intercourse between Europe and China. But after Jta-tsung's
death the dynasty fell on evil days. The Mongols in adopting
Chinese civilization had lost much of their martial spirit. They
were still regarded as alien by the Chinese and numerous secret
societies were formed to achieve their overthrow. Jen-tsung's
successors were weak and incapable rulers, and in the person of
Sbun-ti (1333-1368) were summed up the vices and faults of
his predecessors. Revolts broke out, and finally this descendant
of Jenghiz Khan was compelled to fly before Chu Yuen-chang,
the son of a Chinese labouring man. Deserted by his followers,
be sought refuge in Ying-chang Fu, and there the last of the
Yuen dynasty died. These Mongol emperors, whatever their
faults, had shown tolerance to Christian missionaries and Papal
legates (see ante § The Medieval Cathay).
Chu Yuen-chang met with little opposition, more especially
as his first care on becoming possessed of a district was to
-.___ suppress lawlessness and to establish a settled govern-
ment. In 13 ss he captured Nanking, and proclaimed
himself duke of Wu, but carefully avoided adopting
any of the insignia of royalty. Even when master of the empire,
thirteen years later, he still professed to dislike the idea of
illuming the imperial title. His scruples were overcome, and
he declared himself emperor in 1368. He carried his arms
into Tatary, where he subdued the last semblance of Mongol
power in that direction, and then bent his steps towards Liao-
tung. Here the Mongols defended themselves with the bravery
of despair, but unavaillngly, and the conquest of this province
197
left Hung-wu, as the founder of the new or Ming (" Bright" )
dynasty styled himself, without a foe in the empire.
All intercourse with Europe seems now to have ceased until the
Portuguese arrived in the 16th century, but Hung-wu cultivated
friendly relations with the neighbouring states. As a quondam
Buddhibt priest he lent his countenance to that religion to the
exclusion of Taoism, whose priests had for centuries earned the
contempt of all but the most ignorant by their pretended magical
arts and their search after the philosopher's stone. Hung-wu died
in 1398 and was succeeded by his grandson Kien-WSn. Aware that
the appointment of this youth — his father was dead — would give
offence to the young emperor's uncles, Hung-wu had dismissed them
to their respective governments. However, the prince of Yen, his
eldest surviving son, rose in revolt as soon as the news reached him
of his nephew's accession, and after gaining. several victories over the
armies of Kicn-wfn he presented himself before the gates of Nanking,
the capital. Treachery opened the gates to him, and the emperor
having fled in the disguise of a monk, the victorious prince became
emperor and took the title of Yung-lo (1403). At home Yung-lo
devoted himself to the encouragement of literature and the fine arts,
and, possibly from a knowledge that Kien-wOn was among the
Buddhist priests, he renewed the law prohibiting Buddhism. Abroad
he swept Cochin-China and Tongking within the folds of his empire
and carried his arms into Tatary, where he made new conquests of
waste regions, and erected a monument of his victories. He died in
1425, and was succeeded by his son Hung-hi.
Hung-hi's reign was short and uneventful. He strove to promote
only such mandarins as had proved themselves to be able ana honest,
and to further the welfare of the people. During the reign of his
successor, Suen-te (1426-1436), the empire suffered the first loss of
territory since the commencement of the dynasty. Cochin-China
rebelled and gained her independence. The next emperor, Cheng-
t We (143ft), *4is tnfccn prisoner by a Tatar chieftain, a descendant
of the Vucn family named Yi-sicn, who had invaded the northern
provinces. Having beert completely defeated by a Chinese force
from Liao-turtg, Yi-sjcfl librriitrd his captive, who reoccupied the
. rtigis of the next monarch, Chcng-t
(< 506-1 522), was the arrival of the Portuguese at Canton O517).
Fmrn this time dates modern European intercourse with China.
Chfrig-te Kipprcss-cd a formidable insurrection headed by the prince
of Nmg, but disorder caused by this civil war encouraged the foreign
enemies of China. From the north came a Tatar army under Yen-ta
in 1543, during the reign of KtMtfflfc which laid waste the province
of Shen-si, and even ihrcalcned the capital, and a little later a
Japanese fleet ravaged tbe littoral provinces. lU-blood had arisen
between the t»o peoples before this, and a Japanese colony had been
driven out of Ningpo by force and not without bloodshed a few years
previously, Kb-i*ing (,d. 1567} was not equal to such emergencies,
and hiii mn Lung-king (7567-1 573)souifcht to placate the TatarYen-ta
by making him a prince of the empire and giving him commercial
privies, whUh «vrr psippi. nu'iiM by the succeeding emperor
wan-It (1573-1620) by the grant of land in Shen-si. During the reign
of this sovereign, in the year 1592, the Japanese successfully invaded
Korea, and Taikosama, the regent of Japan, was on the point of
proclaiming himself king of the pcninsula.when a large Chinese force,
answering to the invitation of the king, appeared and completely
routed the Japanese army, at the same time that the Chinese fleet
cut off their retreat by sea. In this extremity the Japanese sued for
peace, and sent an embassy to Peking to arrange terms. ,
ferJGsfwe,
vaged the coast. Suddenly, L_ ..
ever, when in the full tide of conquest, they evacuated Korea, which
again fell under the direction of China. Four years later the mission-
ary Matteo Ricci (q.v.) arrived at the Chinese court ; and though at
first the emperor was inclined to send him out of the country, his
abilities gradually won for him the esteem of the sovereign and his
ministers, and he remained the scientific adviser of the court until his
death in 1610.
About this time the Manchu Tatars, goaded into war by the
injustice they were constantly receiving at the hands of the
Chinese, led an army into China (in 161 6) and completely defeated
the force which was sent against them. Three years later they
gained possession of the province of Liao-tung. These disasters
overwhelmed the emperor, and he died of a broken heart in 1620.
In the same year T'ien-ming, the Manchu sovereign, having
declared himself independent, moved the court to San-ku, to the
east of Mukden, which, five years later, he made his Mtu
capital. In 1627 Ts'ung-cheng, the last emperor of
the Ming dynasty, ascended the Chinese throne. In *** *
his reign English merchants first made their appearance * Mlw *•
at Canton. The empire was now torn by internal diiaeAstanak.
198
CHINA
IHISTORY
Rebel bands, enriched by plunder, and grown bold by success,
began to assume the proportion of armies. Two rebels, Li
Tsze-ch'eng and Shang K'o-hi, decided to divide the empin
between them. Li besieged K'ai-feng Fu, the capital of Ho-nan
and so long and closely did he beleaguer it that in the consequent
famine human flesh was regularly sold in the markets. Al
length an imperial force came to raise the siege, but fearful ol
meeting Li's army, they cut through the dykes of the Yellow
River, " China's Sorrow," and flooded the whole country
including the city. The rebels escaped to the mountains, but
upwards of 200,000 inhabitants perished in the flood, and the
city became a heap of ruins (1642). From K'ai-feng. Fu Li
marched against the other strongholds of Ho-nan and Shen-si,
and was so completely successful that he determined to attack.
Peking. A treacherous eunuch opened the gates to him, 00
being informed of which the emperor committed suicide. When
the news of this disaster reached the general-commanding on the
frontier of Manchu Tatary, he, in an unguarded moment, con-
cluded a peace with the Manchus, and invited them to dispossess
Li Tsze-ch'eng. The Manchus entered China, and after defeating
a rebel army sent, against them, they marched towards Peking.
On hearing of the approach of the invaders, Li Tsze-ch'eng,
after having set fire to the imperial palace, evacuated the city,
but was overtaken, and his force was completely routed.
The Chinese now wished the Manchus to retire, but, having
taken possession of Peking, they proclaimed the ninth son of
Tien-ming emperor of China under the title of Shun-chi ,
JJJJJi^Jf and adopted the name of Ta-ts'ing, or " Great Pure,"
for the dynasty (1644). Meanwhile the mandarins
at Nanking had chosen an imperial prince to ascend the throne.
At this most inopportune moment " a claimant " to the throne,
in the person of a pretended son of the last emperor, appeared
at court. While this contention prevailed inside Nanking the
Tatar army appeared at the walls. There was no need for them
to use force. The gates were thrown open, and they took
possession of the city without bloodshed. Following the con-
ciliatory policy they had everywhere pursued, they confirmed
the mandarins in their offices and granted a general amnesty
to all who would lay down their arms. As the Tatars entered the
city the emperor left it, and after wandering about for some
days in great misery, he drowned himself in the Yangtsze-kiang.
Thus ended the Ming dynasty, and the empire passed again under
a foreign yoke. By the Mings, who partly revived the feudal
system by making large territorial grants to members of the
reigning house, China was divided into fifteen provinces; the exist-
ing division into eighteen provinces was made by the Manchus.
All accounts agree in stating that the Manchu conquerors are
descendants of a branch of the family which gave the Kin dynasty to
the north of China; and in lieu of any authentic account of their
early history, native writers have thrown a cloud of fable over ihctr
origin (see Manchuria). In the I6ih century tbry were strong
enough to cope with their Chinese neighbours. Doubt Iem the Ming»
tried to check their ambition by cruel repmalii, but against this rn tut
be put numerous Manchu raids into Li jo- Tung.
The accession to the throne of the emprror Snun-chj did not restore
peace to the country. In Kbng-si» Fu-Licn. Kwang-tung and
Kwang-si the adherents of the Muiy, dynasty defended themselves
vigorously but unsuccessfully against the invaders, while the pirate
Cheng Chi-lung, the father of the celebrated Citinga, kept up a
predatory warfare ajgainst them on the coast. Eventually he was
induced to visit Peking, when- lie was thrown into prison and died,
Coxinga, warned by his father's 1 >,j mpl.\ determined to kave the
mainland and to seek an empire elsewhere., His choice fell on
Formosa, and having driven out the Dutch, who had established
themselves in the island in 1634, he held possesion until the rcrgn of
K'ang-hi, when (1682) he resi^uci! in favenir of the imperial mAn-
ment. Meanwhile a prince of the hou&c of Ming was proclaimed
emperor in Kwang-si, under the title of Yung-li. The Tatars having
reduced Fu-kien and Kiang-si, and having taken Canton after a
siege of eight months, completely routed his followers, and Yung-li
was compelled to fly to Pegu. Some years later, with the help of ,
adherents in Yun-nan and Kwei-chow, he tried to regain the throne,
but his army was scattered, and he was taken prisoner and strangled.
Gradually opposition to the new regime became weaker and weaker,
and the shaved head with the pig-tail — the symbol of Tatar
sovereignty — became more and more adopted. In 165 1 died Ama
Wang, the uncle of Shun-chi, who had acted as regent during his
nephew' b minority, and the emperor then assumed the goyernment ,
of the state. He appears to have taken a great interest in science,
and to have patronized Adam Schaal, a German Jesuit, who was at
that time resident at Peking. It was during his reign (1656) that
the first Russian embassy arrived at the capital, but as the envoy
declined to kowtow before the emperor he was sent back without
having been admitted to an audience.
After an unquiet reign of seventeen years Shun-chi died (1661).
and was succeeded by his son K'ang-hi. He came into collision with
the Russians, who had reached the Amur regions about 1640 and had
built a fort on the upper Amur; but by the Treaty of Nerchinsk, con-
cluded in 1680. (the first treaty made between China and a European
power), the dispute was settled, the Amur being taken as the frontier.
K'ang-hi was indefatigable in administering the affairs of the empire,
and he devoted much of his time to literary and scientific studies
under the guidance of the Jesuits. The dictionary of the Chinese
language, published under his superintendence, proves him to have
been as great a scholar as his conquests over the Eleuths show him
to have been famous as a general. During one of his hunting expe-
ditions to Mongolia he caught a fatal cold, and he died in 1721.
Under his rule Tibet was added to the empire, which extended from
the Siberian frontier to Cochin-China, and from the China Sea to
Turkestan. During his reign there was a great earthquake at Peking, 4
in which 400,000 people are said to have perished.
K'ien-lung, who began to reign in 1735, wasambitiousand warlike.
He marched an army into Hi, which he converted into a Chinese
province, and he afterwards added eastern Turkestan to the empire.
Twice he invaded Burma, and once he penetrated into Cochin-China,
but in neither country were his arms successful. He is accused of
great cruelty towards his subjects, which they repaid by rebelling
against him. During his reign the Mahommcdan standard was first
raised in Kan-suh. (Since the Mongol conquest in the 13th century
there had been a considerable immigration of Moslems into western
China; and numbers of Chinese had become converts). But the
Mussulmans were unable to stand against the imperial troops:
their armies were dispersed, ten thousand of them were exiled; and
an order was issued that every Mahommedan in Kan-suh above the
age of fifteen should be put to death (1784).
K'ien-lung wrote incessantly, both poetry and prose, collected
libraries and republished works of value. His campaigns furnished
him with themes for his verses, and in the Summer Palace was found
a handsome manuscript copy of a laudatory poem he composed on
the occasion of his war against the Gurkhas. This was one of the
most successful of his military undertakings. His generals marched
70,000 men into Nepal to within 60 miles of the British frontiers,
and having subjugated the Gurkhas they received the submission of
the Ncpalcse, and acquired an additional hold over Tibet (1792).
In other directions his arms were not so successful. There is no poem
commemorating the campaign against the rebellious Formosans,
nor lament over the loss of 100.000 men in that island, and the last
few years of his reign were disturbed by outbreaks among 1 he Miao-
tsze, hill tribes living in the mountains in the provinces of Kwei-chow
and Kwang-si. In 1705. after a reign of sixty years, K'ien-lung
abdicated in favour ofnis fifteenth son, who adopted the title of
Kia-k'ing as the style of his reign. K'ien-lung died at the age of
eighty-eight in 1798.
During the reign of K'ien-lung commerce between Europe
and Canton — theonly Chinese port then open to foreign trade —
had attained important dimensions. It was mainly __^
in the hands of the Portuguese, the British and the aJj^**
Dutch. The British trade was then a monopoly of the
East India Company. The trade, largely in opium, tea and silk,
was subject to many exactions and restrictions, 1 and many acts
of gross injustice were committed on the persons of Englishmen.
To obtain some redress the British government at length sent
an embassy to Peking (1793) and Lord Macartney was chosen
to represent George III. on the occasion. The mission was treated
as showing that Great Britain was a state tributary to China,
and Lord Macartney was received with every courtesy. But the
concessions he sought were not accorded, and in this sense his
mission was a failure.
Kia-k'ing's reign was disturbed and disastrous. In the
northern and western provinces, rebellion after rebellion broke
out, due in a great measure to the carelessness, incompetency
and obstinacy of the emperor, and the coasts were infested with
pirates, whose, number and organization enabled them for a long
;ime to hold the imperial fleet in check. Meanwhile the condition
Of the foreign merchants at Canton had not improved, and to set
matters on a better footing the British government despatched
a second ambassador in the person of Lord Amherst to Peking
in 1816. As he declined to kowtow before the emperor, he was
not admitted to the Imperial prrwiwe and the mission proved
»Scc Morse's Trad* and Admim>tf t u„ H f fa Chinese Empire
fhap. ix. r *
HSItMLY]
CHINA
199
abortive. Destitute of all royal qualities, a slave to his passions,
and the servant of caprice, Kia-k'ing died in 1820. The event
fraught with the greatest consequences to China which occurred
in his reign (though at the time it attracted little attention) was
the arrival of the first Protestant missionary, Dr R. Morrison
(f'V-)i who reached Canton in 1807.
Tao-kwang (1820-1850), the new emperor, though possessed
in his early years of considerable energy, had no sooner ascended
the throne than he gave himself up to the pursuit of pleasure.
The reforms which his first manifestoes foreshadowed never
seriously occupied his attention. Insurrection occurred in
Formosa, Kwang-si, Ho-nan and other parts of the empire, and
the Triad Society which had originated during the reign of
K'ang-hi, again became formidable.
Wore important to the future of the country than the internal
disturbances was the new attitude taken at this time towards
China by the nations of Europe. Hitherto the European
missionaries and traders in China had been dependent upon
the goodwill of the Chinese. The Portuguese had been allowed
to settle at Macao (g.v.) for some centuries; Roman Catholic
missionaries since the time of Ricci had been alternately patron-
ized and persecuted; Protestant missionaries had scarcely
gained a foothold; the Europeans allowed to trade at Canton
continued to suffer under vexatious regulations— the Chinese
in general regarded Europeans as barbarians, "foreign devils."
Of the armed strength of Europe they were ignorant. They were
now to be undeceived, Great Britain being the first power to
take action. The haid&hjps inflicted on the British merchants
at Canton became so unbearable that when, in 1834, the mono-
poly of the East India Company ceased, the British government
sent Lord Napier as minister to superintend the foreign trade
at that port. Lord Napier was inadequately supported, and the
anxieties of his position brought on an attack of fever, from
which he died at Macao after a few months' residence in China.
The chief cause of complaint adduced by the mandarins was
the introduction of opium by the merchants, and for years
they attempted by every means in their power to put a stop
to its importation. At length Captain (afterwards Admiral
Sir Charles) Elliot, the superintendent of trade, in 1839 agreed
that all the opium in the hands of Englishmen should be given
up to the native authorities, and he exacted a pledge from the
merchants that they would no longer deal in the drug. On the
3rd of April 20,283 chests of opium were handed over to the
mandarins and were by them destroyed. The surrender of the
Wmrwttb opium led to further demands by Lin Tze-su, the
Or*«f Chinese imperial commissioner, demands which were
BHu§m» considered by the British government to amount to
***•• a casus bJfi, and in 1840 war was declared. In the
same year the fleet captured Chusan, and in the following year
the Bogue Forts fell, in consequence of which operations the
Chinese agreed to cede Hong-Kong to the victors and to pay
them an indemnity of 6,000,000 dollars. As soon as this news
rcarhed Peking, Ki Shcn, who had succeeded Commissioner Lin,
was dismissed from his post and degraded, and Yi Shcn, another
Tatar, was appointed in his room. Before the new commissioner
reached his post Canton had fallen into the hands of Sir Hugh
Cough, and shortly afterwards Amoy, Ning-po, Tinghai in
Chusan, Chapu, Shanghai and Chin-kiang Fu shared the same
fate. Nanking would also have been captured had not the
imperial government, dreading the loss of the " Southern
Capital," proposed terms of peace. Sir Henry Pottingcr, who
had succeeded Captain Elliot, concluded, in 1S42, a treaty with
the imperial commissioners, by which the four additional ports
of Amoy, Fu-chow, Ningpo and Shanghai were declared open to
foreign trade, and an indemnity of 31,000,000 dollars was to be
paid to the British.
On the accession of Hien-feng in 1850, a demand was raised for
the reforms which had been hoped for under Tao-kwang, but Hicn-
nfca tia§ f* n B possessed in an exaggerated form the selfish and
<avMvr . a tyrannical nature of his father, together with a voluptu-
ary's craving for every kind of sensual pleasure. For some
time Kwang-si had been in a very disturbed state, and when the
people found that there was no hope of relief from the oppreuion
they endured, they proclaimed a youth, who m mid |n be the
representative of the last emperor or the Mi tig dynasty, as emperor,
under the title of T'icn-tG or '* Heavenly Virtue." From Kwang-s
the revolt spread into Hu-peh and H u-nan, and cnen languished trom
want of a kadtr and a definite pobtical ay. When, he never, there
appeared to be a posMbiiity that, by force of arm* and the per*
•uasive influence 01 money 4 iht- imperialist* would re-establish tndr
supremacy, a leader presented himself in Kwaog-ei. whose energy of
character, combined with great political and rtliftou* cnthuswssi,
speedily gained for him the suttragei of the discontented. Thia wat
Hung Siu-tr-"o,m. He proclaimed himitll at Bent by heaven to drive
out the Tatar*, and to reaiore in hi* own person the nicceraon to
China. At the same time, having been converted to Christianity and
professing v> abhor the vices and ma* of the age he called en all the
virtuous of the land to extirpate rulers who were standing examples
of all that was bate and vile in human nature* Crowds won flocked
to his stan .rd. Tien-i£ was deserted; and putting htm self at the
head of his followers {who abandoned the practice of shaving th?
head), Hung 5iiMs h ilan marched northward* and captured Wu*
ch'ang on the Yangtszc-ldang, the capital of Hu-pvh. Then,, moving
down the rivur he proceeded to the attack of Nanking. Without
much difficulty Hung Siu-tVUan in rS^j established himself within
its walls, and prottajintd the inauguration of the T fli-p'iiw dynasty,
of which be nominated himvlf the first emperor under the title of
T'icn Wang or " Heavenly king*" During the next few years hit
armies penetrated victoriously a& far north as Tientsin and at far east
as Chin-kiang and Su-chow, while band* of sympathizers with his
cause appeared in the neighbourhood of Amoy, As if still ^ m l m ,m„
further to aid him in hit schemes. Great Britain declared ■**-£,??
war against the Tatar dynasty in 1S57, in consequence of ™ WliW ■■
an outrage known as the 'Arrow" affair fsce Parkes,Sir Ha*iy
Smith). In December 1857 Canton was taken by the British and a
further blow was struck against the prestige of the Manchu dynasty
by the determination of Lord Elgin, who had been sent as special
ambassador, to go to Peking and communicate directly with the
emperor. In May 1858 the Taku Forts were taken, and Lord Elgin
went up the Peiho to Tientsin en rouU for the capital At Tientsin,
however, imperial commissioners persuaded him to conclude a treaty
with them on the spot, which treaty it was agreed should be ratified
at Peking in the following year. When, however, Sir Frederick
Bruce, who had been appointed minister to the court of Peking,
attempted to pass Taku to carry out this arrangement, the vessels
escorting him were treacherously fired on from the forts and he was
compelled to return. Thereupon Lord Elgin was again sent out with
full powers, accompanied by a large force under the command of Sir
Hopc Grant. The French (to seek reparation for the murder of a
missionary in Kwang-si) took part in the campaign, and on the 1st of
August i860 the allies landed without meeting with any opposition
at Pci-tang, a village 1 2 nt. north of Taku. A few days later the forts
at that place were taken, and thence the allies inarched to Peking.
Finding further resistance to be hopeless, the Chinese opened
negotiations and as a guarantee of their good faith surrendered the
An-ting gate of the capital to the allies. On the 24th of October
i860 the treaty of 1858 was ratified by Prince Kung and Lord Elgin,
and a convention was signed under the terms of which the Chinese
agreed to pay a war indemnity of 8,000,000 tads. The right of
Europeans to travel in the interior was granted and freedom guaran-
teed to the preaching of Christianity. 1 he customs tariff then agreed
upon legalized the import of opium, though the treaty of 1838, like
that of 1842, was silent on the subject.
Great Britain and France were not the only powers of Europe with
whom Hicn-feng was called to deal. On the northern border of the
empire Russia began to exercise pressure. Russia had begun to
colonize the lower Amur region, and was pressing towards the
Pacific. Thu. was a remote region, only part of the Chinese empire
since the Manchu conquest, and by treaties of 1858 and i860 China
ceded to Russia all its territory north of the Amur and between the
Ussuri and the Pacific (sec Amur, province). The Russians in their
newly acquired land founded the port of Vladivostok (q.v.).
Hicn-feng; died in the summer of the year 1861, leaving the
throne to his son T'unc-chi (1861-1875), a child of five years old,
whose mother, Tsz'e H=,i (18^4- 100a), had been raided Vui ,^.
from the place of favourite carabine to that of Imperial ~?
Consort. The legitimate em press, T»f'c An, waschifdlc*, ^ - - '
and the two dowager* became joint regents. The con- ™ m
elusion of peace with the allies was the signal for a 5 **!?*
renewal of the campaign against the T'ai-p'ifigs.'ftftd, "*""•
benefiting by the friondly feelings of the British authorities engen-
dered by the return of amicable relit ion*, the Chinese government
succeeded in enlisting Major Charles Ck-orge Gordon iq.ft} of the
Royal Engineers in their service* En a auprNngly short s(vu e of
time this officer formed the troops, which had formerly been under
the command of an American named VVard, into a formidable army,
and without delay took the field against the rebels. From that day
the fortunes of the T'ai-p-'Lngi declined. They lost city aft- 1 ity,
and. finally in July 1804, the hnpemh~*i >, afier an inieTvnl of twelve
years, once more gained pos&c*ftkm of Nanking T*ien Wane com-
mitted suicide on the capture of his capital, and with htm tell his
cause. Those of his follower* who neaped the sword dispersed
throughout the country, and the Tailings ceased to be*
aoo
CHINA
(HISTORY
With the measure of peace which was then restored to the country
trade rapidly revived, except in Yun-nan, where the Mahommedan
rebels, known as Panthays, under Suleiman, still kept the imperial
forces at bay. Against these foes the government was careless to
take active measures, until in 1872 Prince Hassan, the adopted son
of Suleiman, was sent to England to gain the recognition of the
queen for his father's government. This step aroused the sus-
ceptibilities of the imperial government, and a large force was
despatched to the scene of the rebellion. Before the year was out
the Mahommedan capital Ta-li Fu fell into the hands of the im-
perialists, and the followers of Suleiman were mercilessly exter-
minated. In February 1S73 t he two dowager em pre ases rcn g ncd r hv ir
powers a& regent b. This longnrjcpccted time was seined upon by the
foreign ministers to urge their right of audience with the emperor,
and on the ?yth of June 1873 the privilege of gating on the " sacred
countenance " was accorded them.
The emperor Tung-chi died without issue, find the succession to
the throne, for the nr&t time in the annals of IheTs'ing dynasty,
|i.i<v<<J out of the direct line. As already staled, the first
fj5 M emperor of the Taking dynasty, Shih-isu Hwangti, on
m UfI F fi^i^^S po* 5 * 84 *^ 1 * &f the throne on the fall of the Ming H
' or " Great Bright " dv natty, adopted the title of Shun^
chi for his reign, which tn-gfifi in the year 1644, The legendary
profltnhor of these Manchu rulers was Aisin Gioro> whose name is
•aid to point to the fact of his having been related to the race of
NQ-ehih, or Kin, $•*- Golden Tatars, who reigned in northern China
during the uth and 1 jth centuries. K'ang-hi (r66i-t7J3j was the
third son of Shun-chi^ Yung-cheng {173J— 1735) waa the fourth son
of K + anp hi; Klen-lung (1736^17^5) was the fourth son of Vun^
ehlnc; Kia-k H ing (i7o&-tBao) was the fifteenth son of K'Ien4ung;
Tao-Kw&ng (ifla 1-1850) was the second son of Kia>k'ing; Hien-
feng (1851 -iJa&i ) was the fourth of the nine sons who were born to
the emperor Tao-kwang; and Tung-chi (1863-1875) was the only
son of Hien-fCng, The choice now fell upon T*ai-fien fas he was
ealled at binh), the infant son (born August 1. 1&72) ol Yi-huan.
Prince Chun b line seventh *onof the emperor Tao*kwang and brother
of the emperor Hicn-ftng; bia mother was a sister of the empress
T»i"eH*u who, with the aid of Li E lung-chane, obtained his adoption
and proclamation as emperor, under the title of Kwang-su, '* Suc-
cession of Glory*" + t _
In order to prevent the confusion which would arise among the
princes of the imperial house were they each to adopt an arbitrary
itoatHmi namjCi tnc Pniperor K'ong-hi decreed that each of his
Jr*J™ twenty- four sons should have a (MTjtmst name consisting
flfljwfttfi* °* two characters, the fir*l of which should be Fs«j, and
t un f the second should be compounded wi y h 1 he det erm inat i ve
. jfti'ft, " to manifest/* an arrangement which would* as haa
been remarked, find an exact pa rati el in a system by which
the softs in an English family might be called Louts Edward t Louis
Edwin, Louis Edicy, Louis Ed^ar and soon. This device obtained also
in the noitt generation, all the princes of which had f/rrrer foe their
first name, and the emperor K'icn-lung (1736-1705) extended it into
a, system* and directed that the succeeding generations should talce
the four characters Yvn&, Jf*m Yih and Tjo* respccltvely, as the
first part of their names, Eight other characters, namely. P*u. Yu t
Hint ■ nt ' 1 *- Tat>,K"ai, rjcMe.Ki.wtresubihMUcnilyaddetlHthusprovid-
ing generic names for twelve generations* With the generation repre-
sented by Kwang-su the first four eha racier* were rihausted, and
any Hjrii of the emperor Kwang-*ii would therefore h;ivc been called
P'u. By the ceremonial law oT the " Great Pure " dynasty, twelve
degrees of rank are distributed among the princes of the imperial
house, and are as follows: (1) Ho-shih Tsin Wang, prince of the
first order; (2) To-lo Keun Wang, prince of the second order;
(3) To-lo Bcilch, prince of the third order; (4) Ku-shan Beitsxc,
prince of the fourth order; 5 to 8. Kung, or duke (with distinctive
designations); 9 to 12, Tsiang-kcun, general (with distinctive desig-
nations). The sons of emperors usually receive patents of the first
or second order on their reaching manhood, and on their sons is
bestowed the title of BrtUh. A Beilch's sons become Beitsu; a
Beitszc's sons become Kung, and so on. (R. K. D.; X.)
(D)— From 1875 to igoi.
The accession to the throne of Kwang-su in January 1875
attracted little notice outside China, as the supreme power
continued to be vested in the two dowager-empresses
JJJiJJJL — the empress Tsz'c An, principal wife of the emperor
avjwvMra. Hicn-feng, and the empress Tsz'c Hsi, secondary wife
of the same emperor, and mother of the emperor
Tung-chi. Yet there were circumstances connected with the
emperor Kwang-su 's accession which might well have arrested
attention. The emperor Tung-chi, who had himself succumbed
to an ominously brief and mysterious illness, left a young widow
iu an advanced state of pregnancy, and had she given birth to a
male child her son would have been the rightful heir 10 the throne.
But even before she sickened and died— of grief, it was officially
stated, at the loss of her imperial spouse — the dowager-empresses
•had solved the question of the succession by placing Kwang-su
on the throne, a measure which was not only in itself arbitrary,
but also in direct conflict with one of the most sacred of Chinese
traditions. The solemn rites of ancestor- worship, incumbent on
every Chinaman, and, above all, upon the emperor, can only be
properly performed by a member of a younger generation than
those whom it is his duty to honour. The emperor Kwang-su,
being a first cousin to the emperor Tung-chi, was not therefore
qualified to offer up the customary sacrifices before the ancestral
tablets of his predecessor. The accession of an infant in the
place of Tung-chi achieved, however, for the time being what
was doubtless the paramount object of the policy of the two
empresses, namely, their undisturbed tenure of the regency, in
which the junior empress Tsz'e Hsi, a woman of unquestionable
ability and boundless ambition, had gradually become the
predominant partner.
The first question that occupied the attention of the govern-
ment under the new reign was one of the gravest importance,
and nearly led to a war with Great Britain. The Indian
government was desirous of seeing the old trade relations
•between Burma and the south-west provinces, which had been
'interrupted by the Yun-nan rebellion, re-established, and for that
[purpose proposed to send a mission across the frontier into China.
The Peking government assented and issued passports _
for the party, which was under the command of Colonel *flf*"
Browne. Mr A. R. Margary, a young and promising Mmrguy.
member of the China consular service, who was told
off to accompany the expedition as interpreter, was treacherously
murdered by Chinese at the small town of Manwyne and almost
simultaneously an attack was made on the expedition by armed
'forces wearing Chinese uniform (January 1875). Colonel Browne
with difficulty made his way back to Bhamo and the expedition
was abandoned.
, Tedious negotiations followed, and, more than eighteen months
after the outrage, an arrangement was come to on the basis of
•guarantees for the future, rather than vengeance for
the past. The arrangement was embodied in the ChJ J[^f"
Chifu convention, dated 13th September 1876. The ts*6.
terms of the settlement comprised (1) a mission oi
I apology from China to the British court; (2) the promulgation
throughout the length and breadth of the empire of an imperial
proclamation, setting out the right of foreigners to travel under
passport, and the obligation of the authorities to protect them;
'and (3) the payment of indemnity. Additional articles were
subsequently signed in London relative to the collection of likin
on Indian opium and other matters.
Simultaneously with the outbreak of the Mahommedan
'rebellion in Yun-nan, a similar disturbance had arisen
in the north-west provinces of Shcn-si and Kan-suh.
This was followed by a revolt of the whole of the
Central Asian tribes, which for two thousand years had
more or less acknowledged the imperial sway. In Kashgaria a
nomad chief named Yakub Beg,- otherwise known as the Atalik
Ghazi, had made himself amir, and seemed likely to establish
a strong rule. The fertile province of Kulja or Hi, lying to the
north of the Tianshan range, was taken possession of by Russia
in 1 87 1 in order to put a stop to the prevailing anarchy, but
with a promise that when China should have succeeded in
re-establishing order in her Central Asian dominions it should be
given back. The interest which was taken in the rebellion in
Central Asia by the European powers, notably by the sultan of
Turkey and the British government, aroused the Chinese to
renewed efforts to recover their lost territories, and, as in the
case of the similar crisis in Yun-nan, they undertook the task
with sturdy deliberation. They borrowed moneys — £1,600,000 —
for the expenses of the expedition, this being the first appearance
of China as a borrower in the foreign markets, and appointed the
viceroy, Tso Tsung-t*ang, commander-in-chief. By degrees the
emperor's authority was established from the confines of Kan-suh
to Kashgar and Yarkand," and Chinese garrisons were stationed
in touch with the Russian outpost in the region of the Pamirs
HISTORY)
CHINA
201
(December 1877). Russia was now called upon to restore
Kulja. China being in a position to maintain order. China
despatched Chung-how, a Manchu of the highest rank, who had
been notoriously concerned in the Tientsin massacre of 1870,
to St Petersburg to negotiate a settlement. After some months
of discussion a document was signed (September 1879), termed
the treaty of Livadia, whereby China recovered, not
***"*!_ indeed the whole, but a considerable portion of the
(£0, disputed territory, on her paying to Russia five million
roubles as the cost of occupation. The treaty was,
however, received with a storm of indignation in China.
Memorials poured in from all sides denouncing the treaty and
its author. Foremost among these was one by Chang Chih-
tung, who afterwards became the most distinguished of the
viceroys, and governor-general of Hu-peh and Hu-nan provinces.
Prince Chun, the emperor's father, came into prominence at this
juncture as an advocate for war, and under these combined
influences the unfortunate Chung-how was tried and condemned
to death (3rd of March 1880). For some months warlike pre-
parations went on, and the outbreak of hostilities was imminent.
In the end, however, calmer counsels prevailed. It was decided
to send the Marquis Tseng, who in the meantime had become
minister in London, to Russia to negotiate. A new treaty
which still left Russia in possession of part of the Ili valley
was ratified on the 19th of August 1881. The Chinese govern-
ment could now contemplate the almost complete recovery of
the whole extensive dominions which had at any time owned
the imperial sway. The regions directly administered by the
officers of the emperor extended from the borders of Siberia
00 the north to Annam and Burma on the south, and from
the Pacific Ocean on the east to Kashgar and Y ark and on the
west. There was also a fringe of tributary nations which still
kept up the ancient forms of allegiance, and which more or
less acknowledged the dominion of the central kingdom. The
principal tributary nations then were Korea, Lu-cbu, Annam,
Burma and Nepal.
Korea was the first of the dependencies to come into notice. In
1866 some Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered, and
about the same time an American vessel was burnt in one of the
rivers and her crew murdered. China refused satisfaction, both
to France and America, and suffered reprisals to be made on
Korea without protest. America and Japan both desired to
conclude commercial treaties for the opening up of Korea, and
proposed to negotiate with China. China refused and
ffr fS referred them to the Korean government direct, saying
she was not wont to interfere in the affairs of her vassal
states. As a result Japan concluded a treaty in 1S76, in which
the independence of Korea was expressly recognized. This was
allowed to pass without protest, but as other nations proceeded
to conclude treaties on the same terms China began to perceive
her mistake, and endeavoured to tack on to each a declaration
by the king that he was in fact a tributary — a declaration,
however, which was quietly ignored. Japan, however, was the
only power with which controversy immediately arose. In 1882
a faction fight, which had long been smouldering, broke out,
headed by the king's father, the Tai Won Kun, in the course of
which the Japanese legation was attacked and the whole Japanese
colony had to flee for their lives. China sent troops, and by
adroitly kidnapping the Tai Won Kun, order was for a time
restored. The Japanese legation was replaced, but under the
protection of a strong body of Japanese troops. Further revolu-
tions and riots followed, in which the troops of the two countries
took sides, and there was imminent danger of war. To obviate
this risk, it was agreed in 1885 between Count Ito and Li Hung-
Chang that both sides should withdraw their troops, the king
being advised to engage officers of a third state to put his army
00 such a footing as would maintain order, and each undertook
to give the other notice should it be found necessary to send
troops again. In this way a modus vivendi was established
which lasted till 1894.
We can only glance briefly at the domestic affairs of China dur-
ing the period 1875-1882. The years 1877-1S78 were marked by
a famine in Shan-si and Shan-tung, which for duration and
intensity has probably never been equalled. It was computed
that 12 or 13 millions perished. It was vainly hoped
that this loss of life, due mainly to defective com- JJEJJ**
munications, would induce the Chinese government isrs-ust.
to listen to proposals for railway construction.
The Russian scare had, however, taught the Chinese the value
of telegraphs, and in 1881 the first line was laid from Tientsin
to Shanghai. Further construction was continued without
intermission from this date. A beginning also was made in
naval affairs. The arsenal at Fuchow was turning out small
composite gunboats, a training ship was bought and put under
the command of a British officer. Several armoured cruisers
were ordered from England, and some progress was made
with the fortifications of Port Arthur and Wei-hai-wei. Forts
were also built and guns mounted at Fuchow, Shanghai, Canton
and other vulnerable points. Money for these purposes was
abundantly supplied by the customs duties on foreign trade,
and China had learnt that at need she could borrow from the
foreign banks on the security of this revenue.
In 188 1 the senior regent, the empress Tsz'e An, was carried
off by a sudden attack of heart disease, and the empress Tsz'e Hsi
remained in undivided possession of the supreme power during
the remainder of the emperor Kwang-su's minority. Li Hung-
Chang, firmly established at Tientsin, within easy reach of the
capital, as viceroy of the home province of Chihli and super-
intendent of northern trade, enjoyed a larger share of his imperial
mistress's favour than was often granted by the ruling Manchus
to officials of Chinese birth, and in all the graver questions of
foreign policy his advice was generally decisive.
While the dispute with Japan was still going on regarding
Korea, China found herself involved in a more serious quarrel in
respect of another tributary state which lay on the
southern frontier. By a treaty made between France r «Ji* | V
and Annam in 1874, the Red river or Songkoi, which, " smc i
rising in south-western China, flows through Tongking,
was opened to trade, together with the cities of Haiphong and
Hanoi situated on the delta. The object of the French was to
find a trade route to Yun-nan and Sze-ch'ucn from a base of their
own, and it was hoped the Red river would furnish such a
route. Tongking at this time, however, was infested with bands
of pirates and cut-throats, many of whom were Chinese rebels
or ex-rebels who had been driven across the frontier by the
suppression of the Yun-nan and Taiping rebellions, conspicuous
among them being an organization called the Black Flags.
And when in 1882 France sent troops to Tongking to restore
order (the Annamese government having failed to fulfil its
promises in that respect) China began to protest, claiming that
Annam was a vassal state and under her protection.
France took no notfce of the protest, declaring that the claim had
merely an archaeological interest, and that, in any can?, China in
military affair* was a qu&ttiiti nigtitfoblt. France round,
however, that she had undertaken a very' serious task in
tryingro put down the forces of disorder (see Tongking].
The li tacit Flags were, it was believed, bring-' tided by
money and arms from China, and as time went on, the French were
more and more being confronted with regular Chinese tj Idiers.
Several lort*, welt within the Tongking f ran tier, wen* known to be
garrisoned by Chinese troops, Operations continued with more or
lew success during the winter and spring of tSS w&Kj, Both sides,
however* were desirous of an arrangement, and in May ifiJU a con*
venrion was signed between Li Hung-Chang and a Captain Frmrnicr,
who had been commissioned ad koc, whereby China agreed to with*
draw her gar f tio n* and in open her frontiers to trade* France agreeing,
on her part, to reaped the fiction of Chinese siueruiniy, and gu.j rantee
the Frontier from attack hy brigands. No date had been frnd in the
convention for the evacuation of the Chinese garrisons, and Fourntcr
endeavoured to supplement this by a memorandum to Li Hung-
Chang, at the same time announcing the fact to his government. In
Eursuance of this arrangement the French troops proceeded to occupy
angson on the date fixed (21st June 1884). The Chinese com*
mandant refused to evacuate, alleging, in a despatch which no one
in the French camp was competent to translate, that he had received
no orders, and begged for a short delay to enable him to communicate
with his superiors. The French commandant ordered an attack*
which was repulsed with severe loss. Mutual recriminations ensued.
From Paris there came a demand for a hutjt uyksua&i ukta^wnatafe
202 CHINA
for the insult. The Peking government offered to carry out the
convention, and to pay a small indemnity for the lives lost through
the misunderstanding. This was refused, and hostilities recom-
menced, or, as the French preferred to call them, reprisals, for the
fiction was still kept up that the two countries were not at war.
Under cover of this net ion the French fleet peaceably entered the
harbour of Fuchow, having passed the forts at the entrance to the
river without hindrance. Once inside, they attacked and destroyed
the much inferior Chinese fleet which was then quietly at anchor,
destroying at the same time a large part of the arsenal which adjoins
the anchorage (23rd August 1884). Retracing its steps, the French
fleet attacked and destroyed with impunity the forts which were
built to guard the entrance to the Min nver, and could offer no
resistance to a force coming from the rear. After this exploit the
French fleet left the mainland and continued its reprisals on the coast
of Formosa. Kelung, a treaty port, was bombarded and taken,
October 4th. A similar attempt, however, on the neighbouring port
of Tamsui was unsuccessful, the landing party having been driven
back to their ships with severe loss. The attempt was not renewed,
and the fleet thereafter confined itself to a scmi-Wockadc of the
island, which was prolonged into 1 885 but led to no practical results.
Negotiations for peace, however, which had been for some time in
progress through the mediation of Sir Robert Hart, were at this
juncture happily concluded (April 1885). The terms « ere practically
those of the Fournicr convention of the year before, the demand for
an indemnity having been quietly dropped.
China, on the whole, came out of the struggle with greatly
increased prestige. She had tried conclusions with a first-class
{HISTORY
pnatlg*
otCklam.
European power and had held her own. Incorrect
rstrf conclusions as to the military strength of
China were
consequently drawn, not merely by the Chinese them-
selves — which was excusable— -but by European and
even British authorities, who ought to have been better informed.
War vessels were ordered by China both from England and
Germany, and Admiral Lang, who had withdrawn bis services
while the war was going on, was re-engaged together with a
number of British officers and instructors. The completion of
the works at Port Arthur was taken in hand, and a beginning
was made in the construction of forts at Wei-hai-wei as a second
naval base. A new department was created for the control of
naval affairs, at the head of which was placed Prince Chun,
father of the emperor, who since the downfall of Prince Kung
in 1884 had been taking a more and more prominent part in
public affairs.
From 188s to 1894 the political history of China does not call
for extended notice. Two incidents, however, must be recorded,
(1) the conclusion in 1886 of a convention with Great Britain, in
which the Chinese government undertook -to recognize British
sovereignty in Burma, and (2) the temporary occupation of Port
lias* Hamilton by the British fleet (May 1885-Febniary
§e94 1887). In 1800 Admiral Lang resigned his command
of the Chinese fleet. - During a temporary absence of
Lang's colleague, Admiral Ting, the Chinese second in command,
claimed the right to take charge — a claim which Admiral Lang
naturally resented. The question was referred to Li Hung-
Chang, who decided against Lang, whereupon the latter threw
up his commission. From this point the fleet on which so much
depended began to deteriorate. Superior officers again began
to steal the men's pays, the ships were starved, shells filled with
charcoal instead of powder were supplied, accounts were cooked,
and all the corruption and malfeasance that were rampant in
the army crept back into the navy.
The year 1804 witnessed the outbreak of the war with Japan.
In the spring, complications again arose with Japan over Korea,
and hostilities began in July. The story of the war is
j£ m§ told elsewhere (see Chino- Japanese War), and it is
mm, * unnecessary here to recount the details of the decisive
victory of Japan. A new power had arisen in the
Far East, and when peace was signed by Li Hung-Chang at
Shimonoseki on the 17th of April 1895 it meant the beginning
of a new epoch. The terms included the cession of Liao-tung
peninsula, then in actual occupation by the Japanese troops,
the cession of Formosa, an indemnity of H. taels 200,000,000
(about £30,000,000) and various commercial privileges.
The signature of this treaty brought the European powers on
It had been for some time the avowed ambition of
mm k+Jtm port as an outlet to her Siberian
possessions— an ambition which was considered by British states-
men as not unreasonable. It did not, therefore, at all suit her
purposes to see the rising power of Japan commanding
the whole of the coast-line of Korea. Accordingly in JJUJ?*"
the interval between the signature and the ratification vmttoa.
of the treaty, invitations were addressed by Russia
to the great powers to intervene with a view to its modifica-
tion on the ground of the disturbance of the balance of power,
and the menace to China which the occupation of Port Arthur by
the Japanese would involve. France and Germany accepted the
invitation, Great Britain declined. In the end the three powers
brought such pressure to bear on Japan that she gave up the
whole of her continental acquisitions, retaining only the island of
Formosa. The indemnity was on the other hand increased by
H. taels 30,000,000. For the time the integrity of China seemed
to be preserved, and Russia, France and Germany could pose as
her friends. Evidence was, however, soon forthcoming that
Russia and France had not been disinterested in rescuing
Chinese territory from the Japanese grasp. Russia now obtained
the right to carry the Siberian railway across Chinese territory
from Stryetensk to Vladivostok, thus avoiding a long dltour,
besides giving a grasp on northern Manchuria. France obtained,
by a convention dated the 20th of June 1895, a rectification of
frontier in the Mekong valley and certain railway and mining
rights in Kiang-si and Yun-nan. Both powers obtained con-
cessions of land at Hankow for the purposes of a settlement.
Russia was also said to have negotiated a secret treaty, fre-
quently described as the " Cassini Convention," but more
probably signed by Li Hung-Chang at Moscow, giving her the
right in certain contingencies to Port Arthur, which was to be
refortified with Russian assistance. And by way of further
securing her hold, Russia guaranteed a 4% loan of £15,000,000
issued in Paris to enable China to pay off the first instalment of
the Japanese indemnity.
The convention between France and China of the 20th of June
1895 brought China into sharp conflict with Great jHttoeg
Britain. China, having by the Burma convention of rmBty
1886 agreed to recognize British sovereignty over * fr » — *
Burma, her quondam feudatory, also agreed to a de- ****•
limitation of boundaries at the proper time. Effect was given to
this last stipulation by a subsequent convention concluded in
London (1st of March 1804), which traced the boundary line from
the Shan states on the west as far as the Mekong river on the east.
In the Mekong valley there were two semi-independent native
territories over which suzerainty had been claimed in times gone
by both by the kings of Ava and by the Chinese emperors.
These territories were named Mcng Lun and Kiang Hung — the
latter lying partly on one side and partly on the other of the
Mekong river, south of the point where it issues from Chinese
territory. The boundary line was so drawn as to leave both
these territories to China, but it was stipulated that China should
not alienate any portion of these territories to any other power
without the previous consent of Great Britain. * Yielding to
French pressure, and regardless of the undertaking she had
entered into with Great Britain, China, in the convention with
France in June 1895, so drew the boundary line as to cede to
France that portion of the territory of Kiang Hung which lay
on the left bank of the Mekong. Compensation was demanded
by Great Britain from China for this breach of faith, and at the
same time negotiations were entered into with France. These
resulted in a joint declaration by the governments of France and
Great Britain, dated the 15th of January 1896, by which it was
agreed as regards boundary that the Mekong from the point of
its confluence with the Nam Huk northwards as far as the
Chinese frontier should be the dividing line between the pos-
sessions or spheres of influence of the two powers. It was abo
agreed that any commercial privileges obtained by either power
in Yun-nan or Sze-ch'uen should be open to the subjects of the
other. The negotiations with China resulted in a further agree-
ment, dated the 4th of February 1897. whereby considerable
modifications in favour of Great Britain were made in the
Burma boundary drawn by the 1894 convention.
HISTORY]
CHINA
203
While Russia and France were profiting by what they were
pkaacd lo call the generosity of China, Germany alone had so far
jOB|rtl1| received no reward for her share in compelling the
p+rt ' retrocession of Liao-tung; but, in November 1807, she
4ri*Mi proceeded to help herself by seizing the Bay of
"2J* - Kiaochow in the province of Shan-tung. The act was
done ostensibly in order to compel satisfaction for the
murder of two German missionaries. A cession was ultimately
made by way of a lease for a term of ninety-nine years— Germany
to have full territorial jurisdiction during the continuance of the
base, with liberty to erect fortifications, build docks, and exercise
all the rights of sovereignty. In December the Russian fleet was
sent to winter in Port Arthur, and though this was at first de-
scribed as a temporary measure, its object was speedily disclosed
by a request made, in January 1S98, by the Russian ambassador
in London that two British cruisers, then also anchored at Port
Arthur, should be withdrawn " in order to avoid friction in the
Russian sphere of influence." They left shortly afterwards, and
their departure in the circumstances was regarded as a blow to
Great Britain's prestige in the Far East. In March the Russian
government peremptorily demanded a lease of Port Arthur and
the adjoining anchorage of Talienwan— a demand which China
could not resist without foreign support. After an acrimonious
correspondence with the Russian government Great Britain
acquiesced in the fait accompli. The Russian occupation of Port
Arthur was immediately followed by a concession to build a line
of railway from that point northwards to connect with the
Siberian trunk line in north Manchuria. As a counterpoise to the
growth of Russian influence in the north, Great Britain obtained
a lease of Wci-hai-wei, and formally took possession of it on its
evacuation by the Japanese troops in May i8o3.
After much hesitation the Chinese government had at last
resolved to permit the construction of railways with foreign
capital. An influential official named Shcng Hsuan-hwai was
appointed director-general of railways, and empowered to enter
into negotiations with foreign capitalists for that purpose.
A keen competition thereupon ensued between syndicates of
different nationalities, and their claims being espoused by their
various governments, an equally keen international rivalry was
set up. Great Britain, though intimating her preference for the
.. " open door " policy, meaning equal opportunity for
JZs* *&* y ct found herself compelled to fall in with the
Mrf general movement towards what became known as the
InK"** "spheres of influence" policy, and claimed the Yangtsze
gmmct." valley as her particular sphere. This she did by the
somewhat negative method of obtaining from the
Chinese government a declaration that no pari of the Yangtsze
valley should be alienated to any foreign power. A more formal
recognition of the claim, as far as railway enterprise was con-
cerned, was embodied in an agreement (28th of April 1890)
between Great Britain and Russia, and communicated to the
Chinese government, whereby the Russian government agreed
not to seek for any concessions within the Yangtsze valley,
including all the provinces bordering on the great river, together
with Cheh-kiang and Ho-nan, the British government entering
into a similar undertaking in regard to the Chinese dominions
north of the Great Wall. 1
In 189J9 Talienwan and Kiaochow were respectively thrown open
by Russia and Germany to foreign trade, and, encouraged by these
measures, the United States government initiated in September of
the same year a correspondence with the great European powers and
Japan, with a view to securing their definite adhesion to the " open
door policy. The British government gave an unqualified approval
to the American proposal, and the replies of the other powers,
though more guarded, were accepted at Washington as satisfactory.
A further and more definite step towards securing the maintenance
of the " open door " in China was the agreement concluded in October
1900 between the British and German governments. The signatories,
by the first two articles, agreed to endeavour to keep the ports on the
riven and littoral free and open to international trade and economic
activity, and to uphold this rule for all Chinese territory as far as {wo
1 A supplementary exchange of notes of the same date excepted
from the scope of this agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-Niu-chwang
extension which had already been conceded to the Hongkong &
Shanghai Bank.
in the German counterpart) they could exercise influence; not to use
the existing complications to obtain territorial advantages in Chinese
dominions, and to seek to maintain undiminished the territorial
condition of the Chinese empire. By a third article they reserved
their right to come to a preliminary understanding for the protection
of their interests in China, should any other power use those compli-
cations to obtain such territorial advantages under any form what-
ever. On the submission of the agreement to the powers interested,
Austria, France, Italy and Japan accepted its principles without
express reservation — Japan first obtaining assurances that she signed
on the same footing as an original signatory. The United States
accepted the first two articles, but expressed no opinion on the third.
Russia construed the first as limited to ports actually open in regions
where the two signatories exercise " their " influence, and favourably
entertained it in that sense, ignoring the reference to other forms of
economic activity. She fully accepted the second, and observed that
in the contingency contemplated by the third, she would modify her
attitude according to circumstances.
Meanwhile, negotiations carried on by the British minister at
Peking during 1898 resulted in the grant of very important privileges
to foreign commerce. The payment of the second instalment of the
Japanese indemnity was txxoming due, and it was much discussed
now and on what terms China would be able to raise the amount.
The Russian government, as has been stated, had made China a loan
of the sum required for the first portion of the indemnity, via.
/ 1 5.000,000, taking a charge on the customs revenue as security.
The British government was urged to make a like loan of £16,000,000*
both as amatter of friendship to China and as a counterpoise to the
Russian influence. An arrangement was come to accordingly, on
very favourable terms financially to the Chinese, but at the last
moment they drew back, being overawed, as they said, by the
threatening attitude of Russia. Taking advantage of the position
which this refusal gave him, the British minister obtained from the
Tsung-Li- Yamen, besides the declaration as to the non-alienation of
the \ a ngtszc valley above mentioned, an undertaking to throw the
Ythole of the inland waterways open to steam traffic. The Chinese
government at the same time undertook that the post of inspector"
general of customs (then held by Sir Robert Hart) should always be
held by an Englishman so long as the trade of Great Britain was
greater than that of any other nation. Minor concessions were also
made, but the opening of the waterways was by far the greatest
advance that had been made since i860.
Of still greater importance were the railway and mining concessions
granted during the same year (1R98). The Chinese government had
been generally disposed to railway construction since the conclusion
of the Japanese War, but hoped to be able to retain the control in
their own hands. The masterful methods of Russia and Germany
had obliged them to surrender this control so far as concerned
Manchuria and Shan-tung. In the Yangtsze valley, Shcng, the
director-general of railways, had been negotiating with several
competing syndicates. One of these was a Franco- Belgian syndicate,
which was endeavouring to obtain the trunk line from Hankow to
Peking. A British company was tendering for the same work, and
as the line lay mainly within the British sphere it was considered
not unreasonable to expect it should be given to the latter. At a
critical moment, however, the French and Russian ministers inter-
vened, and practically forced the Yamen to grant a contract in favour
of the Franco-Belgian company. The Yamen had a few days before
explicitly promised the British minister that the contract should not
be ratified without his having an opportunity of seeing it. As a
penally for this breach of faith, and an a set-off to the Franco- Belgian
line, the British minister required the immediate grant of allthe
railway concessions for which British syndicates were then negotiat-
ing, and on terms not inferior to those granted to the Belgian line.
In this way all the lines in the lower Yangtsze, as also the Shan-si
Mining Companies' lines, were secured. A contract for a trunk line
from Canton to Hankow was negotiated in the latter part of 1898 by
an American company.
There can be little doubt that the powers, engrossed in the
diplomatic conflicts of which Peking was the centre, had
entirely underrated the reactionary forces gradually mustering
for a struggle against the aggressive spirit of Western civilization.
The lamentable consequences of administrative corruption and
incompetence, and the superiority of foreign methods which
had been amply illustrated by the Japanese War, had at first
produced a considerable impression, not only upon the more
enlightened commercial classes, but even upon many of the
younger members of the official classes in China. The dowager-
empress, who, in spile of the emperor Kwang-su having nominally
attained his majority, had retained practical control of the
supreme power until the conflict with Japan, had been held,
not unjustly to blame for the disasters of the war, and even
before its conclusion the young emperor was adjured by some
of the most responsible among his own subjects to shake himself
free from the baneful restraint of " petticoat government/'
204
CHINA
(HISTORY
and himself take the helm. In the following years a reform
movement, undoubtedly genuine, though opinions differ as to
Tbtnhrm the value of the popular support which it claimed,
aw*- spread throughout the central and southern pro-
»•»<» vinces of the empire. One of the most significant
U9B ' symptoms was the relatively large demand which
suddenly arose for the translations of foreign works and similar
publications in the Chinese language which philanthropic societies,
such as that " for the Diffusion of Christian and General Know-
ledge amongst the Chinese," had been trying for some time
past to popularize, though hitherto with scant success. Chinese
newspapers published in the treaty ports spread the ferment of
new ideas far into the interior. Fifteen hundred young
men of good family applied to enter the foreign university
at Peking, and in some of the provincial towns the Chinese
themselves subscribed towards the opening of foreign schools.
Reform societies, which not infrequently enjoyed official coun-
tenance, sprang up in many of the large towns, and found
numerous adherents amongst the younger literati. Early in 1808
the emperor, who had gradually emancipated himself from the
dowager-empress's control, summoned several of the reform
leaders to Peking, and requested their advice with regard to
the progressive measures which should be introduced into the
government of the empire. Chief amongst these reformers was
Kang Yu-wei, a Cantonese, whose scholarly attainments, com-
bined with novel teachings, earned for him from his followers
the title of the " Modern Sage." Of his more or less active
sympathizers who had subsequently to suffer with him in the
cause of reform, the most prominent were Chang Yin-huan, a
member of the grand council and of the Tsung-Li-Yamen, who
had represented his sovereign at Queen Victoria's jubilee in
1807; Chin Pao-chen, governor of Hu-nan; Liang Chichao, the
editor of the reformers' organ, Chinese Progress; Su Chiching,
a reader of the Hanlin College, the educational stronghold of
Chinese conservatism; and his son Su In-chi, also a Hanlin
man, and provincial chancellor of public instruction in Hu-nan.
It soon became evident that there was no more enthusiastic
advocate of the new ideas than the emperor himself. Within a
few months the vermilion pencil gave the imperial sanction to
a succession of edicts which, had they been carried into effect,
would have amounted to a revolution as far-reaching as that
which had transformed Japan thirty years previously. The
fossilized system of examinations for the public service was to
be altogether superseded by a new schedule based on foreign
learning, for the better promotion of which a number of temples
were to be converted into schools for Western education; a state
department was to be created for the translation and dissemina-
tion of the standard works of Western literature and science;
even the scions of the ruling Manchu race were to be compelled
to study foreign languages and travel abroad; and last, but not
least, all useless offices both in Peking and in the provinces were
to be abolished. A further edict was even reported to be in
contemplation, doing away with the queue or pigtail, which,
originally imposed upon the Chinese by their Manchu conquerors
as a badge of subjection, had gradually become the most
characteristic and most cherished feature of the national
dress. But the bureaucracy of China, which had battened for
centuries on corruption and ignorance, had no taste for self-
sacrifice. Other vested interests felt themselves equally
threatened, and behind them stood the whole latent force of
popular superstition and unreasoning conservatism.
The dowager-empress saw her opportunity. The Summer
Palace, to which she had retired, had been for some time the
centre of resistance to the new movement, and in the middle of
September 1808 a report became current that, in order to put
an end to the obstruction which hampered his reform policy,
the emperor intended to seize the person of the dowager-empress
and have her deported into the interior. Some colour was given
to this report by an official announcement that the emperor would
bold a review of the foreign-drilled troops at Tientsin, and had
summoned Yuan Shihkai, their general, to Peking in order to
ccnitx with him on the necessary arrangements. But the re-
formers had neglected to secure the goodwill of the army, which
was still entirely in the hands of the reactionaries. During the
night of the 20th of September the palace of the cm- Tbo
peror was occupied by the soldiers, and on the following Empnu'n
day Kwang-su, who was henceforth virtually a prisoner eo J*
in the hands of the empress, was made to issue an d> * tMU
edict restoring her regency. Kang Yu-wei, warned at the last
moment by an urgent, message from the emperor, succeeded in
escaping, but many of the most prominent reformers were
arrested, and six of them were promptly executed. The Peking
Gazette announced a few days later that the emperor himself was
dangerously ill, and his life might Well have been despaired of had
not the British minister represented in very emphatic terms the
serious consequences which might ensue if anything happened to
him. Drastic measures were, however, adopted to stamp out
the reform movement in the provinces as well as in the capital.
The reform edicts were cancelled, the reformers' associations
were dissolved, their newspapers suppressed, and those who did
not care to save themselves by a hasty recantation of their errors
were imprisoned, proscribed or exiled. In October the reaction
had already been accompanied by such a recrudescence of anti-
foreign feeling that the foreign ministers at Peking had to bring
up guards from the fleet for the protection of the legations, and to
demand the removal from the capital of the disorderly Kan-suh
soldiery which subsequently played so sinister a part in the
troubles of June 1000. But the unpleasant impression produced
by these incidents was in a great measure removed by the
demonstrative reception which the empress Tsz'e Hsi gave on
the 15th of October to the wives of the foreign representatives
— an act of courtesy unprecedented in the annals of the Chinese
court.
The reactionary tide continued to rise throughout the year
1899, but it did not appear materially to affect the foreign
relations of China. Towards the end of the year TheBoxtr
the brutal murder of Mr Brooks, an English mis- any
sionary, in Shan-tung, had compelled attention to a *■*■*»
popular movement which had been spreading rapidly
throughout that province and the adjoining one of Chih-li
with the connivance of certain high officials, if not under their
direct patronage. The origin of the " Boxer " movement is obscure.
Its name is derived from a literal translation of the Chinese
designation, " the fist of righteous harmony." Like the kindred
" Big Sword " Society, it appears to have been in the first
instance merely a secret association of malcontents chiefly
drawn from the lower classes. Whether the empress Tsz'e Hsi
and her Manchu advisers had deliberately set themselves
from the beginning to avert the danger by deflecting what
might have been a revolutionary movement into anti-foreign
channels, or whether with Oriental heedlessness they had
allowed it to grow until they were powerless to control it, they
had unquestionably resolved to take it under their protection
before the foreign representatives at Peking had realized its
gravity. The outrages upon native Christians and the threats
against foreigners generally went on increasing. The Boxers
openly displayed on their banners the device: " Exterminate
the foreigners and save the dynasty," yet the representatives
of the powers were unable to obtain any effective measures
against the so-called " rebels," or even a definite condemnation
of their methods. 1
Four months (January-April xooo) were spent in futile inter-
views with the Tsung-Li-Yamen. In May a number of Christian
villages were destroyed and native converts massacred near the
capital On the and of June two English missionaries, Mr
Robinson and Mr Norman, were murdered at Yung Ching, 40 m.
from Peking. The whole country was overrun with bands of
Boxers, who tore up the railway and set fire to the stations at
different points on the Peking-Tientsin line. Fortunately a
1 The religious aspect of the Boxer movement gave it strength.
Its disciples believed that the spirits which defended China were
incensed by the introduction of Western methods and ideals. Many
of them believed themselves to be invulnerable to any Western
weapon. (See Lord W. Cecil, Changing China, 1910, ch. 1.)
HISTORY]
CHINA
205
1 body of marines and bluejackets of various nationalities,
numbering 18 officers and 389 men, had reached Peking on the
rst of June for the protection of the legations. The whole city
was in a state of turmoil. Murder and pillage were of daily
occurrence. The reactionary Prince Tuan (grandson of the
emperor Tao-kwang) and the Manchus generally, together with
the Kan-suh soldiery under the notorious Tung-fu-hsiang,
openly sided with the Boxers. The European residents and a
large number of native converts took refuge in the British
legation, where preparations were hastily made in view of a
threatened attack. On the nth the chancellor of the Japanese
legation, Mr Sugiyama, was murdered by Chinese soldiers. On
# the night of the 13th most of the foreign buildings, churches and
* mission houses in the eastern part of the Tatar city were pillaged
and burnt, and hundreds of native Christians massacred On
the roth of June the German minister, Baron von Kcttelcr, was
murdered whilst on his way to the Tsung-Li-Yamen. At 4 p u
on the afternoon of the 20th the Chinese troops opened fire
upon the legations. The general direction of the defence was
undertaken by Sir Cl?udc Macdonald, the British minister
Meanwhile Peking had been completely cut off since the 14th
from all communication with the outside world, and in view of
Smiir the gravity of the situation, naval and military forces
■flsaaf were being hurried up by all the powers to the Gulf
«*•*- of Chih-Ii. On the 10th of June Admiral Sir E Seymour*
< * B * had already left Tientsin with a mixed force of 2000
British, Russian, French, Germans, Austria ns. Italians, Ameri-
cans and Japanese, to repair the railway and restore communica
lions with Peking. But his expedition met with unexpectedly
severe resistance, and it had great difficulty in making good
its retreat after suffering heavy losses. When it reached Tientsin
again on the 26th of June, the British contingent of 91 5 men had
alone lost 124 killed and wounded out of a total casualty list of
62 killed and 218 wounded. The Chinese had in the meantime
made a determined attack upon the foreign settlements at
Tientsin, and communication between the city and the sea
being also threatened, the Taku forts at the mouth of the Pei-ho
were captured by the allied admirals on the 17th. The situation
at Tientsin nevertheless continued precarious, and it was not
till the arrival of considerable reinforcements that the troops
of the allied powers were able to assume the offensive, taking
the native city by storm on July 14th, at a cost, however, of
over 700 killed and wounded. Even in this emergency inter-
national jealousy had grievously delayed the necessary con-
centration of forces. No power was so favourably situated to
take immediate action as Japan, and the British government,
who had strongly urged her to act speedily and energetically,
undertook at her request to sound the other powers with regard
to her intervention. No definite objection was raised, but the
replies of Germany and Russia barely disguised their ill-humour
Great Britain herself went so far as to offer Japan the assistance
of the British treasury, in case financial difficulties stood in the
way, but on the same day on which this proposal was telegraphed
to Tokyo (6th of July), the Japanese government had decided
to embark forthwith the two divisions which it had already
mobilized. By the beginning of August one of the Indian
brigades had also reached Tientsin together with smaller rein-
forcements sent by the other powers, and thanks chiefly to the
energetic counsels of the British commander, General Sir Alfred
Gaselee, a relief column, numbering 20.000 men, at last set out for
Peking on the 4th of August, a British naval brigade having started
up river the previous afternoon. After a series of small engage-
ments and very trying marches it arrived within striking distance
of Peking on the evening of the 13th. The Russians tried to steal
a march upon the allies during the night, but were checked at the
walls and suffered heavy losses. The Japanese attacked another
point of the walls the next morning, but met with 6erce opposi-
tion, whilst the Americans were delayed by getting entangled in
the Russian line of advance. The British contingent was more
fortunate, and skilfully guided to an unguarded water-gate,
General Gaselee and a party of Sikhs were th: first to force
their way through to the British legation. About 2 p.m.
at*P*kims
on the afternoon of the 14th of August, the long siege.. was
raised.
For nearly six weeks after the first interruption of communica-
tions, no news reached the outside world from Peking except a
few belated merges, smuggled through the Chinese
lines by native runners, urging the imperative neces-
sity of prompt relief. During the greater part of that [
period the foreign quarter was subjected to heavy rifle
and artillery fire, and the continuous fighting at close quarters
with the hordes of Chinese regulars, as well as Boxers, decimated
the scanty ranks of the defenders. The supply of both ammuni-
tion and food was slender. But the heroism displayed by civilians
and professional combatants alike was inexhaustible. In their
anxiety to burn out the British legation, the Chinese did not
hesitate to set fire to the adjoining buildings of the Hanlin, the
ancient seal of Chinese classical learning, and the storehouse of
priceless literary treasures and state archives. The Fu t or
palace, of Prince Su, separated only by a canal from the British
legation, formed the centre of the international position, and
was held with indomitable valour by a small Japanese force
under Colonel Shcba. assisted by a few Italian marines and
volunteers of other nationalities and a number of Christian
Chinese The French legation on the extreme right, and the
section of the city wall held chiefly by Germans and Americans,
were also points of vital importance which had to bear the
brunt of the Chinese attack.
Little is known as to what passed in the councils of the Chinese
court during the ?iev;e * But there is rvascn to believe that throughout
that period grave divergences of opinion existed amongst the highest
officials. 1 he attack upon the ligations appears to have received
the sanction of the dowaccr-cmprcss. acting u|>on the advice of Prince
Tuan and the extreme Manchu party, at a grand council held during
the nii;ht of the ibth.ioth June, upon receipt of the news of the
capture of the Taku forts by the international forces. The emperor
himself, as well as Prince Ching and a few other influential mandarins,
strongly protected against the empress's decision, but it was acclaimed
by the vast majority of th*** present Three members of the Tsung-
Li-Yamen were publicly executed for attempting to modify the terms
of an imperial cdi< t ordering the massacre ot all foreigners throughout
the provinces, and most of the Manchu nobles and high officials, and
the eunuchs of the palace, who played an important part in Chinese
Eoliti."* throughout the dowager-cm press's tenure of power, were
eart and soul with the Boxers. But it was noted by the defenders
of the legations that Prince Ching's troops seldom took part, or only
in a half-hearted way, in the fighting, which was chiefly conducted by
Tung-fu-hsiang's soldiery and the Boxer levies. The modern artillery
which the Chinese possessed was only spasmodically brought into
play Nor did any of the attacking parties ever show the fearlessness
and determination which the Chinese had somewhat unexpectedly
displayed on several occasions during the fighting at and around
Tientsin Nevertheless, the position of the defenders at the end of
the first four weeks of the siege had gn>*n «cll-nigh desperate.
Mining and incendiarism proved far greater dangers than shot and
Fhell Suddenly, just when things were looking blackest, on the 17th
of July the Chinese ceased firing, and a sort of informal armistice
secured a period of respite for the beleaguered Europeans. The
capture of the native city of Tientsin by the allied forces had shaken
the self-confidence of the Chinese authorities, who had hitherto not
onlv countenanced, but themselves directed the hostilities. 1 De-
sultory fighting, nevertheless, continued, and grave fears were enter-
tained that the approach of the relief column would prove the signal
for a desperate attempt to rush the legations. The attempt was
made, but failed. The relief, however, came not a day too soon.
Of the small band of defenders which, including civilian volunteers,
had never mustered 500. 65 had been killed and 131 wounded.
Ammunition and provisions u-cre almost at an end. Even more
desperate was the situation at the Pei-tang, the Roman Catholic
northern cathedral and mission house, where, with the help of a small
body of French and Italian marines. Mgr Favier had organized aa
independent centre of resistance for his community of over 3000
souls Iheir ration* were absolutely exhausted when, on the 15th
»Thc diarv of a Manchu noble printed in China under the
Empress Douicfirr (1910) bv J O Bland and E. Backhouse throws
luht on the subject It was to Jung-Lu. father-in-law of Prince
Chin, that the legations owed their escape from extermination.
• It was at this time (July 17th) that the intense anxiety of the
civilized world with repard to the fate of the besieged reached its
culminating point Circumstantial accounts of the fall of the lega-
tions and the massacre of their inmates were circulated in Shanghai
and found general credence It was not till near the end of the
month that an authr.nur message from the American minuter
proved these fears to be premature
2o6
CHINA
(HISTORY
of August, a relief party was despatched to their assistance from the
legations.
The ruin wrought in Peking during the two months' fighting
was appalling. Apart from the wholesale destruction of foreign
property in the Tatar city, and of Chinese as well as
JjJJJrJf European buildings in the vicinity of the legations, the
wealthiest part of the Chinese city had been laid in
ashes. The flames from a foreign drug store fired by the Boxers
had spread to the adjoining buildings, and finally consumed the
whole of the business quarter with all its invaluable stores of
silks, curiosities, furs, &c. The retribution which overtook
Peking after its capture by the international forces was scarcely
less terrible. Looting was for some days almost universal. Order
was, however, gradually restored, first in the Japanese and then
in the British and American quarters, though several months
elapsed before there was any real revival of native confidence.
So unexpected had been the rapid and victorious advance of
the allies, that the dowager-empress with the emperor and the
pgfgtff rest of the court did not actually leave Peking until
•/{*« the day after the legations had been relieved. But
Chio*» the northern and western portions of the Tatar city
eoarL had not yet been occupied, and the fugitives made
good their escape on the 15th. When the allies some days later
marched through the Forbidden City, they only found a few
eunuchs and subordinate officials in charge of the imperial
apartments. At the end of September, Field Marshal Count von
Waldersee, with a German expeditionary force of over 20,000
men, arrived to assume the supreme; command conferred upon
him with the more or less willing assent of the other powers.
The political task which confronted the powers after the occu-
pation of Peking was far more arduous than the military one.
The action of the Russians in Manchuria, even in a
2SfJ7" treaty port like Niu-chwang, the seizure of the railway
JJJJ^T line not only to the north of the Great Wall, but also
from Shan-hai-kwan to Peking, by the Russian military
authorities, and the appropriation of an extensive line of river
frontage at Tientsin as a Russian " settlement," were difficult to
reconcile with the pacific assurances of disinterestedness which
Russia, like the rest of the powers, had officially given. * Great
anxiety prevailed as to the effect of the flight of the Chinese court
in other parts of the empire. The anti-foreign movement had not
spread much beyond the northern provinces, in which it had had
the open support of the throne and of the highest provincial
officials. But among British and Americans alone, over 200
defenceless foreigners, men, women and children, chiefly mission-
aries, had fallen victims to the treachery of high-placed mandarins
like Yu Hsicn, and hundreds of others had bad to fly for their
lives, many of them owing their escape to the courageous protec-
tion of petty officials and of the local gentry and peasantry.
In the Yangtsze valley order had been maintained by the energy
of the viceroys of Nanking and Wu-chang, who had acted
throughout the critical period in loyal co-operation with the
British consuls and naval commanders, and had courageously
disregarded the imperial edicts issued during the ascendancy
of the Boxers. After some hesitation, an Indian brigade,
followed by French, German and Japanese contingents, had
been landed at Shanghai for the protection of the settlements,
and though the viceroy, Liu Kun-yi, had welcomed British sup-
port, and even invited the joint occupation of the Yangtsze forts
by British and Chinese troops, the appearance of other European
forces in the Yangtsze valley was viewed with great suspicion. In
the south there were serious symptoms of unrest, especially after
Li Hung-Chang had left Canton for the north, in obedience, as he
alleged at the time, to an imperial edict which, there is reason to
believe, he invented for the occasion. The Chinese court, after
one or two intermediate halts, had retired to Si-gan-fu, one of
the ancient capitals of the empire, situated in the inaccessible
province of Shen-si, over 600 m. S.W of Peking. The influence
of the ultra-reactionaries, headed by Prince Tuan and General
Tung-fu-hsiang, still dominated its councils, although credentials
were sent to Prince Ching and to Li Hung-Chang, who, after
waiting upon events at Shanghai, had proceeded to Peking,
authorizing them to treat with the powers for the re-establish-
ment of friendly relations.
The harmony of the powers, which had been maintained with
some difficulty up to the relief of the legations, was subjected
to a severe strain as soon as the basis of negotiations
with the Chinese government came to be discussed. fi eaMart9
While for various reasons Russia, Japan and the u^?****
United States were inclined to treat China with great
indulgence, Germany insisted upon the signal punishment of
the guilty officials as a conditio sine qua, non, and in this she had
the support not only of the other members of the Triple Alliance,
but also of Great Britain, and to some extent even of France,
who, as protector of the Roman Catholic Church in Eastern
countries, could not allow the authors of the atrocities committed
upon its followers to escape effectual punishment. It was not
until after months of laborious negotiations that the demands
to be formally made upon the Chinese government were em-
bodied in a joint note signed by all the foreign ministers on
the 20th and 21st of December 1900. The demands were sub
stantially as follows:
Honourable reparation for the murder of von KetteJer and of Mr
Sugiyatiia, to be made in -1 ipeei/iu-d fori", and expiatory monument,*
to be erected 30 cemeteries where foreign tombs had been dtrwr. rated.
" The most severe punishment befitting their crimes m - was Lo be
inflicted on the personages desgrtaied by the decree v\ the ?ia of
September, and aba* upoa other* to be designated later by the
foreign minister*, and the uflirial examination^ wen: to be suspended
in the citirt where fordgitcrj hid been murdered wr ilbtrraled T An
equitable indemnity, guaranteed by financial measure* acceptable
to the powers, wa* to be paid to states., societies and individual*,
including Chinese who had suffered because or their employment by
foreigners, but not including Chinese Christians who had suffered
only on account of their faith. The importation or manufacture of
arms: or mtitiritl was to be forbidden; permanent legation guard*
were to be maintained at Peking,* and the diplomatic quarter was
to be fortified, while communication with the sea was to be secured
by a foreign military occupation of the strategic points and by the
demolition of the Chinese forts, inrludltie. the Takti forts, between the
capital and the coast. Proclamations were to be posted throughout
China for two years, threatening death to the members of anti-foreign
societies, and recording the punishment of the ringleaders in the late
outrages; and the viceroys, governors and provincial officials were
to be declared by imperial edict responsible, on pain of immediate
dismissal and perpetual disability to hold office, for anti-foreign
outbreaks or violations of treaty within their jurisdictions. China
was to facilitate commercial relations by negotiating a revision of the
commercial treaties. The Tsung-Li-Yamen was to be reformed and
the ceremonial for the reception of foreign ministers modified as the
powers should demand. Compliance with these terms was declared
to be a condition precedent to the arrangement of a time limit
to the occupation of Peking and of the provinces by foreign troops.
Under instructions from the court, the Chinese plenipoten-
tiaries affixed their signatures on the 14th of January 1901 to a
protocol, by which China pledged herself to accept these terms in
principle, and the conference of ministers then proceeded to
discuss the definite form in which compliance with them was to be
exacted. This further stage of the negotiations proved even more
laborious and protracted than the preliminary proceedings. No
attempt was made to raise the question of the dowager-empress's
responsibility for the anti-foreign movement, as Russia had from
the first set her face against the introduction of what she euphe-
mistically termed "the dynastic question." But even with
regard to the punishment of officials whose guilt was beyond
dispute, grave divergences arose between the powers. The death
penalty was ultimately waived in the case even of such con-
spicuous offenders as Prince Tuan and Tung-fu-hsiang, but the
notorious YU Hsien and two others were decapitated by the
Chinese, and three other metropolitan officials were ordered to
commit suicide, whilst upon others sentences of banishment,
imprisonment and degradation were passed, in accordance with
a list drawn up by the foreign representatives. The question of
the punishment of provincial officials responsible for the massacre
of scores of defenceless men, women and children was unfor-
tunately reserved for separate treatment, and when it came
up for discussion it became impossible to preserve even the
semblance of unanimity, the Russian minister at once taking
issue with bis colleagues, although he had originally pledged
himself as formally as the others to the principle. Count
HISTORY)
CHINA
207
Lamtdorff frankly told the British ambassador at St Petersburg
that Russia took no interest in missionaries, and as the foreigners
massacred in the provinces belonged mostly to that class, she
declined to Join in the action of the other powers.
The real explanation of Russia's cynical secession from the
concert of powers on this important issue must be sought in her
anxiety to conciliate the Chinese in view of the separate
ftyj? negotiations in which she was at the same time engaged
ltwtaL with China in respect of Manchuria. When the Boxer
movement was at its height at the end of June 1900, the
Chinese authorities in Manchuria had wantonly " declared war "
against Russia, and for a moment a great wave of panic seems to
have swept over the Russian administration, civil and military, in
the adjoining provinces. The reprisals exercised by the Russians
were proportionately fierce. The massacre at B lago vyeshchensk,
where 5000 Chinese — men, women and children — were flung into
the Amur by the Cossacks, was only one incident in the reign of
terror by which the Russians sought to restore their power and
their prestige. The resistance of the Chinese troops was soon
overcome, and Russian forces overran the whole province,
occupying even the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The Russian
government officially repudiated all responsibility for the
proclamations issued by General Gribsky and others, foreshadow-
ing, if not actually proclaiming, the annexation of Chinese
territory to the Russian empire But Russia was clearly bent on
seizing the opportunity for securing a permanent hold upon
Manchuria. In December 1000 a preliminary agreement was
made between M. Korostovetz, the Russian administrator-
general, and Tseng, the Tatar general at Mukden, by which the
civil and military administration of the whole province was
virtually placed under Russian control In February 1001
negotiations were opened between the Russian government and
the Chinese minister at St Petersburg for the conclusion of a
formal convention of a still more comprehensive character.
In return for the restoration to China of a certain measure
of civil authority in Manchuria, Russia was to be confirmed
in the possession of exclusive military, civil and commercial
rights, constituting in all but name a protectorate, and she
was also to acquire preferential rights over all the outlying
provinces of the Chinese empire bordering on the Russian
dominions in Asia. The clauses relating to Chinese Turkestan,
Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan and Mongolia were subsequently
stated to have been dropped, but the convention nevertheless
provoked considerable opposition both in foreign countries and
amongst the Chinese themselves. Most of the powers, including
Germany, who, however, denied that the Anglo-German agree-
ment of the 16th of October 1900 applied to Manchuria, 1 advised
the Chinese government not to pursue separate negotiations with
one power whilst collective negotiations were in progress at
Peking, and both Japan and Great Britain pressed for definite
information at St Petersburg with regard to the precise tenor
of the proposed convention. At the same time the two viceroys
of the lower Yangtsze memorialized the throne in the strongest
terms against the convention, and these protests were endorsed
not only by the great majority of Chinese officials of high rank
throughout the provinces, but by popular meetings and influ-
ential guilds and associations. Ultimately the two viceroys,
Chang Chih-tung and Liu Kun-yi,* took the extreme step of
warning the throne that they would be unable to recognize the
convention, even if it were ratified, and notwithstanding the
pressure exercised in favour of Russia by Li Hung-Chang, the
court finally instructed the Chinese minister at St Petersbuig
to decline his signature. The attitude of Japan, where public
1 In negotiating this agreement Lord Salisbury appears to have
been largely influenced by the aggressive features of Russia's action
in North China, while Germany appears to have been actuated by a
desire to forestall isolated action by Great Britain in the Yangtsxe
basin. In Germany the agreement was known as the Yangtsxe
Agreement. Great Britain held, however, that it applied equally to
ManchuTia.
* Liu Kun-yi died in 1902. In the same year died Tao-mu, the
viceroy of Canton. In these men China lost two of her most capable
and enlightened officials.
feeling ran high, was equally significant, -and on the 3rd of April
the Russian government issued a circular note to the powers,
stating that, as the generous intentions of Russia had been
misconstrued, she withdrew the proposed convention.
The work of the conference at Peking, which had been tem-
porarily disturbed by these complications, was then resumed.
Friction between European troops of different nation-
alities and an Anglo-Russian dispute over the construe- ~~~ ~
tion of certain roads and railway sidings at Tientsin 55#T
showed that an international occupation was fraught
with manifold dangers The question of indemnities, however,
gave rise to renewed friction. Each power drew up its own
claim, and whilst Great Britain, the United States and Japan
displayed great moderation, other powers, especially Germany
and Italy, put in claims which were strangely out of proportion
to the services rendered by their military and naval forces.
It was at last settled that China should pay altogether an in-
demnity of 450 million taels, to be secured (1) on the unhypothe-
cated balance of the customs revenue administered by the im-
perial maritime customs, the import duties being raised forthwith
to an effective 5% basis; (a) on the revenues of the " native "
customs in the treaty ports; (3) on the total revenues of the
salt gabelle. Finally the peace protocol was drawn up in a
form which satisfied all the powers as well as the Chinese court
The formal signature was, however, delayed at the last moment
by a fresh difficulty concerning Prince Chun's penitential mission
to Berlin This prince, an amiable and enlightened youth,' son
of the Prince Chun who was the emperor Hien-ftng's brother,
and thus himself half-brother to the emperor Kwang-su, had
reached Basel towards the end of August on his way to Germany,
when he was suddenly informed that he and his suite would
be expected to perform kowtow before the German emperor
The prince resented this unexpected demand, and referred home
for instructions. The Chinese court appear to have remained
obdurate, and the German government perceived the mistake
that had been made in exacting from the Chinese prince a form of
homage which Western diplomacy had for more than a century
refused to yield to the Son of Heaven, on the ground that it was
barbarous and degrading. The point was waived, and Prince
Chun was received in so'emn audience by the emperor William at
Potsdam on the 4th of September. Three days later, on the 7th
of September, the peace protocol was signed at Peking.
The articles recorded the steps to be taken to satisfy the
demands of the powers as to commerce. Article 11 provided
for the amendment of existing treaties of commerce and
navigation, and for river conservancy measures at Tientsin and
Shanghai The British government appointed a special com
mission, with Sir J. Mackay, member of the council of India, as
chief commissioner, to proceed to Shanghai to carry on the
negotiations, and a commercial treaty was signed at Shanghai on
the 6th of September 1003, by which existing obstacles to foreign
trade, such as hkin, &c, were removed, regulations were made
for facilitating steamer navigation on inland waters, and several
new ports were opened to foreign commerce
In accordance with the terms of the protocol, all the foreign
troops, except the legation guards, were withdrawn from Peking
on the 17th of September, and from the rest of Chih-li, except
the garrisons at the different points specified along the line of
communications, by the 22nd of September. On the 7th of
October it was announced that the Chinese court had left Si-gan-
fu on its way back to the northern capital A month later (7th
of November) the death of Li Hung-Chang at Peking removed,
if not the greatest of Chinese statesmen, at any rate the one
who had enjoyed the largest share of the empress-dowager's
confidence. (V. C.)
(E)— From igoz to igio.
The events connected with the Boxer rising and its sup-
pression demonstrated even more forcibly than had the war
with Japan in 1894- 1895 the necessity for the adoption of
* Prince Chun was born in 1882. He was the first member of the
imperial family to be sent on a foreign mission.
208
CHINA
[HISTORY
tagot
Western methods in many departments of life and administra-
tion if China was to maintain the position of a great power.
The necessity for a thorough reform of the adminis-
' tration was widely recognized in 1901, and among the
progressive classes of the community much dis-
appointment was manifested because the powers had
failed to insist, in the conditions of peace, on a reorganization of
the machinery of government. The Yangtsze viceroys, the viceroy
at Canton, Yuan Shih-kai and other high mandarins repeatedly
memorialized the throne to grant effective reforms. While at
Si-gan-fu the court did in fact issue several reform decrees, but
at the same time all authority remained in the hands of reac-
tionaries. There had been an awakening in China, but another
lesson— afforded a few years later by the Russo-Japanese War-
was needed before the reform party was able to gain real power.
For three or four years following the signing of the peace
protocol of iooi it seemed indeed that there would be little
change in the system of government, though in some directions
a return to the old state of affairs was neither possible nor
desired. On the 7th of January 1002 the court returned to
Peking— a step which marked the restoration, more or less, of
normal conditions. The failure of the Boxer movement, in
which, as has been shown, she was deeply implicated, had im-
pressed upon the dowager empress the need for living on better
terms with foreign powers, but the reform edicts issued from
Si-gan-fu remained largely inoperative, though some steps were
taken to promote education on Western lines, to readjust the
land tax, and especially to reorganize the military forces (though
on provincial rather than on a national basis) The building of
railways was also pushed on, but the dowager empress was
probably at heart as reactionary as she had proved in 1808.
The emperor himself from his return to Peking until the day of
his death appeared to have little influence on public affairs.
The most disquieting feature of the situation in the years im-
mediately following the return of the court to Peking was the
continued efforts of Russia to obtain full control of Manchuria
and a predominant influence in north China. The Chinese
government was powerless to stem the advance of Russia, and
the dowager empress herself was credited with indifference to
the fate of Manchuria. It was the menace to other powers,
notably Japan, involved in Russia's action which precipitated
an issue in which the destinies of China were involved. Before
considering the results of that struggle (the Russo-Japanese
War) the chief events of the years 100 2- 190 5 may be outlined.
The dowager empress from the day of her return from Si-gan-fu
set herself to conciliate the foreign residents in Peking. Many
JMMJ90* foreign onlookers were gathered on the wall of the
wkb Tatar city to witness the return of the court, and to
Bu9m these the dowager empress made a deep bow twice,
*•*■*" an apparently trivial incident which made a lasting
impression. On the 1st of February following the dowager
empress received the ladies of the various embassies, when she
bewailed the attack on the legations, entertained her guests to
tea and presented each with articles of jewelry, and from that
time onward, as occasion offered, Tsz'e Hsi exchanged compli-
ments and civilities with the foreign ladies in Peking. Moreover,
Sir Robert Hart— after having been nearly forty years in China-
was now presented at court, as well as Bishop Favier and others.
Henceforth attacks on foreigners received no direct encourage-
ment at court. Tung Fu-hsiang, 1 who had been banished
to the remote province of Kan-suh, had at his command there
his old Boxer troops, and his attitude caused anxiety at the end
of 1002. He was said to have received support from Prince
Tuan — who had been obliged to retire to Mongolia— but events
proved that the power or the intention of these reactionaries to
create trouble bad been miscalculated. There were indeed
serious Boxer disturbances in Sze-ch'uen in 1902, but
they were put down by a new viceroy sent from Peking.
Notwithstanding the murder of fifteen missionaries during
4 Tung Fu-hsiang died in 1908. A sum of some £80,000 belonging
to him, and left in the provincial treasury, was appropriated for works
of public utility (i
e provincial treasury, was appropriated for works
t The Times, April 9th, 1910)
1002-1005, there was in general a marked improvement in the
relations between the missionaries, the official classes and the
bulk of the people, and an eagerness was shown in several
provinces to take advantage of their educational work. This
was specially marked in Hu-nan, a province which had been
for long hostile to missionary endeavours. Illustrative of the
attitude of numbers of high officials was the attendance
of the viceroy of Sze-ch'uen, with the whole of his staff, at the
opening in 1005 at Cheng-tu of new buildings of the Canadian
Methodist Mission. This friendly attitude towards the missions
was due in part to the influence of Chinese educated abroad and
also, to a large extent, to the desire to take advantage of Western
culture. The spread of this new spirit was coincident with an
agitation for independence of foreign control and the deter-
mination of the Chinese to use modern methods to attain
their ends. Thus in 1905 there was an extensive boycott of
American goods throughout China, as a retaliatory measure
for the exclusion of Chinese from the United States. Re-
garding China as a whole the attitude of the people towards
Europeans was held to indicate that the general view was, not
that the Boxer teaching was false, but that the spirits behind
Western religion were more powerful than those behind Boxer-
dom. The spiritual prestige of Christianity and respect for the
power of the foreigner were direct outcomes of the failure of
the Boxers.* The British expedition to Tibet in 1004, the
occupation of Lhassa in August of that year, the flight of the
Dalai Lama to Mongolia, gave grave concern to the Chinese
government— which showed much persistence in enforcing its
suzerain rights in Tibet— but did not, apparently, cause any ill-
feeling towards Great Britain among the Chinese people — who
viewed with seeming equanimity the flight of the head of the
Buddhist religion from the headquarters of that faith. The
country generally was peaceful, a rebellion in Kwang-si— where
a terrible famine occurred in 1003— being suppressed in 1904
by the forces of the viceroy at Canton.
The expiatory measures required of China in connexion with
the Boxer rising were carried through. China during 1902
recovered possession of the Peking-Tientsin railway and cemmtr-
of the city of Tientsin, which was evacuated by the dal mo4
foreign troops in August of that year. The foreign rmttwmy
troops were also all withdrawn from Shanghai by *'*•'***•
January 1003. The conclusion of a new cornmercial treat)
between Great Britain and China in September 1002 has
already been recorded. The payment of the indemnity instal-
ments occasioned some dispute owing to the fall in silver in
1002, but the rise in the value of the tael in subsequent years
led China to agree to the payment of the indemnity on a gold
basis. The increase in revenue was a notable feature of the
maritime customs in 1003-1905. This result was in part
due to the new arrangements under the commercial treaty
of 1002, and in part to the opening up of the country by
railways. In especial the great trunk line from Peking to
Hankow was pushed on. The line, including a bridge nearly
2 m. long over the Yellow river was completed and opened for
traffic in 1005. The first section of the Shanghai-Nanking
railway was opened in the same year At this time the Chinese
showed a strong desire to obtain the control of the various
lines. During 1005, for instance, the Canton-Hankow railway
concession was repurchased by the Chinese government from an
American company, while the Pekin Syndicate, a British concern,
also sold their railway in Ho-nan to the Chinese government
Russia's action regarding Manchuria overshadowed, however,
all other concerns during this period. The withdrawal of the
proposed Russo-Chinese agreement of zooi has been chronicled.
The Russian government had, however, no intention of abandon-
ing its hold on Manchuria. It aimed not only at effective military
control but the reservation to Russian subjects of mining,
railway and commercial rights. Both the sovereignty of China
and the commercial interests of other nations were menaced'
This led to action by various powers The preamble of the Anglo-
Japanese treaty of the 30th of January 1902 declared the main
» Lord W. Cecil, op. cit. p. 9.
CHINA
Plati L
Fig. 6.— Kiu Ying. Court Ladies.
(British Museum. 15th Cent.)
Cu K'ai-Chih. Toilet Scene.
Museum. 4th Cent, ad)
ftog-Fu, after Wang Wei (8th Cent.).
le on the Wang Ch'uan.
1 130Q. British Museum.)
Fig. 4— Hsd Hsi. Bird on Apple-Bough,
doth Cent.)
jted to Wu TaotalL Fig. 5.— Chien Shun-Chu. The Em- Fig. 1 .— Ya&t.. ]&* \*&\jro*.
li. (8th Cent.) peror Huan-Yeh. (15th Cent.) UtfkCAxiV. ^tv\.>a3n.l&>a»»*>>
Fig*. 2, 4, mnd 5 vr reproduced by permission ol the KokYu Company , "To*.vo.
Plate II.
CHINA
Fig. 9. — Temple Vase
(c. 1200 B.C.).
[f^v
Fig. 12. — Inlaid Vessel
(c. 500 B.C.).
Fig. 10. — Wine Vase
(c. 1000 B.C.).
Fig. 13. — Wine Vessel
(C. IOO B.C.).
Fig. 11. — Wine Vase
(r.. 600 B.C.).
Fig. 14. — Inlaid Vase
(c. ?oo A.D.)-
In possession of C. J. Holmes.
Fin. 15. — Vase (c. 1450 a.d.). Fig. 16.— Wine Vessel Hg. 17. — Temple Vase
(c. 1450 a.d.). (c. 1700 a.d.).
/v>:y. #-/ # ? ant) j.?- J 7 are from originals in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.
HISTORY]
CHINA
209
\ of the contracting parties to be the maintenance of the
; and territorial integrity of China and Korea, and
the securing of equal opportunities in those countries
for the commerce and industry of all nations, i.e. the
policy of the "open door." Protests were lodged
by Great Britain, Japan and the United States against the
grant of exclusive rights to Russian subjects in Manchuria.
Russia asserted her intention to respect the commercial rights
of other nations, and on the 8th of April 1002 an agreement
was signed at Peking which appeared to show the good faith of
the Russian government, as it provided for the withdrawal of the
Russian troops in Manchuria within eighteen months from that
date. In accordance with this agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-
Niu-chwang railway was transferred to China in October 1902
and the district between Shan-bai-kwan and the Liao river
evacuated by Russia. But it soon appeared that Russia's
hold on the country had not relaxed. Advantage was taken
of the terms of concession granted in August 1896 to the Russo-
Chinese Bank 1 to erect towns for Russian colonists and to plant
garrisons along the line of railway, and to exclude Chinese
jurisdiction altogether from the railway zone. The so-called
evacuation became in fact the concentration of the Russian
forces along the line of railway. Moreover, the maritime customs
at Niu-chwang were retained by the Russo-Chinese Bank despite
protests from the Chinese imperial authorities, and a Russian
dvfl administration was established at that port. The evacua-
tion of southern Manchuria should have taken place in April
1003, but in that month, instead of fulfilling the conditions of
the 1902 agreement, the Russian charge d'affaires in Peking made
a series of further demands upon China, including the virtual
reservation of the commerce of Manchuria for Russian subjects.
Though Russia officially denied to the British and American
governments that she had made these demands, it was demon-
strated that they had been made. The United States and Japan
thereupon insisted that China should conclude with them com-
mercial treaties throwing open Mukden and two ports on the
Yalu river to foreign trade. The American treaty was signed
on the 8th of October 1003— the day fixed for the complete
evacuation of Manchuria by Russia— and the Japanese treaty on
the day following. Both treaties provided that the ports should
be opened after ratifications had been exchanged. From fear
of Russia China, however, delayed the ratification of the treaties.
Meantime, in August 1003, a regular through railway service
between Moscow and Port Arthur was established. In the same
month a Russian Viceroyalty of the Far East was created
which in effect claimed Manchuria as a Russian province. In
September Russia withdrew some of the demands she had made
in April, but her concessions proved illusory. When the 8th of
October passed and it was seen that the Russians had not with-
drawn their troops* there issued for a time threats of war
from Peking. Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy of Chih-li, who had
at his command some 65,000 troops trained by Japanese officers,
pressed on the government the necessity of action. At this point
Japan intervened. Her interests were vitally affected by Russia's
action not only in Manchuria, but in Korea, and seeing that
China was powerless the Japanese government negotiated
directly with St Petersburg. In these negotiations Russia
showed that she would not yield her position in either country
except to force. Japan chose the issue of war and proved
successful.
The Russo-Japanese War did not very greatly alter China's
position in Manchuria. In the southern part of that country
Japan succeeded to the special privileges Russia had wrung
>This institution was nominally a private concern which financed
the Manchurian railway, but it acted as part of the Russian govern-
ment machinery. The existence of the contract of the 27th of
August 1896 was frequently denied until expressly admitted by the
Ruaso-Chinese agreement of the 8th of April 1902.
* On the 8th of October the Russian troops had been withdrawn
from Mukden, but they reoccupied the town on the 28th of the
i month, Admiral Alexeiev, the viceroy of the Far East, alleging
the inertia of the Chinese officials seriously hindered the work of
r civilization in Manchuria.
that the i
from China (including the lease of Port Arthur); in the north
Russia remained in possession of the railway zone. For Japan's
position as at once the legatee of special privileges L 099om$
and the champion of China's territorial integrity of the
and " the open door " sec Japan, § History- How- *«
ever, the attitude of Japan was more conciliatory ^JJJ*
than that of Russia had been; Mukden and other
places were thrown open to foreign trade and Chinese civil admin-
istration was re-established. The important results of the war,
so far as China was concerned, were not to be looked for in
Manchuria, but in the new spirit generated in the Chinese.
They had been deeply humiliated by the fact that in the
struggle between Russia and Japan China had been treated
as a negligible quantity, and that the war had been fought on
Chinese territory. The lesson which the loot of Peking and
the fall of the Boxers in 1000 had half taught was now
thoroughly mastered; the awakening of China was complete.
The war had shown that when an Eastern race adopted
Western methods it was capable of defeating a European
nation.
It was fortunate that among the influential advisers of the
throne at this time (1005- 1008) were Prince Chun (the prince
who had visited Germany in 1001), Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy
of Chih-li, and Chang Chih-tung, the viceroy of Hu-kwang (i.e.
the provinces of Hu-peh and Hu-nan), all men of enlightened
and strong character. In 1007 both the viceroys named were
summoned to Peking and .made members of the grand council,
of which Prince Ching, a man of moderate views, was president.
Yuan Shih-kai was an open advocate of a reform of the civil
service, of the abolition of Manchu privileges, of education and
other matters. He had specially advocated the reconstitution
of the military forces of the empire, and in Chih-li in 1905 he
demonstrated before a number of foreign military attaches the
high efficiency attained by the forces of the metropolitan pro-
vince. The success achieved by Yuan Shih-kai in this direction
incited Chang Chih-tung to follow his example, while a decree
from the throne called upon the princes and nobles of China to
give their sons a military education. The formerly despised
military profession was thus made honourable, and with salutary
effects. The imperial princes sought high commands, officers
were awarded ranks and dignities comparable with those of
civil servants, and the pay of the troops was increased. The new
foreign drilled northern army was called upon to ^^
furnish a large proportion of a force sent under Prince nSm.
Su into Mongolia — a country which had been on the
point of falling into the hands of Russia, but over which, as one
result of the Russo-Japanese War, China recovered control.
In 1006 a step was taken towards the formation of a national
army by withdrawing portions of the troops from provincial
control and placing them under officers responsible to the
central government, which also took over the charge of the
provincial arsenals. In the years which followed further evidence
was given of the earnestness and success with which the military
forces were being reorganized. Less attention was given to
naval affairs, but in the autumn of 1009 a naval commission under
Tsai Hstin, a brother of the emperor Kwang-su, was sent to
Europe to report on the steps necessary for the re-establishment
of a fleet. Previously (in 1007) societies had been started in
several provinces to collect funds for naval purposes.
The most striking evidence of the change which had occurred
was, however, the appointment (in 1005) of an Imperial Com-
mission, headed by Prince Tsai Tse, to study the administrative
systems of foreign countries with a view to the possible establish-
ment of a representative government in China. The revolu-
tionary nature of this proposal excited indignation among the
adherents to the old order, and a bomb was thrown among the
commissioners as they were preparing to leave Peking.' After
visiting Japan, America and Europe the commission returned to
' The form of outrage, probably the first of its kind in China,
was itself a symptom of the changed times. The bomb injured
Prince Tsai Tse and another commissioner, and the departure of the
commission was consequently delayed some months.
2IO
CHINA
(HISTORY
Peking in July 1906.* A committee over which Prince Ching
presided was appointed to study the commission's report, anil
A parts- on the 1st of September following an edict was issuer I
mtotary in which the establishment of a parliamentary fore
coatdtw f government was announced, at a date not fixed
To fit the country for this new form of government
(the edict went on to declare) the administration
must be reformed, the laws revised, education promoted and
the finances regulated. This edict, moreover, was but one of
many edicts issued in 1906 and following years which showed
how great a break with the past was contemplated. In
November 1906 two edicts were issued with the object of
reorganizing the central administrative offices. Their effect
was to simplify the conduct of business, many useless posts
being abolished, while an audit board was created to
examine the national accounts. In November 1007 anothei
edict was promulgated stating that for the present the formation
of Houses of Lords and of Commons to determine all publi<
questions was not practicable, but that it was proposed, as a
preliminary measure, to create an Imperial Assembly. At the
same time a scheme of provincial councils was ordered to b<
prepared. A more definite step followed in 1008 when a decree
(dated the 27th of August) announced the convocation of a
parliament in the ninth year from that date.
One of the changes made in the public offices brought China
into conflict with Great Britain. On the 9th of May 1906 a
7A, decree appointed Chinese commissioners to control the
eoatml Imperial Maritime Customs.* This was the only
of tk* department of the government under European
(British) control, and the only department also against
which no charge of inefficiency or corruption could be
brought. The change decreed by China was in accord with the
new national sentiment, but by all the foreign powers interested
it was felt that it would be a retrograde step if the customs
were taken out of the control of Sir Robert Hart (g.?.),who had
been since 1863 inspector-general of the customs. The British
secretary of state for foreign affairs (Sir Edward Grey) at once
protested against the decree of the 6th of May, pointing out
that the continuation of the established system had been
stipulated for in the loan agreements of 1896 and 1898. As a
result of this and other representations the Board of Control of
the Customs was late in 1906 made a department of the Board
of Finance. The Chinese controllers-general continued in
office, and despite the assurances given to Great Britain by
China (in a note of the 6th of June 1906) that the appointment
of the controllers-general was not intended to interfere with
the established system of administration, the absolute authority
of Sir Robert Hart was weakened * Sir Robert Hart returned
to England in 1908 " on leave of absence," Sir Robert Bredon,
the deputy inspector-general, being placed in charge of the
service under the authority of the Board of Control, of which
on the 5th of April 1910 it was announced that he had been
appointed a member. This step was viewed with disfavour
by the British government, for, unless Sir Robert Bredon's post
was to be merely a sinecure, it imposed two masters on the
maritime customs. On the 20th of April Sir Robert Bredon
severed his connexion with the Board of Control. At the I
same time Mr F. A. Aglcn (the Commissioner of Customs at I
Hankow) became acting Inspector General (Sir Robert Hart
being still nominally head of the service). The attempt on
the part of the Chinese to control the customs was evidence
1 In 1907 further commissions were appointed, on the initiative
of Yuan Shih-kai, to study specifically the constitutions of Great
Britain. Germany and Japan.
'This department was organized at Shanghai in 1854. The
Taiping rebels being in possession of the native city, the collection
of customs dues, especially, on foreign ships, was placed in the hands
of foreigners. This developed into a permanent institution, the
European staff being mainly British.
• The British official view, as stated in parliament on the 27th of
April 1910, was that the changes resulting from the creation of the
Board of Control had, so far, been purely departmental changes of
form, and that the position of the inspector-general remained
u/ia/cered.
of the strength of the " young China " or Recovery of Rights
party — the party which aspired to break all the chains, such
as extra-territoriality, which stamped the country as not the
equal of the other great nations. 4
In the steps taken to suppress opium smoking evidence was
forthcoming of the earnestness with which the governing body
in China sought to better the condition of the people.
Opium smoking followed, in China, the introduction of n * mnU "
tobacco smoking, and is stated to have been introduced JJaJijb*.
from Java and Formosa in the early part of the 17 th
century. The first edict against the habit was issued in 1729.
At that time the only foreign opium introduced was by the
Portuguese from Goa, who exported about 200 chests * a year.
In 1773 English merchants in India entered into the trade, which
in 1 781 was taken over by the East India Company — the import
in 1700 being over 4000 chests. In 1796 the importation of
foreign opium was declared contraband, and between 1830 and
i860 the central government attempted, without success, to
suppress the trade. It was legalized in 1S58 after the second
" opium war " with Great Britain. At that time the poppy
was extensively grown in China, and the bulk of the opium
smoked was, and continued to be, of home manufacture. But
after i860 the importation of opium from India greatly in-
creased. Opium was also imported from Persia (chiefly to
Formosa, which in 1895 passed into the possession of Japan).
The total foreign import in 1863 was some 70,000 piculs, 6 in
1879 it was 102,000 piculs, but in 1905 had fallen to 56,000
piculs. The number of opium smokers in China in the early
years of the 20th century was estimated at from 25 to 30 millions.
The evil effects of opium smoking were fully recognized, and
Chang Chih-tung, one of the most powerful of the opponents of
the habit, was high in the councils of the dowager-empress. On
the 20th of September 1906 an edict was issued directing that
the growth, sale and consumption of opium should cease in
China within ten years, and ordering the officials to take
measures to execute the imperial will. The measures promul-
gated, in November following, made the following provisions: —
([) The cultivation of the poppy to be restricted annually by
one-tenth of its existing area; (2) all persons using opium to be
registered? (3) all shops selling opium to be gradually closed, and
all place* where opium is smoked to discontinue the practice within
six month*; {4) anti-opium societies to be officially encouraged,
and medicines distributed to cure the opium-smoking habit; (5)
all official were requested to set an example to the people, and all
official* under iixty were required to abandon opium smolcing within
six dwntHi or to withdraw from the service of the state.
It was estimated that the suppression of opium smoking
would entail a yearly loss of revenue of over £1,600,000, a loss
about equally divided between the central and provincial govern-
ments. The first step taken to enforce the edict was the closing
of the opium dens in Peking on the last day of 1906.
During 1907 the opium dens in Shanghai, Canton, Fu-chow and
many other large cities were closed, ana restrictions on the issue of
licences were introduced in the foreign settlements; even the eunuchs
of the palace were prohibited from smoking opium under severe
penalties. The central government continued during 1908 and 1909
to display considerable energy in the suppression of the use of opium,
but the provincial authorities were not all equally energetic. It was
noted in 1908 that while in some provinces — even in Yun-nan, where
its importance to trade and commerce and its use as .currency seemed
to render it very difficult to do anything effective — the governor and
officials were whole-hearted in carrying out the imperial regulations,
in other provinces — notably in Kwei-chow and in the provinces of
the lower Yangtsze valley — great supineness was exhibited in dealing
with the subject. Lord William Cecil, however, stated that travelling
n 1909 between Peking and Hankow, through country which in 1907
lie had seen covered with the poppy, he could not then see a single
poppy flower, and that going up tne Yangtsze he found only one
.mall patch of poppy cultivation. 7 The Peking correspondent of
The Times, in a journey to Turkestan in the early part of 1910, found
ihat in Shen-si province the people's desire to suppress the opium
irade was in advance of the views of the government. Every day
rains of opium carts were passed travelling under official protection.
But in the adjoining province of Shan-si there had been complete
* See The Times of the 21st of April and 1 ith of May 191a
* A chest contained from 135 lb to 160 lb.
9 A pfcul - 133* lb.
'Cmmim China, p. 118.
HBIORY) CHINA
suppression of poppy cultivation and in Kan nub the ofrkia I* were con-
ducting a very vigorous campaign again ^ r hi- growth or the poppy- 1
In thWendeavoura to suppress opium -motin^ the Chin«e govern -
■eat appealed to the Indian government for help, and in loo? received
a promise that India would decrease the production of opium
annually byone-tenth for four years and subsequently if China did
likewise. The Indian government also a*«*ntcd to Indian opium
beingtaxedenaally with Chinese opium, hut China did not raise the
duty on foreign opium. In 1908 the Indian govtrnmfflt undertook
to reduce the amount of opium exported by 5 100 thesis yearly, in
the same year the opium dens in Hong-kong wtc dobed. In
February 1909, on the initiative of the U nit rd Static, an international
conference was held at Shanghai to consider the opium trade and
habit. At this conference the Chinese rrpreicnuHve claimed that
the consumption of opium had already been reduced by one-half—
a claim not borne out by the ascertained facts. The conference was
tillable to suggest any heroic measures, but a number of proposal"
were agreed to Gncluding the closing of opium dens in the foreign
settlements), tending to the restriction of the opium trade. The
conference also dealt with another and growing habit in China — the
use of morphia. 1 Japan agreed to prohibit the export of morphia to
China, a prohibition to which the other powers had previously agreed.
The attempts to reform the educational system of China on a
comprehensive scale date from the year of the return of the
_ court to Peking after the Boxer troubles. In 1902
gtg, regulations were sanctioned by the emperor which
aimed at remodelling the methods of public instruction.
These regulations provided among other things for the cstabb'sh-
ment at Peking of a university giving instruction in Western
learning, a technical college, and a special department for
training officials and teachers. A much more revolutionary
step was taken in September 1905 when a decree appeared j
announcing as from the beginning of 1906 the abolition of the
existing method of examinations. The new system was to
include the study of modern sciences, history, geography and
foreign languages, and in the higher grades political economy
and civil and international law. Thousands of temples were
converted to educational purposes. In Canton, in 1907, the old
examination hall was demolished to make way for a college with
every appliance on Western lines. Equal zeal was noticeable
in inch conservative cities as Si-gan-fu, and in remote provinces
like Kan-suh. By May 1906 fifteen so-called universities had been
founded. Moreover, many young Chinese went abroad to acquire
education— in Japan alone in 1906 there were 13,000 students.
In the same year primary schools for girls were established.*
Perhaps the most striking evidence of the new spirit regarding
education was the tenour of a communication to the throne
from the head of the Confucian family. On the 31st of
December 1006 an imperial edict had appeared raising Con-
fudus to the same rank as Heaven and Earth — an action taken
to indicate the desire of the government to emphasize the
value of ethical training. In thanking the throne for the
honour conferred on his ancestor the head of the family urged
that at the new college founded at the birth-place of Confucius
the teaching should include foreign languages, physical culture,
political science and military drill. 4
While China, with the consent of the emperor and the empress-
dowager, and under the guidance of Prince Ching, Yuan Shih-kai
and Chang Chih-tung, was endeavouring to bring about internal
reforms, her attitude to foreign powers was one of reserve
and distrust. This was especially marked in the negotiations
with Japan and with Russia concerning Manchuria, and was
seen also in the negotiations with Great Britain concerning
1 See The Times of 7th and 8th of March and 8th of April 1910.
•The first recorded importation of morphia into China was in
1892, and it is suggested that it was first used as an anti-opium
medicine. Morphia-taking, however, speedily' became a vice, and
in 1902 over 195,000 o*. of morphia were imported (enough for some
300.000.000 injections). To check the evil the Chinese government
during 1903 imposed a tax of about 200% ad valorem, with the result
that the imports declared to the customs fell in 1905 to 54 oz. only.
The falling off was explained " not by a diminished demand, but
by smuggling " (Morse's Trade and Administration of the Chines*
Empire, p. 351).
•A regulation by the ministry of education, dated the 14th of
January 1910, ordered that no cirl should be admitted to school
dressed in foreign clothes or with unnatural (i.e. bound) feet.
* For the growth of the education movement sec The Times, 4th
of September 1909.
211
Tibet. It was not until April 1908, alter four years' negotiations,
that a convention with Great Britain respecting Tibet was
signed, Chinese suzerain rights being respected. In September
the Dalai Lama arrived in Peking from Mongolia and was received
by the emperor, who also gave audience to a Nepalese mission.*
The emperor Kwang-su had witnessed, without being able
to guide, the new reform movement. In August 1908 an edict
was issued in bis name announcing the convocation of - ^
a parliament in nine years' time. In November he oflh0
died. His death occasioned no surprise, as disquieting •mptnr
\ reports about his health had been current since July, «•*©/<*»
but the announcement that the dowager empress died JJJJJJJ
I on the 1 5th of November (the day after that on *****
which the emperor was officially stated to have died) was
totally unexpected. She had celebrated her birthday on the
3rd of November and appeared then to be in good health.
The empress dowager had taken part in the choice of a suc-
cessor to the throne, Kwang-su 's valedictory edict had been
drawn up under her supervision, and it is believed that the
emperor died some days previous to the date officially given for
his death. Kwang-su died childless and was succeeded by his
infant nephew Pu-Yi (born on the 8th of February 1906), a
son of Prince Chun, who was appointed regent. Prince Chun —
himself then only twenty-six years old — had exercised con-
siderable influence at court since his mission to Germany in
1901, and was one of the most enlightened of the Manchu princes.
The death of the dowager empress removed a powerful obstacle
to a reformed regime, and with her passed away the last
prominent representative of the old era in China.
The accession to the throne of Pu-Yi, who was given as
reigning title Hsuan Tung (" promulgating universally"), was
unaccompanied by disturbances; save for an outbreak
at Ngan-king, easily suppressed. Prince Chun had A °f£* h9m
the support of Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung,* JJJJj"**
the two most prominent Chinese members of the
government at Peking — and thus a division between the Manchus
and Chinese was avoided. On the and of December 1908 the
young emperor was enthroned with the usual rites. On the
day following another edict, which, it was stated, had had the
approval of the late dowager empress, was issued, reaffirming
that of the 27th of August regarding the grant of a parlia-
mentary constitution in nine years' time, and urging the people
to prepare themselves for the change. Other edicts sought to
strengthen the position of the regent as de facto emperor.
Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung received the title of Grand
Guardians of the Heir, and the year 1908 closed with the chief
Chinese members of the government working, apparently, in
complete harmony with the regent.
On the 1st of January 1909, however, the political situation
was rudely disturbed by the dismissal from office of Yuan Shin*
kai. This step led to representations by the British
and American ministers to Prince Ching, the head of
the foreign office, by whom assurances were given that °
no change of policy was contemplated by China, while
the regent in a letter to President Taft reiterated the determina-
tion of his government to carry through its reform policy.
The dismissal of Yuan Shih-kai was believed by the Chinese
to be due to his " betrayal " of the emperor Kwang-su in the
T898 reform movement. He had nevertheless refused to go
to extremes on the reactionary side, and in 1900, as governor
of Shan-tung, he preserved a neutrality which greatly facilitated
the relief of the Peking legations. During the last years
* The Dalai Lama left Peking in December 1908 on his return
id Lhtssa, which he reached in November 1909. Differences had
orison between him and the Chinese government, which sought to
make the spiritual as well as the temporal power of the Dalai Lama
dependent on his retopiutitin by The emperor of China. Early in
1910 the Dalai Lama, m consequence of the action of the Chinese
amban in Lhat&a, fieri from that city and sought refuge in India.
- Chang Chih-tung died in Oc lober 1909. He was a man of con-
sSderaUe aUUty, and one whose honesty and loyalty had never
been doubted. He was noted as an opponent of opium smoking,
and for over thirty years had addressed memorials to the throne
against the use of the drug.
212
CHINA
(HISTORY
of the life of the dowager empress it was his influence which
largely reconciled her to the new reform movement. Yet Kwang-
su had not forgotten the coup d'ttal of 1898, and it is alleged
that he left a testament calling upon his brother the prince
regent to avenge the wrongs he had suffered. 1 During the
greater part of the year there was serious estrangement
' between China and Japan, but on the 4th of September
a convention was signed which settled most of the
points in dispute respecting Manchuria and Korea. In
Korea the boundary was adjusted so that Chientao, a mountain-
ous district in eastern Manchuria regarded as the ancestral
home of the reigning families of China and Korea, was de-
finitely assigned to China; while in Manchuria, both as to
railways and mines, a policy of co-operation was substituted for
one of opposition.* Although Japan had made substantial
concessions, those made by China in return provoked loud
complaints from the southern provinces— the self-government
society calling for the dismissal of Prince Ching. In northern
Manchuria the Russian authorities had assumed territorial
jurisdiction at Harbin, but on the 4th of May an agreement was
signed recognizing Chinese jurisdiction.'
The spirit typified by the cry of " China for the Chinese " was
seen actively at work in the determined efforts made to exclude
foreign capital from railway affairs. The completion
**• in October 1909 of the Peking-Kalgan railway was
£j£j£ the cause of much patriotic rejoicing. The railway,
a purely Chinese undertaking, is 122 m. long and
took four years to build. It traversed difficult country, piercing
the Nan K'ow Pass by four tunnels, one under the Great Wall
being 3 580 ft . long. There was much controversy between foreign
financiers, generally backed by their respective governments, as
to the construction of other lines. In March 1909 the Dcutsch-
asiatische Bank secured a loan of £3,000,000 for the construction
of the Canton-Hankow railway. This concession was contrary
to an undertaking given in 1905 to British firms and was with-
drawn, but only in return for the admittance of German capital
in the Sze-ch'uen railway. After prolonged negotiations an
agreement was signed in Paris on the 24th of May 1910 for
a loan of £6,000,000 for the construction of the railway from
Hankow to Sze-ch'ucn, in which British, French, German and
American interests were equally represented. In January
1 9 10 the French line from Hanoi to Yunnan-fu was opened; 4
the railway from Shanghai to Nanking was opened for through
traffic in 1909.
The progress of the anti-opium movement and the dispute
over the control of the Imperial Maritime Customs have already
PrwtacUU becn chronicled. A notable step was taken in 1909
Atttmbtfrr by tne institution of elected assemblies in each of the
coata- provinces. The franchise on which the members
<■** were elected was very limited, and the assemblies
*f"J*f* were given consultative powers only. They were
tbrm0dt opened on the 14th of October (the 1st day of the
9th moon). The businesslike manner in which these assemblies
conducted their work was a matter of general comment among
foreign observers in China.* In February 1910 decrees ap-
peared approving schemes drawn up by the Commission for
Constitutional Reforms, providing for local government in pre-
fectures and departments and for the reform of the judiciary.
This was followed on the 9th of May by another decree sum-
moning the senate to meet for the first time on the 1st day of
the 9th moon (the 3rd of October 1910). All the members of the
senate were nominated, and the majority were Manchus. Neither
to the provincial assemblies nor to the senate was any power
of the purse given, and the drawing up of a budget was post-
poned until 1915.*
1 See The Times of the 7th of September 1909
* Proposals made early in 1910 by the American secretary of state
for the neutralization of the Manchurian railway received no support.
* By a convention feigned on July 4th, 1910, Russia and Japan
agreed to " maintain and respect " the status quo in Manchuria.
* See the Quinzaine coloniale of the I oth of December 1909.
•Sec The Times of the 20th of January 1910.
•Sec for the prospects of reform The Times of 30th May 191°-
The efforts of the central government to increase the efficiency
of the army and to re-create a navy were continued in 1910.
China was credited with the intention of spending £40,000,000
on the rehabilitation of its naval and military forces. It was
estimated in March 1910 that there were about 200,000 foreign-
trained men, but their independent spirit and disaffection
constituted a danger to internal peace. The danger was accen-
tuated by the mutual jealousy of the central and provincial
governments. The anti-dynastic agitation, moreover, again
seemed to be growing in strength. In April 1910 there was
serious rioting at Changsha, Hu-nan, a town whence a few years
previously had issued a quantity of anti-foreign literature of a
vile kind. The immediate causes of the riots seem to have been
many: rumours of the intention of the foreign powers to dis-
member China, the establishment of foreign firms at Changsha
competing with native firms and exporting rice and AaUm
salt at a time when the province was suffering from tyaosUc
famine, and the approach of Hallcy's comet. Probably mow
the famine precipitated the outbreak, which was easily •**■*•»
crushed, as was also a rising in May at Yung chow, a *&•*•*■
town in the south of Hu-nan. Much mission and mercan- """
tile property was wrecked at Changsha, but the only loss of life
was the accidental drowning of three Roman Catholic priests.
An edict of the r>th of August 1910 effected considerable and
unexpected changes in the personnel of the central government.
Tang Shao-yi, a former lieutenant of Yuan Shih-kai, was
appointed president of the Board of Communications, and to him
fell the difficult task of reconciling Chinese and foreign interests
in the development of the railway system. Sheng Kung-pao
regarded as the chief Chinese authority on currency questions,
and an advocate of the adoption of a gold standard, was attached
to the Board of Finance to help in the reforms decreed
by an edict of May of the same year (see ante, Currency) . *"*~
The issue of the edict was attributed to the influence
with the regent of Prince Tsai-tao, who fad recently
returned from a tour in Europe, where he had specially studied
questions of national defence. The changes made among the
high officials tended greatly to strengthen the central administra-
tion. The government had viewed with some disquiet the Russo-
Japanese agreement of the 4th of July concerning Manchuria
(which was generally interpreted as in fact lessening the authority
of China in that country); it had become involved in another
dispute with Great Britain, which regarded some of the measures
taken to suppress opium smoking as a violation of the terms
of the Chifu convention, and its action in Tibet had caused
alarm in India. Thus the appointment to high office of men
of enlightenment, pledged to a reform policy, was calculated
to restore confidence in the policy of the Peking authorities.
This confidence would have becn greater had not the changes
indicated a struggle for supreme power between the regent and
the dowager empress Lung Yu, widow of Kwang-su.
The strength of the various movements at work throughout
China was at this time extremely difficult to gauge; the in-
tensity of the desire for the acquisition of Western knowledge
was equalled by the desire to secure the independence of the
country from foreign control. The second of these desires gave
the force it possessed to the anti-dynastic movement. At the
same time some of the firmest supporters of reform were found
among the Manchus, nor did there seem to be any reason to
doubt the intention of the regent — if he retained power— to
guide the nation through the troubled period of transition into
an era of constitutional government and the full development
of the resources of the empire. IX.)
Bibliographical Note. — Knowledge of the ancient history of
China is necessarily derived from the native writers on the subject.
Fortunately, the Chinese have always regarded the preservation
of the national records as a matter of supreme importance. Con-
fucius set an example in this respect, and has preserved for us in the
Spring and Autumn Annals and the Shu-king, or Booh of History,
records of his country's progress during; the past and then present
centuries. The celebrated emperor Shih Hwang-ti, in establishing
the empire, attempted to strengthen his cause by destroying au
works on the national history. But so strongly was the historical
tense inculcated in the people that immediately on the death of the
Aim
CHINA
213
tyrant the nation's records were again brought to light , and have
been carefully preserved and edited since that time. Prof. Legge'u
tranilation of the Spring and Autumn Annuls and ihe Shucking, j*
Book of History, in the " Sacred Boofc of the East ' h serin, have
Book of i
opened f c
_. . i for students the stores of historical knowledge which were
at the command of Confucius, and European writers on Chinese
history have found in the dynastic annals a never-failing source of
valuable information. It was from these works and epitome * of
these that dc Maillac gathered the facti for his celebrated Hhtoire
generate de laChine % and it is from similar sources that all other
writers on Chinese history have drawn their inspiration.
The following works on ancient ami modern Chinese history
may be specially mentioned: J. A. dc Movria de Maillac, Ilistvirs
generate de la Chine (1777), &c; J. B. <in Ha We, General History 0/
China (ivols., 1736); M.dcGuigncs. Voyages APikint . . , (\vok r
1808); D. Boulgcr, A History of China (3 voh. r iHSt); VtHtiOt
Chirol. The Far Eastern Question (1896) ; £. R. Huc h The Chine m
Empire (2 vols., 1855); T. T. Meadow*, The Chinese and fair
Rebellions (1856); G. Pauthier, Histoirs dts relations fniiti:'.-{Wi de
la Chine avec les puissances occidentals oVfuu its temps tes plus
anriens jusqu'i nos Jours . . . (18^9); Sir George 5Litmton r Aw J
of Proceedings and Occurrences during the British Entba n v ip Piking
in 1816 (1821); Chinese Expansion huloriially revirzvdt a paper
read before the Central Asian Society by Baron Suyematsu on
January 11, 1905; F. Hirth. Ancient Jtutory of China (New York,
1908); Prof. Herbert A. Giles's Chinese Biographical Dictionary
(1897) is a storehouse of biographical detail and anecdote.
For Chinese relations with foreign powers see frf . Cordk-r, Histnire
des relations de la Chine avec les putssancet ertidentoles, tE6a-tQo2
(3 vols.. Paris, 1901-1902): Hertstefs Chna Trtatici. Treaties, ift*,
: Great Britain and China, and between China and AjrWjjK
Powers, and Orders in Council, fife, affecting British Iniercih in China
(3rd ed.. revised by G. G. P. Hertslet and £, Parked, London, ioo£) ;
J. O. Bland and E. Backhouse, China vrrdrt the Empress Dmaagrr
(London. 1910). More general works are Sir K* K, Douglas, China,
history since the time of Marco Polo (London, 1890! : E. H + Parker,
China; Her History, Diplomacy and Comment (London, 1901);
China,. Past and Present (London, looj); A. J. Sargent, Anglo*
Chinese Commerce and Diplomacy — mainly in ihe loth century
fOxford, 1907). For current affairs see the authorities cited in the
footnotes.
VI. Chinese Air
1. Painting. — Painting is the pre-eminent an of China, which
can boast of a succession of great pa intern for at lea^t twelve
centuries. Though the Chinese have an instinctive gift for har-
monious colour, their painting is above all an art of line. It is
intimately connected with writing, itself a fine art demanding
the same skill and supple power in the u-ield iog of t he hmsh ♦ The
most typical expression of the Chinese penius in painting is the
ink sketch, such as the masters of the Sung dynasty moat pre-
ferred and the Japanese from the 15th century adopted for an
abiding model. Utmost vigour of stroke was here combined
with utmost delicacy of modulation. Rich colour and the use
of gold are an integral part of the Buddhist pictures, though
in the masterpieces of the religious painters a grand rhythm
of linear design gives the fundamental character. Exquisite
subdued colour is also found in the " flower atid bird pieces " and
still-life subjects of the Sung artists, and becomes more emphatic
and variegated in the decorative artists of the Ming period.
Not to represent facts, but to suggest a poetic idea, (often
perfumed, so to speak, with reminiscence of some actual poem),
has ever been the Chinese artist's aim. " A picture is a voiceless
poem " is an old saying in China, where very frequently the artist
was a literary man by profession. Oriental critics lay more
stress on loftiness of sentiment and tone than on technical
qualities. This idealist temper helps to explain the deliberate
avoidance of all emphasis on appearances of material solidity
by means of chiaroscuro, &c, and the exclusive use of the light
medium of water-colour. The Chinese express actual dislike
for the representation of relief. Whoever compare* the painting
of Europe with that of Asia (and Chinese painting is the central
type for the one continent, as Italian may claim to be for the
other) must first understand this contrast of aim. The limita-
tions of the Chinese are great, but thebt limitations save 1 hem
from mistaking advances in science for advances in art, and from
petty imitation of fact. Their reliejmu painting has great
affinity with the early religious art of Italy (#.(. that of Stem).
But the ideas of the Renaissance, its scientific curiosity, its
materialism, its glorification of human personality, are wholly
;in China. For Europe, Man a ever the hero and the
foreground—hence the dominant study of the nude, and the
tendency to thronged compositions, with dramatic motives of
effort and conflict. The Chinese artists, weak in the plastic,
weak in the architectural sense, paint mostly in a lyric mood,
with a contemplative ideal. Hence the value given to space in
their designs, the semi-religious passion for nature, and the
supremacy of landscape. Beauty is found not only in pleasant
prospects, but in wild solitudes, rain, snow -and storm. The life
of things is contemplated and portrayed for its own sake, not
for its uses in the life of men. From this point of view the body
of Chinese painting is much more modern in conception than that
of Western art. Landscape was a mature and free art in China
more than a thousand years ago, and her school of landscape is
the loftiest yet known to the world Nor was man ever dis-
sociated from nature. As early as the 4th century Ku K'ai-chih
says that in painting a certain noble character he must give him
a fit background of great peaks and deep ravines. Chinese
painting, in sum, finely complements rather than poorly supple-
ments that of Europe; where the latter is strong, it is weak;
but in certain chosen provinces it long ago found consummate ex-
pression for thoughts and feelings scarcely yet expressed with us.
The origin of Chinese painting is lost in legend, though there
is no reason to doubt its great antiquity. References in Hittory:
literature prove that by the 3rd century B.C. it was a Early
developed art. To this period is ascribed the inven- jTJfJjif
tion of the hair-brush, in the use of which as an instru- **
ment both for writing and drawing the Chinese have attained
marvellous skill; the usual material for the picture being
woven silk, or, less often and since the 1st century A.O.,
paper.- In early times wood panels were employed; and large
compositions were painted on walls prepared with white lime.
These mural decorations have all disappeared. History and
portraiture seem to have been the prevailing subjects; a secular
art corresponding to the social ideals of Confucianism. Yet
long before the introduction of Buddhism (a.d. 67) with its
images and pictures, we find that the two great symbolic figures
of the Chinese imagination, the Tiger and the Dragon — typifying
the forces of Nature and the power of the Spirit — had been
evolved in art; and to imaginative minds the mystic ideas of
Lao Tzli and the legends of his hermit followers proved a fruitful
field for artistic motives of a kind which Buddhism was still
more to enrich and multiply. Early classifications rank Buddhist
■and Taoist subjects together as one class.
With the 2nd century a.d. we come to individual names of
artists and to the beginnings of landscape. Ku K'ai-chih
(4th century) ranks as one of the greatest names of Chinese
art. A painting by him now in the British Museum (Plate I.
fig. x) shows a maturity which has nothing tentative about it.
The dignified and elegant types are rendered with a mastery of
sensitive brush-line which is not surpassed in later art. Ku
K'ai-chih painted all kinds of subjects, but excelled in por-
traiture. During the next century the criticism of painting was
formulated in six canons by Hsieh Ho. Rhythm, organic or
structural beauty, is the supreme quality insisted on.
During the Tang dynasty the empire expanded to its utmost
limits, stretching as far as the Persian Gulf. India was
invaded; Buddhism, taught by numbers of Indian ^mag
missionaries, became firmly established, and controlled dynasty
the ideals and imaginations of the time. The vigorous JJjJJ tu *
style of a great era was impressed upon the Tang ^^
art, which culminated in Wu Taotztt, universally acknowledged
as the greatest of all Chinese painters. It is doubtful if any of bis
work remains. The picture reproduced (Plate I. fig. 2) was long
attributed to him, but is now thought to be of later date, like
the two landscapes well known under his name in Japan. Wu
Taotztt seems to have given supreme expression to the central
subject of Buddhist art, the Nirvana of Buddha, who lies serenely
asleep, with all creation, from saints and kings to birds and
beasts, passionately bewailing him. The composition is known
from Japanese copies; and it is in fact from the early religious
ichools of Japan that we can best conjecture the grandeur of
the Tang style. Wu Taotztt excelled in all subjects: other
21+
CHINA
[AR
masters are best known for some particular one. Han Kan
was famous for his horses, the models for succeeding genera lions
of painters, both Chinese and Japanese. A specimen of his
brush is in the British Museum; and in the same collect ten is
a long roll which gives a glimpse of the landscape of this age.
It is a copy by a great master of the Yuen dynasty. Chao Mcng-
fu, from a famous painting by Wang Wei, representing scenes
on the Wang Ch'uan, the latter's home (Plate I. fig, 3 shows a
fragment). With the T'ang age landscape matured, and two
schools arose, one headed by Wang Wei, the other by Lf Ssu-
hsUn. The style of Wang Wei, who was equally Famous as a
poet, had a romantic idealist character — disdainful of mere fact —
which in later developments created the " literary man's picture "
of the Southern school, as opposed to the vigorous naturalism
of the North.
Next come five brief dynasties, memorable less for aJiy tor-
Ftv9 porate style or tradition, than for some fine painters
dyaastk* like Hsu Hsi, famous for his flowers, and Huang
C4. D. 90/' Ch'uan, a great master in a delicate style, Two
*"*" pictures by him, fowls and peonies, of extraordinary
beauty, arc in the British Museum.
The empire, which had been broken up, was reunited, though
£„,! shorn of its outer dependencies, under the house of Sung.
dyaosty This was an age of culture in which the freedom of
[A.D. 960- t h e individual was proclaimed anew; glorious in art
1190). as j n pQp^ry an( j philosophy; the period which
for Asiii stands in history as the Periclean age for Europe,
The religious pain Hug* of Li Lung-mien, the grandest of SunR
masters, if lew forcible than those of T'ang. were un surpassed in
harmonious rhythm of design and colour. But the mo^t character'
istic painting of thi* period, is in landscape and nature' subjects.
With a passion unmatched in Europe till Wordsworth's day, the
Sung artists portrayed their delight in mountains, mists, plunging
torrcntK the (light of the wild geese from the reed-beds, the moon Ik
reveries ol *aj£/'* in forest solitudes, the fisherman inhia boat on lake
or stream. To then also, steeped in the Zen philo-i>phv .:■>'. con-
templation, a flowering branch was no mere subject feu a decorative
study, but a symbol of the infinite life of nature. A mere hint to the
spectator's imagination is often all that they rely on; ;<r. <i .,1 the
singular fulness and reality of the culture of the time, The art of
suggestion has never been carried farther. Such tradii '
as 'Curfew from a Distant Temple " and " The Moon over Raging
Waves " indicate the poetic atmosphere of this art. Ma Win. Hsia
Kuei and the emperor Hwei-tsung are among the greatest landscape
artists of this period. They belong to the South Sung school, which
loved to paint the gorges and towering rock-pinnacles of the Yangtze.
The sterner, less romantic scenery of the Hwang-Ho inspired the
Northern school, of which Kuo Hsi and Li Ch'cng were 1 .1 rru ..■ .-.
among manyjfthcrs. Muh Ki was one of the greatest masters of the
•■■•"*• *•* * * * .#.... Li Ti for hi*
i name a few
ink sketch; Chao Tan Lin was famed for his tigers; Li Ti for his
flowers as for his landscapes; Mao I for still-lire: to
among a host;
The Mongol dynasty continues in art the Sung tradition.
Chao Meng-fu, the greatest master of his time, belongs to both
Yma periods, and ranks with the highest names in Chinese
lyaastr painting. A landscape by him, copied from Wang
M. D» Wei, has been already mentioned as in the British
jjjjjr Museum, which also has two specimens of Yen HuJ, *
^^ painter less known in his own country than in Japan.
He painted especially figures of Taoist legend. The portrait by
Ch'ien Shun-chu (Plate I. fig. 5) is a fine example of purity of line
ard lovely colour, reminding us of Greek art.
The simplicity of motive and directness of execution which
had been the strength of the Sung art gradually gave way during
Mln the Ming era to complicated conceptions and elahorai e
lyautr cffects - The high glow of life faded; the lyrical temper
M. a» and impassioned work of the Sung time were replaced
jjg- by love of ornament and elegance. In this respect
i94f)m Kiu Ying is typicalof the period.withhis ri chly colou red
scenes from court life (Plate I. fig. 6). None the less, there were
a number of painters who still upheld the grander style of earlier
ages. The greatest of these was Lin Liang (Pkt* 1. fig. j),
whose brush work, if somewhat. coarser, is as powerful as that
of the Sung masters. But though individual primers of the
first rank preserved the Ming age from absolute decline, it cannot
be said that any new development of importance took place in a
vitalizing direction.
The present dynasty prolongs the history of Ming art. Tf
literary school of the South became more prominent, sendii
out offshoots in Japan. There has been no movement r»inr
of national life to be reflected in art, though a great dynasty
body of admirable painting has been produced, down ikomA. I
to the present day. The four landscape masters ' Uu
known as the " four Wangs," Yiin Shou-p'ing and Wu Li aj
pre-eminent names.
Sources ^Np Authorities, — While the oVtign* on parcel*!'
scree (is. &c, r have long been adrmrvd in the Wc&t t the paintings <
v, |iii:h these are merely reproductions have been utterly ignore*
Ignorance ha* gained authority with time, till the very ciUttnee 1
a great school of Chine** painting has been denied. Materials fi
*tudy are scanty. Fires, **r* and The recent armed ravage* 1
Western civilisation have left but little. The profound indifferent
ol the Chinese lo European admiration ha± presented thiir critic
(ions from being known* The Japanese* always enthusiastic studen
and collectors ol the cominental nrt< claim (whether ju»tty or no
i^ hjrd 10 ascertain) That th* finest specs meni are now in the
country. Many of these are reproduced in the invaluable Tokj
publications, the Xctkka, M r Tnjirna'* Select Reiki, &c>, * ilh J a pane
criticisms in Lngiish. Of actual paintings the Britivh Mu«t-u
possesses a Fair number* and the Louvre a few, of real imporunc
Copies and forgeries abound.
Sec 11. A. Giles. Introduction to the History 0/ Chimst Pictorial A
(1905): F. Mirth, Scraps from Cctkttor's Nate -Beak (1905). (luppl
ments Giles's work and especially valuable for the art of the Cki'ir
dynasty); 5. W. Bu&hrli, Chinese Art, vol. ii- Ligou); K. Gkakur
Ideals of the East (1903); M. Paleologue. VMi chineis ft IS 7
W. Anderson, C&kdotue 0/ Japanese ond Chinese Fainting CtS86,
Sci'ichi Tnki. " Chinese Landscape Painting," Th< Kvkka. Nos. 19
Ac, f 1 906k Chintiische Mak feint ous der Hcmmlurtt II nth (Cau
logue of an exhibition held at Dresden) (1&Q7/; VV. von Seidlit
article in Kmslckronik (1696-1897), No. 16*
2. Engraving. — According to native historians, the art <
printing from wooden blocks was invented in China in th
6th century a.d., when it was employed for the publication <
texts. The earliest evidence we have for the existence of woo<
cuts made to reproduce pictures or drawings is a passage in
work by Chang Yen-yuan, from which it appears that the<
were not made before the beginning of the T'ang dynasty, und<
which that author lived. The method employed was to cut th
design with a knife on the plank of the wood, in the mann«
followed by European artists till the end of the iSth centurj
when engraving with a burin on boxwood ousted the oldc
process. The Japanese borrowed the art from China; and r
Japan a whole school of artists arose who worked specially fc
the woodcutters and adapted their designs to the limitation
of the material employed. In China the art has remained mere!
reproductive, and its history is therefore of less interest. Prim
ing in colours was known to the Chinese in the 1 7th centur)
and probably earlier. In the British Museum is a set of print
brought from the East by Kaempfer in 1693, in which eigh
colours and elaborate gauffroge are used. Some fine albums c
colour prints have been issued in China, but nothing equal i
beauty to the prints produced in Japan by the co-operation c
woodcutter and designer. Engraving on copper was introduce
to China by the Jesuits, and some well-known sets of print
illustrating campaigns in Mongolia were made in the x8t
century. But the method has never proved congenial to th
artists of the Far East.
Sec Sir R. K. Douglas, Guide to the Chinese and Japanese Illustrate
Books (British Museum, 1887); W. Anderson, Japanese Wood En
graving (1895).
3. Architecture. — In architecture the Chinese genius ha
found but limited and uncongenial expression. A nation c
painters has built picturesquely, but this picturesqueness ha
fought against the attainment of the finest architectural craalitiei
There has been little development; the arch, for instance
though known to the Chinese from very early times, has beei
scarcely used as a principle of design, and the cupola has bee:
undiscovered or ignored; and though foreign . architcctura
ideas were introduced under the influence of the Buddhist am
Mahommedan religions, these were more or less assimilate*
and subdued to the dominant Chinese design. Ruins scarce];
exist and no building earlier than the nth century a.d. is known
but we know from records that the forms of architecture $ti)
A*T|
CHINA
2iS
prevalent imitate in essentials those of the 4th and 5th centuries
b.c and doubtless represent an immemorial tradition.
The grand characteristic of Chinese architecture is the pre-
eminent importance of the roof. The t'ing is the commonest
model of building. The roof is the main feature; in fact the t'ing
consists of this roof, massive and immense, with recurved edges,
and the numerous short columns on which the roof rests. The
columns are of wood, the straight stems of the nanmu being
specially used for this purpose. The walls are not supports,
but merely fill in, with stone or brickwork, the spaces between
the columns. The- scheme of construction is thus curiously
like that of the modern American steel-framed building, though
the external form may be derived from the tent of primitive
nomads. Tho roof, being the preponderant feature, is that on
which the art of the architect has been concentrated. A double
or a triple roof may be devised; the ridges and eaves may be
decorated with dragons and other fantastic animals, and the
eaves underlaid with carved and lacquered woodwork; the roof
itself is often covered with glazed tiles of brilliant hue. In spite
of efforts, sometimes desperate, to give variety and individual
character by ornament and detail, the general impression is one
of poverty of design. " Chinese buildings are usually one-storeyed
and are developed horizontally as they are increased in size or
number. The principle which determines the plan of projection
is that of symmetry " (Bushcll). All important buildings must
face the south, and this uniform orientation increases the
general architectural monotony produced by a preponderance
of horizontal lines.
A special characteristic of Chinese architecture is the pai-lou,
an archway erected only by special authority, usually to com-
memorate famous persons. The pai-lou is commonly made of'
wood with a tiled roof, but sometimes is built entirely of stone, as
is the gateway at the avenue of the Ming tombs. A magnificent
example of the pai-lou is that on the avenue leading to Wo Fo
SsO, the temple of the Sleeping Buddha, near Peking. This is
built of marble and glazed terracotta. The pai-lou, like the
Japanese torii, derives its origin from the toran of Indian stttpas.
Lofty towers called fai, usually square and of stone, seem to
have been a common type of important building in early times.
They are described in old books as erected by the ancient kings
and used for various purposes. The towers of the Great Wall
are of the same character, and arc made of stone, with arched
doors and windows. Stone, though plentiful in most provinces
of the empire, has been singularly little used by the Chinese,
who prefer wood or brick. M. Paleologue attributes this pre-
ference of light and destructible materials to the national
indifference of the Chinese to posterity and the future, their
enthusiasm being wholly devoted to their ancestors and the past.
Temples are designed on the general Cing model. The Temple
of Heaven is the most imposing of the Confucian temples,
conspicuous with its covering of deep-blue tiles and its triple
roof. Near this is the great Altar of Heaven, consisting of three
circular terraces with marble balustrades. Buddhist temples
are built on the general plan of secular residences, and consist
of a scries of rectangular courts with the principal building in
the centre, the lesser at the sides. Lama temples differ little
from these except in the interior decorations and symbolism.
Mahommedan mosques arc far simpler and severer in internal
arrangement, but outwardly these also are in the Chinese style.
The pagoda (Chinese taa), the type of Chinese architecture
most familiar to the West, probably owes its peculiar form to
Buddhist influence. In the pagoda alone may be found some
trace of a religious imagination such as in Europe made Gothic
architecture so full and splendid an expression of the aspiring
spirit. The most famous pagoda was the Porcelain Tower of
Nanking, destroyed -by the Taip'ing rebels in 1854. This was
covered with slabs of faience coated with coloured glazes. The
ordinary pagoda is built of brick on a stone foundation; it is
octagonal with thirteen storeys.
No Chinese buildings show more beauty than some of the
graceful stone bridges for which the neighbourhood of Peking
has been famous for centuries.
See M. Paleologue. L'Artchttois (1887): S. W. Bushdl, Chines*
Art, vol. 1. (1904); J. Fenuisson, History of Architecture; Professor
ChQta ltd, articles in The Kokka, Nos. 197, 198. (L. B.)
4. Sculpture. — Except in the casting and decoration of
bronze vessels the Chinese have not obtained distinction as
sculptors. They have practised sculpture in stone from an
early period, but the incised reliefs of the 2nd century b.c, a
number of which are figured in Professor E. Chavannes's standard
work, 1 while they display a certain spirit, lack the true plastic
sense, and though the power of the Chinese draughtsmen in-
creased rapidly under the Tang and Sung dynasties, their work
in stone showed no parallel progress. The feeling for solidity,
which in Japan was a natural growth, was always somewhat
exotic in China. With the impulse given to the arts by Buddhism
a school of sculpture arose. The pilgrim Fa Hsien records
sculpture of distinctive Chinese type in the 5th century. But
Indian models dominated the art. Colossal Buddhas of stone
were typical of the Tang era. Little, however, remains of these
earlier times, and such true sculpture in stone, wood or ivory
as we know dates from the 14th and succeeding centuries. The
well-known sculptures on the arch at Chu Yung Kuan (a.o. 1345)
are Hindu in style, though not without elements of breadth and
strength, which seem to promise a greater development than
actually took place. The colossal figures guarding the approach
to the Ming tombs (15th century) show that the national taste
rapidly became conventional and petrified so far as monumental
sculpture was concerned, though occasional examples of devotional
or portrait sculpture on a smaller scale in wood and ivory are
found, which in power, grace, sincerity and restraint can rank
with the work of more gifted nations. Such pieces, however,
arc extremely rare, and at South Kensington the ivory " Kwanyin
and Child " (374. 1898) is a solitary example. As a rule the
Chinese sculptor valued his art in proportion to the technical
difficulties it conquered. He thus either preferred intractable
materials like jade or rock-crystal, or, if he wrought in wood, horn
or ivory, sought to make his work curious or intricate rather
than beautiful. There is, nevertheless, beauty of a kind in
Chinese bowls of jade, and there is dignity in some of the pieces
of rock-crystal, but the bulk of the carving done in wood, horn
and ivory docs not deserve a moment's serious thought from
the aesthetic point of view. The few fine specimens may be
referred to the earlier part of the Ming dynasty when Chinese
art in general was sincere and simple. After the middle of the
15th century there set in the taste for profuse ornament which
injured all subsequent Chinese work, and wholly ruined Chinese
sculpture.
Bronzes. — In Chinese bronzes we have a more consistent and
exceptional form of plastic art, which can be traced continuously
for some three thousand years. These bronzes take the form
of ritual or honorific vessels, and the archaic shapes used in the
service of the prehistoric religion of the country are repeated
and copied with slight changes in decoration or detail to the
present day.
The oldest extant specimens, chiefly derived from the sack
of the Summer Palace at Peking, may be referred to the Shang
and Chow dynasties (1766-255 b.c). These ancient pieces have
a certain savage monumental grandeur of design, arc usually
covered with a rich and thick patina of red, green and brown,
and are decorated with simple patterns— scrolls, zigzag lines
and a form of what is known as the Greek key-pattern symbol-
izing respectively waves, mountains and storm clouds. The
animal forms used are those of the tao-tich (glutton), a fabulous
monster (possibly a conventionalized tiger) representing the
powers of the earth, the serpent and the bull. These two last
in later pieces combine to form the dragon, representing the
power of the air. In the Chow dynasty libation vessels were
also made in the form of a deer, a ram or a rhinoceros. These
characteristics are shown in figures 9-17, Plate II. Fig. 9 is a
temple vessel of a shape still in use, but which must date from
before 1000 B.C. With this massive piece may be contrasted
1 La Sculpture sur pierre en Chine au temps des deux dynasties flan
(Pari*, 1893).
2l6
CHINA
[LANGUAGE
the flower-like wine vase shown in fig. xo, a favourite shape which
is the prototype of some of the most graceful forms of Chinese
porcelain and Japanese bronze. Its date is about iooo B.C.
The large wine vase shown in fig. n is some 400 years later.
On the body appears the head of the tao-tieh, on the handles
are superbly modelled serpents. The technique, which in the
previous pieces was somewhat rude, has now become perfect,
yet the menacing majestic feeling remains. We see it no less
clearly in fig. 12, a marvellous vessel richly inlaid with gold and
silver and covered with an emerald-green patina. It may date
from about 500 B.C., and indicates that even in this remote
epoch the Chinese were not only daring and powerful artists
but also master-craftsmen in metal
It is indeed at this period that the art reaches its climax. The
monumental grandeur of the Shang specimens is often allied
to clumsiness; the later work, if more elaborate, is always less
powerful. Nevertheless, it is to a later period that ninety-nine
out of a hundred Chinese bronzes must be referred, and the
great majority belong either to the Han and succeeding
dynasties (220 b.c.-a.d. 400), or to the Renaissance of the arts
which culminated under the Ming dynasty a thousand years later.
The characteristics of the first of these periods is the free use
of small solid figures of animals as decoration— the phoenix, the
elephant, the frog, the ox, the tortoise, and occasionally men;
shapes grow less austere and less significant, as a comparison
between figures xx and 13 will indicate; then towards the end
of the and century a.d. the influence of Buddhism is felt in the
general tendency towards suavity of form (fig. 14). This vase
is most delicately though sparingly inlaid with silver and a few
touches of gold. Some small pieces, very richly and delicately
inlaid and covered with a magnificent emerald-green patina,
belonging to this period, form a connecting link between the
inlaid work of the Chow dynasty and that of the Sung and Ming
dynasties. The mirrors with Graeco-Bactrian designs, a con-
clusive proof of the external influences brought to bear upon
Chinese art, arc also attributed to the Han epoch.
The troubled period between a.d. 400 and a.d. 960, in spite of the
interval of activity under the T'ang dynasty, produced, it would
seem, but few bronzes, and those few were of no distinct or note-
worthy style. Under the Sung dynasty the arts revived, and to this
time some of the most splendid specimens of inlaid work belong —
pieces of workmanship and ta*te no less perfect than that of the
Japanese, in which the gold and silver of the earlier work are occa-
sionally reinforced with malachite and lapis-lazuli. The coming of
Kublai Khan and the Yuen dynasty (1280-1367) once more brought
the East into contact with the West, and to this time we may assign
certain fine pieces of Persian form such as pilgrim bottles. The
bearing Arabic inscriptions belong to the Ming dynasty
.* . .% ...-.t. _.*.!.«. ^ j — •.•_.. — f f Qijnege art begins.
s still young provides the
, an J in one or two cum-^i
even the South Kensington authorities assign \q ipre-Christian lime*
pieces that are clearly of Ming workmanship. The tendency or tlie
period was eclectic and archaistic. The products of ear tier da y.» were
reproduced with perfect technical command of material*, and with
admirable taste; it is indeed by an excess of the^e qualities that
archaistic Ming work may be distinguished from the true archaic.
In fig. 15 we see how the Ming bronze worker took an earlier Budd-
histic form of vase and gave it a new grace that amounted almost to
artifice. A parallel might be found among the products of the *o-
called art nouveau of to-day, in which old designs are revived with
just that added suavity or profusion of curvature that robs them of
character. Fig. 16 again might be mistaken almost for a piece of
the Chow dynasty, were not the grandeur of its form rrnyHfiea by just
so much harmony in the curvature of the body ami tu-rk, and by just
so much finish in the details as to rob the design of the old majestic
vigour and to mark it as the splendid effort of an age of culture, and
not the natural product of a period of strength.
It is, however, in the inlaid pieces that the difference tells most
clearly. Here we find the monstrous forms of the Shang and Chow
dynasties revived by men who appreciated their spirit but could not
help making the revival an excuse for the display of their own
superior skin. The monstrous vases and incense-burners of the past
thus appear once more, but are now decorated with a delicate em-
broidery of inlay, are polished and finished to perfection, but lose
therewith just the rudeness of edge and outline which made the older
work so gravely significant. At times even some grandly planned
vessel will appear with such a festoon of pretty tracery wreathed
about it that the incongruity is little short of ridiculous, and we
recofrntxe we have passed the turning-point to decline.
Decline indeed came rapidly, and to the latter part of the Ming
(1368-1 644), with which the modern history of Chinese art begins.
The work done while the Ming dynasty was still
student of Chinese art with many problems, and in
epoch we must assign those countless bronzes where dragons and
flowers and the stock symbols of happiness, good luck and longevity
sprawl together in interminable convolutions. When once we reach
this stage of contortion, of elaborate pierced and relief work, we come
to the place in history of Chinese bronzes where serious study may
cease, except in so far as the study of the symbols themselves throws
light upon the history of Chinese procelain (see Ceramics). One
class 01 bronze alone needs a word of notice, namely, the profusely
decorated pieces which have a Tibetan origin, and are obviously no
older than the end of the Ming period. Ofthcse fig. 17 will serve as
a specimen, and a comparison with fig. 9 will show how the softer
rounded forms and jewelled festoons of Hindu-Greek taste enervated
the grand primitive force of the earlier age, and that neither the added
delicacy of texture and substance nor the vastly increased dexterity of
workmanship can compensate for the vanished majesty. (C J. H.)
VII. The Chinese Language
Colloquial.— In treating of Chinese, it will be found convenient
to distinguish, broadly, the spoken from the written language
and to deal with each separately. This is a distinction which
would be out of place if we had to do with any European, or
indeed most Oriental languages. Writing, in its origin, is merely
a symbolic representation of speech. But in Chinese, as we shall
sec, for reasons connected with the peculiar nature of the script,
the two soon began to move along independent and largely
divergent lines. This division, moreover, will enable us to
employ different methods of inquiry more suited to each. With
regard to the colloquial, it is hardly possible to do more than
consider it in the form or forms in which it exists at the present
day throughout the empire of China. Although Chinese, like
other living languages, must have undergone gradual changes
in the past, so little can be stated with certainty about these
changes that an accurate survey of its evolution is quite out of
the question. Obviously a different method is required when
we come to the written characters. The familiar line, " Litcra
scripta manet, volat irrevocable verbum," is truer perhaps of
Chinese than of any other tongue. We have hardly any clue as
to how Chinese was spoken or pronounced in any given district
2000 years ago, although there are written remains dating from
long before that time; and in order to gain an insight into the
structure of the characters now existing, it is necessary to trace
their origin and development.
Beginning with the colloquial, then, and taking a linguistic
survey of China, we find not one spoken language but a number
of dialects, all clearly of a common stock , yet differing
from one another as widely as the various Romance ^vir-
languagcs in southern Europe — say, French, Italian
and Spanish. Most of these dialects are found fringing the
coast-line of China, and penetrating but a comparatively short
way into the interior. Starting from the province of Kwangtung
in the south, where the Cantonese and farther inland the Hakka
dialects are spoken, and proceeding northwards, we pass in sue*
cession the following dialects: Swatow, Amoy — these two may
almost be regarded as one — Foochow, Wenchow and Ningpo.
Farther north we come into the range of the great dialect
popularly known as Mandarin (Kuan hua or " official language "),
which sweeps round behind the narrow strip of coast occupied
by the various dialects above-mentioned, and dominates a
hinterland constituting nearly four-fifths of China proper.
Mandarin, of which the dialect of Peking, the capital since 1421,
is now the standard form, comprises a considerable number of
sub-dialects, some of them so closely allied that the speakers of
one are wholly intelligible to the speakers of another, while
others {e.g. the vernaculars of Yangchow, Hankow or Mid-China
and Ssu-ch'uan) may almost be considered as separate dialects.
Among all these, Cantonese is supposed to approximate most
nearly to the primitive language of antiquity, whereas Pekingese
perhaps has receded farthest from it. But although philolc>gically
and historically speaking Cantonese and certain other dialects
may be of greater interest, for all practical purposes Mandarin,
in the widest sense of the term, is by far the most important.
Not only can it claim to be the native speech of the majority of
Chinamen, but it is the recognized vehicle of oral communication
between all Chinese officials, even in cases where they come from
the same part of the country and speak the same poiois. For
LANGUAGE)
CHINA
217
, all examples of phraseology in this article will be
given in Pekingese.
So far, stress has been laid chiefly on the dissimilarity of the
dialects On the other hand, it must be remembered that they
proceed from the same parent stem, are spoken by members of
the same race, and are united by the bond of writing which is the
common possession of all, and cannot be regarded as derived
from one more than from another. They also share alike in the
two most salient features of Chinese as a whole: (1) they are all
monosyllabic, that is, each individual word consists of only
one syllable; and (2) they are strikingly poor in vocables, or
separate sounds for the conveyance of speech. The number of
these vocables varies from between 800 and 900 in Cantonese to
no more than 420 in the vernacular of Peking. This scanty
number, however, is eked out by interposing an aspirate between
certain initial consonants and the vowel, so that for instance p'u
is distinguished from pu. The latter is pronounced with little
or no emission of breath, the " p " approximating the farther
north one goes (e.g at Niuchwang) more closely to a "b."
The aspirated p'u is pronounced more like our interjection
" Pooh!" To the Chinese ear, the difference between the two
is very marked. It will be found, as a rule, that an Englishman
imparts a slight aspirate to his p's, t's, k's and ch's, and therefore
has greater difficulty with the unaspirated words in Chinese.
The aspirates are better learned by the ear than by the eye,
but in one way or another it is essential that they be mastered
by any one who wishes to make himself intelligible to the native.
The influence of the Mongolian population, assisted by the
p rogre ss of time, has slowly but surely diminished the number
of vocables in Pekingese. Thus the initials ts and k, when fol-
lowed by the vowel 1 ( with its continental value) have gradually
become softer and more assimilated to each other, and are now
all pronounced ch. Again, all consonantal endings in / and k,
such as survive in Cantonese and other dialects, have entirely
disappeared from Pekingese, and n and ng are the only final
consonants remaining. Vowel sounds, on the other hand, have
been proportionately developed, such compounds as ao, ia, iao,
iu, it, ua occurring with especial frequency. (It must be under-
stood, of course, that the above are only equivalents, not in all
cases very exact, for the sounds of a non-alphabetic language.)
An immediate consequence of this paucity of vocables is that
one and the same sound has to do duty for different words.
Reckoning the number of words that an educated man would
want to use in conversation at something over four thousand,
fit is obvious that there will be an average of ten meanings to
each sound employed. Some sounds may have fewer meanings
attached to them, but others will have many more. Thus the
following represent only a fraction of the total number of words
pronounced shih (something like the " shi " in shirt): gs " his-
tory," fg " to employ," jj " a corpse," jfj " a market," f$ " an
anny," £ " a lion," ft " to rely on," f$ " to wait on," jflt
H poetry," R$ " time," ft " to know," £g " to bestow," j| " to
be," K "solid," & "to lose," ^ M to proclaim," fg "to look
at," -f- " ten," ft " to pick up," ft " stone," $£ " generation,"
ft "to eat," g "a house," ft "a clan," #j "beginning," ft
"to let go," ft "to test," $. "affair," $ " power," ± "officer,"
f to swear," g| " to pass away," jg " to happen." It would
be manifestly impossible to speak without ambiguity, or indeed
to make oneself intelligible at all, unless there were some means
of supplementing this deficiency of sounds. As a matter of fact,
several devices are employed through the combination of which
confusion is avoided. One of these devices is the coupling of
words in pairs in order to express a single idea. There is a word
V *» which means " elder brother." But in speaking, the sound
ho alone would not always be easily understood in this sense.
One must either reduplicate it and say ko-ko, or prefix ^C (/a,
" great ") and say ta-ko. Simple reduplication is mostly con-
fined to family appellations and such adverbial phrases as {ft 1ft
man-man, " slowly." But there is a much larger class of pairs,
in which each of the two components has the same meaning.
Examples are: » ft Vuntffa," to be afraid," & ft *o#-
su, "to tell," {£ ^; shu-mu, "tree," ft JR *Y-/n, "&m"
$ fiman-yiiij/'full/'H faku-tu," solitary." Sometimes the
two parts are not exactly synonymous, but together make up
the sense required. Thus in # £i-shang, u clothes," 1 denotes
more particularly clothes worn on the upper part of the body,
and shang those on the lower part. & faftng-huaitgis the name
of a fabulous bird, f(*g being the male, and kuang the female.
In another very large class of expressions, the first word serves
to limit and determine the special meaning of the second: ftj) Jjfc
"milk-skin," "cream"; jfc JR "fire-leg," "ham"; jg IB
" lamp-cage," " lantern " ; $$ jg " sea-waist," " strait." There
are, besides, a number of phrases which are harder to classify.
Thus, j£ hu means " tiger." But in any case where ambiguity
might arise, lao-hu, " old tiger," is used instead of the mono*
syllable. j£ (another hu) is " fox," and || It, an animal belong-
ing to the smaller cat tribe. Together, hu-is, they form the usual
term for fox. £g g£ chih too is literally " to know the way,"
but has come to be used simply for the verb " to know." These
pairs or two-word phrases are of such frequent occurrence,
that the Chinese spoken language might almost be described as
bi-syllabic. Something similar is seen in the extensive use of
suffixes or enclitics, attached to many of the commonest nouns.
-fa nil is the word for " girl," but in speech -fa ^f nu-tzA or -f( $J
nih*rh is the form used, ^p and jjj both mean child, and must
originally have been diminutives. A fairly close parallel is
afforded by the German suffix chen, as in Madchen. The suffix
§J, it may be remarked, belongs especially to the Peking ver-
nacular. Then, the use of so-called numeratives will often
give some sort of clue as to the class of objects in which a sub-
stantive may be found. When in pidgin English we speak of
" one piecee man " or " three piccce dollar," the word piecee is
simply a Chinese numerativc in English dress. Even in ordinary
English, people do not say " four cattle " but " four head of
cattle." But in Chinese the use of numeratives is quite a dis-
tinctive feature of the language. The commonest of them, $} ko,
can be used indifferently in connexion with almost any class of
things, animal, vegetable or mineral. But there are other
numeratives— at least 20 or 30 in everyday use — which are
strictly reserved for limited classes of things with specific attri-
butes, jfa mei, for instance, is the numerative of circular
objects such as coins and rings ; JR k'o of small globular objects
— pearls, grains of rice, &c. ; p k*ou classifies things which have
a mouth— bags, boxes and so forth ; f£ chien is used of all kinds
of affairs; £g chang of chairs and sheets of paper; £ chih
(literally half a pair) is the numerative for various animals,
parts of the body, articles of clothing and ships ; ft* pa for things
which are grasped by a handle, such as fans and knives.
This by no means exhausts the list of devices by which the
difficulties of a monosyllabic language arc successfully overcome.
Mention need only be made, however, of the system of " tones,"
which, as the most curious and important of all, has been kept
for the last.
The tones may be defined as regular modulations of the voice
by means of which different inflections can be imparted to the
same sound. They may be compared with the half-
involuntary modulations which express emotional
feeling in our words. To the foreign ear, a Chinese sentence
spoken slowly with the tones clearly brought out has a certain
sing-song effect. If we speak of the tones as a " device "
adopted in order to increase the number of vocables, this must
be understood rather as a convenient way of explaining their
practical function than as a scientific account of their origin.
It is absurd to suppose the tones were deliberately invented in
order to fit each written character with a separate sound. A
tone may be said to be as much an integral part of the word to
which it belongs as the sound itself; like the sound, too, it is not
fixed once and for all, but is in a constant, though very gradual,
stale of evolution. TTiis fact is> ^xw*& Vj >2a*. ^*»X<&Klw»rs%^
2l8
CHINA
[LANGUAGE
ia'/.u'/w jr. »Jtt ^laiec-i Tl«re^aZ7. f^sr ixo fcaie bie-
< */.:./ . ;.v/! ta« */*: . "I'.*, rv.^ r^c x^s.ng lil ^=* c^:»-j:z
'/r.'y **e '.:,".?*** i.«.'-. y*.*r*ja »_ :i«e eyp: .i.-e*i-3 c:
»or^ '•// >r.'.*i & :...-.-.-. Yx.\ itxr. vi.1&i , »rJe Ptkirg-st. w-.ii
*h^.fc »*, if. r*y-s.JL..j 's^'xr-jrA btr». has :x rxre • *»*-- f:.r:
«f *• *-/«:.*. '.>;•..• •-■"■< *"'e?» >/**r, *.be n-^-y azd ibe
K;: , v/ '/ *'.e *'sj?. has yet !o &t riv.'t, I
tsew=«r». Eis: hare sprs^
d',-*r. »// «.Ve jrd century tc. the vcly tcoes dali
r*.
originally (torn pic t vires
he indications of such an origin
a r'sw characters, indeed, even in metmrta1
•jxl~ -react: ::r=. ~z*iz4 perfesly recognizable as pic- «**»««.
i ira cc* cc . ar_s r--rr n-i s^rr.** Thus, for ** sun " the
ardent GL-sese drrw a cL-de with a dot in it : 0, now modified
V* =t= H; fa- "m"! ^:* A ; for "God" they drew the
. L : < * > ^ a=tir:^e:rptk 5s\^e £. wiich m its modern form appears
ev« " JL ' r'j. \z.f zzi A "esurif.- Betwee^ ! " ^ ; £:r ===*=* " A' "** J ** "«*« " *. now * "
<U-« a:.'! tie 4-L «tfjy aj>. the £ siting tore wis j far "«*" 0- new fl; for "month" a round hole, now n ;
WsA. Ir, • he 1 1 th cef.zry the eves lose was dlvl led I^ro f :r " ha=,2 " ^.. new :"£ ; fcr "well ** ^ , now written without the
r *:A \f, :+r, ztA a li!tle later the entering tcae £=aRy dis- j <«:l Htace we see that wiile the origin of all writing is picto-
*;.;^*f"! fr'/r. P*ri-j«e. The foOaw-jig roonos>Uabic dulofae j graftk, in Chizese liooe of lining languages certain pictures
%. /-. * v*r/ f;.:r i'J*a «/ the qua^ f 7 «* t- k -« ?«*' Pekir-gese tones taxt senrived. and siill denote what they had denoted in the
at Um*.. h»M 'ipAcn in a raided rr.oaotone, with slightly I begiaii=g. In the script of other countries they were gradually
r-?»ir.«i-/e infer.fsjn,; ?n<f /4«: Dead? 'simple query); 3rd i transformed in:o hieroglyphic symbols, after which they either
/'/»* ffeadf 'an ir.'.rtdJvi* q-«ry long drawn out;; 4^ tew: disappeared ai together or became further conventionalized into
h»»d: 'a tkarp ar.d 4t>ri:ivt ans»/rr ; . The ca'Jve leams the t f ie ^^€,5 of ^ alphabet. These picture-characters, then,
i//r*t ur.Mjv.v.io-j-.ly ar.4 by ear alone. For centuries their exist- accumulated little by little, until they comprised all the common
«r,'» »»% ur.ww-l, the first systematic classification of them objects which could be easily and rapidly delineated— sun, moon,
bo** ami**.f.d with the name of Shen Vo, a scholar who slzrs% y^us animals, certain pans of the body, tree, grass
li i*'\ ku. 441-VJ. The Emperor Wu Ti was inclined to be ; and „ £0^^ l0 ^ t num ber of two or three hundred. The next
K'l^i'al, aiid *,m day said to him: " Come, tell me, what are
th' v: famous f'n j r Umrii" " They are JL -fr 9 ft whatever
your Majesty r/lea.v» to make them," replied Shen Yo, skilfully
sHi'ting for J,j% ^nvwiT four words which illustrated, and in the
tibial or«l«r, the four tones in question. Although no native is
e/#r tatjgrii th*- ume* separately, they are none the less present
in lli*; word\ he ut»crr„ and must be acquired consciously or
UMonvioir.ly by any European who wishes to be understood.
It 1* a nii.uJ"-, howi;vfr ( to imagine that every single word in
a wuii-wr. nmvi nrMv.arily be given its full tonic force. Quite
a iiiiiriljf-r of w»>r«ls, .su<h as the enclitics mentioned above, are
j forth, t
step was to a few compound pictograms which would naturally
suggest themselves to primitive man : £ thc sun ^ abw ' c the
horizon «" dawn"; ^ trees side by side -"a forest"; g *
mouth with something solid coming out of it - u the tongue ";
It a mouth with vapor or breath coming out of it 8 " " words."
But a purely pictographic script has its limitations. The more
complex natural objects hardly come within its scope; still less
the whole body of abstract ideas. While writing was ^^
still in its infancy, it must have occurred to the Chinese tf^^m.
to join together two or more pictorial characters in
not ififoiiahrl af all. In others the degree of emphasis depends j order that their association might suggest to the mind
partly on tin- tone itself, partly on its position in the sentence, some third thing or idea. " Sun " and " moon " combined in
In I'fkingfw the jrd tone (which is really the second in the
ordinary wrii-., the i:,t being subdivided into upper and lower)
li p.irii'ulariy Important, and next to it in this respect comes
lii»- /fid fih.it i\ the lower even, or 2nd division of the 1st).
It nuy In- r.,iid, roughly, that any speaker whose second and third
torn* Jirr mrrrit will at any rate be understood, even if the 1st
and 41I1 Jirr- '.lurrrd over.
ft In ihii-fly, howfvrr, on Its marvellous script and the rich
I n-aMirrs of iin litrrature that the Chinese language depends for
7ft» ' , * uu } , \ uv faw-inaiion and charm. If we take a page
iA«r«ferf. "' iiriniid Chinrsi: or carefully written manuscript
and t miiparr it with a page, say, of Arabic or Sanskrit,
Ihr Oilncvr in win m tmrv t G jkwmss a marked characteristic
ol iii> own. It ififf.istH of a number of wholly independent units,
•■■nil of whiih would fit into a small square, and is called a
1 Ihirm iff. TIhm- 1 hariu trrn arc arranged in columns, beginning
•hi tin* lltflit hand i.ide **f the page and running from top to
ImiIIihii. 'I'liry nir wonts, Inasmuch as they stand for articulate
•i.iimli rxpKv.ing runt i«!<-a-i, but they nrc unlike our words in
ilni tln-v Hir not (ompoMil *»f alphabetical elements or letters.
< li-nilv, If null ili.ir.u-lrr were n distinct and arbitrarily con-
Hiiuiii.l uvuilii.l, only those gifted with exceptional powers of
1111 mm v imilil ever lm|>e to reail or write with fluency. This,
rmwrvi-i, h l.u lioiu bring t| u « r.ise. If wc go to work synthetic-
ally mid lii-.t -it Imw the language is built up, it will soon appear
that must Cliinrsr 1 datallers are susieptible of some kind of
aiiiilvMi Wc 1n.1v iiiirpl as substantially true the account
ol native wilieii who tell us that means of communication other
than 111.1I began Willi the use of knotted cord*, similar to the
Vni/^mj of am ient Me\i,o and IVru. and that these were dis-
plaud latet on l-v the pi.u tiir* of notching or scoring rude marks
•m himhI, bamboo and sione. It i* beyond question that thc
lunt Inui mi met .ilt as written with simple horizontal strokes,
tlrttr liom this i aily period. Kotihing, however, cairies us but
a lit lli* MAy on the load to a system of writing, which in China,
this way make the character W, which means " bright "; woman
and child make " good "; " fields " and " strength " (that
is, labour in thc fields) produce the character Ji "male";
two " men " on " earth " ^ signifies " to sit "—before chairs
were known; the "sun" seen through "trees" Jfc designates
the east; % has been explained as (1) a " pig " under a " roof,"
the Chinese idea, common to the Irish peasant, of home, and
also (2) as " several persons " under 4 a roof," in the same
sense ; a " woman " under a " roof " makes the character $
"peace"; "words" and "tongue" Jg naturally suggest
" speech " ; two hands (^fc, in the old formgj) indicate friend-
ship ; " woman " and " birth " U —" born of a woman," means
"clan-name," showing that the ancient Chinese traced through
thc mother and not through the father. Interesting and in-
genious as many of these combinations are, it is clear that their
number, too, must in any practical system of writing be severely
limited. Hence it is not surprising that this class of characters,
correctly called ideograms, as representing ideas and not objects,
should be a comparatively small one. Up to this point there
seemed to be but little chance of the written language reaching
a free field for expansion. It had run so far on lines sharply
distinct from those of ordinary speech. There was nothing in
the character per u which gave the slightest clue to the sound of
the word it represented. Each character, therefore, had to be
learned and recognized by a separate effort of memory. The
first step in a new, and, as it ultimately proved,
the right direction, was the borrowing of a char- t
actcr already in use to represent another word
identical in sound, though different in meaning. Owing to the
scarcity of vocables noted above, there might be as many as
ten different words in common use, each pronounced fang.
Out of those ten only one, we will suppose, had a character
assigned to it— namely $j " square " (originally said to be a
LANGUAGE)
CHINA
219
picture of two boats joined together). But among the other nine
was/s*g, meaning " street " or " locality," in such common use
that it became necessary to have some means of writing it.
Instead of inventing an altogether new character, as they might
have done, the Chinese took ~)$ " square " and used it also in
the sense of " locality." This was a simple expedient, no doubt, |
but one that, applied on a large scale, could not but lead to
confusion. The corresponding difficulty which presented itself
in speech was overcome, as we saw, by many devices, one of
which consisted in prefixing to the word in question another
which served to determine its special meaning. A native does I
not say fang simply when he wishes to speak of a place, but
ti-fang " earth-place." Exactly the same device was now
adopted in writing the character. To fang " square " was added
another part meaning " earth," in order to show that the fang
in question had to do with location on the earth's surface. The
whole character thus appeared as tfc. Once this phonetic prin-
ciple had been introduced, all was smooth sailing, and writing
progr e s s ed by leaps and bounds. Nothing was easier now
than to provide signs for the other words pronounced fang. ,
u A room " was JJj door-fang ; " to spin " was Vj silk-/a»f ;
u fragrant " was ^ herbs-fang; " to inquire " was 3} words-
fiwj; " an embankment," and hence " to guard against," was
Mr mound-fang; " to hinder " was jfi woman-/<"'£ This last
example may seem a little strange until we remember that man
must have played the principal part in the development of
writing, and that from the masculine point of view there is some
thing essentially obstructive and unmanageable in woman's
nature. It may be remarked, by the way, that the clement
u woman " is often the determinative in characters that stand
for unamiable qualities, e.g. If " jealous," jtf " treacherous,"^
" false " and jfc " uncanny." This class of characters, which
constitutes at least nine-tenths of the language, has received the
convenient name of phonograms. It must be added that the
formation of the phonogram or phonetic compound did not
always proceed along such simple lines as in the examples given
above, where both parts are pictorial characters, one, the
" phonetic," representing the sound, and the other, commonly
known as the " radical," giving a clue to the sense. In the first
place, most of the phonetics now existing are not simple picto-
grams, but themselves more or less complex characters made up
in a variety of ways. On analysing, for instance, the word £ft
fetfg, " to withdraw," we find it is composed of the phonetic
A combined with the radical L., an abbreviated form of -& " to
walk." But $£ sun means " grandson," and is itself a suggestive
compound made up of the two characters ^"a son " and Jfc
" connect." The former character is a simple pictogram, but
the latter is again resolvable into the two elements / " a down
stroke to the left " and & " a strand of silk," which is here
understood to be the radical and appears in its ancient form as
jjl, a picture of cocoons spun by the silkworm. Again, the
sound is in most cases given by no means exactly by the so-called 1
phonetic, a fact chiefly due to the pronunciation having under-
gone changes which the written character was incapable of record-
ing. Thus, we have just seen that the phonetic of M is not hsiin
but sun. There are extreme cases in which a phonetic provides
hardly any clue at all as to the sound of its derivatives. The
character ^C,for example, which by itself is pronounced ck*ien,\
appears in combination as the modern phonetic of Jfc Van,
Htjuan,fikyin and IJfc ch'ui; though in the last instance it was
not originally the phonetic but the radical of a character which
was analysed as ^J ch'kn, " to emit breath " from tl " the
mouth/' the whole character being a suggestive compound
rather than an illustration of radical and phonetic combined.
In general, however, it may be said that the " final " or rhyme
is pretty accurately indicated, while in not a few cases the pho-
netic does give the exact sound for all its derivatives. Thus, the
characters in which the element jfr enters arc pronounced chien,
cjficn, ksien and lien; but ft and its derivatives are all t*. A
considerable number of phonetics are nearly or entirely obsolete
1 as separate characters, although their family of derivatives may
be a very large one. RX, for instance, is never seen by itself, yet
&, 5ft, and Jf are among the most important characters in the
language. Objections have been raised in some quarters to
this account of the phonetic development of Chinese. It is
argued that the primitives and sub-primitives, whereby is meant
any character which is capable of entering into combination
with another, have really had some influence on the meaning,
and do not merely possess a phonetic value. But insufficient
evidence has hitherto been advanced in support of this view.
The whole body of Chinese characters, then, may conveniently
be divided up, for philological purposes, into pictograms, ideo-
grams and phonograms. The first are pictures of objects, the
second are composite symbols standing for abstract ideas, the
third are compound characters of which the more important
clement simply represents a spoken sound. Of course, in a strict
sense, even the first two classes do not directly represent either
'objects or ideas, but rather stand for sounds by which these
objects and ideas have previously been expressed. It may, in
fact, be said that Chinese characters are " nothing but a number
of more or less ingenious devices fov suggesting spoken words to
a reader." This definition exposes the inaccuracy of the popular
{notion that Chinese is a language of ideographs, a mistake which
even the compilers of the Oxford English Dictionary have not
avoided. Considering that all the earliest characters are pictorial,
land that the vast majority of the remainder arc constructed on
phonetic principles, it is absurd to speak of Chinese characters as
j" symbolizing the idea of a thing, without expressing the name
of it."
The Chinese themselves have always been diligent students of
I their written language, and at a very early date (probably many
I centuries B.C.) evolved a sixfold classification of char-
acters, the so-called f\ £ liu shu, very inaccurately scrtftt,"
translated by the Six Scripts, which may be briefly
1 noticed: —
1. fit V chih shi!i, indicative or self-explanatory characters.
This is a very small class, including only the simplest numerals
and a few others such as _fc, " above " and T " below."
2. ft #£ hsiang hsing, pictographic characters.
1 3. T& i$ hsing shing orH9 hsiek sMng, phonetic com-
pounds.
4. £ ft hut i, suggestive compounds based on a natural
association of ideas. To this class alone can the term " ideo-
graphs " be properly applied.
5- W ££ chuan chu. The meaning of this name has been much
disputed, some saying that it means " turned round "; e.g.
<0> mu " eye " is now written 0. Others understand it as com-
prising a few groups of characters nearly related in sense, each
character consisting of an element common to the group, together
with a specific and detachable part; e.g. $£, 2$ , and ^y , all of
which have the meaning "old." This class may be ignored
altogether, seeing that it is concerned not with the origin of
characters but only with peculiarities in their use.
6. §£ {§ chia chick, borrowed characters, as explained above,
. that is, characters adopted for different words simply because
of the identity of sound.
The order of this native classification is not to be taken as in
any sense chronological. Roughly, it may be said that the
development of writing followed the course previously traced—
that is, beginning with indicative signs, and going on with
pictograms and ideograms, until finally the discovery of the
phonetic principle did away with all necessity for other devices
in enlarging the written language. But we have no direct
evidence that this was so. There can be little doubt that phonetic
compounds made their appearance at a very early date, probably
prior to the invention of a large number of suggestive compounds,
and perhaps even before the whole existing stock of pictograms
had been fashioned. It is significant that numerous words o(
daily occurrence, which must bast Y»aA * \^&x&Y&'&fc, «^K«sx
Stykmoi
220
stages of human thought, are expressed by phonetic characters.
We can be fairly certain, at any rate, that the period of
44 borrowed characters " did not last very long, though it is
thought that traces of it are to be seen in the habit of writing
several characters, especially those for certain plants and
animals, indifferently with or without their radicals. Thus
ifi M- " a tadpole" is frequently written S 4% without the
part meaning "insect" or "reptile."
In the very earliest inscriptions that have come down to us, the
so-called j£ ^£ ku-wbi or "ancient figures/'all the above-mentioned
forms occur. None are wholly pictorial, with one or two
unimportant exceptions. These early inscriptions arc
found on bronzes dating from the half-legendary period
extending from the beginning of the Shang dynasty in the 18th
century B.C., or possibly earlier, down to a point in the reign of King
Hsuan of the Chou dynasty, generally fixed at 827 B.C. They have
been carefully reproduced and for the most part deciphered by pains-
taking Chinese archaeologists, and form the subject of many volumin-
ous works. The following may be taken as a specimen, in which it
will be noticed that only the last character is unmistakably pictorial :
Thisisrc.il: l|i \\- J? %\\— "Sh£n made |ihis]
precious Hag-" These ancient bronics, which
mainly take the -Jiapc of bells, cauldron* and
sacrificial utensils, were until within the last
decade our .sole jounce of informal ion concerning
the origin and early history of Chinese writing.
But recently a large number of inscribed bone
fragment* hafflj l)ccn excavated in the north of
China, providing new and unexpected matter for investigation.
The inscriptions on these bones have already furnished a list of nearly
2500 separate characters, of which not more than about 600 have
been so far identified. They appear to be response* given by pro-
fessional soothsayers to private individuals who came to them
seeking the aid of divination in the affairs of their daily life. It is
difficult to fix their date with much exactitude. The script, though
less archaic than that of the earlier bronzes, is nevertheless of an
exceedingly free and irregular type. Judging by the style of the in-
scriptions alone, one would be inclined to assign them to the early
years of the Chou dynasty, say 1 100 B.C. But Mr L. C. Hopkins
thinks that they represent a mode of writing already obsolete at the
time of their production, and retained of set purpose by the diviners
from obscurantist motives, much as the ancient hieroglyphics were
employed by the Egyptian priesthood. He would therefore date
them about 500 years later, or only half a century before the birth of
Confucius. If that is so, they are merely late specimens of the
" ancient figures " appearing long after the latter had made way for a
new and more conventionalized form of writing. This new writing
is called in Chinese 3R ckuan, which is commonly rendered by the
word Seal, for the somewhat unscientific reason that many ages after-
wards it was generally adopted for use on seals. _ Under the Chou
dynasty, however, as well as the two succeeding it, the meaning of
the word was not " seal," but " sinuous curves,' as made in writing.
It has accordingly been suggested that this epoch marks the first
introduction into China of the brush in place of the bamboo or
wooden pencil with frayed end which was used with some kind of
colouring matter or varnish. There are many arguments both for
and against this view; but it is unquestionable, at any rate, that the
introduction of a supple implement like the brush at the very time
when the forms of characters were fast becoming crystallized and
fixed, would be sufficient to account for a great revolution in the
style of writing. Authentic specimens of the ^* £g la chuan, older or
Greater Seal writing, are exceedingly rare. Bui it is generally
believed that the inscriptions on the famous stone drum a. now a t
Peking, date from the reign of King Hsuan, and they may therefore
with practical certainty be cited as examples of the Greater SeaT
in its original form. These " drums " are really ten rwighly chiselled
mountain boulders, which were discovered in the early part of the
7th century, lying half buried in the ground near Ftfng-hviang Fu in
the province of Shensi. On them are engraved ten odes, a. complete
ode being cut on each drum, celebrating an Imperial hunting and
fishing expedition in that part of the country. A fnc simile of one of
these, taken from an old rubbing and reproduced in Dr Hu*hf lit
Handbook of Chinese Art, shows that great strides had been made in
this writing towards symmetry, compactness and conventionalism.
The vogue of the Greater Seal appears to have lasted until the reign
of the First Emperor. 221-210 B.C. (see History), when a further
modification took place. For many centuries China had been split
up into a number of practically independent states, and this circum-
stance seems to have led to considerable variations in the stylet of
writing. Having succeeded in unifying the empire, the Fim
Emperor proceeded, on the advice of his minister Li Ssfl. to standard-
ize its script by ordaining that only the style in use in his own state of
Ch'in should henceforward be employed throughout China. It is
clear, then, that this new style of writing was nothing more than the
Greater Seal characters in the form they had assumed after several
CHINA
{LANGUAGE
centuries of evolution, with numerous abbreviations and modifica-
tions. It was afterwards known as the /!"» j§L Hsiao chuan, or Lesser
Seal, and is familiar to us from the Shuo Win dictionary (see Litera-
ture). Though a decided improvement on what had gone before, the
Lesser Seal was destined to have but a short career of undisputed
supremacy. Reform was in the air; and something less cumbrous
was soon felt to be necessary by the clerks who had to supply the
immense quantity of written reports demanded by the First Emperor.
Thus it came about that a yet simpler and certainly more artistic
form of writing was already in use, though not universally so, not
long after the decree abolishing the Greater Seal. This & £ li sku.
nr " official script," as it it called, shows a great advance on the Seal
character; *o much so that one cannot help suspecting the traditional
account of its invention. It ** perhaps mere likely to have been
directly evolved from [he Greater Scaf. If the Lesser Seal was the
script of the temv barbarous Mate of Ch'in, we should certainly expect
to find a more highly developed *yittin of writing in some of the other
states. Unlike the Seal , 1 he it shu i % perfectly legible to one acquainted
only with the modern character, from which indeed it differs but in
minor detail*. How long the Lesser Seal continued to exist side by
»fdc wiith the h sku is a question which cannot be answered with
certainty. It was evidently quite obsolete, however, at the time of
the compilation of the Shuo IS'irt. about a hundred years after the
Christian era. A* for the Greater Seal and still earlier forms of
writing* they were not merely obsolete but had fallen into utter
oblivion before the Han Dynatty was fifty years old. When a
number of classical texts were discovered bricked up in old houses
about 150 B.C., the style of writing was considcted so singular by the
literati of the period that they refused to believe it was the ordinary
ancient character at all, ana nicknamed it k'o-l'ou sku, " tadpole
character," from some fancied resemblance in shape. The theory
that these tadpole characters were not Chinese but a species of cunei-
form script, in which the wedges might possibly suggest tadpoles,
must be dismissed as too wildly improbable for serious considera-
tion; but we may advert for a moment to a famous inscription in
which the real tadpole characters of antiquity are said to appear.
This is on a stone tablet alleged to have been erected on Mount Heng
in the modern Hupeh by the legendary Emperor Yd. as a record of
his labours in draining away the great flood which submerged part of
China in the 23rd century B.C. After more than one fruitless search,
the actual monument is said to have been discovered on a peak of
the mountain in a.d. 1212, and a transcription was made, which may
be seen reproduced as a curiosity in Leg£e's Classics, vol. Hi. For
several reasons, however, the whole affair must be regarded as a
gross imposture.
Out of the " official script " two other forms were soon developed,
namely the $C £ ts'ao sku, or " grass character," which so curtails
the usual strokes as to be comparable to a species of shorthand,
requiring special study, and the \\ ff ksing sku or running hand,
used in ordinary correspondence. Some form of grass character is
mentioned as in use as early as 200 B.C. or thereabouts, though how
nearly it approximated to the modern grass hand it is hard to say ;
the running hand seems to have come several centuries later. The
final standardisation of Chinese writing was due to the great calli-
graphist Wang Hst-chih of the 41b century, who gave currency to the
graceful style of character known a 9 iffi 1$ Jr'at ihu, sometime*
rrfe rred 1 o a? I he " c lerkly ha nd /* When bloc k- p rinti n g was invented
some centuries later > the characters were cut on this model, which *titl
survives at the present day. ft 11 no doubt owing 10 the early intro-
dtu tion of printing that the script of China has remained practically
and pre-
UftuBJi,
unchanged ever since, The manuscript roll* of the T*mhj and pre-
ceding dynasties recently discovered by 11 r Stein In Turkestan,
f urni&h direct evidence of this fact, showing as they do a style of writ-
ing not only clear and lej;iLjh:tnjt remarkably modem in appearance.
The whole history of Chinese writing, then, is characterized hy a
slow progressive, development which precludes the ides of sharply-
marked divisions between one period and another. The Chinese
themselves, however, have canonized quite a series of alleged in-
ventors, starting from Fu I Li, a mythical emperor of the third
millennium BC, who it raid 10 have developed a complete system
of written characters from the markings on the back of a dragon*
horse; hence, by the way. the origin of the dragon as an Imperial
emblem. Asa rule, the credit of the: invention of the art of writing is
given to Ts'ang Oiirh, a being with fabulous attributes, who con-
trived the idea of a written language from the markings of birds'
claws upon the sand. The diffusion of the Greater Seal script is
traced to a work in fifteen chiniers published by Shih Chou. historio-
grapher in the rci^n of King Hsuan, The Lesser Seal, again, is often
ascribed to Li Ssu himself, whereas the utmost he can have done in
the matter was to urge its introduction into common use. Likewise.
Chcruj Mo, of the 3rd century B.C.. is supposed to have invented
the /1 ' thn while in prison, and one account attributes the Lesser Seal
to him as well; but the fact is that the whole history of writing, as
it stands in Chinese authors, is in hopelcs* confusion.
Grammar.— When about to embark on the study of a foreign
language, the student's first thought is to provide himself with
LANCUAGEJ
CHINA
221
two indispensable aids — a dictionary and a grammar. The
Chinese have found no difficulty in producing the former (see
Literature). Now what as to the grammar ? He might reason-
ably expect a people so industrious in the cultivation of their
hngnage to have evolved some system of grammar which to
a certain degree would help to smooth his path. And yet the
contrary is the case. No set of rules governing the mutual
relations of words has ever been formulated by the Chinese,
apparently because the need of such rules has never been felt.
The most that native writers have done is to draw a distinction
between % *? and jfc*? "full" and "empty words," respec-
tively, the former being subdivided into fit ^ " living words"
or verbs, and JB *? " dead words " or noun-substantives. By
" empty words " particles are meant, though sometimes the
expression is loosely applied to abstract terms, including verbs.
The above meagre classification is their nearest approach to a
concep tion of grammar in our sense. This in itself docs not
prove that a Chinese grammar is impossible, nor that, if con-
structed, it might not be helpful to the student. As a matter
of fact, several attempts have been made by foreigners to deduce
a grammatical system which should prove as rigid and binding
as those of Western languages, though it cannot be said that
any as yet has stood the test of time or criticism. Other writers
have gone to the other extreme, and maintained that Chinese
has no grammar at all. In this dictum, exaggerated as it sounds,
there is a very substantial amount of truth. Every Chinese
character is an indivisible unit, representing a sound and standing
for a root-idea. Being free from inflection or agglutination of
any kind, it is incapable of indicating in itself either gender,
number or case, voice, mood, tense or person. Of European
languages, English stands nearest to Chinese in this respect,
whence it follows that the construction of a hybrid jargon like
pidgin English presents fewer difficulties than would be the
case, for instance, with pidgin German. For pidgin English
simply consists in taking English words and treating them like
Chinese characters, that is, divesting them of all troublesome
inflections and reducing them to a set of root-ideas arranged in
logical sequence. " You wantchee my no wantchee " is nothing
more nor less than literally rendered Chinese: ft; 35 3% 'f* 3c
" Do you want me or not? " But we may go further,
and say that no Chinese character can be definitely regarded
u being any particular part of speech or possessing any particular
function absolutely, apart from the general tenor of its context.
Thus, taken singly, the character Jj, conveys only the general
idea "above" as opposed to "below." According to its place
in the sentence and the requirements of common sense, it may
be a noun meaning " upper person " (that is, a ruler) ; an
adjective meaning "upper," "topmost" or "best"; an
adverb meaning " above "; a preposition meaning " upon ";
and finally a verb meaning " to mount upon," or " to go to."
\ is a character that may usually be translated " to enter "
as in \ PJ " to enter a door " ; yet in the locution \ fa
u enter wood," the verb becomes causative, and the meaning
is " to pat into a coffin." It would puzzle grammarians to deter-
mine the precise grammatical function of any of the words in
the following sentence, with the exception of f5f (an interroga-
tive, by the way, which heTe happens to mean " why " but in
other contexts is equivalent to "how," "which "or "what"):
fM^ "£ "Affair why must ancient," or in more idiomatic
English, "Why necessarily stick to the ways of the ancients in such
matters?" Ortakeaproverbialsayinglike/J? gf & & fR j£ t
which may be correctly rendered " The less a man has seen,
the more he has to wonder at." It is one thing, however, to
translate it correctly, and another to explain how this translation
can be inferred from the individual words, of which the bald
equivalents might be given as: " Few what see, many what
strange." To say that " strange " is the literal equivalent of {£
does not mean that $| can be definitely classed as an adjective.
On the other hand, it would be dangerous even to assert that
the word here plays the part of an active verb, because it would
I be equally permissible to translate the above " Many things
are strange to one who has seen but little."
Chinese grammar, then, so far as it deals with the classification of
separate words, may well be given up as a bad job. But there still
remains the art of syntax, the due arrangement of words to form
sentences according to certain established rules. Here, at any rate,
we are on somewhat firmer ground; and for many years the dictum
I that " the whole of Chinese grammar depends upon position " was
| regarded as a golden key to the written language of China. It is
perfectly true that there are certain positions and collocations of
j words which tend to recur, but when one sits down to formulate a
set of hard-and-fast rules governing these positions, it is soon found
to be a thankless task, for the number of qualifications and exceptions
which will have to be added is so great as to render the rule itself
valueless. J$ fc means " on a horse," fc JBJ "to get on a horse."
But it will not do to say that a preposition becomes a verb when
placed before the substantive, as many other prepositions come
before and not after the words they govern. If we meet such a
j phrase as 1£ !5p , literally " warn rebels," we must not mentally label
Sasa verb and JQg as a substantive, and say to ourselves that in
Chinese the verb is followed immediately by its object. Otherwise,
we might be tempted to translate, " to warn the rebels," whereas a
i little reflection would show us that the conjunction of "warning"
and " rebels " naturally leads to the meaning 4 to warn (the populace
or whoever it may be) against the rebels." After all our adventurous
incursions into the domain of syntax, we are soon brought back to
the starting-point and are obliged to confess that each particular
passage is best interpreted on its own merits, by the logic of the
context and the application of common sense. There is no reason
why Chinese sentences should not be dissected, by those who take
I pleasure in such operations, into subject, copula and predicate, but
Jit should be early impressed upon the beginner that the profit
likely to accrue to him therefrom is infinitesimal. As for fixed rules
of grammatical construction, so far from being a help, he will find
them a positive hindrance. It should rather be his aim to free his
mind from such trammels, and to accustom himself to look upon
each character as a root-idea, not a definite part of speech.
The Bock Language. — Turning now to some of the more
salient characteristics of the book language, with the object of
•explaining how it came to be so widely separated from common
speech, we might reasonably suppose that in primitive times the
two stood in much closer relation to each other than now. But
it is certainly a striking fact that the earliest literary remains of
any magnitude that have come down to us should exhibit a style
very far removed from any possible colloquial idiom. The
speeches of the Book of History (sec Literature) are more mani-
festly fictitious, by many degrees, than the elaborate orations in
Thucydides and Livy. If we cannot believe that Socrates
actually spoke the words attributed to him in the dialogues of
Plato, much less can we expect to find the ipsissima verba of
Confucius in any of his recorded sayings. In the beginning, all
characters doubtless represented spoken words, but it must very
soon have dawned on the practical Chinese mind that there was
jno need to reproduce in writing the bisyllabic compounds of
common speech. Chien " to see," in its written form fi, could
not possibly be confused with any other ehien, and It was there-
fore unnecessary to go to the trouble of writing ^f fL k'an-ckien
" look-see," as in colloquial. There was a wonderful outburst
of literary activity in the Confucian era, when it would seem that
,the older and more cumbrous form of Seal character was still in
vogue. If the mere manual labour of writing was so great, we
cannot wonder that all superfluous particles or other words that
could be dispensed with were ruthlessly cut away. So it came
about that all the old classical works were composed in the
tersest of language, as remote as can be imagined from the
speech of the people. The passion for brevity and conciseness
was pushed to an extreme, and resulted more often than not in
such obscurity that detailed commentaries on the classics were
found to be necessary, and have always constituted an important
branch of Chinese literature. After the introduction of the
improved style of script, and when the mechanical means of
writing had been simplified, it may be supposed that literary
diction also became freer and more expansive. This did happen
to some extent, but the classics were held in such veneration as
to exercise the profoundest influence over all succeeding schools
of writers, and the divorce between literature and popular speech
became permanent and irreconcilable. The book language
222
&jtv"*si ail
CHINA
We. c:.T~t *--~ *r.rrz; v' vr-r^r- tar* r x-li
vj-^r/>wiL^ ^riii-ijj: -j -2e. j^rji^L rid.
'-TitL^-iT
■a* K:rj» .axe ue -sr= * :wjc .ai^^jp. ' -i jtj
w#s*-.r ki» •«,•--". i r ur : ^*jt y* jt/« y.kc* :i v-:.-^ ~^*r
Sum «.-s '/!if ws;' # - is srvj. *i *rvr. -jriiir? «?«r^:. Tit
i«a «f<r-\: -a ftr-vse ae*: *2. ice r».:_-* ti=:.- *.\lt lie
'llas-iurf -C'jt «' " x.-.»r« -^t " »"-7 vxa.-j"ijs a irusge
ttiuit n% # t* |%ir ^r«^»a -j** ie-;«r riai-i. 5.-7** £='i *-=*
*.vl/vrj: a. -»*:>. ii *x^.v. 'j^rym*** ~JzLn.- *rr*s >je Lxier-
-tasx v.n*f *-*»» t-*» van ."-. v~ari. "jr.it \';* -4 i'xse az*i
#u.v.S.m VjI i r^^i.-jt •j-j* *>-*•- ar* •/« y i_-_y £rK-*a:e
ivrt-7 ^rv^tkr^ »-.>->: vs *a. : 1/ It-.«l.£vjs ■: *-> ^ia cc
Ci. ii.r«»r-. *£ *'jlV/: vr v. -a-i .jft - rta.-! L.;-^ *xz.r 1/ ts z\r—\trL
T& p^-Xs. T*xr*xi '/. v.t'^, 1 's.'Lzzi ■-> •.r3_-^li:i. *.: *.i speax.
j*r// *jat vy'jvv--*- -' " •"- - -»"i^*"-« s-i be f>es aj;- r Ti-trt 'a d>
jur*r»— ***.-y>r. ■» *./ ■ .r*t vjc-. rrs»4-*. ir.c of r.-»^> day . 't jb:-Ji aoc
vt r«rvi*r*/: ;.* v, ^i-trt-r - »ri au a *i:« Ir f^r»vr- Lu; :"^>:u ::r
•*a.-.i.n •-*.'r 1 <.-"-ir> '7?J.zjm:\ *ju: caz cr!y ii> *Ju: -^c C^-r*
*s, iff. •:..:.£ '? **,r'. -m:.7jt- Tbere tre 1 it-m *i:d4. iiifttd.
•^>i •v,«.j?r. f.tjr.~s,~ ev/i^h fa :it rrj.v-r*3 « p-'.i-i aod
r^ajar 4— it. \jL\t \f*Z % \-»K.-j z*> channm :> rtpnst*:: ibe=-
Oi *« '.-ixT .-Ar*-! '.itr* is 2 vi=£ stcce ^f p~**y !»:* »crd$
»fc>h »*■/;; i fy.-.tr k uvt-i <*r -^ieritooi it ccr. veria'„'oa_
tW. Uxrk U,'.?i^* h ik: tjr.'.y 7.'yjt in its chcl:e of wocdi. it
*!v> Kii •"> otrt/ ipf.ii! r,!^ cf co.-jr.rj<r::on. Of th««. pcrHips
»k* «w.f a;/;,-r*r.*. li t>,e rore:''-"y r-irk.*r! artiih-esi* between
*k\rv*+r: .: r. ?.-rtr,\ t\v*v.% rA * ser.'.t^ce «h;ch re*i*5ina
kir./J </f f,*r.i ;:<;.. to or rhy.^.T-ic balir.ce. T>:s parilkLsci is
may b* >«::J iJ^'/rv.ed Ly th« foUov-Ir.g four-Iizic stasia:
"0 n (& ill S The br^ht rjc compfetes its course behind
the mountains ; M H ASK The yclknr rhcr fiows away
into Uve tea. ft jR ^ £ g Would you cosnucd a pros-
pct'if a th-yj^nd /1 ? H _h — JB tt Oimb yet one storey
highCT." In tbt fir^t line of tliis p:ece, e%cr>' single character
is balancer] l^r a corresponding one in the second : 6 *hitc by
Jg yellr/w # f| san !/y J5J river, and so on. In the 3rd and 4th
lines, where more laxity is generally allowed, every word again
has its countcq/art, with the sole exception of ft " wish " and
J[ " further."
The question b often asked: VMiat sort of instrument is
Chinese for the expression of thought? As a medium for the
conveyance of historical facts, subtle emotions or abstruse
philosophical conceptions, can it compare with the languages
of the Western world? The answers given to this question have
varied (ori_i>JeraMy. But it is noteworthy that those who most
depreciate the qualities of Chinese arc, generally speaking,
theorists rather than persons possessing a profound first-hand
knowledge of the language itself. Such writers argue that want
of inflection in the characters must tend to make Chinese hard
and inelastic, and therefore incapable of bringing out the finer
shades of thought and emotion. Answering one a priori argu-
ment with another, one might fairly retort that, if anything,
flexibility is the precise quality to be predicated of a language
in which any character may, according to the requirements of the
context, be interpreted either as noun, verb or adjective. But
all Kuch reasoning is somewhat futile. It will scarcely be con-
tended that German, being highly inflected, is therefore superior
in range and power to English, from which inflections have
largely disappeared. Some of the early Jesuit missionaries,
men of great natural ability who steeped themselves in Oriental
learning, have left very different opinions on record. Chinese
appeared to them as admirable for the superabundant richness
of It a vocabulary as for the conciseness of its literary style. 1
ILITEftATUR!
sen s i. nr-Tfi-: TrrtTT to accept
: a=- ^m ^sii^sx-Jae other.
" g "*"* -V 21 -" 3 **i- "racr i£=-.e itsell
rrrirology
*=£t carry with
fresh
rriririirs Taij; :e : ar=ei at lib -* •T'- ^hnw* \~ »vt^.ir4e, c.
-.i* ar» iaa rz^z ut szrrasec rr -je rr a*-=n=jcc of zto or
ru:r» -j^ci^s i_-a.rT - t -^- rg Tie zze^sr cx^sbezt had
:«= ^r rz :c x ^_rr xzjt ^ U^ujl »i=- 3 ^e coane of
_=* ar* isarsj^s ^cts iarsisd at z*t szsie pciacf^ie as of old.
- rCaoe bx. a Cliinest
b^: i__2
lie 2&z
-x K*a ai±iiocs was
ri>=? bees ca^rr of extending
soiiiy secase »v*^f xodern
:«rra iad ao C^z-se s*^ai *ics ==px save F=«p^ei some
za ti- a- rmnrar Tbey bnt p e eaerrri to aoap: the ether
=*^:.l a *=i^ *rSS nrfsiescesri-eatci^e fc* ** Eft,"
-i i ft 8 t =>rass-p^==-co=r:rr-assr=:blT) for
- pirlu=e=: " art en=^i=s. Erez a =aei£;>:;.^;a: abstraction
^Lt Tl» .\isc:.:t Lis bei= itziz'j^r tx^zrssed by 16 If
-j-l-i'-ofstt^i . b-t ^ Lij case aa c^=-."aUtct was already
t-c^Lzi ii ^e Crjasse li-f.ne.
A inery irasLc -^i> r e, screwy ad-rocaied ia sooe qoarters,
a *Jie ec:L-e abcCtirc oi aZ ciaracters,. to be repiaced by their
eq^v&Vr: sc-ris iz ic:iers cf ->be a'^ihet. CncVr this scheme
I A* c ^-^T- : « ls i'* orr «-S"*J"d»0Q. Bat the pro-
posal has filer estrec&y nit. The \\icab2es, as we have seen,
are so few in -=— her that ocly the co^oqclal. if era »K»t. could
possibly be tracscribed in this rinvr. Any attcapt to trans-
lzien.it clivgra! Chisese would result in a mere juabfe of sounds,
utterly •^^inleiLgibie. even with the xddiiion of tooe-inarks.
There is asotber aspect of the case. The characters are a potent
* hoed of union between the di£erent pans of the Empire with
their various dialects. If they should ever fall into disuse,
China will have taken a first and most fatal step towards internal
disruption. Even the Japanese, whose language is not only free
from dialects, but polysyllabic and therefore more suitable for
romanisation, have utterly refused to abandon the Chinese script,
which in spite of certain disadvantages has hitherto triumphantly
adapted i'.scli to the needs of civilized intercourse.
See P. Prnnare. XcZiUae Lin [uct Sinicee 11831): Ma Kieo-chuac.
ifa skik tcht /am (iSoo- ; LC. Hopkins TktSix Scripts (t&Si) and
The DrvetopmrmI of Cktmese Writing (1910)
English Diciioucry (2nd ed. ( 1910).
H. A. GikV*. A Chimes*.
(H.A.CL.L.GL)
VUL Chlsese LrrxtATratE
The literature of China is remarkable fi) for its antiquity,
coupled with an unbroken continuity down to the present day;
(2) for the variety of subjects presented, and for the exhaustive
treatment which, not only each subject, but also each sub-
division, each separate item, has received, as well as for the
colossal scale on which so many literary monuments have been
conceived and carried out ; (3) for the accuracy of its historical
statements, so far as it has been possible to test them; and
further (4) for its ennobling standards and lofty ideals, as well
as for its wholesome purity and an almost total absence of
coarseness and obscenity.
No history of Chinese literature in the Chinese language has
yet been produced; native scholars, however, have adopted,
for bibliographical purposes, a rough division into four great
classes. Under the first of these, we find the Confucian Canon,
together with lexicographical, philological, and other works
dealing with the elucidation of words. Under the second,
histories of various kinds, officially compiled, privately written,
constitutional, &c; also biography, geography and bibliography.
Under the third, philosophy, religion, e.g. Buddhism; the arts
and sciences, e.g. war, law, agriculture, medicine, astronomy,
painting, music and archery; also a host of general works,
monographs, and treatises on a number of topics, as well as
encyclopaedias. The fourth class is confined to poetry of all
LITERATURE)
CHINA
323
descriptions, poetical critiques, and works dealing with the all-
important rhymes.
Poetry.— Proceeding chronologically, without reference to
Chinese classification, we have to begin, as would naturally be
expected, with the last of the above four classes. Man's first
literary utterances in China, as elsewhere, took the form of
verse; and the earliest Chinese records in our possession are the
national lyrics, the songs and ballads, chiefly of the feudal age,
which reaches back to over a thousand years before Christ.
Some pieces are indeed attributed to the x8th century B.C.;
the latest bring us down to the 6th century B.C. Such is the
collection enlii\t&ShikChing(oT She King), popularly known as
the Odes, which was brought together and edited by Confucius,
551-479 B.C., and is now included among the Sacred Books,
forming as it does an important portion of the Confucian Canon.
These Odes, once over three thousand in number, were reduced
by Confucius to three hundred and eleven; hence they are
frequently spoken of as " the Three Hundred." They treat of
war and love, of eating and drinking and dancing, of the virtues
and vices of rulers, and of the misery and happiness of the people.
They are in rhyme. Rhyme is essential to Chinese poetry;
there is no such thing as blank verse. Further, the rhymes of
the Odes have always been, and are still, the only recognized
rhymes which can be used by a Chinese poet, anything else
being regarded as mere jingle. Poetical licence, however, is
tolerated; and great masters have availed themselves freely
of its aid. One curious result of this is that whereas in many
instances two given words may have rhymed, as no doubt they
did, in the speech of three thousand years ago, they no longer
rhyme to the ear in the colloquial of to-day, although still
accepted as true and proper rhymes in the composition of verse.
It is noticeable at once that the Odes are mostly written in lines
of four words, examples of lines consisting of any length from a
single word to eight, though such do exist, being comparatively rare.
These lines of four words, generally recognized as the oldest measure
in Chinese poetry, are frequently grouped as quatrains, in which the
first, second and fourth lines rhyme; but very often only the second
and fourth lines rhyme, and sometimes there are groups of a larger
number of lines in which occasional lines are found without any rhyme
at all. A few stray pieces, as old as many of those found among the
Odes, have been nanded down and preserved, in which the metre
consists of two lines of three words followed by one line of seven
words. These three lines all rhyme, but the rhyme changes with
each succeeding triplet. It would be difficult to persuade the Englbh
reader that this is a very effective measure, and one in which many a
gloomy or pathetic tale has been told. In order to realise how a few
Chinese monosyllables in juxtaposition can stir the human heart to
its lowest depths, it is necessary to devote some years to the study of
the language.
At the close of the 4th century B.C., a dithyrambtc measure,
irregular and wild, was introduced and enjoyed considerable vogue.
It has indeed been freely adopted by numerous poets from that early
date down to the present day; but since the and century B.C. it
has been displaced from pre-eminence by the seven-word and five-
word measures which arc now, after much refinement, the accepted
standards for Chinese poetry. The origin of the seven-word metre
it lost in remote antiquity; the fivc-wordmetre was elaborated under
the master-hand of Mci Sheng, who died 110 n.c. Passing over seven
centuries of growth, we reach the Tang dynasty, a.d. 018-905, the
most brilliant epoch in the history of C hincse poetry'- These three
hundred years produced an extraordinarily large number of great
poets, and an output of verse of almost incredible extent. In 1707
an anthology of the Tang poets was published by Imperial order;
it ran to nine hundred books or sections, and contained over forty-
eight thousand nine hundred separate poems. A copy of this work
is in the Chinese department of the University Libra ry at Cambridge.
It was under the Tang dynasty that a certain finality was reached
in regard to the strict application of the tones to Chinese verse.
For tne purposes of poetry, all words in the language were ranged
under one or the other of two tones, the even and the oblioue, the
former now including the two even tones, of which prior to the 1 ith
century there was only one, and the latter including the rising,
sinking and entering tones of ordinary speech. The incidence of
these tones, which may be roughly described as sharps and flats,
finally became fixed, just as the incidence of certain feet in Latin
metres came to be governed by fixed rules. Thus, reading down-
ward from right to left, as in Chinese, a five-word stanza may run
Sharp Flat Flat Sharp
sharp flat flat sharp
flat sharp flat sharp
flit
sharp
sharp
fiat
sharp
sharp
flat
flat
A seven-word stanza may run:
Flat Sharp Sharp Flat
flat sharp sharp flat
sharp flat flat sharp
sharp flat flat sharp
flat sharp flat flat
flat # sharp sharp flat
sharp flat sharp sharp
The above are only two metres out of many, but enough perhaps
to give to any one who will read them with a pause or quasl-caesura,
as marked by ° in each specimen, a fair idea of the rhythmic lilt of
Chinese poetry. To the trained car, the effect is most pleasing;
and when this scansion, so to speak, is united with rhyme and choice
diction, the result is a vehicle for verse, artificial no doubt, and
elaborate, but admirably adapted to the genius of the Chinese
language. Moreover, in the hands of the great poets this artificiality
disappears altogether. Each word seems to slip naturally into its
place; and so far from having been introduced by violence for the
ends of prosody, it appears to lie the very best word that could have
been chosen, even had there been no trammels of any kind, so effect-
ually is the art of the poet concealed by art. From the lone string
of names which have shed lustre upon this glorious age of Chinese
poetry, it may suffice for the present purpose to mention the follow-
ing, all of the very first rank.
Meng Hao-jan, a.d. 689-740, failed to succeed at the public
competitive examinations, and retired to the mountains where he
led the life of a recluse. Later on, he obtained an official post;
but he was of a timid disposition, and once when the emperor,
attracted by his fame, came to visit him, he hid himself under the
bed. His hiding-place was revealed by Wang Wei, a brother poet
who was present. The latter, a.d. 699-759, in addition to bring a
first-rank poet, was also a landscape-painter of great distinction.
He was further a firm believer in Buddhism ; and after losing his
wife and mother, he turned his mountain home into a Buddhist
monastery. Of all poets, not one has made his name more widely
known than Li Po, or Li T'ai-po, a.d. 705-762, popularly known
as the Banished Angel, so heavenly were the poems he dashed off,
always under the influence of wine. He is said to have met his
death, after a tipsy frolic, by leaning out of a boat to embrace the
reflection of the moon. Tu Fu, a.d. 712-770, is generally ranked
with Li Po, the two being jointly spoken of as the chief poets of their
age. The former had indeed such a high opinion of his own poetry
that he prescribed it for malarial fever. He led a chequered and
wandering life, and died from the effects of eating roast beef and
drinking white wine to excess, immediately after a long fast. Po
Chu-i.wv.D. 772-846, was a very prolific poet. He hold several high
official posts, but found time for a considerable output of some of
the finest poetry in the language. His poems were collected by
Imperial command, and engraved upon tablets of stone. In one
of them he anticipates by eight centuries the famous ode by
Malhcrbc. A Du Perrier, sur la mart de sa fille.
The T'ang dynasty with all its glories had not long passed away
before another imperial house arose, under which poetry flourished
again in full vigour The poetsof the Sung dynasty, a.d. 960-1260,
were many and varied in style; but their work, much of it of the
very highest order, was becoming perhaps a trifle more formal and
precise. Life seemed to be taken more seriously than under the gay
and pleasure-loving Tangs. The long list of Sung poets includes
such names as Sstt-ma Kuang, Ou-yang Hsiu and Wang An-shih,
to be mentioned by and by. the first two as historians and the last
as political reformer. A still more familiar name in popular estima-
tion is that of Su Tung-p'o, a.d. 1031-1 ioi, partly known for his
romantic career, now in court favour, now banished to the wilds,
but still more renowned as a brilliant poet and writer of fascinating
essays.
The Mongols, a.d. 1 260-1 368, who succeeded the Sungs, and the
Mings who followed the Sungs and bring us down to the year 1644,
helped indeed, especially the Mings, to swell the volume of Chine*
verse, but without reaching the high level of the two great poetical
periods above-mentioned. Then came the present dynasty of Manchu
Tatars, of whom the same tale must be told, in spite of two highly-
cultured emperors, K'ang Hsi and Ch'ien Lung, both of them poets
and one of them author of a collection containing no fewer than
33,950 pieces, most of which, it must be said, arc but four-line
stanzas, of no literary value whatever. It may be stated in this
connexion that whereas China has never produced an epic in verse,
it is not true that all Chinese poems are cjuitc short, running only to
ten or a dozen lines at the most. Many pieces run to several nundred
lines, though the Chinese poet does not usually affect length, one of
his highest efforts being the four-line stanza, known as the " stop-
short, in which " the words stop while the sense goes on," ex-
panding in the mind of the reader by the suggestive art of the poet.
The " stop-short " is the converse of the epigram, which ends in a
satisfying turn of thought to which the rest of the composition is
intended to lead up; it aims at producing an impression which, so
far from being final, is merely the prelude to a long series of visions
and of feelings. The last of the four lines is called the " surprise
line " ; but the revelation it gives is never a complete one: the Words
stop, but the sense goes on. Just as ia the pictorial art of Cfafaa*
22+
CHINA
{LITERATURE
co in her \*#ur nrf i* suw ,ti v < n*^ the great end and aim of the |
artr.t. Milium t- t ;ir«: taught fli.it the thru: i.inon-. of vvrsc corn-
fM*-.iHifii .in- Imiiliiy, <iiin|ilii ii v iiii'l «orn< ln«ss of dirt ion. Yet]
•Minif < rilii •. h.ivi- 1 »• i|i II y ijn |.ipd for ohv urn v of rx\,r"v-'um, alleging (
fh.it tin- |iii|ii.ini y id .1 thought i'i rnh.iii't-tf by its skilful ronn-.tl-
•iwiit I'4ii tin- hm-i^ii '.tii'liiit, it ii not iH-fiisiry to aucntu.itc |
I hi uli-.i iiiiiy .iinl fhllnuliy rvi n of poemi in whit h the motive is
»iiii|ili- iiniii|',h. 'I In- i iin-.t.int iniroiliiMiiMi of i lassii-;il jIluMons,
• •III ii in | In* vagm •.! li-init, .iml i hi- almost unlimited liccme an to
llu iinli i i.f vviml ., nfh-i i|iiit •- miIIm irnt obstacles to easy and rapid (
i'iiiii|in hi ii inn. I'tH-tiy h.i'i I urn th-fined hy out* Chinest' writer an
|' iloihine with wiinl-i the emotions whu h surge through the heart." i
The i hnl iiunhI .ii| the I him -4- poet are a pun- delight in the varying
|ihriuiiiiiii.i nl n.it mi-, .nut a iNiiiutlle .s syuijMthy with the w-oes and I
ftiilli nut: i u| hiini.iniiy. l-rotie |Mictry is imt absent, hut it is not a
li'.ilme |>iii|Miiiiuii,itr in i-xleiit to the great IhmIv of Chinese verse; j
II is .iIh.iv-i leiii.iiin-il, and never l.qises from a high level of purity |
mul ih-i ••miiii. In |,i n |„ve |ur hill ami Mieain which he |>coplc*
wuh k> im. .mil lin tn-r ami Mower whii h he endows with sentient
imiili. I he t him-M- pmi »-, jieihaps seen at hi-* very best ; bin views of
lile .in- miiiu-ttti.it loo dreplv tinged with melancholy, and often
loadid wuh ,iii i>\i-i \\|i«-liiiiii|*. Mdiii's» "at the doubtful ilooni of'
liitin.iu Mml " In |im hjjhtn uusnls he draw* inspiration, and in hi*
iiai Lei im k tli ioii-ol.il i,ui limn the wine-cup. (lard drinking, not
lo wiv iIiiiiiKi'iiiii s, v,-, in-, in li.i\e Urn universal among Chinese
l* v| *. »»d a loit-.i.Ki.iMi- amount •»! talent has lieen expended uinin
fjhi i.litiiin .Hum ,»l wine. | umii I'.iKiM, ami e^|ieeiallv from Huridnist
•.mii, it, in ni\ js«,ti h.i\e obtained glimpses to make them lesn
IoiI.mii. Imt it t.uiiMi l«o -aid that thru* i» any dehnitcly religious
|veii\ in the Clime** language.
II i«.Vi v One o| the laboui* mtdeitak.cn hy Confucius was
o»hhhu»I «uh a seiM* ol amu m documents that is. ancient
lit hi* it i\ now passing un.lei a lollcitixe title as >7r« Ckir.g
lea > v Kf <V and popnlat 1\ I noun as the Canon, or llouk.
i»l Hi -.1,. ix M % -u- hae.menlH as n»iuv ol these documents are. it
\* Ii\mh thtu |m k% * | unknown dale (hat we cm supplement
the pi,iut\<. ,h.in A | ( »| |, N t1 | t ne iVevof the eaily tivili.-ationof
1 h<-M | v w% ..^ x .j Vllx ^jjij .,., ,u,o\n\t ol the legendary ent-
|vi\m \ .... %,?.,. i, s .,.l •_.» - V x in' . and «.i> aide by virtue
o! i» »■, \...,0 iviv»'!,;> u* j:»>e jv.u-e and happiness to his
h' .. k ?-.i .vxi *j-».i.. % .k \\ it h the aid of cip:il»le aMronomcrs.
"*' '^■• , .! ■. , «.- *.-».- l v,-i a'i.1 vii!!»-t soNt iies. and caKulat etl
ap|»io\.'i- -., % \ i *i,- !,■!«,;,!, % ,j .h t « \e.ir. availini: himself, as
!«-•!!• in J ,«i i he i,. | o1 ,,„ ,;. lllx .,i.ir\ month. Vmallv, after a
jsIimu*. s i V i<ii. \w i,d.d i he iNtonr lo a nun oi the pc\^plc.
tt.i.»-.- ».,..\ , 'i'mi i x , ,«-N».,, ;,,.., H .> his \in%ia\et:r|: practiic of
U], \ ,k,% l -'-p.*; n ,!».iN wi'.h l iv u-.jsn. *-'>s :.v> BO.
«'l i «■■ s .-.< ,.. ,., !,„,.„„ tll ,.., %1 . v _ ls .i. % -,....vx»s >hvn lH
a,io«.l i,i, . n .. h ,i u „. .. , ,i^....„ %l . t i. t . % : <M j, % . Wl ,^» ... VN » i \ x i
»» ,, * ;> ; ! ' « .h pi. : i,, , : -,l J...... ,...\-.-.cs. So t:i\/.\s« o
'« " »'. '.'•.*», i..»-i ,,»| t » X4 . j. x .*■,.> »,»:--\ ;.*.;. \,'\ :v.*-.\.
• ■»•<».%. J-» ,■,, ••■ % ». iN | ...... N -... % % it , . v . % — lX ^l W:S
'. 1 . . \.
,\. \. : ■
< \ xvV.'..v'»ll.
.-.x. "V:i is
s.v." * io ^.\Vl■
.no or :h:oe
v .- ,\ivpt:on
... o» tV
■ .v ■ vwr
ruption of states had often been :rareib!e to that cause. Even
on sacrificial occasions. dr^-^c7.r.z.<s is to be condemned
*' When, however, you high cSEriij ir.d others have done your
duty in ministering to the agei z.zi l: \-cur sovereign, you n.ay
ihen cat to satiety and drink to clcvaiisa." The Announccnvent
Dvinds up with an ancient msjL=:. ** Do cot seek to see yourself
reflected in water, but in others." — -a-hosc base actions should
warn you not to commit the Mrr:*; adding that those who
after a due interval should be ur-^LIe to give up intcrr.pera'.e
habits would be put to death. It is wcrth noting, in concluding
this brief notice of China's earliest records, that from first to
last there is no mention whatever of any distant country from
which the " black-haired people " may have originally conk;
no vestige of any allusion to any other form of civilization, such
Us that of Babylonia, with its cuneiform script and baked-cby
tablets, from which an attempt has been made to derive the
native-born civilization of China. A few odd coincidences
turn up the chief argument in favour of this now discredited
theory.
The next step lands us on the confines, though scarcely in the
domain, of history properly so called. Among hi* other literary
lal»oiir«, Confucius undertook to produce the annals of AmBt i,
bit, hU native state; and beginning with the year 722 ^^g
n.c, he carried the record down to his death in 47Q, alter ^ t1aft
which it wa* continued for a few years, presumably by
Tso-eh'iu Ming, the shadowy author of the famous Commentary, to
whiih the text is so deeply indebted for \itality and illumination.
The uork of Confucius is known as the Ch'un Ch'iu, the Spring* jnd
Autumns q.d. Annals. It consists of a varying number of tnef
entrie* iimler each year of the reign of each successive ruler of Lu.
The feudal system, initiated more than four centuries previouJy,
I and consisting of a number of vassal states owning allegiance to a
I central suzerain state, had already broken hopelessly down, so far
as allegiance was concerned. For some time, the object of each
vassal ruler had been the aggrandizement of his own state, with a
view either to independence or to the hegemony, and the result wa*
a state of almost constant warfare. Accordingly, the entries in the
Ch'un Ck'iu refer largely to covenants entered into between con-
tracting rulers, official visits from one to another of these ruk-rs,
their births and deaths, marriages, invasions of territory, battles
religious cvrcmonio. &e.. intcr&|x.Tscd with notices of striking natural
phenomena such as eclipses, comets and earthquakes, and of im-
Ixirtant nation.il calamities, such as floods, drought and famine,
-'or in>tame, l>uke Wen Ni'ame ruk-r of Lu in bs$ d.c, and under
his 14th \car. 012 D.C, we find twelve entries, of which the following
aic Mix linens: —
2. In spring, in the first month, the men of the Chu State in varied
our southern border.
3. In sunmwr.ontl:e 1-hai day of the fifth month, P'an, Marquis
of the Ch'i State, died.
1 5 1p. a-.::umn. in the i».'\enth month, there was a comet, which
ee.'.cred Pci-tou loJ-jS in I'rsa Major),
-air. tS* '.v.r.'.h month, a son of the Duke of Ch'i murdered his
l" • . :\ * a'\ ' ; j* the earliest trustworthy instance of a comet in China.
\ v V..:'. ,r ivr*.-t i* rrvrtd^d in what is known as The Bamboo
\. -j.- v *,-.Viv ^i-j;.. : r.c:H'N» of that work is disputed.
;."„ ;V —.;.;> a.'.mitte.l that the Ch'un Ck'iu, written through-
% ■ ^. '^".-'»^"«e A > 'he quotations given, would scarrvly
s " ^ . \ ' . "'. N \ -.<'Vi i in anv detail the age it professes to rectird.
. . .' [ „.y . \. . - >.v»sso**:on of the Tso Ckuan. a so-called com-
'.^ \ x Vi sone one named Tso, in which the bald
» • »V "«.'■» '•' *■*■• -'.i.oius are separately enbrgwl upon to
«''-.. . \:. ■: !*.'»■ . ... v . dramatic brilliancy that our com-
- . :.--\ -\-.:J* r-.i :i ' *• . ?»■ epic than "a treatise consisting of a
>v ' ■. .- -a: v serio* el c ■•■ ■ . » , - a v.u«t.uions on the text of a literary
« ...• * " VnJxr i'.s i:. • ■ s 1. ,- , .: • :.-!low the intrigues, the alliances
•,Nr im.u-heric*, t?*e 1 . .' »■ hJous states which constituted
iVui!a! Chi.na; in 11- ■■ s « i ..ui > can we, as it were with our
o»n ew<. assa^i'u: .v .. v i .«■;.- ^,^1]^ flights, pursuits and
che >..rlerini* of the 1 : • v ...^ . lhc ^tribution exacted by
the \ic tors. Numcn*. - « . . „ v vixln^sare scattered through-
out the work, man) ii * . ■ ■ . A . . . . .. |1W M thc pn^nt uav.
History as umhrst.ss. ■ , » . N ... w<<t ^3,,^ China with
^ a iTn a ^ ^tCO (h, lt 7^'. vl • , ' v - -a Ch'ien. who flourished
145 P7 0.c..wasthc*\i .•! .. .'.. ii-«da<trolOKer.
aboanea* r student ol h : . : , IN x .,, ,.. ; •';»■ ;J ^^'^V TA.
the (:uat work so succcsm. '.i , .,. s ,
Itv the time he was. tin >*■»,..»
jtready well advanceil wi:h his s>. >, , . . , ., ftt „., . M# f rI «,
-i a round of travel whi.;h c.;n-.;,, ,,',;,: ,,,,, -- t ,H * n, >- hc Kt U " xU
, 1.1 :*d astrologer,
,s..il planner of tf^j
. i ler Tns death. ^z!^7
*» .* .:•.'. Ch'ien was
-. i.-.l .u tu,nty he „. ......
in I- .»!1 i\in> of the cm pin*.
1 1 r,;:.i^- ^ssx^is^£SSr>' ^
' reformation
LITERATUREl
CHINA
225
ol the calendar, he took up the work which had been begun by his
father and which was ultimately given to the world as the Shih Chi,
or Historical Record. This was arranged under five great headings,
sanely, (1 ) Annals of Imperial Reigns, (a) Chronological Tables, (5)
Monographs, (4) Annals of Vassal' Princes, and (5) Biographies.
The Historical Record begins with the so-called Yellow Emperor.
who is said to have come to the throne 2698 B.C. and to have reigned
a hundred years. Four other emperors are given, as belonging to
this period, among whom we find Yao and Shun, already mentioned.
It was China's Golden Age, when rulers and ruled were virtuous alike.
and all was peace and prosperity. It is discreetly handled in a few
pages by Sad-ma Ch'ien, who passes on to the somewhat firmer but
stiu doubtful ground of the early dynasties. Not. however, until the
Chou dynasty, 1122-255 B.C., had held sway for some three hundred
years can we be said to nave reached a point at which history begins
to separate itself definitely from legend. In fact, it is only from the
Sth century before Christ that any trustworthy record can be safely
dated. With the 3rd century before Christ, we are introduced to one
of the feudal princes whose military genius enabled him to destroy
beyond hope of revival the feudal system which had endured for
eight hundred years, and to make himself master of the whole of the
China of those days. In 221 B.C. he proclaimed himself the " First
mm^mi^m Emperor," a title by which he has ever since been known.
iftli* Everything, including literature, was to begin with his
Affair reign; and acting on the advice of his prime minister, he
issued an order for the burning of all books, with the excep-
tion only of works relating to medicine, divination and agriculture.
Those who wished to study law Vreri: rrTtrud fur ur^l [r.ithliiK to
"1 B4 had already qualified in that pru legion. To carry out the
ne effectively, the First Emperor made a point of examining
j day, about 00 lb weight of 'books, in order to get rid of such
at he considered to be useless; and he further appointed a number of
inspector* to sec that hi? order* were carried out. The result wai
that about four hundred and sixty scholar* were put to death lor
having disobeyed the imperial command, while many others were
banished for file, _ This incident is known as the [turning of the
Books; and there is little doubt that, but for the devotion of the
literati. Chinese liur.nu re would ha*e had to make A fresh start in
112 B.C. As it was hook* were bricked up in walls and otherwise
widely concealed id the hope ihat the alarm would blow over; and
this was actually the ta*e when the Ch'in (TV in) dynasty col la pud
and the H ou be of H i n t 00 k i t s c.Li ce i n 200 b.c . The Con Fu c ia n books
were subsequently recovered from their hiding-places, together with
md ny other u orkv. the ]o*& of ■* Mich it is diffk uli now to contemplate.
but for the manufacture ol writings, the previous existence of which
could be gathered either from tradition or from notices in the various
works which had survived. Forgery became the order of the day;
and the modern student h confronted with a considerable volume of
literature which has to be classified as genuine, doubtful, or spurious,
according to the merits of each case. To the first class belongs the
bulk, but not all, of the Confucian Canon ; to the third must be
relegated such books as the Too Ti Chine, to be mentioned later on.
** " Ch'ien. dying in 87 B.C., deals of course only with the
opening reigns ol the Han dynasty, with which he brings to a close
the firM great division of his history. The second division consists of
chronological tables; the third, of eight monographs on the following
topic*: (t) Rites and Ceremonies* {2] Music. (3) natural Fhilowphy,
ti) The Calendar (5) Astronomy. (5) Religion, (7) Water-way*, and
(8} Commerce. On these eight a few remarks may not be out of
place (1} The Chinese ecem to have been in powe^siofl. from very
early ages, of a systematic rode of ceremonial observances^ so that it
11 no surprise to find the subject included* and taking an important
place, in Ssu-ma Ch H ien H $ work. The Li Chi, or Book of Rite*, which
now form* part of 1 he Confucian Onon, is however a comparatively
modern compilation, daring mdy from the r*t century ax. (2; The
extraordinary similarities between the Chinese and Pythagorean
system* of music force the conclusion that one of these must neces-
sarily have been derived from the mhsT. The Jesuit Father* jumped
to the conclusion that the Creeks borrowed their art from the Chinese;
but it is now common knowledge that the Chinese senate did not exist
in China until two centuries after its appearance in Greece. The fact
is that the ancient Chinese works on music perished at the Burning
of the Books; and we are told that by the middle of the 2nd century
B.C. the hereditary Court music-master was altogether ignorant of
bis art. What we may call modern Chinese music reached China
through Bactria, a Greek kingdom, founded by Diodotus in 256 B.C.,
with which intercourse had been established by the Chinese at an
carry date. (3) The term Natural Philosophy can only be applied
by courtesy to this essay, which deals with twelve bamboo tubes of
varying lengths., by means of which, coupled with the twenty-eight
zodiacal constellations and with certain calendaric accords, divine
communication is established with the influences of the five elements
and the points of the compass corresponding with the eight winds.
(4) In this connexion, it is worth noting that in 104 B.C. the Chinese
nrst adopted a cycle of nineteen years, a period which exactly brings
together the solar and the lunar year*; and further that this very
cycle is said to have been introduced by Meton. 5th century B.C.,
and was adopted at Athens about 130 B.C., probably reaching China,
via Bactria. some two centuries afterwards. (5) This chapter deals
specially with the sun, moon and five planets, which are supposed to
aid in the divine government of mankind. (6) Refers to the solemn
sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, as performed by the emperor upon
the summit of Mt. T*ai in Shan-tung. (7) Refers to the management
of the Hoang Ho, or Yellow river, so often spoken of as " China's
Sorrow," and also of the numerous canals with which the empire is
intersected. (8) This chapter, which treats of the circulation of
money, and its function in the Chinese theory of political economy,
is based upon the establishment in 1 10 B.C. of certain officials whose
business it was to regularize commerce. It was their duty to buy up
the chief necessaries of life when abundant and when prices were in
consequence low, and to offer these for sale when there was a shortage
and when prices would otherwise have risen unduly. Thus it was
hoped that a stability in commercial transactions would be attained,
to the great advantage of the people. The fourth division of the
Shik Chi is devoted to the annals of the reigns of vassal princes, to
be read in connexion with the imperial annals of the first division.
The final division, which is in many ways the most interesting of all,
? fives biographical notices of eminent or notorious men and women,
rom the earliest ages downwards, and enables us to draw conclusions
at which otherwise it would have been impossible to arrive. Con-
fucius and Mencius, for instance, stand out as real personages who
actually played a part in China's history; while all we can gather
from the short life of Lao Tzfl, a part of which reads like an inter-
polation by another hand, is that he was a more or less legendary
individual whose very existence at the date usually assigned to
him, 7th and 6th centuries B.C.. is altogether doubtful. Scattered
among these biographies are a few notices of frontier nations; e.g.
of the terrible nomads known as the Hsiong-nu, whose identity with
the Huns ha* now been placed beyond a doubt.
5*g-ma Ch'ien's great work, on which he Laboured for so many
vears and which ran. to five hundred and twenty -six thousand five
hundred words, has been described somewhat at length for the
following reason. It has been accepted as the model for all subse-
quent dynastic histories, of which twenty-four have now been pub-
lished, the whote being produced in 1 747 in a uniform edition, bound
up (in the Cambridge Library) in two hundred and nineteen large
volumes. Each dynasty has found its historian in the dynasty
which supplanted it; and cnch dynastic history is notable for the
extreme fair pom with which the conquerors have dealt with the
vanquished, accepting without demur »uch records of their prede-
cessors as were available from official source*. The T'ang dynasty.
ad. 61B-906, offers in one sense a curious exception to the general
rule. It possesses two histories, both included in the above series.
The first of these, now known as the Old T'ang History, was ultimately
set aside as inaccurate and inadequate, and a New T'ang History was
compiled by Ou-yang Hsiu, a distinguished scholar, poet and states-
man of the nth century. Nevertheless, in all cases, the scheme of
the dynastic history has, with certain modifications, been that which
was initiated in the 1st century B.C. by SsO-ma Ch'ien.
The output of history, however, does not begin and end with the
voluminous records above referred to, one of which, it should be
mentioned, was in great part the work of a woman. 7^
History has always been a favourite study with the Chinese, Mirror ol
and innumerable histories of a non-official character, long tuafry.
and short, complete and partial, political and constitu-
tional, have been showered from age to age upon the Chinese reading
world. Space would fail for the mere mention of a tithe of such
works; but there is one which stands out among the rest and is
especially enshrined in the hearts of the Chinese people. This is the
Tung, Lhien, or Mirror of History, so called because " to view
antiquity as though in a mirror is an aid in the administration of
government." It was the work of a statesman of the 1 ith century,
whose name, by a coincidence, was Ssd-ma Kuang. He had been
forced to retire from office, and spent nearly all the last sixteen years
of his life in historical research. The Mirror of History embraces a
period from the 5th century B.C. down to a.d. 960. It is written in a
picturesque style; but the arrangement was found to be unsuitcd to
the systematic study of history. Accordingly, it was subjected to
revision, and was to a great extent reconstructed by Chu Hsi, the
famous commentator, who flourished a.d. HAO-1200, and whose
work is now regarded as the standard history of China.
Biography. — In regard to biography, (he student is by no
means limited to the dynastic histories. Many huge biographical
collections have been compiled and published by private in-
dividuals, and many lives of the same personages have often
been written from different points of view. There is nothing
very much by which a Chinese biography can be distinguished
from biographies produced in other parts of the world. The
Chinese writer always begins with the place of birth, but he is
not so particular about the year, sometimes leaving that to be
gathered from the date of death taken in connexion with theage
which the person may have attained. Some allusion is usually
made to ancestry, and the steps of an official career, upward by
promotion or downward by disgrace, are also carefully noted.
Geography and Travel.— There is a crowta*^*. n^vn^c*. ^v
CHINA
[LITERAT
.^-ure *V.:ch corr.es under this head; but if we
'I \;r.& r-::'.«» of :'ore$n countries, there remains
"7 -* a> » ■ : f l -£'*' 5^.*n Aj.>hy * hlch had been produced
~- T .\i'. *■: ••"*" J ,v - :: father* al ihe close of the 16th
— _~V : ^ ■.*■..;: pvrod geography meant the topography
— '.^ c:v^re: ir.J of topographical records there is
-j_\~ ^ . j va'.-.-.Ke coi:«.c:ioa. Every prefecture and
— ^ ^me cghiecn hundred in all, has each its own
-.»•*• .-^Tvrvled from rivw,le _iinl f*vtm t—..j:.:
^?- .^me *.*—»-»■• "— ■ — "- »» «-. »»*» civn us own
— - ^^c-aphv. vVT-.p«.U\| frv>m records and from tradition
i- ^^ J_^ " ; h a: 1v«n e* - o: h:a* to be desired. The buildings.
■=■ "- *"";. u «'.e:v.» of JKluitfofiicul interest. &c, in each
u- -- *■" '"£ carei-'-y iv.scrtcd. >ide by side with biographical
*- = " "- -.1 o» -■'■'*■ -ri** v * 0| i!it*rc»l to rodents and oft en
- T"^ V p^V'.:c. An extensive general geography of the
V^ : pulled ia 1:45; And this was followed by a
V "cvpAj-hv in 1-04.
" ~„ fc - v.w a'. vo\* been fond of travel, and hosts of
~ ^ j --V. v K .■.'. :v; vCn :-vre or less extensive, of the
7 -j ..-.v.: s« :: * °- ""'* *"-"i»w. and even of adjacent
"J * 7 fc . t>. * N - "* : - x v * -\! cither as private individuals
." ."-,. .**•* ** »;" ,, ' , a , .> proceeding to distant posts.
' ; „ -• .a •■»■ >* o^.-.k- :o >oe 1 he count ry which was
m . .*v V-^"*. *:-c. w\c:al important pilgrimages
""~ v .. , »■> a w* to l»:-.:ys Kick images and sacred
* v -> a O- ».-.** a journey the Buddhist priest, Fa
-x ? . 1 \ ■* »*v. a:-.xl alter practically walking the
" " v . •» ,v . v« *"■■■■' v. acuws the doert of Gobi, on to
'i 1. w«» . V W -. : .u ku>h into India, he visited many
,. »>. I • -.a. u!\:,l at length reaching Calcutta he
^".,» a"... * -o< adventurous voyage, in the course
. A .-a.--«v. i*o war* in Cc>lon, he finally arrived
^ ^ , w « .W.i h;x Nvks. pictures, and images, at
^,. »vo>: ot >:■.*. ntung. near the modern German port
■• * *■ -- — -L .«*
» -^ ^~__ — \. ; iK-mt adventurous priests was HsOan Tsang
■* v '^ ^— — " ^ ..i*'t i"h»ai»g\ «ho left China on a similar mission iu
Mi»-^ ' o--*- a, ' a l0luiltaM in ^5. bringing with him six
v *\n^w ^ tt „dic%l and tifty seven Buildhist books, besides many
jniajsf* and pictures, and one hundred and fifty relics
..-1 i>( hi* life in ttansLiiinir. with th#» K.i^ ^* ..
t hough lu* era. as >een above, and his personality arc
l»*>ih nutters of the vaguest conjecture. A number of
^.-iitiTiHl over thf worL« •ifi> ; irlui» r ;i... u . l
nfier - .ii»M«.»« «i-i i.nr. ^1111. alter uue expurgation it
after •* ^ ■» ^'"^^"M^teeolleKtionofsmhapophthegmsofLao
lorn* 5 * • t*.» vi * 1 ' omc « ,own ** «*. fwm which the reader can learn
T/i» ** *t^** iil ! ,!, ;; r V J " Khl tho * tMl doctrine of Inaction-Do
ili»* ,.* »^- » , 1 1,, 1 , * ,l jM th !"K H wUl be done. Also, that Lao Tzu
»'">!'^ ** -^^- «**■« to haw fired
«ii.ii V /rfU.^ih i ,„j JlUlcnUliwll . CM w uh the
result that he put much time and energy into the glorification c
Tzu and his doctrines. Posbesscd of a brilliant style and a mas
•rpny, Chuang Txu attacked the schools of Confucius and c
Mo Ti (sec below) with so much dialectic skill that the t
ablest scholars of the age were unable to refute his
destructive criticisms. His pages abound in quaint anecdote
allegorical instances, arising as it were spontaneously out c
questions handled, and imparting a lively interest to points '
might otherwise have seemed dusty and dull. He was an id
with all the idealist's hatred of a utilitarian system, and a n
[with all the mystic's contempt for a life of mere external act
Only thirty-three chapters of his work now remain, though so :
as fifty-three are known to have been still extant in the 3rd cen
and even of these, several complete chapters arc spurious, wh
others it is comparatively easy to detect here and there the ha
the interpolator. What remains, however, after all reduction;
been enough to secure a Listing place for Chuang Tzu as the
original of China's philosophical writers. His book is of course 1
the l>an of heterodoxy, in common with all thought opposed t
Confucian teachings. His views as mystic, idealist, moralisi
social reformer have no weight with the aspirant who has his w
make in official life; but they are a delight, and even a consolaii<
many of the older men, who have no longer anything to gain or tc
Confucius, 551-470, B.C., who imagined that his Annals of tl
State would give him immortality, has always been much
widely appreciated as a moralist than as an historian. Coaf
His talks with his disciples and with others have been
preserved for us, together with some details of his personal
private life; and the volume in which these arc collected form
of the Four Books of the Confucian Canon. Starting fron
axiomatic declaration that man is born good and only become;
by his environment, he takes filial piety and duty to one'sneigh
as his chief themes, often illustrating his arguments^ with al
I Johnsonian emphasis. He cherished a shadowy belief in a God
I not in a future state of reward or punishment for good or evil ac
in this world. He rather taught men to be virtuous for virtue's
The discourses of Mencius, who followed Confuciusafter an int
of a hundred years, 372-28*; n.c, form another of the Four 13
the remaining two of which are s»hort philosophical ^^
treatises, usually ascribed to a grandson of Confucius.
Mencius devoted his life to elucidating and expanding the teacl
of the Master; and it is no doubt due to him that the Confi
doctrines obtained so wide a vogue. But he himself was m<
politician and an economist (sec below) than a simple preach
morality; and hence it is that the Chinese people have accordi
him the title of The Second Sjrc. He is considered to have ~
effectually " snuffed out " the heterodox «chool of Mo Ti,
a philosopher of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. who propound
doctrine of " universal love " as the proper foundation for orgai
society, arguing that under such a system all the calamities that
bring upon one another would altogether disappear, and the Ck
Age would be renewed. At the same time Mencius exposed y- ^
the fallacies of the speculations of Yang Chu, 4th century ""•
n.c, who founded a athool of ethical egoism as opposed to
exaggerated aJtruism of Mo Ti. According to Mincuis, Yang
would nut have parted with one hair of his body to save the v
world, whereas Mo Ti wuuld have sacrificed all. Another «
philosopher is H=im T*Q t Jrd century B.C. He main- Wjfia
laincd, in opposition id Menem*, who upheld the Conf in ian
d<>gma, and in conformity with Chita ian doctrine, that the nz
of man at hi* bin b is evil, and that this condition can only be cha
by efficient moral training, Then came Yanj; H»iung, 53-18
who propounded an ethical criterion midway between the y M
rival poMticns insisted on tiy Mencius and lUiin Tzu. Ht
teaching that the nature of man at birth is neither good
nor evil, but a mixture of both, and that development in c:
direction depends wholly upon circumstances.
There is a voluminous and interesting work, of doubtful age. w
passes under the title of Huat-run Tzu. or the Philosopher of Y
nan. It is attributed to Liu An, prince of Hu.ii-nan. who ^^
died 122 B.C., and who is further said to have written on Tg ^
alchemy, but alchemy was scarcely known in China at
the date of his death, being introduced about that time from Gn
The author, whoever he may have been, pn^oi ns a disciple of
Tzu; but the speculations of Lao Tzu. a> fanned by Chuang
were then rapidly sinking into vulgar ellorts to discover the elia
life. It is very difficult in many cases of this kind to decide 1
Iwoks arc, and what books arc not, partial or complete forge
In the present instance, the aid of the SkuoU ot, a dictionary o:
1st century A.n. (see below), may be invoked, but not in ouii
satisfactory a sense as that in which it will be ven lower dow
have been applied to the Too Ti Chin. The Shuo Wen contai
quotation said to be taken from Huaunan lzu\ but that quota
cannot be found in the work under consideration. It rna> be an
that the words in question may have been t.ikrn from .mother \
by the same author; but if so. it becomes difficult to believe
a book, more than two hundred years old. from which the au
of the Shuo Win quoted, should have been allowed to r*
without leaving any trace bchiud. China haa produced its Bern
LITERATURE)
CHINA
227
in considerable numbers; but almost all of them have given their
attention to textual criticism of the Confucian Capon, and few have
con d e sce n ded to examine critically the work* of heterodox writers.
The foreign student therefore finds himself faced with many knotty
points he it entirely unable to solve.
Of Wane; tJh'ung, a speculative and materialistic philosopher,
a. (J. 37-97. banned by the orthodox for his at ticks on Confucius
»-_._ and Mencius, only one work has survived. It consists
£-7?^ of eighty- four essays on. such topics as the nature trf
things, destiny, divination, death, ghosts, poisons,
miracles, criticisms of Confucius and Mcnciua, exaggeration, sacrifice
ind exorcism r According to Wang Ch'ung. man, endowed at birth
sometimes wit h 3 good and sometimes with an evil nature* is info* med
with a vita) fluid, which resides in the blood And is nourished by
citing and drinking, its two functions Wing to animate the body
and keep in order the mind. It is the source uf ati ^eniaiion* passing
through the blood like a wave. When it reaches the eyes, cars and
mouth, the result is sight, hearing and speech respectively. Disturb-
arm of the vital fluid kaeU tu infinity. Without the- fluid, the body
cannot be maintained; without the body, the fluid loses its vitality*
FlitT'tiTi. argues \\jri£ Ch'ung, when the body perishes and the
fluid loses its vitality, each being dependent on the other, there
remains nothing for immortality in a life beyond the grave. Ghosts
be held to be the hallucinations ol disordered minds, and miracles to
be natural phenomena capable of simple explanations. Hia indict*
roc-ni* of Confucius and Men-cius arc not of a serious character;
though, as regards the former, it must be borne in mind that the
Chinese people will not suffer the faintest aspersion on the fair fame
of their great Sage. It is related in the Lun Yii that Confucius paid
a visit to the notoriously immoral wife of one of the feudal nobles,
and that a certain disciple was " displeased " in consequence, where-
upon the Master swore, saying," If 1 have done any wrong, may the
sky fall and crush me! " Wang Ch'ung points out that the form of
oath adopted by Confucius is unsatisfactory and fails to carry con-
viction. Had he said, " May I be struck dead by lightning!" his
sincerity would have been more powerfully attested, because people
are often struck dead by lightning; whereas the fall of the sky is
too remote a contingency, such a thing never having been known to
happen within the memory of man. As to Mencius, there is a passage
h his works which states that a thread of predestination runs
through all human life, and that those who accommodate themselves
will come off better in the end than those who try to oppose; it is in
fact a statement of the 06* Mp phpow principle. On this Wang
Ch'ung remarks that the will of Cod is consequently made to depend
on human actions; and he further strengthens his objection by
showing that the best men have often fared worst. For instance,
Confucius never became emperor; Pi Kan, the patriot, was dis-
embowelled; the bold and faithful disciple, Tzfl Lu, was chopped
into small pieces.
But the tale of Chinese philosophers is a long one. It is a depart-
ment of literature in which the leading scholars of all ages have
Jkaa-al mostly had something to say. The great Chu Hsi,
SmZm. a - d * 1130-1200, whose fame is chiefly perhaps that of a
****** commentator and whose monument is his uniform
exegesis of the Confucian Canon, was also a voluminous writer on
philosophy. He took a hand in the mystery which surrounds the
/ Ching (or Yih King), generally known as the Book of Changes,
vhkh is held by some to be the oldest Chinese work and which forms
Kt of the Confucian Canon. It is ascribed to King Wen, the virtual
nder of the Chou dynasty, 1 122-249 BC > whose son became the
first sovereign and posthumously raised his father to kingly rank.
h contains a fanciful system of divination, deduced originally from
eight diagrams consisting of triplet combinations of a line and a
broken line, either one of which is necessarily repeated twice, and in two
cases three times, in the same combination. Thus there may be three
fanes =. or three broken lines =z, and other such combinations
as =H and ==. Confucius declared that he would like to give another
fifty years to the elucidation of this puzzling text. Shao Yung,
a.d. 101 1-1077, sought the key in numbers; Ch'ftng I., a.d. 1033-
1107, in the eternal fitness of things. " But Chu Hsi alone," says a
writer of the 17th century, " was able to pierce through the meaning
and appropriate the thoughts of the inspired man who composed it.
No. foreigner, however, has been able quite to understand what Chu
Hsi did make of it, and several have gone so far as to set all native
interpretations aside in favour of their own. Thus, the / Ching has
been discovered by one to be a calendar of the lunar year; by another,
to contain a system of phallic worship; and by a third, to be a
vocabulary of the language of a tribe, whose very existence had to be
postulated for the purpose.
Political Economy.— This department of literature has been by no
means neglected by Chinese writers. So early as the 7th century B.C.
we find Kuan Chung, the prime minister of the Ch*i state,
^fff_ devoting his attention to economic problems, and thereby
CTb ^* l making that state the wealthiest and the strongest of all
the feudal kingdoms. Beginning life as a merchant, he passed into
the public service, and left behind him at death a large work, parts
of which, as we now possess it, may possibly have come direct from
his own hand, the remainder being written up at a later date in
accordance with the principles he inculcated. His ideal State was
divided into twenty-one parts, fifteen of which were allotted to
officials and agriculturists, and six to manufacturers and traders.
His great idea was to make his own state self-contained; and
accordingly he fostered agriculture in order to be independent in
time of war, and manufactures in order to increase his country's
wealth in time of peace. He held that a purely agricultural popula*
tion would always remain poor; while a purely manufacturing
population would risk having its supplies of raw material cut off in
time of war. He warmly encouraged free imports as a means of
enriching his countrymen, trusting to their ability, under these
conditions, to hold their own against foreign competition. He pro-
tected capital, in the sense that he considered capitalists to be
necessary for the development of commerce in time of peace, and
for the protection of the state in time of war. #
Mencius (see above 1 ) was in favour of heavily taxing merchants
who tried to engross for the purpose of reuniting, that is, to buy up
wholesale for the purpose of retailing at monopoly prices; he was in
fact opposed to all trusts and corners in trade. He was in favour of a
tax to be imposed upon surh persons as were mere consumers, living
upon property which hod been amassed by others and doing no work
themselves. No tax, however* was to be exacted from propcrty-
ownrrs who contributed by their pergonal efforts to the general
welfare of the community. The object af the tax was not revenue,
but the prevention of idleness with its attendant evil consequences
to the state.
Wang An-shih i ihe Reformer, or Innovator, as he has been called,
flourished *.&. 10J1-IDJ6. In fo6q he was appointed state councillor
and forthwith entered upon a ■eric* of startling reform's n^--
which have given him a unique position in the annals of xa-sAAl
China. He established a state monopoly in commerce,
under whkh the produce of a district was to be used first for the
payment of taws, then for the direct use of the district itself, and
the remainder was to be purchased by the government at a cheap
rate, either to be held until there was a rise in price, or to be trans*
ported to some 01 her district in need of it. The people were to profit
by fixity of prices and escape from further taxation; and the govern-
ment r by the revenue accruing in the process of administration.
There was also to be a system of fiUte advances to cultivators of
land ; not merely to the needy, but to all alike. The loan was to be
compulsory, and interest was to be paid on it at the rate of a % per
month. The soil was to be divided into equal areas and taxed accord*
ing to its fertility in each case, without reference to the number of
inhabitants contained in each area. All these, and other important
reforms, failed to find favour with a rigidly conservative people, and
Wang An-shih lived long enough to see the whole of his policy reversed.
Military Writers. — hfot much, relatively speaking, has been written
by the Chinese on war in general, strategy or tactics. There is,
however, one very remarkable work which has come down g^j^x
to ui from the 6th century B.C., as to the genuineness of •»■•»"***
which there now seems to be no reasonable doubt. A biographical
notice of the author, Sun Wu, is given in the Shik Chi (sec above),
from which we learn that " he knew how to handle an army, and was
finally appointed General." His work, entitled the Art of War, is a
short treatise in thirteen chapters, under the following headings:
'* Laying Plans," " WagingWar,"" Attack by Stratagem, Tactical
Dispositions," " Energy, " Weak Points arid Strong," " Manoeuvr-
ing," " Variation ol Tactics,"" The Army on the March,"" Terrain,"
* 4 The Nine Situations," " The Attack by Fire," and " The Use of
Spies," Ahhuugh the warfare of Sun Wu's day was the warfare of
bow and arrow, of armoured chariots and push of pike, certain
principles inseparably associated with successful issue will be found
enunciated in nis work. Professor Mackail, in his Latin Literatun
(p. 8ft), declares ihat Varro'* Imagine t was " ihe fim instance in
history of the publication of an illustrated book. , ' But refer* n-.e to
the An Section of the hi*toryof the Western Han dynasty, joft u.o-
A.tj. 25, will disclose the title of liltcen or sixteen illustrated books,
one of which is Sun Wu'* Art pJ War t
Agriculture— \n spite of the Sigh place accorded to agriculturists,
who rank second only to officials and before artisan; and trad ens,
and in spite of the assiduity with which agriculture has been practised
in all ages, securing immunity from slaughter for the ploughing ox—
what agricultural literature the Chinese possess may be said to belong
entirely to modem times. Ch'eu Fu of the 13th century ad. was the
author of a smalt work in three parts, dealing with si?ric (lit «re t cattle-
breeding and silkworms respectively. There is also a well-known
work by an artist of the early 13th century* with forty-six woodcuts
ill ust raring the various operations of agriculture and weaving. This
bnok was reprinted under the emperor K'ang Hai H 166^-1733, and
new illustrations with excellent perspective were provided by Chiao
Ping'chen. an artist who had adopted foreign method* a» introduced
by the famous Jesuit, Matteo Kkei. The itandard work on agricul-
ture, entitled ffung Ching Ch'uan Shu, was compiled by M -
Hsu Kuang-ch'i, 1562-:
1631, generally regard
of the mandannate wh<
led as the
Kuant-
only influential member of the mandannate who has ever
become a convert to Christianity. It is in sixty sections, "" "
the first three of which are devoted to classical references. Then
follow two sections on the division of land, six on the processes of
husbandry, none on hydraulics, four on agricultural implements,
six on planting, six on rearing silkworms, four on trees, one on
breeding animals, one on food and eighteen on provision against %.
time of scarcity.
228
CHINA
LITERATURE
Medicine and Therapeutics.— Tht oldest of tbe innumerable
mf-dica) works of all descriptions with which China has been flooded
from tune immemorial is a treatise which has been credited to the
Yellow Emperor (we above). 2698- J^O* B.C. It isefttitkd Pfoin Qut.i-
ttitna e//Jif mfow Emperor \ or 5b If & For *hort. and takes* the form of
questions put by the emperor nnd answered by L-irl Ch'i, 4 miEiUti-r,
who was htm sell author of the JVW CAiHg 4 a medical work no longer in
existence* Without accepting the popular attribution of the 5m
W*n. it is most probable that it is a very old book, dating back to
•everil centuries before Christ, and containing traditional lore of a
still more remote period- The same may be said of certain works
on cautery and acupuncture, both of which are still practised by
Chines doctors; and at*o of works on the pulse, the variations of
which have betn clarified and allocated with a minuteness hardly
credible, Special treatises on fevers, skin-diseases, diseases of the
feet, eye*, heart, ox** are to be found in great quantities, as well as
veterinary treatise* on the treatment of diseases of the hof« and
the domestic buffalo^ But in the whole range of Chinese medical
Literature there is nothing which can approach the Pin Tfaa* or
p§ B jw'Mo. Materia Mfdira, sometimes called the llcrb.il, a tulu (i.e.
Pin Ts'a-o) which seems to have belonged to some book of
the kind in pre-hisioric ages. The wori: under consideration was
compiled, by Li Shih-chfin, who completed his task in 1578 after
twenty-six yean' labour. No fewer Than eighteen hundred and
ninety-two species of drugs, animal, v^etaMe and mineral, arc dealt
with, arranged under sixty-two classes 10 sixteen divisions; and eight
thousand one hundred and sixty prescriptions are given in con-
nexion with the various entries. The author professes to quote from
the original Pin Ts'ao, above mentioned; and we obtain from his
extracts an insight into some curious details. It appears that formerly
the number of recognized drugs was three hundred and sixty-five in
all, corresponding with the days of the year. One hundred and
twenty of these were called sovereigns (cf . a sovereign prescription) ;
and were regarded as entirely beneficial to health, taken in any
quantity or for any time. Another similar number were called
ministers; some of these were poisonous, and all had to be "used with
discretion. The remaining one hundred and twenty-five were
agents; all very poisonous, but able to cure diseases if not taken in
over-doses. The modern Pen Ts'ao, in its sixteen divisions, deals with
drugs classed under water, fire, earth, minerals, herbs, grain, veget-
ables, fruit, trees, clothes and utensils, insects, fishes, Crustacea,
birds, beasts and man. In each case the proper name of the drug is
first given, followed by its explanation, solution of doubtful points,
correction of errors, means of identification by taste, use in prescrip-
tions, &c. The work is fully illustrated, and there is an index to the
various medicines, classed according to the complaints for which they
are used.
. Divination, cVc. — The practice of divination is of very ancient
date in China, traceable, it has been suggested, back to the Canon of
Changes (sec above), which is commonly used by the lettered classes
for that purpose. A variety of other methods, the chief of which is
astrology, have also been adopted, and have yielded a considerable
bulk of literature. Even the officially-published almanacs still mark
certain days as suitable forcertain undertakings, while other days are
marked in the opposite sense. The spirit of Zadkiel pervades the
Chinese empire. In like manner, geomancy is a subject on which
many volumes have been written; and the same applies to the
pseudo sciences of palmistry, physiognomy, alchemy (introduced
from Greek sources) and others.
Painting. — Calligraphy, in the eyes of the Chinese, is just as much
a fine art as painting; the two arc, in fact, considered to have come
into existence together, but as might be expected the latter Occupies
the larger space in Chinese literature, and forms the subject of
numerous extensive works. One of the most important of these is
the Hsuan Ho Hua P'u, the author of which is unknown. It contains
information concerning two hundred and thirty-one painters and the
titles of six thousand one hundred and ninety-two -of their pictures,
all in the imperial collection during the dynastic period HsUan Ho,
A.D. 1 1 19-1 126, from which the title is derived. The artists are
classified under one of the following ten headings, supposed to
represent the line in which each particularly excelled: Religion,
Human Figures. Buildings, Barbarians (including their Animals),
Dragons and Fishes, Landscape, Animals, Flowers and Birds, The
Bamboo, Vegetables and Fruits.
'Music. — The literature of music does not go back to a remote period.
The Canon of Music, which was formerly included in the Confucian
Canon, has been lost for many centuries; and the works now avail-
able, exclusive of entries in the dynastic histories, are not older than
the 9U1 century a.d., to which date may be assigned the Ckieh Ku
La. a treatise on the deerskin drum, said to have been introduced into
China from central Asia, and evidently of Scythian origin. There are
several important works of the 16th and 17th centuries, in which the
history and theory of music are fully discussed, and illustrations of
instruments are given, with measurements in each case, and the
special notation required.
Miscellaneous. —Under this head may be grouped a vast number
of works, many of them exhaustive, on such topics as archaeology,
seals (engraved), numismatics, pottery, ink (the miscalled " Indian ' ),
mirrors, precious stones, tea, wine, chess, wit and humour,
even cookery, &c. There is, indeed, hardly any subject, within
reasonable limits, which does not find some corner in Chinese
literature.
Collections. — Reprints of miscellaneous books and pamphlets in a
uniform edition, the whole forming a " library," has long been a
favourite means of disseminating useful (and other) tuarWmt
information. Of these, the Lung Wei Pi Shu may be taken pistu.
as a specimen. In bulk it would be about the equivalent
of twenty volumes, 8vo, of four hundred pages to each. Among its
content* we find the following. A handbook of phraseology, with
explanations; a short account of fabulous regions to the N., S., E.
and W.; notes on the plants and trees of southern countries; bio-
graphical tkeithes of mnety-two wonderful personages; an account
of the choice of an empress, with standard measurements of the
height, length of limb, ike, of the ideal woman; " Pillow Notes"
(a term borrowed by the Japanese), or jottings on various subjects,
ranging from the Creation to an account of Fusang, a country where
the trees are thousands of feet high and of vast girth, thus supporting
the California, as opposed to the Mexico, identification of Fusang;
critiques on the style of various poets, and on the indebtedness of
each to earlier writers: a list of the most famous bronze vessels cast
by early emperors, with their dimensions, inscriptions, &c. ; a treatise
on the bamboo; a list of famous swords, with dates of forging and
inscriptions; an account of the old Mongol palace, previous to its
destruction by the first Ming emperor; notes on the wild tribes of
China; historical episodes; biographical notices of one hundred and
four poets of the present dynasty; notes on archaeological, super-
natural and other topics, first published in the 9th century; notes
for bibliophiles on the care of books, and on paper, ink, pictures and
bric-a-brac; a collection of famous criminal cases; night thoughts
suggested by a meteor. Add to the above, numerous short stories
relating to magic, dreams, bilocation, and to almost every possible
phase of supernatural manifestation, and the reader will have some
idea of what he may expect in an ordinary " library " of a popular
character. It must always be remembered that with the Chinese,
style is of paramount importance. Documents, the subject-matter of
which would be recognized to be of no educative value, would still be
included, if written in a pleasing style, such as might be serviceable
as a model.
Individual Authors. — In a similar manner it has always been custom-
ary for relatives or friends, sometimes for the trade, to publish the
" complete works " of important and often unimportant writers;
usually, soon after death. And as literary distinction has hitherto
almost invariably led to high office under the state, the collected
works of the great majority of authors open with selected Memorials
to the Throne and other documents of an official character. The
public interest in these may have long since passed away ; but they
are valued by the Chinese as models ota style to be imitated, and the
foreign student occasionally comes across papers on once burning
questions arising out of commercial or diplomatic intercourse with
western nations. Then may follow — the order is not always the
same — the prefaces which the author contributed from time to time
to the literary undertakings of his friends. Preface-writing is almost
a department of Chinese literature. No one ever thinks of publishing
a book without getting one or more of his capable associates to pro-
vide prefaces, which are naturally of a laudatory character, and
always couched in highly-polished and obscure terms, the difficulty of
the text being often aggravated by a fanciful and almost illegible
script. Prefaces written by emperors, many examples of which may
be seen, arc of course highly esteemed, and are generally printed in
coloured ink. The next section may comprise biographical notices
of eminent men and women, or of mere local celebrities, who happened
to die in the author's day. Then will follow Records, a title which
covers inscriptions carved on the walls of new buildings, or on
memorial tablets, and also notes on pictures which the author may
have seen, places which he may have visited, or allegorical incidents
which he may have imagined. Then come disquisitions, or essays
on various subjects; researches, being short articles of archaeo-
logical interest; studies or monographs; birthday congratulations
to friends or to official colleagues; announcements, as to deities, a
cessation of whose worship is threatened if the necessary rain or lair
weather be not forthcoming; funeral orations, letters of condolence,
&c. The above items will perhaps fill half a dozen volumes; the
remaining volumes, running to twenty or thirty in all. as the case
may be, will contain the author's poetry, together with his longer
and more serious works. The essential of such a collection is, in
Chinese eyes, its completeness.
Fiction. — Although novels are not regarded as an integral
part of literature proper, it is generally conceded that some
novels may be profitably studied, if for no other
reason, from the point of view of style. With the c!i.
novel, however, we are no longer on perfectly safe
ground in regard to that decency which characterizes, as has
been above stated, the vast mass of Chinese literature. Chinese
novels range, in this sense, from the simplest and most un-
affected tale of dally life, down to low— not the lowest — depths
of objectionable pornography. The Son Kuo Chih, an historical
romance based upon a period of disruption at the close of the
LITERATURE)
CHINA
229
And century u>., Is a delightful book, packed with episodes of
battle, heroism, self-sacrifice, skilful strategy, and all that goes
to snake up a stirring picture of strenuous times. Its author,
who might almost have been Walter Scott, cannot be named for
certain; but the work itself probably belongs to the 13th
century, a date at which the novel begins to make its appearance
m China- Previous to that time, there had been current an
rmmensf quantity of stories of various kinds, but nothing like a
novel, as we understand the term. From the 13th century
onwards, the growth of the novel was continuous; and finally,
in the 17th century, a point was reached which is not likely to
be surpassed. The Hung Lou Ming, the author of which took
pains, for political reasons, to conceal his identity,
JSJ, is a creation of a very high order. Its plot is intricate
and original, and the denouement startlingly tragic.
In the course of the story, the chief clue of which is love, woven
in with intrigue, ambition, wealth, poverty, and other threads
of human life, there occur no fewer than over four hundred
characters, each one possessed of a distinctive personality drawn
with marvellous skiU. \t contains incidents which recall the
licence tolerated in Fielding; but the coarseness, like that of
Fielding, is always on the surface, and devoid of the ulterior
suggestiveness of the modern psychological novel But perhaps
no work of fiction has ever enjoyed such vogue among literary
llM< ^ men as a collection of stories, some graceful, some
weird, written in 1679 by P'u Sungling, a dis-
appointed candidate at the public examinations. This collection,
known as the Liao Chat, is exceedingly interesting to the foreign
student for its sidelights on folklore and family life; to the
native scholar, who professes to smile at the subject-matter as
beyond the pale of genuine literature, it is simply invalu-
able as an expression of the most masterly style of which his
language is capable.
Drama. — Simultaneously with the appearance of the novel,
stage-plays seem to have come into existence in China. In
the earliest ages there were set dances by trained performers,
to the accompaniment of music and singing; and something of
the kind, more or less ornate as regards the setting, has always
been associated with solemn and festive occasions. But not until
the days of the Mongol rule, aj>. i 260-1368, can the drama proper
be said to have taken root and flourished in Chinese soil. The
probability is that both the drama and the novel were intro-
duced from Central Asia in the wake of the Mongol conquerors;
the former is now specially essential to the everyday happiness
of the Chinese people, who are perhaps the most confirmed
playgoers in the world. There is an excellent collection of one
hundred plays of the Mongol dynasty, with an illustration to
each, first published in 1615; there is also a further large
collection, issued in 1845, which contains a great number of
plays arranged under sixty headings, according to the style and
purport of each, besides many others. There is one
^msj»i j amou3 pjgy f tQe Mongol period which deals largely
in plot and passion, and is a great favourite with the
educated classes. It is entitled Hsi Hsiang Chi, or the Story of
the Western Pavilion; and as if there was a doubt as to the
reception which would be accorded to the work, a minatory
sentence was inserted in the prolegomena: " If any one
ventures to call this book indecent, he will certainly have his
tongue torn out in bell." So far as the written play is con-
cerned, its language is altogether unobjectionable; on the stage,
by means of gag and gesture, its presentation is often unseemly
and coarse. What the Chinese playgoer delights in, as an
evening's amusement, is a succession of plays which are more
of the nature of sketches, slight in construction and generally
weak in plot, some of them based upon striking historical
episodes, and others dealing with a single humorous incident.
Dictionaries.— The Erk Ya, or Nearing the Standard. U commonly
classed as a dictionary, and is referred by native scholars generally
to the 1 2th century B.C. The entries are arranged under nineteen
heads, to facilitate reference, and explain a large number of words and
phrases, including names of beasts, birds, plants and fishes. The
work is well illustrated in the targe modem edition ; but the actual
date of composition is an entirety open question, and the insertion of
woodcuts must necessarily belong to a comparatively late age (see
Military Writers).
With the Shuo Win, or Explanation of Written Words, we begin the
long list of lexicographical works which constitute such a notable
feature in Chinese Literature, A scholar, named Hsu Shen, Sham -**-
who died about a.d. 120, made an effort to bring together ^^ y^
and analyse all the characters it was possible to gather from the written
language as it existed in his own day. He then proceeded to arrange
these characters— about ten thousand in oil — on a system which
would enable a student to find a given word without having possibly
to search through the whole book. To do this, he simply grouped
together all such as had a common part, more or less indicative of the
meaning of each, much as though an English dictionary were to
consist of such groups as
Dog-days
Dog-kennel
Dog-collar
Dog-meat
Dog-nap
and so on.
Horse-collar
Horse-flesh
Horse-back
Horse-fly
Horse-chestnut
and so on.
Hsu Shen selected five hundred and forty of these common parts,
or Radicals (see Language), a number which, as will be seen later
on, was found to be cumbrously large; and under each Radical he
inserted all the characters belonging to it, but with no particular
order or arrangement, so that search was still, in many cases, quite
a laborious task. The explanations given were chiefly intended to
establish the pictorial origin of the -language; but whereas no one
now disputes this as a general conclusion, the steps by which Hsu
Shtn attempted to prove his theory must in a large number of
instances be dismissed as often inadequate and sometimes ridiculous.
Nevertheless, it was a great achievement; and the Shuo Win is still
indispensable to the student of the particular script in vogue a
century or two before Christ. It is also of value in another sense.
It may be used, with discretion, in testing the genuineness of an
alleged ancient document, which, if an important or well-known
document before the age of Hsu SMn, would not be likely to contain
characters not given in his work. Under this test the Too 71 Cking,
for instance, breaks down (see Iluai-nan TssT).
Passing over a long scries of dictionaries and vocabularies which
appeared at various dates, some constructed on Hsu Shin's plan,
with modifications and improvements, and others, known as phonetic
dictionaries, arranged under the finals according to the Tones, we
come to the great standard lexicon produced under the auspices,
and now bearing the name of the emperor K'ang Hsi, A.D. 1662^1 Jfy
But before proceeding, a rough attempt maybe made to exhibit in
English terms the principle of the phonetic as compared with the
radical dictionary described above. In the spoken language ntmtkl
there would occur the word light, the opposite of dark, JZJZTJT
and this would be expressed in writing by a certain ^^
symbol. Then, when it became necessary to write down
light, the opposite of heavy, the result would be precisely what we
see in English. But as written words increased, always with a
limited number of vocables (see Language), this system was found
to be impracticable, and Radicals were inserted as a means of dis-
tinguishing one kind of light from another, but without altering the
original sound. Now. in the phonetic dictionary the words are no
longer arranged in such groups as
Sun-light
Sun-beam
Sun-stroke
Sun-god. &c.
according to the Radicals, but in such groups as
Sun-light
Moon-light
Foot-light
Gas-light, &c
according to the phonetics, all the above four being pronounced
simply kght, without reference to the radical portion which guides
towards the limited sense of the term. So, in a phonetic dictionary,
we should have such a group as
Brass-bound
Morocco-bound
Half-bound
Spell-bound
Homeward-bound
Wind-bound
and so on. all the above six being pronounced simply hound. To
return to " K'ang Hsi" as the lexicon in question is familiarly
styled, the total number of characters given therein jrjuwjfaL
amounts to over forty-four thousand, grouped no longer
under the five hundred and forty Radicals of Hsu Shin, but under
the much more manageable number of two hundred a«A taisttssv*
— - =-*Jl TVRE
— .pin
~— = »::* of
TmSlm.
•#*.«/.'.
Jr.
.1 I'/ I. i •• ,i. /# /.n<* • , « • t* !• . ../
W#f|r 'J '».i . W-.»l, IM / 4f /' i»; /# /•-
|^rf ' ■»••*. fl <• • . |,f*; ,j i #J t*,'n .!•'.. I
A fy . nit'lf r iKf »lif»#f ». fj^f , t w*. »A •»«
tlMIM!!"} lliM* -4> ltr,i.A* ,'§■/ ''..j \'H -,
#4 M«fl'<lit I" Ifiif OM llt«#'4.-4Ml */» 1
feu'dnp. AiN/i|.ir mif.iLf »>*V,'U*\-i
|i K rii<r liln.ifiir< »rf I |, l# ,4 |.. it.« / «j ,
Imim'I .it nt^iif iIm >i.iri*« d*ii- «i i\+ )<•
MM'l mpr* Lilly llii twin*,, Imyin
'1 fhr'fi^fi m ft .1
f!-, «..
-■- v —
-*-•-■ * _ ■"**»■ :.""«L. T." ri_:>
-* -- • •■-.- r*--J zr+rSz-
--" *-"-*" s-r'r.- Tie
■TT K.T
* perwMrv. as
-J--c t !-
».*»
-r--r:f rv ,-£ Hk i: p e «:>;':
---.:* err •_-* t>-« :*;-- .--?-
m «f :: Lj»:or. of »he Ir.'itx Lis rt«r.:.y b<-..-i coci?w:ed. ' ~
WmHticrtyf: and Prir.:ir.r. — At the co-;Iu«:?- c: this brief
r erf O.inf-y: li*«r&'.ure ii nay well be iske«i hc-w such an
r.d tvcr-increisir.g rrisa his been hanieddo^T
, , f 1 1 ion to generation. According to t he views pul f or i,
fey mAy QiiriLV: antiquarians, the first written records were
^jgri^H *rjih a social knife upon bamboo slips and woode-
Wi, 17ic impracticability of such a process, as applied to
,, iwvi-r v*:tn% to have dawned upon those writers; arj
n^mh^ll of error, started in the ?th century, long after the
»iA 'be tablet had disappeared as implements of writ inc.
Wrf to gHthrr strength as time went on. Recent
1 kowever, have placet! it beyond doubt that when the
im* l> \'kn to write in a literary sense, as opposed to mere
on Ixines, they traced their characters on slips of
if J I o bid s of wood with a bamboo pencil, frayed at one
I the coloured liquid which stood in the place of ink.
PM used only to erase. So things went on until about
flint It would appear that a brush of hair was sub-
> Ihc bamboo pent il; aflcr which, silk was called into
^ an appropriate vehicle in connexion with the more
CHINA— CHINCHEW
23 1
delicate brush. But silk was expensive and difficult to handle,
so that the invention of paper in a.d. 105 by a eunuch, named
Ts ai Lun, came as a great boon, although it seems clear that a
certain kind of paper, made from silk floss, was in use before his
date. However that may be, from the 1st century onwards the
Chinese have been in possession of the same writing materials
that are in use at the present day.
In a.d. 170, Ts'ai Yung, who rose subsequently to the highest
offices of state, wrote out on stone in red ink the authorized text
of the Five Classics, to be engraved by workmen, and thus
handed down to posterity. The work covered forty-six huge
tablets, of which a few fragments are said to be still in existence.
A similar undertaking was carried out in 837, and the later
tablets arc still standing at a temple in the city of Hsi-an Fu,
Shensi. With the T'ang dynasty, rubbings of famous inscriptions,
wherein the germ of printing may be detected, whether for the
style of the composition or for the calligraphic excellence of the
script, came very much into vogue with scholars and collectors.
It is also from about the same date that the idea of multiplying
on paper impressions taken from wooden blocks seems to have
arisen, chiefly in connexion with religious pictures and prayers.
The process was not widely applied to the production of books
until the 10th century, when in a.d. 932 the Confucian Canon
was printed for the first time. In 98 1 orders were issued for the
Tai Fing Kuang Cki, an encyclopaedia extending to many
volumes (see above) to be cut on blocks for printing. Movable
types of baked clay arc said to have been invented by an
alchemist, named Pi Shcng. about a.d. 1043; and under the Ming
dynasty, 1368-1644, these were made first of wood, and later
of copper or lead, but movable types have never gained the
favour accorded to block-printing, by means of which most of
China's great typographical triumphs have been achieved. The
process is, and always has been, the same all over China. Two
consecutive pages of a book, separated by a column containing
the title, number of section, and number of leaf, are written out
and pasted face downwards on a block of wood (Lindera lzu-mu,
Hems!.). This paper, where not written upon, is cut away with
sharp tools, leaving the characters in relief, and of course back-
wards, as in the case of European type. The block is then inked,
and an impression is taken off, on one side of the paper only.
This sheet is then folded down the middle of the separating
column above mentioned, so that the blank halves come
together, leaving two pages of printed matter outside; and when
enough sheets have been brought together, they arc stabbed at
the open ends and form a volume, to be further wrapped in
paper or pasteboard, and labelled with title, &c. It is almost
superfluous to say that the pages of a Chinese book must not be
cut. There is nothing inside, and, moreover, the column bearing
the title and leaf-number would be cut through. The Chinese
newspapers of modern times are all printed from movable types,
an ordinary fount consisting of about six to seven thousand
characters.
See J. Legge, The Chinese Classics (1861-1872); A. Wylie, Notes
on Chinese Literature (1867); E. Chavanne?, JUT moires historiques
(1895-1905); H. A. Giles, Chuang Tri (1889), A Chinese Biographical
Dictionary (1898), and A History of Chinese Literature (1901); A.
Forke, Lun-Htng (1907): F. Hirth, The Ancient History of China
(1908) ; L. Giles, Sun TtA (1910). (H. A. Gi.)
CHINA* the common name for ware made of porcelain, given
because it came from China, where the first vitrified, translucent,
white ware was produced. The Portuguese or Italians gave it
the name of " porcelain " (q.v.). English usage was influenced
by India and the East, where the Persian chinl was widely
prevalent as the name of the ware. This is seen also in some
of the earlier forms and pronunciations, e.g. chiney, chency, and
later chaney (see Ceramics; and for " china-clay " Kaolin).
CHINANDBGA, or Chinekdeca, the capital of the department
of Chinandcga in western Nicaragua, 10 m. N.N.E. of the seaport
of Corinto by the Corinto- Managua railway. Pop. (1900) about
12,000. Chinandega is the centre of a fertile corn-ptoducing
district, and has a large transit trade owing to its excellent situa-
tion on the chief Nicaraguan railway. Its manufactures include
coarse cloth, pottery and Indian feather ornaments. Cotton,
sugar-cane and bananas are cultivated in the neighbourhood.
CHI-NAN FU, the capital of Shan-tung, China, in 36 4c/ N.,
1 1 7° 1' E. Pop. about 100,000. It is situated in one of the
earliest settled districts of the Chinese empire. The city,
which lies in the valley of the present channel of the Yellow
river (Hwang-Ho), and about 4 m. south of the river, h
surrounded by a triple line of defence. First is the city wall,
strongly built and carefully guarded, outside this a granite wall,
and beyond this again a mud rampart. Three springs outside
the west gate throw up streams of tepid water to a height of
about 2 ft. This water, which is highly prized for its healing
qualities, fills the moat and forms a fine lake in the northern
quarter of the dty.
Chi-nan Fu was formerly famous for its manufacture of silks
and of imitation precious stones. It is now the chief commercial
entrepot of Western Shan-tung but no longer a manufacturing
centre. A highway connects it with the Yellow river, and it is
joined by a railway 280 m. long to Kiaochow. The dty has a
university for instruction on Western lines, and an efficient
military school. American Presbyterians began mission work
in the dty in 1873; it is also the see of a Roman Catholic
bishop.
CHINCHA ISLANDS, three small islands in the Pacific Ocean,
about 12 m. from the coast of Peru (to which country they
belong), opposite the town of Pisco, and 106 m. distant from
Callao, in 13 38' S., 76 28' W. The largest of the group,
known as the North Island or Isla del Norte, is only four-fifths
of a mile in length, and about a third in breadth. They are of
granitic formation, and rise from the sea in precipitous cliffs,
wom into countless caves and hollows, which furnish convenient
resting-places for the sea-fowl. Their highest points attain an
elevation of 113 ft. The islands have yielded a few remains of
the Chincha Indian race. They were formerly noted for
vast deposits of guano, and its export was begun by the Peruvian
government in 1840. The supply, however, was exhausted in
1874. In 1853-1854 the Chincha Inlands were the chief object in
a contest known as the Guano War between President Echenique
and General Cast ilia, and in April 1864 they were seized by the
Spanish rear-admiral Pinzon in order to bring the Peruvian
government to apologize for its treatment of Spanish immigrants.
CHINCHEW, or Ciunchu, the name usually given in English
charts to an ancient and famous port of China in the province
of Fu-kicn, of which the Chinese name is CKUanchow-ju or
Ts'iianchovhfu. It stands in 24 57' N., n8 c 35' E. The walls
have a circuit of 7 or 8 m., but embrace much vacant ground.
The chid exports arc tea and sugar, tobacco, china-ware, nan-
keens, &c. There are remains of a fine mosque, founded by the
Arab traders who resorted thither. The English Presbyterian
Mission lias had a chapel in the city since about 1862. Beyond
the northern branch of the Min (several miles from the dty)
there is a suburb called Loyang, approached by the most
celebrated bridge in China.
Ch'uanchow, owing to the obstruction of its harbour by sand
banks, has been supplanted as a port by Amoy, and its trade it
carried on through the port of Nganhai. It is still, however, a
large and populous city. It was in the middle ages the great port
of Western trade with China, and was known to the Arabs and to
Europeans zsZaitiln or Zaylon, the name under which it appears in
Abulfeda's geography and in the Mongol history of Rashlddudm,
as well as in Ibn Batuta,Marco Polo and other medieval travellers.
Some argument has been alleged against the identity of Zayton
with Ch'fianchow, and in favour of its being rather Changchow
(a great city 60 m. W.S.W. of Ch'uanchow), or a port on the river
of Changchow near Amoy. "Port of Zayton" may have
embraced the great basin called Amoy Harbour, the chief part
of which lies within the Fu or department oC Ch'iianchow; bnt
there is hardly room for doubt that the Zayton of Marco Polo and
Abulfcda was the Ch'uanchow of the Chinese. Ibn Batuta in-
forms us that a rich silk texture made here was called ZailUmya,
and there can be little doubt that this is the real origin of the
word " Satin," Zcttani in medieval Italian, Accjlwnx vcv^w£\£bl»
232
CHINCHILLA— CHINESE PAVILLON
CHINCHILLA, a small grey hopping rodent mammal {Chin-
chilla lanigera), of the approximate size of a squirrel, inhabiting
the eastern slopes of the Andes in Chile and Bolivia, at altitudes
between 8000 and 12,000 ft. It typifies not only the genus
Chinchilla, but the family Chinckillidac, for the distinctive
features of which see Rodentia. The ordinary chinchilla is
about 10 in. in length, exclusive of the long tail, and in the form
of its head somewhat resembles a rabbit. It is covered with a
dense soft fur J in. long on the back and upwards of an inch in
length on the sides, of a delicate French grey colour, darkly
mottled on the upper surface and dusky white beneath; the cars
being long, broad and thinly covered with hair. Chinchillas
live in burrows, and these subterranean dwellings undermine
the ground in some parts of the Chilean Andes to such an extent
as to cause danger to travellers on horseback. They associate
in communities, forming their burrows among loose rocks, and
coming out to feed in the early morning and towards sunset.
They feed chiefly on roots and grasses, in search of which they
often travel considerable distances; and when eating they sit on
their haunches, holding their food in- their fore-paws. The
Indians in hunting them employ the grison (Galktis vittata), a
member of the weasel family, which is trained to enter the
crevices of the rocks where the chinchillas lie concealed during
the day. The fur (q.v.) of this rodent was prized by the ancient
Peruvians, who made coverlets and other articles with the skin,
and at the present day the skins are exported in large numbers
to Europe, where they are made into muffs, tippets and trim-
mings. That chinchillas have not under such circumstances
become rare, if not extinct, is owing to their extraordinary
fecundity, the female usually producing five or six young twice
a year. They are docile in disposition, and thus well fitted for
domestication. The Peruvian chinchilla (C. brcvicaudata) is
larger, with relatively shorter ears and tail; while still larger
species constitute the genus Lagidium, ranging from the Andes
to Patagonia, and distinguished by having four in place of five
front-toes, more pointed ears, and a somewhat differently formed
skull. (See also Viscaciia). (R. L.*)
CHINDE, a town of Portuguese East Africa, chief port for the
Zambezi valley and British Central Africa, at the mouth of the
Chindc branch of the Zambezi, in 18 40' S., 36° 30' E. Pop.
(1007) 2700, of whom 21S were Europeans. Large steamers are
unable to cross the bar, over which the depth x>f water varies from
10 to 18 ft. Chinde owes its existence to the discovery in 1889
that the branch of the river on the banks of which it is built is
navigable from the ocean (bee Zambezi). The Portuguese in
1S91 granted on lease for 00 years an area of 5 acres — subse-
quently increased to 25 — to the British government, on which
goods in transit to British possessions could be stored duty
free. This block of land is known as the British Concession, or
British Chinde. The prosperity of the town largely depends
on the transit trade with Nyasaland and North East Rhodesia.
There is also a considerable export from Portuguese districts,
sugar, cotton and ground nuts being largely cultivated in the
Zambezi valley, and gold and copper mines worked.
. CHIMDWIV, a river of Burma, the largest tributary of the
Irrawaddy, its entire course being in Burmese territory. It is
called Xingthi by the Manipuris. The Chindwin is formed by the
junction of the Tanai, the Tawan and the Taron or Turing,
but it is still uncertain which is the main si ream. The Tanai
bas hitherto been looked on as the chief source. It rises in about
a$° 30* N. and 07* E., on the Shwedaur .a -?> i peak of the Kum6n
range, ia m. N. of Mogaung. and flowaduc N. for the first part
of its course until it reaches the Hukawng vafley, v.hen it turns
to the W. i and flows through the middle of the plain 10 the end
of the valley proper. There it curvet round to the S. passes
through the Taron or Turong valley, takes ibe name of the
Chindwin, and maintains a general southerly cowmTuntn it
enters the Irrawaddy, after flowing through tlieTJL u L w
of the Upper and Lower Chindwin %*^b+£% W
and Q5« is' E. Its extreme outlets are 22 m . apart tii- ? N J
forming a succession of long, low, partiallv ■£L..i ** ,nl «rval
The man Mouthcrly mouth of the ChindwlTu "* ******
"■ *•» *ceording to
tradition, an artificial channel, cut by one of the kings of Pagan.
It was choked up for many centuries until in 1824 it was opened
out by an exceptional flood. The Tanai (it is frequently called
Tanaikha, but hha is merely the Kachin word for river), as long
as it retains that name, is a swift, clear river, from 50 to 300 yds.
wide and from 3 to 1 5 ft. deep. The river is navigated by native
boats in the Hukawng valley, but launches cannot come up
from the Chindwin proper because of the reefs below Taro.
The Taron, Turong or Towang river seems to be the real main
source of the Chindwin. It flows into the Hukawng valley from the
north, and has a swift current with a succession of rapids. Its sources
arc in the hills to the south of Sadiya, rising from 10,000 to 1 1,000 ft.
above sea-level. It flows through a deep valley, with a general E.
and W. direction, as far as its junction with the Loglai. It then
turns S., and after draining an intricate system of hills, breaks into
the Hukawng valley a few miles N. of Saraw, and joins or receives
the Tanai about 10 m. above Kintaw village. Except the Tanai,
the chief branches of the Upper Chindwin rise in mountains that are
covered at least with winter snows. Below the Hukawng valley the
Chindwin is interrupted at several places by fails or transverse reefs.
At the village of Haksa there is a fall, which necessitates tranship-
ment from large boats to canoes. Not far below this the Uyu river
comes in on the left bank at Homalin, and from this point down-
wards the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company ply fot the
greater part of the year. The Uyu flows through a fertile and well-
cultivated valley, and during the rainy season it is navigable for a
distance of 150 m. from its mouth by steamers of light draught.
Ordinarily regular steam communication with Homalin ceases in
the dry weather, but from Kindat, nearly 150 m. below it, there are
weekly steamers all the year round. Below Kindat the only con-
siderable affluent of the Chindwin is the Myit-tha, which receives
the Chin hills drainage. The Chindwin rises considerably during the
rains, but in March and April it is here and there so shallow as to
make navigation difficult even for small steam launches. Whirlpools
and narrows and shifting sandbanks also give some trouble, but
much has been done to improve navigation Binrc the British annexa-
tion. Kindat, the headquarters of the Upper Chindwin district, and
Mdnywa of the Lower, arc on the banks of the river. (J. G. Sc)
CHINDWIN, UPPER and LOWER, two districts in the
Sagaing division of Upper Burma. Upper Chindwin has an
area of 19,062 sq. m., and a population, according to the census
of tooi, of 154,551. Lower Chindwin has an area of 3480 sq. m.,
and a population of 276,383. Upper Chindwin lies to the north
of the lower district, and is bounded on the N. by the Chin, Nlga
and Kachin hills; on the E. they are bounded by the Myitkyina,
Katha and Shwebo districts; Lower Chindwin is bounded on
the S. by the Pak6kku and Sagaing districts; and both districts
are bounded on the W. by the Chin hills, and by Pakokku on
the southern stretch. The western portion of both districts is
hilly, and the greater part of Upper Chindwin is of the same
character. Both have valuable teak forests. The total rainfall
averages in Lower Chindwin 27 and in Upper Chindwin 60 in.
Coal exists in extensive fields, but these are not very accessible.
Rice forms the great crop, but a certain amount of til-seed and
of indigo is also cultivated. Kindat, a mere village, is the head-
quarters of the upper district, and M6nywa, with a population
of 7869, of the lower. Both arc on the Chindwin river, and are
served by the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company. A16n,
close to M6nywa, and formerly the headquarters, is the terminus
of the railway from Sagaing westwards, which was opened in 1000.
CHINESE PAVILLON, Turkish Crescent, Turkish Jingle,
or Jingling Johnny (Fr. chapecu chinois; Ger. iiirkiuhcr
Halbmond, Schcllcnbaum; Ital. cappcllo Chinese), an instrument
of percussion of indefinite sonorousness, i.e. not producing definite
musical tones. The chapcau chinois was formerly an adjunct
in military bands, but never in the orchestra, where an instru-
ment of somewhat similar shape, often confused with it and
known as the Glockenspiel (q.v.), is occasionally called into
requisition. The Chinese pavilion consists of a pole about 6 ft.
high terminating in a conical metal cap or pavilion, hung with
small jingling bells and surmounted by a crescent and a star.
Below this pavilion are two or more metal bands forming a
fanciful double crescent or squat lyre, likewise furnished with
tiny bells. The two points of the crescent are curved over,
ending in fanciful animal heads from whose mouths hang low
streaming tails of horse-hair. The Chinese pavilion is played by
shaking or waving the pole up and down and jingling the bells, a
movement which can at best be but a slow one repeated once or
CHINGFORD— CHINO-JAPANESE WAR
at most twice in a bar to punctuate the phrases and add brilliancy
to the military music. The Turkish crescent or " jingling Johnny,"
as it was familiarly called in the British army bands, was intro-
duced by the Janissaries into western Europe. It has fallen into
disuse now, having been replaced by the glockenspiel or steel
harmonica. Edinburgh University possesses two specimens. 1
In the 1 8th century at Bartholomew Fair one of the chief bands
hired was one well known as playing in London on winter
evenings in front of the Spring-Garden coffee house and opposite
Wigley's. This band consisted of a double drum, a Dutch organ
(see Bamel-Orcan), a tambourine, a violin, pipes and the
Turkish jingle.* (K. S.)
CHINGFORD, an urban district in the Epping parliamentary
division of Essex, England, 10) m. N. of London (Liverpool
Street station) by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 4J73-
It lies between the river Lea and the western outskirts of Epping
Forest. The church of All Saints has Early English and Per-
pendicular remains. Queen Elizabeth's or Fair Mead hunting
lodge, a picturesque half-timbered building, is preserved under
the Epping Forest Preservation Act. A majestic oak, one of
the finest trees in the Forest, stands near it. Buckhurst Hill
(an urban district; pop. 4786) lies to the N.E.
CHINGLEPUT, or Chengaipat, a town and district of British
India, in the Madras presidency. The town, situated 36 m. by
rail from Madras, had a population in 1901 of 10,551. With
Chandragiri in North Arcot, Chingleput was once the capital of
the Vijayanagar kings, after their overthrow by the Mussulmans
at Talikota in 1565. In 1639 a chief, subject to these kings,
granted to the East India Company the land on which Fort St
George now stands. The fort built by the Vijayanagar kings in
the 16th century was of strategic importance, owing to its
swampy surroundings and the lake that flanked its side. It was
taken by the French in 175 1, and was retaken in 1752 by Clivc,
after which it proved invaluable to the British, especially when
Lally in his advance on Madras left it unreduced in his rear.
During the wars of the British with Hyder Ali it withstood his
power, and afforded a refuge to the natives; and in 1780, after
the defeat of Colonel W. Baillie, the army of Sir Hector Munro
here found refuge. The town is noted for its manufacture of
pottery, and carries on a trade in rice.
The District or Chingleput surrounds the city of Madras,
stretching along the coast for about 115 m. The administrative
headquarters are at Saidapet. Area, 3079 sq. m. Pop. (1901)
1,312,122, showing an increase of 9% in the decade. Salt is
extensively manufactured all along the coast. Cotton and silk
weaving is also largely carried on, and there are numerous indigo
vats, tanneries and an English cigar factory.
CHIN HILLS, a mountainous district of Upper Burma. It lies
on the border between the Lushai districts of Eastern Bengal and
Assam and the plains of Burma, and has an area of 8000 sq. m.
It is bounded N. by Assam and Manipur, S. by Arakan, E. by
Burma, and W. by Tippera and the Chittagong hill tracts. The
Chins, Lushais and Kukis are to the north-east border of India
what the Pathan tribes are to the north-west frontier. In 1895
the Chin Hills were declared a part of the province of Burma,
and constituted a scheduled district which is now administered
by a political officer with headquarters at Falam. The tract
forms a parallelogram 250 m. from N. toS. by 100 to 150 m. wide.
The country consists of a much broken and contorted mass of
mountains, intersected by deep valleys. The main ranges run
generally N. to S., and vary in height from 5000 to 9000 ft.,
among the most important being the Let ha or Tang, which is
the watershed between the Chi nd win and Manipur rivers; the
Imbukklang, which divides the Sokte tribe from the Whenchs
and sheds the water from its eastern slopes into Upper Burma
and that from its western slopes into Arakan; and the Rong-
klang, which with its prolongations is the main watershed of the
southern hills, its eastern slopes draining into the Myittha and
thus into the Chindwin, while the western fall drains into the
1 See Captain C. R. Day, Descriptive Catalogue of Musical Instru-
ments (London, 1891), p. 233.
* See Hone's Everyday Book, i. 1248.
233
Boinu river, which winding through the hills discharges itself
eventually in the Bay of Bengal. The highest peak yet dis-
covered is the Liklang, between Rawywa and Lungno, some 70 m.
S. of Haka (nearly 10.000 ft.).
It is supposed that the Kukis of Manipur, the Lushais of Bengal
and Assam, and the Chins originally lived in Tibet and are of the same
stock; their form of government, method of cultivation, manners
and customs, beliefs and traditions all point to one origin. The slow
speech, the serious manner, the respect- for birth and the knowledge
ol pedigrees, the duty of revenge, the taste for and the treacherous
method of warfare, the curse of drink, the virtue of hospitality, the
clannish feeling, the vice of avarice, the filthy state of the body,
mutual distrust, impatience under control, the want of power of
combination and of continued effort, arrogance in victory, speedy
discouragement and panic in defeat, are common traits. The Chins,
Lushais and Kukis were noted for the secrecy of their plans, the
suddenness of their raids, and their extraordinary speed in retreating
to their fastnesses. After committing a raid they nave been known
to march two days and two nights consecutively without cooking a
meal or sleeping, so as to escape from any parties which might follow
them. The British, since the occupation of Upper Burma, have been
able to penetrate the Chin-Lushai country* from both sides at once.
The pacification of the Chin Hills is a triumph for British administra-
tion. Roads, on which Chin coolies now readily work, have been con-
structed in all directions. The rivers have been bridged; the people
have taken up the cultivation of English vegetables, and the indigen-
ous districts have been largely developed. The Chin Hills had a
population (1901 census) of 87,189, while the Chins in Burma totalled
1 79.292. The Pakokku Chin Hills, which form a separate tract , have
an area of 2260 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 13,116. (J. G. Sc.)
CHINKIANG, or Chen-Kiang-Fu, a treaty port of China, in
the province of Kiang-su, on the Yangtszc-kiang above Shanghai,
from which it is distant 160 m. It is in railway communication
both with Shanghai and Nanking (40 m. distant), and being at
the point where the Grand Canal running N. and S. intersects
the Yangtsze, which runs E. and W., is peculiarly well situated
to be a commercial entrepot. The total value of exports and
imports for 1904 was £4,632,992; estimated pop. 168,000. In the
war of 1842 it yielded to the British only after a desperate
resistance. It was laid waste by the Taip'ing rebels in 1853,
and was recaptured by the imperial forces in 1858.
CHINO-JAPANESE WAR (1894-95)- The causes of this
conflict arose out of the immemorial rivalry of China and Japan
for influence in Korea. In the 16th century a prolonged war in
the peninsula had ended with the failure of Japan to make good
her footing on the mainland— a failure brought about largely by
lack of naval resources. In more modern times (1875, 1882, 1884)
Japan had repeatedly sent expeditions to Korea, and had fostered
the growth of a progressive party in Seoul. The difficulties of
1884 were settled between China and Japan by the convention of
Tientsin, wherein it was agreed that in the event of future
intervention each should inform the other if it were decided to
despatch troops to the peninsula. Nine years later the occasion
arose. A serious rebellion induced the Korean government to
apply for military assistance from China. Early in June 1894
a small force of Chinese troops were sent to Asan, and Japan,
duly informed of this action, replied by furnishing her minister
at Seoul with an escort, rapidly following up this step by the
despatch of about 5000 troops under Major-General Oshima.
A complicated situation thus arose. Chinese troops were present
in Korea by the request of the government to put down rebellion.
The Japanese controlled the capital, and declined to recognize
Korea as a tributary of China. But she proposed that the
two powers should unite to suppress the disturbance and to
inaugurate certain specified reforms. China considered that the
measures of reform must be left to Korea herself. The reply was
that Japan considered the government of Korea " lacking in
some of the elements which are essential to responsible inde-
pendence." By the middle of July war had become inevitable
unless the Peking government were willing to abandon all claims
over Korea, and as Chinese troops were already in the country by
invitation, it was not to be expected that the shadowy suzerainty
would be abandoned.
At Seoul the issue was forced by the Japanese minister, who
delivered an ultimatum to the Korean government on the 20th of
July. On the 23rd the palace was forcibly occupied. Meanwhile
China had despatched about 8000 troops to the Yalu river.
234-
The outbreak of war thus found the Japanese in possession of
Seoul and ready to send laTge forces to Korea, while the Chinese
occupied Asan (about 40 rn. south of the capital), and had a
considerable body of troops in Manchuria in addition to those
despatched to the Yalu river. To Japan the command of the
sea was essential for the secure transport and supply of her
troops. Without it the experience of the war of the 16th century
would be repeated. China, too, could only utilize overland routes
to Korea by submitting to the difficulties and delays entailed.
To both powers the naval question was thus important.
By the time war was finally declared (August 1) hostilities had
already begun. On the 25th of July Oshima set out from Seoul to
attack the Chinese at Asan. On the 29th he won a victory at Sbng-
hwan, but the Chinese commander escaped with a considerable part
of his forces by a detour to Ping- Yang (Phyong-Yang). Meanwhile
a portion of the Japanese fleet had encountered some Chinese war-
ships and tran»|>ort.s off Phung-Tao, and scored an important success,
rinking, amongst other vessels, the transport " Kowshing " (July 2O.
The low of more than 1000 Chinese .soldiers in this vessel materially
lightened Oshima's task. The intention of the Chinese to crush
their enemies between their forces at Asan and Ping- Yang was
completely frustrated, and the Japanese obtained control of all
southern Korea.
Reinforcements from Japan were now pouring^ into Korea, in spite
of the fact that the rival navies had not yet tried conclusions, and
General Nozu, the senior Japanese officer present, soon found him-
self in a po-Ulion to mow on Ping-Yang. Three columns converged
upon the place on the 15th of September, and in spite of its strong
walls carried it, though only after severe righting.
Nearly all the troops on either side had been conveyed to the
scene of war by sea, though the decisive contest for sea supremacy
was still to be fought. The Chinese admiral Ting with the Northern
Squadron (which alone took part in the war) had hitherto remained
inactive in Wei-hai-wci. and 011 the other side Vice-Admiral Ito's
fleet had not directly intcrfeicd with the hostile transports which
were reinforcing the troops on the Yalu. But two days after the
battle of Ping-Yang, Ting, who had conveyed a large body of
troops to the mouth of the Yalu, encountered the Japanese fleet on
his return journey off Hai-Yang-Tao on the I7in of September.
The heavy bait lohips" Chen -Yuen "and" Ting-Yuen "constituted
the strongest element of the Chinese squadron, for the Japanese,
superior as they were in every other factor of success, had no vessels
which could compare with these in the matter of protection. m Ting
advanced in a long irregular line abreast; the battleships in the
centre, the lighter vessels on the wings. Ito's fast cruisers steamed
in line ahead against the Chinese right wing, crushing their ueakcr
opponents with their fire. In the end the Chinese fleet was defeated
and scattered, but the two heavy battleships drew off without
serious injury. This battle of the Yalu gave Japan command of
the sea, but fto continued to act with great caution. The remnants
of the vanquished fleet took refuge in Port Arthur, whence after
repairs Ting proceeded to Wei-hai-wci.
The victory of Ping-Yang had cleared Korea of the Chinese troops,
but on the lower Yalu — their own frontier — Urge forces threatened
a second advance. Marshal Yamagata therefore took the offensive
with his 1st army, and on the 24th and 25th of October, under great
difficulties — though without serious opposition from the enemy —
forced the passage of the river and occupied Chiulien-chcng. Part
of the Chinese force retired to the north-cast, part to Fcng-hwang-
cheng and Hsiu-yucn (Siu-Ycn). The Japanese 1st army advanced
•evcral columns towards the mountains of Manchuria to secure its
conquests and prepare for a future advance. General Tachimi's
brigade occupied Feng-hwang-chcng on the 29th of October. On
the 7th of November a column from the Yalu took Takushan, and
• few days later a converging attack from these two places was made
upon Hsiu-yucn. which was abandoned by the Chinese. Meanwhile
Tachimi, skinni>hing with the enemy on the Mukden and Liao-
Yang roads, found the Chinese in force. A simultaneous forward
move by both sides led to the action of Tsaoho-ku (November 50),
after which both sides withdrew— the Ch ncse to the line of the
mountains covering Hai-cheng, Liao-Yang and Mukden, with the
Tatar general Ikotunga's force, 14.000 strong, on the J a[iane*e right
nonh-catt of Feng-hwang-chcng; and the Japanese to Chiuhen-
cheng, Takushan and Hsiu-yucn. The difficulties of simply in the
hDb were almost insurmountable, and no serious advance wa*
intended by the Japanese until January ifc«. when it was to be made
fa co-operation wtth the and annv. This army, under Marshal
Oyama. had been formed in September and at firvt sent to Chemulpo
•s a support to the forces, under Yamagata; but its chief task was
the siege and capture of the Chinese lortreu, dockyard and arsenal
of Port Arthur.
Tbp Lino-Jong peninsula was guarded by the walled city of
Kinchow and the forts of Ta-lten-wan (Dalny under ihe Russian
tCgtme. and Tairen under the Japanese) as well as the fortifications
around Port Arthur itself. On the 24th of October the di«em-
barkatbn of the 2nd army began near Pi-tsie-wo. and the successive
mktmm of the Japanese gradually moved towards Kincbow, which
CHINO-JAPANESE WAR
was carried without difficulty on the 6th of November. Even less
resistance was offered by the modern forts of Ta-licn-wan. The
Japanese now held a good harbour within a few miles of the main
fortress. Here they landed siege artillery, and on the 17th of
November the advance was resumed. The attack was made on the
loth at dawn. Yamaji's division (Nogi's and Nishi's brigades)
altera trying night march assaulted and carried the western defences
and moved upon the town. Hascgawa in the centre, as soon as
Yamaji began to appear in rear of his opponents in the northern
forts, pushed home his attack with equal success, and by 3 p.m.
practically all resistance was at an end. The Japanese paid for
this important success with but 423 casualties. Meanwhile the
Chinese general Sung, who had marched from Hai-cheng to engage
the 2nd army, appeared before Kinchow, where he received on the
22nd a severe repulse at the hands of the Japanese garrison. Marshal
Oyama subsequently stationed his advanced guard towards Hai-
cheng, the main body at Kinchow, and a brigade of infantry at Port
Arthur. Soon after this overtures of peace were made by China;
but her envoy, a foreigner unfurnished with credentials, was not
received by the Tokyo government.
The Japanese 1st army (now under General Nozu) at Antung
and Feng-hwang-chcng prepared, in spite of the season, to move
across the mountains, and on the 3rd of December General Katsura
left Antung for Hai-cheng. His line of march was by Hsi-mu-cheng,
and strong flank guards followed parallel routes on either side.
The march was accomplished safely and 1 lai-cheng occupied on the
13th of December. In the meantime Tachimi had moved northward
from Feng-hwang-chcng, in order to distract the attention of the
Chinese from Hai-cheng, and there were some small engagements
between this force and that of Ikotenga, who ultimately retired
beyond the mountains to Liao-Yang. Sung had already loft Kai-
King to secure Hai-cheng when he heard of the fall of that place;
is communications with Ikotenga being now severed, he swerved
to the north-west and established a new base at Niu-chwang. Once
on his new line Sung moved upon Hai-cheng. As it was essential
that he should be prevented from joining forces with Ikotenga,
General Katsura marched out of Hai-cheng to fight him. At Kang-
wang-tsai (December 19th) the Chinese displayed unusual steadiness,
and it cost the Japanese some 343 casualties to dislodge the enemy.
The victors returned to Hai-cheng exhausted with their efforts, but
secure from attack for some time to come. The advanced troops of
the 2nd army (Nogi's brigade) were now ready to advance, and only
the Kai-ping garrison (left behind by Sung) barred their junction
with Katsura. At Kai-ping (January xotn) the resistance of the
Chinese was almost as steady as at Kang-wang-tsai, and the Japanese
lost 300 killed and wounded in their successful attack. In neither
of these actions was the defeated force routed, nor did it retire very
far. On the 17th of January and again on the 22nd Ikotenga
attacked Hai-cheng from the north, but was repulsed.
Meanwhile the 2nd army, still under Oyama, had undertaken
operations against Wei-hai-wci, the second great fortress and dock-
yard of northern China, where Admiral Ting's squadron had been
refitting since the battle of the Yalu; and it was hoped that both
armies would accomplish their present tasks in time to advance in
the summer against Peking itself. On the 18th of January a naval
demonstration was made at Teng-chow-fu, 70 m. west of Wei-hai-
wei, and on the 19th the Japanese began their disembarkation at
Yung-chcng Bay, about 12 m. from Wei-hai-wei. The landing was
scarcely opposed, and on the 26th the Japanese advance was begun.
The south-eastern defences of Wei-hai-wei harlwur were carried by
the 6th division, whilst the 2nd division reached the inner waters
of the bay, driving the Chinese before them. The fk«t under Ito
co-operated effectively. On the night of the 4th-5th of February
the Chinese squadron in harbour was attacked by ten torpedo
boats. Two boats were lost, but the armour-clad Ting- Yuen "
was sunk. On the following night a second attack was made, and
three more vessels were sunk. On the 9th the " Chi ng- Yuen "
was sunk by the guns in one of the captured forts. On the 12th
Admiral Ting wrote to Admiral Ito offering to surrender, and then
took poison, other officers following his example. Wei-hai-wei was
then dismantled by the Japanese, *ho recovered the remnant of the
Chinese squadron, including the " Chen Yuen," and the 2nd army
concentrated at Port Arthur for the advance on Peking.
While this campaign was, in progress the Chinese despatched a
second peace mission, also with defective credentials. The Japanese
declined to treat, and the mission returned to China. In FcDruary
the Chinese made further unsuccessful attacks on Hai-cheng. Yamaii
near Kai-ping fought a severe action on the ?!<5t, zind and 2jrd m
February at Taping-shan aga'rnst a part cif Sung's army undfx
General Ma-yu-kun. This action was fought with 2 ft. of snow on
the ground, the thermometer registering wro F. t and no less than
1500 ca*c* of frost-bite were reported. It was the intention ol
General Noru. after freeing the Hai-cheng gamwifi from Ikotenga.
to ecizc Niu-chwang port. Two division* converged on Afl-shan-
chan, and the Chinese, threatened in front and flank, retired to
Liao-Yang. Meanwhile two more attacks on Hai-cheng had been
repulsed. The 3rd and 5th divisions then moved on Niu-chwang*
and Yamaji's 1st division at Kai-ping joined in the advance- The
column from An-shan-chan stormed Niu-rhwuTig, which was
obstinately defended, and cost the stortnert nearly 400 men, AU
CHINON— CHIOGGIA
235
three division* converted on Niu-chwang port (Ying-kow), and the
final engagement took place at Tien-chwang-tai, which was captured
on the 9th of March. The Chinese forces in Manchuria being
thoroughly broken and dispersed,' there was nothing to prevent
the Japanese from proceeding to the occupation of Peking, since
they could, after the break-up of the ice, land and supply Urge
forces at Shan-hai-kwan, within 170 ra. of the capital. Two more
Japanese divisions were sent out, with Prince Komatsu as supreme
commander. Seven divisions were at Port Arthur ready to embark,
when negotiations were reopened. Li Hung-Chang proceeded to
Shimoooseki. where the treaty was signed on the 17th of April 1895.
An expedition was sent towards the end of March to the Pescadores,
and later the Imperial Guard division was sent to Formosa.
It is impossible to estimate the Chinese losses in the war. The
Japanese lost 4177 men by death in action or by sickness, and
56,862 were wounded or disabled by sickness, exclusive of the
losses in the Formosa and Pescadores expeditions. Nearly two-
thirds of these losses were incurred by the 1st army in the trying
winter campaign in Manchuria.
The most important works dealing with the war are: Vladimir,
China-Japan War (London, 1896); Jukichi Inouye, The Japan-
China War (Yokohama, &c, 1896); du Boulay, Epitome of the
Chino- Japanese War (London, 1896), the official publication of the
British VVar Office; Atteridge, Wars of the Nineties, pp. 535-636
(London, 1899); von Kunowski and Fretzdorff, Der japanisch-
chinesische Kricg (Lcipzijg. 1895); von Mtiller, Der Kriet swischen
China und Japan (Berlin, 1895): Bujac, Prtcis de queiques cam-
Cjgnes contemporaines: II. La Guerre sino-japonaise (Paris and
imoges).
CHINON, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissc-
ment In the department of Indre-et-Loirc, on the right bank of the
VLenne, 32 m. S.W. of Tours on the State railway. Pop. (1906)
4071. Chinon lies at the foot of the rocky eminence which is
crowned .by the ruins of the famous castle. Its narrow, winding
streets contain many houses of the 1 5th and 16th centuries. The
oldest of its churches, St Mcxme, is in the Romanesque style, but
only the facade and nave are left. The church of St Etienne dates
from the 15th century, that of St Maurice from the 12th, 15th and
1 6th centuries. The castle, which has undergone considerable
modern restoration, consists of three portions. That to the east,
the Chateau de St Georges, built by Henry II. of England, has
almost vanished, only the foundation of the outer wall remaining.
The Chateau du Milieu (nth to 15th centuries) comprises the
keep, the Pavilion dc 1'Horlogc and the Grand Logis, in the
principal apartment of which the first meeting between Joan of
Arc and Charles VII. took place. Of the Chateau du Coudray,
which is separated by a moat from the Chateau du Milieu, the
chief remains are the Tour du Moulin (10th century) and two less
ancient towers. A statue of Rabelais, who was born in the
vicinity of the town, stands on the river-quay. Chinon has
trade in wheat, brandy, red wine and plums. Basket and rope
manufacture, tanning and cooperage arc among its industries.
Chinon (CaTno) existed before the Roman occupation of Gaul,
and was from early times an important fortress. It was occupied
by the Visigoths, and subsequently, after forming part of the
royal domain, came to the counts of Touraine and from them
to the counts of Anjou. Henry II. often resided in the castle,
and died there. The place was taken by Philip Augustus in
j 205 after a year's siege.
CHINOOK, a tribe of North American Indians, dwelling at the
mouth of the Columbia river, Washington. They were fishermen
and traders, and used huge canoes of hollowed cedar trunks.
The tribe is practically extinct, but the name survives in the trade
language known as " Chinook jargon." This has been analysed
as composed of two-fifths Chinook, two-fifths other Indian
tongues, and the rest English and Canadian French; but the
proportion of English has tended to increase. The Chinookan
linguistic family includes a number of separate tribes.
The name Chinook is also applied to a wind whieh blows from
W. or N. over the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where it
descends as a dry wind warm in winter and cool in summer (cf.
Fdhn). It is due to a cyclone passing northward, and continues
from a few hours to several days. It moderates the climate of the
eastern Rockies, the snow melting quickly on account of its
warmth and vanishing on account of its dryness, so that it is said
to " lick up " the snow from the slopes.
See Gill, Dictionary of Chinook Jargon (Portland, Ore., 1891);
Boas, " Chinook Texts/' in Smithsonian Report, Bureau of Ethno-
logy (Washington, 1894); J. C. Pilling, " Bibliography of Chinookan
Languages," Smithsonian Report, Bureau of Ethnology (Washington,
1893); Horatio Hale, Manual of Oregon Trade Language (London,
1890); G. C. Shaw, The Chinook Jargon (Seattle, 1909); Handbook
of American Indians (Washington, 1907).
CHINSURA, a town of British India, on the Hugli river, 24 m.
above Calcutta, formerly the principal Dutch settlement in
Bengal. The Dutch erected a factory here in 1656, on a healthy
spot of ground, much preferable to that on which Calcutta is
situated. In 1759 a British force under Colonel Forde was
attacked by the garrison of Chinsura on its march to Chander-
nagore, but in less than half an hour the Dutch were entirely
routed. In 1795, during the Napoleonic wars, the settlement was
occupied by a British garrison. At the peace of 1814 it was
restored to the Dutch. It was among the cessions in India
made by the king of the Netherlands in 1825 in exchange for
the British possessions in Sumatra. Hugli College is maintained
by government; and there are a number of schools, several of
which are carried on by Scottish Presbyterian missionaries.
Chinsura is included in the Hugli municipality.
CHINTZ, a word derived from the Hindu chint, spotted or
variegated. This name was given to a kind of stained or painted
calico produced in India. It is now applied to a highly glazed
printed calico, commonly made in several colours on a light
ground and used for bed hangings, covering furniture, &c.
CHIOGGIA* a town and episcopal sec of Vcnetia, Italy, in the
province of Venice, from which it is 18} m. S. by sea. Pop.
(1001) 21,384 (town), 31,218 (commune). It is inhabited mostly
by fishermen, and is situated upon an island at the S. end of the
lagoons. It is traversed by one main canal, La Vena. The
peculiar dialect and customs of the inhabitants still survive to
some extent. It is of earlier origin than Venice, and indeed is
probably identical with the Roman Portus Aedro, or Ebro,
though its name is derived from the Roman Fossa Claudia,
a canalized estuary which with the two mouths of the Meduacus
(Brenta) went to form the harbour. In 672 it entered the
league of the cities of the lagoons, and recognized the authority
of the doge. In 809 it was almost destroyed by Pippin, but
in 11 10 was made a city, remaining subject to Venice, whose
fortunes it thenceforth followed. It was captured after a deter-
mined resistance by the Genoese in 1379, but recovered in 1380.
Chioggia is connected by rail with Rovigo, 35 ra. to the south-
west. (T. As.)
Naval War of Chioggia (1378-80). — The naval war of 1378-
1380, carried on by Venice against the Genoese and their allies,
the lord of Carrara and the king of Hungary, is of exceptional
interest as one in which a superior naval power, having suffered
disaster in its home waters, and having been invaded, was yet
able to win in the end by holding out till its squadrons in distant
seas could be recalled for its defence.
When the war began in the spring of 1378, Venice was mainly
concerned for the safety of its trading stations in the Levant and
the Black Sea, which were exposed to the attacks of the Genoese.
The more powerful of the two fleets which it sent out was despatched
into the eastern Mediterranean under Carlo Zcno, the bailiff and
captain of Negropont. A smaller force was sent to operate against
the Genoese in the western Mediterranean, and was placed under the
command of Vcttor Pisani. The possessions of Venice on the main-
land, which were then small, were assailed by Francesco Carrara and
the Hungarians. Her only ally in the war, Bernabo Visconti of
Milan, gave her little help on this side, but his mercenaries invaded
the territory of Genoa. The danger on land seemed trifling to Venice
so long as she could keep the sea open to her trade and press the
war against the Genoese in the Levant.
During the first stage of the war the plans of the senate were
carried out with general success. While Carlo Zeno harassed the
Genoese stations in the Levant, Vettor Pisani brought one of their
squadrons to action on the 30th of May 1378 off Punta di Anzio to
the south of the Tiber, and defeated it. The battle was fought in
a gale by io Venetian against n Genoese galleys. The Genoese
admiral, Luigi de' Fieschi, was taken with 5 of his galleys, and others
were wrecked. Four of the squadron escaped, and steered for
Famagusta in Cyprus, then hold by Genoa. If Pisani had directed
his course to Genoa itself, which was thrown into a panic by the
defeat at Anzio. it is possible that he might have dictated peace,
but he thought his squadron too weak, and preferred to follow the
Genoese galleys which had fled to Famagusta. During the summer
of 1378 he was employed partly in attacking the enemy in Cyprus,
36
CHIOS
: rnalr.W in tak>.; pc««*::<: d the Utriaa and Dalmatian towns
i ■ h it^pcrc-j :i-i h--.jj.r-i.-.* :.—.— . xtxr :i th-
K-; i
r--i- F^i... :-_a
. e -. h-t * i*
". *tak Tr-f'V
: ->:***: r.-rt-. :rc:z r. i :-aj
5 -: :■' ;'x- «ra:e hai a
.■-2 : ;.".•:.- the ra::I? i
; ex:-:*
»r.V
: :et- rs.r
i* 5...
he
>*ra"
".t* »i
the a££re<«:*.e ambition
tr.tf cat*: of lacna. where
::**■!*. G;- - oa. h av i r. g
•h'zt a: Ar-zl?. decided to
l :ett ::' r.-:r ?r.:$ "*tr: absent with
*e: :-:.- zr.t A-fr-*::: -r.der Luciano
:vi <ar'y ir. :r.c sjrr.rj of 137S. but
:««c rert :t 25 sa.I c.i Pe'-a in lstria
... :_:-._- r<ri-i. a- ih.*creus were
ii-r..ri! *:_'.: have preferred to avoid
i.-ic :- Ver::e ::**.:'. b\ threatening the
:-. :h< Itcra.-. ceo.*:. He »as forced into
:r fcred^ye M::hac! S:er.o. »ho as
i.r.:> r^er the ai.iuraL The Venetians
c: a'" :h*.r £i-V. * e.\:<p: itv Luciano
:*■; 0-:t:«*. »'"? -id SwScwJ severely,
ht.r *-rr«*. Or. :fc* armal of hi< suc-
!-.:■« n.-.*-r^c=M--:s. they appeared orT the
.--:;.- b-a.— jcr zi x\c li£.<\-. c: \«r.*-e. in Jaly. and in
... i.-.urc-i ;- a ::-:>■.•: -..va'. ari -:i:rir> a::aikcr. the
-l-.-at .*-. *.: L :-: Car-arr* a~.d the H.rgariar.s. The
had c^-.**^ t'-e r*i>siy:c* :- 7 :.-*:". :**■.■ c^:cr ba.-.ks except
t-:-r oi. a: :.-.»■ :>'.a.- d «.« 3r;r™;!o. and the town cf
i'~f ivrr.sr rrcrv arrr.--.--s* c!>*e :.? the rr-xi.-.lar.d. a-.d
'-. :'-; :::a:.ii i 1 -* z:--?<ri;'.:r. ^i the G<r.xse wi:n the
a-i Hj:*£a-.ar« ^_: i'-v^.a is d start frv-i Ver'ce.
i ."-!\ t* r. i^hoi :.' :-f : L c *-.■.- .»'■* acrx* t^e la;x*.n. Th*«
. k ii like.-! i:p the r-:\# \»h.:h r~ar<ed the tairway. and
jl .-^-.t s-i-"-'" ■"" t-.i *ic> ".- The a!.:«. alter occupy-
.\r.i zi F • .- .-. J : '. :■. at ta ■ s«si . a.t i .- r. the 1 3th o( August
-rx\iro\* t. - * N 1 ".:> ^ t^ p-\\-. -t the er»-ny irz*7i advanc-
:»t\ »-j Vt.':»e ix^Xj. t tie J.rS-r-'t r.a»-<at..*n e: the bg.vn.
.• a;:-;^\1 ::r py.i»i. t.t »h»-n the i.er^*e replied that
■e rt>\wi t* " i' : a-.t t" .'.e :he h.r^-s .: >.\:r.t Mark "
F:-:
Pra.
■ Ve-.ivar* v*c\uti^ : - r^: :^ : fc .e <r.t. \^::.-r r.sir.i. *h:. hid
ixrn i^pn^r»\l a::cr the o.feat at Poia. h-t »h-» ro>3t*s»l the
. % ^hcenv\- 1>» :'-e jw*;-!^ a -J the a*?eet!.'n e: the su ■!.':<. »as released
•J. r.a:r.e».i «..-■:: :r.a - J* r-.-'-;h.t: aj:a.-.>t the --.*h ■:( the an*:* rary.
aree : v < \enrt'.a-> ai.-p:eJ a sir^L^rly roll and
., ..1.. .,. x . % .; : - fc -- :c . T*e heavy dv.-.x-se vessels
■■.vrw: t>\ :'-e >ha'".. » »a:ir arj ir>tru-ate pas>ae i e9
'■.'- H-. iaV.rc a.!\an:a^e ef their emharrasfment
:.;! 'v: '\»;i-. ; N . . I'isiri earruil oat a «ric* of mo\-c-
:.-»\ t.::.i.: t v e tahles on the invader*. Between
i:S e: A. .,»..*: K e ix^euti-d a suee\s>ion of r.i^ht
-,»■
*.*.:* tx*
n,.vh h.i
■fS the :.
:;a»s<. d.-r-.-c »h h he si-k vessels laden uith store* not only in
*e ,.1 -a!» \-a/ :«^ thr^.^S the !a.,:.vn to Venice, but in the fairway*
... : . ,: '-\"v. v-. . *i;a t. ; th.* ejx:: >ea roa:".d Ivth ends vt the Mand
: 1» »• ■ : .!.« 1 -J vVt.VM: »,:e th.;s sh_t in at the \erv moment
'■■.■• t v n t k .-. , ^'»t ! k o wit aN",:t !■■» l-e^e^e Venice. Pissni
a. .- N\i the v" »^- • ' ".r h.» v*.-:*.— .a::d :n the open wa outside
' v," .■;»» ard d.-.' : -c the irs: ot the \»ar hLvkJkfed the enemy
-.«»*■' » The %i ■ *: :\ ** ••: : he \ 1 1< ! ia si* t he r: w K < * u a* great . but t he
\*iv V v.va i.\ -:a:-: a::.i the r.^v-s *et an example by sharing the
rvj' Vi-.**. K :.«*. j "J I .A:-* an v.ih >«.'t t.* return to Venice till
■h.^ ''a.i :t\o*e:wi t>NVC'J- i'atk* Arv* had long sinee been
k««w :.* nn-.:-». I^'t i k .e »»«nnfM and dithcultv of eommunicatU^n
j« nc«v«^a; i-.xUt Uth evnii:i> eondiiior.*dcla\e*i hi* reappear-
- xr TX; N^c*e*x el ^ hux^ia mere at the end of iheir |w»e» of
-v.raxT a ■v.* PAni-i had been eonuvlled to gi^e a promi>e that
«v «n w.vud be ta^seJ. when Zeno * fleet reached the anchorage
tf Tmiiii.r aa :V t^t of Unuarv ijSo. The attack on Chiocgia
^ <«« irewcx* «)tn \^«:r. The l^my« held «at ir>oltiteK in
i» -*m * "«*«■■< •■«• Wme. But I he re»Miice* of Ociwi had Inen
w-^rt ift t=iA ji \ta> ijiSp that her admiral, Mattro MaruHo.
^^vmA tlhr M«»KwHx\xl of Hn«m!k4i.> with a redoing
^ % ^.ii at \«««tiiM k*d m\wml the i^and. and t ln-ir
^ J ■ » ««db« aajcV.«a«e Irom which the\- refused to be
^^.^* W4( J* mKm. anj on the ?4th of June 13*0
• i ■ ^^c« «m«Jmd The erin* cf the •«»«
* — • ^^^-*««»*W«e.i«o%Tml the command tif the
1 a *• *t«r ww able to make peace a> a
h
u
ided
Hopci.
na, hat!
support
lege and ^
rt Arthur.
: Liao-Toiif.
iow and the
e. and Taire..
i Port Arthur
Jon of the 2nd a.
H I'rwnid (Venire.
itpm&tit (Londtm.
i avH>
MiMT. called by the
TiaU Saki Ada*i;
Creek, approxi-
&i* It iorms,.
E^amttf arJ Ow.
». !Vl io tr.. long
J^^ww, Uwell
^VvJ^cHomrric
mastic have always been the most Important products. The
climate is healthy; oranges, olives and even palms grow freely.
The wine grown on the N.W. coast, in the district called by
Strabo Ariusia, was known as tin urn Arvisium. Early in the
7th century B.C. Glaucus of Chios discovered the process of
welding iron (*»XXn<yts: sec J. G. Frazer's Pousanias, note
on x. 16. 1. vol. v. pp. 313-314), and the iron stand of a large
crater whose parts were all connected by this process was
constructed by him. and preserved as one of the most interesting
relics of antiquity at Delphi. The long line of Chian sculptors
(see Greek Art) in marble bears witness to the fame of Chian
art. In literature the chief glory of Chios was the school of
epic poets called Homcridac, who helped to create a received
text of Homer and gave the Island the reputation of being the
poet's birthplace. The chief town, Chios (pop. 16,000), is on
the £. coast. A theatre and a temple of Athena Poliuchus
existed in the ancient city. About 6 m. N. of the city there is a
curious monument of antiquity, commonly called " the school
of Homer "; it is a very ancient sanctuary of Cybcle, with an
altar and a figure of the goddess with her two lions, cut out
of the native rock on the summit of a hill. On the west coast
there is a monastery of great wealth with a church founded by
Con&taniinc IX. Monomnchus (1042-1054). Starting from the
city and encompassing the island, one passes in succession the
promontory Posidium; Cape Phanac, the southern extremity
of Chios, with a harbour and a temple of Apollo; Kotium,
probably the south-western point of the island; Laii, opposite
the city of Chios, where the island is narrowest; the town
Bclissus (.now Volisso). the home of the Homcrid poets; Melaena,
the north-western point; the wine-growing district Ariusia;
Cardamylc (now Cardhamili); the north-eastern promontory
was probably named Phlium, and the mountains that cross
the northern part of the island Pclinaeus or Pcllenaeus.
The history of Chios is very obscure. According to Pherccydet,
the original inhabitants wore Lelegcs, while according to other
accounts Thcssalian Pclasgi pos<essed the island liefore it became
an Ionian state. The name Aethalia. common to Chios and Lemnos
in very early time*;, suggest* the original existence of a homogeneous
population in these and other neighbouring islands. Oenopion, a
mythical hero, son of Dionysus or of Rhadamanthus, was an early
king of Chios. Hi* successor in the fourth generation. Hirctor, united
the island to the Ionian confederacy (Pausan. vii. 4), though Strabo
(xi\\ p. 633) implies an actual conquest by Ionian st 1 tiers. The regal
government was at a btcr time exchanged for an oligarchy or a
democracy*. The names of two tyrants. Amphic lus and Pol > teen us,
are mentioned. The products of the island were largely exported on
the ships of Miletus wuh which city Chios formed a close mercantile
alliance in opposition to the rival league of Phocaea and Samos.
Similar commercial considerations determined the Chians in their
attitude toward* the Persian conquerors: in 546 they submitted to
Cvru* as eagerly as Phocaea resisted him; during the Ionian revolt
their fiVet of 100 sail joined the Milesians in ottering a desperate
opposition at Lade (494)- The island was subsequently punished
■a ith gnat rigour by thi Persians. The Chian ships, under the tyrant
Stratti*. served in the Persian fleet at Salamis. After its liberation
in 479 Chios joined the Delian League and long remained a firm ally
of the AthenumN who allowed it to retain full autonomy. But in 413
the island revolted, and was not recaptured. After the Peloponnesian
War it took the first opportunity to renew the Athenian alliance,
but in 357 again seceded. As a member of the Delian League it had
ni:ained its prosperity, being able to equip a fleet of 50 or 60 sail.
Moreover, it was reputed one of the best-governed states in Greece,
(or although it was governed alternately by oligarchs and democrats
neither party persecuted the other severely. It was not till late in
the 41 h century that civil dissension becamea danger to the state,
leaving it a prey to Idrieus, the dynast of Caria (346), and to the
IVrsian admiral Memnon (333). During the Hellenistic age Chios
maintained it-a-lf in a virtually independent position. It supported
the Romans in their Eastern wars, and was made a " free and allied
state." I'nder Roman and Byzantine rule industry and commerce
were undisturbed, its chief export at this time being the Arvisian
wine, which had birome very popular. After temporary occupations
by the Seljuk Turks (1080-1093) and by the Venetians (1124-1125.
1172, 1204-1225). it was given in fief to the Genoese family of
/.fevaria, and in 134ft passed definitely into the hands of a Genoese
na.Mi.z. or trading comfviny, which was organized in 1362 under the
name i»f " the Giustiniani. This mercantile brotherhood, formerly
a pmileged cla--. alone exploited the mastic trade: at the same time
the Creek-, were allowed to retain their rights of self-government
! ar.d continued to CM-rrise their indu-urn;*. In 141s the Genoese
1 tacame tributary to the Ottomans In spite of occasional secessions
CHIPPENDALE
«37
wMdi brought tevere punishment upon the island (M53. M79). the
rule of the Giustiniani was not abolished till 1566. U ruler the Otto-
man government the prosperity of Chios was hardly affected. But
the island underwent severe period* of suffering after its capture and
reconquest from the Florentines (1595) and the Venetians (1694-
1695), which greatly reduced the number of the Latins. Worst of all
were the massacres of 1822, which followed upon an attack by some
Greek insurgents executed against the will of the natives. In 1881
Chios was visited by a very severe earthquake in which over 5(100
persons lost their lives and more than half the villages were *eriously
damaged. The island has now recovered its prosiwrity. There Is a
harbour at Castro, and steam flour-mills, foundries and tanneries
have been established. Rich antimony and calamine mines are
worked by a French undertaking, and good marble is quarried by an
Italian company.
Authorities.— Strabo xiv. pp. 632 f.; Athcnaeus vi. 265-266;
Herodotus i. 160-165, vi. 15-31; Thucydidc* viii. 14-61; Corbus
Jmur. AUkarum. iv. (2), pp. 9, 10; H. lloussaye in Revue des deux
wundes, xlvi. (1876), pp. I ff.; T. Bent in Historical Review (1889),
pp. 467-480; Fustel de Conlances. L'tlt de Chio (ed. lullian, Paris,
1893): for coinage, B. V. Head, Historia numorum (Oxford, 1887),
pp. 513-515. and Numismatics : Creek. (E. Gr. ; M. O. B. C.)
CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS (d. 1770), the most famous of
English cabinetmakers. The materials for the biography of
Chippendale are exceedingly scanty, but he is known to have been
the son of Thomas Chippendale I., and is believed to have been
the father of Thomas Chippendale III. His father was a cabinet-
maker and wood-carver of considerable repute in Worcester
towards the beginning of the iSth century, and possibly he
originated some of the forms which became characteristic of
his son's work. Thus a set of chairs and settees was made,
apparently at Worcester, for the family of Bury of Knatcshill,
at a period when the great cabinetmaker could have been no
more than a boy, which arc practically identical with much of the
work that was being turned out of the family factory as late
as the 'sixties of the 18th century. Side by side with the Queen
Anne or early Georgian feeling of the first quarter of the i8lh
century we find the interlaced splals and various other details
which marked the Chippendale style. By 1727 the elder Chippen-
dale and his son had removed to London, and at the end of 1749
the younger man— his father was probably then dead — estab-
lished himself in Conduit Street, Long Acre, whence in 1753 he
removed to No. 60 St Martin's Lane, which with the addition of
the adjoining three houses remained his factory for the rest of
bis life. In 1755 his workshops were burned down; in 1760 he
was elected a member of the Society of Arts; in 1766 his partner-
ship with James Ranni was dissolved by the laltcr's death.
It has always been exceedingly difficult to distinguish the work
executed in Chippendale's factory and under his own eye from
that of the many copyists and adapters who throughout the
second half of the 18th century— the golden age of English
furniture — plundered remorselessly. Apart from his published
designs, many of which were probably never made up, we have to
depend upon the very few instances in which his original accounts
enable us to earmark work which was unquestionably his. For
Claydon House, the seat of the Vcrneys in Buckinghamshire, he
executed much decorative work, and the best judges are satis-
fied that the Chinese bedroom there was designed by him. At
Harewood House, the scat of the earl of Ha re wood in Yorkshire,
we are on firmer ground. The house was furnished between
1765 and 1 77 1, and both Robert Adam and Chippendale were
employed upon it. Indeed, there is unmistakable evidence to
show that certain work, so closely characteristic of the Adams
that it might have been assigned to them without hesitation, was
actually produced by Chippendale. This may be another of the
many indications that Chippendale was himself an imitator, or it
may be that Adam, as architect, prescribed designs which Chip-
pendale's cabinetmakers and carvers executed. Chippendale's
bills for this Adam work arc still preserved. Stourhcad,
the famous house of the Hoares in Wiltshire, contains much
undoubted Chippendale furniture, which may, however, be
the work of Thomas Chippendale III.; at Rowton Castle,
Shropshire, Chippendale's bills as well as his works still exist.
Our other main source of information is The Gentleman and
Cabinet Maker's Director, which was published by Thomas
Chippendale in 1754. This book, the most important collection
of furniture designs issued up to that time in England, contains
one hundred and sixty engraved plates, and the list of subscribers
indicates that the author had acquired a large and distinguished
body of customers. The book is of folio size; there was a
second edition in 1759, and a third in 1762.
In the rather bombastic introduction Chippendale says that he
has been encouraged to produce the book " by persons of distinc-
tion and taste, who have regretted that an art capable of so
much perfection and refinement should be executed with so
little propriety and elegance." He has some severe remarks
upon critics, from which we may assume that he had already
suffered at their hands. Perhaps, indeed, Chippendale may have
been hinted at in the caustic remarks of Isaac Ware, surveyor to
the king, who bewailed that it was the misfortune of the world in
his day " to see an unmeaning scrawl of C's inverted and looped
together, taking the place of Greek and Roman elegance even in
our most expensive decorations. It is called French, and let
them have the praise of ill The Gothic shaft and Chinese bell
are not beyond nor below it in poorness of imitation." It is the
more likely that these barbs were intended for Chippendale,
since he was guilty not only of many essays in Gothic, but of a
vast amount of .work in the Chinese fashion, as well as in the
flamboyant style of Louis XV. The Director contains examples
of each of the manners which aroused the scorn of the king's
surveyor. Chippendale has even shared with Sir William
Chambers the obloquy of introducing the Chinese style, but
he appears to have done nothing worse than "conquer," as
Alexandre Dumas used to call it, the ideas of other people. Nor
would it be fair to the man who, whatever his occasional
extravagances and absurdities, was yet a great designer and a
great transmuter, to pretend that all his Chinese designs were
contemptible Many of them, with their geometrical lattice-
work and carved tracery, arc distinctly elegant and effective.
Occasionally wc find in one piece of furniture a combination of
the three styles which Chippendale most affected at different
periods— Louis XV., Chinese and Gothic— and it cannot
honestly be said that the result is as incongruous as might have
been expected. Some of his most elegant and attractive work is
derived directly from the French, and we cannot doubt that the
inspiration of his famous ribbon-backed chair came directly from
some of the more artistic performances in rococo.
The primary characteristic of his work is solidity, but it is a
solidity which rarely becomes heaviness. Even in his most
lightsome efforts, such as the ribbon-backed chair, construction is
always the first consideration. It is here perhaps that he differs
most materially from his great successor Sheraton, whose ideas of
construction were eccentric in the extreme. It is indeed in the
chair that Chippendale is seen at his best and most characteristic.
From his hand, or his pencil, we have a great variety of chairs,
which, although differing extensively in detail, may be roughly
arranged in three or four groups, which it would sometimes be
rash to attempt to date. He introduced the cabriole leg,
which, despite its antiquity, came immediately from Holland;
the claw and ball foot of ancient Oriental use; the straight,
square, uncompromising early Georgian leg; the carved lattice-
work Chinese leg; the pseudo-Chinese leg; the fretwork leg,
which was supposed to be in the best Gothic taste; the inelegant
rococo leg with the curled or hoofed foot; and even occasionally
the spade foot, which is supposed to be characteristic of the
somewhat later style of Hepplewhite. His chair-backs were very
various. His efforts in Gothic were sometimes highly successful;
often they took the form of the tracery of a church window, or
even of an ovalled rose window. His Chinese backs were dis-
tinctly geometrical, and from them he would seem to have
derived some of the inspiration for the frets of the glazed book-
cases and cabinets which were among his most agreeable work.
The most attractive feature of Chippendale's most artistic chairs
— those which, originally derived from Louis Quinzc models,
were deprived of their rococo extravagances— is the back, which,
speaking generally, is the most elegant and pleasing thing that
has ever been done in furniture. He took the old solid or
slightly pierced back, and cut it up into a light openwork design
238
CHIPPENHAM— CHIPPING NORTON
exquisitely carved — for Chippendale was a carver before every-
thing — in a vast variety of designs ranging from the elaborate
and extremely elegant, if much criticized, ribbon back, to a
comparatively plain but highly effective splat. His armchairs,
however, often had solid or stuffed backs. Next to his chairs
Chippendale was most successful with settees, which almost
invariably took the shape of two or three conjoined chairs, the
arms, backs and legs identical with those which he u>cd for single
scats. He was likewise a prolific designer ami maker of book-
cases, cabinets and escritoires with doors glazed with fretwork
divisions. Some of those which he executed in the style which in
his day passed for Gothic are exceedingly handsome and effective.
We have, too, from his hand many cases for long clocks, and a
great number of tables, some of them with a remarkable degree
of Gallic grace. He was especially successful in designing small
tables with fretwork galleries for the display of china. His
mirrors, which were often in the Chinese taste or extravagantly
rococo, are remarkable and characteristic. In his day the
cabinetmaker still had opportunities for designing and con-
structing the four-post bedstead, and some of Chippendale's
most graceful work was lavished upon the woodwork of the
lighter, more refined and less monumental four-poster, which,
thanks in some degree to his initiative, took the place of the
massive Tudor and the funereally hung Jacobean bed. From an
organ case to a washhand-stand. indeed, no piece of domestic
furniture came amiss to this astonishing man, and if sometimes he
was extravagant, grotesque or even puerile, his level of achieve-
ment is on the whole exceedingly high.
Since the revival of interest in his work he has often been
criticised with considerable asperity, but not always justly.
Chippendale's work has stood the supreme test of posterity
more completely than that of any of his rivals or successors; and,
unlike many men of genius, we know him to have been warmly
appreciated in his lifetime. He was at once an artist and
a prosperous man of business. His claims to distinction are
summed up in the fact that his name has by general consent been
attached to the most splendid period of English furniture.
Chippendale was buried on the 13th of November 1770,
apparently at the church of St Mart in-in-lhe- Fields, and
administration of his intestate estate was granted to his widow
Elizabeth. Ho K«ft four children, Thomas Chippendale III., John,
Charles and Mary. He was one of the assignees in bankruptcy of
the iiotnriwus Theresa Cornelys of Soho Square, of whom we read
in Casanova and other scandalous chronicles of the time. Thomas
Chippendale HI. Micieeded to the business of his father and
grandfather, and for some years the firm traded under the style
of Chippendale & Haig. The factory remained in St Martin's
Lane, hut in 1814 an additional shop was opened at No. 57
Haymarket, whence it was in 1821 removed to 42 JermyitStrect.
Like his father, Thomas Chippendale III. was a member of the
Society of Arts; and he is known to have exhibited five pictures
•I the Royal Academy between 1784 and 1801. He died at the
«** oC jJMQ T, the beginning of 1823. (J. P.-B.)
GjjWTCHHAM, a market town ami municipal borough in the
^H*«ham parliamentary division of Wiltshire, Kngland, 04 m.
^ ^JVp n don by the Great Western railway. Top. (1901) 5074.
^2J*jb*n» W governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
^f?5^ Aim, 361 acres. It lies In a hollow on the south
^^ J* ^Jjet Avon, here crossed by a picturesque stone
^r^ ^*^ St Andrew's church, originally Norman of
~?»V abeen enlarged in different styles. A paved
^m^"**«
4 m. between Chippenham Cliff and
Maud Heath, said to have been a
]MatJie 15th ccntur>'i and bequeathed
Mtcr the decline of its woollen
celebrated for grain and
Factures of broadcloth,
guns and carriages;
tanneries and large
*"^iess of Lansdowne,
^■,or Hubba's Low,
*^ita«« or sepulchral
chamber of stone; it is probably British, though tradition makes
it the grave of Hubba, a Danish leader.
Chippenham (Ckcpeham, Chippcham) was the site of a royal
residence where in S53 /Ethelwulf celebrated the marriage
of his daughter /Ethelswitha with Burhrcd, king of Mercia. The
town also figured prominently in the Danish invasion of the oth
century, and in 933 was the meeting-place of the witan. In the
Domesday Survey Chippenham appears as a crown manor and is
not assessed in hides. The town was governed by a bailiff in the
reign of Edward I., and returned two members to parliament
from 1295, but it was not incorporated until 1553. when a
charter from Mary established a bailiff and twelve burgesses and
endowed the corporation with certain lands for the maintenance
of two parliamentary burgesses and for the repair of the bridge
over the Avon. In 1684 this charter was surrendered to Charles
II., and in 16S5 a new charter was received from James II., which
was shortly abandoned in favour of the original grant. The
Representation Act of 186S reduced the number of parliamentary
representatives to one, and the borough was disfranchised by
the Redistribution Act of 18S5. The derivation of Chippenham
from cyppan, to buy, implies that the town possessed a market
in Saxon times. When Henry VII. introduced the clothing
manufacture into Wiltshire, Chippenham became an important
centre of the industry, which has lapsed. A prize, however,
wis awarded to the town for this commodity at the Great
Exhibition of 1S51.
CHIPPEWA 1 PALLS, a city and the county-seat of Chippewt
county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Chippewa river, about 100 m.
E. of St Paul, Minnesota, and 1 2 m. N.E. of Eau Claire, Wisconsin.
Pop. (1890) 8670; (1000) 8004: (1910, census) 8893. It is served
by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Stc Marie, the Chicago &.
North- Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways,
and by the electric line to Eau Claire. The first settlement on
the site was made in 1837; and the city was chartered in 1S70.
CHIPPING CAMPDEN, a market town in the northern parlia-
mentary division of Gloucestershire, England, on the Oxford and
Worcester line of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1001) 1542.
It is picturesquely situated towards the north of the Cot tes wold
hill-district. The many interesting ancient houses afford
evidence of the former greater importance of the town. The
church of St James is mainly Perpendicular, and contains a
number of brasses of the 15th and 16th centuries and several
notable monumental tombs. A ruined manor house of the x6lh
century and some almshouses complete, with the church, a
picturesque group of buildings; and Campdcn House, also of
the 1 6th century, deserves notice.
Apart from a medieval tradition preserved by Robert de
Brunne that it was the meeting-place of a conference of Saxon
kings, the earliest record of Campdcn (CitnpcJotc) is in Domesday
Book, when Earl Hugh is said to hold it, and to have there fifty
villeins. The number shows that a large village was attached to
the manor, whiih in 1173 passed to Hugh de Gondeville, and
about 1204 to Ralph, carl of Chester. The borough must have
grown up during the 12th century, for both these lords granted
the burgesses charters which arc known from a confirmation of
1 2J7, granting that they and all who should come to the market of
Campedcnc should be quit of toll, and that if any free burgess of
Campedene should come into the lord's amerciament he should be
quit for 1 2d. unless he should shed blood or do felony. Probably
Earl Ralph also granted the town a port man-mote, for the
account of a skirmish in 1273 between the men of the town and
the county mentions a bailiff and implies the existence of some
sort of municipal government. In 1605 Campedene was incor-
porated, but it never returned representatives to parliament.
Camden speaks of the town as a market famous for stockings,
a relic of that medieval importance as a mart for wool that had
given the town the name of Chipping.
CHIPPING NORTON, a market town and municipal borough in
the Banbury parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, 26
m. N.W. of Oxford by a branch of the Great Western railway.
1 For the Chippewa Indians sec Ojibway, of which the word is a
popular adaptation.
CHIQUITOS— CHIROPTERA
239
Flop. (1001) 3780. It lies on the steep flank of a hill, and consists
mainly of one very wide street. The church of St Mary the
Virgin, standing on the lower part of the slope, is a fine building
of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods, the hexagonal
porch and the clerestory being good examples of the later style.
The town has woollen and glove factories, breweries and an
agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and
» councillors. Area, 2456 acres. Chipping Norton (Chepyng-
mrUn) was probably of some importance in Saxon times. At
the Domesday Survey it was held in chief by Ernulf de Hesding;
it was assessed at fifteen hides, and comprised three mills. It
returned two members to parliament as a borough in 1302 and
1304-1305, but was not represented after this date, and was not
considered to be a borough in 1316. The first and only charter
of incorporation was granted by James I., in 1608; it established
a common council consisting of 2 bailiffs and 12 burgesses; a
common clerk, 2 justices of the peace, and 2 serjeants-at-mace;
and a court of record every Monday. In 1 205 William Fitz-Alan
was granted a four days' fair at the feast of the Inven-
tion of the Cross; and in 1276 Roger, earl of March,
was granted a four days' fair at the feast of St Bar-
nabas. In the reign of Henry VI. the market was held
on Wednesday, and a fair was held at the Translation
of St Thomas Beckct. These continued to be held in
the reign of James I., who annulled the former two
fairs, and granted fairs at the feasts of St Mark, St
Matthew, St Bartholomew, and SS. Simon and Judc.
CHIQUITOS (Span. " very small "), a group of
tribes in the province of Santa Cruz dc la Sierra,
Bolivia, and between the head waters of the rivers
llamore' and Itcncz. When their country was first
invaded they fled into the forests, and the Spaniards,
coming upon their huts, the doorways of which are
built excessively low, supposed them to be dwarfs:
hence the name. They are in fact well formed and
powerful, of middle .height and of an olive com-
plexion. They are an agricultural people, but made
a gallant resistance to the Spaniards for nearly two
centuries. In 1691, however, they made the Jesuit
missionaries welcome, and rapidly became civilized.
The Chiquito language was adopted as the means
of communication among the converts, who soon
numbered 50,000, representing nearly fifty tribes.
Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 the Chiquitos
became decadent, and now number short of 20,000.
Their houses, regularly ranged in streets, arc built of
adobes thatched with coarse grass. They manufacture
copper boilers for making sugar and understand
several trades, weave ponchos and hammocks and
make straw hats. They are fond of singing and
dancing, and are a gentle-mannered and hospitable
The group is now divided into forty tribes.
CHIROMANCY (from Gr. x"'p. hand, and pawil a, divination),
the art of telling the character or fortune of persons by studying
the lines of the palms of the hands (see Palmistry).
CHIRON, or Cheiron, in Greek mythology, one of the Centaurs,
the son of Cronus and Philyra, a sea nymph. He dwelt at the
foot of Mount Pelion, and was famous for his wisdom and
knowledge of the healing art. He offers a remarkable contrast
to the other Centaurs in manners and character. Many of the
most celebrated heroes of Greece were brought up and instructed
by him (Apollodorus iii. 10. 13). Accidentally pierced by a
poisoned arrow shot by Heracles, he renounced his immortality
in favour of Prometheus, and was placed by Zeus among the
stars as the constellation Sagittarius (Apollodorus ii. 5; Ovid,
Fasti, v. 414). In a Pompeian wall-painting he is shown
teaching Achilles to play the lyre.
Sec articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realtncyctopadi* and W. H.
Roccher's Lexikon der Mylhologie; W. Mannnardt, Watd- und
FeUkulU (1904).
CHIROPODIST (an invented word from Gr. x^P. hand, and
toft, foot), properly one who treats the ailments of the hands
and feet, or is consulted as to keeping them in good condition;
the use of the word is now restricted, however, to the care of
the toes, " manicurist " having been invented for the correspond-
ing attentions to the fingers. The word was first introduced
in 1785, by a " corncutter " in Davies Street; London.
CHIROPTERA (Greek for "hand-wings"), an order of
mammals containing the bats, all of which are unique in the
class in possessing the power of true flight, and have their fore-
limbs specially modified for this purpose.
The mammals comprised in this order are at once distinguished
by the possession of true wings; this peculiarity being accom-
panied by other modifications of bodily structure having relation
to aerial locomotion. Thus, in direct contrast to all other
mammals, in which locomotion is chiefly effected by action
from behind, and the hind-limbs consequently greatly pre-
ponderate in size over the fore, in the Chiroptera the fore-limbs,
being the agents in propelling the body forward during flight,
immensely exceed the short and weak hinder extremities. The
Fig. i.— Skeleton and Wing-Membranes of the Noctule Bat
iPipistrellus noclula).
Clavicle.
Humerus.
Radius.
Ulna.
First digit.
tP.rf'.d'.d', Other digit 3 of the fore -limb
supporting wm, the wing-mem-
branc.
m,m, Metacarpal bones.
ph\ First phalanx.
ph*. Second phalanx.
ph\ Third phalanx.
am, Antebrachial membrane.
/, Femur.
/, Tibia.
fb, Fibula. [femoral membrane.
c, Calcar supporting im, the inter-
pel, Post-calcaneal lobe.
folk.
thorax, giving origin to the great muscles which sustain flight,
and containing the proportionately large lungs and heart, is
remarkably capacious; and the ribs are flattened and close
together; while the shoulder-girdle is greatly developed in
comparison with the weak pelvis. The fore-arm (fig. 1) consists
of a rudimentary ulna, a long curved radius, and a carpus of
six bones supporting a thumb and four elongated fingers, between
which, the sides of the body, and the hinder extremities a thin
expansion of skin, the wing-membrane, is spread. The knee
is directed backwards, owing to the rotation of the hind-limh,
outwards by the wing- membrane; an elongated cartilaginous
process (the calcar), rarely rudimentary or absent, arising from
the inner side of the ankle-joint, is directed inwards, and supports
part of the posterior margin of an accessory membrane of flight,
extending from the tail or posterior extremity of the body to
the hind-limbs, and known as the inter-femoral membrane.
The penis is pendent; the testes are abdominal or inguinal;
the teats, usually two in number, thoracic; the uterus is simple
or with more or less long cornua; the placenta discoidal and
deciduate; and the smooth cerebral hemispheres do not extend
backwards over the cerebellum. The teeth comprise incisors,
canines, premolars and molars; and the dental formula never
240
CHIROPTERA
exceeds i. f, c. \, p. |, m. f; total 38. Despite the forward
position of the teats, which is merely an adaptive feature, bats
are evidently mammals of low organization, and are most
nearly related to the Insectivora.
In consequence of the backward direction of the knee, a bat,
when placed on the ground, rests on all fours, having the knees
directed upwards, while the foot is rotated forwards and inwards
on the ankle. Walking is thus a kind of shuffle; but, notwith-
standing a general belief, bats can take wing from the walking
posture.
The bones of the skeleton arc characterized by their slender-
ness and the great size of the medullary canals in those of the
extremities. The vertebral column is short, and the vertebrae
differ but slightly in number and form throughout the group.
The general number of dorso-lumbar vertebrae is 17, whereof
1 2 are dorsal; the cervical vertebrae are broad, but short.
Except in fruit-bats (Pteropodidac), the vertebrae, from the
third cervical backwards, arc devoid of spinous processes. From
the first dorsal to the List lumbar the vertebral column forms
a single curve, most pronounced in the lumbar region. The
bodies of the vertebrae arc but slightly movable on each other,
and in old individuals become partially welded. The caudal
vertebrae are cylindrical bones without processes; their number
and length varying in allied species. The development of these
vertebrae is correlated with habits, the long tail in the insecti-
vorous species supporting and controlling the position of the
interfcmoral membrane which aids bats in their doubling motions
when in pursuit of insects by acting as a rudder, and assists them
in the capture of the larger insects. In the fruit-bats this is
not required, and the tail is rudimentary or absent. In all bats
the presternum has a prominent keel for the attachment of the
great pectoral muscles.
The shape of the skull varies greatly; but post-orbital pro-
cesses are developed only inaomc Pteropodidac and a few Nyctcri-
dac and Embdlhmnridae\ in Plcropus leucoptcrus alone docs a
process from the zygomatic arch meet the post -orbital so as
to complete the orbital ring. Zygomatic arches, though slender,
are present in all except in somi? of the species of Phytloslomatidac.
The milk-teeth differ from those of all other mammals ra that
they ore unlike those of the permanent series. They arc slender,
with pointed recurved cusps, and are soon shed, but exist for
a short time with the permanent teeth. In the Rkindophidae
the milk-teeth are absorbed before birth. The permanent
teeth exhibit great variety, sometimes even in the same family,
as in PkyUostomaiidae, whilst in other families, as Rhiuolopkidac,
I he resemblance between the dentition of species differing in
many respects is remarkable. In all they are provided with
well-developed roots, and their crowns are acutely tubcrculate.
with more or lea well-defined W-sh*ped cusps, in the insecti-
vorous species, or variously hollowed out or longitudinally
grooved in the frugivorous kinds.
The shoulder-girdle varies but slightly, the davicle being
long, strong and curved; and the scapula large, oval and tri-
angular, with a long curved coracoid process. The humerus,
though hmg, h scarcer/ two-thirds the length of the radius;
and t he rublttumtaryulna is welded with the radius. A sesamoid
t exists hi the tendon of the trice oa musde. The upper row
la canpot COJttbts of the united staplKwd. liiiuLT ac-1 cuptifona
•ad "he* five <£pts, the first, Jaunt and fifth of wakh
ttararpil and two phkknges, bu; m ibe
4 \ht number of ptiiliTwri is different in cmiia
feiat dipt ttnninat) in a daw, m«t developed in
^ ia novl pi which the second digit b also
^Kfcattti this and the
reduced to a small bony process above the heel, or absent.
The foot consists of a short tarsus, and of slender, laterally
compressed toes, with much-curved claws.
Although the brain is of a low type, probably uo animals
possess so delicate a sense of touch as Chiroptera. In ordinary
bats tactile organs exist, not only in the bristles on the sides of the
muzzle, but in the sensitive structures forming the wing-mem-
branes and ears, while in many species leaf -like expansions
surrounding the nasal apertures or extending backwards behind
them are added. These nose-leaves are made up partly of the
extended and thickened integument of the nostrils, and partly of
the glandular eminences occupying the sides of the muzzle, in
which in other bats the sensitive bristles are implanted.
In no mammals arc the ears so developed or so variable in
form; in most insectivorous species they are longer than the
head, while in the long-eared bat their length nearly equals
that of the head and body. The form is characteristic in each
of the families; in most the " earlct," or tragus, is large, in
some cases extending nearly to the outer margin of the conch;
its office appears to be to intensify and prolong the waves of
sound by producing undulations in them. In the Rkinolophidae,
the only family of insectivorous bats wanting the tragus, the
auditory bullae reach their greatest size, and the nasal appendages
their highest development. In frugivorous bats the ear is simpk
and but slightly variable. In all bats the ears are extremely
mobile, each independently at will.
The oesophagus is narrow, especially in blood-sucking vampires
The stomach presents two types of structure, corresponding
respectively to the two divisions of the order, Mcgachiroptera
and Microchiroptera; in the former the pyloric extremity is, with
one exception, elongated and folded upon itself, in the latter
simple; an exceptional type is met with in the blood-suckers,
where the cardiac extremity is elongated, forming a tang
appendage. The intestine is comparatively short, varying from
one ?nd a half to four times the length of the head and body;
longest in the frugivorous, shortest in the insectivorous species.
In Rhinopoma and Mtgtfcrma a small caecum has been found.
The liver is characterized by the great size of the left lateral lobe,
which occasionally equals half that of the whole organ; the right
and left lateral fissures are usually very deep; in Megachiropteri
the spigelian lobe is, with one exception, ill defined or absent, and
the caudate is generally large; but in Microchiroptera the former
lobe is large, while the caudate is small. The gall-bladder a
generally well developed.
In most species the hyoids are simple, consisting of a chain of
slender, long, cylindrical bones connecting the basi-hyotd with
the skull, while the pharynx is short, and the larynx shallow with
feebly developed vocal cords, and guarded by a short pointed
epiglottis. In the African epaulet led bats, Epomopkonu, the
pharynx is long and capacious, the aperture of the larynx far
removed from the fauces, and. opposite to it, opens a canal,
leading from the nasal chambers, and extending along the back
of the pharynx; the laryngeal cavity is spacious and its walls
are ossified; the hyoids are unconnected, except by musde
with the skull; while the cerato-hyals and em'-hyals are cartila-
ginous and expanded, entering into the formation of the walk of
the pharynx, and (in males of some species) supporting the orifices
of a pair of air-sacs communicating with the pharynx (fig. a).
The extent and shape of the wings generally depend on the
form of the bones of the fore-limbs, and on the presence or
absence of the laiL The wings consist of an M antebrachial
membrane," which extends from the point of the shoulder along.
the humerus and more or less of the fore-arm to the base of the
thumb, the metacarpal bone of which is partially or wholly
Included in it; the " wing-membrane " spread out between
the elongated fingers, and extending along the sides of the body
to the posterior extremities, generally reaching to the feet;
and the " interfemoral membrane." the most variable of aU,
which is supported between the extremity of the body, the kp
and the cakax (fig. 1). The antebrachial and wing naembranej
are most developed in species fitted only for aerial locomotion
which when at rest hang with the body enveloped in the wings;
CHIROPTERA
241
tat fa the BmbaBomwiiae, and also in the Mohs since, which
are the best filled for terrestrial progression, the antebrachial
membrane is reduced to a small size, and not developed along
the fore-arm, leaving the thumb quite free, while the wing-
a, measures 5 ft. across the fully extended wings, and is the
3tt' J
FlG. a.— Head and Neck of Epomopkorus franqiuii (adult male).
From Dobson. The anterior (a.ph.s) and posterior (p.ph.s) pharyngeal
nes are opened from without, the dotted lines indicating the points
where they communicate with the pharynx; s, thin membranous
partition in middle line between the anterior pharyngeal sacs of
opposite side*; s.m. stcrno-mastoid muscle separating the anterior
front the posterior sac
membrane is narrow and folded in repose under the fore-arm.
The relative development of the interfemoral membrane has been
referred to in connexion with the caudal vertebrae. Its small
siae in the frugivorous and blood-sucking species, which do not
require it, is easily under-
stood. Scent-glands and
pouches opening on the sur-
face of the skin are developed
in many species, but in most
cases more so in males than
in females (fig. 3). As a
rule, bats produce only a
Fio.^—FrontalSacand Nose-Leaf 8in gi e offspring at a birth.
in Male and Female Masked Bat -.fcjAf...",:-.;,,,^.,!
iPkytlorhmalanata). From Dobson. which for some time is earned
about by the female parent
dinging to the fur of her breast; but certain North American
bats commonly give birth to three or four young ones at a
time, which are carried about in the same manner.
Bats are divisible into two suborders. Mcgachiroptera and
llkrochiroptera.
Mefochiroptera.
The first of these comprises the fruit-eating species, which are
generally of large sue, with the crowns of the cheek-teeth smooth
and marked with a longitudinal groove. The bony palate
is continued behind the last molar, narrowing slowly
backwards; there are three phalanges in the index
finger, the third phalange being terminated generally by
a daw; the sides of the car form a ring at the base; the tail, when
present, is inferior to (not contained in) the interfemoral membrane ;
the pyloric extremity of the stomach is generally much elongated :
and the spigelian lobe of the liver is ill-defined or absent, while the
caudate is well developed. This group is limited to the tropical and
sub-tropical parts of the Eastern Hemisphere.
All the members of this suborder are included in the single family
PUropodidoe, the first representatives of which are the African
epauhetted bats, forming the genus Eptmophorut. In this the dental
formula is i. | (or ft), c. \, p. §. m. \. Tail short or absent, when
present free from the interfemoral membrane; second finger with a
claw; premaxiUae united in front. The species are strictly limited
to Africa south of the Sahara, and are distinguished by the large and
long head, expansible and often folded Kps. and the white tufts of
hair on the margins of the ears. The males are provided with
glandular pouches, situated in the skin of the side of the neck near
the point of the shoulder, which are rudimentary or absent in
females. In the males they are lined with glandular membrane,
from which long coarse yellowish hairs project to form conspicuous
epaulet-like tults on the shoulders. The males often have a pair of
air-sacs extending outwards on each side from the pharynx beneath
the integument of the neck, in the position s>hown in fig. 2 These
bats appear to live principally on figs, the juicy contents of which
their voluminous lips and capacious mouths enable them to swallow
without loss. The huge and ugly West African hammer-headed bat.
Hypttinalkus monstrosus, represents an allied genus distinguished
by the absence of shoulder-
pouches, and the presence
of leaf-like expansions of
•kin on the front of the
muzzle, and of distinct cusps
on the outer sides of the
cheek-teeth. The great
majority of the bats of this
group, commonly known as
"flying-foxes." are included
in the typical genus Ptero-
f>us, of which the dental
ormula is t. |. c. \, p. },
m. \. All are of large size,
and the absence of a tail,
the long pointed muzzle,
and the woolly fur covering Fie. 4.— Head of a Flying-Fox or
the neck render their rccog- Fruit-Bat {PUropus ptrsonatus). From
nition easy. One of the Cray,
species, P. edulis, inhabiting
iava, measures 5 ft. aero*
irgest member 01 the order.
The range of the genus extends from Madagascar through the
Seychelles to India, Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Archipelago, Japan,
New Guinea, Australia and Polynesia. Although two species in-
habit the Comoro Islands, scarcely 200 m. from the mainland, not
one is found in Africa; while the common Indian species is clofcly
allied to the Madagascar flying-fox. The Malay Archipelago and
Australia form the headquarters of these bats, which in some places
occur in countless multitudes. The colonics exhale a stronc mutkv
odour, and when awake tfte occupant* utter a loud incessant chatter.
Wallace's fruit-bat of Celebes and Mseissar has been mode the type
of a separate genus* as Styl&tenium vaiiaai, In Ram it tint (or
Cynfinycttrij) the dentition isa$in Pte/apui, but the tail is start, and
the fur of the nape of the neck not deficient from that of the back;
in distribution accords wirh that of PittPp*t. crcern that ft includes
Africa and does not reach farther ea*t than New Iri-bnd. R.
nttyptiatxs Inhabit* the chamber! of the Great Pyramid and othef
deserted build in g* in Egypt, and I* probably the spede^ figured in
Egyptian frescoes &Qtiti&. with two fpcde$ from Celebes, dtflcri
in having only two upper incisors. HarpyionyeUris and Scohmytlstiij
respectively from the Philippines and West Africsi. are represented
by a single specie* each' but of Cynoptrrtti, which it mainly confined
to the Indo-Malay countries, there are some half -score different
kinds. The dentition is 1. — — , c. \, p. J, m. |, the muzzle ia
shorter than in Rousstltus, with the upper lip grooved in front as in
Pleropus. while the tail and fur resemble those of the former genus.
These bats are extremely voracious, a specimen of the Indian C.
mcr£inalui having eaten a banana twice it* own weight in three
hours. Among several Austro-Malay genera, such as Ptcnoihirus
and Btilicnycleris, the tube-nosed bats of the genus Gelatin* s (or
llarpyia) are remarkable for the conformation of the nostrils (fig. 5).
CtpluUoUs, with one
species. ranging from ./*■ '
Celebes to the Solomon
group, has the dentition
t. \,e. I p. I m. §. pre-
maxillae not united in
front, nostrils simple,
muzzle short, index finger
without a claw, tail short.
As in Gtlasinus, the wing-
membrane arises from the
middle line of the back, to
which it is attached by a _
longitudinal thin process Bat (Cdaunus major).
of skin; the wings arc Dobson.
naked, but the back
covered with hair. Lexpenyx is an allied West African genus with
one species.
The foregoing belong to the typical subfamily Pieropodxnat, while
the remainder represent a second group, Carponyclerxnae (or Macro-
glossmar). characterized by having the facial part of the skull pro-
duced, the molar teeth narrow, and scarcely raised above the gum,
and the tongue exceedingly long, attenuated in the anterior third,
and armed with long recurved papillae near the tip. The single
representative of the first genus. Sotopteris macdonoldi, inhabiting
Fiji, New Guinea and the New Hebrides, is distinguished from other
bats of this family by the length of its tail, which is nearly as long
7a
Fig.js.— Head of Papuan Tube- Nosed
~ "* * From G. E.
242
CHIROPTERA
as the forearm. The dentition is «. *,. c. \, p. |, m. I. while the index
finger has no claw, and the wings arise from the spine. EonycUns,
with the dentition i. \,c. \, p. \,m. \, is also represented by a single
species. E. spdaea, from Tenasserim, Burma, ana the Malay Peninsula
and Islands, which has somewhat the appearance of a Roussettus,
but the absence of a claw in the index finger and the presence of the
characteristic tongue and teeth at once distinguish it. Carbonycteru
(Macrpgtostus) and Mehnycteris, the former with several and the
latter with a single species, arc closely allied Indo-Malay and Papuan
genera, the index finger in both having a claw, but the number of
the teeth being the same as in Eonyaerts. C. minimus is the smallest
known species of the suborder, much smaller than the scrotine bat
of Europe, with the fore-arm scarcely longer than that of the long-
eared bat. It is nearly as common in certain parts of Burma as
Cynopterus marginatus, and extends eastwards through the Malay-
Archipelago as far as New Ireland, where it is associated with
MelonycUris meianops, distinguished by its larger size and the total
absence of the tail. An allied small CarpopvcUris inhabits India.
Trygenycteris (Megaloglossus) voermanni, of West Africa, is the only
member of the group occurring west of the Himalaya. Callinycterts
of Celebes, with the dentition t. f , c. \, p. |, m.], has a ihort tail and
no index-daws, while Nesonycteris of the Solomons, with the den*
tition t. f , e. \, p. | # m. 1, differs by the absence of the tail.
Microchiroptcra.
The second and fcrgcr suborder, the Microchiroptera, includes
all the insectivorous species, the majority of which arc of relatively
small size as compared with the Mcgachiroptcra. In these
bats, with a few specialized exceptions, the crowns of the
cheek-teeth are surmounted by sharp cusps, divided by
transverse grooves. In the skull the bony palate narrows
abruptly and is not continued backwards laterally behind the last
molar; there is one rudimentary phalange (rarely two or none) in the
index finger, which is never terminated by a claw; the outer and
inner sides of the car commence inferiorly .from separate points of
origin; the tail, when present, is contained in the intcrfcmoral
membrane, or appears on its upper surface; the stomach, except in
the blood-sucking group, is simple; and the spigelian lobe of the
liver large, and the caudate generally small.
The bats included in this suborder arc so numerous in genera (to
say nothing of species) that only some of the more important types
can be mentioned).
Brief references have already been made to the manner in which
in many or most of these bats the tail aids in the capture of prey.
From the observations of C. Oldham, it appears that these bats,
when walking, carry the tail downwards and forwards, so that the
membrane connecting this organ with the hind-legs forms a kind of
pouch or bag. If a large insect be encountered the bat seizes it with
a snatch, and slightly spreading its folded wings and pressing them
on the ground in order to steady itself, brings its feet forwards so
as to increase the capacity of the tail-pouch, into which, by bending
its neck and thrusting its head beneath the body, it pushes the
insect. Although the latter, especially if large, will often struggle
violently, when once in the pouch it but rarely escapes, from which
it is subsequently extracted and devoured. It is assumed that the
same method 01 capture is employed when on the wing; and a
naturalist who has observed the long-eared bat picking moths off
willows states that the bat always hovers when taking oft the moth,
and bends up the tail so as to form a receptacle for the insect as it
drops.
In the Rhinohphidae. Horse-shoe and Leaf-nosed bats of the Old
World, the nose-leaf is developed and surrounds the nasal apertures,
which are situated in a depression on
the upper surface of the muzzle so as to
look upwards; the ears are large and
generally separate, without trace of a
tragus or earlct; the premaxillae are
rudimentary, suspended from the nasal
cartilage*, and support a tingle pair of
small incisors; the molars have acute
W-shapcd cusps; the skull is large, and
the nasal bones which support the nose-
leaf much expanded vertically and later-
ally. In females a pair of teat-like
appendages are found in front of the
pubis; and the long tail extends to the
FlC. 6. — Head of Mitred rnarRin of the intcrfcmoral membrane.
Horseshoe Bat {Rhino- The middle finger has two phalanges, but
tophus mitratus). From tnc mc,cx >» rudimentary. The fibula is
Dobson. rudimentary.
The Rhinohphidae are the most highly
organized of insectivorous bats, in which the osseous and cutaneous
systems reach the fullest development. Cornered with theirs, the
bones of the extremities and the wings of other bats appear coarsely
formed, and their teeth seem less perfectly fitted to cru*h the hard
bodies of insects. The complicated nasal apptndages reach their
highest development, and the differences in their form afford
characters in the discrimination of the species, which resemble one
another closely in dentition and the colour of the fur.
In the first subfamUy, Rk*ndoph\nQ$ t ihe first toe has two and the
other toes three phalanges eaelif'and the Nio-peetineal spine is not
connected by bone with the anteroinferior surface of the ilium. In
the horseshoe bats, Rhiaoicpim-s, the dentition m L J. *. \, p> J, ". |*
the nose-leaf has a central process behind and between the nasal
on lues, with the posienof extremity lanceolate, and the an u tragus
large- Among the numerous fWm* R, tuclvt is the largest, and in-
habits elevated hiSl-trji:!*, in India and Malaysia; fLIiippGtJdtrm
of Europe* extending into south England and Ireland, is one of the
smallest; and R- ftrrtim-tqvitiwrt repct-srnts the average size of the
species, which are mainly distinguished (torn one another by the
form of the nose-leaf. The last -named specie] extends from England
to Japan, and southward to the Cane of Good Hope, but t* represent rd
by a number of local races. When sinning, lh * honeshoc feu*, at
least in some instance?, suspend
themselves head downwards, with
the wjngi wrapped round the body
after the manner of fruit bats. The
posture of ordiniry bats is quite
different, and while the lesser hor?e- I
shoe (/?, kippQtidtnu} alights from
the air in an inverted position,
other bats, cm first coming to
mi. do so with the head up*
wards, and then reverse their
position.
In the second subfamily, }Iipf*t>- J? IC , 7 + -~He»d of Squirrel
sidcriwie (formerly called Myl- Uaf-flat iPhyihrkinauiltaraiv}.
teFkinat), the toes are equal and From Dotrcon.
include two ph binges each, white
the iiio- pectineal ipme is united by a bony isthmus with a process
derived front the amrro-infenor surface of the ilium. Hippcsidenti,
Ctotaiii, Rkirii>nyfierii t Tnaenopi, Artthopi and C&d$pi represent
this subfamily. Jfipposideiut (phyllorhixa), with many specks.
ranging over Asia, Africa and Australasia, and the dental formula
L J* c. \, p. ) t or I, m. J, differs front Rfiificfopkus in the form of the
nose- leaf, which is not lanceolate behind (fig. 6). and is unprovided
with a central process covering the nostrils; the largest species, 11,
armiger^ appears to be the im*t northerly, having been taken at
Amoy in Cruna t and in the Himalaya at an elevation of 55W lt«
Many are provided with a frontal vac behind the nose*lcaf. nidi*
mentary in females (see fig* ?}* «rhich can be evened at pleasure;
the sides of this sac secrete a
waxy substance, and its ex*
tremity supports a tuft of
straight hairs, Rhinonyiifrts,
represented by R+ evranttj
from Australia, and Tn^rnopi.
by T* ptriicuj from Persia and
other species from Africa and
Madagascar, are closely allied
genera* Triarntfps (fig. 6} is
characterised! by the remark-
able form of in nasal appen-
dages and ears, and the pres-
ence of a bony projection from
the upper extremity of the
second phalange of the fourth
hngcr* Coclaps {C* Fnlhi),
from the Bengal Sandertu:^ p 8 ,_ Hcad oi p^^ ^r.
Java and Sam, is distinguished n ,* itw™*a. *w-i^«rii ^^
by the peculiar form of its K *£££?' #iww).
Uuf and the kn C th of the From ■**"*■
metacarpal bone of ihc hide* finger, as well as by the shortness el
the calcar and inirrfi.-mot.il membrane. Clozalis is represented by a
single East African species, and Artthopj by one from the Sotorao*
Islands characterized by the nose- lea I covering the whole front of
(he face.
The next family, Nycimdae, which is aUo Old World, Is i small
one. nearly allied to the last. In which it is included by Prof.
Max Weber m subfamily under the name of Afyadtr*
matinac. It differs by the presence of a small tragus in
the cars, whkh are united at their bases; and by the ™*
naul chamber not being inflated. The premaxillae are cither
and ^pa rated in front, or rudimentary; and the first phi
of the middle finger when in repose is laid back on the metacarpus^
Thfre are only pectoral teats.
Of the I wo genera. Mttadfrmtt, as represented try the five speck*
of false vampires, U distinguished by the absence of ossified pre-
maxillae and upper incisors I*. }, p, • } . the cylindrical narrow
muzzle surmounted by an erect rose-leaf the bate of which coftceab
the* nasal orifire*. the immense joined ears *ith large bifid tragus,
and the (treat extent of the intcrf era oral membrane, in the base «
which the phort tail is concealed, SI, fifa* (fig. o). from central
Queensland, ii the largest species of the pen us, and of the suborder.
AT. tyra, common in India (fore-arm 2^7 in.), has been caught in iht
act of fu eking the blood, ^hile flyinft if*m * small bat which it
afterward* devoured. The range of the genus includes Africa, tht
Indo-MaUy countries and Aust r a l a si a. &tttri$ w wfcicb If
CHIROPTERA
2+3
10 Africa and the Malay Peninsula and Islands, has ossified pre-
' and upper incisors («. }, P. \), and a long tail, but lacks a
As in Megaderma, the frontal bones are deeply hollowed
ded laterally, the muzzle presents a similar cylindrical
_ the lower jaw also projects; but, instead of a nose-leaf,
is marked by a deep longitudinal sharp-edged groove ex-
form, an
thelace
Fia 9.^-Tbe False Vampire (Megaderma gigas). From Dobson.
tending from the nostrils to the band connecting the base of the large
can; the aides of this depression being margined as far back as the
eyes by small horizontal cutaneous appendages. With the exception
of N. jawanica, the species are limited to Africa.
According to the classification followed by Dr C E. Dobson, the
extensive family of New World bats known as Phytloitomatidae was
widely sundered from the two preceding groups; but in
Prof. Max Weber's system they are placed next one
an arrangement which has thegreat advantage of bringing
together all the bats furnished with nose-leaves. It is indeed
probable that the vampires, as the members of the present family
may be collectively termed, are the New World representatives of the
Old World Rhinolophidae and Nyctcridae.
The PhyUostomattdae are characterized by the presence of a nose-
leaf, or off lappets on the chin, but the nostril* are not directed
upwards. The ethmoturbinal bones of the nasal cavity form simple
plates (much as in the two preceding families). The premaxillae are
always well developed, with their palatal portions forming a suture
and defining the boundaries of distinct palatine foramina (in place
of being rudimentary, as in Nyctcridae and Rhinolophidae). The
large ears have a tragus. The middle finger has three phalanges, and
the index one. There is an incomplete fibula. The tail may be
either long or short. Generally the dentition is 1. 1. e. \, p. | m. |.
All the bats of this family may be readily recognized by the
" " * ■ « • ■ phalange in the middle finger.
fornix. In the first subfamily, Mormofsinae (Lobostominae), the
nosrtils open by simple apertures at the extremity of the muzzle in
front, not margined by a distinct nose-leaf; while, m compensation,
the chin is furnished with expanded leaf-like appendages. The tail
is short. It includes two genera. In Chilonycteris the crown of the
head is moderately elevated above the face-line, and the basi-cranial
axis is almost in the same plane as the facial, while in Mormops (fig.
10) the crown of the head is greatly elevated above the face-line, and
the basi-cranial axis is nearly at right angles to the facial ; »'. {, p. §.
in both genera. As regards the species of Chilonxcteris, the most
striking feature is the occurrence of a rufous and a dark brown phase
in each. In some the two phases are very marked, but in others they
are connected by intermediate shades. Here may be mentioned the
two specie* of tropical American hare-lipped bats, forming the genus
Nociilio, which presents characters common to this and the following
family, to which latter it is often referred. The typical N. leporinus
is a bat of curious aspect, with strangely folded lips, erect skin-
processes on the chin, and enormous feet and claws. The two middle
incisors are close together, and so large as to conceal the small outer
ones, while in the lower jaw there are but two small incisors; the
premolars numbering \. These bats live near the coast, and feed on
small crabs and fishes.
Most of the remaining members of the family are included in the
subfamily Phyllostomahnae, characterized by the presence of a
distinct nose-leaf and the warty chin. The clitoris is imperforate,
whereas it is perforated in the Mormopsinae. The incisors are gener-
ally § (occasionally f), and the molars well developed. The sub-
family is divided into a number of groups or sections. The first of
them, the Vampyreae, is characterized as follows: Muzzle long and
narrow in front, the distance between the eyes generally less than
(rarely equal to) that from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle;
nose-leaf horseshoe-shaped in front. lanceolate behind; interfemoral
membrane well developed: tail generally distinct, rarely absent;
inner margin of the lips not fringed; t. | or f, p. | or §; molars with
W-shaped cusps, usually well developed.
Nearly all the Vampyreae appear to be insectivorous, so that the
[nrrti cannoi be considered indicative of habits; but a few, if not
all. probably supplement their insect-diet with fruit. Vampyrus
spectrum (the largest bat in the Hvw World) is said to be wholly
f nucivorous, and Otopt&ut irqtnfremri appears to prey occasionally
on tmaUcr bats. The genera may be arranged in two subgroups ac-
cording a» the tail is produced to the margin of the interfemoral
membrane or perforates it to appear on its upper surface. In the
first divkiop *re included three ten era > Lonckorhina, Otopterus (or
Macratui) and Datitkopkytlnm (or AlacrttpJtyllum), the first represented
by £.. qhmMs, thartctvriird by an extraordinary long nose-leaf, and
peculiarly large ears and tragus. In the second subsection are in-
cluded Vampyrus, t'A-r/ftapirriij, rpn&tia {Lophostoma) Micronycteris,
Giypkonytlens, T*atky(*p* r Pkytlfd^ma. Phyllostoma, Anthorkina
'yiosttHtff), Mimon. Jfemtderma (furrf/M ) and Rhinophylla ; all, with
>mi£ui ' fly by the form of t"
and the presence or absence of the second lower premolar. Phyllostoma
the except ion of the h*T , cliitinguiihed chat-fly by the form of the skull
presence of a well-developed third j
associated either with a
distinct nose-leaf, or
with central upper in-
cisors, or with both.
Unlike the Rhinolo-
phidae, their eyes are
generally large and the
tragus is well developed,
maintaining almost the
same form throughout
the species, however
much the other parts;
of the body may vary.
Fie. 10.— Head of Blainville's Vampire Their fur is of a dull
(Mormops Uainvillei). From Dobson. colour, and the face and
back arc often marked
with white streaks. A few species, probably all those with the
tail and interfemoral membrane well developed, feed principally
on insects, while the greater number of the species of the groups
Vampyreae and Glossophageae appear to live on a mixed diet
of insects and fruits, and the Desmodonteae, of which two specie*
are known, are true blood-suckers, and have their teeth and intestinal
tract specially modified in accordance with their habits. The group
is practically limited to the tropical and subtropical parts of Central
and South America, although one species of Otopterus reaches Cali-
hoitntum, next in point of size to Vampyrus spectrum, is a well-
known species in South America: P. elongatum (tig. n) differs in its
smaller size and larger nose-leaf. Hemidcrma brevicauda, a small
species, closely resembles Glossophaga zoricina. and forms a connect-
ing link between this and the next croup. Rhinophylla pumilio is the
smallest species of the family; further
distinguished by the absence of a tail,
the narrowness of its molars, which
do not form W-shaped cusps, and the
small size of the last upper molar,
characters connecting it and the group
with the Stenodermateae. Both in
Hemiderma and Rhinophylla the zygo-
matic arch is incomplete.
The next subsection. Glossophageae, . ui(f8
fircscnts the following distinctive
catures: Muzzle long and narrow;
tongue long and extensible, attenu-
ated towards the tip. and beset with rt _ lf u . • ,
long filiform recurved papillae; lower |™,j n l/^~^fp£lli£S
lip with a wide groove above, and in Javelin Vampire (PAy0**<o«o
front margined by small warts; ^ongatura).
nose-leaf small; tail short or none;
i. f. p. \ or | or {, m. | or | or I; teeth narrow; molars with narrow
W-shaped cusps, sometimes indistinct or absent; lower incisors
small or deciduous. ^ The species included in this group represent
some ten genera, distinguished principally by differences in the' form
and number of the teeth, and the presence or absence of the zygomatic
arch of the skull. In Glossophaga and Phyllonycteris the upper
incisors form a continuous row between the canines. In Mono-
phyllus and Leptonycteris UUhnoglossa) they are separated into pain
by a narrow interval in front; while in Lonchoglossa, Glossonycterit
and Choeronycteris they are widely separated and placed in pairs near
the canines. In the first four of these genera the lower incisors are
present (at least to a certain age), in the last three they are deciduous
even in youth. The zygomatic arch is wanting in Phyllonycteris,
Glossonycleris and Choeronycteris. The typical species is Glossophaga
sorieina, which, as already mentioned, closely resembles Hemiderma
244
CHIROPTERA
trcicc.ula, tioth in form and dentition. Its fong brush-tipped tongue
f-*hich it possesses in common with other species of the group) is
u»ed to lick out the pulpy content* of fruits having hard rinds. The
food of the species of this group appears to consist of both fruit and
inlets and the long tongue may be used for extracting the latter
fmm the deep corolla* of flowers. Other genera arc Lonchophylla,
Rhitkronyctcris, HylonycUris and Lyclionycteris, each with a singlet
species (in 1904).
The third group. Stcnodernuitcae. presents the following character-
istics: — Muzzle very short and generally broad in front, the distance
between the eyes nearly always exceeding (rarely equalling) the
distance from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle; nose-leaf
short, horse&hoc-
// ii^^h^» shaped in front,
\\U ^JAV^pnW lanceolate behind
i;/,.'/ J Jwaw.«?«a^. (except in Brachy-
phyila and Centttrio) ;
l interfcmoral mem-
7 branc concave be-
hind; tail none;
inner margin of the
lips fringed with
conical papillae;
Flu. 12. — Head of Long-tongued Vampire i. | or f, p. §, m. }.,
(Ch't-TMiyttcris mcxiciimi), showing brush- or | or f; cheek- !
tipped tongue. From Dobaon. teeth broad (except
in Sturnira), molars
with concave or flat crowns margined externally by raised cutting-
tdge-.. Although the StenodcrmaUae are generally easily dis-
tjngui'hed from the Vampyteac by the shortness and breadth of
the mnz/lc and the form of the cheek-teeth, certain species of the
Lit fir rcemble the former in external appearance, agreeing almost
absolutely in the form of the nosc-kaf, the cars and the tragus, and
the wart 1 on the c hin. These roomblances show that, while the form
of the teeth and jaws hat. become modified to suit the food, the
ex t trail characters have remained much the same, and indicate the
common origin of the two sections. The food of these bats, appears to
be u holly or in great part fruit. The species arc divided into some
elrvrn genera, mostly distinguished by the form of the skull and teeth.
Artihtut includes the frugiyorous A. persffiiillatus. Stenodcnna
achradopktlum, found in Jamaica and Cuba, with the last, from which
it is scan rly <lMingni->hahle externally except by its much smaller
size. diff< r. in I In- absent e of the horizontal plate of the premaxillae
on the p.il.ite. Sturmm Idtuni, while agreeing with these in the form
of the ri'i-e-l'-af and e.ns, differ* from all the species of the family in
it'. l<Miptiidiiially-i;ri»oved inoLir.s, which rc>cmblc those of the
I't^riif'utlnine more lIum-Iv than those of any other bats; and the
\tv j-wr of tuft- of long differently-coloured hairs over gland* in the
f-i'fi r of the rtck is another character in common with that group.
Crutuno \mrx (fig. 1 3) is the type of a small genus distinguished from
Strwiirrtrnt and other getn-ra of this group by the absence of a distinct
no.e k.if. Some n.it 1 j r.»li -is make this genus the tyjxr of a distinct
Mjt'i'r'iiiif, ('rnturioiirar. I'p to lyoj the genera, ext lusiveof Centurio,
imliul'il in the .'itrnmUtnuitcae were Attibrus (with several sub*
giiiir 1). VinnpY'"pi U\ ■*» with subgenera). Mesophylla, Chiroderma,
SUn<nUim<i (with .j Mibe.em.ra), Px to phyila, Anutrida (with 2 sub-
gnu r.i), Vyftnlttma, Sturmta and lira* hyphylla.
The tlnid r.iitif.imitv, I>f\modtintifaf, is represented only by the
blood am king bats, mu\ di»:iii>;uiilicd by hiving f. 4, of which the
upjrt-r |xiir are cutting, the rudimentary
molars, the very hhort iiiterfeinnral
membrane, and the blood-siu king
habit. Thi'V are further characterized
tin follows: Muzzle short and conical;
tiose-h.if distinct; p. \, m. { ur X;
upper itu isor* occupying the whole
spate liet ween the canines; premolars
narrow, with «li,ir»-rdge«l kmgitudinal
1 rowna: miliar* rudimentary or absent ;
Mnmaiii eluiig.itrd, and mii-Miiiiform.
\25J*TW*JmI "I M ankeil "1 lu rr air l wo genera , l/esmudiu. w it h-
*»3L£l ,,Ww Mitrt). <,l>t >4k ar or niolam, and ihphyila,
* **»«»• ' with « shoit tabar and u single nidi-
T" k ^ , ^llvJi ttli nurv nuilai on c .jr.1i nulr re-
it^iTY^^ ftmarn Ar fJriwlBtfuM tuj'a, the rum*
► ti>+i\ ilm tjoclutu bat, ami abundant
^Z^^" U U ir<JwMp»fc»mv owmg to
"^***-*JwT i wv ' v,ol| » ""Wi
^*MWT«, »- I ire
upper inriun, separated by gips from the canines, and from one
another in the middle line-
The distinctive feature of these bats is the free tail- tip. which
pierces the inLcrfemorat mem branc to appear on it* upper surface*
and may pro Sect beyond it* margin. Asa rule, these bits may slso
berecflgnizeclby thepecubat termor the muzzle, which is otliiiuely
truncated, the nMnU projecting itsore ur less in front bcyonq the
lower lip> by the ririi pnalangt of the middle finger being folded in
repose forwards on the upper surface oI the tnetacarpa] bone, and, by
the upper fadtarjk Alrliuugh covmopoUun* these bits rarely extend
north or south of the thirtieth parallels of latitude.
The family may be divided into two subfamilies, of which the
EmballQnurinac is characterized by the incomplete prematilUe, the
in the index finger, and the short tail
I
presence of only one phalange r
The dental formula is generally 1'. i (sometimes \ or J J, t\ J, p. j,
Thk subfamily may be furthtr subdivided
in la subgroups or sections of which the
first. Emaalttmitrae, is characterized by the
slender MiJ perforating the interfemoral
membrane, so «s to appear on its upper
surface i the legs tag, with a slender
fibulj; the ineisors weak; and the pre-
molars I* The typical genus EmJhiiformt-a
presents the following features; i. f,
extremity of the muzzle more or less
produced: beyond the lower lip, forehead Fig. 14. — Ear o|
flat. The genus contains several species, Embatienvra rajfraytma.
inhabiting island* from Madaga&car From Dobson.
through the Malay Archipelago and Sum
to the Navigator Inlands, (frltto, with t\ J, the extremity
of the muzzle broad, and the forehead concave, has two spccU't
from East Africa and the Seychelles. Rkynchanytieru is tfistin-
pushed from Coifjra by the produced extremity of the muzzle.
The bin pie species, R. naw, from Central and South America* is
common in the vicinity of *T reams, where it is usually found during
the day renting on the vertical faces of rocks, or on trunks of trees
pawing over water; it escapes notice owing to the grc-vi>h colour of
the fur of the body and of small tufts on the antebrachial membrane
counterfeiting the wuathtierf surfaces of rocki and bark- As evening
approaches it appcarson the wing, flying close to the water. Saaefh
trryx has i- J. and the am ibf actual membrane with a pouch opening
on in upper surfare; it contains several species from Central and
South America. This sac is developed only in the male and in the
female is rudimentary. En adult males a valvular longitudinal
opening occupies* the upper surface of the membrane leading into a
pi nail pouch* the interior of which is lined with a glandular membrane
secret mg an unctuous reddish substance with a strong ammoniaral
odour. Allied genera are the tropical American Pentpitryx and the
Brazilian Cirrmum, The various spcrics of tomb-bais {tn phuzg*i)
inhabit the teltimw and lUbtropieal parts of alL the eastern hemi-
spliere exrrpt Polynesia, and are distinguished by the cartilaginous
prcmaxiltaTjes 4 (he deciduous pair of upper incisors, and the presence
of only two pairs of lower incisor*. Most of the species have a
ghndubr >ac fne;, 15) ixxunxn the angles of the lo*ier jaw. more
developed in males than in female*, m toux species absent in the
rf 9
*tt*tfV
Ffo. 15. — Heads of TnrruVBat frajf>aaaJMf lctigimnHUt\ t (homing
ItlattS'r developnieni of ihrtMt'tacs in male and female. From
Uobson.
latter, An open throat -sac is wanting in T. mtlanopcfon. but about
it* ffMiiioo are the openings of small pores, the secretion from which
probably causes the hairs 10 grow long, forming the black beard
found in m-my males- The three tropical American, white bats.
Dtftrdnrn$< with i, J, c. f, p. i< m> ], resemble Tapkat&tu in the form
of the head and cars, but, Loidf* other characters.. differ from all
other h,its in poi.s«.dng a jiourh, opening off the centre of the
interior surface of the interfemoral membrane i the eJtt remit y of the
tail enters this and perforates its- baw.
The second ■•ubfamily of thu Eirtkittefluridae, RkifHfpomatinar. is
leprrM-'nted only by the geno% Khtnapvtrta, with several species
ranging from Kgjf_n thrrmgh Arabia to Imlia, Burma and Sumatra.
The pmnaxiltae {ng. ifi) *tv complete; the index finger has tup
fTliakinges; the tail is vtry bug ancl mmrM?like; and the dental
ormuL 1. J. c.\ r p. >, w. 1- Dr C. R, l>-ib?on has remarked that
the^e mnusc^tailed bats might be ele eared to The rank of a family, for
It is dimr ult 10 determine their arn nit i 11. a kind of cross relation £hip
attJtrhing them to the NyfttfiHat no the one hand and to the Em-
bdidrfkriJdf on the other. Thete bati h di.ntlnguished from all other
HKrachiruptera by ine presence 01 two phalanges in the index finger-
CHIROPTERA
245
tad the loaf and slender tail projecting far beyond the narrow inter-
fessoral membrane, inhabit the subterranean tombs in Egypt and
de serte d buildings generally from north-east Africa to Burma and
Sumatra.
The last group, according to the system adopted by Prof Max
Weber, ta that of the Vespertilwnidae, which includes such typical
bats as the pipistrelle, the noctule, and the long-cared
species. By Mr G. S. Miller 1 the first section of the
family— Nataltnot — is regarded as of family rank, while
the last section, or Molossxnae, is included by Dr G. E. Dobson in the
Em b cllon nridae. from the typical forms of which its members differ
widely in tail-structure. In this
extended sense the family, which
has a cosmopolitan distribution,
may be denned as follows — The
1 nostrils are normal and without a
nose-leaf The elhmoturbinal bones
of the nasal chamber are involuted.
The palatine processes of the pre-
maxillae do not form a suture. The
Fig. i6.-Sleull of Mouse- *» r » ™% tl l ^^ •»* a '"P 1 *-
tailed Bat (Rkinopoma mtcro- J he ™*p* hn & r <«"*!* ,n Tk Z+-
*M (From Dobson.) gjg J^jSSSEi. .«
tail is long and does not perforate the interfcmoral membrane.
The incisors are generally | or |, but may be reduced to \ in the
Molossinae.
In the first subfamily, Natalinae, which b exclusively tropical
American, the other upper incisors are separated from one
another and from the canines, palatine processes of the pre-
i are at least partially developed, and the dental formula
Ul.c.\,p.Ufl
m. I In general appearance these bats recall
the more typical Vespertilionidae, although the form of the muzzle is
suggestive of the Mormopsinat among the PhyllosUmatidae. Again,
while the form of the skull is
vespertilione, the relation of
the vomer to the front end
of the premaxillae is of the
phyllostumine # type. . The
molars and incisors are like-
wise vespertilione, whereas the
premolars are as distinctly
phyllostomine. Finally, while
the third, or middle, finger
normally has two phalanges,
as in typical Vespertilionidae,
the second of these is elon-
Sated and in Thyroptera
ivided into two, as in Phyllo-
itomatidae.
< The first two genera, Furipirrusand Amorphochilus, each have a
single species, the latter being distinguished from the former by the
wide separation of the nostrils and the backward prolongation of the
palate. In both the crown of the head is elevated, the thumb and
first phalange of the middle finger arc very short, and the premolars
are J. The same elevation of the crown characterizes the genera
Nalalus and Chilonatalus (fig. 17), in which the premolars arc ■ - '—
FlO. 17.— Head of Chilonatalus
mkropus. (From Dobson.)
Fig. 18.— Suctorial Disks in Thyropitra tricolor, a, side, and b,
concave surface, of thumb disk; e. foot with disk, and cakar with
projections (all much enlarged). (From Dobson.)
general appearance these bats are very like the Old World vesper-
tilionine genus Cervtoula, except for the short triangular tragus.
Lastly, Thyroptera includes two species distinguished by an additional
phalange in the middle finger and by accessory clinging-organsattached
to the extremities. In Thyroptera tricolor, i. J, p. J, from Brazil,
these have the appearance of small, circular, stalked, hollow disks
(fig. 18), resembling miniature sucking-cup6 of cuttle-fishes, and arc 1
attached to the Inferior surfaces of the thumbs and the soles of the
feet. By their aid the bat is able to maintain its hold when creeping
over smooth vertical surfaces.
The second or typical subfamily. Vespertilioninae, includes all the
remaining members of the family with the exception of the aberrant
Molossinae. The upper incisors are in proximity to the canines, the
1 Bull. Amer. Uus. Nat. Hist. vol. xii. (1899).
premaxillae widely separated; the ears medium or large; the dental
formula is s |(or i), c I, p |(|, |, or \), m. 1; and the fibula very
small and imperfect. All the members of this large cosmopolitan
group are closely allied! and differ chiefly by external characters.
They may be divided into subgroups. In the first of these, the
Plecoteoe, of which the long-eared bat (Plecotus aurdus) is the type,
the crown of the head is but slightly raised above the face-line,
the upper incisors are close to ine canine*, and the nostrils are
margined behind by grooves on the upper surface of the muzzle, or
by rudimentary nose^ leaves; the ears being generally
, very large and
p. 4. has three species.
to above; P, macroHs,
10.— Head
united. Of the six genera, Piecotus, with 1.
— one the long -eared European, bat referred
restricted to Nurth America* » distin-
guished by the great size of the glandular
prominences of the sides of the muzzle,
which meet in the centre above and behind
the nostnls, the third species being also
American* The second* Bttrbasktta, with
* }• P I* distinguished by its dentition
and by the outer margin of the car being
carried forwards abovp the mouth and in
front of the eye. includes the European __ „
«£ »& L USEES'- &*«£; *aSwKSSS-S
Vesperttltbneae. u represented by O. hemprichii, from North Africa
and the Himalaya, and an Arabian species. The next two genera are
distinguished by the presence of a rudimentary nose-teat: Nycto-
philia, t. \,p |, with three species from Australasia; and Anlrozous,
*• J. P- }> distinguished from all the other members of the subfamily
by having but two lower incisors, and from other Pltcoteae by the
separate ears; the two species inhabit California. # The sixth genus,
Ludirma. Li also represented by a Calif omian species.
The second group VciptrtiU^ttcat, »ith about thirteen genera,
includes the great majority of the species; and a large number of
these may be classed under Vtspertuia, which is divisible into sub-
genera, differing from one another in the number of premolars, and
often ranked as separate genera. One group is represented by
V {TtiitiQim) magrttanintf, a species remarkable for its extreme
southern range, Its relatives; being also South American. A second
group, with p. J, inrl tide* the British serotine, V.(Eptesicus) serotinus,
of Europe and northern Asia, and represented in North America by
ihs da*cly allied V. {EAfuavs. In the typical group, which includes
(he Old World V. tnurmus t one species, V. borealts, ranges to the
Arctic circle. The European noctule, V, iPterygisles) noclula, and
Lelsler's bat. K {!*-) lrijltri t represent another group; and the
common ptpUtrclfc, V, [Pipiitfrlfus') pipistrellus, yet another, with
* |. The only other group that need be mentioned is one represented
by the North American V+ {Lashrtycttris) noclivagans, with p. J.
The African L^phoies, the Chinese /a, and the Papuan Philelor are
allied genera > each with a single rpceir*. Chaliuotobus and Glau-
ran ycttris^ have the svime general dental character as Vespertilio,
but are distinguished by the presence of a lobe projecting from the
lower lip near the gape; the former, with p. f , is represented by five
Australasian species, one of which extends into New Zealand; while
[the latter, with p. J, is African. The species of Glauconycteris are
noticeable for their peculiarly thin membranes traversed by distinct
reticulations and parallel lines. Scotophilus, with 1, |, p. \, includes
several species, restricted to the tropical and subtropical regions of
I the eastern hemisphere,
though widely distri-
buted within thebe
j limits. These bats,
though approaching cer-
tain specie* of Vespertilio
in many points, are dis-
tinguished by the single _ . - w .
of" Jnlwspidate xi^lsl F|C 20.— Head of Cerivoula hardtcickei.
incisors separated by a ( From Dobson.)
wide space and placed
close to the canines, by the small transverse first lower premolar
crushed in between the canine and second premolar, and, generally,
by their conical, nearly naked, muzzles and thick leathery membranes.
S. temmincki is the commonest bat in India, and appears often before
j the sun has touched the horizon. 5. gigoi, from equatorial Africa, is
the largest species. Nycticejus, with the same dental formula as
Scotophilus, is distinguished by the first lower premolar not being
crushed in between the adjoining teeth, and the comparatively
greater size of the last upper molar. It includes only the North
American AT. humeralis (crepuscularis), a bat scarcely larger than the
pipistrelle. The hairy-membraned bats of the genus Lasrurus
lAtalapka), with 1. f p. J or J. are also limited to the New World,
1 and generally characterized by the interfcmoral membrane being
I more or less covered wiih hair and by the peculiar form of the tragus,
which is expanded above and abruptly curved inwards. In those
, species which haw two upper premolars the first is extremely small
; and internal to the tooth-row. The genus, which is divided into
1 Lasxurus proper and Dasyptcrus, is further characterized by the
presence of four teats in the female, and by the genual ^vaAacCvos*
CHIRU— CHITON
247
extinct form are distinctly cusped. Whether, however, the tail
» longer than in the existing Notoptcrts of Fiji and New Guinea,
ar whether the molars are more distinctly cusped than is the
case with the Solomon Island Pteropus (Pteralopex), is not
stated. Still, the (act that the Miocene fruit-bat does show
certain signs of approximation to the insectivorous (and more
generalized) section of the order is of interest. Of the Oligocene
forms, Pseudorhinolophus of Europe is apparently a member of
the Rkinolophidae, but the affinities of Alastor and Vespcrti-
liavus, which are likewise European, are more doubtful, although
the latter may be related to Taphozous. The North American
Vtspertilio (Vcsperugo) anemophilus and the European V.
spunsis and V. parisiensis are, on the other hand, members of
the Vapertilionidae, the last being apparently allied to the
terotine (V. serotinus).
Authorities. — The above article is based to some extent on the
article in the 9th edition of this work by G. E. Dobson, whose
British Museum " Catalogue " is, however, now obsolete. Professor
H. Winge's " Jordfundac oe nulevende Flagermus (Chiroptera),"
published in E. Mus. Lunai (Copenhagen, 1892), contains much
valuable information; and for Pteropodida* Dr P. Matschie's
MegackiropUra (Berlin. 1899), should be consulted. For the rest the
student must refer to numerous papers by G M. Allen, K. Andersen,
F. A. Jentink, G. S. Miller, T. S. Palmer, A. G. Rehn. O Thomas and
others, in various English and American zoological serials, all of
which are quoted in the volumes of the Zoological Record. ( R. L. *)
CHIRU, a graceful Tibetan antelope (Pantholops Hodgsoni),
Of which the bucks are armed with long, slender and heavily-
ridged horns of an altogether peculiar type, while the docs are
hornless. Possibly this handsome antelope may be the original
of the mythical unicorn, a single buck when seen in profile
looking exactly as if it had but one long straight horn. Although
far from uncommon, chlru are very wary, and consequently
difficult to approach. They are generally found in small parties,
although occasionally in herds. They inhabit the desolate
plateau of Tibet, at elevations of between 13,000 and 18,000 ft.,
and, like all Tibetan animals, have a firm thick coat, formed in
this instance of close woolly hair of a grey fawn-colour. The most
peculiar feature about the chiru is, however, its swollen, puffy
nose, which is probably connected with breathing a highly rarefied
atmosphere. A second antelope inhabiting the same country
as the chiru is the goa (Gaulla piciicaudata), a member of the
gazelle group characterized by the peculiar form of the horns
of the bucks and certain features of coloration, whereby it is
markedly distinguished from all its kindred save one or two
other central Asian species. The chiru, which belongs to the
typical or antilopine section of antelopes, is probably allied to
the saiga. (R. L.*)
CHIRUROEON, one whose profession it is to cure disease by
operating with the hand. The word in its original form is now
obsolete. It derives from the Mid. Eng. drurgien or sirurgien,
through the Fr. from the Gr. \Hpovpy6t, one who operates with
the hand (from x«P» hand, tpyov, work); from the early form
b derived the modern word " surgeon." " Chirurgeon " is a
i6lh century reversion to the Greek origin. (See Surgery.)
CHISEL (from the O Fr ciscl, modern ciseau. Late L&i. ciscllum,
a cutting tool, from cacdere, to cut), a sharp-edged tool for cutting
metal, wood or stone. There are numerous varieties of chisels
used in different trades; the carpenter's chisel is wooden-
handled with a straight edge, transverse to the axis and bevelled
on one side; stone masons' chisels are bevelled on both sides,
and others have oblique, concave or convex edges. A chisel with
a semicircular blade is called a " gouge." The tool is worked
either by hand'pressure or by blows from a hammer or mallet.
The "cold* chisel" has a steel edge, highly tempered to cut
unheated metal. (See Tool.)
CHISLEHURST, an urban district in the Sevenoaks parlia-
mentary division of Kent, England, 11} m. S.E. of London,
by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway Pop (1001) 74*9-
It is situated 300 ft. above sea-level, on a common of furie
and heather in the midst of picturesque country The church
of St Nicholas (Perpendicular with Early English portions, but
much restored) has a tomb of the Walsingham family, who had
a lease of the manor from Elizabeth, Sir Francis Walsingham,
the statesman, being born here in 1536. Another statesman
of the same age, Sir Nicholas Bacon, was born here in 1510.
Near the church is an ancient cockpit. The mortuary chapel
attached to the Roman Catholic church of St Mary was built
to receive the body of Napoleon III., who died at Camden
Place in 1873, and that of his son was brought hither in 1879.
Both were afterwards removed to the memorial chapel at
Farnborough in Hampshire. Camden Place was built by
William Camden, the antiquary, in 1609, and in 1765 gave
the title of Baron Camden to Lord Chancellor Pratt. The house
was the residence not only of Napoleon III., but of the empress
Eugenie and of the prince imperial, who is commemorated by a
memorial cross on Chislehurst Common. The house and grounds
are now occupied by a golf club. There are many villa residences
in the neighbourhood of Chislehurst.
CHISWICK, an urban district in the Ealing parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London, on the
Thames, 7} m- W. by S. of St Paul's cathedral. Pop (icoi)
29,809. The locality is largely residential, but there are breweries,
and the marine engineering works of Messrs Thornycroft on the
river. Chiswick House, a seat of the duke of Devonshire, is
surrounded by beautiful grounds; here died Fox (1806) and Can-
ning (1827). The gardens near belonged till 1903 to the Royal
Horticultural Society. The church of St Nicholas has ancient
portions, and in the churchyard is the tomb of William Hogarth
the painter, with commemorative lines by David Garrick.
Hogarth's house is close at hand. Chiswick Hall, no longer
extant, was formerly a country scat for the masters and sana-
torium for the scholars of Westminster school. Here in 181 1 the
Chiswick Press was founded by Charles Whittingham the elder,
an eminent printer (d. 1840).
CHITA, a town of east Siberia, capital of Transbaikalia, on
the Siberian railway, 500 m. E. of Irkutsk, on the Chita river,
half a mile above its confluence with the Ingoda. Pop. (1883)
12,600; (1897) 11,480. The Imperial Russian Geographical
Society has a museum here. Several of the palace revolution-
aries, known as Decembrists, were banished to this place from
St Petersburg in consequence of the conspiracy of December 1825.
The inhabitants support themselves by agriculture and by trade
in furs, cattle, hides and tallow bought from the Buriats, and
in manufactured wares imported from Russia and west Siberia.
CHITALDRUO, a district and town in the native state of
Mysore, India. The district has an area of 4022 sq. m. and a
population (1901) of 493,795- It is distinguished by its low
rainfall and arid soil. It lies within the valley of the Vedavati
or Hagari river, mostly dry in the hot season. Several parallel
chains of hills, reaching an extreme height of 3800 ft., cross the
district, otherwise it is a plain. The chief crops are cotton and
flax; the chief manufactures arc blankets and cotton cloth.
The west of the district is served by the Southern Mahratta
railway. The largest town in the district is Davangere (pop.
10,402). The town of Chitaldhug, which is the district head-
quarters (pop. 1901, 5792)1 was formerly a military cantonment,
but this was abandoned on account of its unhealthiness. It
has massive fortifications erected under Hyder Ali and Tippoo
Sahib towards the close of the i8lh century; and near it on the
west are remains of a city of the 2nd century ad.
CHITON, the name 1 given to fairly common littoral animals
of rather small size which belong to the phylum Mollusca, and,
in the possession of a radula in the buccal cavity, resemble more
especially the Gastropoda. Their most important characteristic
in comparison with the latter is that they are, both in external
and internal structure, bilaterally symmetrical. The dorsal
integument or mantle bears, not a simple shell, but eight cal-
careous plates in longitudinal scries articulating with each other.
The ventral surface forms a flat creeping " foot," and between
mantle and foot is a pallial groove in whkh there is on each side
a series of gills. Originally the Chitons were placed with the
limpets. Patella, in Cuvier's Cyclobranckia, an order of the
Gastropoda. In 1876 H. von Jhering demonstrated the affinities
■The Gr £(▼£» was a garment in the shape of a loose tunic,
varying at different periods, see Costume: Creek.
— t _•— -jr- in xily slit or notched to
?* - *«_ z =-• 2e «=&;-_i lid sharp, or may
7:= izisf^x r^ra :r" ea-± valve except the
ttli -fn zr. «ixcs cL>i suiural laminae
r 7^x3sz*r =_■== :f -J:e rr*:eiing valve.
l a js=ki sy -as iai cf =o=*Je covering the
-3 -
.U
.:. ::— '. =m. i*~e-~ =i ^s scvaes of Pcfrpbcophora showing
_. — ..- --^
esti: fe. mar.:le; pa'.
xr-i: '«.';* of mantle; pi.
F-j:-J slit; :*, palful
- . i
:.^s.
^. - *-*■.-„* a - r
=:a=. i=i tsZTzis ever the Ia"er from the
»•:«&. I: a* '-» iac pur. « :he sbeZ fcrr.ei in development.
7!e larreiri— a rr-xri rsc^.iei is Azzvisckticn, and absent
7:.- -sr=m:^ s ;^r.-ri
: z l=«t: » * .'r^ca. ri=_-
wi-jc* ccr:a3
^"l^i c£ tie
..rr r>- ±. secie^-gars.
c.--:i.z:=|r nerve-end
: _"^s. ccverei by a done
c: c-iicie, azd innervated
:'rcs the pallial ccrve-
• ccri*. They are tenred
w : *c -i • rrs
a^.i
->rd£j
g to
their sue,
r=i-ri«ihe:« ar.d rcega-
j:**:he:es. In the common
, socles os" Cx&w and many
• o:hcrs of the family
C*'-:*':iM the megalaes-
i :bc:es are developed into
|c'.ir.i:e eyea, the roost
• explicated of which have
| r«:-a. pigment within the
1 <> e. cornea and crystalline
| If =s vL-.tra-pigmental eyes)
I ,cj. :). The eyes are
I arranged in rows running
I d.afcnallv from the median
• ***?" hhfl^r^rl F JC - 4-Diapamsof thcaUmema 7
:o its lateral borders canaIofAmphineura(frorn Hubrechl ^
Tbere may be only one a. Neomenia and Proneomenia.
B. Chaetoderma.
C. Chiton.
o. Mouth,
o. Anus.
d, Alimentary canal.
/, Liver (digestive gland).
,-h row on either side, or
' r\: - y rows. In some species
, ;v :*:al number present
a rc,-:* to thousands.
S-.*i. *i^f.— The series of
~jl. *vcnd l he whole
*-*».. \ ;i« * :± » "^ :Ve'body in the pallial groove, or may be confined to the
^ . -.-.- cr.i. Each gill has the structure of a typical molluscan
*•■»► "5Sfc4«B>V.VU> XJVJSfli;
, fcr.*i«ting of an axis licaring an antenor and posterior
i-«nts or lamellae. The gills are thus mctamerically
there may be from four to eighty pairs, but there 15
CHITON
249
often n nu me ric al asymmetry on the two tides. The largest pair of
bcancbiae is placed immediately behind the renal openings and
c orrespo n ds to the single pair of other molluscs, the organs being
repeated anteriorly only (Mctamacrobranchs) or anteriorly and
posteriorly (Mesomacrobranchs). #
Intestine. — The digestive tube in the Polyplacophora, which arc
herbivorous, is longer than the body, and thrown into a few coils,
the anus being median and posterior. The mouth leads into the
buccal cavity, on the ventral side of which opens the radular cacctim
Each transverse row of teeth of the radula contains 17 teeth, one of
which is median, while the second and the fifth on each side are
enlarged. Two pairs of glands open into the buccal cavity, and at
the junction of pharynx and oesophagus is another pair called the
sugar glands. The stomach is surrounded by the liver or digestive
-Diagrams of the excretory and reproductive organs of
Amphjncuru (after Hubrcchl).
A.
Chaetoderma.
f.
External aperture of the
B.
Ncomcnia. ^
genital duct of Chiton.
C,
Proneomcnia.
r,
Rectum.
D,
Chiton.
a.
Clojcal or pallia) chamber
0.
Ovary.
of Ncomcniae and Chacto-
P.
Pericardium.
denna.
N.
Ncphridium.
Br,
Ctenidia (branchial
v.
External aperture of ncph-
ridium.
plumes).
gland, consisting of two lobes which arc symmetrical in the young
animals, but in the adult the right lobe is anterior and smaller.
Coclnm, Gonads and Excretory Organs. — As in other molluscs the
coclom is represented by a large pericardial cavity, situated above
the intestine posteriorly, and a generative sac which is single and
median and situated in front of the pericardium, except in the
Suttaloehiton hyadesi, where the gonads are in a similar petition. 1>ut
arc paired. The excretory organs arc coclomoducTs with .in internal
ciliated opening into the pericardium and an opening 10 the exit rinr ,
Both the openings arc close together, the external opening bving
iiist in front of the principal gill near the posterior end of the body*
The renal tube is doubled on itself, its middle jmrt where The bend
occurs being situated more or less anteriorly. The e*crrtfory surface
is incrcasedby numerous ramified caeca which extend beneath the
body wall laterally and ventrally, and open intu the tube (frg, 6),
The sexes arc distinct, and the ovary is frequently crccnifih in colour,
the testis red. The gonad is transversely wrinkled and lies between
the aorta and the intestine, extending from the pericardium to the
anterior end of the body. A simple gonaduct on each side arises
F—
from the gonad near its posterior end and passes first forwards,
then backwards, and lastly outwards to the external opening in the
pallial groove, anterior to the renal aperture. There may be from
one to nine gills between the genital and renal pores.
Heart and Vast ular System. — The heart is enclosed in the peri-
cardium, and consists of a median elongated ventricle and a pair of
lateral auricles, so that the structure somewhat resembles that in
the Lamellibranchiata. The openings of the auricles into the
ventricle vary in different forms. In many of the lower forms
(Lepidopteuridae, Mopalidae, Jschnochitonidae) the opening on each
side is single and anterior. In the true Chitontdae there arc generally
two apertures on each side, and in two species three or four, another
instance of the tendency to mctamcric repetition in the group.
The auricles are connected with one another posteriorly behind the
ventricle. The ventricle leads into a single anterior median aorta.
As in other mollus.es, the arteries do not extend far, but lead into
inter- visceral blood-spaces. The venous blood is conducted from
the tissues to a large sinus on either side above the pallial groove,
and from this sinus passes to the gHls by an afferent vessel tn each
gill on the internal or pedal margin of the axis. The oxygenated
blood is carried from each gill by an efferent vessel on the external
or pallial side of the axis to another longitudinal vessel which leads
to the auricle on each side.
Nervous System.— Then are no well-marked specialized ganglia
in the central nervous system, nerve-cells being distributed uni-
formly along the cords. There
are two pairs of longitudinal
cords, a pedal pair situated
ventrally and united beneath
the intestine by numerous
commissures, and a pallial
pair situated laterally and
continuous with one another
above the rectum (fig. 7).
The four cords arc all con-
nected anteriorly with the
cerebral commissure which
lies aliovc the buccal mass
anteriorly. From the points
where the cords meet the
cerebral commissure, arise on
each an anterior labial com-
missure and a stoma togastric
commissure. The latter bears
two ganglion swellings, the
buccal ganglia. The labial
commissure gives off a subra-
dular commissure which also
bears two ganglia, these being
in close relation to a special
sense-organ called the subra-
dular organ, an epithelial pro-
{"cction with nerve-endings,
ying in front of the radula
and probably gustatory in
function. One osphradium
or branchial olfactory organ
is usually present on each side,
on either side of the anus on
the inner wall of the mantle, After lblkf (ArUUea &*>/. UuiL), Vienna,
near the baae of the List gill. ,Ma -
In LrfiidoptetLndu* wotyhra- Flc> 6.— Dissection of the renal
djujn occurs at the base of organs ( nC phridia) of Chiton siculus.
#arh gill- The wnsc organs y p^
of ik shcU-vnkffl .have l\ Edge of the mantle not removed
already bran described. ; n t *L c (ront piin o{ thc 8pcc j mcn .
i>tielcpmtiti t — 1\K eggs ,.„., Oesophagus,
may be laid stnaratcly in- a r Anus.
vc^L-d by a chitnuMJs en- gRt Genital duct,
velope or ,t* in 1 J^chUon g0i External opening of thc same,
najptafeirrjinj ihry may form „ Stcm o( lhe ncphridium leading
firings conuimpifl nearly to no. its external aperture.
200,000 eggs, or the ova may nk Reflected portion of thc ncph-
bc retained in thc pallial ridial stem
groove and undergo develop- ng Finc cacca ^ lhc ncphridium,
merit there, as in Chiton petit w hich arc seen ramifying trans-
nnd UemiartUrum selulosum. vcrscly over thc whole inner
One species m Catlistochiton 8urfoce ^ tne ^1 muscil |ar
vim par us is viviparous and its mass,
ova develop without a larval
stage in the maternal oviduct. Segmentation is total and at first
regular, and is followed by invagination, the blastopore passing to the
position of the future mouth. By thc development of a ciliated ring
just in front of thc mouth thc embryo becomes a trochosphcrc. In
thc centre of the pra coral lobe is a tuft of cilia. Just behind the
ciliated ring is a pair of larval eves which disappear in the adult;
these correspond to thc cephalic eyes of Lamcllibranchs. An
ectodemic invagination forms a targe mucous gland on thc foot,
which is more or less atrophied in adult life. The ^cntvvJa. wq&KvVv*.
by proliferation of thc awveucK NiaJX <A \>v* vtrvcax&sttfc.. "Vtct ^<2^.-
CHITRAL
251
Strophomtnim, where the openings are separate. Usually each tube 1
■provided with caecal appendage* on its proximal portion, and these
sirve as vcskulac semi rule*, while the distal portion is enlarged
ud glandular and secretes the egg-shell.
Heart and Vauular System. — There is a heart in the pericardium |
iunsisting of a median ventricle attached, except in Momenta, to 1
Iks dorsal wall of the pericardium, and in Neomenxa a pair of auricular I
ducts returning blood from the gills to the ventricle. The aorta is '
Ml independent as in Chitons, but is a sinus like the other channel* 1
S iho circulation. A single median ventral sinus passes backwards
§0 the gills or cloaca. The blood is coloured red by haemoglobin in
jbod corpuscles.
S Nt sjo us System. — Ganglionic enlargements are more conspicuous
Ifraa in the Chitons. In front of the buccal mass is a median cere-
fcsl ganglion. From this pass off two pairs of cords, the pleural
nd pedal, in Proneomenta separate from their origin, in Neomenia
Baited at first and diverging at a pleural ganglion. The pedal cords
interiorly form a pair of pedal ganglia united by a thick commissure.
The •npra-rectal commissure may be present and bear an ovoid
finsKoa: or may be wanting. With regard to sense organs the
'Lelial papillae of the mantle have been mentioned. There is
i ia some genera a median retractile sensory papilla en the dono I
tenor surface above the rectum, not covered by the euiicJe.
tawato pm enl has only been described in Myzomtma btmyuUn>ii, I
G. Pruvot. It closely resembles in the early suicc* 1 lint ol
tons. The external surface of the trochosphcre is farmed of a
liber of ciliated test<clh>. The ectodcim behind the ciliated ring
elope spimles, and the post-oral region of the larva elongates. '
, er the ciliated ring or velum disappears and seven indihratcd
'calcareous plates, made up of flattened spicules, are formed on the
dorsal surface. This appears to indicate that the NcomcrkiomorpbA
are descended from ChUon-likc ancestors, and that Uiey have km
their shell valves.
Classification of the Neomfniomorpha.— Fam. 1. ljebidomeniidae. \
Slender, tapering behind, with subventral cloacaf orifice; thin I
cuticle without papillae; flattened sjmcuIcs; no gills. Lepido-
menta. Ismenia, fekthyodes, Stylomcnia, Doudcrsia, Nematomenia,
Hyzomevia, M. banyulensis, Mediterranean and D> mouth.
Fam. a. Neomeniidae'. Short, truncate in front and behind;-
cloaca I orifice transverse; gills present; rather thin cuticle;
no radula. Neomenia (A', car mala, N. Atlantic and N. and
N.W. Scotland). Ilemimcnia.
Fam. 3. Proneomeniidae. Elongated, cylindrical, rounded at both
ends; thick cuticle with acicular spicules; radula polystichous
Proneomenta, Amphimenia, Echinomenia, Rho-
heniae, Mediterranean and Plymouth),
itrophomenia.
Fam. 4. Parameniidae. Short and truncated in front; thick
cuticle, often without papillae; gills and radula present.
Paramenia, Macellomenia, Pararhopalia, Dinomenia, Cyclo-
mania, Pro paramenia, Uncimenia, Kruppomenia.
Suborder II. Chaetodermomornia.— Aplacophora without
distinct ventral groove, with single median unisexual gonad, with
differentiated hepatic sac,
and with cloacaf chamber
furnished with two bipec-
tinate gills. There arc only
two genera in this sub-
order: Chaetoderma, and
FlC. 10. — Chaetoderma nitidulum, Limijossor from Alaska.
Loven (after Graff). The cephalic The characters therefore
enlargement is to the left, the anal arc very uniform. The body
chamber (reduced pallial chamber, con- is worm-like and cylindn-
taining the concealed pair of ctcnidia) cat, the posterior half a
to the right. little thicker than the an-
terior; the posterior ex-
tremity forms the enlarged funnel-like branchial or cloacal chamber.
The anterior extremity is also somewhat enlarged. The whole
surface is uniformly covered with short compressed calcareous spicula
embedded in the cuticle.
Branchiae. — The single pair of branchiae arc placed sym-
metrically right and left of the anus, and each has the structure
of a ctenidium bearing a row of lamellae on each side as in the
Polyplacophora.
Intestine. — The mouth is anterior, terminal and cresccntic, and
beneath it is a rounded ventral shield. On the floor of the pharynx
or buccal mass is a rudimentary radula, which in many species
consists of a single large tooth, bearing two small teeth or a row of
teeth. In other species the radula is more of the usual type agist-
ing of several transverse rows of two or three teeth each. Two
pairs of salivary giands open into the buccal cavity. The digestive
tube is straight and simple, wider in its anterior part, into which
opens the duct of the hepatic caecum (fig. 4, B). The latter extends
backwards on the ventral side of the intestine.
Coelom. Gonads and Excretory Organs. — These arc closely similar
in their relations to those of the Neomcniomorpha. The chief
difference is that the gonad or generative portion of the coelom is
tingle and median, opening into the pericardium by a single posterior
aperture. The excretory organs or coelomoducts arise from the
posterior corners of the pericardium, run forwards and then back-
or wanting. Proneomen
palomenia (R. aglaophen
ffotomenia, Pruvotia, Stro:
wards to open by separate apertures lateral to the gills (fig. 5, A).
There are no accessory generative organs.
The heart and vascular system arc similar to those of the Nco-
meniomorpha, the only important differences being that the ventricle
is nearly free in the pericardial cavity, and that the latter is traversed
by the retractor muscles of the gills.
Nervous System. — There arc two closely connected cerebral ganglia,
from which arise the usual two pairs of nerve cords. Pallia I and
pedal on each side arc closer together than in the other groups, and
posteriorly they unite into a supra-rectal cord provided with a
median ganglionic enlargement (fig. 7, C). A small stomatogastric
commissure bearing two small ganglia arises from the cerebral
ganglia and surrounds the oesophagus.
The development is at present entirely unknown.
General Remarks on the A mphineura.
The most important theoretical question concerning the
A mphineura is how far do they represent the original condition
of the ancestral mollusc? That is to say, we have to inquire
which of their structural features is primitive and which modified.
Their bilateral symmetry is obviously to be regarded as primitive,
and the nervous system shows an original condition from which
that of the asymmetrical twisted Gastropods can be derived.
But in many other features both external and internal the three
principal divisions differ so much from one another that we have
to consider in the case of each organ-system which condition
is the more primitive. According to Paul Pelsenecr the Poly-
placophora are the most archaic, the Aplacophora being
specialized in (1) the great reduction of the foot, (3) the dis-
appearance of the shell (Crypioplax among the Polyplacophora
showing both reductions in progress), (3) the disappearance of
the radula. But it is a widely recognized principle of morphology
that a much modified animal is by no means modified to the
same degree in all its organs. A form which is primitive on the
whole may show a more advanced stage of evolution in some
pailicular system of organs than another animal which is on the
whole more highly developed and specialized. Thus the inde-
pendent metamerism of certain organs in the Chitons is not
primitive but acquired within the group: e.g. the shell valves
and the ctenidia. And although embryology seems to prove
that the Ncomcniomorphs arc derived from forms with a scries
of shell-valves, nevertheless it seems probable that the calcareous
spicules which alone arc present in adult Aplacophora preceded
the solid shell in evolution.
It is held by some morphologists that the mollusc body is
unsegmentcd, and therefore is to be compared to a single segment
of a Chaetopod or Arthropod. In this case there should be only
one pair of coelomoducts in the adult, the pair of true nrphridia
which should also occur being represented by the larval nephridia.
There should also be only a single coelom, or a pair of lateral
coelomic cavities. On this view then the Aplacophora arc more
primitive than the Polyplacophora in the relations of coelom,
gonad and coelomoducts; and the genital ducts of the Chitons
have arisen cither by mctamcric repetition within the group,
or by the gradual loss of an original connexion between the
generative sac and the renal tube, as in Lamcllibranchs and
Gastropods, the generative sac acquiring a separate duct and
opening to the exterior on each side.
LjtirAti;r£,— Ak Sedgwick* " On certain Points in the Anatomy
of Chiton," Ptgc. R. Six. Land, xxxiii., 1881; J. Blum rich, "Dai
Integument der Chitonrn/' Zeitsch. f. tbiu. Zoo*. Hi, 1891; A r C
H addon, " Report on the Folyplacftphora," Challenger Reports, Z00L
pi: \\u\., tftti6; H. N. MoM.-1cy, " On the presence of Eyes in the
Shells of certain Chiionidae, and on the structure of these Organs,**
QyntL Jonrn. Mir. Sti. new ser, xjcv., 1685; A- A* W, Hubrvcht,
pruflwtnema Sluireri," Nied. Areh. f. Zooi. Suppl, (.. iflSi; A.
Kowaltwtky and K F. Marion, " Contr. A rhistoiredesSotenoEJsircj
ou Aplactjpnores*" Ann. Mut. Ma.rseilU i Zoot. iii. T 1887: A. Kowal-
cw'.ky, "Sur f/c genre Chaetoderma/' Arch, dm em/, expAr. (3) in.,
J'j'jt; P. Pelsenecr, " Mdluwri." Treatise on Zoology^ edited by
E. Ray Lankcster, pt + v., 1906; E. Ray Lankcstcr, Mollusca/ 1
in the 91b ed. of this Encyclopaedia, to which this article in much
indebted, Q- T. C)
1 CHITRAL, a native state in the North-West Frontier Province
of India. The state of Chitral (sec also Hindu Kusn) is some-
what larger than Wales, and supports a population of about
35,000 rough, hardy hillmcn. Previous estimates put the number
far higher, but as the Mehtar assesses his fighting strength. *&.
AJCNG— CHIL'SI
K 5
. % s."
<v .■ .. V I .•■AMI
■ > ^ . i • :.-n :n
.\ ,. t- -. :*..\:.-.;t
, • *. V k-i.iV
s " ., " . . -.tithing
■• *,* wx.^. where
* ' " ' '. X v • -i >i .or buried
> v. '» "<■■ -ivri^ir.al
% ■ . x .v. „ v vd in the
sX w ■».■■: ". »ho form
* ■ '.. v--< >n- -V„ allot Konas
. ■. v Av.A %-aMcaiuI
, . — ,- i:,::i the north.
.■ ■ •, ,'t the conquered
» »'. ».^-.-fl\ famous for a
» -\ v»«i 'i 10 complica-
* ■. v. •■'-■ \ «'• Aluliani'.l.in
. »■ .1 ■i!'iti»u"« projects
v! 1 1 tfu'li.nid<ol Slier
.. .sited I'V the amir at
, „ i', ,-muK'tril, and a small
. '. \ • n . ■*»»» i« I"'* fl,rt - A large
. .v l "hit i. d river valley to
, . •-,. k.ihi-. in i-lnvk during (he
";, i, »,»ii«idi-red prolwhle that
. . ,'v ■ i»»:«*. "1 lie |ni!«iiion of the
,. i.,!.Ni deorge Robertson) and
* „i ».n 1 17 were non-combatant*)
. „ .' ..,,. w»ie organized for the relief.
„ >i« ,s*» men. who advanced by way
lUl .i,i.{ Pir. Throther, which was
. »» v .-I.Miel Kellv. commanding the
.1 , , ( ,.;uinand of all the troops in the
. . v ls y» .ill tt>ld. with two guns, and in-
, \\ • »m |vihs and Mastuj. This force
. ,.«,...; i.» the deep snow on the pas*
■ . , , » 1' '\ .liu.itnl the C'hitrali forrc opposed
■ » .: x \..i i'l »■'» ih»" -'*'th «»' April, the siege having begun
' , , ., \| (ll !, Mm Al/ul. «ho had joined L'mra Khan.
. , , 1 , „i„ill % i hiiial wa>restorvd lo Nritish political
. 4 .« . . ».ii.» i«l k.i-limir. During Lord Curzon s vicc-
\. ■,,'., it .'. ', 1 .«sip«wi'n*i on. entiated at the extreme southern
'l . .... % » iloii.u.v at K1L1 Ihosh and the force was reduced.
*a V iV o...i. * ».ati-d and .ill outlying ^ts were handed over to
W«,...sl 1..1 llu- PUHK.H- lioin the I hitralisthcmielycs. The
u w •« ^ai *%w*L. ».«uviiirJt«l at Chakdara and reduced
a >aw*S Ihe nwlii.11. M.uia-ul-Mulk. who was installed in
^.^-•Sm ***, \Uited the I Vlhi dmhar in January 100 J.
^. nc ^S KoU>U»hi. I'kitnil HK«j8). (T. H. !!.•)
' ' _ ft tcftporl of Brilish India, giving its name
■e :^ >.^« iKx-bions of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
'-* — ^m -itjri bank of the Karnapliuli river, about
Jl » ike terminus of the Assam-Bengal
"* » ^ww % about sq. m.; pop. (1001)
"*^ ^*H chiefly of jute, other
- - - ^»v There Is also a large
_^**. rice, spices, sugar
•^jjhas become the
^•1 And Assam.
~ j. r»y"" -" *" J J- * r 1. 1 c^ci**:tuaud at the north-cast comer
* -.- • -.-; v.-r* -.r+ a *:r-.p j: c-.\i»£ and hill* between the ^.-a
-. •_ - . .; .-* .1 b_-r--i- l:s juj it 2492 »q. m. In 1901 the
. . .-*;.. .-.s: ^50. »hc»inj an zrvreaac of 5*0 in the decade.
. . • - .c.-:--: far^t* a*c wishin the north-eastern portion, the
. ^-.,< - x -.- :~e »a.red Siuikur.d. 1 IS5 ft. high. The principal
• ". -. j-; ::v Karurh-'i. en which Ch;:ta?ong town is Mtuated,
-.. j;r »; S s;j ::i----i jvp* a* far a* C'r.jttacjng p.?rt. and b>- large
_■« 'c ."vm:* .-■* 1 c-«?-»:ci.fiMc di^ance higher up. and the Hakta
±-jL : v S.: -z-- »"* >" ,: *' ^^ A ' 9 ° navigabU* bv large boats. The uild
. ■ rj .* a^ : «>•.""». elephant*, rhinoceros, leopards and deer. 1 he
-. . , .-.■.- \» -..*.;*«. !y cool, owing to the sea breeze which pre\ails
. . ■ -^ : v i.-* . ^t for the same reason, the atmosphere is very
'-.■,,. »-.. * *-.m\\ dews at night and fogs. Chittagong was ceded to
•v; ;j-t ■•-■■j Company by Nawab Mir Kasim in 1760. The
. . . x ^. p.v'.ion of the district is traversed bv the Assam-Bengal
1 » ■ -% . 1\j cultivation is moderately successful.
'. "v.- Ciiirr.xcnsG I lux Tracts formed an independent district
■..-. i>oo to I*-) 1 . were then reduced to the status of a sub-division,
n_: were attain created a district in 1900. They occupy the ranges
evtacen ChiitJgnng proper and the south Lusrui hills. The area
cvxer* 5138 **\. m. In 1901 the population was 124,702, showing an
ncrej«e « lb^o in the decade. The inhabitant*, who are either
Arakancsc or nlKuiginal trills, arc almost all Buddhists. The head-
quarters are at Kangamati, which was wrecked by the cyclone of
iViohcr !*>;.
Tl ie Pivimos or Chittagong lies at the north-east corner of the
Rav of Bengal, extending northward along the left bank of the
Meghna. It consists of the districts of Chittagong, the Hill Tract*,
NoaLluli and Tippcra. Its area covers 1 1,773 *1- nl - : the population
in 1901 was4.737.73*-
CHITTUR. a town of British India, in the North Arcot district
of Madras, with a station on the South Indian railway. Top.
(iqoi) 10,803. Formerly a military cantonment, it is now only
the civil headquarters of the district. It has an English church,
mis>ion chapel, and Roman Catholic chapel, a high school,
and several literary institutes.
CHITTY. SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM ( j 8:8-1899), English judge,
was born in London. He was the second son of Thomas Chilly
(himself son and brother of well-known lawyers), a celebrated
special pleader and writer of legal text-books, in whose pupil-
room many distinguished lawyers began their legal education.
Joseph Chitty was educated at Eton and Balliol, Oxford, gaining
a first-class in Liter af II umaniorcs in 1851, and being afterwards
elected to a fellowship at Exeter College. His principal distinc-
tions during his school and college career had been earned in
athletics, and he came to London as a man who had stroked
the Oxford boat and captained ihc Oxford cricket eleven, lie
became a member of Lincoln's Inn in 1851, was called to the
bar in 1S56, and made a queen's counsel in 1S74, electing to
practise as such in the court in which Sir George Jesscl, master
of the rolls, presided. Chitty was highly successful in his
method of dealing with a very masterful if exceedingly able
judge, and soon his practice became very large. In 1SS0 he
entered the house of commons as liberal member for Oxford
(city). His parliamentary career was short, for in 18S1 the
Judicature Act required that the master of the rolls should cease
to sit regularly- as a judge of first instance, and Chitty was selected
to fill the vacancy thus created in the chancery division. Sir
Joseph Chitty was for sixteen years a popular judge, in the best
meaning of the phrase, being noted for his courtesy, geniality,
patience and scrupulous fairness, as well as for his legal attain-
ments, and being much respected and liked by those practising
before him, in spite of a habit of interrupting counsel, possibly
acquired through the example of Sir George Jesscl. In 1897,
on the retirement of Sir Edward Kay, L.J., he was. promoted
to the court of appeal. There he more than sustained— in fact,
he appreciably increased— his reputation as a lawyer and a
judge, proving himself lo possess considerable knowledge of the
common law as well as of equity. He died in London on the
15th of February 1809. He married in 1858 Clan Jessie,
daughter of Chief Baron Pollock, and left children who could
thus claim descent from two of the best-known English legal
families of the 19th century.
Sec E. Manson, Builders of our Law (1904).
CHIUSI (anc. Ciusium), a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the
province of Siena, 55 m. S.E. by rail from the town of Siena,
and :6 m. N.N AV. of Orvicto. Pop. (1901) 601 x. It is situated
CHIVALRY— CHLORAL
253
m a hfll 1305 ft. above tea-level, and b surrounded by medieval
vails, in which, in places, fragments of the Etruscan wall are
inco r porated. The cathedral of S. Mustiola is a basilica with a
aave and two aisles, with eighteen columns of different kinds
of marble, from ancient buildings. It has been restored and
decorated with frescoes in modern times. The campanile belongs
to the 13th century. The place was devastated by malaria in
the middle ages, and did not recover until the Chiana valley was
drained in the x8th century. For the catacombs see Clusiuu.
CHIVALRY (O. Fr. chevalerie, from Late Lat. cabaUerius),
the knightly class of feudal times, possessing its own code of
rules, moral and social (see Knighthood and Chivalry). The
primary sense in the middle ages is " knights " or " fully armed
and mounted fighting men." Thence the term came to mean
that gallantry in battle and high sense of honour in general
expected of knights. Thus " to do chivalry " was a medieval
phrase for " to act the knight.' 1 Lastly, the word came to be
used in its present very general sense of " courtesy." In English
law chivalry meant the tenure of land by knights' service. It
was a service due to the crown, usually forty days' military
attendance annually. The Court of Chivalry was a court in-
stituted by Edward III., of which the lord high constable and
earl marshal of England were joint judges. When both sat the
court had summary criminal jurisdiction as regards all offences
committed by knights, and generally as to military matters.
When the earl marshal alone presided, it was a court of honour
deciding as to precedence, coats of arms, &c. This court sat
for the last time in 1737. The heraldic side of its duties arc
now vested in the earl marshal as head of the Heralds' College.
CHIVASSO, a town and episcopal sec of Piedmont, Italy, in
the province of Turin, 18 m. N.E. by rail from the town of Turin,
600 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1001) 4x69 (town), 0S04 (com-
mune). It is situated on the left bank of the Po, near the influx
of the Oreo. The cathedral is of the 15th century with a fine
facade ornamented with statues in tcrra-cotta. It was an
important fortress in the middle ages, and until 1804, when the
French dismantled it. One tower only of the old castle of the
marquesses of Monferrato, who possessed the town from 1164
to 1435, remains. Chivasso is on the main line from Turin to
Milan, and is the junction of branches for Aosta and Casale
Monferrato.
CHIVE {Allium Schocno pros urn), a hardy perennial plant,
with small narrow bulbs tufted on short root-stocks and long
cylindrical hollow leaves. It is found in the north of England
and in Cornwall, and growing in rocky pastures throughout
temperate and northern Europe and Asiatic Russia, and also
in the mountain districts of southern Europe. It is cultivated
for the sake of its leaves, which arc used in salads and soups as
a substitute for young onions. It will grow in any good soil,
and is propagated by dividing the roots into small clumps in
spring or autumn; these arc planted from 8 to 12 in. apart and
soon form large tufts. The leaves should be cut frequently so
as to obtain them tender and succulent.
CHLOPICKI. GREGORZ JOZEF (1772-1854), Polish general,
was born in March 1772 in Podolia. He was educated at the
school of the Basilians at Szarogrod, from which In 1787 he ran
away in order to enlist as a volunteer in the Polish army. He
was present at all the engagements fought during 1792-1794,
especially distinguishing himself at the battle of Raclawice,
when he was General Rymkicwicz's adjutant. On the formation
of the Italian legion he joined the second battalion as major,
and was publicly complimented by General Oudinot for his
extraordinary valour at the storming of Peschicra, He also
distinguished himself at the battles of Modena, Busano, Casa-
bianca and Ponto. In 1807 be commanded the first Vistulan
regiment, and rendered good service at the battles of Eylau and
Friedland. In Spain he obtained the legion of honour and the
rank of a French baron for his heroism at the battle of Epila
and the storming of Saragossa, and in 1809 was promoted to be
general of brigade. In 1812 he accompanied the Grande Annie
to Russia, was seriously wounded at Smolensk, and on the
reconstruction of the Polish army in 18x3 was made a general
of division. On his return to Poland in 18x4, he entered the
Russian army with the rank of a general officer, but a personal
insult from the grand duke Constantine resulted in his retiring
into private life. He held aloof at first from the Polish national
rising of 1830, but at the general request of his countrymen
accepted the dictatorship on the 5th of December 1830; on the
23rd of January 1831, however, he resigned in order to fight as
a common soldier. At Wavre (Feb. 19) and at Grochow (Feb.
20) he displayed all his old bravery, but was so seriously
•wounded at the battle of Olszyna that he had to be conveyed to
Cracow, near which city he lived in complete retirement till his
death in 1854.
See Jozcf Macrynski. Life and Death of Joseph Chlopichi (Pol.)
(Cracow, 1858); Ignacy Pradzynski, The Four Last Polish Com-
manders (Pol.) (Poscn, 1865).
CHLORAL,orT£icnLORACETALDEifYDE,CCl4CHO,asubstance
discovered by J. von Licbig in 1832 (Ann., 1832, 1, p. 189) and
further studied by J. B. A. Dumas and Stacdelcr. It is a heavy,
oily and colourless liquid, of specific gravity 1-541 at o° C, and
boiling-point 97-7° C. It has a greasy, somewhat bitter taste,
and gives off a vapour at ordinary temperature which has a
pungent odour and an irritating effect on the eyes. The word
chloral is derived from the first syllables of chlorine and alcohol,
the names of the substances employed for its preparation.
Chloral is soluble in alcohol and ether, in less than its own
weight of water, and in four times its weight of chloroform; it
absorbs chlorine, and dissolves bromine, iodine, phosphorus and
sulphur. Chloral deliquesces in the air, and is converted by
water into a hydrate, with evolution of heat; it combines with
alcohols and mcrcaptans. An ammoniacal solution of silver
nitrate is reduced by chloral; and nascent hydrogen converts
it into aldehyde. By means of phosphorus pcntachloride,
chlorine can be substituted for the oxygen of chloral, the
body CClaCCUI being produced; an analogous compound,
CClrCfCcHOiH, is obtained by treating chloral with benzene
and sulphuric acid. With an alkali, chloral gives chloroform
(q.v.) and a formate; oxidizing agents give trichloracetic acid,
CCljCO (OH). When kept for some days, as also when placed in
contact with sulphuric acid or a very small quantity of water,
chloral undergoes spontaneous change into the polymcride
tnctachlorcl (C-CUOIOj, a white porcellaneous body, slowly
volatile in the air, and reconverted into chloral without melting
at 180 C. Chloral unites directly with hydrocyanic acid to
form /3-trichloracctonitrilc,CCU-CH(OH)CN,and with hydroxyl-
aminc it forms chlorglyoxime, CsIIjClNjO*.
Chloral is prepared by passing dry chlorine into absolute
alcohol; the latter must be cooled at first, but towards the end
of the operation has to be heated nearly to boiling. The alcohol
is converted finally into a syrupy fluid, from which chloral is
procured by treatment with sulphuric acid (sec P. Fritsch, Ann.,
1S94, pp. 279, 288). The crude chloral is distilled over lime,
and is purified by further treatment with sulphuric acid, and by
redistillation. A mixture of starch or sugar with manganese
peroxide and hydrochloric acid may be employed instead of
alcohol and chlorine for the manufacture of chloral (A. Stacdelcr,
Ann. Ch. Pharm., 1847, 61, p. xoi). An isomer of chloral,
parachloralide, is made by passing excess of dry chlorine into
absolute methyl alcohol.
Chloral hydrate, CClj-CH(OH)i, forms oblique, often very short,
1 hombic prisms. The crystals arc perfectly transparent, only slightly
odorous, free from powder, and dry to the touch, and do not become
decolorized by sulphurous acid, and so one must assume that the
water present is combined in the molecular condition (V. Meyer,
Bcr., 1880. 13, p. 2343). Chloral may be estimated by distilling the
hydrate with milk oriimc and measuring the volume of chloroform
produced (C. H. Wood, Pharm. Journ., (3) 1, p. 703), or by hydrolysis
with a known volume of standard alkali and back titration with
standard acid (V. Meyer. Ber., 1873, 6, p. 600). Chloral hydrate
has the property of checking the decomposition of a great number
CHLORINE
255
Ahfc, France), the Weldon-Pechiney process was worked out. The
residual magnesium chloride of the ammonia-soda process is eva-
porated untu it ceases to give off hydrochloric acid, and is then mixed
with more magnesia, the magnesium oxychloride formed is broken
into small pieces and heated in a current of air, when it gives up its
chlorine, partly in the uncombincd condition and partly in the form
of hydrochloric acid, and leaves a residue of magnesia, which can
•sain be utilized for the decomposition of more ammonium chloride
(W. Wcldon, Journ. of Soc. of Chem. Industry, 1884, p. 387). Greater
(access attended the efforts of Ludwig Mono, of the firm of Brunncr,
Mend & Co. In this process the ammonium chloride is volatilized
io large iron retorts lined with Doulton tiles, and then led into large
spright wrought-iron cylinders lined with fire-bricks. These cylinders
are filled with pills, made of a mixture of magnesia, potassium
chloride and fireclay, the object of the potassium chloride being to
prevent any formation of hydrochloric acid, which might occur if
the magnesia was not perfectly dry. At 300* C. the ammonium
chloride is decomposed by the magnesia, with the formation of
■agnesiam chloride and ammonia. The mixture is now heated to
600 C. in a current of hot dry gas, containing no free oxygen (the
gas from the carbonating plant being used), and then a current of air
at the same temperature is passed in. Decomposition takes place
and the issuing gas contains 18-20% of chlorine. This percentage
drops gradually, and when it is reduced to about 3 % the temperature
of the apparatus is lowered, by the admission of air. to about 350* C,
and the air stream containing the small percentage of chlorine is
kd off to a second cylinder of pills, which have just been treated
with ammonium chloride vapour and are ready for the hot air
With four cylinders the process is continuous (L. Mond,
British Assoc. Reports, 1896, p. 73J).
More recently, owing to the production of caustic soda by electro-
lytic methods, much chlorine has consequently been produced in
the same manner (see Alkali Manufacture).
Chlorine is a gas of a greenish-yellow colour, and possesses
a characteristic unpleasant and suffocating smell. It can be
liquefied at -34 C. under atmospheric pressure, and at — 102 C.
It solidifies and crystallizes. Its specific heat at constant pressure
k 0*1155, and at constant volume 008731 (A. Strcckcr, WicJ.
Amu., 1877 [2], 13, p. 20) ; and its refractive index 1 000772, whilst
in the liquid condition the refractive index is 1-367. The density
113-4885 (air » 1) (TrcadweU and Christie, Zeii. anorg. Chcm., 1005,
47, p. 446). Its critical temperature is 146° C. Liquid and solid
chlorine are both yellow in colour. The gas must be collected
either by downward displacement, since it is soluble in water and
also attacks mercury; or over a saturated salt solution, in which
U is only slightly soluble. At ordinary temperatures it unites
directly with many other elements; thus with hydrogen, com-
bination takes place in direct sunlight with explosive violence;
arsenic, antimony, thin copper foil and phosphorus take fire in an
atmosphere of chlorine, forming the corresponding chlorides.
Many compounds containing hydrogen arc readily decomposed
by the gas; for example, a piece of paper dipped in turpentine
inflames in an atmosphere of chlorine, producing hydrochloric
add and a copious deposit of soot; a lighted taper burns in
chlorine with a dull smoky flame. The solution of chlorine in
water, when freslily prepared, possesses a yellow colour, but on
keeping becomes colourless, on account of its decomposition into
hydrochloric acid and oxygen. It is on this property that its
bleaching and disinfecting power depends (sec Bleaching).
Water saturated with chlorine at o° C. deposits crystals of a
hydrate Clr8HjO, which is readily decomposed at a higher
temperature into its constituents. Chlorine hydrate has an
historical importance, as by scaling it up in a bent tube, and
heating the end containing the hydrate, whilst the other limb of
the tube was enclosed in a freezing mixture, M. Faraday was first
able to obtain liquid chlorine.
Chlorine is used commercially for the extraction of gold (q.v.) and
for the manufacture of " bleaching powder " and of chlorates.
U -il v> finds an extensive use in organic chemistry as a substituting
jxidizing agent, as well as for the preparation of addition com-
nds. For purposes of substitution, t he tree clement as a rule only
->rks slowly on sat united compounds, but the reaction may be
.federated by the action of sunlight or on warming, or by using a
" carrier." In these latter cases the reaction may proceed in different
directions; thus, with the aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorine in the
cold or in the presence of a carrier substitutes in the Itcnzcne nucleus,
but in the prcj^ncc of sunlight or on warming, substitution takes
place in the side chain. Iodine, antimony trichloride, molylxlcmim
pentachtoride, ferric chloride, ferric oxide, antimony, tin, stannic
oxide and ferrous sulphate have all been used as chlorine carrier*.
The atomic weight of chlorine was determined by J. Berzclius
and by F. Penny (Phil. Trans., 1830, 13). I. S. Stas, from the
synthesis of silver chloride, obtained the value 35*457 (0=»i6),
and C. Marignac found the value 34-462. More recent determinations
arc: H. B. Dixon and E. C. Edgar (Phil. Trans., 1905); T. W.
Richards and G. Jones (Abst. J.C.S., 1907); W. A. Noycs and H. C.
Weber (ibid., 1908), and Edgar (ibid., 1908).
Hydrochloric Acid.— Chlorine combines with hydrogen to
form hydrochloric acid, IIC1, the only known compound of
these two elements. The acid itself was first obtained by J. R.
Glauber in about 1648, but J. Priestley in 1772 was the first to
isolate it in the gaseous condition, and Sir H. Davy in 18 10
showed that it contained hydrogen and chlorine only, as up to
that time it was considered to contain oxygen. It may be pre-
pared by the direct union of its constituents (sec Burgess and
Chapman, J.CS., 1906, 89, p. 1399), but on the large scale
and also for the preparation of small quantities it is made by
the decomposition of salt by means of concentrated sulphuric
acid, NaCI+H 2 S04 = NaHSO«+HCl. It is chiefly obtained as a
by-product in the manufacture of soda-ash by the Leblanc
process (see Alkali Manufacture). The commercial acid is
usually yellow in colour and contains many impurities, such as
traces of arsenic, sulphuric acid, chlorine, ferric chloride and
sulphurous acid; but these do not interfere with its application
to the preparation of bleaching powder, in which it is chiclly
consumed. Without further purification it is also used for
" souring " in bleaching, and in tin and lead soldering.
It i* a colourless gas, which can be condensed by cold and pressure
to a liquid boiling at - 83-7° C.and can also be solidified, the solid
melting at - 112-5° C. (K. Olszewski). Its critical temperature is
52-3° C., and its critical pressure is 86 atmos. The gas fumes strongly
in moist air, and it is rapidly dissolved by water, one volume of
water at o° C. absorbing .503 volumes of the gas. The gas does not
obey Henry's law, that is, its solubility in water is not proportional
to its pressure. It is one of the " strong " acids, being ionized to the
extent of about 91*4% in dcxi normal solution. The strongest
aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid at 15° C. contains 429% of
the acid, and has a specific gravity of 1*212. Perfectly dry hydro-
chloric acid gas has no action on metals, but in aqueous solution it
dissolves many of them with evolution of hydrogen and formation
of chlorides.
The salts of hydrochloric acid, known as chlorides, can, in most
cases, be prepared by dissolving cither the metal, its^ hydroxide,
oxide, or carlx>nate in the acid ; or by heating the metal in a current
of chlorine, or by precipitation. The majority of the metallic chlorides
arc solids (stannic chloride, titanic chloride and antimony penta-
chtoride arc liquids) which readily volatilize on heating. Many are
readily soluble in water, the chief exceptions being silver chloride,
mercurous chloride, cuprous chloride and palladious chloride which
arc insoluble in water, and thallous chloride and lead chloride which
are only slightly soluble in cold water, but are readily soluble in hot
water. Bismuth and antimony chlorides arc decomposed by water
with production of oxychloridcs, whilst titanium tetrachloride
yields titanic acid under the same conditions. All the metallic
chlorides, with the exception of those of the alkali and alkaline
earth metals, are reduced either to the metallic condition or to that
of a lower chloride on heating in a current of hydrogen; most are
decomposed by concentrated sulphuric acid. They can be dis-
tinguished from the corresponding bromides and iodides by the
fact that on distillation with a mixture of potassium bichromate
and concentrated sulphuric acid they yield chromium oxychloride.
whereas bromides and iodides by the same treatment give bromine
and iodine respectively. Some metallic chlorides readily form
double chlorides, the most important of these double salts being the
platinochloridcs oj the alkali metals. The chlorides of the non-
metallic elements arc usually volatile fuming liquids of low boiling-
point, which can he diaiilled without decomposition and arc de-
composed by w.irer. Hydrochloric arid and its metallic salts can
be recognized by the formation ol insoluble silver chloride, on adding
silver nitrate to their nitric acid solution, and also by the formation
of chromium oxychloride (see above). Chlorides can be estimated
aiantitativcly by conversion into silver chloride, or if in the form of
kalinc chlorides {in the absence of other metals, and of any free
acids) by titration with standard silver nitrate solution, using
potassium chroma te as an indicator.
Chlorine and oxyuendo not combine directly, but compounds can
be obtained tndlrcc Lly. Th roe oxides are known t chfo rine monoxide,
GtO, chlorine pcroxidtv ClOi, and chlorine heptonide H CUjOj.^
Chlorine monoxide results on passing chlorine over dry precipitated
mercuric oxide. It is a pale yellow gas which cjn be condensed, on
cooling, to a dork -colon red liquid boiling at 5* C. (under a pressure
of 737*9 rniti.), h is extremely unstable, drcom poring with extreme
violence on the slightest shock or disturbance, or t>n exposure to
sunlight. It is readily bolublc in water, with which it combines to
form hypochlorous acid. Sulphur, phosphorus, carbon compounds.
CHLORITE
\ ,.,.,1...,. .'I *M.M*nV |v:ov^
t,l I li\»luKli!.«iu .u:»l ort r
imI w mm i ; » iMixliiix* v»l l*'
;». ' I fii |>r W-U*.
in* m. »• »t «• ■•t"
t.v
KilS. A im'M;:u-v
v«»»w
,.1 »-li! *»i:»«.* i* «»Vt.urust I»v I no
.iftu * Monte, and similarly.
t-V.ioi.itc jisJ oxalic acid to
k -»iT,»:uu* |viv\u!e ami cjrhon
niV.-t N* colkvted l»y dUplacc-
« \'n ' 1 1 v .11 1 ,u l:« mercury. 1 1 is
ii.t in^**-** an unpleasant
■nig .it o«> v C, and on
>" lil" •*"'« :, V' ,1 . i r , "V:.:'." l r.S- nn7ft*yfieh! bromine b~ without
in 1 1' hi t
I 1 .' t^lA^a^J^^ v«». *3. 1901, vol.
A ,,,.. ,.i.|. of ihUiw an; known, namely, hypochlorous
l.li ... Ihiii' |<
' i , Y l .f l ."*!.iiiii..ii "•' rii'U'ili-itiileil withiiitt decbro potion, The solution
i . ...1. v.Il-.w uJoiir, and is a sirortff oxidinne and bleaching
\\.\ '..I ii ii i' "lily •!•• .iinirfiw. by hydrochloric acid, with evolution
I" ■ .«v t n I Im- ».iIii "f tm ' s •' icicl arc known fl s hypochlorites, and
I.I:, il,V. ...id ii Ml ai« v« ry unstable, a* lh.u it u almost impossible
i, . .»l,i .hi i In '" I"'"'- A wlution of sodium hypochlorite (Eau da
#« ■«■/) win. h • i" !-■ |*n-iun-d by passing chlorine into a cold aqueous
*,'V,.ii'.«i „( .....,!»: :^l.i. has Urn extensively u^ for bleaching
r.in i^- ■ On.- of tin- ■■ifj>t important derivatives of hyjwchlorous
.« .,! r. I,lr.ii Imiz |*iwdi-r. Sodium hypochlonle can be prepared by
1 1 ••• i In ii lily i-. of I"" 1 " "-ihili'in in the presence of carbon electrodes,
lii vini' n«» di.iplir.inni in the electrolytic cell, and mixing the anode
Vim I luih-idi! prudiutH by agitating the liquid. The temperature
l|i.,iiM \* Kpl «» al»ut 15" C, and the conccntraiion of the hypo-
clilriiit*- prodim-d must not fie allowed to become too great, in order
• «j invvi-iit n.dii' lion taking place at the cathode.
Chlorous acid is not known in the pure condition; but its sodium
.•.-ill in iin-iurrd by the anion of sodium peroxide on a solution of
rVif »«"«' l*V.»xid.- : JfC.1 h -f- Na 3 0, = 2NaC10j+0,. Thcsilvcrand lead
»,iH» are unstable, liciHg drromj.oicd with explosive violence at
100 « (_\ On adding a caustic alkali solution to one of chlorine
actoxidc, a mixture of a chlorite and a chlorate is obtained.
Cikwic acid wan discovered in 1786 by C. L. Bcrthollet. and is
vac oreparcd \iy decomposing ljarium chlorate with the calculated
*#*muir *& dilute sulphuric acid. The aqueous solution can be con-
-*^r»»-<l imvanto over sulphuric acid until it contains 40% of
•** ^>? Firther concentration leads to decomposition, with
•...-.* » # -.t» 3c*i and formation of perchloric acid. The con-
''/'"", ** '*JS*"J" W * U ' ox ' , ' !rin 8 agent; organic matter
*■ .*\?. ^ '*?? '^Jj^fermently inflames. Hydrochloric
.*'*"/• r *^A *? J^S urous ac ' f ' arc >^P»oly oxidizt^l
rC-'!j^^5 composition by the analysis
'■■•■cid are known as chlorates
."';*"* pot. i« liim pcirhloratd
, f "?2*.*' l >^'r II- Koscix', pure
■^ dbtillation be continued
a white crystalline mass of hydrated perchloric add, HGO«*Hi0l
pa>ac« o\er; this is due to the dt^omposition of some of the acid
into u.ucr ami lower oxides of chlorine, the water produced then
coR;tkinln£ with the pure acid to [ircnduce the hydrated form. # This
s.-!id. on redistillation, gives the pure acid, which is a liquid boiling at
,V> ? C. L under a pressure of 56 mm.) and of specific gravity >'704 (V")»
'Ihe crvjtallino hydrate melts at 50 C. The pure acid decom-
roses slowly on standing, but is stable in dilute aqueous solution.
1 is a wry powerful oidizing agent; wood and paper in contact
with the acid inslamc with explosive violence. In contact with the
skin it produces painful wounds. It may be distinguished from
chloric at id by the fact that it does not give chlorine peroxide when
treated with concentrated sulphuric acicl, and that it is not reduced
bv sulphurous acid. The salts of the acid arc known as the per-
t Morales, and are all soluble in water; the potassium and rubidium
salts, however, arc only soluble to a slight extent. Potassium
pcrchlorate, KClOi, can be obtained by carefully heating the chlorate
until it first melts and then nearly all solidifies again. The fused
mass is then extracted with water to remove potassium chloride, and
warmed with hydrochloric acid to remove unaltered chlorate, and
finally extracted with water again, when a residue of practically pure
pcrchlorate is obtained. The alkaline perchlorates are isomorphous
with the permanganates.
CHLORITE, a group of green micaceous minerals which are
hydrous silicates of aluminium, magnesium and ferrous iron.
The name was given by A. G. Werner in 1798, from x^uptWi
" a green stone." Several species and many rather ill-defined
varieties have been described, but they arc difficult to recognize.
Like the micas, the chloritcs (or " hydromicas ") are monodinic
En crystallization and have a perfect cleavage parallel to the flat
face of the scales and plates. The cleavage is, however, not
quite so prominent as in the micas, and the cleavage flakes
though pliable are not clastic. The chloritcs usually occur as
salt (H = 2-3) scaly aggregates of a dark-grccn colour. They
vary in specific gravity between 2-6 and 3*0, according to the
amount of iron present. Well-developed crystals are met with
only in the species clinochlore and penninite; those of the former
arc six-sided plates and are optically biaxial, whilst those of the
latter have the form of acute rhombohedra and are usually
optically uniaxial. The species prochlorite and corundophilite
also occur as more or less distinct six-sided plates. These four
better crystallized species arc grouped together by G. Tschennak
as orthochloritcs, the finely scaly and indistinctly fibrous forms
being grouped by the same author as Icptochloritcs.
Chemically, the chloritcs arc distinguished from the micas by
the presence of a considerable amount of water (about 13%)
and by not containing alkalis; from the soft, scaly, mineral
talc they differ in containing aluminium (about 20%) as an
essential constituent. The magnesia (up to 36%) is often
in part replaced by ferrous oxide (up to 30%), and the alu-
mina to a lesser extent by ferric oxide; alumina may also be
partly replaced by chromic oxide, as in the rose-red varieties
kammcrcritc and kotschubeitc. The composition of both
clinochlore and penninite is approximately expressed by
the formula Hfc(Mg,Fe) 4 Al : Si»Oii, and the formulae of pro-
chlorite and corundophilite arc H4o(Mg,Fc):jAl l4 Si„0, and
H:o(Mg,FcjuA]*SisO« respectively. The variation in com-
position of these orthochloritcs is explained by G. Tschennak
by assuming them to be isomorphous mixtures of H«MgjSijOi
(the serpentine molecule) and l^MgjAltSiO} (which is approxi-
mately the composition of the chlorite amesite). The Icpto-
chloritcs arc still more complex, and the intermixture of othei
fundamental molecules has to be assumed; the species recognised
by Dana arc daphnite, cronstedtite, thuringite, stilpnomclane.
strigovitc, diabantite, aphrosidcrite, dclcssite and rumpfitc.
The chloritcs usually occur as alteration products of othei
minerals, such as pyroxene, amphibolc, biotite, garnet, &c,
often occurring as pseudomorphs after these, or as earth)
material filling cavities in igneous rocks composed of the*
minerals. Many altered igneous rocks owe their green coloui
to the presence of secondary chlorite. Chlorite is also an im-
portant constituent of many schistose rocks and phyUites, am!
of chloritc-schist it is the only essential constituent. Wdl
crystallized specimens of the species clinochlore are found will
crystals of garnet in cavities in chlorite-schist at Achmatovtl
near Zlatoust, in the Urals, and at the Ala valley near Turin,
CHLOROFORM— CHMIELNICKI
257
Piedmont; also as large plates at West Chester in Pennsylvania
and at other American localities. Crystals of penninite arc
farad in serpentine at Zermatt in Switzerland and in the green
schists of the Zillerthal in Tirol.
Closely allied to the chlorites is another group of micaceous
minerals known as the vermiculites, which have resulted by the
alteration of the micas, particularly biotite and phlogopite.
The name is from the Latin vermicular, " to breed worms,"
because when heated before the blowpipe these minerals ex-
foliate into long worm-like threads. They have the same
chemical constituents as the chlorites, but the composition
is variable and indefinite, varying with that of the original
mineral and the extent of its alteration. Several indistinct
varieties have been named, the most important of which is
jeffersonite. (L. J. S.)
CHLOROFORM (trichlor-mcthane), CHC1,, a valuable an-
aesthetic, a colourless liquid, possessing an agreeable smell and
a pleasant taste. It may be prepared by the action of bleaching
powder on many carbon compounds, such, for example, as ethyl
alcohol and acetone (E. Soubeiran, Ann. chim. phys., 1831 [2],
4S, p. 131; J- v. Liebig, Ann., 183a, i, p. 109), by heating chloral
with alkalis (Licbig), CChCHO + NaIIO= CIIC1, + NaHCO-.or
by heating trichloracetic acid with ammonia (J. Dumas, Attn.,
1830,32, p. 113). In the preparation of chloroform by the action
of bleaching powder on ethyl alcohol it is probable that the
alcohol is first oxidized to acetaldchyde, which is subsequently
chlorinated and then decomposed. Chloroform solidifies in the
cold and then melts at -62 C; it boils at 61-2° C, and has a
specific gravity 1-52637 (o°/4°) (T. E. Thorpe). It is an exceed-
ingly good solvent, especially for fats, alkaloids and iodine.
It is not inflammable. The vapour of chloroform when passed
through a red-hot tube yields hcxachlorbenzcne C«CU, per-
chlorethane C 2 C1 S , and some pcrchlorethylcne CjCU (W.
Ramsay and S. Young, Jahrcsberiehte, 18S6, p. 62S). Chromic
add converts it into phosgene (carbonyl chloride, COClz). It
reacts with sodium cthylate to form ortho-formic ester,
CH(OC s Hj)3, and when heated with aqueous ammonia for some
boors at 200-220° C. gives carbon monoxide and ammonium
formate, 2CHCU + 7N1I, + 3H : 0»NH4-HCO, + CO+6NH«CI
(G. Andrc\ Jahresb., 1886, p. 627). When digested with phenols
and caustic soda it forms oxyaldehydes (K. Reimcr, Ber., 1S76,
0, p. 423); and when heated with alcoholic potash it is converted
Into potassium formate, CHC1, + 4KHO=KHCO, + 3KC1+
2HjO. It combines with acctoacetic ester to form the aromatic
compound mcta-oxyuvitic acid, C«HjCH,OH(COOH)». A
hydrate, of composition CHCI3I8H3O, has been described
(G. Chancel, Fresenius Zeilsckrifl f. anal. Chcmie, i8S6, 25, p.
118); it forms hexagonal crystals which melt at i-6° C.
Chloroform may be readily detected by the production of
an isonitrile when it is heated with alcoholic potash and a primary
amine; thus with aniline, phenyl isocyanide (recognized by its
nauseating smell) is produced,
CHCI,+QH»NH,+3KHO-C,H»NC+3KCI+3H s O.
For the action and use of chloroform as an anaesthetic,, see
Anaesthesia. Chloroform may be given internally in doses
of from one to five drops. The British Pharmacopoeia contains
a watery solution — the Aqua C hloroj or mi— which is useful in
disguising the taste of nauseous drugs; a liniment which consists
of equal parts of camphor liniment and chloroform, and is a
useful counter-irritant; the Spirilus Chloroform* (erroneously
known as " chloric ether "), which is a useful anodyne in doses
of from five to forty drops; and the Tinctura Chloroformi el
Iforphinac Composila, which is the equivalent of a proprietary
drug called chlorodync. This tincture contains chloroform, mor-
phine and prussic acid, and must be used with the greatest care.
Externally chloroform is an antiseptic, a local anaesthetic
if allowed to evaporate, and a rubefacient, causing the vessels
of the skin to dilate, if rubbed in. Its action on the stomach
is practically identical with that of alcohol (q.v.), though in very
much smaller doses. The uses of chloroform which fall to be
mentioned here are:— as a counter-irritant; as a local anaes-
thetic for toothache due to caries, it being applied on a cotton-
wool plug which is inserted into the carious cavity; as an
antispasmodic in tetanus and hydrophobia; and as the best
and most immediate and effective antidote in cases of strychnine
poisoning.
CHLOROPHYLL (from Gr. x^wpoJ, green, CvXkor, a leaf),
the green colouring matter of leaves. It is universally present
in growing vegetable cells. The pigment of leaves is a complex
mixture of substances; of these one is green, and to this the
name, originally given in 18 17 by Pelletier and Cavcntou, is
sometimes restricted; xanthophyll (Gr. Ecurtfo, yellow) is dark
brown ; carotin is copper-coloured. Chlorophyll is related chemi-
cally to the protcids; a decomposition product, phylloporphyrin,
being very closely related to hacmaloporphyrin, which is a
decomposition product of haemoglobin, the red colouring matter
of the blood. Chlorophyll is neutral in reaction, insoluble in
water, but soluble in alcohol, ether, &c, the solutions exhibiting
a green colour and a vivid red fluorescence. Magnesium is a
necessary constituent. (See S. B. Schryver, Science Progress,
1909, 3.P425)
CHLOROSIS (Gr. xXwpos, pale green), the botanical term for
loss of colour in a plant-organ, a sign of disease; also in medicine,
a form of anaemia (see Blood: Pathology).
CHLORPICRIN (Nitrochloroform), C-NOrO,, the product
of the distillation of many ru'tro compounds (picric acid, nitro-
methane, &c.) with bleaching powder; it can also be prepared
by the action of concentrated nitric acid on chloral or chloroform.
A. W. von Hofmann (A nnal en, 1866, 139, p. x 11) mixed 10 parts
of bleaching powder into a paste with cold water and added a
solution (saturated at 30 C.) of 1 part of picric acid. A violent
reaction is set up and the chlorpicrin distils over, generally
without the necessity for any external heating. It is a colourless
liquid of boiling-point 112 C, and of specific gravity 1*692. It
is almost insoluble in water, but is readily soluble in alcohol; it
has a sharp smell, and its vapour affects the eyes very powerfully.
Iron filings and acetic acid reduce it to trimclhylaminc, whilst
alcoholic ammonia converts it into guanidinc, HN:C(NH,)t,
and sodium cthylate into ortho-carbonic ester, C(OCsH 4 )«.
The corresponding brompicrin is also known.
CHMIELNICKI. BOG DAN (.-. 1593-1657), hctman of the
Cossacks, son of Michael Chmiclnicki, was born at Subatow,
near Chigirin in the Ukraine, an estate given to the elder
Chmiclnicki for his lifelong services to the Polish crown.
Bogdan, after learning to read and write, a rare accomplishment
in those days, entered the Cossack ranks, was dangerously
wounded and taken prisoner in his first battle against the Turks,
and found leisure during his two years' captivity at Constanti-
nople to acquire the rudiments of Turkish and French. On
returning to the Ukraine he settled down quietly on his paternal
estate, and in all probability history would never have known
his name if the intolerable persecution of a neighbouring Polish
squire, who stole his hayricks and flogged his infant son to death,
had not converted the thrifty and acquisitive Cossack husband-
man into one of the most striking and sinister figures of modern
times. Failing to get redress nearer home, he determined to seek
for justice at Warsaw, whither he had been summoned with other
Cossack delegates to assist Wladislaus IV. in his long-projected
war against the Turks. The king, perceiving him to be a man
of some education and intelligence, appointed him pisarz or
secretary of the registered Cossacks, and he subsequently served
under Koniccpolski in the Ukraine campaign of 1646. His hopes
of distinction were, however, cut short by a decree of the
Polish diet, which, in order to vex the king, refused to sanction
the continuance of the war. Chmiclnicki, now doubly hateful
to the Poles as being both a royalist and a Cossack, was again
maltreated and chicaned, and only escaped from gaol by bribing
his gaolers. Thirsting for vengeance, he fled to the Cossack
settlements on the Lower Dnieper and thence sent messages to
the khan of the Crimea, urging a simultaneous invasion of
Poland by the Tatars and the Cossacks (1647).
On the 1 1 th of April 1648, at an assembly of the Zaporoahians
(see Poland: History), he openly declared his intention of pro-
ceeding against the Poles, and was elected ataman by acclamation.
z:i
CHOATE
$r.~
l- : . 1 • :« :: i_- ir-icpesiss: Cossack sUte was at an end.
: .-. .: -^< -.i :: A-_gu*: :f;r. With all his native abil
J:~. l^. ^: -is :.: az cmir.cr.t savage. He was the crcat
- -~ J-^-*"? r:»:«i cr v. him, incapable of cool and sta
. ap= :=: :r -•: - t i^fh:«: seL f -control— an incalculable weal)
-"■-C4. :-= :!.• cc*-;--: .a to every blast of passion. He co
zesrry =«i- 2* --•-- sc: state, and other people benefited
--, ■-.-: — -. — r,i*. a;*»: i» iC..-i
j* ».s t- '. -iiSfc. i -- j«: :<^j > /ir rrVssir* .-.' .Vi'ff.^».'jwi from Poland (Ri
--= --• ~ "■- "^ Ij- . •■: --L-- ».■».■.■* **■ 5. V >...-.*%. Hr::.*y cf Russu (Rus.) (Moso
~-. — - -— -- «? -^ -. ■ - ^ ?r* *- •- i- ? :«rt Naiwt Eiia. 7*« /":«/ /fwKjBotj, cha
- --. ^-. - .-. -.-^ ^-<n.Tr_-4 i^ "----■=. :*.- (R. X. B.
■ -. — •- "-■ — 5«. ^^r.: CSCAX£ JQGPH HOMES 4 i?:?- ), American law;
- -«^r— - • - '.i— rra»i •.■ ;?_• ir; ^.msi: >is ;cr= 1: S*Ii= Massachusetts, on the 24th
t - ^- .*- J*."-- a*^ "-=^.- :»:i Ea*z*:isscs:: Dr George Choate, a physki
:»e z::.' xz i -.-as 1 r<;bsw of Rufus Choate. Af
aa*
Mi*'*
«*f ti» pn«* t*w»»^ ■ f*H*ry absolute
-** icifmt Mm. ittfftvttahinwlfw*
v.t, y-t becotsid ace ; F
tors ti> the offer. Ha aCEcapcto carve a pnxf pa^ :y
T«f ^f^Haria. wfcfrfc P>-i— • muried as her vassal .
*ar.d
isioas
I m>i ev r f as a
iatern
who
thout
I him
4 the
»sfn* r ». hout
tod* forth (-it tic.
ri*d him, and at
«* dilated
ufir fixim r>'-4en.
• .h-iuii. and
f illan
Tort,
. 1 Imlr
ulcl the
» oath of
.. ..au-*rt -•- .-- *-■- jj j. _« r - i * Kri ruius unoaie. ai
f-.j — =g :: rlu-.^ri C-— -5- iz :5;: ar.d at the law scb
.» H-r-iri Li :t*:? ^ :5.u. he was admitted first to l
?'^s»»*=,2<:'-» :?•• 120 iii- :fft to the New York b
id r.::-irr- _x -i v :^o: ."" Scdiir i Carter in New YorkCii
-s s..v.-s* j: :.s pr. .s?.:- -sos jsmeciate. and in i860
;-.-.-i.T-.- --i r :ir=cr -i "^: ir= . : E-.-j-i. Scuthmayd &- Choa 1
-r. ^ ->r 7-r tit ^ ^ --^_ v « Vl --*■= i'- Evarts. This fii
..- . -.>■ r^..--i>a^r *-ii: .: Z .irti. Jh:-:c i Beaman, remain
.r r—r- ■»."» i^» ."^f *.:c jii^z^: li^r irra of Xtw York ai
.. -x .-.^^- .:e I--. -.» :: :•- ~ :<^g s^-Jor.aI rather thi
. .-_ T-^:-^ -r-->c :-a: :-i— * Mr Ch:*:c *l& associated wi
-..- : .x t-.-s. -=-<-j^-..jX:..ri ji A=er::an k-gal histoi
-. .„ ; .:r 7.. t. l - 7 ^:~irt ir.i Stanford will cast
t w >^i •.- *.:. *.v z sm. u.^ vT.~_-.fsc exclusifO cases, U
"... t— -. .. -.i ^.-r^a — j< iri ih- Li^me Tax Suit. 1
*. -f.__r 4r-.rxr.i Jc C.=.::ie cf Seventy".
-*• -".- »:.— t^s __cr_=;niL iz breaking up U
' « - . v -re i-:~ - - isb^-:?; ^ ±e prosecution of tl
. . jr — s* L: .**-• -s*r* — £ _* J-i=.jral Fita John Port
..>. -. ..• .^'.-- .--.*?— :. -J.* i:_«::z c: the original cour
r-_-.« .-.* r*=.--*< -*.*-^-l.z ^-- -«:= perhaps in eras
- - - • v. -r -.- :o :- vLj-; — -_a*:li v-iiz the Republka
_ . • .- t. .:. :w-ziiz^-:_— ::«rc*ierm president]]
.■-.- --,,-> - ••- -.:. • : * ,* ~^-: :: :?=?. lit sever held pohtia
- - _•.-%. ^c: r-. » ..- : -LT--:i:.':.:-je Kspubiican senatorii
• - •- : -;-:> >- :- - - 7:-.=a* C ?ii:t in 1S07. In 189
•. v _•:*-. . : .. - - ^ . • ". -i-u:.' ::_*L:--:icnal conventioc
ri . - -* i.: :• .: ■-■ : : ~-;s. . ■ - : !■: JL_;y . ambassador to Giea
:-.-^: :; «-.:.-:•.: .' •-:-!. _: :?:•:. ±r.i remained in thi
■ ■si'z.' -r-_ •_■ : •- - -.r . . ;.^; I2 Erflaad he won grea
- _: - =— ?••" — ~ : . -"- ■■■-. -..:_„••:: r.:h in fostering th
" ,: * : 5-7/^ -■_--: - r--: i-> ' sh-speaking powers. Hi
J -■■■*.' V-uiSuiea at t^esecom
.' "i.-!»»f» have been pubUAed
rv :^.-: contains a few of kh
«-». a=c i* prefaced by a brief
et3.zt C.-ar::-! i.: ■_:. j
TKt C '->£.■* J^-*;, =;; ?
f.'.rf. xs a r. ^ a": ^»-„ - .-
CHOATE. HUFCS :;:;-:?,-. American Iaw>-er and orator,
T 1 ^ *!, Ip,mi ; h - J^^t-^fj. on the ist7f (ktoberTTVi
the descendant of a fan-v which settled in Massachusetts h
1 i 7 *. ^ *i <fclld uf W " r ' m "^y Precocious; at iiTheb
■aid to have been able to repeat large parts of the Bible and of
Pilgnm i ^frru by heart. He graduated as valedictorian of
h»cJassat Dartmouth Crikfie in iSio.wasa tuiwSStolfa"
i8n, sjxnt a year m the law school of Harvard University and
studied for a like period at Washington, in the office of William
Wirt, then attorney-general of the United States. He wai
admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 182s and pnctiicd at
what was later South Danvers (now Peabody) for fivewas.
during which time he served in the Massachusetts Houie of
Representatives (1825-18*6) and in the state senate fiSaT)
In iHiK he removed to Salem, where his successful conduct of
■rvrrat ii.ipuriant law-suits brought him prominently into public
nonce ., ,8 JO he was elected to Congress as a Whig f ro « \he
bulcm district , defeating the Jacksonian candidate for re-eJectioa,
CHOBE— CHODKIEWICZ
259
B. W. Crownlnshield (1771-1851), a fonncr secretary of the navy,
■ad in 189a he was re-elected. His career in Congress was
■arked by a notable speech in defence of a protective tariff.
In 1834, before the completion of his second term, be resigned
and established himself in the practice of law in Boston. Already
his fame as a speaker had spread beyond New England, and he
was much sought after as an orator for public occasions. For
several years he devoted himself unremittingly to his profession,
hot in 1841 succeeded Daniel Webster in the United States
Senate. Shortly afterwards he delivered one of his most eloquent
addresses at the memorial services for President Harrison in
Faneuil Hall, Boston. In the Senate he made a series of brilliant
speeches on the tariff, the Oregon boundary, in favour of the
Fiscal Bank Act, and in opposition to the annexation of Texas.
On Webster's re-election to the Senate, Choate resumed (184s)
his law practice, which no amount of urging could ever persuade
him to abandon for public office, save for a short term as attorney-
general of Massachusetts in 1853-1854. In 1853 he was a
member of the state constitutional convention. He was a
faithful supporter of Webster's policy as declared in the latter's
famous " Seventh of March Speech " (1850) and laboured to
secure for him the presidential nomination at the Whig national
convention in 1852. In 1856 he refused to follow most of his
former Whig associates into the Republican party and gave his
support to James Buchanan, whom he considered the repre-
sentative of a national instead of a sectional party. In July 1859
lining health led him to seek rest in a trip to Europe, but he
died on the 13th of that month at Halifax, Nova Scotia, where
he had been put ashore when it was seen that he probably could
not outlive the voyage across the Atlantic. Choate, besides being
one of the ablest of American lawyers, was one of the most
scholarly of American public men, and his numerous orations
and addresses were remarkable for their pure style, their grace
and elegance of form, and their wealth of classical allusion.
His Works (edited, with a memoir, by S. G. Brown) were published
h 2 vols, at Boston in 1862. The Memoir was afterwards published
?xirately (Boston, 1870). See also E. G. Parker's Remtniscenets
Rvfus Choate (New York, i860); E. P. Whipple's Some ReeoUec-
aons of Rufus Choate (New York, 1879) ; and the Albany Law Review
(1877-1878).
CHOBE, a large western affluent of the middle Zambezi (q.v.).
The river was discovered by David Livingstone in 1851, and to
him was known as the Chobe. It is also called the Liny ante
and the Kwando, the last name being that commonly used.
CHOCOLATE, a paste of the ground kernels of the cocoa bean,
mixed with sugar, vanilla or other flavouring, made into a cake,
which is used for the manufacture of various forms of sweetmeat,
or in making the beverage, also known as " chocolate," obtained
by dissolving cakes of chocolate in boiling water or milk (see
Cocoa). The word came into Eng. through the Fr. chocolat or
Span, chocolate from the Mcx. chocolatl. According to the New
English Dictionary (quoting R. Simeon, Diet, de la langue
Nahuatl), this was " an article of food made of . . . the seeds of
cacao and of the tree pochotl (Bombax cciba)" and was etymo-
logically distinct from the Mexican cacauatl, cacao, or cocoa.
CHOCTAWS, Chahtas, or Ceacatos (apparently a corruption
of Span, chato, flattened), a tribe of North American Indians of
Muskhogean stock. They are now settled in Oklahoma, but when
first known to Europeans they occupied the district now forming
the southern part of Mississippi and the western part of Alabama.
On the settlement of Louisiana they formed an alliance with
the French, and assisted them against the Natchez and Chicka-
saws; but by degrees they entered into friendly relations with
the English, and at last, in 1786, recognized the supremacy of
the United States by the treaty of Hopewell. Their emigration
westward began about 1800, and the last remains of their original
territory were ceded in 1830. In their new settlements the
Choctaws continued to advance in prosperity till the outbreak
of the Civil War, which considerably diminished the population
and ruined a large part of their property. They sided with the
Confederates, and their territory was occupied by Confederate
troops; and accordingly at the close of the war they were
regarded as having lost their rights. Part of their land they
were forced to surrender to the government; their slaves were
emancipated; and provision was claimed for them in the shape
of either land or money. Since then they have considerably
recovered their position. They long constituted a quasi-inde-
pendent people under the title of the Choctaw nation, and were
governed by a chief and a national council of forty members,
according to a written constitution, dating in the main from
1838; they possessed a regular judicial system and employed
trial by jury. Tribal government virtually ceased in 1006. The
Choctaws number some x 8,000. A few groups still linger in
Mississippi and Louisiana. The Choctaw language has been re-
duced to writing, and brought to some degree of literary precision.
See Indians, North American; Handbook of American Indians,
ed. F. W. Hodge (Washington, 1907).
CHODKIEWICZ, JAN KAROL (1560-1621), Polish general,
was the son of Hieronymus Chodkiewicz, castellan of Wilna.
After being educated at the Wilna academy he went abroad to
learn the science of war, fighting in the Spanish service under
Alva, and also under Maurice of Nassau^ In 1593 he married
the wealthy Sophia Mielecka, by whom be had one son who
predeceased him. His first military service at home was against
the Cossack rising of Nalewajko as lieutenant to Zolkiewski,
and he subsequently assisted Zamoyski in his victorious Mol-
davian campaign. Honours and dignities were now showered
upon him. In 1599 he was appointed starosta of Samogitia,
and in 1600 acting commander-in-chief of Lithuania. In the
war against Sweden for the possession of Livonia he brilliantly
distinguished himself, capturing fortress after fortress and repuls-
ing the duke of Sudermania, afterwards Charles IX, from Riga.
In 1604 he captured Dorpat, twice defeated the Swedish generals
at Bialy Kamien, and was rewarded with the grand baton of
Lithuania. Criminally neglected by the diet, which from sheer
niggardliness turned a deaf ear to all his requests for reinforce-
ments and for supplies and money to pay his soldiers, Chodkiewicz
nevertheless more than held his own against the Swedes. His
crowning achievement was the great victory of Kirkholm
(Aug. 27th, 1605), when with barely 5000 men he annihilated a
threefold larger Swedish army; for which feat he received
letters of congratulation from the pope, all the Catholic poten-
tates of Europe, and even from the sultan of Turkey and the
shah of Persia. Yet this great victory was absolutely fruitless,
owing to the domestic dissensions which prevailed in Poland
during the following five years. Chodkiewia's own army,
unpaid for years, abandoned him at last en masse in order to
plunder the estates of their political opponents, leaving the grand
hetman to carry on the war as best he could with a handful of
mercenaries paid out of the pockets of himself and his friends.
Chodkiewicz was one of the few magnates who remained loyal
to the king, and after helping to defeat the rebels in Poland a
fresh invasion of Livonia by the Swedes recalled him thither,
and once more he relieved Riga besides capturing Pernau.
Meanwhile the war with Muscovy broke out, and Chodkiewicz
was sent against Moscow with an army of 2000 men— though
if there had been a spark of true patriotism in Poland he could
easily have marshalled 100,000. Moreover, the diet neglected
to pay for the maintenance even of this paltry 2000, with the
result that they mutinied and compelled their leader to retreat
through the heart of Muscovy to Smolensk. Not till the crown
prince Wladislaus arrived with tardy reinforcements did the
war assume a different character, Chodkiewicz opening a new
career of victory by taking the fortress of Drohobu in 16x7.
The Muscovite war had no sooner been ended by the treaty of
Deulina than Chodkiewicz was hastily despatched southwards
to defend the southern frontier against the Turks, who after the
catastrophe of Cccora (sec Zolkiewski) had high hopes- of
conquering Poland altogether. An army of 160,000 Turkish
veterans led by Sultan Osman in person advanced from
Adrianople towards the Polish frontier, but Chodkiewicz crossed
the Dnieper in September 1621 and entrenched himself in the
fortress of Khotin right in the path of the Ottoman advance.
Here for a whole month the Polish hero held the sultan at bay,
till the first fall of autumn snow compelled Osman to withdraw
260
CHODOWIECKI— CHOIR
his diminished forces. But the victory was dearly purchased by
Poland. A few days before the siege was raised the aged grand
hetman died of exhaustion in the fortress (Sept. 24th, 1 621).
See Adam Stanislaw Naruszcwicz, Life of J. K. Chodkiewicz (Pol. r
4th ed., Cracow, 1857-1858); Lukasz Golcbiowski. The Moral
Sid* of J. K. Chodkiemn as indicated by his Letters (Pol. ; Warsaw,
1854). (R. N. B.)
CHODOWIECKI, DANIEL NICOLAS (1726-1801), German
painter and engraver of Polish descent, was born at Danzig.
Left an orphan at an early age, he devoted himself to the practice
of miniature painting, the elements of which his father had taught
him, as a means of support for himself and his mother. In 1743
he went to Berlin, where for some time he worked as clerk in an
uncle's office, practising art, however, in his leisure moments,
and gaining a sort of reputation as a painter of miniatures for
snuff-boxes. The Berlin Academy, attracted by a small en-
graving of his, entrusted to him the illustration of its yearly
almanac. After designing and engraving several subjects from
the story of the Seven Years' War, Chodowiccki produced the
famous " History of the Life of Jesus Christ," a set of admirably
painted miniatures, which made him at once so popular that he
laid aside all occupations save those of painting and engraving.
Few books were published in Prussia for some years without
plate or vignette by Chodowiccki. It is not surprising, therefore,
that the catalogue of his works (Berlin, 1814) should include over
3000 items, of which, however, the picture of " Jean Calas and
his Family " is the only one of any reputation. He became
director of the Berlin Academy in 1 707. The title of the German
Hogarth, which he sometimes obtained, was the effect of an
admiration rather imaginative than critical, and was disclaimed
by Chodowiccki himself. The illustrator of Lavater's Essays
on Physiognomy, the painter of the " Hunt the Slipper " in the
Berlin museum, had indeed but one point in common with the
great Englishman — the practice of representing actual life and
manners. In this he snowed skilful drawing and grouping,
and considerable expressional power, but no tendency whateve
to the use of the grotesque.
His brother Gottfried (17 28-1 781) and son Wflhclm (1765-
1803) painted and engraved after the style of Daniel, and some-
times co-operated with him.
CHOERILUS. (1) An Athenian tragic poet, who exhibited
plays as early as 524 B.C. He was said to have competed with
Aeschylus, Pratinas and even Sophocles. According to F. G.
Wclckcr, however, the rival of Sophocles was a son of Chocrilus,
who bore the same name. Suidas states that Chocrilus wrote
1 50 tragedies and gained the prize 13 times. His works arc all
lost; only Pausanias (i. 14) mentions a play by him entitled
A lope (a mythological personage who was the subject of dramas
by Kuripidcs and Carcinus). His reputation as a writer of satyric
dramas is attested in the well-known line
Jrua iilw 0cun\tt* {» Xot/dXot l» Z art pott.
The Chocrilean metre, mentioned by the Latin grammarians,
is probably so tailed because the above line is the oldest extant
spcr imen. Chotrilus was also said to have introduced consider-
able improvements in theatrical masks and costumes.
«*■«• A. Naiirk, Trazicorvm Craecorum Fragmenta (1889); F. G.
W«.l« kcr, Die griechittken Tragidien, pp. 18, 892.
< 2) An epic poet of Samos, who flourished at the end of the 5th
century n.r;. Aft it the fall of Athens he settled at the court of
Archclau-, kirij; of Macedonia, where he was the associate of
Agathon, Mcl.inippidi-r., and Plato the comic poet. The only
work that can with ortainty be attributed to him is the Utfxnjls
or liquet, & hKtory of the struggle of the Greeks against Persia,
™* central point of wlii< li wa-. the: bat tic of Salamis. His import-
temootl?* 1 * ln Stowing taken for his theme national and con-
thla m» £ST« te I * M * of ,h( ,,m,s of old-time heroes. For
(prewvedUi^^*^ ** , *HB«"i in the introductory verses
h« say* thai, til* MrtApTji 'J 1 touloflr, Rhetoric, iii. 14), where
3wE^ fy ***■*• «iui?J!J* *"* lr y , ' rin 8 a11 "Ousted, it
* "» 1»W tali*, |£* lau lli.it he imitated him
*■* Incidents of bis poem.
•** turt irruiiiM I
The Perseis was at first highly successful and was said to Juv
been read, together with the Homeric poems, at the Panathenac
but later critics reversed this favourable judgment. Aristot
(Topica, viii. 1) calls Choerilus's comparisons far-fetched ax
obscure, and the Alexandrians displaced him by Antimachus
the canon of epic poets. The fragments arc artificial in tone.
G. Kinkcl, Epic o rum Craecorum Frag. i. (1877); for another vie
of his relations with Herodotus see Miidcr in Klio (1907), 29-44,
(3) An epic poet of Iasus in Caria, who lived in the 4th centui
B.C. He accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaigns 1
court-poet. He is well known from the passages in Honu
{Epistles, ii. z, 232; Ars Poclica, 357), according to which 1
received a piece of gold for every good verse he wrote in celebn
tion of the glorious deeds of his master. The quality of his vers*
may be estimated from the remark attributed to Alexande
that he would rather be the Tbersites of Homer than the Achilfc
of Choerilus. The epitaph on Sardanapalus, said to have bet
translated from the Chaldean (quoted in Athcnacus, viii. p. 336
is generally supposed to be by Chocrilus.
See G. Kinkcl, Epicorvm Craecorum Fragmenta, i. (1877); A. 1
Nakc, De Choerili Samii Aetate Vila et Poesi al Usque Choertlis (1817
where the above poets arc carefully distinguished; and the artkii
in Pauly-Wissowa s Realencydopadie, iii. 2 (1899).
CHOEROBOSCUS, GEORGIUS (c. a.d. 600), deacon and pn
fessor at the oecumenical school at Constantinople. He is all
called charlophytax cither as the holder of some ecclesiastic;
office or as superintendent of the university library. It is ni
known whether " Chocroboscus " (Gr. for • swineherd ") is a
allusion to his earlier occupation or an inherited family nam
During his tenure of office he delivered a course of lectures
grammar, which has come down to us in the shape of notes take
by his pupils. He drew from the best authorities — ApoIIonii
Dyscolus, Herodian, Orion, Theodosius of Alexandria. Tl
lectures arc written in simple style, but suffer from diffusene*
They were much used by Constantine Lascaris in his Gree
grammar and by Urban of Belluno (end of 15th cent.) Th
chief work of Chocroboscus, which we have in its complete torn
is the commentary on the canons of Theodosius on Declensio
and Conjugation. Mention may also be made of a treatise o
orthography, of which a fragment (on Quantity) has bee
preserved; a tract on prosody; commentaries on Hephaestio
and DionysiusThrax; and grammatical notes on the Psalms.
Scr C. Krumhachcr, Ceschichte der byzantiniscken Litteratur (1897]
. Hilgard, Grammatici Craeei, iy. (188c-' -"* —»-:—• — *v_~_
of the commentary on Theodosius, and
A. Hilgard, Grammatici Craeei, iy. (1889-1894), containing the to
of the commentary on Theodosius, and a full account 01 the
and writings of Chocroboscus; L. Kohn in Pauly-Wissowa's j
encyclopedic, iii. 2 (1889); Rcitzenstcin, Etyitiologika, 190, n. 4.
CHOIR (0. Ft. eujr from Lat. chorus; pronounced quire, an
until the end of the 17th century so spelt, the spelling beia
altered to agree with the Fr. chaur), the body of singers wh
perform the musical portion of the service in a church, or th
place set apart for them. Any organized body of singers pei
forming fuU part choral works or oratorios is also called a ebon
In English cathedrals the choir is composed of men (vican
choral or lay clerks) and boys (choristers). They are divide
into two sets, sitting on the north and south sides of the chanei
respectively, called cantoris and decani, from being on the um
side as the cantor (precentor) or the decanus (dean). Thisarrangi
ment, together with the custom of vesting choirmen and chorista
in surplices (traditional only in cathedrals and collegia!
churches), has, since the middle of the 19th century, been adopte
in a large number of parish and other churches. Surplice
choirs of women have occasionally been introduced, notabl
in America and the British colonics, but the practice has n
warrant of traditional usage. In the Roman Catholic Chore
the choir plays a less conspicuous r61e than in the Church c
England, its members not being regarded as ministers of th
church, and non-Catholics are allowed to sing in it. The singei
at Mass or other solemn services are usually placed in a gailer
or some other inconspicuous place. The word " choir," indecc
formerly applied to all the clergy taking part In services of th
church, and the restriction of the term to the singing men am
boys, who were in their origin no more than the representative
CHOISEUL
261
(vicars) of the clergy, is a comparatively late development.
The distinction between " choir services " (Mattins, Vespers,
Compline, Ac)— consisting of prayers, lections, the singing
of the psalms, &c — and the service of the altar was sharply
drawn in the middle ages, as in the modern Roman Church.
" Choir vestments " (surplice, &c.) are those worn by the clergy
at the former, as distinguished from those used at the Mass
(see Vestments). In England at the Reformation the choir
services (Mattins, Evensong) replaced the Mass as the principal
'popular services, and, in general, only the choir vestments were
retained in use. In the English cathedrals the members of the
choir often retain privileges reminiscent of an earlier definite
ecclesiastical status. At Wells, for instance, the vicars-choral
form a corporation practically independent of the dean and
chapter; they have their own lodgings inside the cathedral
precincts (Vicars' Close) and they can only be dismissed by a vote
of their own body. (W. A. P.)
In an architectural sense a " choir " is strictly that part of
a church which is fitted up for the choir services, and is thus
Emited to the space between the choir screen and the presbytery.
Some confusion has arisen owing to the term being employed
by medieval writers to express the entire space enclosed for the
performance of the principal services of the church, and therefore
to include not only the choir proper, but the presbytery. In
the case of a cruciform church the choir is sometimes situated
under the central tower, or in the nave, and this is the case in
Westminster Abbey, where it occupies four bays to the west of
the transept. The choir is usually raised one step above the
nave, and its sides arc fitted up with scats or stalls, of which in
Urge buildings there are usually two or three rows rising one
behind the other.
In Romanesque churches there are eastern and western choirs,
and in former times the term was given to chantries and sub-
sidiary chapels, which were also called chancels. In the early
Christian church the ambones -ihere the gospels and epistles
were read were placed one on euner side of the choir and formed
part of its enclosure, and this is the case in S. Clemcnte, S.
Lorenzo and S. Maria in Cosmedin in Rome. In England the
choir seems almost universally to have assembled at the eastern
part of the church to recite the breviary services, whereas on
the continent it was moved from one place to another according
to convenience. In Spanish churches it occupies the nave of the
church, and in the church of the Escorial in Spain was at the
west end above the entrance vestibule. (R. P. S.)
CHOISEUL, CESAR, Due de (1602-1675), French marshal
and diplomatist, generally known for the best part of his life
as the marshal du Plessis-Praslin, came of the old French family
of Choiseul, which arose in the valley of the Upper Marne in the
10th century and divided into many branches, three of the names
of which, Hostel, Praslin and du Plessis, were borne, at one
time or another, by the subject of this article. Entering the
army at the age of fourteen as proprietary colonel of an infantry
regiment, he shared in almost all the exploits of the French
arms during the reign of Louis XIII. He took part in the siege
of La Rochelle, assisted to defend the island of R6 against the
attacks of the English under the duke of Buckingham, and
accompanied the French forces to Italy in 1629. In 1630 he
was appointed ambassador at the court of the duke of Savoy,
and was engaged in diplomatic and administrative work in
Italy until 1635, when war was declared between France and
Spain. In the war that followed Plessis-Praslin distinguished
himself in various battles and sieges in Italy, including the
action called the " Route de Quiers " and the celebrated four-
cornered operations round Turin. In 1640 he was made governor
of Turin, and in 1642 lieutenant-general, and after further
service in Italy he was made a marshal of France (1645) *°d
appointed second in command in Catalonia. During the first
War of the Fronde, which broke out in 1649, he assisted Condi
in the brief siege of Paris; and in the second war, remaining
loyal to the queen regent and the court party, he won his greatest
triumph in defeating Turcnne and the allied Spaniards and
rebels at Rethd (or Blanc-Champ) in 1650. He then held high
office at the court of Louis XIV., became minister of state in
1652, and in November 1665 was created due de Choiseul. He
was concerned in some of the negotiations between Louis and
Charles II. of England which led to the treaty of Dover, and
died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1675.
CHOISBUL, ETIENNE FRANCOIS, Due de (1710-1785),
French statesman, was the eldest son of Francois Joseph de
Choiseul, marquis de Stainville (1700-1770), and bore in early
life the title of comte de Stainville. Born on the 28th of June
1 7 19, be entered the army, and during the War of the Austrian
Succession served in Bohemia in 174 1 and in Italy, where he
distinguished himself at the battle of Coni, in 1744. From 1745
until 1748 he was with the army in the Low Countries, being
present at the sieges of Mons, Charlerot and Maastricht. He
attained the rank of lieutenant-general, and in 1750 married
Louise Honorine, daughter of Louis Francois Crozat, marquis
du Chatel (d. 1750), who brought her husband a large fortune
and proved a most devoted wife.
Choiseul gained the favour of Madame de Pompadour by
procuring for her some letters which Louis XV. had written
to his cousin Madame de Choiseul, with whom the king had
formerly had an intrigue; and after a short time as bailli of the
Vosges he was given the appointment of ambassador to Rome
in 17 53, where he was entrusted with the negotiations concerning
the disturbances called forth by the bull Unigenitus. He
acquitted himself skilfully in this task, and in 1757 his patroness
obtained his transfer to Vienna, where he was instructed to
cement the new alliance between France and Austria. His
success at Vienna opened the way to a larger career, when in
1758 he supplanted Antoine Louis Rouillt (1680-1761) as
minister for foreign affair* and so had the direction of French
foreign policy during the Seven Years' War. At this time he
was made a peer of France and created due dc Choiseul. Al-
though from 1761 until 1766 his cousin Cesar, due de Choiseul-
Praslin (17x2-1785), was minister for foreign affairs, yet Choiseul
continued to control the policy of France until 1770, and during
this period held most of the other important offices of state.
As the author of the " Family Compact " he sought to retrieve
by an alliance with the Bourbon house of Spain the disastrous
results of the alliance with Austria; but his action came too
late. His vigorous policy in other departments of state was not,
however, fruitless. Coming to power in the midst of the demoral-
ization consequent upon the defeats of Rossbach and Crefeld,
by boldness and energy he reformed and strengthened both army
and navy, and although too late to prevent the loss of Canada
and India, he developed French colonics in the Antilles and
San Domingo, and added Corsica and Lorraine to the crown of
France. His management of home affairs in general satisfied
the pkilosophcs. He allowed the EtuycloptdU to be published,
and brought about the banishment of the Jesuits and the tem-
porary abolition of the order by Pope Clement IV.
Choiseul's fall was caused by his action towards the Jesuits,
and by his support of their opponent La Chalotais, and of the
provincial parlements. After the death of Madame dc Pompa-
dour in 1764, his enemies, led by Madame Du Barry and the
chancellor Maupeou, were too strong for him, and in 1770 be
was ordered to retire to his estate at Chantcloupe. The intrigues
against him had, however, increased his popularity, which was
already great, and during his retirement, which lasted until
1774, he lived in the greatest affluence and was visited by many
eminent personages. Greatly to his disappointment Louis XVI.
did not restore him to his former position, although the king
recalled him to Paris in 1774, when he died on the 8th of May
178$, leaving behind him a huge accumulation of debt which
was scrupulously discharged by his widow.
Choiseul possessed both ability and diligence, and though
lacking in tenacity he showed foresight and liberality in hit
direction of affairs. In appearance he was a short, ill-featured
man, with a ruddy countenance and a sturdy frame. His
Mtmoires were written during his exile from Paris, and are
merely detached notes upon different questions. Horace
Walpole, in his Memoirs, gives a very virid description of the
Cc= : 3171-ST AIN'.-XLZ— CHOLERA
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-=^=::»fr?i. :_Tr.;r :■- ^i rrsifris^ ilimoircs (1737).
--Tijz ~J»_=; it: i:rin:fl j.ii-res of his time and
u ■•■ itj»- :•:---:.-.:- ::' ij ::-:;— poraries, although he
-. —-•.—. ri_««-; .'—.-si. — *-;• *:.:.: r», ir.d ucre edhcd in
I* :e _-■■<-—. fcrrf \lt n.'r\i '<::;r» cf Chofcy arc in-
r» -.•>• rT-^-=r»:--?"Tcs :c r .«-.-?;: -::r.. Choisy is 5-iid to
r:: k =u :i :.-j z-ucr^r: :*••-. .2.:.. -5 t^: lef: a considerable
■ :i lz _ u.:i -^■e; MS. Fir: :; :>..» rraterial, giving an
:i t-r »:• i:'-r:-5 jj 1 *:=.ir. »is 5. a rrcr-:itk>usl> uud in
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y to strike out a new pat h
tus is probably due to [fee U
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CSCCS2A fr:= :hc Gr. y^" *-*■ »r-d ^«*». to flow), the
^•~ - p.*^: :: :xr> i^:ir:: fenr* of disease, siniplc cholera and
ra-z^ar: cbe'sra. A^:i>:u^h eucsiially different both as to
u;_- aji^c: a^i th=ir pathological relationships, these two
i.i^'a*is ray i Lii.viiuai cases present many symptccs of
-sse=:za^:e.
53t?i£ Chc:es.% .sjT.onj-ms, Cholera Europztt. British
J:.-."-.-;. 5^^&kat cr .4u.'^t»:«j.' Cholera) is the cholera of ancient
-jc.v-L vrltcrs, as is apparent from the accurate description
c: tie disease given by Hippocrates, Cclsus and Aretacus. Its
occ-^rrezcc b an epidemic form was noticed by various physicians
iz — e icth century, and an admirable account of the disease
»as subsequently given by Thomas Sydenham in 1669-1672.
This disease is sometimes called Cholera Nostras, the void
*v;.'rjj. «hich is good Latin and used by Cicero, meaning " be*
!or.ging to our country." The relations between it and Asiatic
ho>ra isee below) are obscure. Clinically they may exactly
esex.ble each other, and bacteriology has not been able to draw
in absolute line between them. The real difference is epidemio-
logical, cholera nostras having no epidemic significance.
The chief symptoms in well-marked cases are vomiting and
urging occurring either together or alternately. The seizure
i usually sudden and violent. The contents of the stomach are
firs: ejected, and this is followed by severe retching and vomiting
of thin fluid of bilious appearance and bitter taste. The diarrhoea
which accompanies or succeeds the vomiting, and is likewise
of bilious character, is attended with severe griping abdominal
pain, while cramps affecting the legs or arms greatly intensify
the suffering. The effect upon the system is rapid and alarming,
a few hours of such an attack sufficing- to reduce the strongest
ersoa to a state of extreme prostration. The surface of the
edy becomes cold, the pulse weak, the voice husky, and the
whole symptoms may resemble in a striking manner those of
salignant cholera, to be subsequently described. In unfavour-
Me cases, particularly where the disorder is epidemic, death
may result within forty-eight hours. Generally, however, the
tuck is arrested and recovery soon follows, although there may
emain for a considerable time a degree of irritability of the
hmenury canal, rendering necessary the utmost care in refard
» diet.
Attacks of thb kind are of frequent occurrence in summer and
utumn in almost all countries. They appear specially liable
occur when cold and damp alternate with heat. Occasionally
he disorder prevails so extensively as to constitute an epidemic.
rhe exciting causes of an attack are in many cases errors in diet,
particular!)- the use of unripe fruit and new vegetables, and
he excessive drinking of cold liquids during perspiration. Out-
breaks of this disorder in a household or community can some-
be traced to the use of impure water, or to noxious
emanations from the sewers.
In the treatment, vomiting should be encouraged so long as
H shows the presence of undigested food, after which opiates
ought to be administered. Small opium pills, or Dover's powder,
ox the aromatic powder of chalk with opium, are likely to be
retained in the stomach, and will generally succeed in allaying
the pain and diarrhoea, while ice and effervescing drinks serve
CHOLERA
263
to quench the thirst and subdue the sicklies. In aggravated
cases where medicines are rejected, enemata of starch and
laudanum, or the hypodermic injection of morphia, ought to be
resorted to. Counter-irritation by mustard or turpentine over
the abdomen is always of use, as is also friction with the hands
where cramps are present. When sinking threatens, brandy and
ammonia will be called for. During convalescence the food
should be in the form of milk and farinaceous diet, or light soups,
and all indigestible articles must be carefully avoided.
In the treatment of this disease as it affects young children
(Cholera Infantum), most reliance is to be placed on the adminis-
tration of chalk and the use of starch enemata. In their case
opium in any form cannot be safely employed.
Malignant Cholera (synonyms, Asiatic Cholera, Indian
Cholera, Epidemic Cholera, Algidt Cholera) is one of the most
severe and fatal diseases. In describing the symptoms it is
customary to divide them into three stages, but it must be noted
that these do not always present themselves in so distinct a
form as to be capable of separate recognition. The first or
premonitory stage consists in the occurrence of diarrhoea.
Frequently of mild and painless character, and coming on after
some error in diet, this symptom is apt to be disregarded. The
discharges from the bowels are similar to those of ordinary
summer cholera, which the attack closely resembles. There
is, however, at first the absence of vomiting. This diarrhoea
generally lasts for two or three days, and then if it does not
gradually subside either may pass into the more severe pheno-
mena characteristic of the second stage of cholera, or on the other
hand may itself prove fatal.
The second stage is termed the stage of collapse or the algide
or asphyxial stage. As above mentioned, this is often preceded
by the premonitory diarrhoea, but not infrequently the pheno-
mena attendant upon this stage are the first to manifest them-
selves. They come on often suddenly in the night with diarrhoea
of the most violent character, the matters discharged being of
whey-like appearance, and commonly termed the " rice-water "
evacuations. They contain large quantities of disintegrated
epithelium from the mucous membrane of the intestines. The
discharge, which is at first unattended with pain, is soon suc-
ceeded by copious vomiting of matters similar to those passed
from the bowels, accompanied with severe pain at the pit of
the stomach, and with intense thirst. The symptoms now
advance with rapidity. Cramps of the legs, feet, and muscles
of the abdomen come on and occasion great agony, while the
signs of collapse make their appearance. The surface of the
body becomes cold and assumes a blue or purple hue, the skin
is dry, sodden and wrinkled, indicating the intense draining
away of the fluids of the body, the features are pinched and the
eyes deeply sunken, the pulse at the wrist is imperceptible, and
the voice is reduced to a hoarse whisper (the vox cholerica).
There is complete suppression of the urine.
In this condition death often takes place in less than one
day, but in epidemics cases are frequently observed where
the collapse is so sudden and complete as to prove fatal in one
or two hours even without any great amount of previous purging
or vomiting. In most instances the mental faculties are com-
paratively unaffected, although in the later stages there is in
general more or less apathy.
Reaction, however, may take place, and this constitutes the
third stage. It consists in the arrest of the alarming symptoms
characterizing the second stage, and the gradual but evident
improvement in the patient's condition. The pulse returns,
the surface assumes a natural hue, and the bodily heat is restored.
Before long the vomiting ceases, and although diarrhoea may
continue for a time, it is not of a very severe character and soon
subsides, as do also the cramps. The urine mayremain suppressed
for some time, and on returning is often found to be albuminous.
Even in this stage, however, the danger is not past, for relapses
sometimes occur which speedily prove fatal, while again the
reaction may be of imperfect character, and there may succeed
an exhausting fever (the so-called typhoid stage of cholera)
which may greatly retard recovery, and under which the patient
may sink at a period even" as late as two or three weeks from the
commencement of the illness.
Many other complications are apt to arise during the progress
of convalescence from cholera, such as diphtheritic and local
inflammatory affections, all of which are attended with grave
danger.
When the attack of cholera is of milder character in all its
stages than that above described, it has been named Cholerine,
but the term is an arbitrary one and the disease is essentially
cholera.
The bodies of persons dying of cholera are found to remain
long warm, and the temperature may even rise after death.
Peculiar muscular contractions have been observed to take
place after death, so that the position of the limbs may become
altered. The soft textures of the body are found to be dry and
hard, and the muscles of a dark brown appearance. The blood
is of dark colour and tarry consistence. The upper portion of
the small intestines is generally found distended with the rice-
water discharges, the mucous membrane is swollen, and there
is a remarkable loss of its natural epithelium. The kidneys are
usually in a state of acute congestion. This form of cholera
belongs originally to Asia, more particularly to India, where,
as well as in the Indian archipelago, epidemics are known to have
occurred at various times for several centuries.
Much light has been thrown upon Asiatic cholera by Western
experience; and the study of the disease by modern methods
has resulted in important additions to our previous knowledge
of its nature, causation, mode of dissemination and prevention.
The cause is a micro-organism identified by Koch in 2883
(see Parasitic Diseases). For some years it was called the
" comma bacillus," from its supposed resemblance
in shape to a comma, but it was subsequently found
to be a vibrio or spirillum, not a bacillus. The discovery was
received with much scepticism in some quarters, and the claim of
Koch's vibrio to be the true cause of cholera was long disputed,
but is now universally acknowledged. Few micro-organisms
have been more elaborately investigated, but very little is known
of its natural history, and its epidemiological behaviour is still
surrounded by obscurity. At an important discussion on the
subject, held at the International Hygienic Congress in 1804,
Professor G ruber of Vienna declared that the deeper investigators
went the more difficult the problem became, while M. Elie Metsch-
nikoff of the Pasteur Institute made a similar admission. The
difficulty lies chiefly in the variable characters assumed by the
organism and the variable effects produced by it. The type,
reached by cultivation through a few generations may differ so
widely from the original in appearance and behaviour as to be
hardly recognizable, while, on the other hand, of two organisms"
apparently indistinguishable one may be innocuous and the other
give rise to the most violent cholera. This variability offers a
possible explanation of the frequent failure to trace the origin
of epidemic outbreaks in isolated places. It is commonly assumed
that the micro-organism is of a specific character, and always
introduced from without, when cholera appears in countries
or places where it is not endemic In some cases such introduc-
tion can be proved, and in others it can be inferred with a high
degree of probability, but sometimes it is impossible to trace
the origin to any possible channel of communication. A remark-
able case of this kind occurred at the Nietleben lunatic asylum
near Halle, in 1893, in the shape of a sudden, explosive and
isolated outbreak -of true Asiatic cholera. It was entirely con-
fined to the institution, and the peculiar circumstances enabled
a very exact investigation to be made. The facts led Professor
Arndt, of Greifswald, to propound a novel and interesting
theory. No cholera existed in the surrounding district and no
introduction could be traced, but for several months in the
previous autumn diarrhoea had prevailed in the asylum. The
sewage from the establishment was disposed of on a farm, and
the effluent passed into the river Saale above the intake of the
water-supply for the asylum. Thus a circulation of morbid
material through the persons of ihe inmates was established. Dr
Arndt 's theory was that by virtue of this circulation, cholera was
CHOLERA
- -r '." ' •- l..:it* r-""y --"■ hive defective drsir.ace cr no drainage at all. and
_. .— 1 — - - -g-^ - -..-_ . *- . t< f:-r.i rr.:re d::r.:u:: t? get rid of, though less
=--:-ri: i: *^.s »?■■.:■ f ::r ii":". :- :'j trleris. thar. »her. ;!.c -iter a!or.e is the source
: :_-» i =_"=__^ r~"_:-_ : r. ■: : r..?:L -:. Ir i'- these rr^-ects it hi*, a great a iT.r.ity to enteric
r" • --?-■*"-: ir.r.5 :-v-r. \V.:>. ^:nrc to I«al. ty.no situation can be said to be free
_: . ^_s T-.-^i-.ily :.-.->= iturk if the disease is izirzd^:ti ar.d the sanitary condi-
■■: : r :r* :.-?"s_--:.» t_:cs ire bid. :■_•:. sr*akir.g generally, low-lying places on
> -_ L.-^.r :r a zr. vis: l1~.--^ so" **.ir rivers are ccce liable than those standing high
■ _:•: ~ tw * i.is."ii:* :: :_ z r:«:iy ::-_r.i;:.:r. Of rac'.ecr&loglcal conditions it can
-: _:_-.- .. .••-.-!:. ; :z • :< a*. : ■»..- rsrti-riy :h;: a rich temperature favours the
:t -••vr-i-: tr: m-i..:;-*-: c: :±-;.-tra. :-:-ch i I;w ore dxs not prevent it.
.:r ._--.!. Tis 3 1: *.?c:.:e-i-; :.-::« ibe s— =:-r zr.cr.ths, and particularly
-. . .«. --r- r..=-> *.^--:li: >=r:: = xr i.^:iese.iK::: fits greatest activity.
— . _-rr «- _: — riri rac.cn etc^-lis ■» ;*-.-irds ir:- Ir.i.a by two routes — (i) by
r *— p -: : '- :r—i- fc- .; *_» *.: :r» zi _:; ?.*-; Sea. Egypt ar.d the Mediterranean;
— _ _-—■ 7.- 7 ;rs.i ir. z ::-ir- Asa izi s: tc Russia. Iri 2toSl
. .-. -1.-- -; -rm v: p.: ■: ■'-*•:-* ;: i:r.:< i-r.rr. :>: :*.:h cer.tury
- — . * ?- .-: t. z. ^.t. rrfft :^:t*i :z* rz-zs a:i frrritirr.M the other. It
r .- .-. r- ..?> t^.p t ; .'. i * _:.*: • :: i::;-^:- c: Eur:r*in physicians was
--■■._• .■:.-■. -rv-i -r?* : r: -_rtf ^c^se :y :r* c.:brealc of a violent
. — ^ - -. • .:* ■• . r... :«. .tt-.h:*^ ;: ."^b-ri li E;-.r-J. This was followed
- ^ — . «>. . > • .» t. :.•: --^ ■-■; .- ■..- 1 -i:ri z:r.:.~. c: British India, where
• . _s.-. .-...-%. .T..r_-jy»: :• y.r±r~:z :: 'I ': ":c:h i-r.cr.g natives and
.^ - . : Z.- ' .r>. - j- -.4 .:•: r-.r :':.-;* y.irs chrliri c*niinued to
,£«.. .. .— - .- -.-.... •'. : : a. ^» ^ :_ i* .2 «7^;-!.r. ir..i cihcrs of the Indian
...*: .**..< >-- >. r:*.- :..<:. -v- ?.:•. :<«z t: sr:t ad c-.vr a vidcr extent
■_-.i.-. •'■••-:.-::-.; C^_zi :r. :hr east ar.d Persia on the west.
. \- -. .:::.•.-.-;.:.-:: A-.i M;r.or ar.d Ru>iia in Asia, and
. ^ - -.-.-. . .-"..■:*: i :"•:■ :; a'.tii.'.y ::.c-;h s!o-.. !y westwards, while
--.^ - r*. .- . -- sw^r '. -: "-v.»>. cr::.=i:.-s T.rc c:;;ar:ng at intervals
- ^. -. .^r .-. :> - l-ru. r>-~ -"^ ?^r.:d sp till xS.o r.o prtat extension of
!-.- . c* - * .-- :.v< :-i-"f . : .: ~ the letter year it rc^.-pcared in Persia
,; r.: ? :.-: ^•:*; -*f si-*"« «* the Cuplin Sea. ar.d thence entered
. "*. . ^ ^-.- .-. : - n_5*.s ;- E-r:r^e. Desr-e — e strictest sanitary precautions,
. ,^ - . -_-..»: :r." isri*r «-rcai nr:i!y through that whole empire, causing
v -. . . --• :.:*Tft err;: =>:r*.al:y a=d exciting consternation everywhere. It
N .1. >.-r. s : ::-: rsv.-j. : :>r r:r:hcm aad central rurts of Europe, and spread
v x -".W.*".-«:r :z-*zri* :." k Er.r"2r.d. appeari-.g ia Sur.dtrlsnd in October i8ji,
- -. :<• 1 i:rr -- rri .= Lcr.i.-n in Jar.uar>" xS . 12 - during which year it continued
.-. r- : w "Cf-C :: ?«>-a:I := s«t of the cities and large towns of Great Britain
. ~ i"- v - " i=- Ire!a-.i. The disease subsequently extended into France,
—" : • * • : .-t-c .::: S--i:r. a:d Italy, and crossing the Atlantic spread through North
. 1 ".-^":Vt ar.i Cer.:ral America. It had previously prevailed in Arabia.
. • * ?>.-▼ w:" Turkey. E^T* ac< * *kt Nile district, and in 1S35 it was general
^ ...>"..; "r.-ji tr-r-.-h.^t North Africa. Up till 1837 cholera continued to
.. . >.-.^ rv-s:» tr«iVu::a various parts of the continent of Europe, after which
*^ ^t: c.Srr : v .* ciierric disappeared, having thus within twenty yean
3 x*w* »J :-r_?s \-s::.''i 1 lir ?e portion of the world.
• •fvr '..•*-^:i^ce. AS:-: tfc.- war i?4» another great epidemic of cholera
Vt ^." "^ -V.J-. A .3T> i?rvi.r^! ir. IzS.i and China, and soon began to extend in the
* % <— \ * ".-wS c rscaca traversed by the former, but involving a still wider
x- - ■•i.'-s-'.v :-' :V i^*- I: ««*" J Europe again in 1S47, and spread through
*C« .• * * ■ -■'-v^. R-«:j ir.d Genrany on to England, and thence to France,
! .." t , NV. "s- ■ ":c *r<-^ "•• P*s*«! to America, and subsequently appeared in the
.* _.. J •>,» -••. t\s*: Ir.::es. This epidemic appears to have been even more
" j . "^ -,"' -.. • ^ vi^ r -J-an the former, especially as regards Great Britain and
v "vvn:*" £ z'nrre. A third great outbreak of cholera took place in the
*" I -T^ "• -xv !-•.*•«. Vi*: -.3 155c. entering Europe in 1853. During the two succeed-
" ** " x "^ *--^*h.r :-c vrars it prevailed extensively throughout the continent,
' " ^'"*™ V V*—vrs « j-*! f.'"- rn'ih severity on the armies engaged in the Crimean
pi v*» r^.^ "-xu- •J'.i^ v * r Although widely prevalent in Great Britain and Ireland
.-^.-r*. m .*^.j- ' " ;^. ;. , as !f5S destructive than former epidemics. It wa« specially
v '"* • *" ; ^, ^ » x vi Kv.-re throughout both North and South America. A fourth
. -> .v '"«;■'" r . JlT ■ ^.^-k- visited Europe again in 1865-1806, but was on the
;c „-.v »- J- * v4k>« »^ '■ fVf l«s extensi%-e and destructive than its predecessors.
^ £ "" "\. V '"V*." W V J Pv some writers the epidemic of 1853 is regarded as a re-
^L*^*^*"^* V. - r..'. 4 vxi 5 cr-dc*ccnce of that of 1847. The earlier ones followed the land
* ' * L l^v i — ' route bv wav of Afghanistan and Persia, and took several yean
IT " % " A --'i- •* rrcard ' w reach Europe. That of 1865 traveUed more rapidly, being
--- __* * ,*■*.." " |i n,jiv carried from Bombay by sea to Mecca, from there to Suez and
^I^T Mttfr 1*"* **'*« * I AJexandria, and then on to various Mediterranean pom. Within
CHOLERA
265
the year it had not only spread extensively in Europe, but had
reached the West Indies. In 1866 it invaded England and the
United States, but during the following year it died down in the
West. The subsequent history of cholera in Europe may be
stated chronologically.
1869-1874.— This invasion was traced to the great gathering
of pilgrims at Hard war on the Upper Ganges in the month of
April 1867. From there the returning pilgrims carried it to the
Punjab. Kashmir and Afghanistan, whence it spread to Persia
and the Caspian, but it did not reach Russia until 1869. During
the next four years a number of outbreaks occurred in central
Europe, and notably one at Munich in the winter of 1873. The
irregular character of these epidemics suggests that they were
lather survivals from the pandemic wave of 1867 than fresh
importations, but there is no doubt that cholera was carried
overland into Russia in the manner described.
1883-1887. — This visitation, again, came by the Mediterranean.
In 1883 a severe outbreak occurred in Egypt, causing a mortality
of above 25,000. Its origin remained unknown. During this
epidemic Koch discovered the comma bacillus. The following
year cholera appeared at Toulon. It was said to have been
brought in a troopship from Saigon in Cochin-China, but it may
have been connected with the Egyptian epidemic. A severe
outbreak followed and reached Italy, nearly 8000 persons dying
in Naples alone. In 18S5 the south of France, Italy, Sicily
and Spain all suffered, especially the last, where nearly 120,000
deaths occurred. Portugal escaped, and the authorities there
attributed their good fortune to the institution of a military
cordon, in which they have had implicit confidence ever since.
In 1886 the same countries sulTcrcd again, and also Austria-
Hungary. From Italy the disease was carried to South America,
and even travelled as far as Chile, where it had previously been
unknown. In 18S7 it still lingered in the Mediterranean, causing
great mortality in Messina especially. According to Dr A. J.
Wall, this epidemic cost 250,000 lives in Europe and at least
50,000 in America. A particular interest attaches to it in the
fact that a localized revival of the disease was caused in Spain
in 1800 by the disturbance of the graves of some of the victims
who had died of cholera four years previously.
1892-1895. — This great invasion reverted again to the old
overland route, but the march of the disease was of unprece-
dented rapidity. Within less than five months it travelled from
the North-West Provinces of India to St Petersburg, and probably
to Hamburg, and thence in a few days to England and the
United Stales. This speed, in such striking contrast to the
slow advance of former occasions, was attributed, and no doubt
rightly, to improved steam transit, and particularly the Trans-
caspian railway. The progress of the disease was traced from
place to place, and almost from day to day, with great precision,
showing bow it moves along the chief highways and is obviously
carried by man. The main facts are as follows:— Cholera was
extensively and severely prevalent in India in 1S91, causing
001,603 deaths, the highest mortality since 1877. In March
1892 it broke out at the Hardwar fair, a day or two before the
pilgrims dispersed; on the 19th of April it was at Kabul, on the
zst of May at Herat, and on the 26th of May at Meshed. From
Meshed it moved in three directions — due west to Teheran in
Persia, north-east by the Transcaspian railway to Samarkand
in Central Asia, and north-west by the same line in the opposite
direction to Uzun-ada on the Caspian Sea. It reached Uzun-ada
on the 6th of June; crossed to Baku, June iSth; Astrakhan,
June 24th; then up the Volga to Nizhniy-Novgorod, arriving
at Moscow and St Petersburg early in August. The part played
by steam transit is clear from the fact that the disease took no
longer to travel all the way from Meshed to St Petersburg by
rail and steamboat than to traverse the short distance from
Meshed to Teheran by road. On the 16th of August cases began
to occur in Hamburg; on the 19th of August a fireman was
taken ill at Grangemouth in Scotland, where he had arrived
the day before from Hamburg; and on the 31st of August a
vessel reached New York from the same port with cholera on
board. On the 8th of September the disease appeared in Galjcia,
having moved somewhat slowly westwards across Russia into
Poland, and on the 26th of September it was in Budapest. Hol-
land and Scrvia were also attacked, while isolated cases were
carried to Norway, Denmark and Italy. Meanwhile two entirely
separate epidemics were in progress elsewhere. The first was
confined to Arabia and the Somali coast of Africa, and was
connected with the remains of an outbreak in Syria and Arabia
in 1890-1891. The second arose mysteriously in France about
the time when the overland invasion started from India. The
first known case occurred in the prison at Nantcrre, near Paris,
on the 31st of March. Paris was affected in April, and Havre
in July. The origin of this outbreak, which was of a much less
violent character than that which came simultaneously by way
of Russia, was never ascertained. Its activity was confined
to France, particularly in the neighbourhood of Paris, together
with Belgium and Holland, which was placed between two fires,
but escaped with but little mortality. The number of persons
killed by cholera in 1892, outside of India, was reckoned at
378,449, and the vast majority of those died within six months.
The countries which suffered most severely were as follows. —
European Russia, 151,626; Caucasus, 69,423; Central Asian
Russia, 31,804; Siberia, 15,037 — total for Russian empire,
267,800; Persia, 63,982 ;Somaliland, 10,000; Afghanistan, 7,000;
Germany, 9563; France, 455°; Hungary, 1255; Belgium, 961.
Curiously enough, the south of Europe, which had been the
scene of the previous epidemic visitation, escaped. The disease
was of the most virulent character. In European Russia
the mortality was 45-8% of the cases, the highest rate ever
known in that country; in Germany it was 5 13%; and in
Austria-Hungary, 57 5%. Of all the localities attacked, the
case of Hamburg was the most remarkable. The presence of
cholera was first suspected on the 16th of August, when two
cases occurred, but it was not officially declared until the 23rd
of August. By that time the daily number of victims had
already risen to some hundreds, while the experts and authorities
were making up their minds whether they had cholera to deal
with or not. Their decision eventually came too late and was
superfluous, for by the 27th of August the people were being
stricken down at the rate of 1000 a day. This rate was main-
tained for four days, after which the vehemence of the pestilence
began to abate. It gradually declined, and ceased on the 14th
of November. During those three months 16,956 persons were
attacked and 8605 died, the majority within the space of a few.
weeks. The town, ordinarily one of the gayest places of business
and pleasure on the continent, became a city of the dead.
Thousands of persons fled, carrying the disease into all parts
of Germany; the rest shut themselves indoors; the shops were
closed, the trams ceased to run, the hotels and restaurants were
deserted, and few vehicles or pedestrians were seen in the streets.
At the cemetery, which lies about 10 m. from the town, some
hundreds of men were engaged day and night digging long
trenches to hold double rows of coffins, while the funerals formed
an aimost continuous procession along the roads; even so
the victims could not be buried fast enough, and their bodies
by for days in sheds hastily run up as mortuaries. Hamburg
had been attacked by cholera on fourteen previous occasions,
beginning with 1S31, but the mortality had never approached
that of 1892; in the worst year, which was 1832, there were
only 3687 cases and 1765 deaths. The disease was believed to
have been introduced by Jewish emigrants passing through on
their way from Russia, but the importation could not be traced.
The Jews were segregated and kept undci careful supervision
from the middle of July onwards, and no recognized case occurred
among them. The total number of places in Germany in which
cholera appeared in 1892 was 269, but it took no serious hold
anywhere save in Hamburg. The distribution was chiefly by the
waterways, which seem to affect a larger number of places than
the railways as carriers of cholera. In Paris 907 persons died,
and in Havre 498. Between the iSth of August and the 21st of
October 38 cases were imported into England and Scotland
through eleven different ports, but the disease nowhere obtained
a footing. Seven vessels brought 72 cases to the United States,
- . is s zno
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i-portar.t is iir-que^i'.:
irrefragable proof* of tr
that it is no longer necessary to rcf-.r to the lime-honoured ca*e
cf the Broad Street pump. At Sarr.arkir.i three rcg:rr.cr.!s
were encamped side by side rn a level plain close to a stream of
water. The colonel of one regiment took extraordinary precau-
tions, placing a guard over th? river, and compelling his men to
use boiled water even for wa: nine Not a single case of choKra
occurred in that regiment, while the others, in which only
ordinary precautions were taken, lost over ico men. At Askab.id
the cholera had almost disappeared, when a banquet was given
by the governor in honour of the trar's name-day., Of the guests
one-half died wiihin twenty-four hours; a military band, whiih
was present, lost ao men out of 50; and one regiment lost half
lis men and officers. Within forty-eight hours ijoo persons
died out of a total imputation of about 13,000. The water supply
tame from a small stream, and just before the banquet a heavy
rain-sturm had 01 turrcd, which swept into the stream all surface
refuse ficiiu an infected village higher up and some distance from
the banks. Hut the classical example was Hamburg. The
water supply is obtained from the Kibe, which became infected
liv Mime means not ascertained. The drainage from the town
nl'a» runs into the river, and the movement of trte tide was
miIIh it nt to 1 .my the sewage matter up above the water-intake
Ihe water iiscli, which is no cleaner than that of the Thamej
CHOLET— CHOLULA
267
it London Bridge, underwent no purification whatever before
distribution. It passed through a couple of ponds, supposed
to act as settling tanks, but owing to the growth of the town
and increased demand for water it was pumped through too
rapidly to permit of any subsidence. Eels and other fish con-
stantly found their way into the houses, while the mains were
lined with vegetation and Crustacea. The water-pipes of Ham-
burg had a peculiar and abundant fauna and flora of their own,
and the water they delivered was commonly called Fkischbriihe,
from its resemblance to thick soup. On the other hand, at
Altona, which is continuous with Hamburg, the water was
filtered through sand. In all other respects the conditions were
identical, yet in Altona only 328 persons died, against 8605 in
Hamburg. In some streets one side lies in Hamburg, the other
in Altona, and cholera stopped at the dividing line, the Hamburg
side being full of cases and the Altona side untouched. In the
following year, when Hamburg had the new filtered supply, it
enjoyed equal immunity, save for a short period when, as wc
have said, raw Elbe water accidentally entered the mains.
But water, though the most important condition, is not the
only one affecting the incidence of cholera. The case of Grimsby
furnished a striking lesson to the contrary. Here the disease
obtained a decided hold, in spile of a pure water-supply, through
the fouling of the soil by cesspits and defective drainage. At
Havre also its prevalence was due to a similar cause. Further,
it was conclusively proved at Grimsby that cholera can be spread
by sewage-fed shell-fish. Several of the local outbreaks in
England were traced to the ingestion of oysters obtained from
the Grimsby beds. In short, it may be said that all insanitary
conditions favour the prevalence of cholera in some degree.
Preventive inoculation with an attenuated virus was introduced
by W. M. W. Haftkinc, and has been extensively used in India,
with considerable appearance of success so far as the statistical
evidence goes.
As already remarked, the latest manifestations of cholera
•how that it has lost none of its former virulence and fatality.
^ The symptoms are now regarded as the effects of the
'". toxic action of the poison formed by the micro-organisms
upon the tissues and especially upon the nervous system. But
this theory has not led to any effective treatment. Drugs in
great variety were tried in the continental hospitals in 1S92, but
without any distinct success. The old controversy between the
aperient and the astringent treatment reappeared. In Russia
the former, which aims at evacuating the poison, was more
generally adopted; in Germany the latter, which tries to
conserve strength by stopping the flux, found more favour.
Two methods of treatment were invariably found to give great
relief, if not to prolong life and promote recovery — the hot bath
and the injection of normal saline solution into the veins or the
subcutaneous tissue. These two should always be tried in the
cold and collapsed stages of cholera.
Sec Local Government Board Reports, /$0*-OJ-W-C£ : Clemow,
The Cholera Epidemic of i8q3 in the Russian Empire; wall. Asiatic
Cholera: Notter, Epidemiological Society's Transactions, vol. xvii.;
Emmerich and Gumum\,MUn(licn.med. \Voehenschr. (1904). pp. 1086-
H57: Wherry, Department of the Interior Bureau of Government
laboratories, No. 19 (October 1904, Manila); Wherry and M'DUl.
Ibid. No. 31 (May 1905, Manila).
CHOLET, a town of western France, capital of an arrondlsse-
ment in the department of Maine-ct-Loire, 41m. S.E. of Nantes
on the Oucst-£tat railway between that town and Poitiers. Pop.
(1906) 16,554. Cholct stands on an eminence on the right bank
of the Moine, which is crossed by a bridge of the 15th century.
A public garden occupies the site of the old castle; the public
buildings and churches, the finest of which is Notre-Dame, are
modern. The public institutions include the sub-prefecture, a
tribunal of first instance, a chamber of commerce, a board of
trade-arbitrators, and a communal college. There are granite
quarries in the vicinity of the town. The chief industry is the
manufacture of linen and linen handkerchiefs, which is also
carried on in the neighbouring communes on a large scale.
Woollen and cotton fabrics are also produced, and bleaching
and the manufacture of preserved foods are carried on. Cholct
is the most important centre in France for the sale of fat cattle,
shcrp and pigs, for which Paris is the chief market. Megalithic
monuments arc numerous in the neighbourhood. The town owes
the rise of its prosperity to the settlement of weavers there by
Edouard Colbert, count of Maulevrier, a brother of the great
Colbert. It suffered severely in the War of La Vendee of 1793,
insomuch that for years afterwards it was almost without in-
habitants.
CHOLON (" great market "), a town of French Indo-China,
the largest commercial centre of Cochin China, 3} m. S.W. of
Saigon, with which it is united by railway, steam-tramway and
canal. Cholon was founded by Chinese immigrants about 1780,
and is situated on the Chinese arroyo at the junction of the
Lo-Gom and a canal. Its waterways arc frequented by innumer-
able boats and lined in some places with native dwellings built
on piles, in others by quays and houses of French construction.
Its population is almost entirely Asiatic, and has more than
trebled since 1880. In that year it had only 45,000 inhabit-
ants; in 1907 it numbered about 138,000. Of these, 42,000 were
Chinese, 73,000 Annamesc, and 155 French (exclusive of a garrison
of 92) ; the remainder consisted of Cambodians and Asiatic
foreigners. During the rice season the town is visited by a
floating population of 21,000 persons. The Chinese are divided
into congregations according to their place of origin. Cholon is
administered by a municipal council, composed of French,
Annamese and Chinese traders. An administrator of native
affairs, nominated by the governor, fills the office of mayor.
There are a fine municipal hospital and municipal schools for boys
and girls. The principal thoroughfares arc lighted by electric
light. The rice trade, almost monopolized by the Chinese, is
the leading industry, the rice being treated in large steam mills.
Tanning, dyeing, copper-founding, glass, brick and pottery
manufacture, stone working, timber-sawing and junk building
are also included among the industries.
CHOLONES, a tribe of South American Indians living on the
left bank of the Huallaga river in the Amazon valley. The name
is that given them by the Spanish. They were first met by the
Franciscans, who established mission villages among them
in 1676. They arc a wild race but mild-mannered, very super-
stitious, and pride themselves on their skill as doctors. Their
chief weapon is the blow-pipe, in the use of which they are adepts.
CHOLULA, an ancient town of Mexico, in the state and on
the plateau of Puebla, 8 m. by rail W. by N. of the city of that
name, and 691 2 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1900, estimate) 900a
The Intcroceanic railway passes through Cholula, but the city's
commercial and industrial standing is overshadowed by that of
its larger and more modern neighbour. At the time of the
Spanish Conquest, Cholula— then known as Chololan— was a
large and important town, consecrated to the worship of the
god Quctzalcoatl, who had here one of the most imposing temples
in Anahuac, built on the summit of a truncated pyramid, the
largest of its kind in the world. This pyramid, constructed of
sun-dried bricks and earth, 177 ft. high, and covering an area
of nearly 45 acres, is the most conspicuous object in the town
and is surmounted by a chapel dedicated to Nuestro Scilora
it lot Rcmedios. A corner of the lower terrace of this great
pyramid was cut through in the construction of the Puebla road,
but nothing was discovered to explain its purpose, which was
probably that of furnishing an imposing site for a temple,
Nothing definite is known of its age and history, as the fanatical
zeal of Cortez and his companions destroyed whatever historical
data the temple may have contained. Cholula was visited by
Cortez in 1519 during his eventful march inland to Montezuma's
capital, Tenochtitlan, when be treacherously massacred its
inhabitants and pillaged the city, pretending to distrust the
hospitable inhabitants. Cortez estimated that the town then
had 20,000 habitations, and its suburbs as many more, but this
was undoubtedly a deliberate exaggeration. The Cholulant
were of NabuaU origin and were semi-independent, yielding
only a nominal allegiance to Montezuma. They were a trading
people, holding fairs, and exchanging their manufactures of
textiles and pottery for other produce. The pyramid is believed
268
CHOPIN
to have been built by a pocpl; cecity-'-* t>._5 r??e:i Sr:\r;v the
Cholutans.
CHOPIN. FREDERIC FRANCOIS :?:>-:*-' F.L*>. =-zscj1
composer and pij-.Is:. » ;s S.m .-.: ..'•;lj-::~.-a-V.^Ij. -e±r 'Airsaw,
on the ::nd it Fein- try :»:c -..: ti* :$: cf >!.'r:h i?oc'.
His father, of Frcr.-:h ■:i^:r.. com a: Niscy in i--a hai r-.arrcd
a Polish lady. Jus:-"? Kr-r. - sa-wA>xj_ Freo.r'c was *.>.*.:: :vri
child. !!!> r,:<t rr-*L\il %.ii:.i:'.:- he r^ivx-i frcrs Aialrert
Ziv.ny. a Crcch musicia". w>.o U sc:i to hav; beer, a ra**I-*?j.:e
admirer»>f J. S. Bach. Hcalsore^l'.eda so-oi^rvra'. ci-ca'-i'.-r.
at one of the first colleges of \Wiraa--. . •-.:'. c:c bo a as supper:* I
by Prince Antoise Rad-'i'-uX a s«p ,?:■„■:.* prouc:or c-i artistic
talent and himself well known a? the cor:po>eT cf nv-se to-
Goethe's Fi: :!*.' and other works. H.'s r -.->». il gcrr:_3 crx-ed
to Chopin the best cird-.-s vl IV.:>h s-xiety. a: i!u: t>«e uarr. a!!*: J
in Europe for its ease of intercourse, the lN.au:> and grace cf its.
women. and its liberal apprcCL.ition et art's*, ie g:::s. The a* early
impressions were of laslir.g in:l;:encc on Chcpir.'s dewlepmcnt.
While at college he received thorough instruction in the theory
of his art from Joseph Eisner, a learned musician and director of
the conservatoire at Warsaw. When in i$-*o he left his native
town for Vienna, where his d&n! as a p:.i:'.:>: tcvk p!acc, he was
in all respects a perfectly formed and dc\e!eps:d artist. There
is in his compositions little of that gradual progress which, for
instance, in Koclhuvcn necessitates a cb.s*iticatiun of his works
according to different periods. Chopin's individuality and his
style were distinctly pronounced in that set of variations on
" La ci tl.irem " w hich excited the wondering cnlhusiasn of Robert
Schumann. In 1831 he left Vienna with the intention of visiting
London; but on his way to England he reached Paris and set tied
there for the rest of his life. Here again he soon became the
favourite and musical hero of society. His connexion with
Madame Dudevant, better known by her literary pseudonym
of George Sand («/.;•.). is an important feature of Chopin's life.
When in iSjq his health began to fail, George Sand went with him
to Majorca, and it was mainly owing to her tender care that the
composer recovered his health for a time. Chopin declared that
the destruction of his relations with Madame Dudevant in 1847
broke up his life. The association of these two artists has
provoked a whole literature on the nature of their relations, of
which the novelist's Un Hiver & Afajorquc was the beginning.
The last ten years of Chopin's life were a continual struggle
with the pulmonary disease to which he succumbed in Paris
on the 17th of October 1849. The year before his death he
visited England, where he was received with enthusiasm by his
numerous admirers. Chopin died in the arms of his sister, who
hastened from Poland to his death-bed. He was buried in the
cemetery of Pere Lachaise. A small monument was erected to
the memory of the composer at Wasswan in 1880. Portraits
and medallions of Chopin were executed by Ary Schcficr and
Eugene Delacroix, and by the sculptors Bary and Clcsingcr.
A distinguished English amateur thus records his impressions
of Chopin's style of pianoforte-playing compared with those of
other masters. " His technical characteristics may be broadly
indicated as negation of brcvura, absolute perfection of finger-
play, and of the hgalissimo touch, on which no other pianist has
ever so entirely leant, to the exclusion of that high relief and point
•Men the modern German school, after the examples of Liszt
kalbcrK, has so effectively d e vebped It is in these feature
L recognize that GntiidveritttioicnhcU (fundamental
t *hkh according to Mendelssohn distinguished
1 thai of these masters , and in no less degree
k and teaching of Moschclcs. • • • Imagine a
■ refinement of mfrn and manner, sitting
> sway of the body and scarcely
^ entirely upon his narrow
The wide arpeggios in the
1 of tone by the strict
^T*ampcr-pcdal, formed
- *T"^lly poetic cantabilc.
• .^*[3 modifications of tone
•*«Ue effect. Even in
ere-«-.:; p£?sac:f he scarcely ever exceeded an c-rfir-iry se
f.Tt;. H_> pVijir-s as a whole was ur.ique in lis llzi. zzi so
:rz •. :.':^ ci :*. c.-.n remain, for there is no school cf Ckcfia the
- .-- s:. £:r the obvicus reason that he could never be regarded
is a 7c- Lie p'aycr, and his best pupils were ceariy all
1 aria*, curs."'
1= Ix^k-'rg thr:ugh the list of his compositions, tees::^ whk
ir-j-:':rias. valscs. polor-arses, and other forms of naticni! dance
music, one could hardly suppose that here one cf the scst
ir.clanchcly natures has revealed itself. This seeming paradox
i< solved by the type of Chopin's nationality , of which it his pstry
been said that its very dances arc sadness intensified. But not-
1 withstanding this strongly pronounced national type of his
I compositions, his music is always expressive of hi? individual feel-
I ir.gs ar.d sufferings to a degree rarely met with in th* a --V« of
the art. He is indeed the lyrical composer per exctl'crc: of the
rrodera school, and the intensity of his expression finds its eqnaj
in literature only in the songs of Hcinrich Heine, to whom Che pia
has been justly compared. A sensation of such hijrh-strur.gpa«sseii
cannut be prolonged. Hence we sec that the shorter forms of
music.thc etude, the nocturne, besides the national dances already
alluded to, arc chosen by Chopin in preference. Even when be
treats the larger forms of the concerto or the sonata this concen-
trated, not to say pointed, character of Chopin's style beccxes
obvious. The more extended dimensions seem to er.cur-ber
the freedom of his movements. The concerto for pzanoferte
with accompaniment of the orchestra in E may be instanced.
Here the adagio takes the form of a romance, and in the £nal
rondo the rhythm of a Polish dance becomes rccogr.izal le while
the instrumentation throughout is meagre and wanting in colour.
Chopin is out of his element, and even the beauty of his melodies
and harmonics cannot wholly tanish the impression of incon-
gruity. Fortunately he himself knew the limits of his power, and
with very few execptiors his works belong to that class of minor
compositions of which he was an unrivalled master. Barring
a collection of Polish songs, two concertos, and a very small
number of concerted pieces of chamber music, almost all his
works are written for the pianoforte solo; the symphony, the
oratorio, the npcra, he never attempted.
Chopin's works group themselves firstly into the period from Op. I
to 22, which includes nearly all his attempts at large or cla&ical
forms, e.g. the works with orchestra, Op. 2 (variations on La a
dnrcm), Opp. II and 14 (concerto*), Op. ix (Polish fantasia), Op. 14
(Krakowiak, a concerto- rondo in mazurka-rhythm), and Op. 23
(Andante spianato and Polonaise), besides the solo rondos Opp. 1,
5, 16. and the variations Op. 12 and the essays in chamber muuc
Opp. 3, 8, 65. Meanwhile, however, the mature lyric style of his
second period already be£:in with On. 6 (4 mazurkas), and though
it is not confined to small forms, the larger mature works ( begin ninjr
with the ballade Op. 23 and excepting only the tonata Op. 58 and
the Allegro de Concert Op. 46) are as independent of tradition as
the smallest. It is well to tift the posthumous works from »ho«e
published under Chopin's direction, tor the la?t three mazurkas are
the onty thinps he did not keep back as misrepresenting him. On
these principles his mature works are summed up in the 42 mazurkas
(Opp. 6. 7, 17. 24. 30. 33. 41. 50. 56. 59. 63. and the beautiful con-
tribution to the collection Notre temps); 7 polonaises (Opp. 26, 40,
53, 61); 24 preludes (in all the major and minor keys) Op. 28. and
the single larger prelude Op. 45: 27 etudes (12 in Op. 10, la in Op. 25,
and 3 written for the Mt'lhodc des mrthodes); 18 nocturnes (Opp. 9.
15. 27. 3-. 37. 48. 55. 62); 4 ballades, in forms of Chopin's own
invention (Opp. 23, 38, 47, 52); 4 scherzos (Opp. 20. 31, 39, 54);
8 waltzes (Opp. 18, 34, 42. 64) ; and several pieces of various de-
scription, notably the great fantasia Op. 49 and the impromptus
Opp. 29. 36. 51.
The posthumous works number 35 pieces, besides a 'small volume
of songs a few of which are of great interest.
Franz LaVzt wrote a charming sketch of Chopin's life and art (f.
Chopin, par F. Liszt, Paris, 1851), and a very appreciative though
snmewhat rrecntric analysis of his work appeared nnonymous-lv in
1H42 (An Essay on the fl'orkx of Frtdtric Chopin. London). The
standard biography is the English work of Professor F. Niccks
(N'ovtllo. 18H8). Sec al>o W. H. Hadow, Studies in Modern MuiU.
second series (100R). The editions of Chopin's works by his pupil
Miknli and by Klind worth are full of valuable elucidation as to
meth»w|> of performance, but unfortunately they do not distinguish
the commentary from the text. The critical edition published by
llreitkopf and 1 Uriel, with all its mistakes, is absolutely necessary
for stuiii'nts who with to know what Chopin wished to put into
the hands of players of independent judgment.
CHOPSTICKS— CHORICIUS
269
the " pidgin-English " name for the pair of
small tapering sticks used by the Chinese and Japanese in eating.
"Chop" is pidgin-English for "quick," the Chinese word
for the articles being kwai-tsze, meaning " the quick ones."
"Chopsticks" are commonly made of wood, bone or ivory,
somewhat longer and slightly thinner than a lead-pencil. Held
between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, they arc used
as tongs to take up portions of the food, which is brought to tabic
cot up into small and convenient pieces, or as means for sweeping
the rice and small particles of food into the mouth from the bowl.
Many rules of etiquette govern the proper conduct of the chop-
sticks; laying them across the bowl is a sign that the guest
wishes to leave the table; they arc not used during a time of
mourning, when food is eaten with the fingers, and various
methods of handling them form a secret code of signalling.
CHORAGUS (the Lat. form of Gr. xopoyto or xopnTfto, leader
of the chorus), the citizen chosen to undertake the expense of
furnishing and instructing the chorus at the Dionysiac festivals
at Athens (see Liturgy and Finance). The name is given to an |
assistant to the professor of music at the university of Oxford,
whose office was founded, with that of the professor, in 1626 by
Dr William Heather.
CHORALE (from the Lat. choral is, sc. cant us; the final e is
added to show the Ger pronunciation choral), a term in music
wed by English writers to indicate the hymn-tunes composed
or adopted for use in church by the German reformers. German
writers, however, apply the terms "Choral" and "Chorale-
gesang" as Luther himself would apply them, to any solemn
melody used in the church. It is thus the equivalent of canto
fermo; and the German rhymed versions of the biblical and
other ancient canticles, such as the Magnificat and the Te Deum,
are set to curious corruptions of the corresponding Gregorian
tunes, which adaptations the composers of classical German
music called chorales with no more scruple than they applied
the name to tunes of secular origin, German or foreign. The
peculiarity of German chorale-music, however, is that its use,
and consequently much of its invention, not only arose in
connexion with the Reformation, by which the liturgy of the
church became "underfunded of the people," but also that
it belongs to a musical epoch in which symmetry of melody
and rhythm was beginning to assume artistic importance. The
growing sense of form shown by some of Luther's own tunes
(e.g. Vom Ilimmel hock, da komm' ich her) soon advanced, especi-
ally in the tunes of Criigcr, beyond any that was shown by folk-
music; and it provided an invaluable bulwark against the
chaos that was threatening to swamp music on all sides at the
beginning of the 17th century. By Bach's time all the poly-
phonic instrumental and vocal art-forms of the 18th century
were mature; and though he loved to derive the design as well
as the details of a large movement from the shape of the chorale
tune on which it was based, he became quite independent of any
aid from symmetry in the tunc as raw material. The chorus
of his cantata Jesus nun sei gepreisd is one of the most perfectly
designed and quite the longest of movements ever based upon
a chorale-tune treated phrase by phrase. Yet the tune is one
of the most intractable in the world, though its most unpromising
portion is the basis of the most impressive feature in Bach's
design (the slow middle section in triple time).
The national character of the German chorale, and the recent
great development of interest in folk-music, together with the
unique importance of Bach's work, have combined to tempt
writers on music to over-estimate the distinctness of the art-
forms based upon the German chorale. There is really nothing
in these art-forms which is not continuous with the universal
practice of writing counterpoint on a canto fcrmo. And it
should never be forgotten that, however fascinating may be
the study of the relation between artistic forms and the spirit
of the age, no art can successfully express more of the spirit of
the age than its own technical resources will admit. Choral
music in all ages has tended to consist largely of counterpoint
on a canto fermo (see Contrapuntal Forms). Where there are
not many canto fermos in constant use in the church, composers
will be driven to use them rather unsystematically as special
effects, and to rely for the most part on other artistic devices,
though any use of melodies in long notes against quicker counter-
point will be aesthetically indistinguishable from counterpoint
on a canto fermo. Thus Handel in his Italian and English works
wrote no entire chorale movements, yet what is the passage
in the " Hallelujah " chorus from " the kingdom of this world "
to the end but a treatment of the second part of the chorale
Wachct aufi How shall we describe the treatment of the words
" And their cry came up unto the Lord " in the first chorus of
Israel in Egypt, except as the treatment of a phrase of chorale
or canto fermo? Again, to return to the 16th century, what are
the hymns of Palestrina but figured chorales? In what way,
except in the lack of symmetry in the Gregorian phrasing, do
they differ from the contemporary setting by Orbndo di Lasso,
also a Roman Catholic, of the German chorale Voter unset im
Himmeireich} In modern times the use of German chorales,
as in Mendelssohn's oratorios and organ-sonatas, has had rather
the aspect of a revival than of a development; though the
technique and spirit of Brahms's posthumous organ chorale-
| preludes is thoroughly modern and vital.
I One of the most important, and practically the earliest collection
of " Chorales " is that made by Luther and lohann Walther (1496-
>1570). the Enchiridion, published in 15.24. Next in importance we
may place the Genevan Psalter (ist ed. t Strassburg. 1542. final edition
1562). which is now conclusively proved to be the work of Bourgeois.
From this Sternhold and Hopkins borrowed extensively (156a).
The psalter of C. Goudimel (Paris, 1565) is another among many
prominent collections showing the steps towards congregational
singing, i.e. the restriction to " notc-against-note " counterpoint
(sc. plain harmony), and, in twelve cases, the assigning of the melody
to the treble instead of to the tenor. The first hymn-book in which
I this latter step was acted on throughout is Osiander's Ceistliche
Lieder . . . also gesctzi, doss ein ckrisllicke Cemein durchaus mit-
singen kann (1586). But many of the finest and most famous tunes
arc of much later origin than any such collections. Several (e.g.
Ichfreue mich in dir) cannot be traced before Bach, and were very
probably composed by him. (D. F. T.)
CHORIAMBIC VERSE, or Ciioriambics, the name given to
Greek or Latin lyrical poetry in which the sound of the chori-
ambus predominates. The choriambus is a verse-foot consisting
of a trochee united with and preceding an iambus, -00-. The
choriambi are never used alone, but arc usually preceded by a
spondee and followed by an iambus. The line so formed is called
an asclepiad, traditionally because it was invented by the
Aeolian poet Asclcpiades of Samos. Choriambic verse was first
used by the poets of the Greek islands, and Sappho, in particular,
produced magnificent effects with it. The measure, as used by
the early Greeks, is essentially lyrical and impassioned. Mingled
with other metres, it was constantly serviceable in choral writing,
to which it was believed to give a stormy and mysterious char-
acter. The Greater Asclepiad was a term used for a line in which
the wild music was prolonged by the introduction of a supple-
mentary choriambus. This was much employed by Sappho
and by Alcaeus, as well as in Alexandrian times by Callimachus
and Theocritus. Among the Latins, Horace, in imitation of
Alcaeus, made constant use of choriambic verse. Metrical
experts distinguish six varieties of it in his Odes. This is an
example of his greater asclepiad (Od. i. xx). —
— WU- — %f **— — 4AS —
Tu ne I quacsieris | scire nefas | quern mini, quera | tibi
Fincm I Di dedcrint I Lcuconott; I nee Babylonjios
Tcntarlis numcros. | Ut melius I qukquid crit. f pati!
Seu plulres hicmes, | scu tribuit 1 Jupiter ulltimam,
?uac nunc I oppositis | dcbilitat I pumicibus | mare
yrrhejnum.
In later times of Rome, both Seneca and Prudcntius wrote
choriambic verse with a fair amount of success. Swinburne
even introduced it into English poetry: —
Love, what I ailed them to leave | life that was made I lovely, we
thought I with love?
What sweet I vision of sleep I lured thee away I down from the light
I above?
Such lines as these make a brave attempt to resuscitate the
measu red sound of the greater asclepiad . (E. G.)
CHORICIUS, of Gaza, Greek sophist and rhetorician, flourished
in the time of Anastasius I. (aj>. 401-5x8). He was the pupil
CKCRIN— CHORUS
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--■ '^- <- -^ ..so. .: :j:rt >"^zs" f-i Its importance is largely <
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_..--&; ■- .s_ :. . r- rsv.r^i ?: T-co*iore t who slew a dra|
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*" '*■■■'-*."-. .-:.'• -v _l-^-i-oi :• K24. ci a=cicnt Greece at
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"^*" ■• - \*.- - - . ^ "-.-..: .. , . : s^ v; v;rc \ :; :ii Dizce of the Crane
■>.-...- -~ *- .^ .>..• ..-i. .-^r> rN.--.--x ;i rx>^->: re n the labyrinth, «
• • --•.■..« ...-;;. _tj >.^i^r- :. ».x..«: i--- *.-J r>:hoa at Delphi, a
- . «v -.- -r ■ : . : ,*- .- T.v-: r^ ■ re a--— ^ :::":..* c-;w-born Zeus by 1
■ ■ ^ - -^ - -. *-- - — ? .".-. .-^ 1": *_:* ;v.--> j^.-^ : *•:.-:•: — ;: Dion\-sus the ancii
~ ^ •--.-. ^^ ■ .*%•■• .".-•.% ;ri.rj *zi -* :.r*:- »:-: :'m: of the winter festh
* ^- - - *-«-. *-" ■»-.••" .-.-.r>.>; r.£ z. :it »--*.•» .*c :-".•; c: riveliers, chanting l
. .... -.-v .■*.-■ ss ;~:-.:^;:.; :.-j_.c *:.-». t"1 rM-- .:_:.:r-; r<:»ieri the leader and
■ .« • "-•»-.-". <■ .--_. :»vx.^ ._.-.,:. <crz^4. .".-.r^i.".' *■>.': i~;rr. the di:h>Tambic choi
^ . , -- " •- * - -.-:•-.•.*".•-... *•: •. tic v~~* :-•*-•-: an* " tn^cy." For the history of 1
.. . .- ...■ -.1. n.*: >.: l.; ; -\rr-» .^ Jrx it irx=a. w:*.h :re grsiual subordination of I
.. -. • : .•■.:'.-• »** ■.-.*_l:.-:2." ira=i-:sie-: tragedy ar.d its total disappcarai
•" " ' " ,-•• * - -- • .^ I.-.-i-. « -.-.: t ■ >: J> ^:=i =•:•!.; a_i=cw ecrzedy. see Duma: Creek Drcma.
"-'*" . •* ' Tie :i:r-s as a factor iz drama survived only in the vari<
•*' * \x-t* x r :.-;■■ ": v " *=- ri=J.-rj_ brr."--fi ■= :»>: :=L:-:;c-s cr «\-:vai of the ancient Greek theatre in od
^^* .._ f -"-i.-s ; ■*.:.- ,-: La2-:ai>_r;. Ezglizd. os Lir^"-i*-fs. A chores is found in Milton's Samson AgonUi
**■ "■"■ _ T *\ , .* ; - >* 'X :y W. :"rc= Lc^icz izi :z a. Tic Elizabethan dramatists applied the name to a single ch
^: ~ "~^'\ ...v«*:."- j- i--t L&zcisz.^ 4 Yorksh-rc a=i ictcr e=plo>^ed for the recitation of prologues or cpilogu
v " • v .' n N .,- ».v, ,v..*n tjJ- vzy? izi :i« Lee-is & L:vsr?ccl ' Apart :rc= ^:e isos of the term in drama, the word " chorui
L ^*to •"* */.*'". ^ ;";:«* . : :c : r: 5 5 2. Th* church c: S: ! has bee z cz-.ploycd chiefly in music. It is used of any organu
^ta. W 1\ J^.-'^-^i: i^i tirliir date, largely res'.cred . body c: s;r4:urs. :a opera, oratorio, cantata. &c, and, in the foi
*•** ' ^» £* w«c^-k azi sczte izteresozg mozu=ez:s-
^ " "^2-tK *=- :be B*=ufact-ire of cottoa and mus-a
^^"^- S^ -^a^^- cc. aad there are also iron azd trass
« s^^*^^^^^ RaUway-wagozbuild^agisanim-
TV c2Skt contains a number of coal-mines
fc Cku^c town is the beautiful Eliaabethan
- Vi^ Vs said to have sheltered Oliver
a (164S). The corporation
L HcouiicilJors. Area, 36x4
\^wn of European
■* 'Wdlt bank of the
Mom.N.E.of
" choir.'" of the trained body of singers of the musical portions
a rel;j;cus service in a cathedral or church. As applied to musi<
corr.posiiiozs. a " chonxs " is a composition written in parts, ea
to be suzg by groups of voices in a large body of singers, a:
differs from " glee " (?.*.), where each part is for a single voii
The word is also used of that part of a song repeated at the ck
of each verse, in which the audience or a body of singers may jc
with the soloist.
In the early middle ages the name chorus was given to
primitive bagpipe without a drone. The instrument is best knoi
by the Latin description contained in the apocryphal letter
St Jerome, ad Dardanum: " Chorus quoque simplex, pellisct
duabus cicutis acrcis, et per primam inspiratur per accundi
CHOSE— CHOSROES
271
1 emittit." Several illuminated MSS. 1 from the oth to the
nth century give fanciful drawings, accompanied by descriptions
io barbarous Latin, evidently meant to illustrate those described
ia the letter to Dardanus. The original MS., probably an
illustrated transcript of this letter, which served as a copy for
the others, was apparently produced at a time when the Roman
bagpipe (tibia utricularia) had fallen into disuse in common with
other musical instruments, and was unknown except to the few.
The Latin description given above is correct and quite unmis-
takable to any one who knows the primitive form of bagpipe; the
illustrations must therefore represent theeffortofanartisttodepict
u unknown instrument from a description. Virdung, Lusdnius
and Praetorius seem to have had access to a MS. of the Dardanus
letter now lost, and to have reproduced the drawings without
understanding them. In a MS. of the 24th century at the British
Museum/ containing a chronicle of the world's history to the
death of King Edward I., the chorus is mentioned and described
in similar words to those quoted above; in the margin is an
elementary sketch of a primitive bagpipe with blowpipe and
chaunter with three holes, but no drone. Bagpipes with drones
abound on sculptured monuments and in miniatures of that
century. Gerbcrt gives illustrations of the fanciful chorus from
the Dardanus letter and of two other instruments of later date;
one of these represents a musician playing the Plater spicl,tht other
the bagpipe known as chevrette, in which the whole skin of the
aaimal (a kid or pig), with head and feet, has been used for the
bag. Edward Buhle,' in his admirable work on the musical
instruments in the illuminated MSS. of the middle ages, points out
that Gerbert, 4 who gives the dates of his two MSS. as " 6th and
oth centuries," has a singular method of reckoning the date
* of a MS.; he refers to the age of a MS. at the time of writing
(18th century), not to the date at which it was produced. The
MS. containing the two figures of musicians mentioned above,
instead of being ascribed to the 6th century, was six centuries
old when Gerbert wrote in 1774, and dates therefore from the
12th century. It is interesting to note that Giraldus Cambrcnsis *
"mentions the chorus as one of the three instruments of Wales
and Scotland, ascribing superior musical skill to the latter.
Historians record that King James I. of Scotland was renowned
lor bis skill as a performer on various musical instruments, one
of which was the chorus.* This bears out the traditional belief
that the bagpipe had been a Scottish attribute from the earliest
times. The word " chorus " occurs once or twice in French
medieval poems with other instruments, but without indication
as to the kind of instrument thus designated. The word was
probably the French equivalent for the Plalerspiel.
See also G. Kastner, Danses des morts (pp. 200 to 202, pi. xv.,
No. 103); and Dora Pedro Ccrone, El Meiopeo y maestro (Naples,
1613). p. 248- (K. S.)
CHOSE (Fr. for "thing"), a term used in English law in
different senses. Chose local is a thing annexed to a place, as a
mill. A chose transitory is that which is movable, and can be
carried from place to place. But the use of the word " chose "
in these senses is practically obsolete, and it is now used only
in the phrases chose in action and chose in possession. A " chose
in action," sometimes called a chose in suspense, in its more!
limited meaning, denotes the right of enforcing by legal pro-
1 The MSS. are a psaltcrium, oth century, Bibl. publiquc, Angers,
fol. 13a; Boulogne P Salter ium glossatum c. a.d. 1000, MS. No. 20,
Bibl. publique. For reproduction of musical instruments see A nnalet
archiologiqyes, tome iv. (1846), p. 38; Cotton MS., Tiberius C. vi...
loth to nth century, fol. 16b, British Museum, illustrated
in Strutt's Horda Angel-cynnan, vol. ii. pis. xx. and xxi.; MS. psalter
of St Emmcran, now in Munich Staatsbibliothck, elm. 14513. fol.
51b, 10th century, illustrated by Gerbcrt, D« Cantu et Mus. Sacra,
tome ii. pi. xxiii. ; Paris, Bibl. Nat. Fonds Latin, 721 1, 10th century,
fol. 150 and 151a.
■Cotton MS., Nero D. ii. f. 15a, Chronicon ab orbe condito ad
ebitum Regis Edwardi /., 1307.
• Die musikalischen Instrument* in den Miniaturen desfrHhen Mit*
letalters, part i. " Die Blasinstrumente " (Leipzig, 1903), p. 7, note I*
• Op. cit. (1774). tome ii. pi. xxv. No. 13, pp. 130, 151, 152, and
pi. xxxi. No. 12.
• Topographs Hibemiae, cap. xi.
• Scotichronicon (Fordun and Bower), xvi. 28; and Dalyell,
Musical Memoirs of Scotland, p. 47. pi*, x. and xi.
teedings the payment of a debt, or the obtaining money by way
ftf damages for breach of contract, or as a recompense for a
wrong. Less accurately, the money itself which could be
recovered is frequently termed a chose in action, as is also
sometimes the document evidencing a title to a chose in action,
Such as a bond or a policy of insurance, though strictly it is only
the right to recover the money which can be so termed. Choses
in action were, before the Judicature Acts, either legal or equitable.
Where the chose could be recovered only by an action at law,
u a debt (whether arising from contract or tort), it was termed
1 legal chose in action; where the chose was recoverable only
by a suit in equity, as a legacy or money held upon a trust, it
was termed an equitable chose in action. Before the Judicature
Act, a legal chose in action was not assignable, i*. the assignee
could not sue at law in his own name. To this rule there were
two exceptions:— (1) the crown has always been able to assign
choses in action that are certain, such as an ascertained debt,
but not those that are uncertain; (2) assignments valid by
operation of law, e.g. on marriage, death or bankruptcy. On
the other hand, however, by the law merchant, which is part
of the law of England, and which disregards the rules of common
law, bills of exchange were freely assignable. The consequence
was that, with these and certain statutory exceptions (e.g.
actions on policies of insurance), an action on an assigned chose
in action must have been brought at law in the name of the
assignor, though the sum recovered belonged in equity to the
assignee. All choses in action being in equity assignable,
except those which are altogether incapable of being assigned,
in equity the assignee might have sued in his own name, making
the assignor a party as co-plaintiff or as defendant. The Judica-
ture Acts made the distinction between legal and equitable
choses in action of no importance. The Judicature Act of 1873,
s. 25 (6), enacted that the legal right to a debt or other legal
chose in action could be passed by absolute assignment in
writing under the hand of the assignor.
" Chose in possession " is opposed to chose in action, and
denotes not only the right to enjoy or possess a thing, but also
the actual or constructive enjoyment of it. The possession may
be absolute or qualified. It is absolute when the person is fully
and completely the proprietor or owner of the thing; it h
qualified when he " has not an exclusive right, or not a per*
manent right, but a right which may sometimes subsist and at
other times not subsist," as in the case of animals ferae naturae.
A chose in possession is freely transferable by delivery. Previ-
ously to the Married Women's Property Act 1882, a wife's
choses in possession vested in her husband immediately on her
marriage, while her choses in action did not belong to the husband
until he had reduced them into possession, but this difference
is now practically obsolete.
CHOSROES, in Middle and Modern Persian Khosrau (" with
a good name "), a very common Persian name, borne by a famous
king of the Iranian legend (Kai Khosrau); by a Parthian king,
commonly called by the Greeks Osroes (q.v.); and by the following
two Sassanid kings.
1. Chosroes I., "the Blessed" (Anushirvan), 531-570, the
favourite son and successor of Kavadh I., and the most famous
of the Sassanid kings. At the beginning of his reign he concluded
an " eternal " peace with the emperor Justinian, who wanted
to have his hands free for the conquest of Africa and Sicily. But
his successes against the Vandals and Goths caused Chosroes
to begin the war again in 540. He invaded Syria and carried the
inhabitants of Antioch to his residence, where he built for them
a new city near Ctesiphon under the name of Khosrau-Antioch
or Chosro-Antioch. During the next years he fought successfully
in Lazica or Lazistan(the ancient Colchis, q.v.), on the Black Sea,
and in Mesopotamia. The Romans, though led by Bclisarius,
could do little against him. In 545 an armistice was concluded,
but in Lazica the war went on till 556. At last, in 562, a peace
was concluded for 50 years, in which the Persians left Lazistan
to the Romans, and promised not to persecute the Christians,
1 if they did not attempt to make proselytes among the Zara-
! thustrians; on the other hand, the Romans had again to pay
CHRESMOGRAPHION— CHRISM
273
and served sentence; but the Revolution, by
destroying the inland customs, ruined his trade. On the 15th
of August 1792, he led a band of peasants to prevent the departure
of the volunteers of St Ouen, near Laval, and retired to the wood
of Misdon, where they lived in huts and subterranean chambers.
The Chouans then waged a guerrilla warfareagainst therepublicans
and, sustained by the royalists and from abroad, carried on their
osasainations and brigandage with success. From Lower Maine
the insurrection soon spread to Brittany, and throughout the
vest of France. In 1793 Cottereau came to Laval with some
$00 men; the band grew rapidly and swelled into a considerable
«rmy, which assumed the name of La Petite Vendee. But after
the decisive defeats at Le Mans and Savenay, Cottereau retired
again to his old haunts in the wood of Misdon, and resumed his
old course of guerrilla warfare. Misfortunes here increased upon
him, until he fell into an ambuscade and was mortally wounded.
He died among his followers in February 1794. Cottereau's
brothers also perished in the war, with the exception of Rene,
who lived until 1846. Royalist authors have made of Cottereau
a hero and martyr, titles to which his claim is not established.
After the death of Cottereau, the chief leaders of the Chouans
were Georges Cadoudal (</.».) and a man who went by the name
of Jarabe d'Argent For several mont hs the Chouans continued
their petty warfare, which was disgraced by many acts of ferocity
and rapine; in August 1795 they dispersed; but they were
guilty of several conspiracies up to 181 5. (See also Vendee.)
See the arricl« in La Rerolidum ffa*naii?, vol. 29, La Chovannerie
fami U ASciHckt: vol. ii T La Ckauoxnmt dans I'Eurt: vol. 40,
La Ctcv4«ifl?*i£ dam tt MOtbih&n ii?Qj-i?$4) ; Sarin, Let Tribttnanx
wlpTctiitf ordinairei de la JL/nntAr en mature politique pendant la
ffw mitre Revolution < Paris, idai), 4 vol*.; Tn. dc Ck^maJeux,
Q+itj+r<TH U?0j)i Emitrti it CfovdHj, tommittions niilitaires, interro-
tationt €t jugementi (Pari*, 1898}. the only authority on the cele-
brated affair <A Quibcron; E, Djudcr, }j\ Foltfe tilts Chouans dam
ft CvhsuJqI H CEmpirt. iSoo-rSts (Pari*. 1895). Alw> the works
H-ated affair <A Quiberan; E r Daudct, Ijx Firitft tilts Chouans dans
t Consulal H CEmpirt. iSoo-rSts [Pit is. 1
of O). L. Chesiia mentioned und.tr VlkdUe
CHRESMOGRAPHION (from Gr. xfWpfo, oracle, and ypadrtir,
to write), an architectural term sometimes given to the chamber
between the pronaos and the cella in Greek temples where oracles
were delivered.
CHREST1EN, FLORENT (i 541-1590). French satirist and
Latin poet, the son of Guillaumc Chrcsticn, an eminent French
physician and writer on physiology, was born at Orleans on the
16th of January 1 541 . A pupil of Henri Esticnne, the I lellcnist,
at an early age he was appointed tutor to Henry of Navarre,
afterwards Henry IV., who made him his librarian. Brought up
as a Calvinist, he became a convert to Catholicism. He was the
author of many good translations from the Greek into Latin
verse, — amongst others, of versions of the Hero and Leander
attributed to Musaeus, and of many epigrams from the Anthology.
In his translations into French, among which are remarked those
of Buchanan's Jephtht (1567), and of Oppian De Vcnalionc
(iS75)i he is not so happy, being rather to be praised for fidelity
to his original than for excellence of style. His principal claim
to a place among memorable satirists is as one of the authors
of the Satyr e Mt nip pic, the famous pasquinade in the interest of
his old pupil, Henry IV., in which the harangue put into the
mouth of cardinal dc Pclvc Is usually attributed to him. He
died on the 3rd of October 1596 at Vendome.
CHR&TIEN, or Crestien, DETROYES, a native of Champagne,
and the most famous of French medieval poets. Unfortunately
we have few exact details as to his life, and opinion differs as to
the precise dates to be assigned to his poems. We know that he
wrote the Chevalier de la Charrelte at the command of Marie,
countess of Champagne (the daughter of Louis VII. and Eleanor,
who married the count of Champagne in 1 164), and Le Conte del
Craal or Perceval for Philip, count of Flanders, who died of the
plague before Acre in 1191. This prince was guardian to the
young king, Philip Augustus, and held the regency from x 1S0 to
1 182. As Chretien refers to the story of the Grail as the best talc
told au cort raid/, it seems very probable that it was composed
during the period of the count's regency. It was left unfinished,
and added to at divers times by at least three writers, Waucbier
VL &•
de Denain, Gerbert de Montrcuil and Manessier. The second of
these states definitely that Chretien died before he could finish
his poem. Probably the period of his literary activity lies
between the dates 1150 and 1182, when his patron, Count
Philip, fell into disgrace at court. The extant poems of Chretien
de Troyes, in their chronological order are, £rec el £nide, Cliffs .
Le Chevalier de la CkarreUe (or Lancelot), Le Chevalier au Lien (or
Yvain), and Le Conte del Craal (Perceval), all dealing with
Arthurian legend. Besides these he states in the opening lines of
Clitfs that he bad composed a Tristan (of which so far no trace
has been found), and had made certain translations from Ovid's
Ars A materia tod Metamorphoses. A portion of the last has been
found by Gaston Paris included in the translation of Ovid made
by Chretien Legouais. There exists also a poem, Cuillaumo
d'A nglelerre, purporting to be by Chretien, but the authorship is a
matter of debate. Professor Foerster claims it as genuine, and
includes it in his edition of the poems, but Gaston Paris never
accepted it.
Chretien's poems enjoyed widespread favour, and of the three
most popular (fircc, Yvain and Perceval) there exist old Norse
translations, while the two first were admirably rendered into
German by Hartmann von Aue. There is an English translation
of the Yvain, Yvain and Gamin, and there are Welsh versions of
all three stories, though their exact relation to the French has not
been determined. Chretien's style is easy and graceful, such as
might be expected from a court poet; he is analytical, but not
dramatic; in depth of thought and power of characterization he
is decidedly inferior to Wolfram von Eschenbach, and as a poet be
is probably to be ranked below Thomas, the author of the
Tristan, and the translator of Thomas, Gottfried von Strassburg.
M uch that has been claimed as characteristic of his work has been
shown by M. Willmottc to be merely reproductions of literary
conceits employed by his predecessors; in the words of a recent
writer, M. Bt-dier, " Chretien semble moins avoir 6t6 un crcateur
cpique qu'un habile arrangeur." The special interest of his poems
lies in the problems surrounding their origin. So far as the MSS.
arc concerned they are the earliest Arthurian romances we
possess. Did Chretien invent the genre, or did he simply turn to
account the work of earlier, and less favoured, poets? Round
this point the battle still rages hotly, and though the extensive
claims made by the enthusiastic editor of his works are gradually
yielding to the force of critical investigation, it cannot be said that
the question is in any way settled (see Arthurian Legend).
Chretien's poems, except the Perceval, have been critically edited
by Professor Foerster (4 vols.). There is no easily available edition
of the Perceval, which was printed from the Mons MS. by M. Potvin
(6 vols., 1866-187 1), but is difficult to procure. For Yvain and
Go wain 90c the edition by Schlcich (1887). The German versions are
in Deutsche Class iker dts AtiUelalters. 1888 (Iwein). 1893 (Erec); the
Welsh, in Lady CharlotteGucst'stransJation of the Mabtnonon (Nutt,
1902) ; Scandinavian translations.cd. E. Kolbing (1872). For general
criticism .ace Willmottc, L' Evolution du toman francais aux environs
de 1/50 (1903): also Intend of Sir Lancelot And Legend of Sir Percival
(Grimm Library); and M. Rnrodine, La Femme el f amour au XII*
ii'tcle, d'aprts les poentes de Chrtlicn de Troyes (1909).
CHRISM (through Lat. cfirisma, from Gr. xpi*7*«. «n anointing
substance, XP"'" » to anoint; through a Romanic form cresma
comes the Fr. erttne, and Eng. " cream "), a mixture of olive oil
and balm, used for anointing in the Roman Catholic church in
baptism, confirmation and ordination, and in the consecrating
and blessing of altars, chalices, baptismal water, &c. The
consecration of the " chrism " is performed by a bishop/ and
since the 5th century has taken place on Maundy Thursday. In
the Orthodox Church the chrism contains, besides olive oil, many
precious spices and perfumes, and is known as " muron " or
" myron." The word is sometimes used loosely for the unmixed
olive oil used in the sacrament of extreme unction. The
" Chrisom " or " chrysom," a variant of " chrism," lengthened
through pronunciation, is a white cloth with which the head of a
newly baptized child was covered to prevent the holy oil from
being rubbed off. If the baby died within a month of its baptism,
it was shrouded in its chrisom; otherwise the cloth or its value
was given to the church as an offering by the mother at her
churching. Children dying within the month were called
27+
CHRIST— CHRISTIAN II.
■JCOS.
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N*i"» T-s "j. —.ezt ".- Jiss :f NizA."-*:." e-T— -2-!-:i" *: Tie Hecre - *
J/?:;.:«. >•- Jsi-.'s Csaisr M-iii.s 'Chuj-..'.^,.
CHRIST. W1LHELM VOX :•;:-::« >.r=jn classical
sch-.-'ir *is t«:~ :"- [ j-_Htrhr.r. ^ Kesse-Na-sa. :.-. the :r.i c:
A-/-.5'. : ? : : . Fr: = : • • i t. L : ;:•= he ta ,«h: lt. lie Mu:r.!i:>
gy-r.ii..;- i: M.ikh izi :z :*■:: »is arreted prrfessoi of
c!i?n:i! ;=_!■: :cy ; "z the '--:.;rj.:> . rL* —c-it Important works
ire > 5 <>: <:..*:* i<r f:c:i::;.vi ii.fr— ».• fth ed.. 1308 f. 1 . a
hust-Tj* cf Greek. !.t:rat.re d:-» ^ ts the t.=e of J-stinian. one of
the Lest *:rks C2 the s.r.cct. .'.'.:•;* ifr G'ie'-.'.e* n«f R&mer
I:?:: : edit.-T.s of F.riir :?5- cf :he P;i.i;£ '':5;8^ and
J/ f : : ? -;;. ; : : : : ?■: 5 •; : Arts t : '.'. e '. . ; i : 5 5i . KIs cc r.tribulions
!o the S:.z^-.;:>:'i:k:t ir.i .4 "-:: .i.'itj** of die Bavarian
Acadcrry cf Sc jer res are 7art.'.*-'ir!y M-'-ib'.e.
CHRISTADELPHIAK5 X.vr-c* ait Voce, brothers of
Chr-.sl "\ scrretlrre* also ca'.ed Their asltes. a community
four.! .-J :i i?4> by J:ha Th.*:r.as it 505-1 Sri*, who, after
s:u ?v>; w:..v:e it Lcr.icr.. R-gratid to Brooklyn. X.Y.. U.S.A.
There ho as r.rst ;j:rc\i the '" Carptellites." but afterwards
struck out :r.2»-pcr.d.T.:!y. preaching largely upon the application
of Hebrew prophecy ar.J of the Book of Revelation to current and
future events. Both in America an J in Great Britain he gathered
a nun: her of adherents, and formed a community which has
extended to several English-speaking countries. It consists of
exclusive " ecclesias." with neither ministry nor organization.
The members meet on Sundays to " break bread " and discuss
the Bible. Their theology is strongly millcnarian, centering in
the hope of a world-wide theocracy with its seat at Jerusalem.
Holding a doctrine of " conditional immortality," they believe
that they alone have the true exegesis of Scripture, and that the
*' faith of Christendom" is" compounded of the fables predicted
by Paul." No statistics of the community are published. It prob-
ably numbers from two to three thousand members. A monthly
magazine, The Christadclphian, is published in Birmingham.
See R. Roberts, Dr Thomas, his Life and Work (1884).
CHRISTCHURCH, a municipal and parliamentary borough of
Hampshire, England, at the confluence of the rivers Avon and
Stour, x| m. from the sea f and 104 m. S.W. by W. from London
by the London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4204.
It is famous for its magnificent priory church of the Holy Trinity.
The church is cruciform, lacking a central tower, but having a
Perpendicular tower at the west end. The nave and transepts
are principally Norman, and very fine; the choir is Perpendicular.
Early English additions appear in the nave, clerestory and
eUewhere, and the rood-screen is of ornate Decorated workman-
Aip. Other noteworthy features are the Norman* turret at the
•ona-eaat angle of the north transept, covered with arcading
•J 4 <*het ornament, the beautiful reredos, similar to that in
*>*titet cathedral and several interesting monuments,
lESjSjfl^tort- an interesting ruin adjoins it known as the
^3T5J^* twmtntlv dating from the later part of ti>c
'a Kit,*^* 1 ^ **4 <"h*ins fof clocks and watches are
by ^S^W^ y4l »tt fi*W ** valuable. There is a
At Ji. ^B r**^*^ ttlow wmler - Tnc P* rliimentiij y
p^ \, **y££b£^\advda the town of Bourne*
Into BMt ^C SJ 1 *?** * m * ) ™ t| 4 * ldcmf n
Sbile Shahrb ^^^^SSpr&g?*** ™d« the
with tl - "^^qg^ siirvived m
*dfe» defeat. *f3%^J ni f d V
.daCtesiphon - ^SS^A.
:.. Lro« cse-ha:f. Hecr> I. granted Christchurch to Richard
it P. *•:•• ers. w ho erected the castle. The first charter was granted
iw Ba.-t»:.-: tzzi of Exeter in the 12th century; it exempted
tr.e burnsies :rcx certain tolls and customs, including the tolls
; cz sal: w.th:n the borough, and the custody of thieves. The
:sd Earl Baldwin granted to the burgesses the tolls of the fair
. at St Fa: th and common of pasture in certain meads. The above
I charters were confirmed by Edward II., Henry VII. and Eliza*
I be :h. The Holy Trinity fair is mentioned in 1 226. Christchurch
j was governed by a bailiff in the 13th century, and was not
incorporated till 1670, when the government was vested in a
mayor and 24 capital burgesses, but this charter was shortly
abandoned. The borough was summoned to send representatives
to parliament in 1307 and 1308, but no returns are registered
until 1572, from which date it was represented by two members
until the Reform Act of 1832 reduced the number to one. The
secular canons of the church of Holy Trinity held valuable
possessions in Hampshire at the time of Edward the Confessor,
including a portion of Christchurch, and in 1 1 50 the establishment
was constituted a priory of regular canons of St Augustine.
Baldwin de Redvers confirmed the canons in their right to the
first salmon caught every year and the tolls of Trinity fair. The
priory, which attained to such fame that its name of Christchurch
finally replaced the older name of Twineham, was dissolved in
1530.
See Victoria County History—Hampshire: Benjamin Fcrrey,
Antiquities of the rrior y of Christchurch, and edition, revised by
J. Bniton (London, 1841).
CHRISTCHURCH, a city near the east coast of South Island,
New Zealand, to the north of Banks Peninsula, in Sclwyn county,
the capital of the provincial district t>f Canterbury and the seat
of a bishop. Pop. (1906) 40,028; including suburbs, 67,878.
It stands upon the great Canterbury plain, which here is a dead
level, though the monotony of the site has been much relieved by
extensive plantations of English and Australian trees. A back-
ground is supplied by the distant mountains to the west, and by
the nearer hills to the south. The small river Avon winds
through the city, pleasantly bordered by terraces and gardens.
The wide streets cross one another for the most part at right
angles. The predominance of stone and brick as building
materials, the dominating cathedral spire, and the well-planted
parks, avenues and private gardens, recall the aspect of an
English residential town. Christchurch is mainly dependent on
the rich agricultural district which surrounds it, the plain being
mainly devoted to cereals and grazing. Wool is extensively
worked, and meat is frozen for export. Railways connect with
Culverden to the north and with Dunedin and the south coast,
with many branches through the agricultural districts; also
with Lyttelton, the port of Christchurch, 8 m. S.E. There are
tramways in the city, and to New Brighton, a seaside suburb,
and other residential quarters. The principal public buildings
arc the government buildings and the museum, with its fine
collection of remains of the extinct bird, moa. The cathedral
is the best in New Zealand, built from designs of Sir G. Gilbert
Scott in Early English style, with a tower and spire 240 ft. high.
Among educational foundations are Canterbury College (for
classics, science, engineering, &c), Christ's College (mainly
theological) and grammar school, and a school of art. There
is a Roman Catholic pro-cathedral attached to a convent of the
Sacred Heart. A large extent of open ground, to the west of the
town, finely planted, and traversed by the river, comprises
Hagley Park, recreation grounds, the Government Domain
and the grounds of the Acclimatization Society, with fish-ponds
and a small zoological garden. The foundation of Christchurch
is connected with the so-called " Canterbury Pilgrims," who
settled in this district in 185a Lyttelton was the original
settlement, but Christchurch came into existence in 1851, and
is thus the latest of the settlements of the colony. It became a
municipality in 1S62. In 1003 several populous suburban
boroughs were amalgamated with the city.
CHRISTIAN II. (14S1-1 55^. king of Denmark, Norway and
Sweden, son of John (Haus> and Christina of
CHRISTIAN II.
*75
bom at Nyborg castle in 1481, and succeeded his father as king
of Denmark and Norway in 15 13. As viceroy of Norway (1506-
1512) he had already displayed a singular capacity for ruling
aider exceptionally difficult circumstances. Patriotism, insight,
oarage, statesmanship, energy,— these great qualities were
iadisputably his; but unfortunately they were vitiated by
obstinacy, suspicion and a sulky craftiness, beneath which
linmered a very volcano of revengeful cruelty. Another
peculiarity, more fatal to him in that aristocratic age than any
other, was his fondness for the common people, which was
increased by his passion for a pretty Dutch girl, named Dyveke,
who became his mistress in 1507 or 1500.
Christian's succession to the throne was confirmed at the
Bandog, or assembly of notables from the three northern king-
doms, which met at Copenhagen in 1 513. The nobles and clergy
of all three kingdoms regarded with grave misgivings a ruler
who had already shown in Norway that he was not afraid of
enforcing his authority to the uttermost. The Rigsraads of
Denmark and Norway insisted, in the kaandfacstning or charter
extorted from the king, that the crowns of both kingdoms were
elective and not hereditary, providing explicitly against any
transgression of the charter by the king, and expressly reserving
to themselves a free choice of Christian's successor after his
death. But the Swedish delegates could not be prevailed upon
to accept Christian as king at all. " We have," they said, " the
choice between peace at home and strife here, or peace here and
civil war at home, and we prefer the former." A decision as
to the Swedish succession was therefore postponed. On the
nth of August 1515 Christian married Isabella of Burgundy,
the grand-daughter of the emperor Maximilian. But he would
not give up his liaison with Dyveke, and it was only the death
of the unfortunate girl in 1517, under suspicious circumstances,
that prevented serious complications with the emperor Charles
V. Christian revenged himself by executing the magnate Torben
(he, who, on very creditable evidence, was supposed to have
been Dyveke 's murderer, despite the strenuous opposition of
Oxe's fellow-peers; and henceforth the king lost no opportunity
of depressing the nobility and raising plebeians to power. His
chief counsellor was Dyveke 's mother Sigbrit, a born admini-
strator and a commercial genius Of the first order. Christian
first appointed her controller of the Sound tolls, and ultimately
committed to her the whole charge of the finances. A bourgeois*
herself, it was Sigbril's constant policy to elevate and extend
the influence of the middle classes. She soon became the soul
of a middle-class inner council, which competed with Rigsraad
itself. The patricians naturally resented their supersession and
nearly every unpopular measure was attributed to the influence
of M the foul-mouthed Dutch sorceress who hath bewitched
the king."
Meanwhile Christian was preparing for the inevitable war with
Sweden, where the patriotic party, headed by the freely elected
governor Sten Sture the younger, stood face to face with the
philo-Danish party under Archbishop Gustavus Trolle. Christian,
who had already taken measures to isolate Sweden politically,
hastened to the relief of the archbishop, who was beleagurcd
in his fortress of Stake, but was defeated by Sture and his peasant
levies at Vedla and forced to return to Denmark. A second
attempt to subdue Sweden in 1 5 18 was also frustrated by Sture 's
victory at Brankyrka. A third attempt made in 15:0 with a
large army of French, German and Scottish mercenaries proved
successful. Sture was mortally wounded at the battle of Bor-
gerund, on the 10th of January, and the Danish army, unopposed,
was approaching Upsala, where the members of the Swedish
Riksrdd had already assembled. The senators consented to
render homage to Christian on condition that he gave a full
indemnity for the past and a guarantee that Sweden should be
ruled according to Swedish laws and custom; and a convention
to this effect was confirmed by the king and the Danish Rigsraad
on the 31st of March. But Sture's widow. Dame Christina
Gyllenstjerna, still held out stoutly at Stockholm, and the
peasantry of central Sweden, stimulated by her patriotism,
flew to arms, defeated the Danish invaders at Balundsas (March
19th), and were only with the utmost difficulty finally defeated
at the bloody battle of Upsala (Good Friday, April 6th). In
May the Danish fleet arrived, and Stockholm was invested by
land and sea; but Dame Christina resisted valiantly for four
months longer, and took care, when she surrendered on the 7th
of September, to exact beforehand an amnesty of the most
explicit and absolute character. On the 1st of November the
representatives of the nation swore fealty to Christian as
hereditary king of Sweden, though the law of the land distinctly
provided that the Swedish crown should be elective. On the
4th of November he was anointed by Gustavus Trolle in Stock-
holm cathedral, and took the usual oath to rule the realm
through native-born Swedes alone, according to prescription.
The next three days were given up to banqueting, but on the
7th of November " an entertainment of another sort began."
On the evening of that day Christian summoned his captains
to a private conference at the palace, the result of which was
quickly apparent, for at dusk a band of Danish soldiers, with
lanterns and torches, broke into the great hall and carried off
several carefully selected persons. By 10 o'clock the same
evening the remainder of the king's guests were safely under
lock and key. All these persons had previously been marked
down on Archbishop Trolle's proscription list. On the following
day a council, presided over by Trolle, solemnly pronounced
judgment of death on the proscribed, as manifest heretics.
At 1 2 o'clock that night the patriotic bishops of Skara and
Slriingnas were led out into the great square and beheaded.
Fourteen noblcmen,three burgomasters.fourteen town-councillors
and about twenty common citizens of Stockholm were then
drowned or decapitated. The executions continued throughout
the following day; in all, about eighty-two people are said to
have been thus murdered. Moreover, Christian revenged himself
upon the dead as well as upon the living, for Sten Sture's body was
dug up and burnt, as well as the body of his little child. Dame
Christina and many other noble Swedish ladies were sent prisoners
to Denmark. It has well been said that the manner of this
atrocious deed (the " Stockholm Massacre " as it is generally
called) was even more detestable than the deed itself. Christian
suppressed his political opponents under the pretence of defending
an ecclesiastical system which in his heart he despised. Even
when it became necessary to make excuses for his crime, we see
the same double-mindedness. Thus, while in a proclamation
to the Swedish people he represented the massacre as a measure
necessary to avoid a papal interdict, in his apology to the pope
for the decapitation of the innocent bishops he described it as an
unauthorized act of vengeance on the part of his own people.
It was with his brain teeming with great designs that Christian
II. returned to his native kingdom. That the welfare of his
dominions was dear to him there can be no doubt. Inhuman as
he could be in his wrath, in principle he was as much a humanist
as any of his most enlightened contemporaries. But he would
do things his own way; and deeply distrusting the Danish
nobles with whom he shared his powers, he sought helpers from
among the wealthy and practical middle classes of Flanders.
In June 1521 he paid a sudden visit to the Low Countries, and
remained there for some months. He visited most of the large
cities, took into his service many Flemish artisans, and made
the personal acquaintance of Quentin Matsys and Albrecht
Diirer, the latter of whom painted his portrait. Christian also
entertained Erasmus, with whom he discussed the Reformation,
and let fall the characteristic expression: " Mild measures are of
no use; the remedies that give the whole body a good shaking
are the best and surest."
Never had King Christian seemed so powerful as on his return
to Denmark on the 5th of September 1521, and with the cort-
fidence of strength he at once proceeded recklessly to inaugurate
the most sweeping reforms. Soon after his return he issued bis
great Landclovt, or Code of Laws. For the most part this is
founded on Dutch models, and testifies in a high degree to the
king's progressive aims. Provision was made for the better
education of the lower, and the restriction of the political influence
of the higher clergy; there were stern prohibitions against
CHRISTIAN V.
277
tte t .ir with Sweden, generally known as the " Kalmar War,"
because its chief operation was the capture by the Danes of
lalaur, the eastern fortress of Sweden, Christian compelled
Gwtsvus Adolphus to give way on all essential points (treaty of
fatal, toth of January 1613). He now turned his attention to
Germany. His object was twofold: first, to obtain the control
of the great German rivers the Elbe and the Wescr, as a means of
securing his dominion of the northern seas; and secondly, to
acquire the secularized German bishoprics of Bremen and Werden
as appanages for his younger sons. He skilfully took advantage
of the alarm of the German Protestants after the battle of
White Hill in 1620, to secure the coadjutorship to the see of
Bremen for his son Frederick (September 1621), a step followed
in November by a similar arrangement as to Werden; while
Hamburg by the compact of Steinburg (July 1621) was induced
to acknowledge the Danish ovcrlordihip of Holstein. The
growing ascendancy of the Catholics in North Germany in and
after 1623 almost induced Christian, for purely political reasons,
to intervene directly in the Thirty Years' War. For a time,
however, he stayed his hand, but the urgent solicitations of the
western powers, and, above all, his fear lest Gustavus Adolphus
should supplant him as the champion of the Protestant cause,
finally led him to plunge into war against the combined forces of
the emperor and the League, without any adequate guarantees of
co-operation from abroad. On the oth of May 1625 Christian
quitted Denmark for the front. He had at his disposal from
10,000 to 25,000 men, and at first gained some successes; but on
the 27th of August 1626 he was utterly routed by Tilly at
Latter-ara-Barenbergc, and in the summer of 1627 both Tilly and
WaUenstein, ravaging and burning, occupied the duchies and
the whole peninsula of Jutland. In his extremity Christian now
formed an alliance with Sweden (1st of January 162S), whereby
Gustavus Adolphus pledged himself to assist Denmark with a
fleet in case of need, ami shortly afterwards a Swedo-Danish army
•nd fleet compelled WaUenstein to raise the siege of Strabund.
Thus the possession of a superior sea-power enabled Denmark
to tide over her worst difficulties, and in May 1620 Christian was
able to conclude peace with the emperor at Ltibeck, without any
diminution of territory.
Christian IV. was now a broken man. His energy was tem-
porarily paralysed by accumulated misfortunes. Not only his
political hopes, but his domestic happiness had suffered ship-
wreck. In the course of 1628 he discovered a scandalous intrigue
of his wife, Christina Munk, with one of his German officers; and
when he put her away she endeavoured to cover up her own
disgrace by conniving at an intrigue between Vibcke Krusc, one of
her discharged maids, and the king. In January 1630 the rupture
became final, and Christina retired to her estates in Jutland.
Meanwhile Christian openly acknowledged Vibeke as his mistress,
and she bore him a numerous family. Vibckcs children were of
course the natural enemies of the children of Christina Munk,
and the hatred of the two families was not without influence
2n the future history of Denmark. Between 1629 and 1643,
owever, Christian gained both in popularity and influence.
During that period he obtained once more the control of the
foreign policy of Denmark as well as of the Sound tolls, and
towards the end of it he hoped to increase his power still further
with the assistance of his sons-in-law, Korftts I'lfclJ and Hannibal
Sehcstcd, who now came prominently forward.
Even at the lowest ebb of his fortunes Christian had never
lost hope of retrieving them, and between 1629 and 1643 the
European situation presented infinite possibilities to politicians
with a taste for adventure. Unfortunately, with all his gifts,
Christian was no statesman, and was incapable of a consistent
policy. He would neither conciliate Sweden, henceforth his
most dangerous enemy, nor guard himself against her by a
definite system of counter-alliances. By mediating in favour of
the emperor, after the death' of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632,
he tried to minimize the influence of Sweden in Germany, and
did glean some minor advantages. But his whole Scandinavian
policy was so irritating and vexatious that Swedish statesmen
made up their minds that a war with Denmark was only a
question of time; and in the spring of 1643 it seemed to them
that the time had come. They were now able, thanks to their
conquests in the Thirty Years' War, to attack Denmark from the
south as well as the east; the Dutch alliance promised to secure
them at sea, and an attack upon Denmark would prevent her
from utilizing the impending peace negotiations to the prejudice
of Sweden. In May the Swedish Riksrid decided upon war;
on the 1 2th of December the Swedish marshal Lennart Torstens-
son, advancing from Bohemia, crossed the northern frontier of
Denmark; by the end of January 1644 the whole peninsula of
Jutland was in his possession. This totally unexpected attack,
conducted from first to last with consummate ability and
lightning-like rapidity, had a paralysing effect upon Denmark.
Fortunately, in the midst of almost universal helplessness and
confusion, Christian IV. knew his duty and had the courage
to do it. In his sixty-sixth year he once more displayed some-
thing of the magnificent energy of his triumphant youth. Night
and day he laboured to levy armies and equip fleets. Fortunately
too for him, the Swedish government delayed hostilities in
Scania till February 1644, so that the Danes were able to
make adequate defensive preparations and save the important
fortress of Malmd. Torstcnsson, too, was unable to cross from
Jutland to Fiinen for want of a fleet, and the Dutch auxiliary
fleet which came to his assistance was defeated between the
islands of Sylt and ROnnd on the west coast of Schlcswig by the
Danish admirals. Another attempt to transport Torstcnsson
and his army to the Danish islands by a large Swedish fleet was
frustrated by Christian IV. in person on the 1st of July 1644.
On that day the two fleets encountered off Kolbcrgc Heath, S.E.
of Kiel Bay, and Christian displayed a heroism which endeared
him ever after to the Danish nation and made his name famous in
song and story. As he stood on the quarter-deck of the " Trinity"
a cannon close by was exploded by a Swedish bullet, and splinters
of wood and metal wounded the king in thirteen places, blinding
one eye and flinging him to the deck. But he was instantly on his
feet again, cried with a loud voice th.it it was well with him, and
set every one an example of duty by remaining on deck till the
fight was over. Darkness at last separated the contending fleets;
and though the battle was a drawn one, the Danish fleet showed
its superiority by blockading the Swedish ships in Kiel Bay."
But the Swedish fleet escaped, and the annihilation of the Danish
fleet by the combined navies of Sweden and Holland, after an
obstinate fight between Fehmam and Laaland at the end of
September, exhausted the military resources of Denmark and
compelled Christian to accept the mediation of France and the
United Provinces; and peace was finally signed at Brdmscbro
on the 8th of February 1645.
The List years of the king were still further embittered by
sordid differences with his sons-in-law, especially with the most
ambitious of them, Korflts Ulfold. On the 21st of February
164S, at his earnest request, he was carried in a Utter from
Frcdriksborg to his beloved Copenhagen, where he died a week
later. Christian IV. wa* a good linguist, speaking, besides hii
native tongue, German, Latin, French and Italian. Naturally
cheerful and hospitable, he delighted in lively society; but he
was also passionate, irritable and sensual. He had courage,
a vivid sense of duty, an indefatigable love of work, and all
the inquisitive zeal and inventive energy of a born reformer.
Yet, though of the stuff of which great princes are made, he
never attained to greatness. His own pleasure, whether it took
the form of love or ambition, was always his first consideration.
In the heyday of his youth his high spirits and passion for
adventure enabled him to surmount every obstacle with elan.
But in the decline of life he reaped the bitter fruits of his lack
of self-control, and sank into the grave a weary and broken-
hearted old man.
Sec Life (Dan.), by H. C. Bering Liishcnrand A. L. Larscn (Copen-
hagen, 1890-1801); Letters (Dan.), ed. Carl Frcderik Bricka and
iulius Albert Fridcricia (Copenhagen, 1878); Danmarks Rial
Hstorie, vol. 4 (Copenhagen, 1 89 7- 1 905); Robert Nisbet Bam,
Scandinavia, cap. vii. (Cambridge, 1905). (R. N. B.)
CHRISTIAN V. (1646-1699), king of Denmark and Norway,
the son of Frederick III. of Denmark and Sophia Amelia of
.-* :h3L5tl»n ytl-ix.
— ~- :.- ~— ~z z zs ■ z :-: — - -.-.-_- -i—v-sri. T*: zrzx susxconed by the commissioners
- - : ■: - -..-:_— .— . ^ — -. :. *~: .. Z:fxzzz^zz, 10 bring about a union between
- — r— ..... _r: -_ __ r* ■_== z ^..r-izic »:th the terms of the treaty
z _-_:-j.i zz . -i- -:- - ■-.— :: I-:i=urk, he replied that, as a
... _: -= — . z-.- r - — — ^zz. :- z:^z ::• z:'±iz% without the consent
— -. - .i. — :_ . .r -- -.-.• . zz r.= ;ci^:a cf which a suspension of
- ..-.-z. r: _.— r . _.:= - -. zzz- ; f *rizz *ii the condition precedent
. = ,=sr. ii : - — i^. "_=_■ z 7 r:z z. _«:zi. a short campaign ensued,
- -r. __r . : .l^r_ _ ^ -ii ^=il- i •:.-;:,-- by the superior skill and
....... .i . i= — : r *-_ ;—cs rer^adotte). The LrM
__ _ .. -=i z^_- -.z-:— .-- -■ "jc r:z*«£z^on of Moss on the
.. : . __r_- — -•--: > 5*. *t: Hilary). Henceforth
. - -t — _ _r---M _zr..rz^._ ;r_i:;la made him person
— _. . . -_ zi —Z..-—ZJJ- I_r:pcan courts, his own
.. js -r. l.- x.-:-i — lie. Caroline Amelia
.-._:. _rt. --.= — =— —- : - :::■ L-vcd in comparative
. -•* - : ^ ^r -j T. -- . -V- zz± scientific society
-. ;__^_ -. .-=_-- :.. . ; : ■J^.t eld King Frederick
. -- :_r.:. . _ •-•- ."■= :ie 15th of December
. - - - .• . . iz I -iz —- 1£ n Jirisiian VIII. The
•_ -.:--■ -r ." -m £>:? cf constitutions/'
- . rr :■• :::z±ly rejecting every
- - -. - _— r: ■ -. r= tij :hc only reform
- » _. --.tza r- - - : ~.cc-:cjcziz5 on the ;ota
*-•..-•_""■-.-"- --..- *'..-r.i- Copenhagen, 184S);
.* "I-— '" ..".-._.— -, .. _.._-. •_-• . — . : .--« r^rar-.nia. l&te-l6o6j.
22LrTTJ*i n. - . . : . I'.zsirk. was a younger
-- ". r. . — ^ . -— : :■ -■ :- .- _:->:- ierburg-Gliicki-
• - . . _■— • .-.?• - .. := I iz_si Ling Christian
z. ■ -._•%._ .-• - . .~^— -:<- prince of Hcsse-
- -- : - ■-""- __-. . -:. -- . . .--- ~ - 5-t? Frederick V.
--"•-- . • - z --. - •- ■ .~ir-s^aa entered the
"-■*—" _ — _- _ . jr "z --- r - ~i . z.s -LzzJ.y served with
.._..- - . .- — ^;_-_ : r . > j: r.;^.r - . _'.-; .:. j^urrcction of 184S;
— - .. r. «ii . --..-^.^-^ .... -• :-_:-.• «j:*.:l about 185 J,
- * - - *■" -- .: _- -* r ^1 t:--:--?: ■ .: *- —^ *:^: 5^-8), daughter
— ""- — = - .^." — r "- " : - ^•■■- A - -- : " — - ccusin of King
-"— " " "^ — -■ r - £ ~ ;~ "- ™ - --- •- -^s -~- - "■■ -r^rzuve that satis-
- " - " —'■ . ■ j-^ ..--■-".. : .- :«. r- :.•-.- .: -. ;.>^:z to the Danish
- - =■ - - - -'- ■'- - "*~fj^ --' --■ 7: *:r-_-z <_t; J~:-.r:.% • II . -*-rs childie&s, aad
.„ •.;.---:- — ; ""-* jj --r^*-. -i^ ^ .: .re r-i: •>■*■;-* -:: in London and
-zLJz- . " ^ - ■" »" - .: .. ; ^ r- v- ■: 7-.:.-; ;.:.-.- -iz i": -_* TJ'e vMay 185J),
.— -- " — —"\ z ~~ m ~"^ ~ z-~nzz"T -z- ti_: :e.---. r:-. 1 l:o li-r of Denmark id
■ ■_- . - - -■ - - * —^ —^ - ri - = -—!--— -::• 7 Ii: zn':K..mzr^ l» C' m ry :z ~zi< scn:ctimes callcl,
u-zzz'^rz zzA zzr-z-z :z Jrr::-.i? ::zz :- November 1S63,
* • . ■ ■ • - ' - ■*■"•- •" Sfmi '-*?*. ;~^r ir: xu 1: :-«.->; u^.: '::• ::—.:::": ^^.^u<s. Reluctantly
^J- r - ■ . : J* "^- J "-, i; liMi::-: :: "3: ;•:_.-> -~i.;z\ ..: :; »ar »::h the combined
• " \ t r m \J ili"-. w"* 7 ."•«! ;«:t:.-:' ^ \-=^-i 2-:: ?r_£i:- i.-::: -.:-.- x^ara^on of thcduchiei
7 . " : . " c: Sc^-fs-s-.r. H:J:eJi ir: Li-.r.rjr- :'n?a Denmark (see
"1^.. *T— ""-.-- t • i^- ■•T-esrarkaziN'rrwiy. >3isf*:>K:LSTS»- Crsi:::v V. ;:h:z the narrowed limiu
aiL * fc -"7/ T - t-: - - ^srzi. \zi 5<;Li Frfricrlra cf Li i:-rf:r. O^srlar's c.:r:rJ-J« * t rc more protracted and
-*V ""^ *" " Z. Z"."i -- v':-.-- -- -J:* :i:h cf S<^:?=te? hardly lew scries. Durinit al.r.-rs: the v»ho!c of his reign the
- » •— J -* - ""^T.ll" "."." . ."" '=."."" -V—-J i -V. ta:*r.:s of hj Dir.es were e-ciged is a peptics! s-.mgjle between the " Right "
--. ;: . . .'--z~lz*i . . - --* ■ _"•" ".TVi'/wTrj^-e features and the - Left," the parry of order and the party of progress,
the former being supported in general by the Landsling, and
the latter by the F*kctir.g. The king's sympathies by with the
more conservative section of his subjects, and for many years
he was successful in preventing the Radicals from coming into
office. The march of events, however, was too strong for him,
and in iqox he assented in a dignified manner to the formation
of a " cabinet of the Left " (sec Denmark: History). In spite
of these political disturbances Christian's popularity with his
people grew steadily, and was enhanced by the patriarchal and
unique position which in his later years he occupied in Europe.
With his wife, often called " the aunt of all Europe," he was
, . H.i u.".:or.ur.atc first
.T--._i-~:>i -:••-* Frederica of M«ic.'cr.burg-
„Tf. .""•«.- "•, ": • .- z. I- May 1 -13 h< was sz-nt as
^L "Vf-I-lV* :he loyally of the Northmen
"^^"SiVbees ^e^/ rudely shaken by the
rf"F-*ieV:ck VI.'* adhesion to the falling
^X^-ca/Vdid all he could personally to
* ^^Tbetween the Norwegians and the royal
iai though his endeavours were opposed
^wty, which desired a dynamic union
***=*£=& at the head of the Norwegian
■i-»»*#rjbed recent of Norway by an
x.^*-jj(W 1-Vbru.«rv 1S14. *' M *
^^^.WV^VUI nl l.iil^vold on the
" * -* ^ "fcrj r >**hn u.14 i-K * tr.l kinK
^ mm ***Pmh hid *a«^'. fo»i
rrlatrrl to nearly all the European sovereigns. His eldest son
Frederick had married a daughter of Charles XV. of Sweden;
hi* mi ond !^>n George had been king of the Hellenes since 1863;
and hi> young, st »n Waldcmar (b. 185S) was married to Marie
d'OiK.m-. iMughter of Robert, due dc Chartres. Of his three
daughters, .Alexandra married Edward VII. of Great Britain;
CHRISTIAN, W.-CHRISTIANIA
279
iar (Mark), the tsar Alexander HI.; and Thyra, Ernest
Augustus, duke of Cumberland. One of his grandsons, Charles,
became king of Norway as Haakon VII. in 1905, and another,
Constantino, crown prince of Greece, married a sister of the
German emperor William II. Christian was also the ruler of
Iceland, where he was received with great enthusiasm when he
viaited the. island in 1874. He died at Copenhagen on the 29th
of January 1906, and was buried at Roskilde.
Sec Bajfod, Konr Kristian IX. 's Regerings-Dagbog (Copenhagen,
IS76): aix) Hans Majestet Kong Kristian IX. (Copenhagen, x888).
CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663), Manx politician, a son
of Ewan Christian, one of the Manx deemsters, was born on the
14th off April 1608, and was known as llliam Dkone, or Brown
William. In 1648 the lord of the Isle of Man, James Stanley,
7th earl of Derby, appointed Christian his receiver-general; and
when in 1651 the earl crossed to England to fight for Charles II.
he left him in command of the island militia. Derby was taken
prisoner at the battle of Worcester, and his famous countess,
Charlotte de la Tremouille, who was residing in Man, sought to
obtain her husband's release by negotiating with the victorious
parliamentarians for the surrender of the island. At once a
revolt headed by Christian broke out, partly as a consequence
of this step, partly owing to the discontent caused by some
agrarian arrangements recently introduced by the carl. The
rebels seized many of the forts; then Christian in his turn entered
into negotiations with the parliamentarians; and probably
owing to his connivance the island was soon in the power of
Colonel Robert Duckcnfield, who had brought the parliamentary
fleet to Man in October 1651. The countess of Derby was
compelled to surrender her two fortresses, Castle Rushcn and
Feel castle, while Christian remained receiver-general, becoming
governor of the island in 1656. Two years later, however, he
was accused of misappropriating some money; he fled to
England, and in 1660 was arrested in London. Having under-
gone a year's imprisonment he returned to Man, hoping that his
offence against the earl of Derby would be condoned under the
Act of Indemnity of 1661; but, anxious to punish his conduct,
Charles, the new carl of Derby, ordered his seizure; he refused
to plead, and a packed House of Keys declared that in this case
his life and property were at the mercy of the lord of the island.
The deemsters then passed sentence, and in accordance therewith
Christian was executed by shooting on the 2nd of January 1663.
This arbitrary act angered Charles II. and his advisers; the
deemsters and others were punished, and some reparation was
made to Christian's family. Christian is chiefly celebrated
through the Manx ballad Baase lUiatn Dkone, which has been
translated into English by George Borrow, and through the
references to him in Sir Walter Scott's Pcvcril of the Peak.
See A. W. Moore, History of the Isle of Man (1900).
CHRISTIAN OF BRUNSWICK (1509-1626), bishop of Halber-
stadt and a general during the earlier part of the Thirty Years'
War, a younger son of Henry Julius, duke of Brunswick- Wolfen-
battel, was born at Groningen on the 20th of September 1509.
Having succeeded his father as " bishop " of Halbcrstadt in 161 6,
he obtained some experience of warfare under Maurice, prince
of Orange, in the Netherlands. Raising an army he entered the
service of Frederick V., elector palatine of the Rhine, just after
that prince had been driven from Bohemia; glorying in his
chivalrous devotion to Frederick's wife Elizabeth, he attacked
the lands of the elector of Mainz and the bishoprics of Westphalia.
After some successes he was defeated by Tilly at Hfichst in June
1622; then, dismissed from Frederick's service, he entered that
of the United Provinces, losing an arm at the battle of Fleurus,
a victory he did much to win. In 1623 he gathered an army and
broke into lower Saxony, but was beaten by Tilly at Stadtlohn
and driven back to the Netherlands. When in 1625 Christian IV.,
king of Denmark, entered the arena of the war, he took the field
again in the Protestant interest, but after some successes he died
at WolfenbCittel on the 16th of June 1626. Christian, who loved
to figure as " the friend of God, the enemy of the priests," is
sometimes called " the mad bishop," and was a merciless, coarse,
and blasphemous man.
CHRISTIAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, the name assumed by a
religious organization founded at Zion City near Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A., in 1896, by John Alexander Dowic (q.v.). Its
members added to the usual tenets of Christianity a special
belief in faith-healing, and laid much stress on united consecra-
tion services and the threefold immersion of believers. To assist
Dowie, assistant overseers were appointed, and the operations
of the community included religious, educational and commercial
departments. Small branches sprang up in other parts of the
United States, Mexico, Canada, Europe and Australasia. At the
end of xooi there were nearly 12,000 baptized believers. After
1903 considerable dissension arose among Dowie's followers:
he was deposed in 1006; arid after his death (1907) the city
gradually became a community of normal type.
CHRISTIAN CONNECTION, a denomination of Christians in
North America formed by secession, under James O'Kelly (1735-
1826), of members of the Methodist Episcopal Church in North
Carolina in 1793. The movement resembled those under the
Campbells and Stone in Kentucky in 1 801-1804, and in Lyndon,
Vermont, among the Baptists in 1800. The predisposing cause
in each case was the desire to be free from the " bondage of
creed." Some of O'Kelly's followers joined the Disciples of
Christ (q.v.). Their form of church government is Congregational;
they take the Bible as the sole rule of faith and practice, and
while adopting immersion as the proper mode of baptism, freely
welcome Christians of every sect to their communion. They
number about 100,000 members, mainly in the states of Ohio,
Indiana and Illinois. The original scccders in Virginia and
North Carolina bore for a time the name " Republican Metho-
dists," and then called themselves simply "Christians," a
designation which with the pronunciation "Christ-yans" is still
often applied to them. Their position is curiously akin to that
outlined by William Chillingworth (q.v.) in his famous .work The
Religion of Protestants (163 7-1638).
CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOUR SOCIETIES, organizations formed
for the purpose of promoting spiritual life among young people.
They date from 1881, in which year Dr Francis E. Clark (q.v.)
formed a Young People's Society of Christian Endeavour in
his (Congregational) church at Portland, Maine, U.S.A. The
idea was taken up elsewhere in America and spread to other
countries, till, under the presidency of Dr Clark, a huge number
of affiliated societies came into operation throughout the world.
They take as their motto " For Christ and the Church," and have
done much, especially in the non-episcopal churches, to prepare
young men and women for active services in the Church. The
organization is international and interdenominational, a World's
Christian Endeavour Union being formed in 1895. The members do
not form a separate denomination, but remain attached to their re-
spective churches, being grouped in voluntary district federations.
CHRISTIANIA (officially Kristiania), the capital of Norway,
forming a separate county (amt), and the scat of a bishopric
(stift). Pop. (1901) 229,101. It lies on the south-eastern coast,
at the head of Christiania Fjord, about 80 m. from the open
waters of the Skagerrack, is 59° 54' N. (about the latitude of the
southern extremity of the Shetland Islands) and io° 45' E.,
mainly on the west bank of the small Akcr river. The situation
is very beautiful, pine-wooded hills rising sharply behind the
city, while several islands stud the fjord. The town is mainly
modern, having increased rapidly in and since the second half
of the 19th century, when brick and stone largely superseded
wood as the building material. It is the seat of government,
of the supreme courts, of the parliament (Storthing), and of a
university. The harbour is of two parts, the Bjorvik, where
the larger steamers lie, and the Pipcrvik, west of this. On the
promontory intervening between these two inlets stands the old
fortress of Akershus, occupied as an arsenal and prison, and
having a pleasant promenade upon its ramparts. Until 1710
it was a royal palace. At the head of the Bjorvik the principal
railway station (Hovtdbanegaard) stands in the Jernbanetorv
(railway square), and north-west from this runs the principal
street, Karl-Johans-gade. In . this street, passing the Vor
Frelsers Kirke (Church of our Saviour), the Storthings-Bygning
a8o
CHRISTIANITY
(parliament-bouse, 1866) it seen, facing a handsome square
planted with trees. Beyond this is the National theatre (1899),
with colossal statues of the dramatists Ibsen and Bjdrnsen.
It faces the Fridericiana University, housed in three buildings
dating from 1853, but founded by Frederick VI. of Denmark in
181 1, embracing the five faculties of theology, law, medicine,
history and philology, mathematics and natural sciences. The
equipment of the university is very complete: it has attached
to it a large and valuable library, natural history, ethnological
and numismatic collections, with one of Scandinavian anti-
quities; also botanical gardens and an observatory. The Karl-
Johans-gade gives upon the beautiful Slotspark, a wooded
elevation crowned with the royal palace (slot), a plain building
Completed in 1848. North of the university is the museum of
art, containing a noteworthy collection of sculpture and paintings
of ancient and modern foreign masters, and of native works.
The historical museum adjoining this contains northern antiqui-
ties, including two viking's ships, excavated, in 1867 and 1880
respectively, from the burial-places of the viking chiefs who
owned and, according to custom, were buried in them. Another
noteworthy collection is that of industrial art. The Bank of
Norway, the exchange, and the courts of law lie between the
harbours. Other institutions are the Freemasons' Lodge, housed
in one of the handsomest buildings in the city (1844), a conserva-
tory of music, naval, military and art schools, Athenaeum, and
the great Dampkjdkken or kitchen (1858), where dinners are
provided for the poor.
The suburbs of Christiania are attractive and rapidly growing.
On the east side of the river Aker is that of Oslo, with the existing
episcopal palace, and an old bishop's palace, in which James VI.
of Scotland (I. of England) was betrothed to Princess Anne of
Denmark (1 589) . In the environs of the city are the royal pleasure
castle of Oscarshal (1847-1852), on the peninsula Bygdtt (Ladu-
gaard) to the west of the city, and the Norw cgian national museum
(188 1), containing industrial and domestic exhibits from the
various provinces. Close at hand is an interesting collection of old
Norwegian buildings, brought here from all parts, and re-erected,
including an example of the timber church of the 12th century
{Stavckirkc). A collection of ancient agricultural implements is
also shown. On Hovedti (Head Island) in the fjord, immediately
opposite to the Akershus, are the ruins of a Cistercian monastery,
founded in 1x47 by monks from Kirkstead in Lincolnshire,
England, and burnt down in 1 53 2. There are sanatoria and inns
among the surrounding hills, on which beautiful gardens are laid
out, such as Hans Haugen, Frognersaeter, Holmcnkollen, where
the famous ski (snow-shoe) races are held in February, and
Vokscnkollen. Electric tramways connect the city and suburbs,
and local steamers run from the Pipervik, to the neighbouring
islands and fjord-side towns and villages.
Christiania has two railway stations, the Hovedbancgaard by
the Bjdrvik, and the Vestbanegaard by the Pipcrvik. From the
jirst trains run south to Fredrikshald and Gothenburg, east to
Charlottenberg and Stockholm, north to Hamar and Trondhjem,
and Otta in Gudbrandsdal, and to Gjdvik and the Valdres district.
From the west station start the lines to Drammcn, Laurvik,
Skicn and Kongsberg (for the Tclemark district). The eastward
extension of the railway between Bergen and Vosscvangcn,
undertaken in 1806, had as its ultimate object the connexion of
Christiania and Bergen by rail. With these extensive land
communications Christiania is at once the principal emporium
of southern Norway, and a favourite centre of the extensive
tourist traffic. Regular passenger steamers serve the port from
Hull, Newcastle, Grangemouth and London, from Trondhjem,
Bergen and the Norwegian coast towns, from Hamburg, Amster-
dam, Antwerp, &c. Except for two large shipbuilding yards, one
with a floating dock, the other with a dry dock, most of the
manufactories are concentrated in the suburb of Sagcne, on the
north side of the city, deriving their motive power from the
numerous falls of the river Akcr. They embrace factories for
cotton and woollen spinning and weaving, paper, flour, soap and
oil, bricks and tiles, matches, naUs (especially horse-shoe nails),
margarine, foundries and engineering shops, wood-pulp, tobacco,
matches, linen, glass, sail-cloth, hardware, gunpowder, chemicals,
with sawmills, breweries and distilleries. There is also a busy
trade in the preparation of granite paving-stones, and in the
storing and packing of ice. Imports greatly exceed exports, the
annual values being about 7 1 and 1 J millions sterling respectively.
The former consist principally of grain and flour, cottons and
woollens, coffee, iron (raw and manufactured), coal, bacon and
salt meat, oils, sugar, machinery, flax, jute and hemp, paper-
hangings, paints, colours, &c, wines and spirits, raw tobacco,
copper, zinc, lead and tin, silk, molasses and other commodities;
The principal exports are wood-pulp, timber, nails, paper, batter
and margarine, matches, condensed milk, fish, leather and hides,
ice, sealskins, &c. Of the imports, Great Britain supplies the
greater part of the cotton and woollen yarn, the machinery
(including ships), and the raw metals; the United States about
one-half of the oils and fats, and a large proportion of the' food-
stuffs, and skins, feathers, &c. Of the exports, almost the whole
of the timber goes to Great Britain, together with the larger
portion of the paper and food-stuffs (butter, &c). The harbour is
ice-bound for three or four months in the winter, when ships he at
Dr5bak, lower down the fjord; but ice-breakers are also used.
Early in 1899 the municipality voted £47,000 for the construction
of a pier, a harbour for fishing-boats, protected by a mole, and a
quay, 34 5 ft. long, on the shore underneath the Akershus. These
works signalized a great scheme of improvement, involving a
general rearrangement of the entire harbour. #
The present suburb of Oslo represents the original city, which
was founded on this site under that name (or Opslo) by Harald
Sigurdsson in 1048. By the close of the 14th century it was
established as the chief city of Norway. Trade was long
dominated by the powerful Hanscatic League, at least unto the
beginning of the x6th century. The town, built mainly of wood,
was no less subject to fires than all Norwegian towns have always
been, and after one of these King Christian IV. refounded the
capital on the new site it now occupies, and gave his name to it in
1624. JBy the close of the century it was fortified, but this did not
prevent Charles XII. from gaining possession of it in 17x6.
See L. Daae, Delgamle Christiania, 1624-1824 (Christiania, 1890);
Y. Nielsen, Christiania und Umgegena (Christiania, 1894); G.
Araneua, La Ville <U Christiania . . . Risumi historique, fire. (Chris*
tiania, 1900).
CHRISTIANITY, the religion which accepts Jesus Christ as
Lord and Saviour, embracing all who profess and call themselves
Christians, the terra derived from his formal title (xpotoi, U.
the anointed). Within this broad characterization are* found
many varieties of cult, organization and creed (see Church
History). Christianity is classed by the students of the science
of religion as a universal religion; it proclaims itself as intended
for all men without distinction of race or caste, and as in posses-
sion of absolute truth. In fact, Christianity has been widely
accepted by varied races in very different stages of culture, and it
has maintained itself through a long succession of centuries in
lands where the transformations in political structure, the
revolutions in social conditions, and the changes in science and
philosophy, have been numerous and extreme.
Beginning in Asia, Christianity extended itself rapidly through-
out the Roman empire and beyond its borders among the
barbarians. When the Empire in the 4th century adopted it, its
cult, organization and teaching were carried throughout the
western world. The influences and motives and processes
which led to the result were many and varied, but ultimately in
one way or another it became the religion of Europe and of the
nations founded by the European races beyond the seas and in
the northern part of Asia called Siberia. Beyond these bounds it
has not greatly prospered. The explanation of the apparent
bounding of Christianity by Europe and its offspring is not,
however, to be found in any psychological peculiarity separating
the European races from those of other continents, nor in any
special characteristic of Christianity which fits it for European
soil. For not only were its founder and bis disciples Asiatics,
and the original authoritative writings Semitic, but Asiatic tribes
and nations coming into Europe have been readily converted*
CHRISTIANITY
281
1 bi Asia too have achieved sufficient success to prove
Chat there exists no inherent obstacle cither in the gospel or in
the Asiatic mind. Moreover, Christianity was once represented
is Asia by a powerful organization extending throughout Persia
and central Asia into India (see Persia). Mutatis mutandis, the
same applies to Africa also, and Christianity still survives in both
continents in the Coptic, Abyssinian and Armenian Churches.
The explanation is rather to be sought in the political condition of
the early centuries of the Christian era, especially in the rise of
Mahommedanism. This may be regarded indeed as a form of
Christianity, for it is not more foreign perhaps to the prevailing
type than are some sects which claim the name. It exerted a
strong influence upon Europe, but its followers have been
peculiarly unsusceptible to missionary labours, and even in
Europe have retained the faith of the Prophet. In the limita-
tions of the Roman empire and in the separation of East and
West consequent upon its decline, Christianity, as a dominant
religion, was confined for a thousand years to Europe, and even
portions of this continent for centuries were in the hands of its
great foe. The East appeared as the Mahommcdan dominions,
and beyond these the continents of Asia and Africa were so
dimly discerned that little reciprocal influence was felt. Thus
the development of the two great civilized portions of the race in
Europe and Asia followed independent lines in religion as in all
dse; and Africa, excepting its northern border, was left un-
touched by the progress of enlightenment.
Not only is Christianity thus the religion of a wide variety of
races but across the divisions there cut other lines. In its
organization Christianity exists in three great divisions, Roman,
Creek and Protestant, and in various ancient sects in the Orient.
The Roman Catholic and Greek divisions of the Christian Church
are homogeneous in organization, but in Protestantism certain
denominations are national, established by differing govern-
ments, and others are independent of governmental aid, making
a large number of differing denominations. Some of these
divisions are mutually antagonistic, denying to each other the
same of Christian and even the hope of salvation.
According to a second classification, Christianity may be placed
among the " individual " religions, since it traces its origin, like
Islam and Buddhism, to an individual as its founder. This
beginning is not in the dimness of antiquity nor in a multitude
of customs, beliefs, traditions, rites and personalities, as is the
case with the so-called " natural " religions. It is not implied
that in the formation of the " natural " religions individuals
were not of great importance, nor, on the other hand, that in
Individual religions the founder formed his faith independently
of the community of which he was a part; but only that as
undoubted historic facts certain religions, in tracing their lines to
individuals, thereby acquired a distinctive character, and retain
the impress of their founder. Such religions begin as a reform
or a protest or revolt. They proclaim either a new revelation,
or the return to an ancient truth which has been forgotten or
distorted. They demand repentance and change of heart, i.e. the
renouncing of the ordinary faith of the community and the
acceptance of a new gospel. Thus demanding an act of will on
the part of individuals, they arc classed once more as " ethical "
religions. To be sure, the new is built upon the old — in part
unconsciously — and the rejection of the faith of the past, however
violent, is never thoroughgoing. In consequence the old affects
the new in various ways. Thus in Buddhism the presupposi-
tions which Buddha uncritically took over work out their
logical results in the Mahay an a, so that great sects calling
themselves " Buddhist " affirm what the Master denied and
deny what he taught. Christianity takes Judaism (see Hebrew
Religion) for granted— rejects it in part as a merely preparatory
stage, in part reinterprets it, and docs not submit what it accepts
to rigorous scrutiny. As a result the Old Testament (see Bible)
remains not only as the larger part of the Christian canon, but,
sometimes, in some churches, as obscuring its distinctive truth.
Moreover, in the transference of Christianity from the Jewish
to the Greek-Roman world again various elements were taken
mto it. More properly perhaps we might consider the Greek
and Roman civilization as the permanent element— so that the
relationship to it was not different from the relationship to
Judaism— in part it was denied, in part it was of purpose accepted,
in still larger part unconsciously the Greek-Roman converts took
over with them the presuppositions of their older world view —
and thus formed the moulds into which the Christian truth was
run. Here again, in some instances the pre-Christian elements
so asserted themselves as to obscure the new and distinctive
teaching.
Christianity, regarded objectively as one of the great religions
of the world, owes its rise to Jesus of Nazareth, In ancient
Galilee. (See Jesus Christ.) By reverent disciples
his ancestry was traced to the royal family of David, Jf jfj aa *
and his birth isascribed by the church to the miraculous ^,g t tfm
act of God. His life was spent, until the beginning
of his public ministry, in humble circumstances as the son of a
carpenter and his wife, Joseph and Mary. Of Joseph we hear
nothing after the boyhood of Jesus, who followed the same
trade, supporting himself and perhaps his mother and younger
brothers and sisters. Of this period we have only a few frag-
mentary anecdotes and a stray reference or two. At thirty
years of age he appeared in public, and after a short period
(we cannot determine how long, but possibly eighteen months)
he was crucified, upon the accusation of his countrymen, by the
Roman authorities. He was without technical education, but
he had been carefully trained in the sacred books, as was usual
with his people. Belonging neither to the aristocracy nor to
the learned class, he was one of the common people yet separate
from them — a separation not of race or caste or education, but
of unique personality.
His career is understood only in the light of his relations to
Judaism (see Hebrew Relicion). This faith, in a peculiarly
vivid fashion, illustrates the growth and development of religion,
for its great teachers in the highest degree possessed what the
Germans call God-consciousness. The Hebrew national literature
centres in the thought of God. It is Yahwch who is all and in all,
the father, the leader, the hope, the hero of his people. No other
national literature is so continuously and so highly religious.
Another factor gives it still greater interest for the student of
religion, — in it the progress of religious thought can be traced,
and the varying elements of the religious life seen in harmony
and in conflict.
In the early period the Hebrew religion was of the ordinary
Semitic type. In its ancient stories were remnants of primitive
religion, of tabu, of anthropomorphic gods, of native forms of
worship, of magic and divination, of local and tribal cults. Out
of these developed, by the labours of the prophets, a religion of
high spirituality and exalted ethical ideals. According to it
God demands not ritual nor sacrifice nor offerings. He docs not
delight in prayers and praise, but he demands truth in the soul
and bids man to walk humbly and deal righteously and mercifully
with his brother (Micah vi.6-8 ; Isa. L a- 20). He requires kindness,
forgiveness and loving sacrifice from all to all (Isa. lviii.3-12).
This conception of God revealed itself as so essential to the
prophets that their intense national feeling was modified. God
would not deliver Israel because it was his people, descended
from Abraham, his chosen, but he would punish it even more
severely than the other nations because it denied him by its sins
(Amos iii. 1-2). Yet Israel would not be destroyed, for a
spiritual remnant, loving and obeying God, would be saved and
purified (Ezck. xxxvi.-xxxvii.). Thus Israel survived its mis-
fortunes. When the national independence was destroyed,
the prophetic teaching held the people together in the hope of
a re-establishment of the Kingdom when all nations should be
subject to it and blessed in its everlasting reign of righteousness
and peace (Isa. xlix., lx.).
Some of the prophets associated the restoration of the Kingdom
with the coming of the Messiah, the anointed one, who should
re-establish the line of David (Isa. ix. 6 f., xi. if.; Micah v. 2;
Ezek. xxxiv. 23, xxxvii. 24; Zcch. ix. 9; Ps. ii. 72). Others
said nothing of such a one, but seemed to expect the regenera-
tion of Israel through the labours, sufferings and triumphs of
282
CHRISTIANITY
the righteous remnant (Isa. lib*., Exek. xxxvL-xxxvii.). By the
strong emphasis upon righteousness, the tribal Lord of Isrtfel was
revealed as the universal God, of one relationship to all men.
This monotheism was not primarily cosmologies! nor meta-
physical, but ethical. The Jews showed little capacity for abstract
reasoning and never pursued their inquiries to the discovery of
ultimate principles. Thus they did not develop a systematic
cosmology, nor formulate a system of metaphysics. Their
religion was pre-eminently " theocratic "; God was thought
of as King, enthroned in heaven and supreme. In the beginning
as a tribal deity his powers were limited and he was involved
in the fortunes of his people. But as the conception of Yahweh
was deepened and broadened, and, especially after the develop-
ment of ethical monotheism, not only was he believed to possess
power sufficient to ensure the triumph of his chosen people, but
to be the creator and ruler of all things in heaven and on earth,
the God whom all peoples should worship and obey.
But the prophetic teaching was obscured in part, by the
nationalism of the prophets themselves, who exalted Israel as at
once God's instrument and the peculiar object of his love; and
in part by the triumph of a legal-ritualistic sacrificial system.
In the downfall of Jerusalem, the experiences of the exile in
Babylon, and the return to Judaea, the nation was transformed
into a church. Apart from the brief Maccabacan period, the
intense patriotism of the people centred in the ecclesiastical organ-
ization. As a result, cult and organization and code hardened,
forming a shell which proved strong enough to resist all dis-
integrating tendencies. Inevitably the freedom, spirituality and
universality of the prophetic teaching were obscured. In the
ist century a.d. the national and priestly elements controlled;
doubtless many individuals still were faithful to the purer
prophetic message, though also zealous for the system of ritual
and sacrifice, but for the ruling majority ritualistic service was the
chief thing, justice, purity and mercy being subordinate. Hence
In their view all who did not participate in the national worship
and conform to the national usages were outcasts. The triumph
of Israel was to be accomplished by the miraculous power of a '
Messiah who should descend out of heaven. His coming was
delayed, in part by the opposition of demons, in part by the
failure of the people to obey the law. This law embraced both
moral and ceremonial elements derived from varied sources, but
in the apprehension of the people it was all alike regarded as of
divine origin. It was to be obeyed without question and without
inquiry as to its meaning, because established by God. It was
contained in the Sacred Scriptures (see Bible: Old Testament),
which had been revealed by God supernaturally, and its meaning
was set forth by schools of learned men whose interpretations
were authoritative. The conception of salvation was mingled
with ideas derived from the East during and after the period of
captivity. The priesthood held still the ancient ideas. Salvation
was for the nation, and the individual was not necessarily
participant in it. Life after death was disbelieved or held as the
existence of shades. There could be no resurrection of the body
and no immortality (in the Greek sense). With these beliefs
were associated a certain worldlincss and want of fervour. The
more actively and aggressively religious party, on the other hand,
adopted the belief in the resurrection of the body, and in the
individual's participation in the Messiah's kingdom; all the
pious would have their share in it, while the wicked would be
outcast. But these doctrines were variously conceived. By
some the Messianic kingdom was thought of as permanent, by
others as intermediary, the external kingdom being transcendent.
So too some thought of a literal resurrection of the body of flesh
and blood, while others thought that it would be transformed.
The rudiments of some of these ideas can be found in the prophets,
out their development took place after the exile, and indeed for
the most part after the conclusion of the writings accounted
S3h JS Z n«^TT d ° ( l 5? **?*<' lW »* "* references to
^iT^We^^^^^^^^^^the
Jesus completed the prophetic teachings. He employed' the
old phraseology and imagery, but he was conscious that he used
them in a new sense, and that he preached a new gospel
of great joy. Jesus was not a historian, a critic or a j^L
theologian. He used the words of common men in the •/*«■&
tense in which common men understood them. He did
not employ the Old Testament as now reconstructed by scholar-
ship or judged by criticism, but in its simple and obvious and
traditional sense. And his background is the intellectual and
religious thinking of his time. The ideas of demons and of the
future, of the Bible and many other traditional conceptions, are
taken over without criticism. So the idea of God which he sets
forth is not that of a theologian or a metaphysician, but that
of the unlearned man which even the child could understand
Yet though thus speaking in untechnical language, he revolution-
ized his terms and filled them with new meaning. His emphasis is
his own, and the traditional material affords merely the setting
for his thought He was not concerned with speculative
questions about God, nor with abstract theories of his relation-
ship to the soul and to the world. God's continual presence, his
fatherly love, his transcendent righteousness, his mercy, his good
ness, were the facts of immediate experience. Not in proofs by
formal logic but in the reality of consciousness was the certainty
of God. Thus religion was freed from all particular and national
elements in the simplest way. For Jesus did not denounce these
elements, nor argue against them, nor did he seek converts outside
of Israel, but he set forth communion with God as the most
certain fact of man's experience and as simple reality made it
accessible to every one. Thus his teaching contains the note of
universality—not in terms and proclamations but as plain matter
of fact. His way for others to this reality is likewise plain and
level to the comprehension of the unlearned and of children.
For him repentance is put first, for how vastly changed is the
conception of the religious life I The intricacies of ritual and
theology are ignored, and ancient laws which contradict the
fundamental beliefs are unhesitatingly abrogated or denied.
He seizes upon the most spiritual passages of the prophets, and
revives and deepens them. He sums up his teaching in supreme
love to God and a love for fellow-man like that we hold for
ourselves (Mark xii. 20-31). This supreme love to God is a
complete oneness with him in will, a will which is expressed is
service to our fellow-men in the simplest and most natural
relationship (Luke x. 25-37). Thus religion is ethical through and
through, as God's inner nature, expressed in forgiveness, mercy,
righteousness and truth, is not something transcendental, but
belongs to the realm of daily life. Wc become children of God
and he our Father in virtue of a moral likeness (Matt. v. 43-48),
while of any metaphysical, or (so to speak) physical relationship
to God Jesus says nothing. With this clearly understood, man is
to live in implicit trust in the divine love, power, knowledge and
forgiveness. Hence he attains salvation, being delivered from
sin and fear and death, for the divine attributes are not ontologies!
entities to be discussed and defined in the schools, but they are
realities, entering into the practical daily life. Indeed they are
to be repeated in us also, so that wc are to forgive our brethren as
we ask to be forgiven (Matt. vi. 12; Luke xi. 4).
As religion thus becomes thoroughly ethical, so is the notion
of the Messianic kingdom transformed. Its essential character-
istic is the doing of the Father's will on earth as in heaven.
Jesus uses parable after parable to establish its meaning. It is
a seed cast into the ground which grows and prospers (Matt
xiii. 31-32). It is a seed sown in good ground and bringing
forth fruit, or in bad ground and fruitless (Luke viii. 5-8; Mark
iv. 1-32). It is a pearl of great price for which a man should seU
all that he possesses (Matt. xiii. 44-46). It is not come " with
observation," so that men shall say " lo here and lo there H
(Luke xvii. 20-21). It is not of this world, and does not possess
the characteristics or the glory of the kingdom of the earth
(Luke xxii. 24-26; Mark x. 13-16). It is already present among
men (Luke xvii. 21). Together with these statements in our
sources are still mingled fragments of the more ordinary cata-
clysmic, apocalyptic conceptions, which in spite of much
CHRISTIANITY
283
ingenious exegesis, cannot be brought into harmony with Christ's
predominant teaching, but remain as foreign dements in the
word* of the Master, possibly brought back through his disciples,
•r, mote probably, used by Jesus uncritically— a part of the
current religious imagery in which he shared.
It is often declared that in these teachings there is nothing
new, and indeed analogies can be found for many sayings; yet
_ nowhere else do we gain so strong an impression of
— ^7 " originality. The net result is not only new but re-
volutionary; so was it understood by the Pharisees.
They and Jesus spoke indeed the same words and appealed to the
same authorities, but they rightly saw in him a revolutionist
who threatened the existence of their most cherished hopes.
The Messianic kingdom which they sought was opposed point
by point to the kingdom of which he spoke, and their God and
his Father— though called by the same sacred name— were
different Hence almost from the beginning of his public
ministry they constantly opposed him, the conflict deepening
into complete antagonism.
Jesus has already been termed unique, one of the common
people yet separated from them, and this description applies
to the breadth, depth and reality of his sympathy. In the meagre
records of his life there is evidence that he deemed no form of
suffering humanity foreign to himself. This was not a mere
sentiment, nor was his sympathy superficial, for it constituted
the essential characteristic of his personality — " He went about
doing good." In him the will of the Father for the redemption
of the race was incarnate. This led him into the society of those
outcasts who were condemned and rejected by the respectable
and righteous classes. In contemptuous condemnation he was
called the friend of the outcasts (Matt. xi. 19; Mark ii. 16-17),
and on his part he proclaimed that these sinners would enter into
the Kingdom of Heaven before the self-righteous saints (Matt.
ui. 31). Even the most repulsive forms of disease and sin drew
from him only loving aid, while he recognized in all other men
who laboured for the welfare of their fellows the most intimate
relationship to himself. These constituted his family, and these
were they whom his Father will bless.
Jesus recognized his unique position; he could not be ignorant
of his powers. Even the prophets had spoken in the name of
God; they accepted neither book nor priesthood as authoritative,
but uttered their truth as they were inspired to speak, and com-
manded men to listen and obey. As in Jesus the whole prophetic
line culminates, so docs its consciousness. Reverent toward the
Holy Scriptures, he spoke not as their expositor but with a
divine power which invests his words with immediate and full
authority. The prophets use the formula, "Thus saith the
Lord," but he goes beyond them and speaks in his own name,
" Amen, I say unto you." He knew himself as greater than the
prophets, indeed as him of whom the prophets spoke — the
Messiah. Only through this self-consciousness can we explain
his mission and the career of his disciples. The prophets up to
John foretold the coming of the kingdom (Matt. xi. n-13; Luke
xvi. 16), but Jesus opened its doors and made possible entrance
into it. Where he is there it is, and hence those who follow him
are God's children, and those who refuse his message are left out-
side in darkness. He is to sit as enthroned, judge and king, and
by him is men's future to be determined (Matt. xxv. 31 f.; Mark
xiiL 26). Indeed it was his presence more than his teaching
which created his church. Great as were his words, greater was
his personality. His disciples misunderstood what he said,
but they trusted and followed him. By him they felt themselves
freed from sin and fear — and under the influence of a divine
power.
Though his claims to authoritative pre-eminence thus took
him out of the class of prophets and put him even above Elijah
and Moses (Mark ix. 2-7; Luke vii. 28; Luke x. 23-24),
AMjiufc ant * lnou 8 n naturally this self-assertion seemed
Ah. blasphemous to those who did not accept him, yet as
he had transformed the traditional notion of the
kingdom, so did he the current thought of the Messiah. The
pre-eminence was not to be of rank and glory but of service and
self-sacrifice. In his kingdom there can be no strife for pre-
cedence, since its King comes not to be ministered unto but to
minister and to give his life in the service of others (Mark ix.
33 f., x. 42-45). The formal acknowledgment of the Messiah's
worth and position matters little, for to call him Lord does not
ensure entrance into his kingdom (Matt. vii. 21-23). It is those
who fail to recognize the spirit of sympathy and self-sacrificing
service as divine and blaspheme redeeming love, who arc in
danger of eternal sin (Mark ii i. 28-29). All who do the will of
the Father, i.e. who serve their fellows, are the brethren of Christ,
even though they do not call him Lord (Mark iii. 31-35; Matt,
vii. 21): and those arc blessed who minister to the needy even
though ignorant of any relation to himself (Matt. xxv. 37-40).
Finally, membership in his own selected company, or a place
in the chosen people, is not of prime importance (Mark ix. 38-40;
Luke xiii. 24-30).
Jesus also refuses to conform to the current ideas as to the estab-
lishment of the kingdom. He wrought miracles, it is true, because
of his divine sympathy and compassion, but he refused to show
miraculous signs as a proof of his Messianic character (Mark
viii. 1 2). The tradition of the people implied a sudden appearance
of the Messiah, but Jesus made no claims to a supernatural
origin and was content to be known as the son of Joseph and Mary
(Mark vi. 3-4). His kingdom is not to be set up by wonders and
miraculous powers, nor is it to be established by force (Matt,
xxvi. 52). Such means would contradict its fundamental
character, for as the kingdom of loving service it can be estab-
lished only by loving service. And as God is love, he can be
revealed not by prodigies of power but only by a love which is
faithful unto death.
Even the disciples of Jesus could not grasp the simplicity and
profundity of his message; still less could his opponents. When
the crisis came, he alone remained unshaken in his faith. He was
accused of blasphemy to the ecclesiastical authorities and of
insurrection to the civil rulers. He was condemned and crucified.
His followers were scattered every man to his own place as sheep
without a shepherd. Of his work nothing remained, not a
written word, nor more than the rudiments of an organization.
The decisive event, which turned defeat into victory and re-
established courage and faith, was the resurrection of Jesus from
the dead and his reappearance to his disciples. Our sources will
not permit the precise determination of the order or the nature of
these appearances, but in any case from them arose the faith
which was the basis of the Christian Church and the starting-
point of its theology.
The death of Jesus as a criminal, and his resurrection, pro-
foundly aroused the belief and hopes of the little group of Jews
who were his followers. His person and mission assumed the
first place in their a flections and their thinking. He had been to
them a prophet, mighty in word and deed, but he now becomes
to them the Messiah, Christ. It is not his word but his person
which assumes first place, and faith is acceptance of him—
crucified and risen — as Messiah. Hence his followers early
acquire the name Christians from the Greek form of the word.
With this emphasis upon the Messiah the Jewish clement would
seem to be predominant, but as a matter of fact it was not so.
The earlier group of disciples, it is true, did not appreciate the
universality of the teaching of Jesus, and they continued zealous
for the older forms, but St Paul through his prophetic conscious-
ness grasped the fundamental fact and became Jesus' true
interpreter. As a result Christianity was rejected by the Jews
and became the conquering religion of the Roman empire.
In this it underwent another modification of far-reaching
consequence.
In our earliest sources— the epistles of St Paul— Christ is the
pre-existcnt man from heaven, who had there existed in the form
of God, and had come to earth by a voluntary act of chthtlam*
self-humiliation. He is before and above all things, hymai
By him all things exist. In the Johanninc writings he Q m*
is the Son of God — the Logos who in the beginning was ***■«***■
with God — of whom are all things — who lightens every man — and
who was incarnate in Jesus. Here the cosmological element is
284
CHRISTIANITY
again made prominent though not yet supreme, and the meta-
physical problems arc so close at hand that their discussion is
imperative. Even in Paul the term Messiah thus had lost its
definite meaning and became almost a proper name. Among the
Greek Christians this process was complete. Jesus is the " Son of
God"; and the great problem of theology becomes explicit
Religion is in our emotions of reverence and dependence, and
theology is the intellectual attempt to describe the object of
worship. Doubtless the two do not exactly coincide, not only
because accuracy is difficult or even impossible, but also because
elements are admitted into the definition of God which are
derived from various, sources quite distinct from the religious
experience. Like all concepts the meaning of religious terms is
changed with a changing experience and a changing world-view.
Transplanted into the Greek world-view, inevitably the Christian
teaching was modified — indeed transformed. Questions which
had never been asked came into the foreground, and the Jewish
presuppositions tended to disappear. Especially were the
Messianic hopes forgotten or transferred to a transcendent
sphere beyond death. When the empire became Christian in the
jth century, the notion of a kingdom of Christ on earth to be
introduced by a great struggle all but disappeared, remaining
only as the faith of obscure groups. Immortality— the philo-
sophical conception — took the place of the resurrection of the
body. Nevertheless the latter continues because of its presence
in the primary sources, but it is no longer a determining factor,
since its presupposition — the Messianic kingdom on earth — has
been obscured. As thus the background is changed from Jewish
to Greek, so arc the fundamental religious conceptions.
The Semitic peoples were essentially theocratic in their
religion; they used the forms of the sensuous imagination in
setting forth the realities of the unseen world. They were not
given to metaphysical speculation, nor long insistent in their
inquiries as to the meaning and origin of things. With the
Greeks it was far otherwise. For them ideas and not images set
forth fundamental reality, and their restless intellectual activity
would be content with nothing else than the ultimate truth.
Their speculation as to the nature of God had led them gradually
to separate him by an infinite distance from all creation, and to
feel keenly the opposition of the finite and the infinite, the perfect
and the imperfect, the eternal and the temporal. To them,
therefore, Christianity presented itself not primarily as the
religion of a redemption through the indwelling power of a risen
saviour, as with Paul, nor even as the solution of the problem how
the sins of men could be forgiven, but as the reconciliation of the
antinomy of the intellect, indicated above. The incarnation
became the great truth: God is no longer separated by a measure-
less distance from the human race, but by his entering into
humanity he redeems it and makes possible its ultimate unity
with himself. Such lines of thought provoke discussion as to the
relationship of Jesus to God the Father, and, at a later period, of
the nature of the Holy Spirit who enters into and transforms
believers.
Greek philosophy in the second century a.d. had sunk for the
most part into scepticism and impotence; its original impulse
had been lost, and no new intellectual power took its place; only
in Alexandria was there a genuine effort make to solve the
fundamental problems of God and the world. Plato had made
God accessible to the highest knowledge as the transcendent idea,
remote from the world. For Aristotle, too, God in his essence is
far above the world and at most its first mover. The stoics, on
the other hand, taught his immanence, while the eclectics sought
truth by the mingling of the two ideas. They accomplished their
purpose ?n various ways, by distinguishing between God and bis
power— or by the notion of a hierarchy of super-sensible beings,
or in a doctrine which taught that the operations of nature are
tbemovement of pure spirit; or by the use of the " Word " of
*^°»t" half personified as intermediate between God and
♦ Zw*?*' 1- ^*k these monotheistic, pantheistic doctrines were
taught In the school*, the people were left to a debased polytheism
ao^ n iSL"T" Utl0n, J!! Wpon « i from * h * Orient; the philo-
sophers themselves were by no means unaffected by the popular
beliefs. Mingled with all these were the andent legends of g<
and heroes, accepted as inspired scripture by the people, and
philosophers in part explained away by an allegorical exegesis a
in part felt increasingly as a burden to the intelligence. In t
period of degeneracy there were none the less an awakening
religious needs and a profound longing for a new revelation
truth, which should satisfy at once the intellect and the religk
emotions.
Christianity came as supplying a new power; it freed phi
sophy from scepticism by giving a definite object to its effc
and a renewed confidence in its mission. Monotheism hencefo
was to be the belief not of philosophers only but even of 1
ignorant, and in Jesus Christ the union of the divine and 1
human was effected. The Old Testament, allcgorically explain
became the substitute for the outgrown mythology; intellect
activity revived; the new facts gained predominant influei
in philosophy, and in turn were shaped according to its cano
In theology the fundamental problems of ontological philosop
were faced; the relationship of unity to multiplicity, of noumer
to phenomena, of God to man. The new clement is the histori
Jesus, at once the representative of humanity and of God.
in philosophy, so now in theology, the easiest solution of I
problem was the denial of one of its factors: and successhr
these efforts were made, until a solution was found in the doctr
of the Trinity, which satisfied both terms of the equation a
became the fundamental creed of the church. Its moulds
thought are those of Greek philosophy, and into these were 1
the Jewish teachings. Wc have thus a peculiar combinatioi
the religious doctrines of the Bible, as culminating in the pen
of Jesus, run through the forms of an alien philosophy.
The Jewish sources furnished the terms Father, Mcssi
Son and Spirit. Jesus seldom employed the last term, and
Paul's use of it is not altogether clear. Already in j^
Jewish literature it had been all but personified (cf. 4octt
the Wisdom of Solomon). Thus the material is Jewish, •**
though already modified doubtless by Greek influence. w-
But the problem is Greek. It is not primarily ethical nor ei
religious, but it is metaphysical. What is the ontological relali
ship between these three factors? The answer is given in '
Nicene formula, which is characteristically Greek. By It
perceive how God, the infinite, the absolute, the eternal, is yet :
separated from the finite, the temporal, the relative, but, throt
the incarnation, enters into humanity. Wc further see how t
entering into humanity is not an isolated act but continues in
the children of God by the indwelling spirit. Thus, accord
to the canons of the ancient philosophy, justice is done to all
factors of our problem — God remains as Father, the infinit
remote and absolute source of all; as Son, the Word whe
revealed to man and incarnate in him; as Spirit, who dwells r
in our own souls and by his substance unites us to God.
While thus the Greek philosophy furnished the dialectic 1
the mould for the characteristic Christian teaching, the docti
of the Trinity preserved religious values. By Jesus the disd]
had been led to God, and he was the central fact of faith. Al
the resurrection he was the object of praise, and soon prayers *
offered in his name and to him. Already to the apostle Paul
dominates the world and is above all created things, visible 1
invisible, so that he has the religious value of God. It is not (
as abstract, infinite and eternal, as the far-away creator of
universe, or even as the ruler of the world, which Paul worsh
but it is God revealed in Jesus Christ, the Father of Jesus Chi
the grace and mercy in Jesus Christ which deliver from e
Metaphysics and speculative theories were valueless for P»
he was conscious of a mighty power transforming his own
and filling him with joy, and that this power was identical v
Jesus of Nazareth he knew. In all this Paul is the represenUt
of that which is highest and best in early Christianity. Spec
tion and hypcrspirit utilization were ever tending to obsc
this fundamental religious fact: in the interest of a hia
doctrine of God his true presence in Jesus was denied, and
exaggeration of Paul's doctrine of " Christ in us " the signifies
of the historic Jesus was given up. The Johannine wrJtii
CHRISTIANITY
285
which presupposed the Pauline mow n.cnl, arc a protest against
the hypcrspLritualizing tendency. They insist, that the Sod of
God has been incarnate in Jesus of Nazareth, and that our hands
have handled and our eyes have seen the word of life. This same
purpose, namely, to hold fast to the historic Jesus, triumphed
ia the doctrine of the Trinity; Jesus was not to be resolved
into an aeon or into some mysterious tertium quid, neither Cod
aor man, but to be recognized as very God who redeemed the
soul. Through him men were to understand the Father and
to understand themselves as Cod's children. Thus the doctrine
of the Trinity satisfied at once the philosophic intelligence of
scholars and the religious needs of Christians. Only thus can its
adoption and ultimate acceptance be explained. Its doctrinal
form is the philosophic statement of beliefs held by the common
people, who had little interest in theology, but whose faith
centred in Jesus. It marks the naturalization of Christianity
in the Greek world for the common people who believed in Christ,
and for the philosophers who justified the faith to reason.
The historic and religious values of the doctrine of the Trinity
may be illustrated by way of contrast. The Mahayana systems
are the union of Buddha's teacliing with the forms of the Brah-
man philosophy. The historic Buddha — the man Gautama —
» taught as only one of a limitless series of incarnations or
(better) appearances. For his life on earth with his material
body was only an appearance, a seeming, a phenomenon, and
simultaneously with its activities the true Buddha existed
unmoved and eternal. Thus the way was opened for other
apparitional Buddhas, and different sects take different ones
as the objects of faith and worship. Moreover, our true nature is
also Buddha. The conscious life of all men is apparitional and
illusive. Salvation is the comprehension of this fact, and in the
apprehension of our essential oneness with the absolute. Hence
the way of salvation is by knowledge. In the Mahayana
gnosticism was triumphant, and the historic values of Gautama's
teaching and personality arc lost. The Mah.lyana illustrates
in part what would have followed the triumph of gnosticism
in Christianity, for not only would the historic value of the life
and teaching of Jesus have been lost, but with it the significance
of humanity.
It is apparent that such a doctrine as the Trinity is itself
susceptible of many explanations, and minds differently con-
stituted lay emphasis upon its different elements. Especially
is this true as its Greek terminology was translated into Latin,
and from Latin came into modern languages — the original
meaning being obscured or disguised, and the original issues
forgotten. For some the first thought of God, the infinite and
ultimate reality lying beyond and behind all phenomena, pre-
dominates. With these the historic manifestation of Jesus
becomes only a guide to lead us to that immediate apprehension
of God which is the end of theology, and to that immediate union
with God which is the end of religion. Such an end is accom-
plished either by means of pure thought or by a oneness of pure
feeling, giving as results the theological or philosophical con-
struction of the concept God, or a mystical ecstasy which is itself
at once immediate, inexplicable and indescribable. On the other
hand, minds of a different and more concrete character so
emphasize the distinctions God, Son and Holy Spirit, that a
tritheistic construction appears — three individuals in the one
Godhead: these individuals appearing, as for example in the
Father and the Son, even in opposition to each other. In general
we may say then that the Trinity takes on four differing aspects
in the Christian church: in its more common and easily appre-
hended form as three Gods, in its ecclesiastical form as a mystery
which is above reason to be accepted by faith, in its philosophic
form as the highest reason which solves the ultimate problems
of the universe, and finally, as a mode by which the spirit through
an emotional content enters into communion with God himself.
To some Christians the doctrine of the Trinity appeared
inconsistent with the unity of God which is emphasized in the
Scriptures. They therefore denied it, and accepted Jesus Christ,
not as incarnate God, but as God's highest creature by whom
all else was created, or as the perfect man who taught the true
doctrine of God. The first view in the early Church long con-
tended with the orthodox doctrine, but finally disappeared,
and the second doctrine in the modern Church was set forth as
easily intelligible, but has remained only as the faith of sects
relatively small in number.
Allied with the doctrine of God which seeks the solution of the
ultimate problem of all philosophy, the doctrine of salvation has
taken the most prominent place in the Christian faith: TA#
so prominent, indeed, that to a large portion of believers 4oetHm
it has been the supreme doctrine, and the doctrine of the •"*•
deity of Jesus has been valued only because of its **•**
necessity on the effect of the atonement. Jesus alone of the great
founders of religion suffered an early and violent death, even the
death of a criminal. It became therefore the immediate task of
his followers to explain this fact. This explanation was the more
urgent because under the influence of Jewish monotheism the
rule of God was accepted as an undoubted presupposition, so that
the death of Jesus must be in accordance with his wiU. The early
Church naturally used the terms and phrases of the prophets.
He died the death of a criminal, not for his sins, but for ours.
Isaiah liii. was suggested at once and became the central ex-
planation: Christ is the suffering servant who is numbered with
the transgressors and who bears the sins of many.
Jesus faced this problem perhaps before the opening of his
ministry, certainly from his break with the ecclesiastical
authorities. As his violent death drew near, his words indicated
how he preserved his deep faith unshaken while yet recognizing
the seeming failure of his mission. He devotes himself more
exclusively to the little body of his faithful friends and commits
his mission to them. As his work is scaled by his death his body
is broken and his blood is shed for them. Through this is to come*
the victory which is denied to his life, as the seed cast into the
ground and dead brings forth fruit. Our hints arc few of Jesus'
teaching, but this much, at least, we cannot doubt unless we
suppose that death took him unawares, or that his explanation
of the impending fact took on some un-Jcwish form ; and further,
that the earliest tradition misrepresents him. But these hypo-
theses do not commend themselves, and we accept the tradition
that Jesus taught that his death was an atonement for others.
Beyond this the gospel does not go. Why vicarious suffering is
needed, or why the God who is the loving Father docs not
simply forgive, as in the parable of the prodigal son, is not asked.
For after all it is not theory which is central, but the fact of the
death, and the reason assigned is simply " for others."
In St Paul we find the beginnings of explanation, indeed of two
explanations, and in the Epistle to the Hebrews the wholo
sacrificial system is found to culminate in Christ, of whom all
priests and sacrifices are symbols, so that they arc abolished
with the coming of the great reality.
In the Greek world further questions arc raised and the thought
of the death as a ransom is prominent. To whom was the
ransom paid? For a thousand years the answer was " to the
devil." He had gained control of man by man's sin, and Christ
set man free. God then, who fa love, delivers us from evil
through Christ, who pays the penalty of our transgression to the
enemy of God and man. There were other theories also, indeed
the germs of all later theories existed even in the second century,
but this one prevailed. The heretic Marcion taught a variant,
namely, the existence of two Gods, one of the Old Testament of
law, the other of the New Testament of grace. Christ, unjustly
condemned by the God of law, is given as reparation for all men
who put their trust in him. From Ansclm's time (12th century
a.d.) this theory of Ma re ion's is held as orthodox in substance but
is made monotheistic in form. St Anselm denied that any penalty
was due to the devil, and in terms of feudal honour restated
the problem. The conflict here is in God himself, so to speak,
between his immutable righteousness and his limitless grace.
In the sacrifice of Jesus these arc reconciled. This doctrine of
St Ansclm's attaches itself readily to texts of St Paul, for his
teachings contain undeniably the vicarious propitiatory element.
These theories have to do with the being to whom the ransom
is paid or the sacrifice oflcrcd. Another group of theories deals
286
CHRISTIANITY
with the effect of the death of Christ upon the sinner. One of
these is the so-called governmental theory, wherein the death of
Christ is set forth as for the sake of good government, so that the
forgiveness of sins shall not be thought a sign of laxity. Again,
by other theologians the death of Jesus is extolled because of
the moral influence it exerts, since Christ's devotion unto death
incites a like devotion in us.
Excepting in relatively narrow circles these theories have
been seriously studied only by professed theologians. That Christ
died for us, and that we arc saved by him, is indeed the living
truth of the Church in all ages, and a false impression of the fact is
given by dwelling upon theories as if they were central. At best
they bear only the relationship of philosophy to life.
Another explanation, or (better) system of beliefs, has been
far more influential in the Church. Belief in mysterious powers
attached to food, feasts, ceremonial rites and sacred things is
all but universal. Primitive man seldom connects sacrifice with
notions of propitiation, indeed only in highly ethicized religions is
the consciousness of sin or of guilt pre-eminent. Sacrifice was
believed to exert an influence on the deity which is quasi-
physical, and in sacrificial feasts God and worshipper arc in
mysterious union. Sometimes, indeed, such contact with deity
is thought to be dangerous, and the rites indicate avoidance
(tabu), and sometimes it is thought desirable.
So universal are such ideas that the problem in particular
religions is not their origin but their form. In the Old Testament
repeatedly they are found in conflict with the prophetic ideals.
Sometimes the prophets denounce them, sometimes ignore them,
sometimes attempt to reform and control them. Jesus ignores
them, his emphasis being so strong upon the ethical and spiritual
that the rest is passed by. In the early Church, still Jewish, the
belief was in the coming of a mysterious power from God which
produced ecstasy and worked wonders. St Paul also believes in
this, but insists that it is subordinate to the peaceable fruits of
righteousness. With the naturalization of the Church in the
Gentile world ethical ideas became less prominent, and the
sacramental system prevailed. By baptism and the Lord's
Supper grace is given (ex open operate), so that man is renewed
and made capable of salvation. Already in the 2nd century
baptism was described as a bath in which the health of the soul is
restored, and the Lord's Supper as the potion of immortality.
Similar notions present in the ethnic faiths take the Christian
facts into their service, the belief of the multitude without
essential change remaining vague and undefined. While the
theologians discussed doctrine the people longed for mystery, as it
satisfied their religious natures. By sacraments they felt them-
selves brought into the presence of God, and to sacraments they
looked for aid. Many sacraments were adopted by portions of the
Church, until at last the sacred number seven was agreed upon.
As the way of salvation was modified, so too was the idea of
salvation: the dream of a Messianic kingdom on earth, with its
corollary the resurrection of the physical body, faded
ctptToT awav » especially after the Roman empire adopted
tiivatha. Christianity. It was no longer the Jewish nation against
the heathen empire, for the Jewish nation had ceased
to be, and the empire and the Church were one. Salvation
henceforth is not the descent of the New Jerusalem out of
heaven, but the ascent of the saints to heaven; for the individual
it is not the resurrection of the body but the immortality of the
soul. So Jesus is no longer Christ or Messiah, but the Son of God.
These terms again are variously interpreted: heaven is still
thought of by many under the imagery of the book of Revelation ,
and by others it is conceived as a mystical union of the soul with
Cod through the intelligence or of feelings. Yet the older con*
cepUosm still continue, Christianity not becoming purely and
*fajj£y Greek. Again and again individuals and groups turn
~*J*lJ»8«mitte cycle of hopes and ideas, while the rcconcilia-
dSf V^ two Was, Jewish and Graeco-Roman, becomes the
+* yvmwm sfi ^A^hfSSy" £!I? ,rat ' on ' however, do not explain
* *m0» 9*mUm\ Mm i i J* 1 * 1 * *«»*'<"* himself with the healing
1 *U remembered as the great
physician. Early Christian literature is filled with medical terms,
applied (it is true) for the greater part to the cure of souls.
The records of the Church arc also filled with the efforts of Jesus'
followers to heal the diseases and satisfy the wants of men. A
vast activity animated the early Church: to heal the sick,
to feed the hungry, to succour the diseased, to rescue the fallen,
to visit the prisoners, to forgive the erring, to teach the ignorant,
were ministries of salvation. A mighty power impelled men
to deny themselves in the service of others, and to find in this
service their own true life. None the less the first place is
given to the salvation of the soul, since, created for an unend-
ing existence, it is of transcendent importance. While man
is fallen and by nature vile, nevertheless his possibilities are
so vast that in comparison the affairs of earth are insignificant
The word, " What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world
and lose his own soul?" comes to mean that the individual soul
outvalues the whole world. With emphasis upon God as creator
and ruler, and upon man as made in God's image, endowed with
an unending existence, and subject to eternal torture if not
redeemed, the concept of personality has been exalted at the
expense of that of nature, and the future has been magnified
at the expense of the present. Thus a future heaven is man's
true home, and theology instead of philosophy or natural science
is his proper study.
Indeed, intellectual interest Centred in religion. Natural
science was forsaken, except in so far as it ministered to theology.
Because the Old Testament contained references to the origin
and the objects of the universe, a certain amount of natural
science was necessary, but it was only in this connexion that
it had any value. By Augustine's time this process is complete.
Ilis writings contain most of the knowledge of his age, but it
is strictly subordinate to his theological purpose. Hence, when
the barbarians submerged southern Europe, theology alone
survived. The Church entered upon a new task. In the begin-
ning Christianity had been the teacher of religion to highly
civilized peoples— now it became the civilizing agent to the
barbarians, the teacher of better customs, the upholder of law
and the source of knowledge. The learned men were monks
and priests, the universities were Church institutions, and
theology was the queen of the sciences.
The relation of cult to creed is still undetermined. Theorett*
cally the first depends on the second, for its purpose is twofold:
the excitation of worthy religious emotions and the rkem ^ 9
attaining of our desires; and how shall these objects be 2*°'
attained unless we know him whom we worship and wnb+*
to whom we pray? But it is plausibly maintained
that the reverse is true, namely, that theology rests on cult.
In the beginnings of consciousness instinctive reactions precede
definite thoughts, and even in mature life thoughts often follow
acts instead of preceding them. Our religious consciousness
is simply our ordinary consciousness obeying its laws. So un-
purposed docs cult grow up that it combines many elements of
diverse origin, and is seldom precisely and wholly in accordance
with the creed. No doubt the two interact, cult influencing
creed and creed modifying cult— cult, perhaps, being most
powerful in forming the actual religious faith of the multitude.
Cult divides into two unequal parts, the stimulation of the
religious emotions and the control of piety. In the Church
service it came early to centre in the sacrament of the Eucharist
(q.v.). In the earliest period the services were characterized by
extreme freedom, and by manifestations of ecstasy which were
believed to indicate the presence of the spirit of God; but as
the years went by the original enthusiasm faded away, the cult
became more and more controlled, until ultimately it was com-
pletely subject to the priesthood, and through the priesthood
to the Church. In the Roman communion the structure of the
sacred edifice, the positions and attitudes of the priest and the
congregation, the order of service, emphasize the mystery and
the divine efficacy of the sacrament. The worshipper feels him-
self in the immediate presence of God, and enters into physical
relations with him. Participation in the mass also releases from
guilt, as the Lamb of God offered up atones for sin and intercedes
CHRISTIANITY
287
with the Father in our behalf. Thus in this single act of devotion
both objects of ail cults are attained.
As the teaching and person of Jesus were fitted into the
framework of the Greek philosophy, and the sacraments into
f^fL the deeper and broader forms of popular belief, so was
the organisation shaped by the polity of the Roman
empire. Jesus gathered his group of followers and committed
to it his mission, and after his resurrection the necessities of the
situation brought about the choice of quasi-ofikials. Later the
familiar polity of the synagogue was loosely followed. A com-
pleter organization was retarded by two factors, the presence
of the apostles and the inspiration of the prophets. But when
the apostles died and the early enthusiasm disappeared, a stricter
order arose. Practical difficulties called for the enforcement of
discipline, and differences of opinion for authority in doctrine;
and, finally, the sacramentarian system required a priesthood.
In the 2nd century the conception of a Catholic Church was
widely held and a loose embodiment was given it; after the con-
version of the empire the organization took on the official forms
of the empire. Later it was modified by the rise of the feudal
system and (he re-establishment of the modern European
nationalities (see Church History).
The polity of the Church was more than a formal organization;
it touched the life of each believer. Very early, Christianity
feme*. was conceived to be a new system of law, and faith was
interpreted as obedience. Legalism was joined with
sacramentarianism, doubling the power of the priest. Through
him Church discipline was administered, a complete system of
ecclesiastical penalties, i.e. penance, growing up. It culminated
in the doctrine of purgatory, a place of discipline, of purifying
suffering after death. The Roman genius for law strengthened
and systematized this tendency.
The hierarchy which centres in the pope constitutes the Church
of which the sacramental system is the inner life and penance
is the sanction. It is thus a divine-human organization. It
teaches that the divine-human Son of God established it, and
returning to heaven committed to the apostles, especially to St
Peter, his authority, which has descended in an unbroken line
through the popes. This is the charter of the Church, and its
acceptance is the first requisite for salvation; for the Church
determines doctrine, exercises discipline and administers sacra*
ments. Its authority is accompanied by the spirit of God, who
guides it into truth and gives it miraculous power. Outside the
Church there are only the " broken lights " of man's philosophy
and the vain efforts of weak human nature after virtue.
Christianity in its complete Roman development is thus the
5 of the supernatural into the natural. The universe falls
into these orders, the second for the sake of the first, as
nature is of and for God. Without him nature at its
highest is like a beautiful statue, devoid of life; it is of
•J"** secondary moment compared even to men, for while it
CkJxL passes away he continues for ever. He is dependent,
therefore, not upon nature, but upon God's grace for
salvation, and this comes through the Church. In the book of
Revelation the New Jerusalem descending from heaven to the
earth may be taken as a symbol of a continuing process: the
human receives the divine, as the Virgin Mary received the Holy
Spirit and brought forth Jesus, perfect man and perfect God.
Thus the Church ever receives God and has a twofold nature;
its sacraments through material and earthly elements impart a
divine power; its teachings agree with the highest truths of
philosophy and science, yet add to these the knowledge of
mysteries which eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither hath it
entered into the heart of man to conceive; it sanctifies human
relationships, but the happiness of earth at purest and best is
only a shadow of the divine bliss which belongs to the redeemed
soul. Hence man should deny the world for the sake of the other
world, and the title " religious " belongs distinctly to the monastic
and priestly life. Theology is the queen of the sciences, and
nothing should be taught in school or university which contradicts
its conclusions. Moreover, nothing should be done by the state
which interferes with the transcendent interest committed to the
Church. Thus the Church touches and controls all realms of life,
and the cycle is complete. It began as separate from the world
and proscribed by it; acxt it adapted itself to the learning, the
customs and the polity of the world. Finally it asserted its
mastery and assumed sovereign power* over all. The Church in
its completed form was the outcome of a long development; if
the seed was Jewish the environment was Gentile. Into the full
tree were gathered the effects, not only of the initial energy, but
of the forces of earth, air, water and sun. The Roman Church
expressed the beliefs and answered the needs of the people, and
this explains in part both its forms and its power, its long
continuance and wide supremacy.
The Church was never completely successful in unifying its
organization. In part it shared the destiny of the Roman
empire, and with it fell into two parts, East separating
from West. Indeed the East never really acknowledged BuUn
the Roman primacy nor shared in its development, CbmtM,
and it still remains apart. With characteristic oriental
conservatism it claims the title of " Orthodox," and retains the
creed and organization of the early Church. In general its
conception of the relation of the world to the super- world is
identical with that of the Roman Church, though somewhat less
denned, as its organization is less complete. It has remained in
the second stage mentioned above; established, as in Russia, by
the empire, it is dependent upon it and in alliance with it. In
the Mahommedan dominions it has been recognized as a state
within the state, and in these communities faith and patriotism
are one.
The idea of the Roman Church was imperfectly embodied at the
best; the divine gift was in earthen vessels. The world was never
completely cast out; indeed the Church became the
scene for ambition and the home of luxury and pleasure, i^fonn^
It was entangled also in the political strife of the feudal uom.
ages and of the beginning of modern empires. Its
control of the sciences embroiled it with its own philosophers and
scholars, while saints and pure-minded ecclesiastics attempted,
without success, its reform from within. Finally, through
Luther, the explosion came, and western Christendom broke into
two parts — Catholic and Protestant.
Protestantism in its primary principle is the return to primitive
Christianity. The whole development which we have traced,
culminating in the ecclesiastical-doctrinal system of the Roman
Church, is regarded as a corruption, since foreign and even
heathen elements have been brought in, so that the religion
established by Christ is obscured or lost. For Protestants the
Bible only now becomes the infallible, inspired authority in faith
and morals. Interpretations by the Fathers or by the councils are
to be taken only as aids to its understanding. With this principle
is associated a second, the liberty of the individual; he reads the
sacred Scriptures and interprets them for himself without the
intervention of priests or church; and he enters by faith in Christ
into communion with God, so that all believers are priests. Here
may be noted a fundamental difference in the psychology of
religion, since in the Roman Church the chief appeal is to the
emotions, while in the Reformed it is to the intelligence. Yet
this appeal to the intelligence is not rationalism: the latter
makes reason the supreme authority, rejecting all which does not
conform to it; the Bible is treated like any other book, to bo
accepted or rejected in part or in whole as it agrees with our
canons of logic and our general science, while religion submits to
the same process as do other departments of knowledge. But in
Protestantism reason and the light of nature are in themselves as
impotent as in the Roman Church. The Bible interpreted by
man's unaided intelligence is as valueless as other writings, but it
has a sacramental value when the Holy Spirit accompanies its
teaching, and the power of God uses it and makes the soul capable
of holiness. In all this the supernatural is as vividly realized as in
the Roman Church; it is only its mediation which is different*
These principles arc variously worked out in the different
churches and variously expressed. In part because of historical
circumstances, the divergence from the older systems is more
marked in some Protestant churches than in others, yet on the
288
CHRISTIANITY
whole these two principles' determine cult and in part organiza-
tion. As in the Roman Church cult centres in the mass, so in
the Reformed Church it centres in the sermon. The
Jjjjjj^ Holy Spirit, the determining factor in the religious life,
uses the Bible as his means, and calls the intelligence
Into action. The clergyman is primarily the preacher, renewed by
God's power and enlightened by the Spirit, so that he speaks with
divine authority. The ancient Jewish prophetic office is revived,
yet with a difference: the ancient prophets acknowledged no
external authority, but the Protestant preacher is strictly
subordinate to the Scriptures of which he is the interpreter.
Beside the sermon the sacraments are observed as established by
Christ—two in number, baptism and the Lord's Supper. But
these do not exert a quasi-physical or magical influence, ex opere
operate. Unless there be faith in the recipient, an understanding
of the meaning of the sacrament and an acceptance of it, it is
valueless or harmful. Prayer and praise also arc effective only as
the congregation intelligently join in them; hence they are not
to be solely by a priest nor in a strange tongue, as the clergyman
is simply the leader of the devotions of the people. In large
portions of the Church also opportunity for the free expression of
the religious experience of the laity is found.
The emphasis upon the believer and his freedom from all ex-
ternal authority do not result in a thoroughgoing individualism.
Luther dearly held to the unity of all Christians, and Protestants
arc agreed in this. For them, as for the Roman Church, there is a
belief in a catholic or all-embracing Church, but the unity is not
that of an organization; Christians are one through an indwelling
spirit; they hold the same faith, undergo the same experience
and follow the same purpose. This inner life constitutes the
oneness of believers and forms the true Church which is invisible.
It expresses itself in outward forms, yet there are not two
Churches visible and invisible, but only one. The spiritual
experience of the individual utters itself in words, and desires
association with others who know the same grace. There is
formed a body of teaching in which all agree, and an organization
in which the common experience finds expression and aid. While
then membership in this organization is not primary, it assumes
a higher and even a vital importance, since a true experience
recognizes the common faith and the common fellowship. Were
it to refuse assent to these, doubt would be thrown upon its own
trustworthiness.
Historically these principles were only in part embodied, for the
Reformation was involved in political strife. The Reformers
turned to the government for aid and protection, and throughout
Europe turmoil and war ensued. In consequence, in the Pro-
testant nations the state assumed the ultimate authority over
the Church. Moreover, in the early days of the Reformation the
Catholic Church charged it with a lawless individualism, a charge
which was seemingly made good by an extreme divergence in
theological opinion and by riots in various paits of the Protestant
world. The age was indeed one of ferment, so that the foundations
of society and of religion seemed threatened. The Reformers
turned to the state for protection against the Roman Church, and
ultimately as a refuge from anarchy, and they also returned to
the theology of the Fathers as their safeguard against heresy.
Instead of the simplicity of Luther's earlier writings, a dogmatic
theology was formed, and a Protestant ccclcsiasticism estab-
lished, indistinguishable from the Roman Church in principle.
The main difference was in the attitude to the Roman allegiance
and to the sacramentarian system. There was thus by no means
a complete return to the Bible as the sole authority, but the
BMe was taken as interpreted by the earlier creeds and as
??■*** mto a doctrinal system by the scholastic philosophy.
^■w yrles Uptbm also came to identify theology with the
T/TVJ*** «*^w ran kn owledge, and in its official forms it was
•JSf* ** ***«* ol science as was the Roman Church
« , ^•^T!J*l f fJ!? 1 * t|lSMi this ra<lical departure from
' *- ^ZZ^Xm f 7"»«i«i and of Biblical Christianity.
/>■ ■■* +***,. *§i* " 1, * ,0 " <rflhc authority of the Church
• *"*• «perience and of intellectual
adherence to theological propositions for faith. The freedom of
the individual was denied when the state enforced religious
conformity. Thus a struggle within Protestantism arose, with
persecutions of Protestants by Protestants. Moreover, many
failed to find the expression of their faith in the official creed or in
the established organization, and Protestantism divided into
many sects and denominations, founded upon special types o!
religious experience or upon particular points in doctrine or in
cult. Thus Protestantism presents a wide diversity in com*
parison with the regularity of the Roman Church. This we
should expect indeed from its insistence upon individual freedom;
yet, notwithstanding certain notable exceptions, amid the
diversity there is a substantial unity, a unity which in our day
finds expression in common organizations for great practical ends,
for example in the " Bible Societies," " Tract Societies," the
" Young Men's Christian Associations," " Societies of Christian
Endeavour," &c, which disregard denominational lines.
The coming of the northern peoples into the Roman world
profoundly modified Christianity. It shared indeed in the
dreariness and corruption of the times commonly called Chisth
the " dark ages," but when at last a productive period salty mad
began the Church was the first to profit by it. Since all '*• «•*»■
educated men were priests, it assimilated the new *•***•
learning — the revived Aristotelianism — and continued its control
of the universities. In the 13th century it was supreme, and
Christianity was identified with world systems of knowledge and
politics. Both were deemed alike divine in origin, and to question
their validity was an offence against God. Christianity thus had
passed through three stages in politics as in science. At first it
was persecuted by the state, then established by it, and finally
dominated over it; so its teaching was at first alien to philosophy
and despised by it, next was accepted by it and given form and
rights through it, and finally became queen of the sciences as
theology and ruled over the whole world of human knowledge.
But the triumph by its completeness ensured new conflicts; from
the disorder of the middle ages arose states which ultimately
asserted complete autonomy, and in like fashion new intellectual
powers came forth which ultimately established the independence
of the sciences.
In the broadest sense the underlying principle of the struggle
is the reassertion of interest in the world. It is no longer merely
the scene for the drama of the soul and God, nor is man inde-
pendent of it, but man and nature constitute an organism,
humanity being a part of the vaster whole. Man's place is not
even central, as he appears a temporary inhabitant of a minor
planet in one of the lesser stellar systems. Every science is
involved, and theology has come into conflict with metaphysics,
logic, astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, zoology, biology,
history and even economics and medicine. From the modern
point of view this is unavoidable and even desirable, since
" theology " here represents the science of the 13th century. As
in the political world the states gained first the undisputed
control of matters secular, rejecting even the proffered counsel of
the Church, and then proceeded to establish their sovereignty
over the Church itself, so was it in the empire of the mind. The
rights gained for independent research were extended over the
realm of religion also; the two indeed cannot remain separate,
and man must subordinate knowledge to the authority of
religion — or make science supreme, submitting religion to its
scrutiny and judging it like other phenomena. Under this
investigation Christianity docs not appear altogether exceptional.
Its early logic, ontology and cosmology, with many of its dis-
tinctive doctrines, arc shown to be the natural offspring of the
races and ages which gave them birth. Put into their historical
environment they are freed from adverse criticism, and indeed
valued as steps in the intellectual development of man's mind.
Advanced seriously, however, as truths to-day, they are put
aside as anachronisms not worthy of dispute. The Bible is
studied like other works, its origins discovered and its place in
comparative religion assigned. It does not appear as altogether
unique, but it is put among the other sacred books. For the
great religions of the world show similar cycles of development,
CHRISTIANITY
289
tfpfopriatfotis of prevalent science and philosophy,
ativs insistence upon ancient truth, and similar
1 to an exclusive authority.
With this interest is involved an attitude of mind toward the
supernatural As already pointed out, nature and super-nature
were taken aa physically and spatially distinct. The latter could
descend upon the former and be imparted to it, neither subject
to nature nor intelligible by reason. In science the process has
been reversed; nature ascends, so to speak, into the region of
the supernatural and subdues it to itself; the marvellous or
miraculous is brought under the domain of natural law, the
canons of physics extend over metaphysics, and religion takes its
place as one element in the natural relationship of man to his
environment. Hence the new world-view threatens the founda-
tions of the ecclesiastical edifice. This revolution in the world-
view is no longer the possession of philosophers and scholars, but
the multitude accepts it in part. Education in- general has
rendered many familiar with the teachings of science, and,
moreover, its practical benefits have given authority to its
f»«w* and theories. The world's problem is not only therefore
scute, but the demand for its solution is wider than ever before.
The Roman Catholic Church uncompromisingly reasserts its
ancient propositions, political and theological. The cause is
7fe#*tf» lost indeed in the political realm, where the Church
*s**#tto is obliged to submit, but it protests and does not
jy*ff waive or modify its claims (see the Syllabus of 1864,
paragraphs 19 fF., 27, 54 and 55). In the Greek and
Protestant churches this situation cannot arise, as they make
no claims to governmental sovereignty. In the intellectual
domain the situation is more complex. Again the Roman Church
unhesitatingly reaffirms the ancient principles in their extreme
form (Syllabus, paragraphs 8-9-13; Decrees of the Vatican
Council, chapter 4, note especially canon 4-3). The works of
St Thomas Aquinas are recommended as the standard authority
in theology (Encyc. of Leo XIII., Aeierni Potris, Aug. 4, 1879).
In details also the conclusions of modern science are rejected,
as for example the origin of man from lower species, and, in a
different sphere, the conclusions of experts as to the origins of
the Bible. Faith is denned as " assent upon authority," and the
authority is the Church, which maintains its right to supremacy
over the whole domain of science and philosophy.
The Greek Church remains untouched by the modern spirit,
and the Protestant Churches also arc bound officially to the
TWGtofc scholastic philosophy of the 17th century; their con-
fessions of faith still assert the formation of the world
in six days, and require assent to propositions which
can be true only if the old cosmology be correct. Offici-
ally then the Church identifies Christianity with the position
outlined above, and hostile critics agree to this identification,
rejecting the faith in the name of philosophic and scientific truth.
On the other hand there are not wanting individuals and even
large bodies of Christians who are intent upon a ^interpretation.
ftmmmm Even in the official circles of the Church, not excepting
f^lfgf the Roman Church, there are many scholars who find
no difficulty in remaining Christian while accepting
the modern scientific view of the world. This is possible to some
because the situation in its sharp antithesis is not present to
their minds: by making certain compromises on the one side
and on the other, and by framing private interpretations of
important dogmas, they can retain their faith in both and yet
preserve their mental integrity. A large literature is produced,
reconciling science and theology by softening and compromising
and adapting; a procedure in accordance with general historical
development, for men do not love sharp antagonisms, nor are
they prepared to carry principles to their logical conclusions.
By a fortunate power of mind they arc able to believe as truths
mutually inconsistent propositions.
Thus the crisis is in fact not so acute as it might seem. No
great institution lives or dies by logic. Christianity rests on great
religious needs which it meets and gratifies, so that its life (like all
other lives) is in un rationalized emotions. Reason seeks ever to
rationalize these, an attempt which seems to destroy yet really
fulfils. As thus the restless reason tests the emotions of the soul,
criticizes the traditions to which they ding, rejects the ancient
dogmas in which they have been defined, the Church slowly
participates in the process: silently this position and that are
forsaken, legends and beliefs once of prime importance are for-
gotten, or when forced into controversy many ways are found
by which the old and the new are reconciled: the sharpness of
distinctions can be rubbed off, expressions may be softened,
definitions can be modified and half-way resting-places afforded,
until the momentous transition has been made and the continuity
of tradition is maintained. Finally, as the last step, even the
official documents may be revised. Such a process in Christianity
is everywhere in evidence, for even the Roman Church admits
the modern astronomy. So too it accepts the changes in the world
of politics with qualified approval. In the Syllabus of 1864 the
separation of state and church was anathematized, yet in 1906
this separation in the United States was held up as an example
to be followed by the French government In the Protestant
Churches the process is precisely similar. No great church has
yet modified its articles of religion so as to admit, for example,
that the Garden of Eden was not a definite place where Eve was
tempted, yet the doctrine is contradicted with approval by
individuals, and the results of modern science are accepted and
taught without rebuke. In all this the Church shows its essential
oneness with other organizations of society, the government,
the family, which are at once deeply rooted in the past, and yet
subject to the influences of the present. For Christianity is by
no means wholly intellectual, nor chiefly so. It would be fully
as true to facts to describe this religion as a vast scheme for
the amelioration of the condition of humanity. In education,
in care for the sick, the poor, the outcast, it has retained the
spirit of its Lord. Though it has at times denied this spirit,
been guilty of crimes, persecutions, wars and greed—still the
Church has never quite forgotten him who went about doing good,
nor freed itself from the contagion of his example. No age has
been so responsive to the needs of man as our own; whatever
doubts men have as to the doctrines or the cults there is an
agreement wider than in the past in the good works whose inspira-
tion is a divine love.
Yet the intellectual crisis cannot be ignored in the interest
of the practical life. Men must rationalize the universe. On
the one hand there are churchmen who attempt to
repeat the historical process which has naturalized JJjJJSl**
the Church in alien soils by appropriating the forces mZmL^
of the new environment, and who hold that the entire
process is inspired and guided by the spirit of God. Hence
Christianity is the absolute religion, because it does not preclude
development but necessitates it, so that the Christianity that is to
come shall not only retain all that is important in the Christianity
of the past and present but shall assimilate new truth. On the
other band some seek the essential Christianity in a life beneath
and separable from the historic forms. In part under the in*
fluencc of the Hegelian philosophy, and in part because of the
prevalent evolutionary scientific world-view, God is rei>resentcd
under the form of pure thought, and the world process as the
unfolding of himself. Such truth can be apprehended by the
multitude only in symbols which guide the will through the
imagination, and through historic facts which are embodiment
of ideas. The Trinity is the essential Christian doctrine, the
historic facts of the Christian religion being the embodiment
of religious ideas. The chief critical difficulty felt by this school
is in identifying any concrete historic fact with the unchanging
idea, that is, in making Jesus of Nazareth the incarnation of God.
God is reinterpreted, and in place of an extra-mundane creator
is an omnipresent life and power. The Christian attainment is
nothing else than the thorough intellectual grasp of the absolute
idea and the identification of our essential selves with God.
With a less thorough-going intellectuaiism other scholars re-
interpret Christianity in terms of current scientific phraseology.
Christianity is dependent upon the understanding of the universe;
hence it is the duty of believers to put it into the new setting,
so that it adopts and adapts astronomy, geology, biology and
290
CHRISTIANITY
naychology. With this accomplished, Christianity will resum*
its ancient place. Consciously and of purpose the attempt 1 .
made to do once more what has been done repeatedly odore*
to restate Christianity in the terms of current science. .
From all these efforts to reconstruct systematic thecJogy wiOi
its appropriations of philosophy and science, groups of Christian*
turn to the inner life and seek in its realities to find the con-
firmation of their faith. They also claim oneness with a long line
of Christians, for in every age there have been men who nava
ignored the dogma and the ritual of the Church, and in contempla-
tion and retirement have sought to know God immediately in
their own experience. To them at best theology with its cos*
mology and its logic is only a shadow of shadows, for God
reveals himself to the pure in heart, and it matters not wha$
science may say of the material and fleeting world. This spirit
manifests itself in wide circles in our day. The Gordian knot u
cut, for philosophy and religion no longer touch each other but
abide in separate realms. ...■,_,
In quite a different way a still more influential school seek*
essential Christianity in the sphere of the ethical life. It also
would disentangle religion from cosmology and formal philosophy.
It studies the historic development of the Church, noting how
element after clement has been introduced into the simplicity
of the gospel, and from all these it would turn back to the Bible
itself. In a thorough-going fashion it would accomplish what
Luther and the Reformation attempted. It regards even the
earliest creeds as only more or less satisfactory attempts to
translate the Christian facts into the current language of the
heathen world. But the process does not stop with this re-
jection of the. ancient and the scholastic theology. It recognizes
the scientific results attained in the study of the Bible itself,
and therefore it docs not seek the entire Bible as its rule of truth.
To it Jesus Christ, and he alone, is supreme, but this supremacy
does not carry with it infallibility in the realm of cosmology or
of history. In these too Jesus participated in the views of his
own time; even his teaching of God and of the future life is
not lacking in Jewish elements, yet none the less he is the
essential element in Christianity, and to his life-purpose must all
that claims to be Christianity be brought to be judged. To this
school Christianity is the culmination of the ethical monotheism
of the Old Testament, which finds its highest ideal in self-
sacrificing love. Jesus Christ is the complete embodiment of this
ideal, in life and in death. This ideal he sets before men under
the traditional forms of the kingdom of God as the object to be
attained, a kingdom which takes upon itself the forms of the
family, and realizes itself in a new relationship of universal
brotherhood. Such a religion appeab for its self-verification
not to its agreement with cosmological conceptions, either ancient
or modern, or with theories of philosophy, however true these
may be, but to the moral sense of man. On the one hand, in its
ethical development, it is nothing less than the outworking of
that principle of Jesus Christ which led him not only to self-
sacrificing labour but to the death upon the cross. On the other
hand, it finds its religious solution in the trust in a power not
ourselves which makes for the same righteousness which was
incarnate in Jesus Christ.
Thus Christianity, as religion, is on the one hand the adoration
of God, that is, of the highest and noblest, and this highest and
noblest as conceived not under forms of power or knowledge but
in the form of ethical self-devotion as embodied in Jesus Christ, '
and on the other hand it meets the requirements of all religion j
in its dependence, not indeed upon some absolute idea or omni-
potent power, but in the belief that that which appeals to the
soul as worthy of supreme worship is also that in which the soul
may trust, and which shall deliver it from sin and fear and death.
Such a conception of Christianity can recognize many embodi-
■*?? »" l J tu » , » /"fan^ation and dogma, but its test in all ages
and in aU lands is conformity to the purpose of the life of Christ. |
The U>rd s Prayer in its oldest and simplest form is the expression
of its faith, and Christ s separation of mankind on the right hand
and on the left in accordance with their service or refusal of
service to their fellow-men h its own judgment of the right
of any age or church to the name Christian. This school also
represents histonc ChrisUanity, and maintains the continuity
of its life through all the ages past with Christ himself. But tbis
continuity is not then in theological systems or creeds, nor in
sacraments and cult, nor in organization, but in the noble
company of all who have lived in simple trust in God and love to
humanity. It is this true Church of the spirit and purpose of Jesus
which has been the supreme force for the uplifting of humanity.
Christianity has passed through too many changes, and it has
found too many interpretations possible, to fear the time to come.
Thoroughgoing reconstruction. in every item of theology and in
every detail of polity there may be, yet shall the Christian life
go on— the life which finds its deepest utterance in the words of
Christ, " Thou shall love the Lord thy God with all thy heart
and thy neighbour as thyself "; the life which expresses its pro-
foundest faith in the words Christ taught it to pray, "Our Father";
the life which finds its highest rule of conduct in the words of its
first and greatest interpreter, " Let this mind be in you which
was also in Christ Jesus our Lord."
Bibliography.— Detailed bibliographies accompany the separate
articles on subjects connected with the Christian religion and Church.
In the following list a selection is given of books on the wider and
general subject : —
Extent and Grtnctk.^ 0. Dorchester, The Problem of Religions
Protrti* (revised ed., tSqa J T & Culick, The Growth of the Kingdom
of Ood (1895); James S, Dennis, Christian Missions and Social
Progress (1906}.
Prophets of Israel.^ Rudolf Sntcnd, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen
Rdi^ionsgejehkhte {2nd ed-, 1&99}: A. B. Davidson, Old Testament
Prophecy {1903); Kari Bqdde> Edition of Israel to the Exile (1899);
. Robertson Smith, The Ptvpkets of Israel and their Place t ■ History
(tSo^) ; A. F. Kirbmtrkk, Doctrine of the Prophets Cjrd ed.. xooi):
ft truk Dnhra. Die Theohgie der Fropheten (1875).
Judaism— Emil SchUrcr. History of the Jewtsh People tw the Time
Be rule Dnhra. Die Theohgie der Fropheten (1875).
Judaism.— Emil SchUrcr. History of the Jewtsh People
of Jesus Christ (Eng. trans,, Edinburgh, 1890); C. G. Montefiore.
Lecture 1 on the Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the
Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (2nd ed., 1893): W. Bousaet, Die
Religion des Judentums im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter (and ed., 1906).
The Life and Teaching of Jesus— Hslm Hcinrich Wendt. The
Teaching of Jesus (1892), 2 vols. ; Oskar Holtzmann, The Life of Jesus
{Eng. trans., 1904); Paul Wernlc. Beginnings of Christianity, 2 vols.
(1903-1904); T. Crawford Burkitt, The Gospel History and its
Transmission (1906).
The Beginnings of Christianity.— Ernst von Dobschuta, Christian
Life xn the Primitive Church (Eng. trans., 1904) ; A. C. McGuTert,
The Apostolic Age (1900); Carl Weizsacker, The Apostolic Am
(Eng. trans., 1897); Otto Pflctderer. Das Urchristentum (1902).
The Expansion of Christianity.— Edwin Hatch, " The Influence
>f Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church," the Hibbert
Lectures, 188H (1890) ; Adolf Harnack, The Expansion of Christianity
in the First Three Centuries (Ene. trans.. 1904): Sir W. M. Ramsay,
The Church in the Raman Empire (1S93K
The History of Church and of Dor ma. — Adolf HamacV, History
of Dogma {Eng. trans., 1S95}; Remhold Sceberg, Lehrbuch der
Pogmengeickithte (1895. a vol*.); Philip Schan\ The Creeds of
Chnttendom (j vols,. 188 1, 3rd edX
The Roman Church.— Joseph WiLhelm and Thomis B Scannell,
Manual of Catholic Theology (1906): J. A. Moehler. Symbolism
(trans. I844I; Thomas Aquinas, The Sum ma (Eng, trans,, 1 007):
William Watd, The Ideal of a Christian Church (1844).
The Creek Church.— " The Creeds a\ the Grerk and Russian
Churches," in , Schaff. Creeds r vol. 6- pp. 175-54'; and J. Michalcesu,
Die BtkrHjitmise und die teichiigsten Giaubensseugrtiise aer picchisch-
ontrUutijckeu Kirche (Lemiig, 1904),
Protestantism.— John Calvin, fustiiutie Religion is Christianee,
OsJ ft : E"K' trans, ifti6); Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology
(j vok, i*7*J; Ernst Irovltsch, Die Abtotutheu des Ckritteutums
und die Rciigiomgeichichie (190*); First Principles of tie Refer-
matian, or the Ninety five These* and the Three Primary Works, trans,
by Henry Wace ant* C. A + Buchheina (tSBj).
Christianity in the Modem World— Andrew D. While, Conflict
of Science with Theology (j voU. t 1S96) : D. r\ Strain*, Der alte und
der net*e btazbe (1&7?; Hup. trans., (873! : A. J. Balfour, The Founda-
tions at Helttf f i»97>; J. Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism (1899).
Modern Adaptations of Christianity.— William Adams Brown,
CttMitan Theology in Outline (1906); Augustui Stbaticr, Religions
of Authority and the Religion of the Spirit (1904); j, A Zahm.
EoolttUon and Dogma (1896): John Henry Newman, An Essay on
the Development of Christian Doctrine (1S45); Edward Caird The
Evolution of Rttigtan (189.1): Otto Pfleiderer, Philosophy of Religion
{Eng. tram., 1BS&, especially volumes j and 4): Newman Smyth,
Old Fatths in Nevt Lights (1879), Through Science tj Faith (1901);
Henry Drummnnd h The Ascent of Man (1*94); William Ralph Inge.
Chruttnn Myuicttm (Hampton Ueturti, 181*4) J Wilhclm Herrmann,
The Communis* of the Christian with Cod (1895); George WiUkin
CHRISTIANSAND— CHRISTINA
291
Knox. Direct and Fundamental Proofs of ike Christian Religion ( 1903) ;
Aftrecht Ritwihl, Die thristliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und
VtrUknunf 1 19«>). _ _
Modmt DfAmitvm t>f Christianity —Alfred Loisy, The Gospel
amd the Chunk (1904} . Adolf Harnack, What is Ckristtanityf fioni) ;
William A*tami Brtrwn, The Essence of Christianity (1902): Ernest
TrueJtsch, Dm We ten dei Chriskmtnms\ J. Kaftan, Dos We sen der
ririttSitkm Retition [and ed., 1888); J. Caird, The Fundamental
Jims of Ckriitiamty i 1 B99). (C W. Kh.)
CHBISTIANSAJn) (Kjustiansand), a fortified seaport of
Norway, the chief town of a diocese (stift), 00 a fjord of the
Skagerrack, 17s m. S.W. of Christiania by sea. Pop. (1000)
14,701. It stands on a square peninsula flanked by the western
and eastern harbours and by the Otter river. The situation, with
its wooded hills and neighbouring islands, is no less beautiful
than that of other south-coast towns, but the substitution of brick
for wood as building material after a fire in 1892 made against
the picturesqueness of the town. There is a fine cathedral,
rebuilt m Gothic style after a fire in 188a Christiansand is
an important fishing centre (salmon, mackerel, lobsters), and
sawmills, wood-pulp factories, shipbuilding yards and mechanical
workshops arc the principal industrial works. The port is the
largest on the south coast, and all the coast steamers, and those
serving Christiania from London, Hull, Grangemouth, Hamburg,
fltc, touch here. The Saetersdal railway follows that valley
north to Byglandsfiord (48 m), whence a good road continues
to Viken i Valle at the head of the valley. Flckkerd, a neighbour-
ing island, is a favourite pleasure resort. The town was founded
in 1641 by Christian IV., after whom it was named.
CHRISTIAN SCIENCE, a system of theosophic and therapeutic
doctrine, which was originated in America about 1866 by Mrs
Mary Baker Glover Eddy, and has in recent years obtained a
•umber of adherents both in the United States and in European
nwin tries. Mrs. Eddy (1821-1910 ; nie Baker) waa born near
Concord, New Hampshire; in 1843 she married Colonel G. W.
Glover (ct 1844), in 1853 she married Daniel Patterson (divorced
1873), and in 1877 Dr Asa Gilbert Eddy (d. 1883). About the
year 1867 she came forward as a healer by mind-cure. She
based her teaching on the Bible, and on the principles that man's
essential nature is spiritual, and that, the Spirit of God being
Love and Good, moral and physical evil are contrary to that
Spirit, and represent an absence of the True Spirit which was in
Jesus Christ. There is but one Mind, one God, one Christ, and
nothing real but Mind. Mat ter and sickness are subjective states
of error, delusions which can be dispelled by the mental process
of a true knowledge of God and Christ, or Christian science.
Ordinary medical science — using drugs, &c. — is therefore irrele-
vant; spiritual treatment is the only cure of what is really mental
error. Jesus himself healed by those means, which were therefore
natural and not miraculous, and promised that those who be-
lieved should do curative works like his. In 1876 a Christian
Scientist Association was organized. Mrs Eddy had published
in the preceding year a book entitled Science and Health, with
Key to the Scriptures, which has gone through countless editions
and is the gospel of Christian Science. In 1879 she became
the pastor of a " Church of Christ, Scientist," in Boston, and also
founded there the " Massachusetts Metaphysical College " (1881 ;
dosed 1880) for the furtherance of her tenets. The first denomi-
national chapel outside Boston was built at Oconto, Wisconsin, in
1886; and in 1804 (enlarged and reconstructed in 1006) a great
memorial church was erected in Boston. Mrs Eddy's publications
also include Retrospection and Introspection (1891), Unity of Good
and Unreality of Evil (1887), Rudimental Divine Science (1891),
Christian Healing (1886) , &c The progress of the cult of Christian
Science has been remarkable, and by the beginning of the
aoth century many hundreds of Christian Science churches had
been established;, and the new religion found many adherents
also in England. A purely local and congregational form of
government was adopted, but Christian Scientists naturally
looked to the mother church in Boston, with Mrs Eddy as its
guiding influence, as their centre. A monthly magazine, The
Christian Science Journal (founded in 1883). and the weekly
Christian Science Sentinel arc published officially in Boston.
The profession of the paid Christian Science " healer " has
been very prominent in recent years both in America and in
England; and Ytxy remarkable s u cc e ss es have been claimed
for the treatment In some serious cases of death after illness,
where a coroner's inquest hat shown thai the only medical
attendance was that of a Christian Science "healer," the question
of criminal responsibility has been prominently canvassed; but
an indictment in England against a healer for manslaughter in
1006 resulted in an acquittal. The theosophic and the medical
aspects of Christian Science may perhaps be distinguished;
the latter at all events is open to grave abuse. But the modern
reaction in medical practice against drugs, and the increased
study of the subject of " suggestion," have done much to encour-
age a belief in faith-healing and in " psychotherapy " generally.
In 1008, indeed, a separate movement (Emmanuel), inspired by
the success of Christian Science, and also emanating from
America, was started within the Anglican Communion, its
object being to bring prayer to work on the curing of disease;
and this movement obtained the approval of many leaders of
the church in England.
An " authorized " Life of Mrs Eddy, by Sibyl Wilbur (1908). deals
with the subject acceptably to her disciples. Gcorgine M limine V
Life of if. B. C. Eddy, and History of Christian Science (1909).
thougn not so acceptable, is a judicious critical account. A detailed
indictment against the whole system, by a competent English
doctor (Stephen Paget), wiH be found in The Faith and Works of
Christian Science 09°9)-
CHRIST1 ANSUND (Kristiansund), a seaport on the west coast
of Norway, in Romsdal amt (county), 259 m. N.E. by N. of
Bergen, in the latitude of the Faeroe Islands. Pop. (1001)
11,982. It is built on four small islands, by which its harbour is
enclosed. The chief exports are wood, cod, herrings and fish
products, and butter to Great Britain. The town is served by the
principal steamers between the south Norwegian ports, Hull,
Hamburg, &c, and Trondhjem, and it is the chief port of the
district of Nordmore. Local steamers serve the neighbouring
fjords, including the Sundalsfjord, from which at Sundalsoren a
driving road past the fine Dovrefjeld connects with the Gud-
brandsdal route. Till 1742, when it received town privileges
from Christian VI., Christiansund was called Lille-Fosen.
CHRISTIE, RICHARD COPLEY (1830-1901), English scholar
and bibliophile, was born on the 22nd of July 1830 at Lenton in
Nottinghamshire, the son of a millowner. He was educated at
Lincoln College, Oxford, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's
Inn in 1857, and in 1872 became chancellor of the diocese of
Manchester. This he resigned in 1893. He held numerous
appointments, notably the professorships of history (from 1854 to
1856) and of political economy (from 1855 to 1866) at Owens
College, Manchester. He always took an active interest in this
college, of which he was one of the governors; in 1893 he gave the
Christie library building designed by Alfred Waterhouse, and in
1897 he devoted £50,000 of the funds at his disposal as a trustee of
Sir Joseph Whitworth's estate for the building of Whitworth Hall,
which completed the front quadrangle of the college. He was an
enthusiastic book collector, and bequeathed to Owens College his
library of about 75,000 volumes, rich in a very complete set of
the books printed by Dolet, a wonderful series of Aldines, and of
volumes printed by Sebastian Gryphius. His txienne Dolet, the
Martyr of the Renaissance (1880), is the most exhaustive work
on the subject. He died at Ribsden on the 9th of January 1901.
CHRISTINA (1626-1689), queen of Sweden, daughter of
Gustavus Adolphus and Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg, was
born at Stockholm on the 8th of December 16*6. Her father
died when she was only six years old. She was educated,
principally, by the learned Johannes Matthiae, in as masculine a
way as possible, while the great Oxenstjerna himself instructed
her in politics. Christina assumed the sceptre in her eighteenth
year (Dec. 8, 1644). From the moment when she took her seat
at the head of the council board she impressed ber veteran
counsellors with the conviction of her superior genius. Axel
Oxenstjerna himself said of her, when she was only fifteen;
" Her majesty is not like women-folk, but is stout-hearted and of
a good understanding, so that, if she be not corrupted, wc have
c:--r:<t:\ * — christison
\::
' x •» ■ .• >; rv;-.. 1 .<»■; CVS-.-i **"_*.'.:
,\_. -_ n ,.-. -* .r.:^= Tis i-z'.^zxi '•<r^:..i^ :-
,\ >.:••..!.' Ir. :r:**-=tfrcf :rr: w'-rjilri 1 *!*.
% " •. -^ '.»:."t "»h«r caiioa. hai become cesvjiced that her
lli N ih l\ desirable, and lie solemn act cock place ca
the
»t
. f al
us, #*. 'ins
ith
in
cares
•Tficg
•."Joa.
-.r.ee,
■'.qtit
: -rily
h'on.
she
w««
»*fe M P« li« M LI MW 3 tT e-
rrjfrr*
.l*f»|
■■f|«fi , n
.Will fi|
Ifilo ft
l*- -i •_'•-. wf:h her foreign favotir-tes. The :":vation be-
r - -? : : -. : ;: was with an interne UcLzs of relief that
-" ; -> *»• * ■ ■ -- isjurt, in masculine attire, ur.der ihe name
• 1"« : -i. - : Innsbruck she openly joined the Catholic
r i"; *ij rshrjtencd Alexandra. In 1656, and again
--v ■*...•»; Jrazce. on the second occasion ordering the
•./ - ■ : tz r*/. r-vfomo Monaldischi, a crime still unei-
"••--■_. -. :.—.ed :o Sweden (iC6oar-d i$6;J in the vain
*•.-.• v- v -2-' r- session, finally settling fa Rose, where
• - _- . _r ;. .*-r- i6So f poor, neglected arc forgotten:
" " " ; - rj. - Queen Christina of Sweden (London,
* -. - -N-t: ?c:-.. Scandinavia (Cambridge, iqosj;
" r^'ittsl Assaiino (Paris. 1&99): CLmtu
.- . — : .*-..-« de Suezta in ltc'.-.c. iTurin, IB9JJ;
■■■'-. 1, . e-v,-?;u (Copenhagen. 1*96): C. N. D.
.... : .• .VTiVrrr <fr Clement X (Paris, 1906);
•- -..- ...\,£r Stockholm, 1897; :arj J. A. Tavkr,
■_••-" ■" • iR- N. U.)
JS._** " :i. ;TZ3T2flHENTUETTADf5Ii£EF£uClrf
* ^ " ' ■---- r-«z-regent of Spain (1858- ),
"■■■"-II -:: =<iier of Alphonso XIII., was born
■ ? • "• - " • -- :. :z the :1st of July 1858, being the
... . . ,„. : , ■ ._. . ^ p <r< j jnand aJK j t j, c archduchess
* - .. .-... >_■_• 1 :i ;.-:-ght up by her mother as a
- * . i.— r-.:: :^n t^s taken with her education.
•- ? *.-.■ \ :j : - *t - .-; : .- ^e emperor Franco Joseph,
..^ . . :. _-. . L^ . ;s ;i Saint Theresa in Prague,
v.- ... • ^- -.- .x-.-. :?izd distinguished herself by
... ■..-.>. 1. > ^. : . -1: a t the court of Vienna the
* • "* »* v ' - " '• - " - " •"" ■ - - • 4 - 7 v :«n» of Spain when he was
.-:..•-..-.•. ..;«.■. :v .-: 'r :>f:c ration of the Bourbons.
^ •< - -s •. .:, .->o XI;. had lost his first wife and
. - :v^>. .-.: -y.. : : : :>i due de Montpensier, his
>.':cr ^^.-..'-. if urfjd him to marry again.
- - . ?v : •. s: -. -s ."i only be with the young
.*.» ?_i- j. C:t<- za. After some negotiations
.-..:-.> r.< : r ••.»:— ret* it was agreed that the
ix-. r i7.. m :.: Jj_.c v :«:r should meet Alphonso
-. _-. •.:.• .^^:- c: Fnr.cc. where a few dajV
: - ? - J -- >—"'«■'-::.> r-.ake both come to a
i. .-. ? ; ;-. «■:■:. S:.",:"y to Vienna to get the
^ .* j . :>•.■: :j. ■ .7 :::,:. :he 14th of November
"v ,v " .*'■ " *-* ;~^v-- r^acc, the archduchess
V ". r, "". : *""* ^ ! 5u - c '--**i < >n in Austria, ia
:>.• 1:t c-?: r-.r a'_ rr = :e«es of the imperial
' 1 :*x'% ^.- : 1 '-rx cr. yr.r.ce. On the 17th of
;^;rc>s it.* ir:: ^•-:^sr. with a numerous
.-.-: .' : : k .i :-. ;. 1! castle of EI Pardo.
N.-. i- }trr. The wedding took place
: y : , : .-. .» : N"ovc n-.ber, in gieat state,
yftrz-d :tf>:.v::. : v-s. Queen Christina bore
a-.; ■:-•.•* bv:::,- he died in 1SS5— Dora
c : :: v . : N.?:cr-ber leSo. and Dona Maria
v :.-.'?. os X.vcrtcr iSSa. During her
aris Lic^c :rt >v-"C C-cvn k«rp: studiously apart from
ch so :hi: z.t: :r.«r<r:er.ce caused much anxiety in
J S *v- the *»? cal'ed upon to take the arduous
xX
. .X" :
■ v :.v .v;
X*v«r.b*r :h
fu::e. s:aT:»"«i:
nearMairx* «
= the A:.vra
ar.d was :V.".*-e-J
her i-^i-i :«
Mentis. icr= c
Theresa. b-:rr. o:
fcushan
poIi'Jcs. so s:
Xovecier :
duties of rert
son
A
ftdvenarin of tht th:
!ut:es of rertz:. DLr:r.g the :.-cg irir-ority of the posthumous
on of A^-so XII.. a:':erwar^5 K:zg Alphonso XUL, the
ku:trian q-:*tr.-rerer.t acud in a way that obh'ged even the
+.-+™™ of tht thror.e ar.d the dyrasiy to respect the mother
ar.d i he «off,-.jj. Th- people of ^?a:r.. ar.d the ever-restless dv2
and ir..l-:^ry Kih'i':ar.s, fcund that the gloved hand of their
ror*.*;»iii'ir.al r A-t vas that of a Mrocg-minded and tenacious
rf-pi.1, who ofi-r, sv^.-tcd herself in a way that surprised them
tMi'h, but ai*.i>-:, -o^how, enforced obedience and respect.
fAutn couM not be « r ie'.M by a foreign ruler from a nation little
proi,* to wavte attar hment or demonstrauve lovalty upon any-
body not Castilian Urn ami bred. " ^ *
CHRISTISON. SIR ROBERT, Bart. firo-iSSr) ^coltM,
f»*ano!«iri".l and physician, was born in Edinburgh on the 1 5th of
J»iy 1707- Afitr graduating at the university of that d'y in
i':i'j, he spent a short time in Loudon, studying u- J cr John
CHRISTMAS
293
Aberoethy and Sir William Lawrence, and in Paris, where he
learnt analytical chemistry from P. J. Robiquct and toxicology
from M. J. B. Orfila. In 1822 he returned to Edinburgh as
professor of medical jurisprudence, and set to work to organize
the study of his subject on a sound basis. On poisons in parti-
cular be speedily became a high authority; his well-known
treatise on them was published in 1829, and in the course of his
inquiries he did not hesitate to try such daring experiments on
himself as taking large doses of Calabar bean. His attainments
in medical jurisprudence and toxicology procured him the
appointment, in 1829, of medical officer to the crown in Scotland,
and from that time till 1866 he was called as a witness in many
celebrated criminal cases. In 1832 he gave up the chair of
medical jurisprudence and accepted that of medicine and
therapeutics, which he held till 1877; at the same time he
became professor of clinical medicine, and continued in that
capacity till 1855. His fame as a toxicologist and medical jurist,
together with his work on the pathology of the kidneys and on
fevers, secured him a large private practice, and he succeeded to
a fair share of the honours that commonly attend the successful
physician, being appointed physician to Queen Victoria in 1848
and receiving a baronetcy in 187 1. Among the books which he
published were a treatise on Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys
(1839), and a Commentary on the Pharmacopoeias of Great Britain
(1842). Sir Robert Christison, who retained remarkable physical
vigour and activity down to extreme old age, died at Edinburgh
en the 23rd of January 1882.
See the Lift by his sons (1885-1886).
CHRISTMAS (i.e. the Mass of Christ), in the Christian Church,
the festival of the nativity of Jesus Christ. The history of this
feast coheres so closely with that of Epiphany (q.v.), that what
i must be read in connexion with the article under that
The earliest body of gospel tradition, represented by Mark no
leai than by the primitive non-Marcan document embodied in the
int and third gospels, begins, not with the birth and childhood of
but with his baptism; and this order of accretion of
matter is faithfully reflected in the time order of the
iavention of feasts. The great church adopted Christmas much
later than Epiphany; and before the 5th century there was no
general consensus of opinion as to when it should come in the
calendar, whether on the 6th of January, or the 25th of March, or
the a 5th of December.
The earliest identification of the 25th of December with the
birthday of Christ is in a passage, otherwise unknown and
probably spurious, of Thcophilus of Antioch (a.d. 171-183),
preserved in Latin by the Magdeburg ccnturiators (i. 3, 118), to
the effect that the Gauls contended that as they celebrated the
birth of the Lord on the 25th of December, whatever day of the
week it might be, so they ought to celebrate the Pascha on the
25th of March when the resurrection befell.
The next mention of the 25th of December is in Hippolytus'
(c 202) commentary on Daniel iv. 23. Jesus, he says, was born
at Bethlehem on the 25th of December, a Wednesday, in the forty-
second year of Augustus. This passage also is almost certainly
interpolated. In any case he mentions no feast, nor was such a
feast congruous with the orthodox ideas of that age. As late as
245 Origen, in his eighth homily on Leviticus, repudiates as
sinful the very idea of keeping the birthday of Christ " as if he
were a king Pharaoh." The first certain mention of Dec. 2s
is in a Latin chronographer of a.d. 354, first published entire by
Mommsen. 1 It runs thus in English: " Year 1 after Christ, in the
consulate of Caesar and Paulus, the Lord Jesus Christ was born
on the 25th of December, a Friday and 15th day of the new
moon." Here again no festal celebration of the day is attested.
There were, however, many speculations in the 2nd century
about the date of Christ's birth. Clement of Alexandria, towards
its dose, mentions several such, and condemns them as super-
stitions. Some chronologists, he says, alleged the birth to have
1 fn the Abkandlungen der s&chsiscken Akademie der Wisscn-
tehafUn (1 850). Note that in a.d. 1, Dec 25 was a Sunday and not
a Friday.
occurred in the twenty-eighth year of Augustas, on the 25th of
Pachon, the Egyptian month, i.e. the 20th of May. These were
probably the Basil id ian gnostics. Others set it on the 24th or
25th of Pharmuthi, i.e. the 19th or 20th of April. Clement
himself sets it on the 17th of November, 3 B.C. The author of a
Latin tract, called the Dt Pascha computus, written in Africa in
243, sets it by private revelation, ab ipso deo inspirali, on the
28th of March. He argues that the world was created perfect,
flowers in bloom, and trees in leaf, therefore in spring; also at the
equinox, and when the moon just created was full. Now the
moon and sun were created on a Wednesday. The 28th of March
suits all these considerations. Christ, therefore, being the Sun of
Righteousness, was born on the 28th of March. The same
symbolical reasoning led Polycarp* (before 160) to set his birth on
Sunday, when the world's creation began, but his baptism on
Wednesday, for it was the analogue of the sun's creation. On
such grounds certain Latins as early as 354 may have transferred
the human birthday from the 6th of January to the 25th of
December, which was then a Mithraic feast and is by the chrono-
grapher above referred to, but in another part of his compilation,
termed Natalis invicli solis, or birthday of the unconqucred Sun.
Cyprian (de oral. dom. 35) calls Christ Solvcrus, Ambrose Sol novus
nosier (Serrao vii. 13), and such rhetoric was widespread. The
Syrians and Armenians, who clung to the 6lh of January,
accused the Romans of sun-worship and idolatry, contending
with great probability that the feast of the 25th of December had
been invented by disciples of Cerinthus and its lections by
Artemon to commemorate the natural birth of Jesus. Chrysostom
also testifies the 25th of December to have been from the begin-
ning known in the West, from Thrace even as far as Cades.
Ambrose, On Virgins, iii. ch. 1, writing to his sister, implies that
as late as the papacy of Libcrius 352-356, the Birth from the
Virgin was feasted together with the Marriage of Cana and the
Banquet of the 4000 (Luke ix. 13), which were never feasted on
any other day but Jan. 6.
Chrysostom, in a sermon preached at Antioch on Dec. 20,
386 or 388, says that some held the feast of Dec. 2s to have
been held in the West, from Thrace as far as Cadiz, from the
beginning. It certainly originated in the West, but spread
quickly eastwards. In 353-361 it was observed at the court of
Constantius. Basil of Cae&area (died 379) adopted it. Honorius,
emperor (395-423) in the West, informed his mother and brother
Arcadius (395-408) in Byzantium of how the new feast was kept
in Rome, separate from the 6th of January, with its own troparia.
and sticharux. They adopted it, and recommended it to
Chrysostom, who had long been in favour of it. Epiphanius of
Crete was won over to it, as were also the other three patriarchs,
Thcophilus of Alexandria, John of Jerusalem, Flavian of Antioch.
This was under Pope Anastasius, 398-400. John or Wahan of
Nice, in a letter printed by Combcfi&inhisHisloriamonothclilarum,
affords the above details. The new feast was communicated by
Prod us, patriarch of Constantinople (434-446), to Sahak,
Catholicos of Armenia, about 440. The letter was betrayed to the
Persian. king, who accused Sahak of Greek intrigues, and deposed
him. However, the Armenians, at least those within the
Byzantine pale, adopted it for about thirty years, but finally
abandoned it together with the decrees of Chalccdon early in the
8th century. Many writers of the period 375-450, e.g. Epiphanius,
Cassian, Asterius^ J3asil, Chrysostom and Jerome, contrast the
new feast with that of the Baptism as that of the birth after the
flesh, from which we infer that the latter was generally regarded
as a birth according to the Spirit. Instructive as showing that
the new feast travelled from West eastwards is the fact (noticed
by Uscner) that in 387 the new feast was reckoned according to
the Julian calendar by writers of the province of Asia, who in
referring to other feasts use the reckoning of their local calendars.
As early as 400 in Rome an imperial rescript includes Christmas
among the three feasts (the others arc Easter and Epiphany) on
which theatres must be closed. Epiphany and Christmas were
not made judicial non dies until 534.
* In a fragment preserved by an Armenian writer, Ananias of
Sbtrak.
CHRISTODORUS— CHRIST'S HOSPITAL
295
blows the greater part of the year. The rainfall in the wet season
b heavy, but not excessive, and during the dry season the ground
Is refreshed with occasional showers and heavy dews. Malarial
fever is not prevalent, and it is interesting to note that there
are no swamps or standing waters on the island.
It is not known when and by whom the island was discovered,
bat under the name of Moni it appears on a Dutch chart of 1666.
It was first visited in 1688 by Dampicr, who found it uninhabited.
In 1886 Captain Madear of H.M.S. " Flying Fish," having
discovered an anchorage in a bay which he named Flying Fish
Cove, landed a party and made a small but interesting collection
of the flora and fauna. In the following year Captain Aldrich
on H.M.S. " Egeria " visited it, accompanied by Mr J. J. Lister,
F.R-S., who formed a larger biological and mineralogical collec-
tion. Among the rocks then obtained and submitted to Sir John
Murray for examination there were detected specimens of nearly
pure phosphate of lime, a discovery which eventually led, in
June 1888, to the annexation of the island to the British crown.
Soon afterwards a small settlement was established in Flying
Fish Cove by Mr G. Clunies Ross, the owner of the Keeling
Islands, which lie about 750 m. to the westward. In 1891
Mr Ross and Sir John Murray were granted a lease, but on the
farther discovery of phosphatic deposits they disposed of their
rights in 1807 to a company. In the same year a thorough
scientific exploration was made, at the cost of Sir John Murray,
by Mr C. W. Andrews, of the British Museum.
Sea C. W. Andrews, A Monograph of Christmas Ishnd (Indian
Ocean), (London, 1900).
CHBISTODORUS, of Coptos in Egypt, epic poet, flourished
during the reign of Anastasius I. (a.d. 491-518). According
to Suidas, he was the author of TTdrpta, accounts of the founda-
tion of various cities; AvStaxa, the mythical history of Lydia;
'boupud, the conquest of Isauria by Anastasius; three books
of epigrams; and many other works. In addition to two
epigrams (Anthcl. Pal. vii. 697,698) we possess a description
of eighty statues of gods, heroes and famous men and women in
the gymnasium of Zeuxippus at Constantinople. This k^pcurtt,
consisting of 416 hexameters, forms the second book of the
Palatine Anthology. The writer's chief models are Homer
and Nonnus, whom he follows closely in the structure of his
hexameters. Opinions are divided as to the merits of the
work. Some critics regard it as of great importance for the
history of art and a model of description; others consider it
valueless, alike from the historical, mythological and archaeo-
logical points of view.
See F. Baumgarten, De Ckristodoro poila Thebano (1881). and his
article in Pauly-Wissowa's Realauydopddic, iii. 2 (1899); W. Christ,
GtuhickU dtr griuhischen LiUeratur (1898).
CHRISTOPHER, SAINT (Chrislopkorus, Ckristofenu), a saint
honoured in the Roman Catholic (25th of July) and Orthodox
Eastern (9th of May) Churches, the patron of ferrymen. Nothing
that is authentic is known about him. He appears to have been
originally a pagan and to have been born in Syria. He was
baptized by Babylas, bishop of Antioch; preached with much
success in Lycia; and was martyred about a.d. 250 during the
persecution under the emperor Decius. 1 Round this small
nucleus of possibility, however, a vast mass of legendary matter
gradually collected. All accounts agree that he was of great
stature and singularly handsome, and that this helped him
not a little in his evangelistic work. But according to a story
reproduced in the New Uniat Anthology of Arcudius, and
mentioned in Basil's Monologue, Christopher was originally a
hideous man-eating ogre, with a dog's face, and only received
his human semblance, with his Christian name, at baptism.
Most of his astounding miracles are of the ordinary type. He
thrusts his staff into the ground; whereupon it sprouts into
a date palm, and thousands are converted. Courtesans sent to
seduce him are turned by his mere aspect into Christians and
martyrs. The Roman governor is confounded by his insensi-
1 Or Dagnus— perhaps to be identified with Maximinus Daza,
Joint emperor (with Galeriui) in the East 305-31 1, and sole emperor
911-313.
bility to the most refined and ingenious tortures. He is roasted
over a slow fire and basted with boiling oil, but tells his tormentors
that by the grace of Jesus Christ he feels nothing. When at last,
in despair, they cut off his head, he had converted 48,000 people.
The more conspicuous of these legends are included in the
Mozarabic Breviary and Missal, and are given in the thirty-third
sermon of Peter Damien, but the best-known story is that which
is given in the Golden Legend of Jacopus de Voragine. According
to this, Christopher— or rather Reprobus, as he was then called—
was a giant of vast stature who was in search of a man stronger
than himself, whom he might serve. He left the service of the
king of Canaan because the king feared the devil, and that of the
devil because the devil feared the Cross. He was converted
by a hermit; but as he had neither the gift of fasting nor that
of prayer, he decided to devote himself to a work of charity,
and set himself to carry wayfarers over a bridgeless river. One
day a little child asked to be taken across, and Christopher took
him on his shoulder. When half way over the stream he staggered
under what seemed to him a crushing weight, but he reached
the other side and then upbraided the child for placing him in
peril. " Had I borne the whole world on my back," he said,
"it could not have weighed heavier than thou!" "Marvel
notl" the child replied, "for thou hast borne upon thy back
the world and him who created it ! " It was this story that gave
Christopher his immense popularity throughout Western
Christendom.
See Bolland. Acta Sanet. vi. 146; Guenebault, Did. icono-
graphique des aUributs des figures et des Ugendes des saints (Par.,
1850); Smith and Wace, Diet, of Christ. Bioe. (London, 1877, &c,
4 vols.) ; A. Sincmus, Die Legende vom h. Chrislophorus (Hanover,
1868); and other literature cited in Hcrzog-Hauck, Rtalencyk.
iv. 60.
CHRISTOPHORUS, pope or anti-pope, elected in 003 against
Leo V., whom he threw into prison. In January 904 he was
treated in the same fashion by his competitor, Sergius III., who
had him strangled.
CHRIST0P0UL08, ATHANASIOS (1772-1847), Greek poet,
was born at Castoria in Macedonia. He studied at Buda and
Padua, and became teacher of the children of the Vlach prince
Mourousi. After the fall of that prince in 181 1, Christopoulos
was employed by Prince Caradja, who had been appointed
hospodar of Moldavia and Walachia, in drawing up a code
of laws for that country. On the removal of Caradja, he retired
into private life and devoted himself to literature. He wrote
drinking songs and love ditties which are very popular among
the Greeks. He is also the author of a tragedy, of Polilika
Parallela (a comparison of various systems of government), of
translations of Homer and Herodotus, and of some philological
works on the connexion between ancient and modern Greek!
His Ileltenika Archaiologemata (Athens, 1853) contains an account
of his life.
CHRIST'S HOSPITAL (the " Blue-coat School "), a famous
English educational and charitable foundation. It was originally
one of three royal hospitals in the city of London, founded by
Edward VI., who is said to have been inspired by a sermon
of Bishop Ridley on charity. Christ's hospital was specially
devoted to fatherless and motherless children. The buildings
of the monastery of Grey Friars, Newgate Street, were appro-
priated to it; liberal public subscription added to the king's
grant endowed it richly; and the mayor, commonalty and
citizens of London were nominated its governors in its charter of
1553. At first Christ's hospital shared a common fund with the
two other hospitals of thefoundation (Bridewell and St Thomas's),
but the three soon became independent. Not long after its
opening Christ's was providing home and education (or, in the
case of the very young, nursing) for 400 children. The popular
name of the Blue-coat school is derived from the dress of the
boys — originally (almost from the time of the foundation) a blue
gown, with knee-breeches, yellow petticoat and stockings, neck-
bands and a blue cap. The petticoat and cap were given up in the
middle of the 19th century, and thereafter no head-covering was
worn. The buildings on the Newgate Street site underwent
reconstruction from time to time, and in 1902 were vacated bty
296
CHRISTY— CHROMIUM
the school, which wu moved to extensive new buildings at
Horsham. The London buildings were subsequently fekcn
down. The school at Horsham is conducted on the ordinary
lines of a public school, and can accommodate over Soo boys.
It includes a preparatory school for boys, established in 16S3
at Hertford, where the buildings have been greatly enlarged
for the use of the girls' school on the same foundation. This was
originally in Newgate Street, but was moved to Hertford in 1 77S.
In the boys' school the two highest classes retain their ancient
names of Grecians and Deputy Grecians. Children were formerly
admitted to the schools only on presentation. Admission is now
(1) by presentation of donation governors (i.e. the royal family,
and contributors of £500 or more to the funds), of the council
of almoners (which administers the endowments), or of certain
of the city companies; (2) by competition, on the nomination
of a donation governor (for boys only), or from public elementary
schools in London, certain city parishes and certain endowed
schools elsewhere. The main school is divided into two parts —
the Latin school, corresponding to the classical side in other
schools, and the mathematical school or modern side. Large
pension charities arc administered by the governing body,
and part of the income of the hospital (about £60,000 annually)
is devoted to apprenticing boys and girls, to leaving exhibitions
from the school, &c.
CHRISTY, HENRY (18x0-1865), English ethnologist, was born
at Kingston-on-Thames on the 26th of July 18 10. He entered
his father's firm of hatters, in London, and later became a
director of the London Joint-Stock Bank. In 1850 he started on
a scries of journeys, which interested him in ethnological studies.
Encouraged by what he saw at the Great Exhibition of 1851,
Christy devoted the rest of his life to perpetual travel and research,
making extensive collections illustrating the early history of man,
now in the British Museum. He travelled in Norway, Sweden,
Denmark, Mexico, British Columbia and other countries; but in
1858 came the opportunity which brought him fame. It was in
that year that the discoveries by Boucher de Perthes of flint-
implements in France and England were first held to have clearly
proved the great antiquity of man. Christy joined the Geological
Society, and in company with his friend Edouard Lartct explored
the caves in the valley of the Vezcrc, a tributary of the Dordogne
in the south of France. To his task Christy devoted money and
time ungrudgingly, and an account of the explorations appeared
in Com pics rendu s (Feb. 29th, 1864) and Transactions of the
Ethnological Society of London (June 21st, 1864) He died,
however, on the 4th of May 1865, of inflammation of the lungs
supervening on a severe cold contracted during excavation work
at La Palissc, leaving a half -finished book, entitled Reliquiae
Aquitanicae, being contributions to the Archaeology and Palaeonto-
logy of Pcrigord and the adjacent provinces of Southern France;
this was issued in parts and completed at the expense of Christy's
executors, first by Lartct and, after his death in 1870, by Pro-
fessor Rupert Jones. By his will Christy bequeathed his magni-
ficent archaeological collection to the nation. In 1S84 it found a
home in the British Museum. Christy took an earnest part in
many philanthropic movements of his time, especially identifying
himself with the efforts to relieve the sufferers from the Irish
famine of 1847. m
CHROMATIC (Gr. xfx*t**™6i, coloured, from x/*V"*» colour),
a term meaning " coloured," chiefly used in science, particularly
in the expression " chromatic aberration " or " dispersion " (sec
Aberration). In Greek music xP<*M*Tuti /iowtu^ was one of
three divisions— diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic — of the
letrachord. Like the Latin color, x&l** was oftcn uscd of
Qtuunenliand embellishments, and particularly of the modifica-
iwci ol the three genera of the letrachord. The chromatic, being
jiSect to three such modifications, was regarded as particularly
* nkdtd."* To the Greeks chromatic music was sweet and
Sxo^*. Tram a supposed resemblance to the notes of the
rrcsis irtnebord, the term is applied to a succession of notes
ivjjN« tie dtaonk scale, and marked by accidentals. A
• j«Ki re w3e " is ihus a series of semi-tones, a nd is com monly
ca» wti *iir?»"a ttcenriing and flats descending. The most J
correct method is to write such accidentals as do not invokes
change of key.
CHROMITE, a member of the spinel group of minerals; ai
oxide of chromium ar.d ferrous iron, FeCr^)«. It is also knows
as chromic iron or as chrome-iron-ore, and is the chief conunerriil
source of chromium and its compounds. It crystallizes a
regular octahedra, but is usually found as grains or as granular to
compact masses. In its iron-black colour with submetallic rustic
and absence of cleavage it resembles magnetite (magnetic iroa-
ore) in appearance, but differs from this in being only slightly if at
all magnetic and in the brown colour of its powder. The hardness
is 5); specific gravity 4-5. The theoretical formula FeCrA
corresponds with chromic oxide (Cr,Oj) 68%, and ferrous oxide
32%; the ferrous oxide is, however, usually partly replaced by
magnesia, and the chromic oxide by alumina and ferric oxide, 10
that there may be a gradual passage to picotite or chromespineL
Much of the material mined as ore docs not contain more Una
40 to 50% of chromic oxide. In the form of isolated grains the
mineral is a characteristic constituent of ultra basic igneous rocks,
namely the peridotitcs and the serpentines which have resulted
from their alteration. It is also found under similar conditions
in meteoric stones and irons. Often these rocks enclose large
segregated masses of granular chromite. The earliest worked
deposits were those in the serpentine of the Bare Hills near
Baltimore. Maryland, U.S.A.; it was also formerly extensively
mined in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, and is now mined ia
California, as well as in Turkey, the Urals. Dun Mountain near
Nelson in New Zealand, and Unst in the Shetlands.
Chrome-iron-ore is largely used in the preparation of chromiwa
compounds for use as pigments (chromc-ycllow, &c.) and ia
calico-printing; it is also used in the manufacture of chrome*
steel. (L. J. S)
CHROMIUM (symbol Cr. atomic weight 52*1), one of the
metallic chemical elements, the name being derived from the fine
colour (Gr. xp"A-<0 of its compounds. It is a member of the sixth
group in the periodic classification of the elements, being included
in the natural family of elements containing molybdenum,
tungsten and uranium. The clement is not found in the free state
in nature, nor to any large extent in combination, occurring
chiefly as chrome-ironstone, CrjOjFeO, and occasionally being
found as crocoisite, PbCrOi, chrome-ochre, CrjOj, and chrome-
garnet, CaOCrtOj-3SiOi, while it is also the cause of the colour ia
serpentine, chrome-mica and the emerald. It was first investi-
gated in 1789 by L. N. Vauquclin and Macquart, and in 1797 by
Vauquclin, who found that the lead in crocoisite was in combina-
tion with an acid, which he recognized as the oxide of a new metal.
The metal can be obtained by various processes. Thus Sainte
Claire Dcville prepared it as a very hard substance of steel-grey
colour, capable of taking a high polish, by strong ignition of
chromic oxide and sugar charcoal in a lime crucible. F. Wfihler
reduced the scsquioxidc by zinc, and obtained a shining green
powder of specific gravity 6 Si, which tarnished in air and
dissolved in hydrochloric acid and warm dilute sulphuric acid,
but was unacted upon by concentrated nitric acid. H. Moissan
(C om pus rendu s, 1893, 116, p. 349; 1894, 119, p. 185) reduces the*
sesquioxidc with carbon, in an electric furnace; the product so
obtained (which contains carbon) is then strongly heated with
lime, whereby most of the carbon is removed as calcium carbide,
and the remainder by heating the purified product in n crucible
lined with the double oxide of calcium and chromium. An easier
process is that of H. Goldschmidt (Annalen, 1898, 301, p. 19)
in which the oxide is reduced by metallic aluminium ; and if care is
taken to have excess of the sesquioxide of chromium present, the
metal is obtained quite free from aluminium. The metal as
obtained in this process is lustrous and takes a polish, does not
melt in the oxyhydrogen flame, but liquefies in the electric arc,
and is not affected by air at ordinary temperatures. Chromium
as prepared by the Goldschmidt process is in a passive condition
as regards dilute sulphuric acid and dilute hydrochloric add at
ordinary temperatures; but by heating the metal with the acid it
passes into the active condition, the same effect being produced
by healing the inactive form with a solution of an alkaline halide-
CHROMIUM
297
W. HJttorf thinks that two allotropic forms of chromium exist
(ZaLjUr pkys. Chcm., 1898, 25, p. 729; 1800, 30, p. 481; 1900,
J4> P* 385), namely active and inactive chromium; while W.
Ostwaid (ibid., 1900, 35, pp. 33, 204) has observed that on
dissolving chromium in dilute acids, the rate of solution as
measured by the evolution of gas is not continuous but periodic.
It is largely made as fcrro-chrome, an alloy containing about
60-70% of chromium, by reducing chroraite in the electric
furnace or by aluminium.
Chromium and its salts may be detected by the fact that
they give a deep green bead when heated with borax, or that
on fusion with sodium carbonate and nitre, a yellow mass of
an alkaline chromate is obtained, which, on solution in water
and acidification wi ih acetic acid, gives a bright yellow precipitate
on the addition of soluble lead salts. Sodium and potassium
hydroxide solutions precipitate gieen chromium hydroxide
from solutions of chromic salts; the precipitate is soluble in
excess of the cold alkali, but is completely thrown down on
boiling the solution. Chromic acid and its salts, the chromatcs
and bichromates, can be detected by the violet coloration which
they give on addition of hydrogen peroxide to their dilute acid
solution, or by the fact that on distillation with concentrated
sulphuric acid and an alkaline chloride, the red vapours of
chromium oxychloride are produced. The yellow colour of
normal chromatcs changes to red on the addition of an acid,
but goes back again to yellow on making the solution alkaline.
Normal chromatcs on the addition of silver nitrate give a red
precipitate of silver chromate, easily soluble in ammonia, and
with barium chloride a yellow precipitate of barium chromate,
insoluble in acetic acid. Reducing agents, such as sulphurous
acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, convert the chromatcs into
chromic salts. Chromium in the form of its salts may be
estimated quantitatively by precipitation from boiling solutions
with a slight excess of ammonia, and boiling until the free
ammonia is nearly all expelled. The precipitate obtained is
filtered, well washed with hot water, dried and then ignited until
the weight is constant. In the form of a chromate, it may be
determined by precipitation, in acetic acid solution, with lead
acetate; the lead chromate precipitate collected on a tared
filler paper, well washed, dried at ioo° C. and weighed; or the
chromate may be reduced by means of sulphur dioxide to the
condition of a chromic salt, the excess of sulphur dioxide expelled
by boiling, and the estimation carried out as above.
The atomic weight of chromium has been determined by
S. G. Rawson, by the conversion of pure ammonium bichromate
into the trioxidc (/oiiriiu/o/C/jciii. Sac., 1890, 55^.2 13), the mean
value obtained being 52*00; and also by C. Meincckc, who
estimated the amount of silver, chromium and oxygen in silver
chromate, the amount of oxygen in potassium bichromate, and
the amount of oxygen and chromium in ammonium bichromate
{Ann , 1891, 261, p. 339), the mean value obtained being 51-99.
Chromium forms three series of compounds, namely the chromous
salts corresponding to CrU. thromous oxide, chromic Kahs, corre-
sponding to CttOi, chromium tc^uinxide, anil the chroma re*
corresponding to CrOj, chromium trwude or chromic anhydride
Chromium sesquioxidc is a ha^Ic oiioY. although Ilk*; alumina it act*
as an acid-forming oxide towards sirong base** forming ultx called
chromites. Various other oxides of chromium, iniermL-diatc in
composition between the sesquioxkle and trioxidc, hove been
described, namely chromium dioxide, CriOj'CrGi* and the oxide
CrOr2Cr,Oa.
Chromous oxide, CrO, is unknown in the free state, but in the
hydrated condition as CrO-HjO or Cr(OII) t it may be prepared by
precipitating chromous chloride by a solution of potassium hy-
droxide in air-free water. The precipitate so obtained is a brown
amorphous solid which readily oxidizes on exposure, and is decom-
posed, by heat with liberation of hydrogen and formation of the
sesquioxidc. The sesquioxidc, CrjOi, occurs native, and can be
artificially obtained in several different ways, e.g.. by igniting the
corresponding hydroxide, or chromium trioxidc, or ammonium
bichromate, or by passing the vapours of chromium oxychloride
through a red-hot tube.or by ignition of mercurou« chromate. In
the amorphous state it is a dull crtcn, almost infusible powder, but
as obtained from chromium oxychloride it is deposited in the form of
dark green hexagonal crystals of specific vra\ity 5-2. .After ignition it
becomes almost invilublc in acids.and on fusion with silicates 11 colours
them green; conscauemlv it is usnl su a Dtirmcut for colouring glass
and china. By the fusion of potassium bichromate with boric acid,
and extraction of the melt with water, a residue a left which pos-
sesses a fine green colour, and is used as a pigment under the name
of Guignet's green. In composition it approximates to CrjOrHrO,
but it always contains more or less boron trioxide. Several forms
of hydrated chromium sesquioxide are known; thus on precipitation
of a chromic salt, free from alkali, by ammonia, a light blue precipitate
is formed, which after drying over sulphuric acid, has the compo-
sition Cr,0, 7H A and this after being heated to 200° C. in a current
of hydrogen leaves a residue of composition CrOOH or CriOrHiO
which occurs naturally as chrome ochre. Other hydrated oxides
such as CrjOr2HiO have also been described. Chromium trioxide,
CrOj, is obtained by adding concentrated sulphuric acid to a cold
saturated solution of potassium bichromate, when it separates in
long red needles; the mother liquor is drained off and the crystals
arc washed with concentrated nitric acid, the excess of which is
removed by means of a current of dry air. It is readily soluble in
water, melts at 193* C., and is decomposed at a higher temperature
into chromium sesquioxidc and oxygen; it is a very powerful oxid-
izing agent, acting violently on alcohol, converting it into acetalde-
hydc, and in glacial acetic acid solution converting naphthalene and
anthracene into the corresponding qui nones. Heated with concen-
trated hydrochloric acid it liberates chlorine, and with sulphuric acid
it liberates oxygen. Caseous ammonia passed over the oxide reduces
it to the sesquioxidc with formation of nitrogen and water. Dis-
solved in hydrochloric acid at — 20 , it yields with solutions of the
alkaline chlorides compounds of the type MCbCrOCIa. pointing to
penta valent chromium. For salt s of this acid-forming oxide ana for
pcrchromic acid sec Bichromates.
Thechromitesmay be looked upon as salts of chromium sesquioxide
with other basic oxidea. the most important being chromitc (o.r.).
Chromous chloride, CrCI*. is prepared by reducing chromic chloride
in hydrogen; it forms white silky needles, which dissolve in water
giving a deep blue solution, which rapidly absorbs oxygen, forming
basic chromic salts, and acts as a very strong reducing agent. The
bromide and iodide are formed in a similar manner by heating the
metal in gaseous hydrobromic or hydriodic acids.
Chromous sulphate, CrSO«-7HiO, isomorphous with ferrous sul-
phate, results on dissolving the metal in dilute sulphuric acid or,
better, by dissolving chromous acetate in dilute sulphuric acid,
when it separates in blue crystals on cooling the solution. On
pouring a solution of chromous chloride into a saturated solution of
sodium acetate, a red crystalline precipitate of chromous acetate is
produced; this is much more permanent in air than the other
chromous salts and consequently can be used for their preparation.
Chromic salts are of a blue or violet colour, and apparently the
chloride ami bromide exist in a green and violet form.
Chromic chloride, CrOj, is obtained in the anhydrous form by
igniting a mixture of the sesquioxide and carbon in a current of dry
chlorine; it forms violet laminae almost insoluble in water, but
dissolves rapidly in presence of a trace of chromous chloride; this
action has been regarded as a catalytic action, it being assumed that
the insoluble chromic chloride is first reduced by the chromous
chloride to the chromous condition and the original chromous
chloride converted into soluble chromic chlorate, the newly formed
chromous chloride then reacting with the insoluble chromic chloride.
Solutions of chromic chloride in presence of excess of acid are green
in colour. According to A. Werner, four hydrated chromium
chlorides exist, namely the green and violet ult*, CrCtHSHjO a
hydrate, CrCl s 10HiOandoncCrClr4II.O. The violet lorm gives ■
purple solution, and all its chlorine is precipitated by silver nitrate,
the aqueous solution containing four ion*, probably OiOihU and
three chlorine ions. The green Kilt appears to dissociate in aqueous
solution into two ions, namely CrCb(OlI : )* and one chlorine ion,
since practically only one-third of the chlorine is precipitated by
silver nitrate solution at o* C. Two of the six water molecules arc
easily removed in a desiccator, and the salt formed* CrCIHHj0 t
rercmbles the original salt in properties, only one-third of the
chlorine being precipitated by silver nitrate. In accordance with
his theory of the constitution of salts Werner formulates the he*a-
h yd rat e n ■ CrCI . » (O H ,) < - Ct- ?H ; 0.
Chromic bromide, CrBri, n prepared in the anhydrous form by the
same method .1- the chloride* and resembles it in its properties.
The iodide is unknown.
The fluoride, CrF jH results on passing hydrofluoric acid over the
heated chloride, and sublimes in needles. The hydrated fluoride,
CrFrQHiO* obtained by adding ammonium fluoride to cold chromic
sulphate solution, is sparingly soluble in water, and is decomposed
by heat*
ChryhaloEcn derivatives or chromium are known, the oxychloride,
CrOiClt, resulting on heating potassium bichromate and common
hIl with concentrated sulphuric acid. m It distils over as a dark red
liquid or bailing point ti7* C, and is to be regarded as the acid
chloride corrcspundine to chromic acid, CiO;(0H)j. It dissolves
iodine and absorbs chlorine, and is decomposed by water with for-
mation of chromic and hydrochloric acids; it takes fire in contact
with sulphur, ammonh, alcohol, &c. and explodes in contact with
phosphorus; it also acts as a powerful oxidizing agent. Heated in
a closed tube at 180* C it loses chlorine and leaves a black residue of
trichromyl chloride, Cr*0»Clj, which deliquesces on exposure to air.
298
CHROMOSPHERE— CHRONICLE
Analogous bromine and iodine compounds are unknown, since
bromides and iodides on heating with potassium bichromate and
concentrated sulphuric acid give Tree bromine or free iodine.
The oxyfluoride. CrOtFs. is obtained in a similar manner to the
oxychlonde by using fluorspar in place of common salt. It may be
condensed to a dark red liquid which is decomposed by moist air
into chromic acid and chromic fluoride.
The semi-acid chloride, CrOrCl OH, chlorochromic acid, is only
known in the form of its salts, the chlorochromatcs.
Potassium chlorochromate. CrOj-ClOK, is produced when potas-
sium bichromate is heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid and
a little water, or from chromium oxychloridc and saturated potassium
chloride solution, when it separates as a red crystalline salt. By
suspending it in ether and passing ammonia, potassium amido-
chromate, CrOj-NHrOK, is obtained; on evaporating the ether
solution, after it has stood for 24 hours, red prisms of the amido-
chromate separate; it is slowly decomposed by boiling water, and
also by nitrous acid, with liberation of nitrogen.
Chromic sulphide, Cr t Sj, results on heating chromium and sulphur
or on strongly heating the trioxide in a current of sulphuretted
hydrogen; it forms a dark green crystalline powder, and on ignition
gives the sesquioxide.
Chromic sulphate, Crt(SO«)j, is prepared by mixing the hydroxide
with concentrated sulphuric acid and allowing the mixture to stand,
a green solution is first formed which gradually changes to blue, and
deposits violet-blue crystals, which arc purified by dissolving in
water and then precipitating with alcohol. It is soluble in cold
water, giving a violet solution, which turns green on boiling. If the
violet solution is allowed to evaporate slowly at ordinary tempera-
tures the sulphate crystallizes out as Crt(SO«)r loHtO, but the green
solution on evaporation leaves only an amorphous mass. Investi-
gation has shown that the change is due to the splitting off of sul-
phuric acid during the process, and that green-coloured chrom-
sulphuric acids are formed thus —
2Cr.(SO0»+H,O - HaSO«+(Cr4MSO«)<]SOi
(violet) (green)
since, on adding barium chloride to the green solution, only one-third
of the total sulphuric acid is precipitated as barium sulphate, whence
it follows that only one-third of the original SO* ions are present
in the green solution. The green salt in aqueous solution, on stand-
ing, gradually passes back to the violet form. Several other com-
plex chrom-sulphuric acids are known, e.g.
(Cr,(SO,)«)H j: |Cr»(SO.)*lH«; |Cr,(Sa) t ]H,
(see A. Recoura, Annates de Chimie el de Physique, 1895 (7). 4. P- 505.)
Chromic sulphate combines with the sulphates of the alkali metals
to form double sulphates, which correspond to the alums. Chrome
alum, KiSO«'Crj(S04)r24H:0, is best prepared by passing sulphur
dioxide through a solution of potassium bichromate containing the
calculated quantity of sulphuric acid,
KsCnO, +3SO,+H,SO« = H 1 O+K,SO«+Cr i (SO0i.
On evaporating the snlutiun dark purple octahedra q( the alum
It t*
are obi lined -
1 easily soluble 111 warm water, the snluf ion being
of a dull blue tlnt H and U used in calico- printing, dyeing and tanning.
Ch ro miu mam moru urn autpha it< I N H OiSO* - CrittOiV 74 H : 0. results
on mixing equivalent quantities of chromic sulphate and ammonium
sulphate *n aqiRVHJs to] mum and allowing the mixture to crystallize.
It forms red ottahedra and is less soluble in water thin the corre-
sponding potassium com pound. The salt CrClSQcSHjl) has been
described. By pissing ammonia over h (rated chromic chloride, the
nitride, CrN d is formed as a brownish powder. By the aciiun of
concent rated sulphuric acid it is transformed into chromium am-
monium sulphate.
Thenitratc,Cr(NOi)a'9HiO,crystaHizcs in purple prisms and results
on dissolving the hydroxide in nitric acid, its solution turns green on
boiling. A phosphide, PCr, is known ; it burns in oxygen forming the
phosphate. By adding sodium phosphate to an excess of chrome
alum the violet phosphate, CrPOrGHjO, is precipitated; on heating
to ioo° C. it loses water and turns green. A green precipitate,
perhaps CrPO«-3H?0, is obtained on adding an excess of sodium
phosphate to chromic chloride solution.
Carbides of chromium arc known ; when the metal is heated in an
electric furnace with excess of carbon, crystalline, CjCr». is formed;
this scratches quartz and topaz, and the crystals are very resistant
to the action of acids; CCr« has also been described (H. Moissan,
Comptes rendus, 1894, 119, p. 185).
Cyanogen compounds of chromium, analogous to those of
iron, have been prepared; thus potassium chromocyanide,
K4Cr(CN) t -2HjO, is formed from potassium cyanide and chromous
acetate; on exposure to air it is converted into the chromicyar.ide,
KjCr(CN) it which can also be prcixircd by adding chromic acetate
solution to boiling potassium cyanide solution. Chromic thioryanatc,
Cr(SCN)i. an amorphous deliquescent mass, is formed by dissolving
the hydroxide in thiocyanic acid and drying over sulphuric aciu.
The double thiocyanatc. Cr(SCN) r :ilvCNS-iH ? 0. is also known.
Chromium salts readily combine with ammonia to form complex
salts in which the ammonia molecule is in direct combination with
the chromium atom. In many of these salts one finds that the
elements of water are frequently found in combination with the
metal, and fun her, that the ammonia molecule may be replaced by
such other molecular groups as - NOi> &c. Of the types studied
the foil owing may be mentioned: the diammine chromium thio«
cya nates. MjCr(NHj)rfSC'N)d- the chloraquotetrammine chromic
sabs. k'j]f'r'KH i)i'HfO"Cl|, the aqu ope ntam mine or roseo-chromiuia
s.) li v K ' ;\\ ~ri N H i )t HjUJ.t hechloriKiuammme or purpureu-t hromium
satis, KMOlN Ki)t'L"l|, the nitrite pentammine or xanihochromiuai
salts* H'flNOy^NHjJrCrJ. the luleo or heximrmne chromium salts,
R'jUNHiVCrf. and the rhodochroniium salts: where R,'— a mono*
talent acid radical and M ■* a monovalent basic radical. For the
preparation and properties of these salts and a discussion on their
constitution the papers of S. F. Jorgcnsen and of A. Werner in the
Zcttschrift fur anorganische Ckemie from 1892 onwards should be
consulted
P. Pfciffer (Berukle, 1904. 37, p. 4255) has shown that chromium
salts of the type |Cr|CiH,(NH,)i|,X,lA exist in two steieo-ummenc
forms, namely, the cis- and trans- forms, the dithiocyan-diethykne-
diamine-chromium salts being the trans- salts. Their configuration
was determined by their relationship to their oxalo-denvatiws;
the cis-dichloro chloride, |CrCtHi(NH,)iCI,]CIHiO, compound with
potassium oxalate gave a carmine red crystalline complex salt,
[Cr |C,H,(NH,),|C^)dICrC,H,(NH,),.(CrO,),]l JH,0. while from the
trans-chloride a red complex salt is obtained containing the unaltered
trans-dichloro group (CrCtl.«(NH s )i-Cli]>
CHROMOSPHERE (from Gr. Xf*>P*, colour, and a<*>a?pa, a
sphere), in astronomy, the red-coloured envelope of the sun,
outside of the photosphere. It can be seen with the eye at the
beginning or ending of a total eclipse of the sun, and with a
suitable spectroscope at any time under favourable conditions.
(See Sun and Eclipse.)
CHRONICLE (from Gr. xp6*of r time). The historical works
written in the middle ages are variously designated by the
terms "histories," "annals," or "chronicles"; it is difficult,
however, to give an exact definition of each of these terms, since
they do not correspond to determinate classes of writings.
The definitions proposed by A. Giry (in La Grande EncydopHit),
by Ch. V. Langlois (in the Manuel de bibiiographie hisioriqut),
and by £. Bernhcim (in the Lchrbuch der kistoriscken Me4Mcde),ut
manifestly insufficient. Perhaps the most reasonable is that
propounded by H. F. Delaborde at the ficole des Chartes, that
chronicles are accounts of a universal character, while annals
relate either to a locality, or to a religious community, or evea
to a whole people, but without attempting to treat of all periods
or all peoples. The primitive type, he says, was furnished by
Eusebius of Caesarca, who wrote (c. 303) a chronicle in Greek,
which was soon translated into Latin and frequently recopkd
throughout the middle ages; in the form of synoptic and
synchronistic tables it embraced the history of the world, both
Jewish and Christian, since the Creation. This ingenious opinion,
however, is only partially exact, for it is certain that the medieval
authors or scribes were not conscious of any well-marked distinc-
tion between annals and chronicles; indeed, they of ten apparently
employed the terms indiscriminately.
Whether or not a distinction can be made, chronicles and
annals (q.v.) have points of great similarity. Chronicles are
accounts generally of an impersonal character, and often anony-
mous, composed in varying proportions of passages reproduced
textually from sources which the chronicler is seldom at pains
to indicate, and of personal recollections the veracity of which
remains to be determined. Some of them are written with so
little intelligence and spirit that one b led to regard the work
of composition as a piece of drudgery imposed on the dergy and
monks by (heir superiors. To distinguish what is original from
what is borrowed, to separate fact from falsehood, and to estab-
lish the value of each piece of evidence, are in such circumstances
a difficult undertaking, and one which has exercised the sagacity
of scholars, especially since the 17th century. The work, more-
over, is immense, by reason of the enormous number of medieval
chronicles, both Christian and Mahommedan.
The Christian chronicles were first written in the two learned
languages. Greek and Latin. At an early stage we have proof
of the employment of national languages, the most famous
instances being found at the two extremities of Europe, the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (q.v.), the most ancient form of which
goes back to the 10th century, and the so-called Chronicle of
Nestor, in Palaeo-Slavonic, written in the nth and lath centuries.
CHRONICLES
200
Id tbt 13th and 14th centuries the number of chronicles written
in the vulgar tongue continued to increase, at least in continental
Europe, which far outpaced England in this respect. From the
ijtb century, with the revived study of Greek and Roman
literature, the traditional form of chronicles, as well as of annals,
tended to disappear and to be replaced by another and more
scientific form, based on the models of antiquity — that of the
historical composition combining skilful arrangement with
elegance of literary style. The transition, however, was very
gradual, and it was not until the 17th century that the traditional
form became practically extinct.
See E. Bernheim, Lekrbuck der historischen Methode (4th cd.,
1903): H. Bloch, " Geschichte der deuischen Gcschichtsschrcibung
Im Mitteblter " in the llandbueh of G. von Below and F. Mcincckc
(Munich, 1903 seq.) ; Max Jansen, " Historiographie und Qurllcn
der deutscben Geschichte bis 1500," in Alois Mcistcr's Grundris
(Leipzig, 1906); and the Introduction (1904) to A. Molinicr's Les
Stunts de tkistoire dt France, (C. B.*)
CHBOVICLES, BOOKS OF, two Old Testament books of the
Bible. The name is derived from Chronic on, 6rst suggested by
^^^ Jerome as a rendering of the title which they bear in
2J5SL **•* Hebrew Canon, viz. Events of the Times. The full
Hebrew title would be Book of Events oj the Times, and
this again appears to have been a designation commonly applied
to special histories in the more definite shape — Events of the Times
of King David, or the like (1 Chron. xxvii. 24; Esth. x. 2, &c).
The Greek translators divided the long book into two, and
adopted the title UapaXeixdfitva, Things omitted [scil, in the oilier
historical books].
The book of Chronicles begins with Adam and ends abruptly
in the middle of Cyrus's decree of restoration, which reappears
complete at the beginning of Ezra. A closer examination of those
parts of Ezra and Nehemiah which are not extracted from earlier
documents or original memoirs leads to the conclusion that
Chromcles-EtraN (hemiah was originally one work, displaying
throughout the peculiarities of language and thought of a single
editor, who, however, cannot be Ezra himself as tradition would
have it. Thus the fragmentary close of 2 Chronicles marks the
disruption of a previously-existing continuity,— due, presumably,
to the fact that in the gradual compilation of the Canon the
necessity for incorporating in the Holy Writings an account of
the establishment of the post-Exile theocracy was felt, before it
was thought desirable to supplement Samuel and Kings by adding
i second history of the period before the Exile. Hence Chronicles
k the last book of the Hebrew Bible, following the book of Ezra-
NekemiaM, which properly is nothing else than the sequel of
Chronicles.
Of the authorship of Chronicles we know only what can be
determined by internal evidence. The style of the language, and
also the position of the book in the Jewish Canon, stamp the book
as one of the latest in the Old Testament, but lead to no exact
determination of the date. 1 In 1 Chron. xxix. 7, which refers to
the time of David, a sum of money is reckoned by darks, which
certainly implies that the author wrote after this Persian coin
had been long current in Judaea. In 1 Chron. iii. iq sqq. the
descendants of Zerubbabel seem to be reckoned to six generations
(the Septuagint reads it so as to give as many as eleven genera-
tions), and this agrees with the suggestion that Hattush (verse 22),
who belongs to the fourth generation from Zerubbabel, was a
contemporary of Ezra (Ezra viii. 2). Thus the compiler lived at
least two generations after Ezra. With this it accords that in
Nehemiah five generations of high priests are enumerated from
Joshua (xii. 10 seq.), and that the last name is that of Jaddua,
who, according to Joscphus, was a contemporary of Alexander
the Great (333 B.C.). That the compiler wrote after the fall of the
Persian monarchy has been argued by Ewald and others from the
use of the title king of Persia (2 Chron. xxxvi. 23), and from the
reference made in Neh. xii 22 to Darius III. (336-332 b c ) A
date tome time after 332 B.C. is now accepted by most modern
critics. See further Ezra and Nehemiah.
What seems to be certain and important for a right estimate of
•See the lists in Driver, Lit. of Old Test, pp 502 sqq.: and the
exhaustive summary by Fr. Brown in Hastings' Diet. Bible, i. 289 sqq.
the book is that the writer lived a considerable time after Ezra,
and stood entirely under the influence of the religious institu-
tions of the new theocracy. This standpoint determined the
nature of his interest in the early history of his people.
The true importance of Hebrew history had always ^JJJ - "
centred in the fact that this petty nation was the people »wt
of Yahweh, the spiritual God. The tragic interest
which distinguishes the annals of Israel from the forgotten
history of Moab or Damascus lies wholly in that long contest
which Anally vindicated the reality of spiritual things and the
supremacy of Yahweh's purpose, in the political ruin cf the
nation which was the faithless depository of these sacred truths.
After the return from the Exile it was impossible to write the
history of Israel's fortunes otherwise than in a spirit of religious
pragmatism. But within the limits of the religious conception of
the plan and purpose of the Hebrew history more than one point
of view might be taken up. The book of Kings looks upon the
history in the spirit of the prophets— in that spirit which is still
echoed by Zech. i. 5 seq., but which had become extinct before the
Chronicler wrote. The New Jerusalem of Ezra was organized as a
municipality and a church, not as a nation. The centre of religious
life was no longer the living prophetic word but the ordinances of
the Pentateuch and the liturgical service of the sanctuary.
The religious vocation of Israel was no longer national but
ecclesiastical or municipal, and the historical continuity of the
nation was vividly realized only within the walls of Jerusalem
and the courts of the Temple, in the solemn assembly and stalely
ceremonial of a feast day. These influences naturally operated
most strongly on those who were officially attached to the
sanctuary. To a Lcvitc, even more than to other Jews, the
history of Israel meant above all things the history of Jerusalem,
of the Temple, and of the Temple ordinances. Now the writer of
Chronicles betrays on every page his essentially Lcvitical habit
of mind. It even seems possible from a close attention to his
descriptions of sacred ordinances to conclude that his special
interests arc those of a common Lcvitc rather than of a priest,
nnd that of all Lcvitical functions he is most partial to those of
the singers, a member of whose guild he may have been. From
the standpoint of the post-exilic age, the older delineation of the
history of Israel, especially in the books of Samuel and Kings,
could not but appear to be deficient in some directions, while
in other respects its narrative seemed superfluous or open to
misunderstanding, as for example by recording, and that without
condemnation, things inconsistent with the later post-exilic law.
The history of the ordinances of worship holds a very small place
in the older record. Jerusalem and the Temple have not that
central place in the book of Kings which they occupied in the
minds of the Jewish community after the Exile. Large sections
of the old history arc devoted to the religion and politics of the
ten tribes, which arc altogether unintelligible and uninteresting
when measured by a strictly Lcvitical standard; and in general
the whole problems and struggles of the prophetic period turn on
points which had ceased to be cardinal in the life of the New
Jerusalem, which was no longer called to decide between the
claims of the Word of Yahweh and the exigencies of political
affairs and social customs, and which could not comprehend that
men absorbed in deeper spiritual contests had no leisure for the
niceties of Lcvitical legislation. Thus there seemed to be room
for a new history, which should confine itself to matters still
interesting to the theocracy of Zion, keeping Jerusalem and the
Temple in the foreground, and developing the divine pragmatism
of the history, not so much with reference to the prophetic word
as to the fixed legislation of the Pentateuch, so that the whole
narrative might be made to teach that the glory of Israel lies in
the observance of the divine law and ritual.
For the sake of systematic completeness the book begins with
Adam, as is the custom with later Oriental writers. But there
was nothing to add to the Pentateuch, and the period
from Moses to David contained little that served the
purpose. The early history is therefore contracted into a series of
tribal and priestly genealogies, which were doubtless by no means
the least interesting part of the work at a time when every
3oo
CHRONICLES
Israelite was concerned to prove the purity of his Hebrew
descent (cp. Ezra ii. 59, 62). Commencing abruptly (after some
Benjamite genealogies) with the death of Saul, the history
becomes fuller and runs parallel with the books of Samuel and
Kings. The limitations of the compiler's interest in past times
appear in the omission, among other particulars, of David's reign
in Hebron, of the disorders in his family and the revolt of Absalom,
of the circumstances of Solomon's accession, and of many
details as to the wisdom and splendour of that sovereign, as well
as of his fall into idolatry. In the later history the ten tribes arc
quite neglected (" Yahweh is not with Israel," 2 Chron. xxv. 7),
and political a flairs in Judah receive attention, not in proportion
to their intrinsic importance, but according as they serve to
exemplify God's help to the obedient and His chastisement of the
rebellious. That the compiler is always unwilling to speak of the
misfortunes of good rulers is not necessarily to be ascribed to a
deliberate suppression of truth, but shows that the book was
throughout composed not in purely historical interests, but with a
view to inculcating a single practical lesson. The more important
additions to the older narrative consist partly of statistical lists
(1 Chron. xii.), partly of full details on points connected with the
history of the sanctuary and the great feasts or the archaeology of
the Levitical ministry (1 Chron. xiii., xv., xvi., xxii.-xxix.; 2
Chron. xxix.-xxxi., &c), and partly of narratives of victories and
defeats, of sins and punishments, of olxrdicnce and its reward,
which could be made to point a plain religious lesson in favour of
faithful observance of the law (2 Chron. xiii., xiv. q sqq.; xx.,
x\i. 11 sqq., &c). The minor variations of Chronicles from the
books of Samuel and Kings are analogous in principle to the
larger additions and omissions, so that the whole work has a
consistent and well-marked character, presenting the history in
quite a diiTcrent perspective from that of the old narrative.
The chronicler makes frequent reference to earlier histories
which he cites by a great variety of names. That the names
-^^ " Book of the Kings of Israel and Judah," " Book of
5oun99m the Kings of Judah and Israel," " Book of the Kings of
Israel." and " Affairs of the Kings of Israel " (2 Chron. xxxiii. 18),
refer to a single work is not disputed. Under one or other title
this book is cited some ten times. Whether it is identical with
the Midrash 1 of the book of Kings (2 Chron. xxiv. 27) is not
certain. That the work so often cited is not the Biblical book of
the same name is manifest from what is said of its contents. It
must have been quite an extensive work, for among other things
it contained genealogical statistics (1 Chron. ix. i), and it in-
corporated certain oidcr prophetic writings — in particular, the
debar im (" words " or " history ") of Jehu the son of Hanani
(2 Chron. 11.34) and possibly the vision of Isaiah (2 Chron.
xxxii. 32). Where the chronicler docs not cite this compre-
hensive work at the close of a king's reign he generally refers to
some special authority which bears the name of a prophet or seer
(2 Chron. ix. 29; x:i. 15, &c). But the book of the Kings and a
special prophetic writing are not cited for the same reign. It is
therefore probable that in other cases than those of Isaiah and
Jehu the writings of, or rather, about the prophets which are
cited in Chronicles were known only as parts of the great " book
of the Kings." Even the genealogical lists may have been
derived from that work ( 1 Chron. ix. 1), though for these other
materials may have been accessible.
The two chief sources of the canonical book of Kings were
entitled.-tHn<j/*(" events of the times ") oj the Kings of Israel and
Judah respectively (see Kings). That the lost source of the
Chronicles was not independent of these works appears probable
both from the nature of the case and from the close and often
verbal parallelism between many sections of the two Biblical
narratives. But while the canonical book of Kings refers to
separate sources for the northern and southern kingdoms, the
source of Chrniclu was a history of the two kingdoms com-
bined, and so, no doubt, was a more recent work which in
great measure was doubtless bated upon older annals. Yet it
didaertr" ^- C »? m T?* ary ' W IW^y. *n Hifyini: r* -Ifcious *nrk, a
U found l h „°£i l,C t X .r* Ul ° n v* **«■ ' f-r.d.-ncy to Midr-*h
« lounn even here ami there in the earlier bvAv
contained also matter not derived from these works, for it is
pretty clear from 2 Kings xxi. 17 that the Annals of tkt Kings tf
Judah gave no account of Manasseh's repentance, which, accord-
ing to 2 Chron. xxxiii. 18, 19, was narrated in the great book of
the Kings of Israel. It was the opinion of Bertheau, Keil and
others, that the parallelisms of Chronicles with Samuel and Kings
arc sufficiently explained by the ultimate common source from
which both narratives drew. But most critics hold that the
chronicler also drew directly from the canonical books of Samuel
and Kings as he apparently did from the Pentateuch. This
opinion is not improbable, as the earlier books of the Old Testa-
ment cannot have been unknown in his age; and the critical
analysis of the canonical book of Kings is advanced enough to
enable us to say that in some of the parallel passages the chronicler
uses words which were not written in the annals but by one of
the compilers of Kings himself. In particular, Chronicles agrees
with Kings in those short notes of the moral character of indi-
vidual monarchs which can hardly be ascribed to an earlier hand
than that of the redactor of the latter book. 1
For the criticism of the book it is important to institute a
careful comparison of Chronicles with the parallel narratives in
Samuel- Kings* It is found that in the cases where
Chronicles directly contradicts the earlier books there t
arc few in which an impartial historical judgment will
decide in favour of the later account, and in any point that
touches difference of usage between its time and that of the old
monarchy it is of no authority. The characteristic feature of the
post-exilic age was the re-shaping of older tradition in the interest
of parcnetic and practical purposes, and for this object a certain
freedom of literary form was always allowed to ancient historians.
The typical speeches in Chronicles arc of little value for the
periods to which they relate, and where they are inconsistent
with the evidence from earlier writings or contain inherent im-
probabilities are scarcely of historical worth. According to the
ordinary laws of research, the book, being written at a time keg
posterior to the events it records, can have only a secondary
value, although that is no reason why here and there valuable
material should not have been preserved. But the general
picture which it gives of life under the old monarchy cannot haw
the same value for us as the records of the book of Kings. On the
other hand, it is of distinct value for the history of its time, and
presents a dear picture of the spirit of the age. The " ecclesiasti-
cal chronicle of Jerusalem," as Rcuss has aptly called it, repre-
sents the culminating point (as far as the O. T. Canon is con-
cerned) of that theory of which examples recur in Judges, Samuel
and Kings, and this treatment of history in accordance with
religious or ethical doctrines finds its continuation in the didactic
aims which characterize the later non-canonical writings (cf.
Jubilees; Midrash).
The most prominent examples of disagreement with earlier
sources may be briefly noticed, Thus, it would appear that the
book has confused JehoUkim and Juhoiachin {2 Chron. axsvi. 5-S)
and has statements which directly conflict with 2 Earn. xxi. ia
(1 Chron. jci. 5; see GoliatiO. and t Kings it. 10 seq. (j Chron. viiL
2); it ban clanged Hc&kiah's submission fi Kioj;s sv-iii.) into a
brave reliance (a Chron. xxxii. i*K) and ignored the humiliating
payment of tribute by this king and by J Dash fa King* xii. ii;
2 Chron. txiv. a 3 sqq.). 1 That Satan, and not Yahwth incited
a The problem of the sources is one of considerable intricacy and
cannot he dhtoned here; the introduction to the commentaries of
Renzinger and Kit tei (see Bibliography below) should be consulted.
The questions depend partly upon the view taken of the origin and
structure of the book of Kings (q.v.) and partly upon the results of
historic) criticism,
* "* A careful comparison of Chronicles with Samuel and Kings is
a striking objrct Itsson in ancient historical composition. It is an
almost indispensable introduction to the criticism of the Pentateuch
and the older bftWOlfa d works" (W. H. Bennett, CArMficf »,p.ao acq -)-
4 But xxxii. 1-6 may preserve a tradition of the account of ibe
city's wonderful deliverance mentioned in Kings (ace Hezejuah),
and the details of the invaMon of Judah in the time of Joaah differ
essentially from those in the earlier source. Even a Chron. viii. 2
cannot l>e regarded as a delirtmie alteration since the writer doe*
not appear to be quoting from 1 Kings ix. 10 sqq. (the two passages
should Ik- carcfuliy compared*, and his view of Solomon's gruatne**
is already supported by aMu-ions in the earlier but extremely
composite sources in Kin^s i>ev Solomon).
CHRONOGRAPH
301
Dtarid to number Israel (■ Chron. xxi.; a Sam. xxiv 1) accords
with later theological development.
A particular tendency to arrange history according to a mechanical
rule appears in the constant endeavour to show that recompense
and retribution followed immediately on good or bad conduct, and
especially on obedience or disobedience to prophetic advice. Thus,
the invasion of Shishak (see Rehoboam) becomes a typical romance
(a Chron. xii.); the illness of Asa is preceded by a denunciation for
relying upon Syria, and the chronology is changed to bring the fault
near Use punishment f? Chron. xv. sea.). The ships which Jehosha-
phat made were wrecked at Ezion-geber because he had allied him-
self with Ahaziah of Israel despite prophetic warning (2 Chron. xx.
tf tqq.; 1 Kings xxii. 48; d. similarly the addition in 2 Chron.
Sk. 1-3), and ihe later writer supposes that the "Tarshish ships"
fergr vessels such at were u«d in trading with Spain — cf. " India*
oeq ") built in the Red Sea were intended for the Mediterranean
trade (d- 3 Chron. uc 31 with t Kings x. 22). The Edomitc revolt
under Jehcram of Judah become* 1 he penalty for the king's apostasy
U Chrnn. xxi- io-?o; 3 King* viii. 23). Ahaziah was slain because
of hi* friendship with Jeharam (2 Chron. xxiL 7). The Aramaean
invasion in the time of Joish of Judah was a punishment for the
murder of Jehoiada't son (3 Chron. xxiv.; 2 Kings xii.). Amaziah,
after defeat in e Edom [3 Chron. njcv, F csp. verses 19-21 ; see 2 Kings xiv.
(9*cq-)r worshipped strange soda, for which he was defeated by J oash
of Israel, and subsequently met with his death (2 Chron. xxv. 27;
2 Kings *jv t 19). vtziih's leprosy is attributed to a ritual fault
(2 Chron- s*vi 4 too-, 16 sqq ; cf, J kings xv. 3.5; see Uzziaii). The
defeat and death of the good king Jobiah came through disobedi-
ence to the Divine will (1 Chron, xjcxv. 21 acq.; see 2 Kings xxiii.
aosqq.). m
In addition to such supplementary information, another tendency
of the chronicler is the alteration of narratives that do not agree
with the later doctrines of the uniformity of religious institutions
before and after the exile. Thus, the reformation of JoMah has been
thrust back from his eighteenth to his twelfth year (when he was
nineteen years old) apparently because it was felt that so good a king
would not have tolerated the abuses of the land for so long a period/
but the result of this is to leave an interval of ten years between his
conversion and the subsequent art of repentance (2 Chron. xxxiv.
3-6: 3 Kinjjs xxii. seq.). Reference* to Judaean idolatry are omitted
(X Kings xiv. 22-24; see 2 Chron. xii. 14; 2 Kings xviii. 4; 2 Chron.
Bad. 1) or abbreviated (2 Kings xxiii. 1-20; 2 Chron. xxxiv. 29-33);
and if the earlier detailed accounts of Judacan heathenism were
repulsive, so the tragic account of the fate of Jerusalem was a
painful subject upon which the chronicler's age did not care to
dwell (contrast 2 Kings xxiv. 8-xxv. with the brief 2 Chron. xxxvi.
9-21). At an age when the high places were regarded as idolatrous
ft waa considered only natural that the good kings should not have
tolerated them. So 2 Chron. xiv. 5, xvii. 6 (from unknown sources)
contradict 1 Kings xv. 14, xxii. 43 (that Asa and Jehoshaphat did
mot demolish the high places), whereas xv. 16-18, xx. 31-34, are
quoted from the book of Kings and give the older view The exam pie
ban illustration of the simple methods of early compilers. Further,
it is assumed that the high place at Gihcon was a legitimate sanctuary
(2 Chron. i. 3-6; I Kings'iii. 2-4; 1 Chron. xxi. 28-30; 2 Sam. xxiv.);
that the ark was borne not by priests (1 Kings viii. 3) but by Levi res
(2 Chron. v. 4), in accordance with post-exilic usage; and' that the
Levites, and not the foreign bodyguard of the temple, helped to place
Joash on the throne (a Chron. xxiii.)-* Conversely 1 Chron. xv.
12 seq. explains xiii. 10 (2 Sain. vi. 7) on the view that Uzza was not
a Levite, hence the catastrophe.
Throughout it is assumed that the Lcvitical organization had
been in existence from the days of David, to whom its foundation
is ascribed. ^ In connexion with the installation of the ark consider-
able space is devoted to the arrangements for the maintenance of
the temple-service, upon which the earlier books are silent, and
elaborate notices of the part played by the Levites and singers give
expression to a view of the history of the monarchy which the book
of Kings does not share.* Along with the exceptional interest taken
in Levitical and priestly lists should be noticed the characteristic
preference for genealogies. Particular prominence is given to the
tribe and kings of Judah (1 Chron. ii.-iv.), and to the priests and
Levites (1 Chron. vi., xv. 6q., xxiii.-xxv.; with ix. 1-34 cf. Neb. xi.).
The historical value of these lists is very unequal; a careful study
of the names often proves the lateness of the source, although
an appreciation of the principles of genealogies sometimes reveals
important historical information; see Calbd. Gekfalogy, Judah.
But the Levitical system as it appears in its most complete form in
1 But that this was not the invention of the chronicler appears
possible from Jer. xxv. 3. Similarly. Ilczekiah's reforms arc dated
in his first year (2 Chron. xxix. 3), against all probability; sec
Hszekiah (end).
* 2 Chron. xxiii. is an excellent specimen of the redaction to which
older narratives were submitted; cf. also 2 Chron. xxiv. 5 seq.
(2 Kings xi. 4 seq.), xxxiv. 9-14 (2 Kings xxii.), xxxv. 1-19 (2 Kings
xxiii. 21-23).
* Passages in the books of Samuel and Kings which might appear
to point to the contrary require careful examination: they prove
Co be glosses or interpolations, or are relatively late as a whole.
Chronicles is the result of the development of earlier schemes, of
which some traces are still preserved in Chronicles itself and in
Ezra Nehemiah. (See further Levites.)
"The tendency of numbers to grow is one which must always be
kept in view — cf. 1 Chron. xviii. 4, xix. 18 (2 Sam. viii. 4 [but see
LXX.J, x. 18), 1 Chron. xxi. 5, 25 (2 Sam. xxiv 9, 24); consequently
little importance can be attached to details which appear to be
exaggerated (1 Chron. v. 21, xii., xxii. 14: 2 Chron. xiii. 3, 17), and
are found to be quite in accordance with similar peculiarities else-
where (Num. xxxi. 32 seq.; Judg. xx. 2, 21, 25).
But when allowance is made for all the above tendencies of
the late post-exilic age, there remains a certain amount of
additional matter in Chronicles which may have been
derived from relatively old sources. These items arc "J£^
of purely political or personal nature and contain
several details which taken by themselves have every appear-
ance of genuineness. Where there can be no suspicion of such
" tendency " as has been noticed above there is less ground
for scepticism, and it must be remembered that the earlier books
contain only a portion of the material to which the compilers
had access. Hence it may well happen that the details which
unfortunately cannot be checked were ultimately derived from
sources as reputable as those in the books of Samuel, Kings,
&c. As examples may be cited Rehoboam's buildings, &c
(2 Chron. xi. 5-12, 18 sqq.); Jeroboam's attack upon Abijah
(2 Chron. xiii., cf. x Kings xv. 7); the invasion of Zcrah in Asa's
reign (2 Chron. xiv.; sec Asa) ; Jehoshaphat 's wars and judicial
measures (2 Chron. xvii. xx.; see x Kings xxii. 45); Jchoram's
family (2 Chron. xxi. 2-4); relations between Jchoiada and
Joash (2 Chron. xxiv. 3, 15 sqq.); conflicts between Ephraim
and Judah (2 Chron. xxv. 6-13); wars of Uzziah and Jotham
(a Chron. xxvi. seq.); events in the reign of Ahaz (2 Chron.
xxviii. 8-15, iS seq.); reforms of Uczekiah (2 Chron. xxix. sqq.,
cf. Jer. xxvi. 19) ; Manasseh s captivity, repentance and buildings
(2 Chron. xxxiii. 10-20; see 2 Kings xxi. and Manasseh); the
death of Josiah (2 Chron. xxxv. 20-25). 1° addition to this
reference may be made to such tantalizing statements as those
in x Chron. ii. 23 (R.V.),iv.39-4i,v. io, 18-22, vii. 21 seq., viii. 13,
xii. 15, examples of the kind of tradition, national and private,
upon which writers could diaw. Although in their present
form the additional narratives arc in the chronicler's style, it is
not necessary to deny an older traditional element which may
have been preserved in sources now lost to us. 4
Bibliography.— Robertson Smith's article in the 9th ed. of the
Ency. Brit, was modified by hi* later views in Old Test, in the Jeuisk
Church 9 , pp. 140-148. Recent literature is summarized by S. R.
Driver in his revision of Smith's article in Ency. Bib. and in his
Lit. of Old Test., and by F. Brown in Hastings' 'Diet. Bib. (a very
comprehensive ankle). Many parts of the Iwok ofTcr a very hard
task to the expositor, especially the geni-alocies, where to other
troubles are aihk-d the cxtn-nic corruption and many variations of
the proper names in the versions; on thc^c sec the articles iw the
Ency. Bifa Valuable contributions to the exegesis of the book will
be found in Wdlhauscn's Prolegomena ttn^, ImnaJ. pp. 171**17;
Hcnzinger in Marii's Uand-Kontmcntar U901); Kind in Sxrtd
Books of the Old Test. (1*95). History cf the Hebrews, ii. 2>4 *qq.
(1896), and in Nowack's Hcnd-Kommentar { iom). \V. H. Bennett
in Expositor's Bible (1894), W. E. Barnes, in Cambtufte Bittt (1599),
and riarvuy-Jellie in the Century Bible (1906). are helpful. A mow
more recent investigations arc those of iluworth, Ptot. Sot, of BibT.
Archarl. xxvii. 267-278 (Chronicles a late translation from the
Aramaic). (W, R. 5.; & A. C.)
CHRONOGRAPH from Gr. xpbm, time, and ypa<j>u¥, lo write).
Instruments whereby periods of time arc measured and recorded
are commonly called chronographs, but it would be more correct
to give the name to the records produced. Instruments such as
" stop watches " (see Watch), by means of which the time
between events is shown on a dial, arc also called chronographs;
they were originally rightly called chronoscopes (okotuv, to sec).
•The view that the chronicler invented such narratives is in-
conceivable, and in the present stage of historical criticism is as
unsound a* an implicit reliance upon those sources in the earlier
hooks, which in their turn are often lone; posterior to the events
they record. Although Graf, in a critical and exhaustive study
(GachUhllifhen Bticher des A.T., Leipzig, 1866), concluded that the
Chroniilfs have almost no value as a douiment.iry source of the
am ient hi-f-ry, lie Mib-Ycpicntly admitted in private correspondence
with UiTthe.iu that this statement was too strong (preface to
Berlheau's Commentary, 2nd ed., 1873).
$02
CHRONOGRAPH
In the first experiments in ballistics by B. Robins, Count
Rumford and Charles Hutton, the velocity of a projectile was
found by means of the ballistic pendulum, in which the principle
of momentum is applied in finding the velocity of a projectile
(Principles of Gunnery, by Benjamin Robins, edited by Hutton,
1805, p. 84). It consisted of a pendulum of considerable weight,
which was displaced from its position of rest by the impact of
the bullet, the velocity of which was required. A modification
of the ballistic pendulum was also employed by W. E. Mctford
(18:4-1899) in his researches on different forms of rifling;
the bob was made in the form of a long cylinder, weighing about
140 lb, suspended with its axis horizontal from four wires at
each end, all moving points being provided with knife edges.
The true length of suspension was deduced from observations
of the time of a complete small oscillation. The head of the
pendulum was furnished with a wooden block, which caught
the fragments of bullets fired at it, and its displacement was
recorded by a rod moved by the bob (The Book of the Rifle, by
the Hon. T. F. Frcmantle, p. 336). An improved ballistic
pendulum in which the geometric method of suspension is
introduced has been used by A. Mallock, to determine the
resistance of the air to bullets having a velocity up to 4500 F/S.
(Proc . Roy. Soc., Nov. 1904). A ballistic pendulum, carried by a
geometric suspension from five points, has also been employed
by C. V. Boys in a research on the elasticity of golf balls, the
displacement of the bob being recorded on a sheet of smoked
glass. 1 For further information on the dynamics of the subject
see Text Book of Gunnery, 1897, p. 101.
In nearly all forms of chronographs in which the ballistic
pendulum method is not used, the beginning and end of a period
of time is recorded by means of some kind of electrically con-
trolled mechanism; and in order that small fractions of a second
may be measured, tuning-forks arc employed, giving any con-
venient number of vibrations per second, a light style or scribing
point, usually of aluminium, being attached to one of the legs
of the tuning-fork. A trace of the vibration is made on a surface
blackened with the deposit from the smoke of a lamp. Glazed
paper is often employed when the velocity of the surface is slow,
but when a high velocity of smoked surface is necessary, smoked
glass offers far the least resistance to the movement of the
scribing points. If the surface be cylindrical, thin sheet mica
attached to it, and smoked, gives excellent results, and offers
but little resistance to all the scribing points employed. The
period of vibration of tuning-forks is determined by direct or in-
direct comparison with the mean solar second, taken from a
standard clock, the rate of which is known from transit observa-
tions (" Kccherchcs sur les vibrations d'un diapason etalon," R.
Koenig, M'ied. Ann., 18S0). In the celebrated ballistic experi-
ments of the Rev. F. Bashforlh, the time markings were made
electrically from a standard clock and fractions of a second
were est imatcd by interpolation. Rcgnault (Mimoires de Vac ad.
des sciences, t. xxxvii.) employed both a standard clock and a
tuning-fork in his determination of the velocity of sound. The
effect of temperature on tuning-forks has been determined by
•The velocity of the pruj^lile is f/'»nd thus. #j Let^V be the
veUxii ' --'-■ 1-
of l he wo) 1
vertically, then
iiy of the Ik.o, due to the imp.net of the projectile, v the velocity
it projiTfile, h the height through which the bob is raised
• -Xj-andV-^*.
M W be the weight of the bob, and w the weight of the projectile,
t»-(W+w)V, and *■- (^+») VSi^
lengl
struck, then
©-,«.™d,-(£+.)^c.
!Jh25 ^ ,n « knEth of suspension, and C the length of the chord
**•»«■" <t»K**«mtnt of the bob after being struck
*"***«*nkte wnaU oscillation of the pendulum.
Lord Rayleigh and Professor H. McLeod (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1880,
26, p. 162). who found the coefficient to be oooox 1 per degree C.
between 9 C. and 27 C. The beginning and end of a time
period is marked on a moving surface in many ways. Usually
an electromagnetic stylus is employed, in which a scribing point
suddenly moves when the electric circuit is broken by a pro-
jectile. Another method is to arrange the terminals of the
secondary circuit of an induction coil, so that when the primary
circuit is opened a small spark punctures or marks a moving
surface (Helmholtz, Phil. Mag., 1853, p. 6). A photographic
plate or film, moving in a dark chamber, is also used to receive
markings produced by a beam of light interrupted by a small
screen attached to an electromagnetic stylus, or by the legs of 1
tuning-fork, or by the mercury column of a capillary electro-
meter. In certain researches on the explosive wave of gases
the light given by the burning gases made the time trace on
a rapidly moving photographic film (H. B. Dixon, Phil. Trans.,
1003, 200, p. 323). In physiological chronography the stylus is
in many cases actuated directly by the piece of muscle to which
it is attached; when the muscle is stimulated its contraction
moves the stylus on the moving surface of the myograph
(M. Foster, Text Book of Physiology, 1879, P» 39)-
Gun Chronographs. — Probably the earliest forms of chronographi
not based on the ballistic pendulum method, arc due to Colonel
Crobcrt, 1804, and Colonel Dabooz. 1818, both officers ^_»_
of the French army. In the instrument by Crobcrt two ®™* nT
large disks, attached to the same axle 13 ft. apart, were 5*~
rapidly rotated; the shot pierced each divk, the angle otmn
between two holes giving the time of flight of the ball, when the
angular velocity of the disks was known. In the instrument by
Colonel Dabooz a cord passing over two light pulleys, one close to
the gun. the other at a given distance from it, was stretched by a
weight at the gun end and by a heavy screen at the other end.
Behind this screen there was a fixed screen. The shot cut the cord
and liberated the screen, which was perforated during its fall. The
height of fall was measured by superposing the hole in the moving
screen upon that in the fixed one. This gave the approximate
time of flight of the shot over a given distance, and hence its
velocity.
In the early form of chronoscope invented by Sir C. Wheatstone in
1840 the period of time was measured by means of a species of clock,
driven by a weight; the dial pointer was started and -»-*
stopped by the action of an electromagnet which moved a 2?**^
pawl engaging with a toothed wheel fixed on the axle to *^ B *
which the dial pointer was attached. The instrument applied to the
determination of the velocity of shot is described thus by Wheat-
stone: — " A wooden ring embraced the mouth of the gun, and a wire
connected the opposite sides of the ring. At a proper distance the
target was erected, and so arranged that the least motion given to
it would establish a permanent contact between two metal points.
One of the extremities of the wire of the electromagnet (before
mentioned) was attached to one pole of a small battery; to the
other extremity of the electromagnet were attacked two wires, one
of which communicated with the contact piece of the target and
the other with one of the ends of the wire stretched across the
mouth of the gun; from the other extremity of the voltaic battery
two wires were taken one of which came to the contact piece of
the target, and the other to the opposite extremity of the wire
across the mouth of the gun. Before the firing of the gun a con*
tinuous circuit existed, including the gun wire; when the target
was struck the second circuit was completed; but during the
passage of the projectile both circuits were interrupted, and the
duration of this interruption was indicated by the chronoscope. 1 '
Professor Joseph Henry (Journal Franklin Inst., 1886) employed a
¥rlinder driven by clockwork, making ten revolutions per 1
he surface was divided into 100 equal parts, each equal to
T A, second. The time marks were made by two galvano-
meter needles, when successive screens were broken by a shot.
Henry also used an induction-coil spark to make the cylinder, the
primary of the coil being in circuit with a battery and screen. This
form of chronograph is in many respects similar to the instrument of
KonstantinofT. which was constructed by L. F. C. Brcguet and has
been sometimes attributed to him (Comptes rendu s, 1845). This
chronograph consisted of a cylinder 1 metre in circumference and
0-36 metre long, driven by clockwork, the rotation being regulated by
a governor provided with winj-s. A small carriage geared to the
wheelwork traversed its length, carrying electromagnetic signals.
The electric chronograph signal usually consists of a small armature
(furnished with a style *nich marks ■ moving surface) moving
in front of an electromagnet, the armature being suddenly pulled
off the poles of the elect romagnet by a spring when the circuit is
broken (Josrnal of Phyuchty. ix. 408). The signals in Brevuei's
instrument were in a circuit, including the screens and batteries
of a gun range. The measurement of time depended en the
CHRONOGRAPH
3<>3
lElifln tty tf rotation of the cylinder, on which each men, rcpro
senied ris» second.
In the chronograph of A. J. A- Nave* (1848) th* time period U
found by mean* of a pendulum held at a large ingle from the vertical
m ^^ by in electromagnet, which is in circuit with a BMa on
the gun ranee. When the shot cm a this screen the circuit
ii broken and the pendulum liberated and set twinging* When the
neat screen on the range it broken by the shot* the position of the
pendulum is recorded and the distance ti has parsed through measured
on a divided arc. From this the limtq/ traversing the space between
the screen* i* deduced. By meam of an instrument known as a
difrjuoctor the tnsftu mental time-toss or latency of the chronograph
Br - iA * ** determined, fn Benton'* chronograph (1859) two
******* pemiulums arc liberated , ifl the same manner a* in the
instrument of Nave*, one on the cutting of the first screen, the other
00 the cutting of the second* The difference between the * wings
of the two pendulumi gives the time period sought for> The dis-
junctor is also used in connexion with this instrument* In ViuncUf s
chronograph (1&57) again a pendulum is employed, furnished with a
metal point, which moves close to paper impregnated uith ferro-
cyanide of potassium. The gun- range screens, are included in the
primary circuits of induction coits; when the* circuits are broken
a Kparfc from the pointer marks the paper. From these marks the
time of traverse of the shot between the screens is determined.
tn the Bath forth chronograph a platform, arranged to descend
slowly alongside of a vertical rotating cylinder, carries two markers,
AMAibrtJb. Mntrcj Il e d by electro magnets, which describe a double
spiral on the pic pared surface of the cylinder- ^ rt
electromagnet is in circuit with a clock, and the marker actuated
by it marks second* on the cylinder; the circuit of the other is
completed through a series of contact pieces attached to the screens
through which the shot parses in succession. On the gun range,
wh?n the shot Teaches the first screen, it breaks a weighted cotton
thread, which keeps a flexible wire in contact with a conductor.
When the thread is broken by a shot, the wire leaves the conductor
audi almost immediately establishes the circuit through the next
screen, by engaging with a second contact, the time of the rupture
being recorded on the cylinder by the second marker. The velocity
with which the Cylinder rotates is such that the distance between
successive dock mark? indicating seconds Is about 18 in,; hence the
marks corresponding with the severance of a thread can be allotted
their value in fraction* of seconds with great accuracy. The times
when the shot passe* successive screen* being thus recorded on the
spiraj described by the second mnrker, and the distance between
each tcreen being known, the velocity of the shot can be calculated
The chronoscopy invented by Sir Andrew Noble is so well adapted
to the measurement of very small intervals of time that it is usually
ju^y. employed to ascertain the velocity acquired by a shot at
*^ different parts of the bare in moving From a state of rest
inside the gun- A series of ** cut ting plug* " h is screwed into the sides
of the run at measured intervals, and tn each is inserted a loop of
wire which forms part of the primary circuit of an induction coi!-
On che passage of a shot this wire ii severed by means of a small knife
which projects into the bore and is actuated by the shot as it passes;
the circuit being thus broken, a spark posses between the terminals
of the secondary of the coil. There is a separate coil and circuit for
each plug. The recording arrangement consists of a series of disks,
one for each plug, mounted on one axle and rotating at a high angular
velocity. The edges of these disks are covered with a coating of
lamp-black, and the secondaries of the coils are caused to discharge
against them, $4 that a minute spot burnt in the lamp-black of each
disk indicates the moment of the cutting of the wire in the correspond-
ing plug- Hence measurement of the distance between two successive
•pots gives the time occupied by the shot tn moving over the portion
of the bore between two successive plugs. By the aid of a vernier,
readings are made to thousandths of an inch, and the peripheral
velocity of the disks being tjoo in. a second, the machine indicates
portions of time rather less than one-millionth of a second 3 it is,
in fact* practically correct to hundred-thousandths of a second {Phil.
Tfaiii., (375, P*. U).
In the Le Boulengt chronograph (" Chronograph le Boulcngc."
par M. Breger, Commission dc Glvre* Sept, il3o} two screens are
L used. The wire of the first form* part of the circuit of an
_ . * electromagnet which, so long as it is energised, supports
tfowrvft, _ Yej-tj^i rQ d called the " chronometer. Hence when
the circuit is broken by the passage of a shot through the screen
this rod drops. The wire of the second screen conveys a current
through another electromagnet which supports a much shorter rod.
This registrar, " as it is called, when released by the shot severing
the wire of the second screen, falls on a disk which sets free a spring,
and causes a horizontal knife to fly forward and nick a zinc tube
with which the chronometer rod is sheathed. Hence the long rod
will be falling for a certain time* while the shot is travelling between
the two screens, before the short rod is released l and the longer the
shot takes to travel this distance, the farther the long rod foils, and
the higher up on it will be the nick made by the knife. A simple
calculation connects the distance throuph which the rod falls with
the time occupied by the shot in travelling over the distance bet wren
the screens, and thus its velocity ascertained. The nick made by
the knife, if released while the chronometer rod is still suspended,
i* the zero point. If both rods are released simultaneously, as b
done by breaking both circuits at once by meant of a " dtsjunctor,"
a certain time is consumed by the short rod in reaching the disk,
setting free the spring and cutting a nick in the zinc; and during
this t ime the long rod is falling into a recess in the stand deep enough
to receive its f ul llengt h . The instru ment is so adjusted that the nick
thus made is A-4J5 in, above the zero point, corresponding to 0-15
sec. This is the Jisjunctor reading, and requires to be frequently
corrected during experiments. The instrument was modified and
improved by Colonel H r C. rlolden, F.R.S. For further information
respecting formulae relating to it see Text Book of Gunnery (1897).
The electric chronograph of the late H> S. S. Watkin <_
of two long cylinders rotating on vertical axes, and between them ft
cylindrical weight, having a pointed head t is free to fall. «, «.
The weight is furnished with an insulated wire which wasissv
passes through it at right angles to its longest axis. When the
wckht falls the ends of the insulated wire move very close to the
surfaces of the cylinders which form part of a secondary circuit of
an induction coil* the primary circuit of which is opened when a
screen is ruptured by a shot. A minute mark is made by the induced
spark on the smoked paper with which the cylinders are covered.
The time period between events is deduced from the space fallen
through by the weight, and by means of a scale, graduated for a given
distance between the screens, the velocity of a snot is at once found.
It may be noted that the method of release is such that the falling
weight is not subjected, after it has begun to fall, to a diminishing
magnetic field, which would be the case if it were directly supported
by an electromagnet. An iron rod when falling from an electro-
magnet, during a minute portion of its fall, is subject to a diminishing
force acting in the opposite sense to that of gravity, whereby its time
of fall is slightly changed.
Colonel Scbert [Exiraits da mtmarfal dc Vartilleric de la marine)
devised a chronograph to indicate graphically the motion of recoil
of a cannon when fired, A pillar fUcd to the ground at ^. .
the side of the gun-carriage supported a tuning-fork, the **»•*»
vibration of which was maintained electrically. The fork was
provided with a tracing point attached to one of the prongs, and so
adjusted that it drew its path on a polished *.hcet of smoke-blackened
metal attached to the gun-carriage, which traversed past the tracing
point when the gun ran back- The fork used made 500 complete
vibrations per second. A central line was drawn through the curved
path of the tracing point, and every entire vibration cut the straight
line twice h the interval between caeh intersection equalling T «Vt
second. The diagram so produced gave the total time of the acceler-
ated motion of recoil of the gun T the maximum velocity of recoil.
and the rate 0/ acceleration of recoil from the beginning to the end
of the motion. By mc^ns of an instrument furnished with a micro-
scope and micrometers, the length and amplitude, and the angle at
which the curved line cut the central line, were measured. At each
intersection (according to the inventor) the velocity could be deduced.
The motion at any intersection being compounded of the greatest
velocity of the fork, while passing through the midpoint of the
vibration and the velocity of recoil, the tangent made by the curve
with the straight line represents the ratio of the velocity of the fork
to the velocity of recoil. If a be the amplitude of vibration, con-
sidered constant, » the velocity of the fork at the midpoint of its
path, r the velocity of recoil, a the angle made by the tangent to the
curve with the straight line at the point of intersection, and 1 the line
of a complete vibration; then, v—lra/l; r— r/tan a.
F. Jervis-Smith's tram chronograph (Patents, 1894, 1807, 1903)
was devised for measuring periods of time varying from about one-
fourth to one twenty-thousandth part of a second (Proc.
Roy. Soc., 1889, 45. p. 452; The Tram Chronograph, by
F. Jervis-Smith, KR.S.). It consists of a metal girder
having a T-shaped end. This carries two parallel steel rails, the
edges of which lie in the same vertical plane. The girder, which is
slightly inclined to the horizontal plane, is geometrically supported,
being carried at its end, and at the extremities of the T-piece, on a
V-groovc, trihedral hole and plane. A carriage or tram furnished
with three grooved wheels runs on the rails, and a slightly smoked
glass plate u attached to its vertical side. The tram in the original
instrument was propelled by a falling weight, but in an improved
form one or more spiral springs are employed. All time traces are
made immediately after the propelling force has ceased to act. The
tram is brought to rest by a gradually applied brake, consisting
of two crossed leather bands stretched by two springs; a projection
from the tram runs between the bands, and bnngs it to rest with
but little lateral pressure. When, for certain physiological experi-
ments, a low velocity of traverse is required, a heavy fly-wheel b
mounted on the tram and geared to its wheels. A pillar also mounted
geometrically, placed vertically in front «>f the carriage, carries the
electromagnet style or signals and tuning-fork which can be brought
into contact with the glass by means of a lever. Also styli are used
which depend for their action on the displacement of one or more
wires under tension or torsion carrying a current in a magnetic field,
the condition being such that no magnetic lag due to iron armatures
1 and cores exists. Two motions of a slide on the pillar, viz. of rotation
and translation, allow a number of observations to be made. The
traces are counted out on a sloping glass desk, and the time of
flight of a projectile between two or more screens is found. When
30+
CHRONOGRAPH
very clue readings are required, they are made by means of a
traversing geometric micrometer microscope. When the distance
between the screens is known, and also the time of flight, the mid-
point velocity is found by applying Bashforth's formula. When the
velocity of shot from a shot-gun has to be found, a thin wire stretched
across the muzzle takes the place of the first screen, and a thin sheet
of metal or cardboard carrying an electric contact, or a Branly
coherer, the conductivity of which is restored by means of an induced
current, takes the place of the second screen. The electric firing
circuit is provided with a safety key attached by a cord to the man
who loads the gun and prepares the electric fuse. The firing circuit
is closed by inserting the key in a switch at the rear of the gun,
thus preventing him from getting into the line of fire when the gun
is fired by the chronograph. The tram, when the instrument is
adjusted, has a practically constant velocity of traverse.
The polarizing jphoto-enronograph, designed and used by A. C.
Crehore and G. 6. Squier at the United States Artillery School
-. - ^. (Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect. Eng. vol. 14, and Journal
™JT United Stoles Artillery, 189$, 6, p. 271), depends for its
^ indications upon the rotation of a beam of light by a
magnetic field, produced by a solcnoidal current which is opened
and closed by the passage of the projectile. The general arrangement
is as follows: — A beam of light from an clcctnc lamp traverses a
lens, then a Nicol prism, next a glass cylinder furnished with plane
glass ends and coiled with insulated wire, then an analyser and two
lenses, finally impinging on a photographic plate to which rotation
is given by an electric motor, the plane of rotation being perpen-
dicular to the direction of the beam of light. The same plate also
records the shadow of a pierced projection attached to a tuning-
fork, light from the electric lamp being diverted by a mirror for this
purpose. The solenoid used to produce a magnetic field across the
glass cylinder, which is filled with carbon bisulphide, is in circuit
with a dynamo, resistances, and the screens on the gun range. It is
a well-known phenomenon in physics that when, with the above-
mentioned combination of polarizing Nicol prism and analyser, the
light is shut off by rotating the analyser, it is instantly restored when
the carbon bisulphide is placed in a magnetic field. This phenomenon
is utilized in this instrument. The projectile, by cutting the wire
screens, causes the magnetic field to cease and light to pass. By
means of an automatic switch the projectile, after cutting a screen,
restores the electric circuit, so that successive records arc registered.
After a record has been made it is read by means of a micrometer
microscope, the angle moved through by the photographic disk is
found, and hence the time period between two events. In the photo-
chronograph described in Untersnchunten fiber die Vibration des
Cewekriaujs, by C. Cranz and K. R. Koch (Munich, 1899), also
note on the same, Nature, 61, p. 58, a sensitive plate moving in a
straight line receives the record of the movement of the barrels of
firearms when discharged. It was mainly used to determine the
" angle or error of departure " in ballistics.
In a second chronograph by Wat kin (" Chronographs and their
Application to Gun Ballistics, Proc. Roy. Inst., 1896), a metal drum,
Wmtidm. divided on its edge so that when a vernier is used a minute
of angle may be read, is rotated rapidly by a motor at a
practically uniform speed. The points of a row of steel-pointed
pins, screwed into a frame of ebonite, can be brought within ffa in.
of the surface of the drum. Each pin is a part of the secondary
circuit- of an induction coil, the space between the pins and the drum
forming spark-gaps. The drum is rubbed over with a weak solution
of paraffin wax in benzol, which causes the markings produced by
the sparks to be well defined. The records arc read by means of a
fine hair stretched along the drum and just clear of it, the dots
being located under the hair by means of a lens. The velocity of
rotation is found by obtaining spark marks, due to the primary
circuits of two induction coils being successively broken by a weight
falling and breaking the two electric circuits of the coils in succession
at a known distance apart. This chronograph has been used for
finding the velocity of projectiles after leaving the gun, and also for
finding the rate at which a shot traverses the bore. For the latter
purpose the shot successively cuts insulated wires fixed in plugs
screwed into the gun at known intervals; each wire forms a part
of the primary of an induction coil, and as each is cut a dot is made
on the rotating drum by the induced spark.
In the chronograph of Marcel Dcprcz, a cylinder for receiving
records is driven at a high velocity, 4 to 5 metres per second surface
Deprn, velocity. The velocity is determined by means of an
* elcctrirally-driven tuning-fork, the traces being read by
means of a vernier gauge. A mercury speed indicator of the Rams-
bottom type enables the rotation to be continuously controlled
(A. Favarger, L' FJeclriciti el ses applications & la chronometrie).
Astronomical Chronographs.— -The astronomical chronograph is
an instrument whereby an observer is enabled to register the time
DeaL °' trans * 1 °' a slar on a sheet of paper attached to a re-
volving cylinder. A metal cylinder covered with a sheet of
paper is routed by clockwork controlled by a conical pendulum, or
by a centrifugal clock governor such as is used for driving a telescope.
By means 01 a screw longer than the cylinder, mounted parallel
with the axis of the cylinder and rotated by the clockwork, a carriage
is made to traverse close to the paper. In some instruments this
carriage is furnished with a metal point, and in others with a stylo-
graphic ink pen. The point or pen is made to touch the paper by an
electromagnet, the electric current of which is closed by the observer
at the transit instrument, and a mark is recorded on the revolving
cylinder. The movement of the same point or pen is abo controlled
by a standard clock, so that at the end of each second a mark is
made. The cylinder makes one revolution per minute, and the
minute is indicated by the omission of the mark. In E. J. Dent's
form {Nature, 23, p. po) continuous observations can be recorded for
6 \ hours- The corneal pendulum used to govern the rotation of
the cylinder was the invention of Sir G- B. Airy. The lover end is
geared to a metal plate which sweeps through an annular trough
Tilled with glycerin and water. When the path of the pendulum
exceeds a certain diameter it causes the plate to enter the liquid more
deeply, it* motion being I hereby checked; aJso H when the pendulum
moves in a Mnatler circle the pine is lilted out of the liquid and the
resistance is diminished in the tame proportion as the force. The
compensatory action i* considerable; doubling the driving power
produces no perceptible difference in the time. To prevent the
injury of the conical pendulum and the wheel work by any sudden
cheek of the cylinder, a rateh -wheel connexion is placed between
the cylinder and (he train of wheel work; this enables the pendulum
to run on until it gradually comes to rest. The pendulum, which
weighs about iSlo, is compensated, and make* one revolution
in two srennda; it is suspended from a bracket by means of two
11 cubic steel springs placed at right angles to one another.
The observatory of Washburn, University of Wisconsin, is
furnished with a chronograph of the same type as that of Dent
{Annoh Harvard Cctl- G&J, vol. L pt, ii- p. 34} h but in this instrument
the rotation of the cylinder is controlled by a double conical pen-
dulum governor of peculiar construction, When the balls fly out
beyond a certain point, one of them engages with a hook attached
to a brass cylinder which embraces the vertical axle loosely. When
this mass is pulled aside the work done on it diminishes the steed of
i he governor. The pendulum ball usually strikes the hook from 60
to 70 times per minuic. Governors on this principle were adopted
by Alvan Clark fur driving hchostats in the United States Transit of
Venus Expedition, 1874.
In the astronomical chronograph designed by Sir Howard Grubb
(Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., July 1888), the recording cylinders— awo in
number — arc driven by a weight acting on a train of wheel arubb.
work controlled by an astronomical telescope governor.
The peculiar feature of this instrument is that the axle is geared to
a shaft which communicates motion to the cylinders through a
mechanism whereby the speed of rotation is constantly corrected
by a standard clock. Should the rotation fall below the correct
speed it is automatically accelerated, and if its speed of rotation
rises above the correct one it is retarded. The accelerator and
retarder are thrown into action by electromagnets, controlled by a
" detector " mounted on the same shaft. The rather complicated
mechanism employed to effect the correction is described and fully
illustrated in the reference given. The cylinders arc covered with
paper, but all the markings are made with a stylographic pen. The
marks indicating seconds are dots, but those made by the observer
are short lines. When an observation is about to be made the
observer first notes the hour and minute, and, by pressing a contact
key attached to a flexible cord at the transit instrument, marks
the paper with a letter in Morse telegraph characters, indicating
the hour and minute; he then waits till a micrometer wire cuts a
star and at the instant closes the circuit, so that the second and
fraction of a second are registered on the chronograph paper. When
a set of observations have been taken, the paper is removed from
the cylinder, and the same results are obtained by applying a
suitably divided rule to the marked paper, fractions of a second
being estimated by applying a piece of glass ruled with eleven
straight lines converging to a point. The ends of these lines on
the base of the triangle so formed are equidistant on one edge of
the glass, so that when the first and last lines arc so placed as to
coincide with the beginning and end of the markings of a second,
that second is divided into ten equal parts. The base of the triangle
is always kept parallel with the line of dots. The papers, after they
have been examined and the results registered, arc kept for reference.
In the astronomical chronograph of Hipp, used in determining
longitudes, the movement cf a recording cylinder is regulated by
means of a toothed wheel, the last of a clockwork train, «..__
controlled by a vibrating metal tongue; this impoHant ***
feature is described in detail in Favargcr's work cited above.
Acoustic Chronographs. — In the chronograph devised by H. V.
Regnault (Acad, des Sc., 1868) to determine the velocity of sound
propagated through a great length of pipe, a band of ■>-«,--»
paper 27 mm. wide was continuously unrolled from a
bobbin by means of an electromagnetic engine. In its passage over a
pulley it passed over a smoky lamp flame, which covered it with a
thin deposit of carbon. It next passed over a cylinder in contact
with the style of a tuning-fork kept in vibration by electromagnets
placed on cither side of its prongs, the current being interrupted by
the fork ; it was also in contact with an electric signal controlled by
a standard clock. Also an electromagnetic signal marked the
beginning and end of a time period. Thus three markings were
registered on the band, vi*. the time of the pendulum, the vibrations
of the fork, and the marking of the signal due to the opening and
CHRONOLOGY
305
4 of the current by electrical contact* attached to diaphragms
oa which the sound wave acted. The contacts consisted of minute
hammers letting on metal points fixed to the centre of diaphragms
which dosed the end of the experimental pipes. The signal marked
the instant at which a sound wave impinged on a diaphragm. The
markings on the paper band gave the period of time between two
events, and the number of vibrations 01 the tuning-fork per second
was estimated by means of markings due to the clock. The sound'
wave was usually originated by firing a pistol into the pipe furnished I
with diaphragms and contact pieces.
In the chronographic use of the Morse telegraph instrument
CStewart and Gee, Elementary Practical Phys. p. 234) a circuit is
.tjjISa arranged which includes a seconds' pendulum furnished
asjfffcjn w * tn a ^ ne P ,at i num w * re below the bob. which sweeps
*" through a small mass of mercury forming a part of the
dfant. There is a Morse key for closing the circuit. A fast-running!
Morse instrument and a battery arc placed across this circuit as a
■hunt. A succession of dotsis made on the paper ribbon by the circui t
beimr closed by the pendulum, and the space between each adjacent'
dot indicates a period of one second's duration. Alio, when the key
b depressed, a mark is made on the paper. To measure a period of
time, the key is depressed at the beginning and end of the period,
causing two dots to be made on the ribbon ; the interval between
these, when measured by the intervals due to the pendulum, gives the
length of the period in seconds, and al*o in fraction* of a second, when
the seconds' interv.il is lubdivided into convenient equal parts.
This apparatus has been used in determination of the velocity of
sound- In the brea k circui t arrangement of pen dul una key a nd M "fw
instrument the markings appear as breaks in a, line which would other-
wise be continuous. This combination was employed by Professors
W. E. AyrtQOj and J. Ferry in their determination of the acceleration
of gravity at TokEo. 1877-1878 [Proc. Phyi* 5oc. LotU- 3, p 363),
Ta the tuning-fork electro-chronograph attributed 10 rlipp a
acta! cylinder covered with smoked glased paper is rotated uniformly
a^ by clockwork, a tuning-fork armed with a metallic style
™*^ being so adjusted that it makes a dear fine line on the
smoked paper. The tuning-fork it placed in the secondary circuit
of an induction coil, so that when the primary circuit is broken on
induced spark removes a *pecfc of black from the paper and leaves
a mark* The time period is deduced by counting the number of
vibrations and fraction* of vibration of the tuning-fork at recorded
by a sinuous line on the cylinder In later forms of this instrument
the cylinder advances as it rotates, and a spiral tine is traced. To
obtain good result? the spark must be very small, for when large
it often leaps laterally from the end of the style, and does not give
(he true position ol the style when the circuit is broken. The same
arrangement of tuning-fork and revolving cv Under, with the addition
- of a standard c]c<k. has been used by A M. Mayer \Trans.
*****' Nat A cod. Sri USA , vol- Hi-) and others for calibrating
tuning-forks, and comparing their vibrations directly with the beats
of the pendulum of a standard clock the rate of which is known.
The pendulum marks and break* the primary circuit by carrying a
small platinum wire through n small mercury meniscus. Better and
apparently curtain contacts can be obtained from platinum contact-
pieces, brought together above the pendulum by means of a toothed
wheel on the scape- wheel arbor. Sparking at the contact points
is greatly reduced by pUemg a couple of lead plates in dilute sulphuric
acid as a shunt across the battery circuit*
Far Pkytitlo^Ual Pv?t>6*ef>—A> Fitk's pendulum myograph or
muscle-trace recorder is described in Vurtttj^hrmhr. des ttaturforsch.
^^ Get* in Zurich* t 86 J, S- 307, and in Tni- book of Physiology.
*** M* Foster , pp, 4?, 45. It was used to obtain a record
of the contraction of a musrte when stimulated, tn many respect*
the instrument is similar to the electro-ballistic chronograph of
Naves, A long pendulum, confuting of a braced metal frame,
carries at its lower end a shvet of smoked glass. The pendulum
•wings about an axis supported by a wall bracket. Previous to an
riment* the pendulum i* held on one side of its lowest position
by a spring catch; when this is depressed it is free to swing-. " M the
end of its awing it engages with ;kno[hcr frying catch. In front of
the moving cla*s plate a tuning-fork is fixed, also a lever actuated
by the muscle to be electrically stimulated 1 . When the pendulum
iwinjrt through its arc, it knorfcs over the contact key in the primary
circuit of an induction coil, the secondary of which is in connexion
with the muscle. The smoL-cd plate rccoivi;* the traces of the style
of the tuning -lock and of the lever attached to the muscle, and also
the trace of an electromagnetic signal which marks the instant at
which the primary circuit is broken, After the truce* are made,
they Arc ruled through with radial lines, cutting the three traces,
and the time intervals between different parts of the muscle curve
are measured in terms of the period of vibration of the tuning-fork,
as in other chronograph* In which the tunrng-fork is employed.
In l he *pring myograph of E- Du Bois keymond fMunk't Pftvxfo.
iogM d*s Mtmehen. p. 306) a smoked glass plate attached to a metal
DwBoli *°d ' 4 shut by a cpiral spring along two guides with a
Orrmtmd. velocity which is not unfform. The traces of a style
moved by the mu*-lc under examination, and nf a tunlng-
forlt. are recorded on the glats plate, the shooter duting its traverse
knocking over one or more electric keys, which break the primary cir-
cuit of an induction coil, the induced current stimulating the muscle.
vi. 6
In the photo-ekclrk chronograph devised by G. T. Burch, F.R.S.
(Journ.cfpkyiiaio^y, t8,p. 1*5; Eiecfricia 11,37, p. 436), thcrapidmove-
ments of the column of mercury in a capillary ele c tr o meter ji, L i
used in physiological research are recorded on a sensitive «■*■■
plate moving at a uniform aogular velocity, The trace of the vibrat-
ing prongs of a limine lurk of known period is also recorded on the
plate, the light used being that of the electric arc. The images of
the meniscus of the mercury column and of the moving fork are
focused on the plate by a lens. Excellent results have been obtained
with this instrument.
An important development of a branch of chronography is due
to E< I. Marcy {Compter rettdui, 7. aout life, and Le Mowement, par
E. J. Marey t Fans, ts*>4). who employed a photographic js^-y
plate for receiving successive pictures of moving objects, ™~v
at definite times, when investigating the movements of animals, birds,
fishes, insects, and also microscopic objects such as vorticellac. The
instrument in one of its forms consisted of a camera and lens. In
front of the sensitive plate and close to it a disk, pierced with radial
slits, revolved at a given angular velocity, and each time a slit
passed by the plate was exposed. But since, in the time of passage
of the space between the slits, the object had moved by a certain
amount across the field of view, a fresh impression was produced at
each exposure. The object, well illuminated by sunlight, moved in
front of a black background- Since the angular velocity of the disk
was known, and the number of slits, the time between the successive
positions of the object was also known,
Marcy (La Af{-dnxlt grapttique, pp. (33, 14*. 456), by means of
pneumatic signals and a rotating cylinder covered with smoked
glased paper, measured the time of the movements of the limbs of
animals- The instrument consists of a recording cylinder rotated
at a uniform angular velocity by clockwork controlled by a fan
governor, nnd pneumatic sit nal. constructed thus. One end of
a closed shallow cylinder, about 4 cm. dia., is furnished with a
stretched rubber membrane. A light lever, moving about an axis
near the edge of the cylinder, is attached to the centre of the mem-
brane by a short rod. its free end moving as the membrane is dis-
tended. The cylinder 1* connected by a noiblc tube with a similar
cylinder and membrane, but without a lever, which is attached to
that part of the body of the animal the movement of which is under
investigation. The system is full of tfc r so that when the membrane
attached to the animal is compressed, the membrane which moves
the lever is distended and the lever moved. Its end, which
carries a scribing point, marks the smoked paper on the rotating
cylinder. The pneumatic signal is called by Marey " tambour a
levier,"
Refcrtncfi te ChronQgT&p\k JrV/Wi r — (l) Chronographs used In •
Physiology : Helmholtz* ** On Methods of measuring very small
Portions of Time," PHtL Afog, (i8h), 6t Id*. Vtrkandlunrtn der
phviikiiltxth~msdiriHuck*xG€MllKhajf in Wunbu*& <ifi7J); Harlts**
l+ Das AttwooU'sche Myographion H " Ahhandlunrpi dtr k. bayrriukt*
Akadtmie der Wiiienickqften fiSGj) ; Id^ Fdil^Af^v^ro-phion auf-
trsteUl in dcr Wiener Wellataitetlidnf in der AbUilwttfu'r dot Unkr*
rkMnetsrn von Ungarn (Budapest. l8$|)j Hensen, Myograph ion
mit vibratoriKher Bcwcgung," ArbtiUn asr arm KitUr phviiot.
Initio (tfioBJ; BrOckc, Siiztfrtgsbtr, d Iff***. Acod. (1877); Pnoger,
" MyogTaphianohneBewejruOij/' VitienncktuttfnabtrdiePfiyiuTi^it
dei EUiiToianut (1850)1 fWllet, Cam pi, rtnd. (i&4J>: I. Munk,
Physio for ie rf« Uemchtn (for Pfltlcer'fi cylinder gO\Terncd by conical
pendulum); J. G + M'Kcndriek* Life in Malum {iflojj (/qr early
form of cylinder chronograph by Thomas Young) ; Stirling, Outlines
of Practical FAvjtd/flry (for react longtime chronographs of F. Gallon
and Exner). \i) Chronographs used in gun wort and for other
purposes; Sabine, Phil. Afog. (1876); Moisson, l^otict_svr la
ehronozraphi* syitime Schulii (Pans, 1 87 5) ; Paul la Cou
■ :, La Rcu$
phamqiu? (Copenhagen. 187SJ; Mach, " Collected Papers on Chrono-
graphs" Nature, 42 1 p. 550; C. V + Boys, " Bullets photographed in
Flight," Nature. 47 1 p. 415: Pncumati" T " n ~ to--:- *ii s-u
Eraph," Nature, o, p. 105 ; G. C. Foster,
Pneumatic Tube Co., Paris, n< Chrono-
Laboratory Chronograph,"
Naturt, 11, p. 139; E- S- Ilolden. " Astronomical Chronograph,"
Nature. 2ft t p. ,368 s D'Arsonval, I*a Lumihe (kctriqut (1867); Dunn,
" The FhotQKreurdoBraph, M Journal United States Artillery, 8, p. 20;
K. |. Marey, La Attthode frapkiqve (for Deprea acc61erographe) ;
\\ r erncr Siemens, " Electric Spark Chronograph," Wiea. Aim,
0845). 66- (F.J.J.-S.)
CHRONOLOGY (Cr. xiottXorfr, computation of time,
Xpomt), the science which treats of time, its object being to
arrange and eihtbit the various events which have occurred
in the history of the world in the order of their succession,
and to ascertain the intervals of time between them. The
term " chronology " is also used of the order in time itself, as
adopted, and of the system by which the order is fixed.
The preservation of nny record, however rude, of the lapse of
time implies some knowledge of the celestial motions, by which
alone time can be accurately measured, and some advancement
in the arts of dvlfoed life, which could be attained only by the
accumulated experience of many genera lions (see Time). Before
1a
CHRONOLOGY
, ^.Mt.ify uf past transactions could
.. i... »iJf» with any tolerable degree
.ju«ii gii-uily affected the physical
i it •-.. oi were of a nature to make
... mini]* of the rude inhabitants of the
- . / transmitted through several ages
• »#ut intervals of lime, expressed by
■ -sc constantly varying besides, would
-'.:-',?/. The invention of the art of
— .--a r.'.ans of substituting precise and per-
-,: r —!.%-* and evanescent tradition; but in the
z .r.i. .T.a.-.kind had learned neither to estimate
._ .^ri-'iR of time, nor to refer passing events to
- -riions the attempt at an accurate chronology of
•a ji the world is only of recent origin. After
.. .oaa began to be established, the necessity of
...>-:c i register of passing seasons and years would soon
*. .:i.i '.he practice of recording important transactions
'■.'.-. e sro-.vn up as a necessary consequence of social life.
. . i i.".i*c deliberate early records a very small portion only
..i> .x.ipeu the ravages of time and barbarism.
! V- cariiist written annals of the Greeks, Etruscans and
i.'i!un» are irretrievably lost. The traditions of the Druids
:i.:>iicd with them. A Chinese emperor has the credit of burning
I'tc kxika " extant in his day (about 220 B.C.). and of burying
ili.o the scholars who were acquainted with them. And a
>ru:ii>h adventurer destroyed the picture records which were
luuiid in the pueblo of Montezuma.
oi the more formal historical writings in which the first
iinlft-j-tujl attempts were made in the direction of systematic
1 luuiiulugy we have no knowledge at first-hand. Of Hcllanicus,
the (J reck. Icgugrjphcr, who appears to have lived through the
ri cater iuit of the 5th century B.C., and who drew up a chrono-
J'i^h il list uf the priestesses of Here at Argos; of Ephorus, who
h.r.l in the 4th century B.C., and is distinguished as the first
(«:vik who attempted the composition of a universal history;
1.1 1 oi I mucus, who in the following century wrote an elaborate
ln.fi.ry of Sicily, in which he set the example of using the
»>i> 1 i;>ia>U j.» the basis of chronology, the works have perished
■i...l -.01 meagre knowledge of their contents is derived only from
•i.k^mi nl.iry citations in later writers. The same fate has
>.- i.i'.U 11 the works of Bcrossus and Manctho, Eratosthenes and
•\]n.Mi-I'#iu>. Bcrossus, a priest of Bclus living at Babylon in
(li. >i.i 1 iiitury n.c, added to his historical account of Babylonia
4 • tWMin*J»Ki< j1 list of its kings, which he claimed to have compiled
J fin (••miinr archives preserved in the temple. Manctho,
lik- «vm- « priest, living at Scbcnnylus in Lower Egypt in the
\u\ u-iiiiiiy n.c. wrote in Greek a history of Egypt, with an
«. , ..ui,t of iln thirty dynasties of sovereigns, which he professed
in h.ive di.twn from genuine archives in the keeping of the
|.nrtU. Of these works fragments only, more or less copious
and accurate, have been preserved. Eratosthenes, who in the
I titer h.ilf of the 2nd century B.C. was keeper of the famous
AkMiKlrian library, not only made himself a great name by
b)» important work on geography,. but by his treatise entitled
i'twwirapkia, one of the first attempts to establish an exact
PfewM ©f general chronology, earned for himself the title of
" Ultwf af chronology." His method of procedure, however,
**• NtqtHy conjectural; and guess-work, however careful,
""*" " p l___T_Te, Is still guess-work and not testimony.
**»" u Athenian who flourished in the middle of the
!>«.i wrote * metrical chronicle of events, ranging
1 period of the fall of Troy to his own day.
** fallowed by other investigators and
" ***}&&, but their works arc lost. Of the
***■* works arc extant, and to whom
* * possess of the labours of their
"** hereafter.
authentic records, however,
•nfusion in the chronology I
* computation of time or '
placing of events without a fixed point or epoch from which the
reckoning takes its start. Il was long before this was apprehended.
When it began to be seen, various epochs were selected by various
writers; and at first each small separate community had its
own epoch and method of time-reckoning. Thus in one city
the reckoning was by succession of kings, in another by archons
or annual magistrates, in a third by succession of priests. It
seems now surprising that vague counting by generations should
so long have prevailed and satisfied the wants of inquiring men,
and that so simple, precise and seemingly obvious a plan as
counting by years, the largest natural division of time, did not
occur to any investigator before Eratosthenes.
Precision, which was at first unattainable for want of an epoch,
was afterwards no less unattainable from the multiplicity, and
sometimes the variation, of epochs. But by a natural process
the mischief was gradually and partially remedied. The «•
tension of intercourse between the various small groups or
societies of men, and still more their union in larger groups, made
a common epoch necessary, and led to the adoption of such a
starting point by each larger group. These leading epochs
continued in use for many centuries. The task of the chronologcr
was thus simplified and reduced to a study and comparison of
dates in a few leading systems.
The most important of these systems in what we call ancitnt
times were the Babylonian, the Greek and the Roman. The.
Jews had no general era, properly so called. In the history
of Babylonia, the fixed point from which time was reckoned
was the era of Nabonassar, 747 b.c. Among the Greeks the
reckoning was by Olympiads, the point of departure being the
year in which Corocbus was victor in the Olympic Games, 776B.C.
The Roman chronology started from the foundation of the city,
the year of which, however, was variously given by different
authors. The most generally adopted was that assigned by
Varro, 753 B.C. It is noteworthy how nearly these three great
epochs approach each other,— all lying near the middle of the
8th century B.C. But it is to be remembered that the beginning
of an era and its adoption and use as such are not the same thing,
nor arc they necessarily synchronous. Of the three ancient eras
above spoken of, the earliest is that of the Olympiads, next that
of the foundation of Rome, and the latest the era of Nabonassar.
But in order of adoption and actual usage the last is first. It is
believed to have been in use from the year of its origin. It is
not known when the Romans began to use their era. The
Olympiads were not in current use till about the middle of the
3rd century B.C., when Timacus, as already mentioned, set the
example of reckoning by them.
Even after the adoption in Europe of the Christian era, s
great variety of methods of dating — national, provincial awl
ecclesiastical— grew up and prevailed for a long time in different
countries, thus renewing in modern times the difficulties ex-
perienced in ancient times from diversities of reckoning. An
acquaintance with these various methods is indispensable to the
student of the charters, chronicles and legal instruments of the
middle ages.
In reckoning years from any fixed epoch in constant succession,
the number denoting the years is necessarily always on the
increase. But rude nations and illiterate people seldom attach
any definite idea to large numbers. Hence it has been a practice,
very extensively followed, to employ cycles or periods, consisting
of a moderate number of years, and to distinguish and reckon
the years by their number in the cycle. The Chinese and other
nations of Asia reckon, not only the years, but also the months
and days, by cycles of sixty. The Saros of the Chaldaeans, the
Olympiad of the Greeks, and the Roman Indiction are instances
of this mode of reckoning time. Several cycles were formerly
known in Europe; but most of them were invented for the
purpose of adjusting the solar and lunar divisions of time, and
were rather employed in the regulation of the calendar than
a.> chronological eras. They are frequently, however, of very
great use in fixing dates that have been otherwise imperfectly
expressed, and consequently form important elements of
chronology. <\V. L. R. O
CHRONOLOGY
3<>7
Modern Results of Archaeological Research.
When Queen Victoria came to the English throne, 4004 B.C.
was alill accepted, in all sobriety, as the date of the creation of
the world. Perhaps no single statement could more vividly
emphasize the change in the point of view from which scholars
retard the chronology of ancient history than the citation of
this indisputable fact. To-day, though Bibles are still printed
with the year 4004 B.C. in the margin of the first chapter of
Genesis, no scholar would pretend to regard this reference
seriously. On the contrary, the scholarship of to-day regards
the fifth millennium B.C. as well within the historical period for
such nations as the Egyptians and the Babylonians. It has
come to be fully accepted that when we use such a phrase as
" the age of the world " we are dealing with a period that must
be measured not in thousands but in millions of years; and that
to the age of man must be allotted a period some hundreds of
times as great as the five thousand and odd years allowed by the
old chronologists. This changed point of view, needless to say,
has not been reached without ardent and even bitter controversy.
Yet the transformation is unequivocal; and the revised concep-
tion no longer seems to connote the theological implications that
were at first ascribed to it It has. now become obvious that the
data afforded by the Hebrew writings should never have been
regarded as sufficiently accurate for the purpose of exact historical
computations: that, in short, no historian working along modern
scientific lines could well have made the mistake of supposing
that the genealogical lists of the Pentateuch afforded an adequate
chronology of world-history. But it should not be forgotten
that to many generations of close scholarship these genealogical
Kstt seemed to convey such knowledge in the most precise terms,
and that at so recent a date as, for example, the year in which
Queen Victoria came to the throne, it was nothing less than a
rank heresy to question the historical accuracy and finality of
chronologies which had no other source or foundation.
This changed point of view regarding the chronology of history
nay without hesitation be ascribed to the influence of evidence
obtained in a single field of inquiry, the field, namely, of archaeo-
logy. No doubt the evidence as to the age of the earth and as
to the antiquity of man was gathered by a class of workers not
formally included in the ranks of the archaeologist: workers
commonly spoken of as palaeontologists, anthropologists,
ethnologists and the like. But the distinction scarcely covers a
real difference. The scope of the archaeologist's studies must
include every department of tho ancient history of man as
preserved in antiquities of whatever character, be they tumuli
along the Baltic, fossil skulls and graven bones from the caves
of France, the flint implements, pottery, and mummies of Egypt,
tablets and bas-reliefs from Mesopotamia, coins and sculptures
of Greece and Rome, or inscriptions, waxen tablets, parchment
rolls, and papyri of a relatively late period of classical antiquity.
If at one time the monuments of Greece and Rome claimed the
almost undisputed attention of the archaeologist, that time has
long since passed. For the most important historical records
that have come to us in recent decades we have to thank the
Orientalist, though the classical explorer has been by no means
idle. It will be sufficient here to point out in general terms the
import of the message of archaeological discovery in the Victorian
Era in its bearings upon the great problems of world-history.
A start was made through the efforts of the palaeontologists
and geologists, with only indirect or incidental aid from the
Ckrgm* archaeologists. The new movement began actively
togyf with James Hutton in the later years of the 18th
ffg** 1 century, and was forwarded by the studies of William
J " Smith in England and of Cuvier in France; but the
really efficient champion of the conception that the earth is very
old was Sir Charles Lycll, who published the first edition of his
epoch-making Principles of Geology only a few years before
Queen Victoria came to the throne. Lycll demonstrated to the
satisfaction, or— perhaps it should rather be said— to the dis-
satisfaction, of his contemporaries that the story of the geological
ages as recorded in the strata of the earth becomes intelligible
only when vast stretches of' time are presupposed. Of course
the demonstration was not accepted at once. On the contrary,
the champions of the tradition that the earth was less than six
thousand years old held their ground most tenaciously, and the
earlier years of the Victorian era were years of bitter controversy.
The. result of the contest was never in doubt, however, for the
geological evidence, once it had been gathered, was unequivocal;
and by about the middle of the century it was pretty generally
admitted that the age of the earth must be measured by an utterly
different standard from that hitherto in vogue. This concession,
however, by no means implied a like change of view regarding
the age of man. A fresh volume of evidence required to be
gathered, and a new controversy to be waged, before the old
data for the creation of man could be abandoned. Lycll again
was in the forefront of the progressive movement, and his work
on The Antiquity of Man, published in 1S63, gave currency for
the first time to the new opinions. The evidence upon which
these opinions were based had been gathered by such anthro-
pologists as Schmerling, Boucher de Perthes and others, and
it had to do chiefly with the finding of implements of human
construction associated with the remains of extinct animals in
the beds of caves, and with the recovery of similar antiquities
from alluvial deposits the great age of which was demonstrated
by their depth. Every item of the evidence was naturally:
subjected to the closest scrutiny, but at last the conservatives
were forced reluctantly to confess themselves beaten. Their
traditional arguments were powerless before the array of data
marshalled by the new science of prehistoric archaeology. Look-
ing back even at the short remove of a single generation, it is
difficult to appreciate how revolutionary was the conception of
tho antiquity of man thus inculcated. It rudely shocked the
traditional attitude of scholarship towards the history of our
race. It disturbed the most cherished traditions and the most
sacred themes. It seemed to threaten the very foundations of
religion itself. Yet the present generation accepts the antiquity
of man as a mere matter of fact. Here, as so often elsewhere,
the heresy of an elder day has come to seem almost an axiomatic
truth.
If we go back in imagination to the beginning of the Victorian
era and ask what was then known of the history of Ancient
Egypt, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, we find ourselves con-
fronted with a startling paucity of knowledge. The key to the
mysteries of Egyptian history had indeed been found, thanks
to the recent efforts of Thomas Young and Champollion, but the
deciphering of inscriptions had not yet progressed far enough
to give more than a vague inkling of what was to follow. It
remained, then, virtually true, as it had been for two thousand
years, that for all that we could learn of the history of the Old
Orient in pre-classical days, we must go solely to the pages of
the Bible and to a few classical authors, notably Herodotus and
Diodorus. A comparatively few pages summed up, in language
often vague and mystical, all that the modern world had been
permitted to remember of the history of the greatest nations of
antiquity. To these nations the classical writers had ascribed
a traditional importance, the glamour of which still lighted their
names, albeit revealing them in the vague twilight of tradition
rather than in the dear light of history. It would have been a
bold, not to say a reckless, dreamer who dared predict that any
future iesearches could restore to us the lost knowledge that had
been forgotten for more than two millenniums. Yet the Victorian
era was scarcely ushered in before the work of rehabilitation
began, which was to lead to the most astounding discoveries
and to an altogether unprecedented extension of historical
knowledge. Early in the 'forties the Frenchman Botta, quickly
followed by Sir Henry Layard, began making excavations on the
site of ancient Nineveh, the name and fame of which were a
tradition having scarcely more than mythical status. The spade
of the discoverer soon showed that all the fabled glories of the
ancient Assyrian capital were founded on realities, and evidence
was afforded of a state of civilization and culture such as few
men supposed to have existed on the earth before the Golden Age
of Greece. Not merely were artistic sculptures and bas-telleX*,
3o8
CHRONOLOGY
found that demonstrated a high development of artistic genius,
but great libraries were soon revealed, — books consisting of
bricks of various sizes, or of cylinders of the same material,
inscribed while in the state of clay with curious characters
which became indelible when baking transformed the clay into
brick. No one was able to guess, even in the vaguest way, the
exact interpretation of these odd characters; but, on the other
hand, no one could doubt that they constituted a system of
writing, and that the piles of inscribed tablets were veritable
books. There were numerous sceptics, however, who did not
hesitate to assert that tho import of the message so obviously
locked in these curious inscriptions must for ever remain an
absolute mystery. Here, it was said, were inscriptions written
in an unknown character and in a language that for at least two
thousand years had been absolutely forgotten. In such circum-
stances nothing less than a miracle could enable human ingenuity
to fathom the secret. Yet the feat pronounced impossible by
mid-century scepticism was accomplished by contemporary
scholarship, amidst the clamour of opposition and incredulity.
Its success contains at once a warning to those doubters who arc
always crying out that we have reached the limitations of
knowledge, and an encouragement and stimulus to would-be
explorers of new intellectual realms.
In a few words the manner of the discovery was this. It
appears at a glance that the Assyrian written character consists
of groups of horizontal, vertical or oblique strokes. The
characters thus composed, though so simple as to their basal
unit, are appallingly complex in their elaboration. The Assyrians
with all their culture, never attained the stage of analysis which
demonstrates that only a few fundamental sounds are involved
in human speech, and hence that it is possible to express all the
niceties of utterance with an alphabet of little more than a score
of letters. Halting just short of this analysis, the Assyrian
ascribed syllabic values to the characters of his script, and hence,
instead of finding twenty odd characters sufficient, he required
about five hundred. There was a further complication in that
each one of these characters had at least two different phonetic
values; and there were other intricacies of usage which, had they
been foreknown by inquirers in the middle of the 19th century,
might well have made the problem of decipherment seem an
utterly hopeless one. Fortunately it chanced that another
people, the Persians, had adopted the Assyrian wedge-shaped
stroke as the foundation of a written character, but making that
analysis of which the Assyrians had fallen short, had borrowed
only so many characters as were necessary to represent the
alphabetical sounds. This made the problem of deciphering
Persian Inscriptions a relatively easy one. In point of fact this
problem had been partially solved in the early days of the 19th
century, thanks to the sagacious guesses of the German philo-
logist Grotefcnd. Working with some inscriptions from Pcrsc-
polis which were found to contain references to Darius and
Xerxes, Grotefcnd had established the phonetic values of certain
of the Persian characters, and his successors were perfecting
the discovery just about the time when the new Assyrian finds
were made. It chanced that there existed on the polished
surface of a cliff at Behistun in western Persia a tri-lingual
inscription which, according to Diodorus, had been made by
Queen Semiramis of Nineveh, but which, as is now known, was
really the work of King Darius. One of the languages of this
Inscription was Persian; another, as it now appeared, was
Assyrian, the language of the newly discovered books from the
""" " \ ol Nineveh. There was reason to suppose that the
i identical in meaning; and fortunately it
1 tht inscriptions were made accessible to investiga-
_____ * *• efforts of Sir Henry Rawlinson, that the Persian
^?S?^< — Uhud a largo number of proper names. It was
^•"■***pwnstnamei are usually transcribed
are usually transcribed from one
with a tolerably close retention of their
ttf tnw sjii, the Greek names PtoUmaios
I fta_k_WbT* ""3 1 * lhe EgyP lian language and
W____ul_? yffl 1 ** Wauiptions after Alexander's
"" "■• * W- Hailarly, the Greek names
Kyros,Dareios and Xerxes were as close an imitation nspracticable
of the native names of these Persian monarchs. Assuming,
then, that the proper names found in the Persian portion of the
Behistun inscription occurred also in the Assyrian portion,
retaining virtually the same sound in each, a clue to the phonetic
values of a large number of the Assyrian characters was obviously
at hand. Phonetic values known, Assyrian was found to be a
Semitic language cognate to Hebrew.
These clues were followed up by a considerable number of
investigators, with Sir Henry Rawlinson in the van. Thanks
to their efforts, the new science of Assyriology came into being,
and before long the message of the Assyrian books had ceased to
be an enigma. Of course this work was not accomplished in a
day or in a year, but, considering the difficulties to be overcome,
it was carried forward with marvellous expedition. In 1857 the
new scholarship was put to a fumous test, in which the challenge
thrown down by Sir George Corner all Lewis and Ernest Renan
was met by Rawlinson, Hincks, Oppcrt and Fox Talbot in a
conclusive manner. The sceptics had declared that the new
science of Assyriology was itself a myth: that the investigators,
self-deceived, had in reality only invented a language and read
into the Assyrian inscriptions something utterly alien to the
minds of the Assyrians themselves. But when a committee of
the Royal Asiatic Society, with George Grote at its head, decided
that the translations of an Assyrian text made independently
by the scholars just named were at once perfectly intelligible
and closely in accord with one another, scepticism was silenced,
and the new science was admitted to have made good its claims.
Naturally the early investigators did not fathom all the
niceties of the language, and the work of grammatical investiga-
tion has gone on continuously under the auspices of a constantly
growing band of workers. Doubtless much still remains to be
done; but the essential thing, from the present standpoint,
is that a sufficient knowledge of the Assyrian language has been
acquired to ensure trustworthy translations of the cuneiform
texts. Meanwhile, the material found by Botta and Layard,
and other successors, in the ruins of Nineveh, has been constantly
augmented through the efforts of companies of other investigators,
and not merely Assyrian, but much earlier Babylonian and
Chaldaean texts in the greatest profusion have been brought to
the various museums of Europe and America. The study of
these different inscriptions has utterly revolutionized our
knowledge of Oriental history. Many of the documents an
strictly historical in their character, giving full and accurate
contemporary accounts of events that occurred some thousands of
years ago. Exact dates are fixed for long series of events that
previously were quite unknown. Monarchs whose very names
had been forgotten are restored to history, and the records of their
deeds inscribed under their very eyes are before us, — contem-
porary documents such as neither Greece nor Rome could boast,
nor any other nation, with the single exception of Egypt, until
strictly modern times. There arc, no doubt, gaps in the record;
there arc long periods for which the chronology is still uncertain.
Naturally there is an increasing vagueness as one recedes farther
into the past, and for the earlier history of Chaldaea there is great
uncertainty. Nevertheless, the Assyriologist speaks with a good
deal of confidence of dates as remote as 3800 B.C., the time ascribed
to King Sargon, who was once regarded as a mythical person,
but is now known to have been an actual monarch. Indeed,
there are tablets in the British Museum labelled 4500 B.C.; and
later researches, particularly those of the expedition of the
University of Pennsylvania at Nippur, have brought us evidence
which, interpreted with the aid of estimates as to the average rate
of accumulation of dust deposits, leads to the inference that a
high state of civilization had been attained in Mesopotamia at
least 0000 years ago.
While the Assyriologists have been making these astonishing
revelations, the Egyptologists have not been behindhand.
Such scholars as Lepsius, Brugsch, de Rouge. Lenormant, Birch,
Marictte, Maspero and Erman have perfected the studies of
Young and Champollion; while at the same time these and a
considerable company of other explorers, most notable of whom
CHRONOLOGY
309
■it Gardner Wflkfiiton and Pro fe ss or Flinders Petrie, have
brought to light a vast accumulation of new material, much
of which has the highest importance from the standpoint of the
historian. Lists of kings found on the temple wall at Abydos,
in the fragments of the Turin papyrus and elsewhere, have
cleared up many doubtful points in the lists of Manetho, and
at the same time, as Professor Petrie has pointed out, have proved
to us how true a historian that much-discussed writer was.
Manetho, it will be recalled, was the Egyptian who wrote the
history of Egypt in Greek m the time of the Ptolemies. His work
in the original unfortunately perished, and all that we know
of it we learn through excerpts made by a few later classical
writers. These fragments have until recently, however, given
is our only clue to the earlier periods of Egyptian history.
Until corroboration was found in the Egyptian inscriptions
themselves, not only were Manetho'* lists in doubt, but scepticism
had been carried to the point of denying that Manetho himself
had ever existed. This is only one of many cases where the
investigations of the archaeologist have proved not iconoclastic
but reconstructive, tending to restore confidence in classical
traditions which the scientific historians of the age of Niebuhr
and George Cornewall Lewis regarded with scepticism.
As to the exact dates of early Egyptian history there is rather
more of vagueness than for the corresponding periods of Mesopo-
tamia. Indeed, approximate accuracy is not attained until we are
within sixteen hundred years of our own era; but the sequence
of events of a period preceding this by two thousand years is
well established, and the recent discoveries of Professor Petrie
carry back the record to a period which cannot well be less than
five thousand, perhaps not less than six thousand years B.C.
Both from Egypt and Mesopotamia, then, the records of the
archaeologist have brought us evidence of the existence of a
highly developed civilization for a period exceeding by hundreds,
perhaps by thousands, of years the term which had hitherto
been considered the full period of man's existence.
We may note at once how these new figures disturb the histori-
cal balance. If our forerunners of eight or nine thousand
years ago were in a noonday glare of civilization, where shall we
look for the much-talked-of " dawnings of history " ? By this
sew standard the Romans seem our contemporaries in latter-day
civilization; the " Golden Age " of Greece is but of yesterday;
the pyramid-builders are only relatively remote. The men who
built the temple of Bel at Nippur, in the year (say) 5000 B.C.,
must have felt themselves at a pinnacle of civilization and culture.
As Professor Mahaffy has suggested, the era of the Pyramids
may have been the veritable autumn of civilization. Where,
then, must we look for its springtime ? The answer to that
question must come, if it come at all, from what we now speak
of as prehistoric archaeology; the monuments from Memphis
and Nippur and Nineveh, covering a mere ten thousand years or
to, are the records of recent history.
The efforts of the students of Oriental archaeology have been
constantly stimulated by the fact that their studies brought
Anjta,. them more or less within the field of Bible history.
■f«u »mt A fair proportion of the workers who have delved so
*•* enthusiastically in the fields of Egyptian and Assyrian
***"** exploration would never have taken up the work at all
but for the hope that their investigations might substantiate
the Hebrew records. For a long time this hope proved illusory,
and in the case of Egyptian archaeology the results have proved
disappointing even up to the very present. Considering the
important part played by the Egyptian sojourn of the Hebrews,
as narrated in the Scriptures, it was certainly not an over-
enthusiastic prediction that the Egyptian monuments when fully
investigated would divulge important references to Joseph,
to Moses, and to the all-important incidents of the Exodus, but
half a century of expectant attention in this direction has led
only to disappointment. It would be rash, considering the
buried treasures that may yet await the future explorer, to assert
that iuch records as those in question can never come to light
But, considering the fulness of the contemporary Egyptian
records of the XlXth dynasty that are already known, it becomes
increasingly doubtful whether the Hebrews in Egypt played so
important a part in history, when viewed from the Egyptian
standpoint, as their own records had seemed to imply. As the
forgotten history of Oriental antiquity has been restored to us,
it has come to be understood that, politically speaking, the
Hebrews were a relatively insignificant people, whose chief
importance from the standpoint of material history waa derived
from the geographical accident that made them a sost of buffer
between the greater nations about them. Only once, and for
a brief period, in the reigns of David and Solomon did the
Hebrews rise to anything like an equal plane of political import-
ance with their immediate neighbours. What gave them a
seeming importance in the eyes of posterity was the fact that,
the true history of the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Arabians
and Hittites had been well-nigh forgotten. The various litera-
tures of these nations were locked from view for more than two
thousand years, while the literature of Israel had not merely
been preserved, but had come to be regarded as inspired and
sacred among all the cultured nations of the Western world.
Now that the lost literatures have been restored to us, the status
of the Hebrew writings could not fail to be disturbed. Their very
isolation had in some measure accounted for their seeming
importance.
All true historical perspective is based upon comparison, and
where only a single account has been preserved of any event or
of any period of history, it is extremely difficult to judge that
account with historical accuracy. An illustration of this truth
is furnished in profane history by the account which Thucydides
has given us of the Pcloponncsian War. For most of the period
in question Thucydides is the only source; and despite the in*
hercnt merits of a great writer, it can hardly be doubted thai
the tribute of almost unqualified praise that successive genera*
tions of scholars have paid to Thucydides must have been in
some measure qualified if, for example, a Spartan account of the
Peloponnesian War had been preserved to us. Professor Mahaffy
has pointed out that many other events in Greek history are
viewed by us in somewhat perverted perspective because the great
writers of Greece were Athenians rather than Spartans or Thebans,
Even in so important a matter as the great conflict between
Persia and Greece it has been suggested more than once that we
should be able to gain a much truer view were Persian as well as
Greek accounts accessible.
Not many years ago it would have been accounted a heresy to
suggest that the historical books of the Old Testament had
conveyed to our minds estimates of Oriental history that suffered
from this same defect; but to-day no one who is competent to
speak with authority pretends to doubt that such is really the
fact. Even conservative students of the Bible urge that its
historical passages must be viewed precisely in the light of any
other historical writings of antiquity; and the fact that the
oldest Hebrew manuscript dates only from. the 8th century aju,
and therefore of necessity brings to us the message of antiquity
through the fallible medium of many generations of copyists, is
far more clearly kept in mind than it formerly was. Every
belief of mankind is in the last analysis amenable to reason, and
finds its origin in evidence that can appeal to the arbitrament of
common sense. This evidence may in certain cases consist
chiefly of the fact that generations of our predecessors have taken
a certain view regarding a certain question; indeed most of our
cherished beliefs have this foundation. But when such is thf
case, mankind has never failed in the long run to vindicate its
claim to rationality by showing a readiness to give up the old
belief whenever tangible evidence of its fallaciousness was
forthcoming. The case of the historical books of the Old Testa-
ment furnishes no exception. These bad been sacred to almost a
hundred generations of men, and it was difficult for the eye of
faith to see them as other than absolutely infallible documents.
Yet the very eagerness with which the champions of the Hebrew
records searched for archaeological proofs of their validity was a
tacit confession that even the most unwavering faith was not
beyond the reach of external evidence. True, the believer sought
corroboration with full faith that he would find it; but the vec*
3 »o
CHRONOLOGY
fact that he could think such external corroboration valuable
implied, however little he may have realized it, the subconscious
concession that he must accept external evidence at its full
value, even should it prove contradictory. If, then, an Egyptian
inscription of the XlXth dynasty had come to hand in which the
names of Joseph and Moses, and the deeds of the Israelites as a
subject people who finally escaped from bondage by crossing the
Red Sea, were recorded in hieroglyphic characters, such a
monument would have been hailed with enthusiastic delight by
every champion of the Pentateuch, and a wave of supreme
satisfaction would have passed over all Christendom. It is not
too much, then, to say that failure to find such a monument has
caused deep disappointment to Bible scholars everywhere. It
does not follow that faith in the Bible record is shaken, although
in some quarters there has been a pronounced tendency to regard
the history of the Egyptian sojourn as mythical; yet it cannot be
denied that Egyptian records, corroborating at least some phases
of the Bible story, would have been a most welcome addition to
our knowledge. Some recent finds have, indeed, seemed to make
inferential reference to the Hebrews, and the marvellous collec-
tion of letters of the XVIII th dynasty found at Tel el-Amama—
letters to which we shall refer later—have the utmost importance
as proving a possible early date for the Mosaic accounts. But
such inferences as these are but a vague return for the labour
expended, and an almost cruelly inadequate response to seemingly,
well-founded expectations.
When we turn to the field of Babylonian and Assyrian archaeo-
logy, however, the case is very different Here we have docu-
ments in abundance that deal specifically with events more or less
referred to in the Bible. The records of kings whose names
hitherto were known to us only through Bible references have
been found in the ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, and personages
hitherto but shadowy now step forth as clearly into the light of
history as an Alexander or a Caesar. Moreover, the newly
discovered treasures deal with the beliefs of the people as well as
with their history proper. The story of the books now spoken of
as the " Creation " and " Deluge" tablets of the Assyrians, in the
British Museum, which were discovered in the ruins of Nineveh
by Layard and by George Smith, has been familiar to every one
for a good many years. The acute interest which they excited
when George Smith deciphered their contents in 1872 has to some
extent abated, but this is only because scholars are now pretty
generally agreed as to their bearing on the corresponding parts of
Genesis. The particular tablets in question date only from about
the 7th century B.C., but it is agreed among Assyriologists that
they are copies of older texts current in Babylonia for many
centuries before, and it is obvious that the compilers of Genesis
had access to the Babylonian stories. In a word, the Hebrew
Genesis shows unequivocal evidence of Babylonian origin, but, in
the words of Professor Sayce, it is but "a paraphrase and not a
translation." However disconcerting such a revelation as this
would have been to the theologians of an elder day, the Bible
scholars of our own generation are able to regard it with entire
composure.
From the standpoint of the historian even greater interest
attaches to the records of the Assyrian and Babylonian kings
when compared with the historical books of the Old Testament
For some centuries the inhabitants of Palestine were subject to
periodical attacks from the warlike inhabitants of Mesopotamia,
as even the most casual reader of the Bible is aware. When it
became known that the accounts of these invasions formed a part
of the records preserved in the Assyrian libraries, historian and
theologian alike waited with breathless interest for the exact
revelations in store; and this time expectation was not dis-
appointed. As, one after another, the various tablets and
cylinders and annalistic tablets have been translated, it has
become increasingly clear that here are almost inexhaustible
fountains of knowledge, and that sooner or later it may be
possible to check the Hebrew accounts of the most important
periods of their history with contemporaneous accounts written
from another point of view. It is true that the cases arc not very
numerous when precisely the same event is described from
opposite points of view, but, speaking in general terms rather than
of specific incidents, we are already able to subject considerable
portions of history to this test. The records of Shalmaneser II.,
Tiglath-Pileser III. and Sennacherib, kings of Assyria, of
Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, and of Cyrus, king of Persia,
all contain direct references to Hebrew history. An obelisk of
Shalmaneser IL contains explicit reference to the tribute of
Jehu of Samaria, and graphically depicts the Hebrew captives.
Tiglath-Pileser IIL, a usurper who came to the throne of Assyria
in 745 B.C., and whose earlier name of Pul proved a source of
confusion to the later Hebrew writers, left records that have
served to dear up the puzzling chronology of a considerable
period of the history of Samaria. Most interesting of all, perhaps,
are the annals of Sennacherib, the destruction of whose hosts by
the angel of God is so strikingly depicted in the Book of Kings.
The court historian of Sennacherib naturally does not dwell upon
this event, but he does tell of an invasion and conquest of Palestine.
The Hebrew account of the death of Sennacherib is corroborated
by a Babylonian inscription. Here, however, there is an interest*
ing qualification. The account in the Book of Kings is so phrased
that one might naturally infer from it that Sennacherib was
assassinated by his sons immediately after his return from the
disastrous campaign in Palestine; but in point of fact, as it now
appears, the Assyrian king survived that campaign by twenty
years. One cannot avoid the suspicion that in this instance the
Hebrew chronicler purposely phrased his account to convey the
impression that Sennacherib's tragic end was but the slightly
delayed culmination of the punishment inflicted for his attack
upon the " chosen people." On the other hand, the ambiguity
may be quite unintentional, for the Hebrew writers were
notoriously lacking in the true historical sense, which shows
itself in a full appreciation of the value of chronology.
One of the most striking instances of the way in which mistakes
of chronology may lead to the perversion of historical records is
shown in the Book of Daniel in connexion with the familiar
account of the capture of Babylon by Cyrus. Within the past
generation records of Cyrus have been brought to light, as well as
records of the conquered Babylonian king himself, which show
that the Hebrew writers of the later day had a peculiarly befogged
impression of a great historical event— their misconception being
shared, it may be added, by the Greek historian Herodotus.
When the annalistic tablet of Cyrus was translated, it was made
to appear, to the consternation of Bible scholars, that the city of
Babylon had capitulated to the Persian— or more properly to the
Elamite conqueror without a struggle. It appeared, further,
that the king ruling in Babylon at the time of the capitulation
was named not Belshazzar, but Nabonidos. This king, as appears
from his own records, had a son named Belshazzar, who com-
manded Babylonian armies in outlying provinces, but who never
came to the throne. Nothing could well be more disconcerting
than such a revelation as this. It is held, however, that the
startling discrepancies are not so difficult to explain as may
appear at first sight The explanation is found, so the Assyrio-
logist assures us, in the fact that both Hebrew and Greek
historians, writing at a considerable interval after the events, and
apparently lacking authentic sources, confused the peaceful
occupation of Babylon by Cyrus with its siege and capture by a
successor to that monarch, Darius Hystaspes. As to the con*
fusion of Babylonian names— in which, by the way, the Hebrew
and Greek authors do not agree— it is explained that the general,
Belshazzar, was perhaps more directly known in Palestine than
his father the king. But the vagueness of the Hebrew knowledge
is further shown by the fact that Belshazzar, alleged king, is
announced as the son of Nebuchadrezzar (misspelled Nebuchad-
nezzar in the Hebrew writings), while the three kings that reigned
after Nebuchadrezzar, and before Nabonidos usurped the throne,
are quite overlooked.
Our present concern with the archaeological evidence thus
briefly outlined, and with much more of the kind, may be summed
up in the question: What in general terms is the inference to
be drawn by the world-historian from the Assyrian records in
their bearings upon the Hebrew writings ? At first sight this
CHRONOLOGY
night seem an extremely difficult question to answer. Indeed,
to answer it to the satisfaction of all concerned might well be
pronounced impossible. Yet it would seem as if a candid and
hnnartial historian could not well be greatly in doubt in the
natter. On the one hand, the general agreement everywhere
between the Hebrew accounts and contemporaneous records
from Mesopotamia proves beyond cavil that, broadly speaking,
the Bible accounts are historically true, and were written by
persons who in the main had access to contemporaneous docu-
ments. On the other hand, the discrepancies as to details, the
confusion as to exact chronology, the "manifest prejudice and
partisanship, and the obvious limitations of knowledge make it
dear that the writers partook in full measure of the shortcomings
of other historians, and that their work must be adjudged by
ordinary historical standards. As much as this is perhaps
conceded by most, if not all, schools of Bible criticism of to-day.
Professor Sayce, one of the most distinguished of modern
Assyriologists, writing as an opponent of the purely destructive
" Higher Criticism," demands no more than that the Book of
Genesis " shall take rank by the side of the other monuments of
the past as the record of events which have actually happened
and been banded on by credible men ", that it shall, in short,
be admitted to be " a collection of ancient documents which have
all the value of contemporaneous testimony," but which being
in themselves " wrecks of vast literatures which extended over
the Oriental world from a remote epoch," cannot be understood
aright " except in the light of the contemporaneous literature
of which they form a portion." From the point of view implied
by such words as these, it is only necessary to recall the mental
attitude of our grandfathers to appreciate in some measure
the revolution in thought that has been wrought in this field
within the last half-century, largely through the instrumentality
of Oriental archaeology.
We have seen that the genera] trend of Oriental archaeology
has been reconstructive rather than iconoclastic. Equally true
is this of recent classical archaeology. Here no such
fmmt revolution has been effected as that which virtually
created anew the history of Oriental antiquity; yet
the bearings of the new knowledge are similar in kind
ft* different in degree. The world had never quite forgotten the
history of the primitive Greeks as it had forgotten the Mesopo-
Umians, the Himyaritic nations and the Hittites; but it
remembered their deeds only in the form of poetical myths and
traditions. These traditions, finding their dearest delineation
in the lines of Homer, had been subjected to the analysis of the
critical historians of the early decades of the 19th century, and
their authenticity had come to be more than doubted. The
philological analysis of Wolf and his successors had raised doubts
as to the very existence of Homer, and at one time the main
current of scholarly opinion had set strongly in the direction of
the belief that the Iliad and the Odyssey were in reality but
latter-day collections of divers recitals that had been handed
down by word of mouth from one generation to another of bards
through ages of illiteracy. It was strenuously contended that
the case could not well be otherwise, inasmuch as the art of
writing must have been quite unknown in Greece until after
the alleged age of the traditional Homer, whose date bad been
variously estimated at from 1000 to 800 B.C. by less sceptical
generations. It had come to be a current belief that the Iliad
was first committed to writing in the age of Peisistratus. A
prominent controversialist, F. A. Paley, even went so far as to
doubt whether a single written copy of the Iliad existed in Greece
at the time of the Peloponnesian War. The doubts thus cast
upon fhe age when the Homeric poems first assumed the fixed
form of writing were closely associated with the universal
scepticism as to the historical accuracy of any traditions whatever
regarding the early history of Greece. Cautious historians had
come to regard the so-called " Heroic Age " as a prehistoric
period regarding which nothing definite was known, or in all
probability could be known. It was ably argued by Sir George
Cornewall Lewis, in connexion with his inquiries into early Roman
history, that a verbal tradition is not transmitted frura one
311
generation to another in anything like an authentic form for a
longer period than about a century. If, then, the art of writing
was unknown in Greece before, let us say, the 6th century B.C.,
it would be useless to expect that any events of Grecian history
prior to about the 7th century B.C. could have been transmitted
to posterity with any degree of historical accuracy.
Notwithstanding the allurements of the subject, such con-
servative historians as Grote were disposed to regard the problems
of early Grecian history as inscrutable, and to content themselves
with the recital of traditions without attempting to establish
their relationship with actual facts. It remained for the more
robust faith of a Schliemann to show that such scepticism was
all too faint-hearted, by proving that at such sites as Tiryns,
Mycenae and Hissarlik evidences of a very early period of Greek
dviliaation awaited the spade of the excavator. Thanks to the
enthusiasm of Schliemann and his successors, we can now
substitute for the mythical "Age of Heroes" a historical
" Mycenaean Age " of Greece, and give tangible proof of its
relatively high state of dviliaation. Schliemann may or may not
have been correct in identifying one of the seven dties that he
unearthed at Hissarlik as the fabled Troy itself, but at least his
efforts sufficed to give verisimilitude to the Homeric story.
With the lessons of recent Oriental archaeology in mind, few
will be sceptical enough to doubt that some such contest as that
described in the Iliad actually occurred. And now, thanks to
the efforts of a large company of workers, notably Dr Arthur
Evans and his associates in Cretan exploration, we are coming
to speak with some confidence not merely of a Mycenaean but
of a pre-Mycenaean Age.
As yet we see these periods somewhat darkly. The illuminative
witness of written records is in the main denied us here. Some
most archaic inscriptions have been indeed found by the explorers
in Crete, but these for the present serve scarcely any other
purpose than to prove the antiquity of the art of writing among
a people who were dosdy in touch with the inhabitants of
Hellas proper. Most unfortunately for posterity, the Greeks
wrote mainly on perishable materials, and hence the chief records
even of their later dviliaation have vanished. The only fragments
of Greek manuscripts antedating the Christian era that have
been preserved to us have been found in Egypt, where a hospitable
climate granted them a term of existence not to be hoped for
elsewhere. No fragment of these papyri, indeed, carries us
further back than the age of the Ptolemies; but the Greek
inscriptions on the statues of Rameses II. at Abu-Simbel, In
Nubia, give conducive proof that the art of writing was widdy
disseminated among the Greeks at least three centuries before
the age of Alexander. This carries us bade towards the traditional
age of Homer.
The Cretan inscriptions bdong to a far older epoch, and are
written in two non-Grecian scripts of undetermined affinities.
Here, then, is direct evidence that the Aegean peoples of the
Mycenaean Age knew how to write, and it is no longer necessary
to assume that the verses of the Iliad were dependent on mere
verbal transmission for any such period as has been supposed.
But even were direct evidence of the knowledge of the art of
writing in Greece of the early day altogether lacking, none but
the hardiest sceptic could doubt, in the light of recent archaeo-
logical discoveries elsewhere, that the inhabitants of ancient
Hellas of the " Homeric Age " must have shared with their
contemporaries the capacity to record their thought in written
words. We have seen that Oriental archaeology has in recent
generations revolutionized our conceptions of the antiquity
of civilization. We have seen that written documents have been
preserved in Mesopotamia to which such a date as 4500 B.C. may
be ascribed with a good deal of confidence; and that from the
third millennium B.C. a flood of contemporary literary records
comes to us both from Egypt and Mesopotamia. But until
recently it had been supposed that Hellas was shut out entirely
from this Oriental culture. Historians have found it hard to
dispel the idea that dvilization in Greece was a very late develop-
ment, and that the culture of the age of Solon sprang, in fact,
suddenly into existence, as it seems to do in the records of the
....* »\"*n in
, v t •. . . :<«r>'
* .-. . v K\odus.
• * . v ^•:v*ition that
..... v Or. the other
* .".» t -v.-5 the tablets
.. ». '.•.m*5 suggestive.
„.. ■ . c ±Av\ rot reached
% /. t v-: Kmc been wholly
».%.-.. "fticrcourse brought
, ,o w.-\ prat significance,
... v%- .v»*. J*c Western civilization
]".v. «s ** antiquity; and in any
ouStim* weighs a grain in the
kJ«*kv *t the Cretan inscriptions.
" <5rt7 trndrn^j to
here, ui- in (he
day were
_ *» to the antiquity of
reek culture of iHe age
■JtluiU a ton* prrM of
f noJuiioji hold,
required the
rftioA iiiat,
S Wi)
fnutad
•nil. pal
still in
well as
-Ming
lien the
tortans,
TOcces-
^he eras
d Initial
mtknee
VCUVY
^ . ^*-yj.iz sn. Vsxx elements will enable
". . - .:.rr..^ul •rf.era'aon, any histo::-.-!
w- . - -' "--"ac - "3 ^re given according to
. -■*-.■-.; .-j ia:.* in the Christian 1:1.
...:: — « J :..an r*"«^ !l ^" e invmtica
i .-...:. pr.-p*.:iy speaking, a chroso*
*"' * ... .-:„•. .".5 i."fc::.r.^ considerable facilities
^.j /. L.z.n-i ens with or.c another, audi;
1 , " - • -..->■ the years Ukrv Chri-t, it is very
. : ;-. "ii.-J'.-.:i.-.gers. It cor.A:» i.f 7f.*oJu!:H
. . ^ fc -ci." «.» «:e Christian era cvrrv>j.ondcd wita
_v * «.a= period.
. ■/_•* jr.rr.pic games, so famous in Creek h!stcry.
v .;. % -- every tour > tars, between the new ar.ih.1
. .. -.\.-z the summer solstice, on the small pl:'i
. - - %1 .- Ei:s. which was bounded nn one side by!:.;
-. .,-. er. another by the small triuu»..:y stream t>.:
■ > -..- : .'a the other two sides by mount i ins. The gars
•„• _a>*. Their origin, lost in the dimness of rer/.te
• vai invested by priestly legends with a sacred char-
l"vy were said to have been instituted by the Ida^a
.>. to commemorate his victory over his four brothers ia
.v. "--.- According to a tradition. pos«iMy more authentic.
•„• \.re re-established by Iphitus. king of Eli.<. in concert with
■c ?r.:r:ar. Lycurgus and CIco*theneaof Visa.. The practice v,ii
k'~z afterwards adopted of designating the Olympiad, or pxrkd
.•; :"."ur years, by the name of the victor in the contests of the
<:ad: - -m, and of inscribing his name in the gymna>ium cf
ympia. The first who received this honrv.tr was Corocbsx
Th-* games in which Coroebus was victor, and which form the
principal epoch of Greek history, were ccLbraied about the tir.e
o: the summer solstice 776 years IWcre the common era of the
Incarnation, in the josSth year of the Julian period, and twenty-
three years, according to the account of Yarro, before ike
foundation of Rome.
Before the introduction of the Mctonic cycle, the Olympic
year began sometimes with the full moon which followed, al
other times with that which preceded the summer solstice, because
the year sometimes contained 384 days instead of 354. But
subsequently to its adoption, the year always commenced nidi
the eleventh day of the moon which followed the solstice. Ia
order to avoid troublesome computations, which it would be
necessary to recommence for even* year, and of which the results
differ only by a few days, chronologcrs generally regard the ist
of July as the commencement of the Olympic year. Some
authors, however, among whom arc Eus.cbius, Jerome and
the historian Socrates, place its commencement al the isl of
September; these, however, appear to have confounded the
Olympic year with the civil year of the Greeks, or the era of the
Seleucidac.
It Is material to observe, that as the Olympic years and periods
begin with the ist of July, the first six months of a year of our era
correspond to one Olympic year, and the la*t six months to another.
1 Thus, when it is Mid that the tin* year of the Incarnation com-
tpondb to the first of the lyMh Olympiad, wc are to understand that
lit is only with rviiH-ct to the Ian six months of that year that the
correspondence takes place. The first six months belonged to the
fourth year of the 104th Olympiad. In referring dates expressed
I by Olympiads to our era, or the contrary, we must therefore dis-
tinguish two cases.
J hi. When the event in question happened between the Ist of
January and the 1st of the following July, the sum of the Olympic
year and r.f the year before Christ is always equal to 776. The year
of the «a. I her ef« ire, will l>c found by subtracting the number of
the Olympic year from 776. F«"»r example, Yarro refers the founda-
tion □! Rome t« the ai-t of April of the third year of the sixth
Olympiad, and it is, required to find the year lief ore our era. Since
live Olympic jieriods have elapsed, the third year of the sixth
Olympiad in 5^4 +."*■= *3: therefore, subtracting 23 from 776,
we have 75J, which i» the > car before Christ to which the foundation
of Rumr 1* referred by Y.irro.
3nd, When the event took place between the summer solstice and
the itt of January following, the turn of the Olympic year and of the
year before Christ is equal to 777. The difference, therefore, between
777 and the >e.ir in one of the dates will give the year in the other
date. Thu«s. the mo-m w.i-. iilip<*d on the 27th of August, a little
before midnight, in the year 413 before our era: and it is required
CHRONOLOGY
313
m find the corresponding year in the Olympic era. Subtract 413
bom 777. the remainder is 3(14; and 364 divided by four gives Qi
without a remainder; consequently the eclipse happened in the
fourth vcar of the ninety-first Olympiad, which is the date to which
It U referred by Thucydides.
If the year is after Christ, and the event took place in one of the
first six months of the Olympic year, that is to say, between July
lad January, we must subtract 776 from the number of the Olympic
year to find the corrcsjxmding year of our era ; but if it took place
in one of the last six months of the Olympic year, or between January
and July, we must deduct 777. The computation by Olympiads
kttdom occurs in historical records after the middle of the 5th
century of our era.
The names of the months were different in the different Grecian
states. The Attic months, of which we possess the most certain
knowledge, were named as follows; —
Hecatombaeon. Gamelion.
Mctageitnioa. Anthcstcrion.
Boedromion. Elaphebolion.
Pyanepsion. Munychion.
Maemacterion. Thargelion.
Poseidcon. Scirophorion.
Era of ike Foundation of Rome.— Ailcr the Olympiads, the
en most frequently met with in ancient history is that of the
foundation of Rome, which is the chronological epoch adopted
by all the Roman historians. There arc various opinions respect-
ing the year of the foundation of Rome. ( 1 ) Fabius Pictor places
it in the latter half of the first year of the eighth Olympiad,
which corresponds with the 3967 th of the Julian period, and with
the year 747 B.C. (2) Polybius places it in (he second year of the
seventh Olympiad, corresponding wilh 3964 of the Julian period,
and 750 B.C. (3) M. Fortius Cato places it in the first year of
the seventh Olympiad, that is, in 3063 of the Julian period, and
751 B.C. (4) Vcrrius Flaccus places it in the fourth year of the
sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3962 of the Julian period, and
752 B.c. (5) Tercntius Varro places it in the third year of the
sixth Olympiad, that is, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, and
753 B.C. A knowledge of these different computations isneccssary,
in order to reconcile the Roman historians with one another,
and even any one writer with himself. Livy in general adheres
to the epoch of Cato, though he sometimes follows that of Fabius
Pictor. Cicero follows the account of Varro, which is also in
general adopted by Pliny. Dionysius of Halicarnassus follows
Cato. Modern chronologcrs for the most part adopt the account
of Varro, which is supported by a passage in Ccnsorinus, where it
b stated that the 991st year of Rome commenced with the
festival of the Palilia, in the consulship of Ulpius and Pontianus.
Now this consulship correst>ondcd wilh the 238th year of our
en; therefore, deducting 238 from 991, we have 753 to denote
the year before Christ. The Palilia commenced on the 21st of
April; and all the accounts agree in regarding that day as the
epoch of the foundation of Rome.
The Romans employed two sorts of years, the civil year, which
was used in the tranviction of public and private affairs, and the
consular year, according to whirh the annals of their history have
bt» composed. The civil year commenced with the calends of
January, but this did not hold a fixed place in the solar vcar till the
time of J ulius Caesar (sec C alen da r). The installation of the consuls
regulated the commencement of the consular year. The initial
day of the consulate was never fixed, at least before the 7th century
of Rome, but varied wilh the dilTercnt accidents which in times of
political commotion so frequently occurred to accelerate or retard
the elections. Hence it happens that a consular year, generally
speaking, comprehends a part not only of two Julian years, but
also of two civil years. The consulate is the date employed by the
Latin historians generally, and by many of the Greeks, down to the
6th century of our era.
In the era of Rome the commencement of the year is placed at the
Jilt of April: an event therefore which happened in the months
of January, February. March, or during the first twenty days of
April, in the year (for example) 500 of Rome, belongs to the civil
year 501. Before the time of the Decemvirs, however, February «a»
the last month of the year. Many authors confound the year of
Rome with the civil year, supposing them both to begin on the 1st
of January. Others again confound both the vcar of Rome and the
civil year with the Julian year, which in fact became the civil year
alter the regulation of the calendar by I ulius Caesar. Through
like want of attention, many writers al*o. particularly among the
moderns, have confounded the Julian and Olympic years, by making
An entire Julian year correspond to an entire Olympic year, as u
both had commenced at the same epoch. Much attention to these
particulars U required in the comparison of ancient dates.
Tke Christian Era.— The Christian or vulgar era, called also
the era of the Incarnation, is now almost universally employed
in Christian countries, and is even used by some Eastern nations.
Its epoch or beginning is the 1st of January in the fourth year
of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd from the foundation of Rome,
and the 4714th of the Julian period. This epoch was introduced
in Italy in the 6th century, by Dionysius the Little, a Roman
abbot, and began to be used in Gaul in the 8th, though it
was not generally followed in that country till a century later.
From extant charters it is known to have been in use in England
before the close of the 8th century. Before its adoption the usual
practice in Latin countries was to distinguish the years by their
number in the cycle of Indiction.
In the Christian era the years arc simply distinguished by the
cardinal numbers; those before Christ being marked B.C. (Before
Christ), or a.c. (Ante Christum), and those after Christ a.d.
(Anno Domini). This method of reckoning time is more con-
venient than those which employ cycles or periods of any length
whatever; but it still fails to satisfy in the simplest manner
possible all the conditions that arc necessary for registering the
succession of events. For, since the commencement of the era
is placed at an intermediate period of history, we arc compelled
to resort to a double manner of reckoning, backward as well
as forward. Some ambiguity is also occasioned by the want
of uniformity in the method of numbering the preceding years.
Astronomers denote the year which preceded the first of our era
by o, and the year previous to that by 1 B.C.; but chronologers,
in conformity with common notions, call the year preceding the
era 1 B.C., the previous year 2 B.c, and so on. By reckoning
in this manner, there is an interruption in the regular succession
of the numbers; and in the years preceding the era, the leap
years, instead of falling on the fourth, eighth, twelfth, &c, fall,
or ought to fall, on the first, fifth, ninth, die.
In the chronicles of the middle ages much uncertainty fre-
quently arises respecting dates on account of the different epochs
assumed for the beginning of the Christian year. Dionysius,
the author of the era, adopted the day of the Annunciation,
or the 25th of March, which preceded the birth of Christ by nine
months, as the commencement of the first year of the era. This
epoch therefore precedes that of the vulgar era by nine months
and seven days. This manner of dating was followed in some
of the Italian states, and continued to be used at Pisa even down
to the year 1745- It was also adopted in some of the Papal
bulls; and there are proofs of its having been employed in France
about the middle of the nth century. Some chroniclers, who
adhere to the day of the Annunciation as the commencement of
the year, reckon from the 25th of March following our epoch,
as the Florentines in the xoth century. Gregory of Tours, and
some writers of the 6th and 7th centuries, make the year begin
sometimes with the ist of March, and sometimes with the 1st of
January. In France, under the third race of kings, it was usual
to begin the year with Easter; and this practice continued at
least till the middle of the 16th century, for an edict was issued
by Charles IX. in the month of January 1663, ordaining that the
beginning of the year should thenceforth be considered as taking
place on the zst of January. An uistance is given, in L'Art do
verifier les dales, of a date in which the year is reckoned from
the 18th of March; but it is probable that this refers to the
astronomical year, and that the 18th of March was taken for
the day of the vernal equinox. In Germany, about the nth
century, it was usual to begin the year at Christmas; and this
practice also prevailed at Milan, Rome and other Italian cities,,
in the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries.
In England, the practice of placing the beginning of the yea?
at Christmas was introduced in the 7th century, and traces
of it are found even in the 13th. Gervsse of Canterbury, who
lived in the 13th century, mentions that almost all writers of his
country agreed in regarding Christmas day as the first of the year,
because it forms, as it were, the term at which the son finishes
and recommences his annual course. In the 12th century,
however, the custom of beginning the civil year with the day of
the Annunciation, or the 25th of March, began to ^ww^^sA
3'+
CHRONOLOGY
continued to be generally followed from that time till the re-
formation of the calendar in 1752. The historical year has
always been reckoned by English authors to begin with the xst
of January. The liturgic >car of the Church of England com-
mences with the first Sunday of Advent.
A knowledge of the different epochs which have been chosen
for the commencement of the year in different countries is
indispensably necessary to the right interpretation of ancient
chronicles, charters and other documents in which the dates
often appear contradictory. We may cite an example or two.
It is well known tliat Charles the Great was crowned emperor
at Rome on Christmas day in the year 800, and that he died in
the year 814, according to our present manner of reckoning.
But in the annals of Metz and Moissac, the coronation is stated
to have taken place in the year Soi, and his death in Si 3. In
the. first case the annalist supposes the year to begin with Christ-
mas and accordingly reckons the 25th of December and all the
following days of that month to belong to 801, whereas in the
common reckoning they would be referred to the year 800.
In the second case the year has been supposed to begin with the
25th of March, or perhaps with Easter; consequently the first
three months of the year 814, reckoning from the 1st of January,
would be referred to the end of the year 813. The English
Revolution is popularly called the Revolution of 1688. Had
the year then begun, as it now docs, with the 1st of January*, it
would have been the revolution of 16S9, William and Mary
being received as king and queen in February in the year 1689;
but at that time the year was considered in England as beginning
on the 25th of March. Another circumstance to which it is
often necessary to pay attention in the comparison of dates,
is the alteration of style which took place on the adoption of the
Gregorian Calendar (see Calendar).
Era of the Creation of the World.— -A* the Greek and Roman
methods of computing time were connected with certain pagan
rites and observances which the Christians held in abhorrence,
the latter began at an early period to imitate the Jews in reckon-
ing their years from the supposed period of the creation of the
world. Various computations were made at different times, from
Biblical sources, as to the age of the world; and Des Vignolcs, in
the preface to his Chronology of Sacred History, asserts that he
collected upwards of two hundred different calculations, the
shortest of which reckons only 3483 years between the creation of
the world and the commencement of the vulgar era and the
longest 6984. The so-called era of the creation of the world is
jhmfore a purely conventional anrj arbitrary epoch; practically,
[It txie&ni the year 4004 ».c, — this being the date which, under the
\tnctkm of Archbishop Usher 1 * opinion, tvon its way, among iu
tandrtdf of competitors, frito general acceptance
Jf*uh Yw and ifoj + ~~Beforc the departure of the Israelites
Imof.fypt thctf y fnr commenced at the autumnal equinox; but
**»4fi ia lokmniic the memory of their deliverance, the month
( * NW** A Mb, In which that event look pkee, and which falls
civ 1 v M -' 1 * Tlm * ef the vernal equinox, was afterward* regarded a*
0f P**^* 1 *** *A the tcdetiastini] or legal year. In civil affairs.
»„, , I, i>t* of the jtsbsJcei and sabbatical years, the
Jxrputting ' ,en * y^* r ■ *'' iv ** k CE im ** tn l ^ e luo ' 1 1 k
Arduous libou . • I -
<HKtf proven, »CK v ~ frr construed to have
I ! r-ytfcs 0/ the more eti-
tatht article Calendar t
^fcfc* nfctt* 10 the measu.
"" " — Isined that ha.
j the lunar monti.
ineceaaaryforregula v
notions. But it is necv
\ Jfrei end PtHods that have been «.
I different nations of the world, in
1 and events, to fix the epochs
need, to ascertain the foi
6 use of, and to establish thei
lines
idopted n cyde of
.il of the ancient
cle seems to be
: of seventy-six
nerfod of eight
it an appear-
us containing
•im, which is
Julian years,
the
work of Calippus, for instead of a difference of only five b<
and r fty -three minutes between the places of the sun and mi
which wis the whole error of the Caiippic period, this diJJcre
in the perioJ of eighty-four years, amounted to one day, six he
and forty-one minutes. Buccherius places the beginning of
cycle in the > ear 162 B.C.; Prideaux in the year 291 B.C. Aca
ing to the account of Prideaux. the fifth cycle must have begu:
the year 46 of our era. and it was in this year, according U
rrospcrus. that the Christians began to employ the Jewish q
of eighty-four years, whiih they followed, though not uniforo
for the regulation of Easter, till the time of the Council of K
Soon after the Niccnc council, the Jens, in imitation of
Christians, abandoned the cycle of eighty-four years, 1
adopted that of Melon, by which their lunisolar year is regula
at the present day. This improvement was first proposed
Rabbi Samuel, rector of the Jewish school of Sora in Mcsopotso
and was finally accomplished in the year 360 of our era by Rai
Hillel, who introduced that form of the year which the Jews
present follow, and which, they say, is to endure till the cominj
the Messiah.
Till the 15th century the Jews usually followed the era of I
Sclcucidac or of Contracts. Since that time they have genera
employed a mundane era, and dated from the creation of 1
world, which, according to their computation, took place 3;
years and about three months before the beginning of our e
No rule can be given for determining with certainty the day
which any given Jewish year begins without entering into I
minutiae of their irregular and complicated calendar.
Era of Constantinople.— This era, which is still used in t
Greek Church, and was followed by the Russians till the time
Peter the Great, dates from the creation of the world. T
Incarnation falls in the year 5500, and corresponds, as in oure
with the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad. The civil yi
commences with the 1st of September; the ecclesiastical yi
sometimes with the 21st of March, sometimes with the ut
April. It is not certain whether the year was considered
Constantinople as beginning with September before the sepsj
tion of the Eastern and Western empires.
At the commencement of our era there had elapsed 5508 yet
and four months of the era of Constantinople. Hence the ft
eight months of the Christian year 1 coincide with the Co
stantinopolilan year 5509, while the last four months belong
the year 5510. In order, therefore, to find the year of Chri
corresponding to any given year in the era of Constantinople, 1
have the following rule : If the event took place between the 1
of January and the end of August subtract 5508 from the ghn
year; but if it happened between the xst of September and t
end of the year, subtract 5500.
Era of Alexandria.— The chronological computation of Jufi
Africanus was adopted by the Christians of Alexandria, wl
accordingly reckoned 5500 years from the creation of Adam
the birth of Christ. But in reducing Alexandrian dates to ti
common era it must be observed that Julius Africanus placi
the epoch of the Incarnation three years earlier than it is placed
the usual reckoning, so that the initial day of the Christian e
fell in the year 5 503 of the Alexandrian era. This correspondene
however, continued only from the introduction of the era till tl
accession of Diocletian, when an alteration was made by droppii
ten years in the Alexandrian account. Diocletian ascended tl
imperial throne in the year of Christ 284. According to tl
Alexandrian computation, this was the year 5787 of the worl
and 287 of the Incarnation; but on this occasion ten years we:
omitted, and that year was thenceforth called the year 5777 of tl
world, and 277 of the Incarnation. There are, consequently, ti
distinct eras of Alexandria, the one being used before and tl
other after the accession of Diocletian. It is not known for whi
reason the alteration was made; but it is conjectured that it wi
for the purpose of causing a new revolution of the cycle of nincte*
years (which was introduced into the ecclesiastical computatic
about this time by Anatolius, bishop of Hicrapolis) to begin wit
the first year of the reign of Diocletian. In fact, 5777 beic
divided by 1 9 leaves 1 for the year of the cycle. The Alexandrii
CHRONOLOGY
3i5
era continued to be followed by the Copts in the 15th century,
tad is said to be still used in Abyssinia.
Dates expressed according to this en are reduced to the
(WMM cm by subtracting 5502, up to the Alexandrian year
5786 inclusive, and after that year by subtracting 5492; but if
the date belongs to one of the four last months of the Christian
year, we must subtract 5503 till the year 5786, and 5493 after
that year.
Mundane Era of Antioch.— -The chronological reckoning of
Julius Africanus formed also the basis of the era of Antioch,
which was adopted by the Christians of Syria, at the instance
of Panodorus, an Egyptian, monk, who flourished about the
beginning of the 4th century. Panodorus struck off ten years
from the account of Julius Africanus with regard to the years of
the world, and he placed the Incarnation three years later,
referring it to the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, as in the
common era. Hence the era of Antioch differed from the original
era of Alexandria by ten years; but after the alteration of the
latter at the accession of Diocletian, the two eras coincided. In
reckoning from the Incarnation, however, there is a difference
of seven years, that epoch being placed, in the reformed era of
Alexandria, seven years later than in the mundane era of Antioch
or in the Christian era.
As the Syrian year began in autumn, the year of Christ
Corresponding to any year in the mundane era of Antioch is
found by subtracting 5492 or 5493 according as the event falls
between January and September or from September to January.
•Era of Nabonassar.—This era h famous in astronomy, having
been generally followed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy.' It is
believed to have been in use from the very time of its origin;
lor the observations of eclipses which were collected in Chaldaea
by Callistbencs, the general of Alexander, and transmitted by
him to Aristotle, were for the greater part referred to the beginning
of the reign of Nabonassar, founder of the kingdom of the
Babylonians. It is the basis of the famous Canon of kings, also
called Mathematical Canon, preserved to us in the works of
Ptolemy, which, before the astonishing discoveries at Nineveh,
was the sole authentic monument of Assyrian and Babylonian
history known to us. The epoch from which it is reckoned is
precisely determined by numerous celestial phenomena recorded
by Ptolemy, and corresponds to Wednesday at mid-day, the
*6th of February of the year 747 before Christ. The year was
in all respects the same as the ancient Egyptian year. On
account of the difference in the length of the Julian and Baby-
lonian years, the conversion of dates according to the era of
Nabonassar into years before Christ is attended with considerable
trouble. The surest way is to follow a comparative table.
Frequently the year cannot be fixed with certainty, unless we
know also the month and the day.
The Greeks of Alexandria formerly employed the era of
Nabonassar, with a year of 365 days; but soon after the reforma-
tion of the calendar of Julius Caesar, they adopted, like other
Roman provincials, the Julian intercalation. At this time the
first of Thoth had receded to the 29th of August. In the year
136 of our era, the first of Thoth in the ancient Egyptian year
corresponded with the 20th of July, between which and the
19th of August there are forty days. The adoption of the Julian
year must therefore have taken place about 160 years before
the year 136 of our era (the difference between the Egyptian
and Julian years being one day in four years), that is to say,
about the year 25 B.C. In fact, the first of Thoth corresponded
with the 29th of August in the Julian calendar, in. the years 25,
24, 23 and 22 b.c.
Era of the Scleucidae, or Macedonian Era. — The era of the
Selcucidae dates from the time of the occupation of Babylon
by Seleucus Nicator, 3 1 1 years before Christ, in the year of Rome
442, and twelve years after the death of Alexander the Great.
It was adopted not only in the monarchy of the Scleucidae but
in general in all the Greek countries bordering on the Levant,
was followed by the Jews till the 15th century, and is said to
be used by some Arabians even at the present day. By the
Jews it was called the Era of Contracts, because the Syrian
governors compelled them to make use of it in civil contracts;
the writers of the books of Maccabees call it the Era of Kings.
But notwithstanding its general prevalence in the East lor
many centuries, authors using it differ much with regard to
their manner of e api es slu g dates, m consequence of the different
epochs adopted for the beginning of the year. Among the
Syrian Greeks the year began with the month Elul, which
corresponds to our September. The Nestorians and Jacobites
at the present day suppose it to begin with the following month,
or October. The author of the first book of Maccabees makes
the era commence with the month Nisan, or April; and the
author of the second book with the first Tishrin, or October.
Albatcgni, a celebrated Arabian astronomer, dates from the
1st of October. Some of the Arabian writers, as Alfergani,
date from the 1st of September. At Tyre the year was counted
from the 19th of our October, at Gaza from the 28th of the same
month, and at Damascus from the vernal equinox. These dis-
crepancies render it extremely difficult to determine the exact
correspondence of Macedonian dates with those of other eras;
and the difficulty is rendered still greater by the want of uni-
formity in respect of the length of the year. Some authors who
follow the Macedonian era, use the Egyptian or vague year of
365 days; Albategni adopts the Julian year of 365} days.
According to the computation most generally followed, the
year 31 2 of the era of the Scleucidae began on the 1st of September
in the Julian year preceding the first of our era. Hence, to reduce
a Macedonian date to the common era, subtract 311 years and
four months.
The names of the Syrian and Macedonian months, and their
correspondence with the Roman months, arc as followi: —
Syrian. Macedonian. English.
Elul. Gorpiacus. September.
Tishrin I. I lypcrbcnctaeus. October.
Tishrin II. Diu*. November.
Canun I. Apcllacus. December.
Canun II. Audynacus. January.
Sabat. PcrKius. February.
Adar. Dy&trus. March.
Nisan. Xanthicus. April.
Ayar. Arteimsius. May.
Haxiran. Dacsiua. Tune.
Tamus. Pancmu*. jury.
Ab. Lous. August.
Era of A lexander.— Some of the Greek historians have assumed
as a chronological epoch the death of Alexander the Great, in
the year 325 B.C. The form of the year is the same as in the
preceding era. This era has not been much followed; but It
requires to be noticed in order that it may not be confounded
with the era of the Scleucidae.
Era of Tyre.— The era of Tyre is reckoned from the 19th of
October, or the beginning of the Macedonian month Hyper-
beretaeus, in the year 126 B.C. In order, therefore, to reduce
it to the common era, subtract 125; and when the date is B.C.,
subtract it from 126. Dates expressed according to this era
occur only on a few medals, and in the acts of certain councils.
Caesarean Era of Antioch. — This era was established to com-
memorate the victory obtained by Julius Caesar on the plains
of Pharsalia, on the 9th of August in the year 48 B.C., and the
706th of Rome. The Syrians computed it from their month
Tishrin I.; but the Greeks threw it back to the month Gorpiaeus
of the preceding year. Hence there is a difference of eleven
months between the epochs assumed by the Syrians and the
Greeks. According to the computation of the Greeks, the 40th
year of the Caesarean era began in the autumn of the year
preceding the commencement of the Christian era; and, accord-
ing to the Syrians, the 49th year began in the autumn of the
first year of the Incarnation.. It is followed by Evagrius fn his
Ecclesiastical History.
Julian Era.— The Julian era begins with the xst of January,
forty-five years B.C. It was designed to commemorate, the
reformation of the Roman calendar by Julius Caesar.
• . Era of Spain, or of Ike Caesars.— The conquest of Spain by
Augustus, which was completed ip the thirty-ninth year B.C,
gave rise to this era, which began with the first day of the following
316
CHRONOLOGY
year, and was long used in Spain and Portugal, and generally
in all tbe Roman provinces subdued by the Visigoths, both in
Africa and the South of France. Several of the councils of
Carthage, and also that of Aries, are dated according to this era.
After the Oth century it became usual to join with it in public
acts the year of the Incarnation. It was followed in Catalonia
till the year x x8o, in the kingdom of Aragon till 1350, in Valencia
till 1358, and in Castile till 1382. In Portugal it is said to have
been in use so late as the year 14 15, or 1432, though it would
teem that after the establishment of the Portuguese monarchy,
no other era was used in the public acts of that country than that
of the Incarnation. As the era of Spain began with the 1st of
January, and the months and days of the year are those of the
Julian calendar, any date is reduced to the common era by
subtracting thirty-eight from the number of the year.
Era of Aciium, and Era of A ugusttts. — This era waseslablishcd
to commemorate the battle of Actiiun, which was fought on the
3rd of September, in the year 3 1 B.C., and in the x 5th of thejulian
era. By the Romans the era of Actium was considered as
beginning on the 1st of January of the x6th of the Julian era,
which is the 30th B.C. The Egyptians, who used this era till the'
time of Diocletian, dated its commencement from the beginning
of their month Thoth, or the 29th of August; and the Eastern
Greeks from the 2nd of September. By the latter it was also
called the era of Antioch, and it continued to be used till the
oth century. It must not be confounded with the Caesarean
era of Antioch, which began seventeen years earlier. Many of the
medals struck by the city of Antioch in honour of Augustus are
dated according to this era.
Besides the era of Actium, there was also an Augustan era,
which began four years later, or 27 B.C., the year in which
Augustus prevailed on the senate and people of Rome to decree
him the title of Augustus, and to confirm him in the supreme
power of the empire.
Era of Diocletian, or Era of Martyrs.— -It has been already
stated that the Alexandrians, at the accession of the emperor
Diocletian, made an alteration in their mundane era, by striking
off ten years from their reckoning. At the same time they estab-
lished a new era, which is still followed by the Abyssraians and
Copts. It begins with the 29th of August (the first day of the
Egyptian year) of the year 284 of our era, which was the first of
the reign of Diocletian. The denomination of Era of Martyrs,
subsequently given to it in commemoration of the persecution
of the Christians, would seem to imply that its commencement
ought to be referred to the year 303 of our era, for it was in that
year that Diocletian issued his famous edict; but the practice
of dating from the accession of Diocletian has prevailed. The
ancient Egyptian year consisted of 365 days; but after the
introduction of the Julian calendar, the astronomers of Alexandria
adopted an intercalary year, and added six additional days
instead of five to the end of the last month of every fourth year.
The year thus became exactly similar to the Julian year. The
Egyptian intercalary year, however, does not correspond to the
Julian leap year, but is the year immediately preceding; and
the intercalation takes place at the end of the year, or on the 29th
of August. Hence the first three years of the Egyptian inter-
calary period begin on the 39th of our August, and the fourth
begins on the 30th of that month. Before the end of that year
the Julian intercalation takes place, and the beginning of the
following Egyptian year is restored to the 39th of August. I
Hence to reduce a date according to this era to our own reckoning, 1
it is necessary, for common years, to add 283 years and 340 days;
but if the date belongs to the first three months of the year
following the intercalation, or, which is the same thing, if in the <
third year of the Julian cycle it falls between the 30th of August
and the end of the year, we must add 283 years and 241 days, I
The Ethiopians do not reckon the years from the beginning of
the era in a consecutive series, but employ a period of 532 years,
after the expiration of which they again begin with 1. This is the
Dionysian or Great Paschal Period, and is formed by the multi-
plication of the numbers 28 and 19, that is, of the solar and lunar
cycles, into each other.
The following are the names of the Ethiopian or Abyssinian
months, with the days on which they begin in the Julian calendar,
or old style: —
Mascaram . 39th August. Magabit . 25th February.
Tilcmith. . 38th September. Miazia . . 37th March.
Hadar . . 38th October. Gimbot . . 36th April.
Tacsam . . 27th November. Sene. . . 36th Nlay.
Tir . . . 27th December. Hamle . . 35th June.
Yacatit . . 36th January. Nahassc . 35th July.
The additional or epaeomenal days begin on the 34th of August.
In intercalary years the Bret seven months commence one day later.
The Egyptian months, followed by the modern Copts, agree with
, the above in every respect excepting the names.
I ttd idiom.— The cycle of Indict ion was very generally followed
in the Roman empire for some centuries before the adoption
of the Christian era. Three Indictions may be distinguished;
but they differ only in regard to the commencement of the year.
1. The Constantinopolilam IndUtion, like the Greek year,
I commenced with the month of September. This was followed
in the Eastern empire, and in some instances also in France.
I 2. The Imperial or Constantinian Indie lion is so called because
its establishment is attributed to Constantine. This was also
l called the Caesarean IndUtion. It begins on the 24th of Sep-
tember. It is not infrequently met with in the ancient chronicles
1 of France and England.
I 3. The Roman or Pontifical IndUtion began on the 25th of
I December or 1st of January, according as the Christian year
I was held to begin on the one or other of these days. It is often
employed in papal bulls, especially after the time of Gregory VII.,
and traces of its use are found in early French authors.
Era of Ike Armenians.— The epoch of the Armenian era is
that of the council of Tiben, in which the Armenians consum-
mated their schism from the Greek Church by condemning the
acts of the council of Chalcedon; and it corresponds to Tuesday,
the 9th of July of the year 552 of the Incarnation. In their
civil affairs the Armenians follow the ancient vague year of the
Egyptians; but their ecclesiastical year, which begins on the
nth of August, is regulated in the same manner as the Julian
year, every fourth year consisting of 366 days, so that Easter
and the other festivals are retained at the same place in the
seasons as well as in the civil year. The Armenians also make
use of the mundane era of Constantinople, and sometimes conjoin
both methods of computation in the same documents. In their
correspondence and transactions with Europeans, they generally
1 follow the era of the Incarnation, and adopt the Julian year.
I To reduce the civil dates of the Armenians to the Christian era,
proceed as follows. Since the epoch is the 9th of July, there were
'176 days from the beginning of the Armenian era to the end of
'the year 552 of our era; and since 552 was a leap year, the year
1553 began a Julian intercalary period. Multiply, therefore,
the number of Armenian years elapsed by 365; add the number
of days from the commencement of the current year to the
given date; subtract 176 from the sum, and the remainder will
be the number of days from the 1st of January 553 to the given
date. This number of days being reduced to Julian years, add
the result to 552, and the sum gives the day in the Julian year,
or old style.
I In the ecclesiastical reckoning the year begins on the nth of
'August. To reduce a date expressed in this reckoning to the
I Julian date, add 551 years, and the days elapsed from the 1st of
January to the 10th of August, both inclusive, of the year 552 —
that is to say (since 552 is a leap year), 223 days. In leap years
one day must be subtracted if the date falls between the xst of
March and xoth of August.
The following arc the Armenian ecclesiastical months with their
correspondence with those of the Julian calendar:—
1. Navaxardi begins .... nth August.
2. Hon 10th September.
3. Sahmi 10th October.
4. Dre Thar! 9th November.
5. Kagoths oth December.
6. Aracx §th January.
7. Malegi ...... 7th February.
8. Arcki oth March.
9- Angi 8th April
CHRONOLOGY
317
NlMuM.
8th May.
II. Mareacx 7th June.
. I*. Herodies 7th July.
To complete the year five complementary days are added in
common yean, and six in leap yean.
The Mohammedan Era, or Era of ike Hegira.—Tht era in use
among the Turks, Arabs and other Mahommcdan nations is
that of the Hegira or Hejra, the flight of the prophet from Mecca
to Medina, 6a a a.d. Its commencement, however, does not, as
is sometimes stated, coincide with the very day of the flight,
but precedes it by sixty-eight days. The prophet, after leaving
Mecca, to escape the pursuit of his enemies, the Korcishitcs, hid
himself with his friend Abubckr in a cave near Mecca, and there
lay for three days. The departure from the cave and setting out
on the way to Medina is assigned to the ninth day of the third
month, Rabia I. — corresponding to the 22nd of September of
the year 622 a.d. The era begins from the first day of the month
of MuhaiTam preceding the flight, or first day of that Arabian
year which coincides with Friday, July 16, 622 a.d. It is
necessary to remember that by astronomers and by some
historians the era is assigned to the preceding day, July 15.
It is stated by D'Hcrbclot that the era of the Hegira was in-
stituted by Omar, the second caliph, in imitation of the Christian
era of the martyrs.
Era of Yasdegerd, or Persian or Jcldacan Era. — This era begins
with the elevation of Yazdcgcrd III. to the throne of Persia, on
the 16th of June in the year of out era 632. Till the year 1070,
the Persian year resembled that of the ancient Egyptians, con-
sisting of 365 days without intercalation; but at that time the
Persian calendar was reformed by Jclal ud-Dln Malik Shah,
sultan of Khorasan, and a method of intercalation adopted
which, though less convenient, is considerably more accurate
than the Julian. The intercalary period is 33 years, — one day
being added to the common year seven times successively at the
end of four years, and the eighth intercalation being deferred till
the end of the fifth year. This era was at one period universally
adopted in Persia, and it still continues to be followed by the
Parsecs of India. The months consist of thirty days each, and
each day is distinguished by a different name. According to
Alfcrgani, the names of the Persian months are as follows:-"
Afrudin*mch. Merded-meh. Ad.ir-mch.
Afdisascht-meh. Schaharir-meh. Di-mch.
Cardi-meh. Mahar-mch. Brhvn-mch.
Tir-meh, Abcn-mch. Amrer-meh.
The five additional days (in intercalary years six) are named
Mnsteraca.
As it does not appear that the above-mentioned rule of inter-
calation was ever regularly followed, it is impossible to assign
exactly the days on which the different years begin. In some
provinces of India the Parsecs begin the year with September,
in others they begin it with October. We have stated that the
era began with the 16th June 632. But the vague y. or, which
was followed till 1079, anticipated the Julian year by one day
every four years. In 447 years the anticipation would amount to
about 112 days, and the beginning of the year would in conse-
quence be thrown back to near the beginning of the Julian /ear
63a. To the year of the Persian era, therefore, add 63 1 , and the
sum will be the year of our era in which the Persian year begins.
Chinese Chronology. — From the time of the emperor Yao,
upwards of 2000 years B.C. , the Chinese had two different years,—
a civil year, which was regulated by the moon, and an astro-
nomical year, which was solar. The civil year consisted in
general of twelvemonths or lunations, but occasionally a thir-
teenth was added in order to preserve its correspondence with
the solar year. Even at that early period the solar or astro-
nomical year consisted of 365} days, like our Julian year; and
it was arranged in the same manner, a day being intercalated
every fourth year.
According to the missionary Caubil, the Chinese divided the
day into 100 A*, each he into 100 minutes, and each minute into
too seconds. This practice continued to prevail till the 17th
century, when, at the instance of the Jesuit Schall, president of
the tribunal of mathematics, they adopted the European method
of dividing the day into twenty-four hours, each boor into sixty
minutes, and each minute into sixty seconds. The civil day
begins at midnight and ends at the midnight following.
Since the accession of the emperors of the Han dynasty,
ao6 B.C., the civil year of the Chinese has begun with the first day
of that moon in the course of which the sun enters into the sign
of the zodiac which corresponds with our sign Pisces. From the
same period also they have employed, in the adjustment of
their solar and lunar years, a period of nineteen years, twelve
of which are common, containing twelve lunations each, and the
remaining seven intercalary, containing thirteen lunations. It
is not, however, precisely known how they distributed their
months of thirty and twenty-nine days, or, as they termed them,
great and small moons. This, with other matters appertaining
to the calendar, was probably left to be regulated from time to
time by the mathematical tribunal.
The Chinese divide the time of a complete revolution of the
sun with regard to the solstitial points into twelve equal portions,
each corresponding to thirty days, ten hours, thirty minutes.
Each of these periods, which is denominated a txU t is subdivided
into two equal portions called chung-hi and tsu-ki, the chung-hi
denoting the first half of the tsU, and the tsu-ki the latter half.
Though the hei are thus strictly portions of solar time, yet what
is remarkable, though not peculiar to China, they give their name
to the lunar months, each month or lunation having the name of
the ckung-ki or sign at which the sun arrives during that month.
As the tsU is longer than a synodic revolution of the moon, the
sun cannot arrive twice at a chung-hi during the same lunation;
and as there are only twelve Mi, the year can contain only
twelve months having different names. It must happen some-
times that in the course of a lunation the sun enters into no new
sign; in this case the month is intercalary, and is called by the
same name as the preceding month.
For chronological purposes, the Chinese, In common with some
other nations ot the east of Asa, employ cycles of sixty, by means of
whirh they reckon their days, moons and years. The days are
distributed in the calendar into cycles of sixty, in the same manner
a* ours are distributed into weeks, or cycles of seven. Each day of
the cycle has a particular name, and as it is a usual practice, ia
mentioning dates, to give the name of the day along with that of
the moon and the year, this arrangement affords great facilities in
verifying the epochs of Chinese chronology. The order of the days
in the cycle is never interrupted by any intercalation that may be
necessary for adjust ing the months or years. The moons of the civil
year are also distinguished by their place in the cycle of sixty; and
as the intercalary moons are not reckoned, for the reason before
stated, namely, that during one of these lunations the sun enters
into no new sign, there are only twelve regular moons in a year,
so that the cycle is renewed every five years. Thus the first moon of
the year 1873 being; the first of a new cycle, the first moon of every
st*th year, rctfeonea backward* or forwards from that date, pj i860,
ifcr.i.l, fir-., of 1*77. tS&z, &c, tUo begins a new lunar cycle <••' sixty
moons. In regard [a the years, the arrangement is exactly th<- same.
Each has a distinct numr»er or name which marks iti jjjarn- in the
cycle, and as thisia generally given in referring to dares, along « ,th the
other chronological character* of the year, the ambiguity whic h arises
from following a fluctuating or uncertain epoch it entirely obviated.
The cycle 01 sixty is formed of two subordinate cycles or a ries of
characters, one of (en and lite other of twelve, which are joined
t ogc( her so as to a fford sixty d iff eren r combina I Ions,, The names of
1 he characters i n the eye m of ten, wh ieb are tailed wtestiat sign*, are ■
i t Ke4;a, \1h;3. Ping; 4. Ting* 5. Woo;
6* Ke;? + King; 4. Sia;o. Jin; to. Kwei;
and in the series of ta h denominated tettetfrial signs,
T-7«: a t huw; v Yin: 4 Mami; J. Shin: 6. Sze;
7. Woo: &, We; 9. Shin: lo. Yew; n. ScQh: J*. Hk.
The name of the first year, or of the first day, in the *ex j, penary
cycle I* formed by combining the first words in each of the- above
series; the second h formed by combining the second of Wedk series,
and so on to the tenth. For the next year the first word of the first
series is combined with the eleventh ol the second, then the ccond
of the first series with the twelfth of the second, after This th third
of the first series with the first of the second, and so on tilt the , xtieth
combination, when the test of the first series concur* with the last
of the second. Thus Kea-tsse is the name of the first ye.ir, Ylh-
Chow that of the second, Kca-teOh that of the eleventh. Ylh-hae
that of the twelfth, Pinir-t w that of the thirteenth* and so on* The
order of proceeding if obvious,
In the Chinese history translated into the Tatar dUlect I ■ order
of 1 he em peror K\i nE-hi< who died i n T 7 ? 1 , the characters of t h ■ ► cycle
begin to appear at the year 1J57 "-*■ From this it has been i Jerred
3i«
CHRUDIM— CHRYSANTHEMUM
«%*«« th# rHiwiw empire was esnUithed prevrous to that epoch;
**>it i» n',Uiiu '> s*wy toesiend the cyiJe» backward* indefinitely,
« *^t «.v- if.. r ei«rirf.c r-*n have v«.ry little weight, The character* g:ven
to »h<r y**r ^.'557 6 <■ at': l\>A--.hin. which denote the 41st of the
*:y*>. We nv.'st. therefore, suppose the c^cle to have bc«un 2307
■m;., or for"/ ya" before the reign of Vao. This is the epoch
auaum*"] by ihe authors of L i4r* £ tvn/fer Us dates. The mathe-
nMr»<4l rri'iurul has, however, from time immemorial counted the
6m yrtr of the first fyclc from the eighty -first of Yao, that is
tou/. ff'/m the y«ar 2277 B.c
Sin** ih#- yrar 163 B.C. the Chinese writers have adopted the
pra/.ti'* of dating the year from the accession of the reigning emperor
An t-rrifA-ror. on succeeding to the throne, gives a name to the years
of his ri-ign. I le ordains, lor example, that they shall be called Ta-tc
In r/«n'i-r|iifiK.e of this edii t, the following year is railed the first of
Ta-t*-, and the wirr«wjing years the second, third, fourth, &c . of
Ta-fe. and so on, till it leases the same emperor or his successor to
«rdttin that 1 tie years shall l>c called by some other appellation.
Th* periods ih us formed are called by the Chine-* Nien-hao Accord-
ing to this method of dating the years a new era commences with
*vrry reign, and the year rorref.po nding to a Chinese date can only
be found when we have before us a catalogue of the Nicn-hao, with
Cist ir relation to the years of our era.
for Hindu Chronology, see the article under that heading.
Hiiii iM,KArifY. - In addition to the early Creek writings already
lttnt«-d, iliere are th«« f«»rty books (rome fifteen only extant in their
rntirtty) «4 universal history compiled (.ilxmt 8 B.C.) by Dick lor us,
bk iilus, and arraiigid in the form of annaU; the Pcntabibhs of
Julius Afriiaim« (jTniiit aao-ijo a.i>.)j the treatise of Ccmarinus
«it n |i-«l /ir Air nalnli, written 238 A.D.; the Ckronicon, in two
hooks, of l-.ti«-|,iiii I'iiinphili, bishop of Oesarca (about 325 A. I) ),
ai*[i»Hiiisli«| as tin* first book of a purely chronological character
whldi hav loinc down to u«; and three im|x>rtant works forming
|Mfis of the Cat bus Mtriplorum llisturiat Byzantinae, namely, the
(kron agraphia of (.i-f^m, Synrcllun (Hoo A. P.), the Chrancpraphia
n I'tli.iiiurs) M.il.ilas f<)ih century), and the Chromeon Pasthale.
Ain<Mi|f works on ( hronohigy, the following. whi< h are arranged
In the iifilcr of their piihliraiioii, have an historical interest, as leading
Up !«• tin- e|K N 1, ,4 uunIitii rrsv.ni h:
IVM Mr l.mtn,U\iwnr Trustor vm, by lim-ph Scaliger, in which
wi-iy I. ud 1 hi- fniiiii|,ii utns nf tliPtniilitKii.ilM M-iue.
IM»1. tlpui ( humttlojuum, by Vihui Cilvisiu*.
!'•*/ /'* lUnlnna frmfwrum, by I'ri.ivius (IVnis Petau), with
Its 'iiiiiiiiiirfiinii published in ioyi. and an ahrul^muit entitled
tU tin mm urn / rmfmrum, in H131 1014.
lov* Annates Vrtms ri Kwx Tr\t,imrnti, by Archbishop l-sslicr,
Wli'iw fUiin, || U vp by mine means gained a piate in theiiulhuiized
Vrisciii i4 the lliblr.
f i'l^ 1 ' ?'*!'* ' t H,,tm ** Miloriar Satrae et VroUinar, by Philippe
l.alilH*, of »hit || ,| |'|,. MI || vi-iMnii w.it also published.
im*/ InUttulioHum CkroHotuguarum Ubti duo, by Bishop
lleviiidKe.
y^l,* * ,, " ,, «• , ' f-'iiHim A( , ty(>lnnu\, I. bran ¥*, et (Iran us, by Sir
John Mai sham.
ioh/. /.'/< «f i./Milf J, t trmpi ttiablie el dt'tendur, by I'aul I'e/ron,
with Its I Hffinv, ife)i.
I ;m /J# Vtttnbus CtuHOfum Romanorumqut Cyelis, by Henry
Ikulwell.
iy^*. 7fc* l.ktumtlogy «/ Amir ttt JCinfJumi amended, by Sir
Iwmi Newiim. leniiiikabli* as an atlrmpt !<• u instruct a.t>yiitera on
nnw b.in'i. Iiuiein'iidi'iit nl tin 1 (iHi'k ihionMnKirs.
I / \N. I kiamtliifiH ile I'htUttirt mtnte, by Alph<MiM* ties Vignullcs.
i/H /iiMiffn iht»noiogi^uts J« I'kiiUiiie uniteneUe, by N.
|j>li)|lrt 1 1 nit •■•mi iy.
I/V» I It tn -I is lit Ion In mie vij. 4(0 nf I.' At I de verifier let
ialrt, wlmli In us thiid nlilitui (iHtH |K.\|) ap|ie.mtl iu ,V* vnU.
Nvu, a i«tlii>u.ii| iiiiiiinitiriit ul the le.iiiiing ami UNmrs of various
tiii'iiilHMs nl the Itiui'tln iiiie ^uiiKieK-iium id Saint -M.iur.
IJM ( htonoiotuHl Antujuiltf*. by J«»hn J.itkMin.
i/M- ( htimoloev and llntory oj the H'otld, by Jolm Hl.nr; new
r«liliiiii, mm li riil.UKi'd (lH%v). a
l/N.| A .Svifrmii/cAffiiitVi'fv. I>y Puyfair.
i7«» ll'inilhm' '' L "~ " ^'"'
A. II. L, lleeleii.
1K03. lUndbwh der alien Geukiihte. Geography, und CaroROfrgir,
by U G. llmhiw. with his Ih^-nuke Tabr/leu.
1807-1 R 14 New Analyus of ihrom^v, by William Ilalea.
I819. Annates Vetrrum Retnorum, by ( . (.. /umpi.
1 8a 1. Tableaux kistorujucs, chronolcgiques t et geotraphiques, by
Buret de Longvhamps. . „ A _ .. ^ ....
1824-1834. Fasti Ucllenici, and 1845-1850. Fa *f l ^omani by II.
Fvnes Clinton. Epitomes of these elaborate works were published.
1 ?ta5-t&»6. Handbuck der fnatUmatijc^undUckHuchen Chrono-
love, by Chriatian Ludwig Idelcr; and his Uhrbueh der Chronologie,
Origin* Koltndaria* UtUtnicuc
More modern works are the Encyclopaedia of Chroncliiy, by B. B.
Woodward ami W L. R Cates (1&72J, and J C. Macdonald'i
Chronologies and Calendars (1897). But sec the separate historical
articles in this work. {\\. L. R. C.)
CHRUDIM. a town of Bohemia, Austria, 74 m. E.S.E. of
Prague by rail Pop (1900) 13,017, mostly Czech. It has an
important horse market, besides manufactures of sugar, spirin,
beer, soda-water and agricultural machinery. There are also
steam corn-mills and saw-mills. Chmdim is mentioned as the
castle of a g-iugraf&s early as 903 The new town was founded by
Ottokar II , who settled many Germans in it and gave it macy
privileges After 14; 1 Chmdim was held by the Hussites, acd
though Ferdinand I. confiscated most of the town property, it
prospered greatly till the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War.
In 1675 the greater part of its Hussite inhabitants left the town,
which suffered much later on from the Swedes. Chrudim was the
birthplace of Joseph Ressel (1 705-1857), honoured in Austria as
the inventor of the screw propeller
CHRYSANTHEMUM* {Chrysanthemum sinense, nat. ord.
Compositae), one of the most popular of autumn flowers. It is a
native of China, whence it was introduced to Europe The first
chrysanthemum in Engbnd was grown at Kcwin 1700, whither
it had been sent by Mr Cels, a French gardener. It was not,
however, till 1825 that the first chrysanthemum exhibition took
place in England. The small-flowered pompons, and the gro-
tesque-flowered Japanese sorts, arc of comparatively recent date,
the former having originated from the Chusan daisy, a variety
introduced by Mr Fortune in 1846, and the latter having also been
introduced by the same traveller about 1S62. The Japanese kinds
arc unquestionably the most popular for decorative purposes as
well as for exhibition. They afford a wide choice in colour, form,
habit and times of flowering. The incurved Chinese kinds are
severely neat-looking flowers in many shades of colour. The
anemone- flowered kinds have long outer or ray petals, the interior
or disk petals being short and tubular. These are to be had in
many pleasing colours. The pompon kinds are small flowered, the
petals being short. The plants are mostly dwarf in habit. In
the single varieties the outer or ray florets alone arc large and
attractively coloured.
Plants for the Border. — As a border plant out of doors the chrysan-
themum is of the easiest culture. It is an exceptionally good town
plant. By a judicious selection of varieties, flowers may be produced
in abundance and in considerable variety from August to the end of
November, and in favourable seasons well on towards Christmas.
Since 1890 when the English market was flooded with French raised
varieties of exceptional merit, the border chrysanthemum has taken
first place among hardy autumn flowering plants. Most of the
varieties then introduced have been superseded by many excellent
kinds raised in Britain.
Propagation. — The old English method of dividing the plants
in March or early April may be followed where better means of
propagatir n are not practicable. Many of the best border varieties
are shy : .i producing new growths (suckers) from the rootstock.
and are in consequence not amenable to this method. It is better
to raise the plants from cuttings. This may be begun in January for
the early flowering sorts, the late kinds being propagated during
February and March. They will root quite well in a cold frame. 11
nroiected during frosty weather by litter or other similar material,
if the frame can be heated ar will so as to maintain a fairly even
temperature of from 40° to so 6 Fah., roots will be made more quickly
and with more certainty. A still better method is to improvise a
frame near the glass in a greenhouse, where the temperature is not
raised above 50* by artificial heat. This has the advantage of being
accessible in all weathers. The bottom of the frame is covered with
sifted coal ashes or coco-nut fibre, on which the shallow boxes or
EDts used in propagating are placed. These are well drained with
roken crocks, the bottoms of the boxes being drilled to allow water
to pass out quickly. The soil should consist of about equal parts of
fibrous loam and leaf-mould, half a part of coarse silver-sand, and
about a quart of vegetable ash from the garden refuse heap to each
bushel of the compost. The whole should ^be passed through a
Juarter inch sieve and thoroughly mixed. The coarse leaf -mould.
:c.. from the sieve should be spread thinly over the drainage, and
the boxes or pots filled almost to the rims with the compost,, and
' The Gr. xic***?": <x» Mr *'< gold, and sj****, flower) was the
herbalists' name for C. segclum, the " corn marigold," with its
yellow bloom, and was tranMerrcd by Linnaeus to the genus, being
commonly restricted now to the specie* C. iimsm.
CHRYSANTHIUS— CHRYSIPPUS
319
covered* If possible, with a thin layer erf tilvcrtantl. It should be
p res sed firmly, watered with a fine rote, and allowed to drain for an
hoar. The cuttings should then he dibbTcd imo the bo*es in rows,
just clcur, the toil being- gently pressed around each. Short *<out
• hooi* which At ise directly from 4 he root stock make the brti eutE inge.
In their absence cutting;* from the Hems arc tued. The ideal length
for a cutting it about ii In. Cut The stem squarely will* a sharp knife
jus* below a joint, and remote rhc letter leaves. Insert at soon as
jvisiible and water wuh a fine rose to settle the toil around ibem.
The coil it not allowed to become dry. The cuttings EhooH be
looted over daily, decayed lea vet removed, and surplus moitture*
condensed go the glass, wiped away. Ventilate gradually as looting
take* pUcc, and, when well rooted, transfer singly into pott about
3 in. in diameter, usinp at compost a mixture of two parti loam,
one port leal-mould, half a part coatte silver-sand, and a gallon of
vegetable ash to every bushel of the compost. Return to the
frame* and keep dose Tor a few day* to allow the little plants to
recover from the check occasioned by the potting. Ventilation,
should be gradually increased until the plant* are able to bear full
exposure during favourable weaihvr. without shoeing sign* of
dutresa by flagging. They should be carefully protected at all
time* from coHcutting w*ndt- In April* should the weather be
favourable* the plant t may be transferred tn the borders, especially
should ihepoAitinns happen to be sheltered. If this is not practicable,
another shift will be necessary, thii lime into pots about 5 in. in
diameter. The toil should be similar to that advised for the previous
petting enriched with half a part of horse manure that has been
thoroughly iweetened by exposure. Plant out during May. All
borders intended fur chrysanthemum* should be well dug and
manured. The strung growing kinds should be planted about j ft.
apart, the smaller kinds being allowed a little less room.
In the summer, water in dry weather, syringe in the evenings
whenever practicable, and keep the borders free from weeds by
surface hoeing*; stake and tie the plants as required, and pinch nut
the tips of the shoots until they have become sufficiently bushy
by frequent branching. Pinching should not be practised later than
the end of June.
Pot Plants for Decoration.— A list of a few of the thousands of
varieties suitable for this purpose would be out of place here;
new varieties are being constantly introduced, for these the reader
is referred to trade catalogues.
The most important considerations for the beginner are (a) the
6 of colours; (b) the types of flowers; (c) the height and habits
el the varieties. Generally speaking, very tall varieties and those
el weak growth and delicate constitutions should be avoided. The
majority of the varieties listed for exhibition purposes are aim
suitable for decoration, especially the Japanese kinds. Propagation
and early culture are substantially as for border plants.
As soon as the 5-in. pott are filled with roots, no time should be
lost in giving them the final shift. Eight-in. pots arc Urge enough
for the general stock, but very strong growers may be given a larger
sue. The soil, prepared a fortnight. m advance, should consist of
four parts fibrous loam, one part leaf-mould, one part horse manure
prepared as advised above, half a part coarse silver-sand, half a part
of vegetable ash, and a quart of bone-meal or a sprinkling of basic
stag to every bushel of the mixture. Mix thoroughly and turn pw
at intervals of three or four days. Pot firmly, working the Soil ««tt
around the roots with a lath. The main stake for the tuppesft of
the plant should now be given; other and smaller stakes may tattr
be necessary when the plants are grown in a bushy form, but iheir
number should not be overdone. The stakes should be as few as
possible consistent with the safety of the shoots, which should
be looped up loosely and neatly. The plants should be placed in 1 heir
summer quarters directly after potting. Stand them in row* in a
sunny situation, the pots clear of one another, sufficient room bring
allowed between the rows for the cultivator to move freely among
them. The main stakes are tied to rough trellis made by straining
wire in two rows about a ft. apart between upright poles dri\en
into the ground. Coarse coal ashes or coke breere are the best
materials to stand the pots on, there being little risk of worms
working through into the pots. The plants, which are required to
produce as many flowers as possible, should have their tips pinched
out at frequent intervals, from the end of March or beginning of
April to the last week in June, for the main season kinds; and about
the middle of July for the later kinds.
Towards the end of July the plants will need feeding at the roots
with weak liquid manure, varied occasionally by a very slight
dusting of soluble chemical manure such a* guano. The soil should
be moderately moist when manure is given In order that the flowers
may be of good form, all lateral flower buds should be removed as
soon as they are large enough to handle, leaving only the bud
terminating each shoot Towards the end of September— earlier
should the weather prove wet and cold — remove the plants to will-
ventilated greenhouses where they are intended to flower Feeding
should be continued until the flowers are nearly half open, when it
may be gradually reduced. The large mop-headed blooms seen at
exhibitions in November are grown in the way described, but only
one or two shoots are allowed to develop on a plant, each t-hoct
eventually having only one M>om.
The chrysanthemum is subject to the attack of black aphis and
greenfly. These pe*u may be destroyed, out of doors, by syringing
with quanta and soft soap solutions, by dusting the affected parts
with tobacco-powder, and indoors also by fumigating. Mildew
generally appears alter tbe plants are housed. It may be destroyed
by dusting the teaic* attacked with sublimed sulphur. Rust is a
fungoid dniease of recent years. It is best checked by syringing
the plan ca with liver of sulphur ( 1 ox. to 3 gallons of water) occasion-
ally, a few week* before taking the plants into the greenhouse.
Earwig*, and fcluga muti be trapped and destroyed.
FLffaxri jar EihOnJion^ — Flower* of exhibition standard must be
as broad arid as deep as the various varieties are capable of pro-
ducing; they must be irreproachable in colour. # They must also
exhibit the farm peculiar to tbe variety when at its best, very few
kinds being precisely alike in this respect* New varieties are in-
troduced in urge numbers annually, some of which supplant the
older kinds. The cultivator must therefore study the peculiarities
of several new kinds each year if he would be a successful ex-
hibitor.
For lists of varieties, Ac see the catalogues of chrysanthemum
growers, the gardening Press, and the excellent cultural pamphlets
which are published from time to time.
CHRYSANTHIUS, a Greek philosopher of the 4th century a.d.,
of the school of Iamblichus. He was one of the favourite pupils of
Acdcsius, and devoted himself mainly to the mystical side of
Neoplatonism (q.v.). The emperor Julian (q.v.) went to him by
the advice of Aedcsius, and subsequently invited him to come to
court, and assist in the projected resuscitation of Hellenism. But
Chrysanthius declined on the strength of unfavourable omens, as
he said, but probably because he realized that the scheme was
unlikely to bear fruit. For the same reason he abstained from
drastic religious reforms in his capacity as high-priest of Lydia.
As a result of his moderation, he remained high-priest till his
death, venerated alike by Christians and pagans. His wife
Mclitc, who was associated with him in the priestly office, was a
kinswoman of Eunapius the biographer.
CHRYSELEPHANTINE (Gr. xpvaos, gold, and m*o$, ivory),
the architectural term given to statues which were built up on a
wooden core, with ivory representing the flesh and gold the
drapery The two most celebrated examples arc those by
Pheidias of the statue of Athena in the Parthenon and of Zeus in
the temple at Olympia.
CHRYSENE CuH n , a hydrocarbon occurring in the high
boiling fraction of the coal tar distillate. It is produced in small
quantity in the distillation of amber, on passing the vapour of
phcnyl-naphthyl-mcthane through a red-hot tube, on heating
indene, or by passing the mixed vapours of coumarone and
naphthalene through a red-hot tube. It crystallizes in plates or
octahedra (from benzene), which exhibit a violet fluorescence,
and melt at 250° C. Chromic arid in glacial acetic arid solution
oxidizes it to chrysoquinonc ChUmA, which when distilled with
lead oxide gives chrysoketone Ci?HisO. When chrysenc is fused
with alkalis, chryscriic acid, CuIIuOi, is produced, which on
heating gives /3- phenyl- naphthalene. On heating chryscne
with hydriodic acid and red phosphorus to 260° C, the hydro-
derivatives CuIIa and C lt ll» arc produced. It gives characteristic
addition products with picric acid and dinitroanthracjuinone.
Impure chryscne is of a yellow colour; hence its name (xpfocos,
golden yellow).
CHRYSIPPUS (c. 280-206 B.C.), Greek philosopher, the third
great leader of the Stoics. A native of Soli in Cilicia (Diog.
Laert. vii. 179), he was robbed of his property and came to
Athens, where he studied possibly under Zeno, certainly under
Clcanthes. It is said also that he became a pupil of Arccsilaus
and Lacydes, heads of the Middle Academy This impartiality
in his early studies is the key of his philosophic work, the
dominant characteristic of which is comprehensiveness rather
than originality. He took the doctrines of Zeno and Clcanthes
and crystallized them into a definite system; he further defended
them against the attacks of the Academy His polemic skill
earned for him the title of the '* Column of the Portico."
Diogenes Laertius says, " If the gods use dialectic, they can use
none other than that of Chrysippus "; tl ^ y&p fa Xpfarat;
one eV fa 2fo4 ("Without Chrysippus, there had been
no Porrh ") He excelled in logic, the theory of knowledge,
ethics and physics His relations with Clcanthes, contempor-
aneously criticized by Antipater, are considered utAvi ^iws.
320
CHRYSOBERYL— CHRYSOPRASE
He Is said to have composed seven hundred and fifty treatises,
fragments alone of which survive. Their style, we arc told, was
unpolished and arid in the extreme, while the argument was
lucid and impartial.
S« C H. HagHfam. MpTolia Chrytippea (1685), Eihica Chrysippi
(1715); J. F. Kkhtcr, Dt Chryuppfi SUnco fastuoso (1738); F.
Biiguet. De Chrysippi vita dmtriria ct reliquiis (1822); C. Petersen,
Phifoiaphiae Chryrippcat fumicmrnta (1827); A. Gercke, " Chry-
KppM in Ja&Tbtitker Jiir FhifeiQ£it. suppl. vol. xiv. (1885); R.
Nicplai, De h(Uis Chryupbi tibrit ( I ft$g) ; Christos Aronis, Xpfoivvot
-rpaviLarubt U&S5); R. Hirzel, Uniersuekungen tu Ciceros philo-
sophiithtfi $ckrijltn t iL (iSflJk L. Stein, Die Psyckciogie der Stoa
firklfi); A. B. Kriache, FoTithunrcn auf dem Cebiete der alien
Fkilwphie {1S40); J. E. Sandys, Hist. Class. Schd. i. 149.
CHRYSOBERYL, a yellow or green gem-stone, remarkable for
its hardness, being exceeded in this respect only by the diamond
and corundum, lie name suggests that it was formerly regarded
as a golden variety of beryl; and it is notable that though differ-
ing widely from beryl it yet bears some relationship to it inasmuch
as it contains the element beryllium. In chrysoberyl, however,
the beryllium exists as an aluminate, having the formula BeAlA.
orBcOAIjOj. The analysis of a specimen of Brazilian chrysoberyl
gave alumina 78*10, beryllia 17*94, and ferric oxide 4*88%.
The typical yellow colour of the stone inclines in many cases to
pale green, occasionally passing into shades of dark green and
brown. The iron usually present in the mineral seems responsible
for the green colour. Chrysoberyl is often mistaken by its colour
for chrysolite (?.».), and has indeed been termed Oriental
chrysolite. In its crystalline forms it bears some relationship to
chrysolite, both crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, but it
is a much harder and a denser mineral. As the two stones are apt
to be confounded, it may be convenient to contrast their chief
characters:—-
Chrysoberyl. Chrysolite.
Hardness 85 65 to 7
Specific Gravity . . . 3-65 to 3*75 3-34 to 3'37
Chemical Composition . . BeAltO*. MgiSiOi.
Chrysoberyl is not infrequently cloudy, opalescent and
chatoyant, and is then known as " cymophane " (Gr. nvtta, a
*• cloud"). The cloudiness is referable to the presence of
multitudes of microscopic cavities. Some of the cymophane,
when cut with a convex surface, forms the most valuable kind of
cat's-eye (see Cat's -Eye). A remarkable dichroic variety of
chrysoberyl is known as alexandrite {q.9.).
Most chrysoberyl comes from Brazil, chiefly from the district of
Minas Novas in the state of Minas Geraes, where it occurs as
small water-worn pebbles. The cymophane is mostly from the
gem-gravels of Ceylon . Chrysoberyl is known as a constituen t of
certain kinds of granite, pegmatite and gneiss. In the United
States it occurs at Haddam, Conn.; Greenfield Centre, near
Saratoga Springs, N.Y.; and in Manhattan island. It is known
also in the province of Quebec, Canada, and has been found near
Gwelo in Rhodesia. (F. W. R.*)
CHRYSOCOLLA, a hydrous copper silicate occurring as a
decomposition product of copper ores. It is never found as
crystals, but always as encrusting and botryoidal masses with a
microcrystalline structure. It is green or bluish-green in colour,
and often has the appearance of opal or enamel, being translucent
and having a concboidal fracture with vitreous lustre; some-
times it is earthy in texture. Not being a definite crystallized
substance, it varies widely in chemical composition, the copper
oxide (CuO), for example, varying in different analyses from
17 to 67%; the formula is usually given as CuSiOj + 2H : 0.
The hardness (2-4) and specific gravity (*-o-a-8) are also variable
It has recently been suggested that the material may really be a
mixture of more than one hydrous copper silicate, since differences
in the microcrystalline structure of the different concentric
layers of which the masses are built up may be detected.
Various impurities (silica, &c.) are also commonly present, and
several varieties have been distinguished by special names:
thus dillenburgite, from Dillenburg in Nassau, contains copper
carbonate; dcmidoflUe and cyanochalcite contain copper
phosphate; and pilarite contains alumina (perhaps as allophane).
The mineral occurs an the upper parts of veins of copper ores,
and has resulted from their alteration by the action of waters
containing silica in solution. Pscudomorphs of chrysocolla after
various copper minerals (e.g. cuprite) are not uncommon. It is
found in most copper mines.
The name chrysocolla (from xpuarfe, gold, and x6XXa, glue)
was applied by Theophrastus and other ancient writers to
materials used in soldering gold, one of which, from the island
of Cyprus, may have been identical with the mineral now known
by this name. Borax, which is used for this purpose, has also
been called chrysocolla.
A mineral known as pitchy copper-ore (Gcr. Kupferpeckm),
and of some importance as an ore of copper, is usually classed as a
variety of chrysocolla containing much admixed limonite. It is
dark brown to black in colour, with a dull to glassy or resinous
lustre, and resembles pitch in appearance. In thin sections it is
translucent and optically isotropic, and recent examinations
seem to prove that it is a homogeneous mineral and not a
mechanical mixture of chrysocolla and limonite. (L. J. S.)
CHRYSOLITE, a transparent variety of olivine, used as a
gem-stone and often called peridot. The name chrysolite,
meaning " golden stone " (xpvcrfo and XI0os), has been applied
to various yellowish gems, notably to topaz, to some kinds of
beryl and to chrysoberyl. The true chrysolite of the modern
mineralogist is a magnesium silicate, referable to the species
olivine. It is appropriate to call the lighter coloured stones
inclining to yellow chrysolite, and the darker green stones
peridot. Certain kinds of topaz, from the Schneckenstein in
Saxony, are known as Saxon chrysolite; while moldavite,
a substance much like a green obsidian, is sometimes called
water chrysolite or pseudo-chrysolite.
See Chrysoberyl; Olivine; Peridot.
CHRYSOLORAS, MANUEL [or Emmanuel] (c. 1355-1415),
one of the pioneers in spreading Greek literature in the West,
was born at Constantinople of a distinguished family, which
had removed with Constantine the Great to Byzantium. He
was a pupil of Gemistus (q»v.). In 1393 he was sent to Italy by
the emperor Manuel Palaeologus to implore the aid of the
Christian princes against the Turks. He returned to Constanti-
nople, but at the invitation of the magistrates of Florence he
became about 1395 professor of the Greek language in that city,
where he taught three years. He became famous as a translator
of Homer and Plato. Having visited Milan and Pavia, and resided
for several years at Venice, he went to Rome upon the invitation
of Bruni Leonardo, who had been his pupil, and was then secretary
to Gregory XII. In 1408 he was sent to Paris on an important
mission from the emperor Manuel Palaeologus. In 1413 he went
to Germany on an embassy to the emperor Sigismund, the
object of which was to fix a place for the assembling of a general
council. It was decided that the meeting should take place at
Constance, and Chrysoloras was on his way thither, having
been chosen to represent the Greek Church, when he died suddenly
on the 15th of April 14 15 Only two of his works have been
printed, his Erottmata (published at Venice in 1484), which was
the first Greek grammar in use in the West, and EpUlolae III,
de comparatione vetcris ct novae Romae.
John Chrysoloras, a relative of the above (variously described
as his nephew, brother or son), who, like him, had studied and
taught at Constantinople, and had then gone to Italy, shared
Manuel's reputation as one of those who spread the influence
of Greek letters in the West. His daughter married Filelfo (q.v.).
CHRYSOPRASE (Gr. xpvek, gold, andvpaaov, leek), a name
applied by modern mineralogists to an apple-green variety of
chalcedony or hornstone, used as an ornamental stone. The
colour is due to the presence of nickel, probably in the form of a
hydrous silicate. By exposure to a moderate heat, or to strong
light, the chrysoprasc becomes paler, or even colourless, but it
may regain its colour by absorption of moisture Chrysoprasc
is a mineral of rather limited distribution. Most of it comes
from the neighbourhood of Frankenstein in Silesia, where it
occurs in association with altered serpentine. It is found to a
limited extent at Revdinsk, near Ekaterinburg, in the Urals;
and it occurs also in India. It is known, too, at several localities
CHRYSOSTOM
321
m North America, notably at Nickel* Mount, Douglas county,
Oregon, where it occurs in nickeliferous serpentine.
The chrysoprase of the moderns is certainly not the ckryso-
prcsius of Pliny, or the x/xvoirpaffor of Greek writers. The
Ancient stone was not improbably our chrysoberyl, and it is
doubtful whether the modern chrysoprase was known until a
comparatively late period. The chrysoprase of Kosemtitz, near
Frankenstein in Silesia, was discovered in 1740, and used by
Frederick the Great in the decoration of the palace of Sans
Souci at Potsdam. But at a much earlier date the Silcsian
chrysoprase was used for mural decoration at the Wcnzel chapel
at Prague. Chrysoprase was a favourite stone in England at
1 he beginning of the 19th century, being set round with small
brilliants and used for brooches and rings. At the present time
it is said to be regarded by some as a " lucky stone." Much
commercial chrysoprase is chalcedony artificially stained by
impregnation with a green salt of nickel. (F. W. R.*)
CHRYSOSTOM. St John Chrysostom (Xpuffforojjot, golden-
mouthed), the most famous of the Greek Fathers, was born of
a noble family at Antioch, the capital of Syria, about ad. 345
or 347. At the school of Libanius the sophist he gave early
indications of his mental powers, and would have been the
successor of his heathen master, had he not been stolen away,
to use the expression of his teacher, to a life of piety (like
Augustine, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Theodoret) by the
influence of his pious mother Anthusa. A f tcr his baptism (about
370) by Meletius, the bishop of Antioch, he gave up all his
forensic prospects, and buried himself in an adjacent desert,
where for nearly ten years he spent a life of ascetic self-denial
and theological study, to which he was introduced by Diodorus,
bishop of Tarsus, a famous scholar of the Antiochene type.
Illness, however, compelled him to return to the world; and the
authority of Meletius gained his services to the church. He was
ordained deacon in his thirty-fifth year (381), and afterwards
presbyter (386) at Antioch. On the death of Nectarius he was
appointed archbishop of Constantinople by Eutropius, the
favourite minister of the emperor Arcadius. He had, ten years
before this, only escaped promotion to the episcopate by a very
questionable stratagem — which, however, he defends in his
instructive and eloquent treatise Dc Sacerdotio. As a presbyter,
he won high reputation by his preaching at Antioch, more especi-
ally by his homilies on The Statues, a course of sermons delivered
when the citizens were justly alarmed at the prospect of severe
measures being taken against them by the emperor Thcodosius,
whose statues had been demolished in a riot.
On the archiepiscopal throne Chrysostom still persevered in
the practice of monastic simplicity. The ample revenues which
his predecessors had consumed in pomp and luxury he diligently
applied to the establishment of hospitals; and the multitudes
who were supported by his charity preferred the eloquent
discourses of their benefactor to the amusements of the theatre
or of the circus. His homilies, which arc still preserved, furnish
ample apology for the partiality of the people, exhibiting the
free command of a pure and copious vocabulary, an inexhaustible
fund of metaphors and similitudes, giving variety and grace to
the most familiar topics, with an almost dramatic exposure of
the folly and turpitude of vice, and a deep moral earnestness.
His zeal as a bishop and eloquence as a preacher, however,
gained him enemies both in the church and at the court. The
ecclesiastics who were parted at his command from the lay-
sisters (whom they kept ostensibly as servants), the thirteen
bishops whom he deposed for simony and licentiousness at a
single visitation, the idle monks who thronged the avenues to
the court and found themselves (he public object of his scorn— all
conspired against the powerful author of their wrongs. Their
resentment was inflamed by a powerful party, embracing the
magistrates, the ministers, the favourite eunuchs, the ladies
of the court, and Eudoxia the empress herself, against whom the
preacher thundered daily from the pulpit of St Sophia. A
favourable pretext for gratifying their revenge was discovered
in the shelter which Chrysostom had given to four Nilrian monks,
known as the tall brothers, who had come to Constantinople on
being excommunicated by their bishop, Theophilus of Alexandria,
a man who had long circulated in the East the charge of Origeniam
against Chrysostom. By Thcophilus's instrumentality a synod
was called to try or rather to condemn the archbishop; but
fearing the violence of the mob in the metropolis, who idolized
him for the fearlessness with which he exposed the vices of their
superiors, it held its sessions at the imperial estate named " The
Oak " (Synod us ad quercum), near Chalcedon, where Rufinu*
had erected a stately church and monastery. A bishop and a
deacon were sent to accuse the archbishop, and presented to him
a list of charges, in which pride, inhospitality and Origenbm
were brought forward to procure the votes of those who hated
him for his austerity, or were prejudiced against him as a sus-
pected heretic. Four successive summonses were signified to
Chrysostom, but he indignantly refused to appear until four of
his notorious enemies were removed from the council. Without
entering into any examination of the charges brought before
them, the synod condemned him on the ground of contumacy,
and, hinting that his audacity merited the punishment of treason,
called on the emperor to ratify and enforce their decision. He
was immediately arrested and hurried to Nicaea in Bithynia.
As soon as the news of bis banishment spread through the
city, the astonishment of the people was quickly exchanged for
a spirit of irresistible fury, which was increased by the occurrence
of an earthquake. In crowds they besieged the palace, and had
already begun to take vengeance on the foreign monks and
sailors who had come from Chalcedon to the metropolis, when, at
the entreaty of Eudoxia, the emperor consented to his recall
His return was graced with all the pomp of a triumphal entry,
but in two months after he was again in exile. His fiery seal
could not blind him to the vices of the court, and heedless of
personal danger he thundered against the profane honours that
were addressed almost within the precincts of St Sophia to the
statue of the empress. The haughty spirit of Eudoxia was
inflamed by the report of a discourse commencing with the
words—" llerodias is again furious; Herodias again dances;
she once more demands the head of John "; and though the
report was false, it sealed the doom of the archbishop. A new
council was summoned, more numerous and more subservient
to the wishes of Theophilus; and troops of barbarians were
quartered in the city to overawe the people. Without examining
it, the council confirmed the former sentence, and, in accordance
with canon 12 of the Synod of Antioch (341), pronounced hb
deposition for having resumed his functions without their
permission.
He was hurried away to the desolate town of Cucusus (Cocysus),
among the ridges of Mount Taurus, with a secret hope, perhaps,
that he might be a victim to the Isaurians on the march, or to
the more implacable fury of the monks. He arrived at his
destination in safety; and the sympathies of the people, which
had roused them to fire the cathedral and senate-house on the
day of his exile, followed him to his obscure retreat. His influence
also became more powerfully felt in the metropolis than before.
In his solitude he had ample leisure for forming schemes of
missionary enterprise among Persians and Goths, and by his
correspondence with the different churches he at once baffled
his enemies and gave greater energy to his friends. This roused
the emperor to visit him with a severer punishment, though
Innocent I. of Rome and the emperor Honorius recognized his
orthodoxy and besought his return. An order was despatched
for his rtmoval to the extreme desert of Pity us; and his guards
so faithfully obeyed their instructions that, before he reached
the sea -coast of the Euxine, he expired at Comana in Pontus,
in the year 407. His exile gave rise to a schism in the church, and
the Johannists (as they were called) did not return to communion
with the archbishop of Constantinople till the relics of the saint
were, 30 years after, brought back to the Eastern metropolis with
great pomp and the emperor publicly implored forgiveness
from Heaven for the guilt of hb ancestors. The festival of St
Chrysostom is kept in the Greek Church on the 13th of
November, and in the Latin Church on the 27th of January.
In his general teaching Chrysostom elevates the ascetk
CHUB— CHUDE
tnd in his homilies he inculcates the need of
nee with the Scriptures, and denounces
s the source of all heresy. If on one or two
nee, the invocation of saints, some germs of
teaching may be discovered, there is a want
e doctrine of indulgences or of compulsory
Moreover, in writing to Innocent, bishop of
him as a brother metropolitan, and sends the <
•his, bishop of Milan, and Chromatius, bishop
rrespondence breathes a most Christian spirit,
ne of charity towards his persecutors. In
re Antiochene, basing his expositions upon
cal study, and proceeding from a knowledge
umstances of composition to a forceful and
n to the needs of his day and of all time,
skill (he was inferior in pure dogma to Theo-
i he united a wide sympathy and a marvellous
works of Chrysostom fall into three groups,
arly desert life is probably to be assigned the
vd, a book full of wise counsel. To the years
i and episcopate belong the great mass of
lentaries, among which those On the Statues,
Romans and Corinthians, stand out pre-
tters belong to the last years, the time of
ther works arc valuable sources for the history
are very numerous, and many of them are of
are the Syriac and other translations. The
>f Bernard de Montfaucon in 13 vols. fol. (1718-
with some improvements bv Miene {Patrol.
but this edition is greatly indebted to the oih
1 century earlier (1612) by Sir Henry Savile
cge, from a press established at Eton by himself,
of Europe, iii. 10, It) calls " the first work of
scale, published in England." F. Field admir
hew (Cambridge, 1839) and Epistles of S. Pau
I. J. A. Bengel's edition of De Sacerdotio (1725
nted (e.g. LeTpxig, 1887).
the life, the most valuable are the ecclesiastic* i
•s, Sozomen and Theodoret; and amongst the
Cave, Lardner and Tillemont, with the church
. and his monograph on the Life and Times c
ted by J. C. Stapteton. More recent are th
Stephens (London. 1871). R. W. Bush (London,
(Paris, 1891). F. W. Farrar's romance Catherin
I picture of the man and his times. For mom
K>ints such as ChrysostonVs theological positio
fee the very full bibliography in E. Preuschen
iauck's Realencyk. iv.; also A. Harnack. IUs
iv. Some of the commentaries and homilies arc
xford Library of the Fathers.
us cephalus), a fish of the Cyprinid family,
ime genus as the roach and dace. It is one of
amily, attaining a length of 2 ft. and a wcigl
ioes not avoid running waters, and is fond of
• fly readily, but its flesh, like that of the oth 1
»s and full of bones. It is common hi Great
continent of Europe. In America the nan
en to some other members of the family, and
*e horned dace (Semnotilus alromaculatus)\
•»cs are the river chub (Hybopsis hentuckienst
'tr chub (Mylochilus cawinus).
&ES (d. 1845), English locksmith, started 1
w at Winchester, subsequently removing to
he improved on the "detector" lock (q.t 1,
cd in 18 1 8 by his brother, Jeremiah Chubb,
•o London and then to Wolverhampton, where
hundred hands. In 1835 he patented a proci
ler safes (9.9.) burglar-proof and fireproof, and
ablished a large safe-factory in London. He
of May 1845, and wa * succeeded in the busin
in Chubb (1816-1872), who patented various
1 the products of the firm and largely increased
e factories were combined under one roof in a
id the business grew to enormous proportions.
After John Chubb *s death the business was converted into a
limited company under the management of his three sons.
CHUBB, THOMAS (1670-1746), English deist, the son of a
Itster, was born at East Harnham, near Salisbury, on the 29th
of September 1679. The death of his father ( 1688) cut short his
education, and in 1604 he was apprenticed to a glove-maker in
Salisbury, but subsequently entered the employment of a tallow-
chandler. He picked up a fair knowledge of mathematics and
geography, but theology was his favourite study. His habit of
committing his thoughts to writing gave him a clear and
fluent style. He made his first appearance as an author in the
ian controversy. A dispute having arisen about Whiston's
argument in favour of the supremacy of the one God and Father,
he wrote an essay, The Supremacy of the Father Asserted, which
tiiston pronounced worthy of publication, and it was printed
in 1715. A number of tracts followed, which were collected in
jo. For several years Chubb lived in the house of Sir Joseph
Jekyll, master of the rolls, in what capacity it is not known;
there are stories of bis having waited at table as a servant out of
livery. His love of independence drew him back to Salisbury,
where by the kindness of friends he was enabled to devote the
rest of his days to his studies. He died on the 8th of February
1746. Chubb is interesting mainly as showing that the ration-
alism of the intellectual classes had taken considerable hold upon
' he popular mind. Though he acquired little renown in England
he was regarded by Voltaire and others as among the most
logical of the deist school (see Dexsii). His principal works are
A Discourse Concerning Reason (1731), The True Gospel of Jesus
Christ (1739), and Posthumous Works, 2 vols. (1748), the last
containing '* The Author's Farewell to his Readers."
CHUBUT, a territory of the southern Argentine Republic)
part of what was formerly called Patagonia, bounded N. by
Rio Negro, S. by Santa Cruz, E. by the Atlantic and W. by Chile.
Pop. (1895) 3748; (»oo4, estimate) 9060; area, 93.4*7 sq. m.
i xcept for the valleys in the Andean foothills, which are fertile
I nd welt forested, and the land along the banks of the Chubut
river, which flows entirely across the territory from the Andes
to the Atlantic, the country is a barren waste, covered with
pebbles and scanty clumps of dwarfed vegetation, with occasional
shallow saline lakes. The larger rivers are the Chubut and the
engucrr, the latter flowing into Lake Colhuapi. There are a
number of large lakes among the Andean foothills, the best
Lnown of which are Fontana, La Plata and General Pa*, and,
in the interior, Colhuapi or Colhu6 and Musters, the latter named
after the English naval officer who traversed Patagonia in 1870.
»etrolcum was found at Comodoro Rivadavia, in the S. part of
the territory, toward the close of 1907, at a depth of 1768 ft.
1 Chubut is known chiefly by the Welsh colony near the mouth
of the Chubut river. The chief town of the Welsh, Rawson, is
the capital of the territory, and Port Madryn on Bahia Nueva is
Its best port. Other colonies have been founded in the fertile
valleys of the Andean foothills, but their growth is greatly
impeded by lack of transportation facilities. (See further
Patagonia.)
CHUDB, a tribal name used in both a special and a general
sense. (1) It was the name given by the Russians to certain
Esthonian tribes with whom they came in contact as they spread
gradually over their present empire. It would seem that the
northern Chudes are the Vepsas, of whom about 21,000 are said
I to live near Lake Onega and in the northern parts of the govern-
I ment of Novgorod, and that the southern Chudes are the \otes
who occupy about thirty parishes in north-west Ingria. (2) As
the Russians advanced eastwards they extended the name to
various tribes whom they considered to be like the Esthomans,
and in popular use it has come to be applied to any ancient non-
Russian people in Siberia, at least as far east as the Altai. In
particular, ancient mines, tumuli and the metal work often found
in them are commonly known as Chudish. Some investigators
have used the word in a more restricted sense of Permian anti-
quities and their builders, but it seems to be a popular expression
not corresponding to any historical or scientific division of
CHUGUYEV— CHUNAR
323
CHUtiUYlV. a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov,
$$ m. E.S.E. of the town of Kharkov, on the right bank of the
northern Donets. It is a place of some strategic importance,
and had in 1897 a population of 11,877
CHUKCHI. Chanktus (" Men ") or Tusu (" Brothers " or
" Confederates "), a Mongoloid people inhabiting the north-
easternmost portion of Siberia on the shores of the Arctic Ocean
and Bering Sea. They are settled in small groups along the
Acetic coast between the Bering Straits and the Kolyma river,
or wander as far inland as the Anadyr basin. Though their
territory embraces some 300,000 odd sq. m., the most trust-
worthy estimates put their numbers at but a few thousands.
They were first carefully studied by the members of the Nor-
denskjold expedition (1878-79), who describe them as tall, lean,
with somewhat irregular features— hence de Quatrefages classes
them as " AUophylian Whites." The accounts of their physical
characteristics are somewhat confused owing to the presence of
the true Eskimo in the Chukchi domain. The typical Chukchi
is round-headed, and thus distinct from the long-headed Eskimo,
with broad, flat features and high cheek-bones. The nose is
often so buried between the puffed cheeks that a ruler might be
laid across the face without touching it. The lips are thick, and
the brow low. The hair is coarse, lank and black. The general
muscular development is good, though usually the body is stunted.
It has been suggested that they emigrated from the south,
possibly from the Amur basin. In their arctic homes they long
carried on war with the Ongkilon (Ang-kali) aborigines, gradually
merging with the survivors and also mixing both with the
Kusmen Koryaks (q.v.) and the Chuklukmuit Eskimo settled
on the Asiatic side of Bering Strait. Their racial characteristics
make them an ethnological link between the Mongols of central
Asia and the Indians of America. Some authorities affiliate them
to the Eskimo because they are believed to speak an Eskimo
dialect. But this is merely a trade jargon, a hotchpotch of
Eskimo, Chukchi. Koryak, English and even Hawaiian. The true
Chukchi language, of which Nordcnskjold collected a thousand
words, is distinct from Eskimo and akin to Koryak, and Nordens-
kjold sums the problem up with the remark—" this race settled
on the primeval route between the Old and New World bears an
unmistakable stamp of the Mongols of Asia and the Eskimo and
Indians of America."
The Chukchi are divided into the " Fishing Chukchi," who
have settled homes on the coast, and the " Reindeer Chukchi,"
who are nomads. The latter breed reindeer (herds of more than
10,000 are not uncommon), live on the flesh and milk, and are
generally fairly prosperous; while the fishing folk arc very poor,
begging from their richer kinsfolk hides to make tents and
clothes. The Chukchi were formerly warlike and vigorously
resisted the Russians, but to-day they are the most peaceable of
folks, amiable in their manners, affectionate in family life and
good-humoured. But this gentleness does not prevent them from
killing off the old and infirm. They believe in a future life, but
only for those who die a violent death. Thus it is regarded as
an act of filial piety for a son to kill his parent or a nephew his
uncle. This tribal custom is known as kamitok; and of it Mr
Harry de Windt writes (Through the Cold Fields of Alaska to
String Strail, 1898), " The doomed one takes a lively interest in
the proceedings, and often assists in the preparation for his own
death. The execution is always preceded by a feast, where seal
and walrus meat are greedily devoured, and whisky consumed
till all are intoxicated. A spontaneous burst of singing and the
muffled roll of walrus-hide drums then herald the fatal moment
At a given signal a ring is formed by the relations and friends, the
entire settlement looking on from the background. The exe-
cutioner (usually the victim's son or brother) then steps forward,
and placing his right foot behind the back of the condemned.
slowly strangles him to death with a walrus thong A kamtfuk
took place during the latter part of our slay." The Chukchi are
nominally Christians, but sacrifice animals to the spirits of the
rivers and mountains, an-i also practise Shamanism. In personal
habits the people are indescribably filthy. They are polygamous,
but the women are treated kindly. The children are specially
petted, and are so wrapped up to protect them from the cold that
they have been described as resembling huge balls crossed by a
bar, their arms having to remain outstretched owing to the bulk
of their wrappings. Chukchi women are often tattooed with two
black-blue convex lines running from the eye to the chin. Since
their adoption of Christianity the men sometimes have a Latin
cross tattooed on their chins. The Chukchi burn their dead or
expose them on platforms to be devoured by ravens.
See Harry de Windt, Through the Cold Fields of Alaska to Btrint
Strait (1808); Dittmar, M Ober die Koriaken u. ihnen nahe ver-
wandten Tchouktchen." in Bui. Acad. St. (St Petersburg), xii. p. 90;
Hooper. Ten Months among the Tents of the Tush: W. H. Daft,
Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. i. (1877).
CHULALOMQKORN, PHRA PARAMINDR MAHA (1853-
1010), king of Siam, eldest son of King Maha Mongkut, was bom
on the 21st of September 1853. His full signature, used in all
important state documents, consists of twenty-seven names, but
it is by the first four that he is usually known. Educated in his
childhood by English teachers, he acquired a good knowledge of
the English language and of Western culture. But his surround-
ings were purely oriental, and his boyhood was spent, according
to custom, in a Buddhist monastery. He succeeded to the
throne on the death of his father, 1st October 1868, and was
crowned on the nth of November following, a ceremony
marked by the innovation of permitting the presence of Euro*
peans. Until his majority in 1873 the government was carried
on by a regent, the young king retiring to a Buddhist monastery,
and later making a tour through India and the Dutch East
Indies, an undertaking until then without precedent among the
potentates of eastern Asia. He had no sooner taken the reins of
power than he gave evidence of his recognition of the importance
of modern culture by abolishing slavery in Siam. He simplified
court etiquette, no longer demanding, for example, that his
subjects should approach him on hands and knees. Still more
important, in view of the numerous races and creeds included
among his subjects, was the proclamation of liberty of conscience.
This was followed by the erection of schools and hospitals, the
construction of roads and railways, and the further development
of the army and fleet which his father had initiated. To him
Siam is indebted for its standard coinage, its postal and telegraph
service, and for the policing, sanitation and electric-lighting of
Bangkok. Several of his sons, including the crown prince, were
educated in England, and in the summer of 1807 he himself
visited England, arriving at Portsmouth in his yacht on the 20th
of July. On the 4th of August he was received by Queen Victoria
at Osborne. After a tour in Great Britain he proceeded to
Berlin, Brussels, and the Hague and Paris. (See also Sum.)
CHUMBI VALLEY, a valley connecting Tibet (*.».) with the
frontier of British India. Lying on the southern slopes of the
Himalayas at an altitude of about 9500 ft. above the sea, the
valley is wedged in between Bhutan and Sikkim, and does not
belong geographically but only politically to Tibet. This was the
route by which the British mission of 1 904 advanced. Before the
date of that expedition the valley had acquired a reputation for
beauty and fertility, which was subsequently found to be only
comparative in relation to the barrenness of the rest of the
Tibetan frontier. The summer months, though not hot, are
relaxing and enervating.
CHUNAR, or Chunahchux, a town and ancient fortress of
India, in the district of Mirzapur, in the United Provinces,
situated on the south bank of the Ganges. Pop. (1001) 0926.
The fort occupies a conspicuous site on the summit of an abrupt
rock which commands the river. It was at one time a place of
great strength, and still contains a magazine, and is fortified with
batteries. In the old citadel on the height, the remains of a
Hindu palace with some interesting carvings indicate the former
importance of the place. The town, which consists of one or two
straggling streets, contains a handsome English church. Chunar
is first mentioned in the i6lh century, when in possession of Sing
J can pore In 1530 it became the residence of Shere Shah the
Afghan, and forty-five years later was recovered by the emperor
Akbar after sustaining a siege of six months. It fell into the
CHUNCHO— CHURCH, G. E.
the English under General Comae in 1763 after a
resistance which caused considerable loss to the
. A treaty with the nawab of Oudh was signed
barren Hastings on behalf of the East India Company
tber 1781.
HO, a tribe of South American Indians, living in the
st of Cusco, central Peru. They area fierce and savage
o have preserved their independence. They are said to
» their neighbours the Antis. They dwell in communal
id live chiefly by hunting. Chuncho has also been used
e one of three aboriginal stocks of Peru, the others being
and Aymara.
QK'INQ, a city in the province of Szech'ucn, China,
Ft bank of the Yangtsze, at its point of junction with
lg, in ao° 33' N., and 107" a' E. It is surrounded by a
i stone wall, which is 5 m. in circumference and is
y nine gates. It is the commercial centre for the trade,
of Szech'ucn, but of all south-western China. The one
between Szech'uen and the eastern provinces is the
river route, as owing to the mountainous nature of
vening country land transit is almost impracticable.
>rt trade brought up by large junks from Ich'ang, and
$ of cotton doth, yarn, metals and foreign manufactures,
ere, and is distributed by a class of smaller vessels up
us rivers of the provinces. Native produce, such as
k, white wax, hides, rhubarb, musk and opium, is here
and repacked for conveyance to Hankow, Shanghai
pans of the empire. The city was opened to foreign
convention with the British government in 1891, with
iso, however, that foreign steamers should not be at
trade there until Chinese-owned steamers had succeeded
ling the river. This restriction was abolished by the
treaty of 1895, which declared Ch'ungk'ing open on
terms as other ports. After that date the problem of
vigatton on the section of the river between Ich'ang
ingk'ing occupied attention. By 1007 a small steamer
. navigated up the rapids, but it remained a question
steam navigation could be made a practical success.
e was carried on by native craft, hauled up against the
of the current in the worst places by a line of trackers
ank. The great rise in the river during the summer
at Ch'ungk'ing ordinarily 70 ft. and occasionally as
06 ft, added to the difficulties. The population of
ing, including the city of Kiangpei on the opposite
he Kialing river, is about 300,000. The foreign residents
few. In 1898 the value of the trade passing through
:hne customs was £2,614,000, and in 1004 £4,214,568, of
ports counted for £2,644,777 and exports for £1,560,701.
ITTY, an Anglo-Indian term for an unleavened cake
The word represents the Hindustani chapati, and is
.0 the usual form of native bread, the staple food of
dia. The chupatty is generally made of coarse wheatcn
ttcd flat with the hand, and baked upon a griddle. In
>led times that preceded the mutiny of 1857 chupatties
culatcd from village to village throughout India,
ly as a token of discontent.
MY A (sometimes written Tiupriia; Croatian Cw^rjto),
al of the Morava department of Servia, on the railway
grade to Nish, and on the right bank of the Morava,
navigable up to this point by small sailing-vessels.
00) about 6000. Some of the finest Servian cattle are
he neighbouring lowlands, and the town has a consider-
le in plums and other farm-produce. A light railway,
several important collieries, runs for 13 m. through
b-forcsts and mountains on the cast. Cloth is woven
hin, 5 m. S.; and Yagodina, 8 m. W. by N., is an im-
market town. Among the foothills of the Golubinye
• m. E.N.E., is the 14th-century Ravanitsa monastery,
timed fort and an old church— their walls and frescoes
y Turkish bullets. There is a legend that here the
tsar Lazar (1374-ijM *« visited by an angel, who
1 choose between an earthly and a heavenly crown. In
accordance with his choice, Lazar fell fighting at Kossovo, and
was buried at Ravanitsa; his body being afterwards transferred,
through fear of the Turks, to another Ravanitsa, in eastern
Slavonia. His. crucifix is treasured among the monastic archives,
which also contain a charter signed by Peter the Great of Russia
(1672*1725), Manasia {Monosiya), the still more celebrated
foundation of Stephen, the son and successor of Lazar, lies 12 m.
N. of Ravanitsa, Built in a cleft among the hills which line the
river Resava, an affluent of the Morava, this monastery is enclosed
in a fortress, whose square towers, and curtain without loopholes
or battlements, remain largely intact. Within the curtain stand
the monastic buildings, a large garden and a cruciform chapel,
with many curious old stone carvings, half hidden beneath
whitewash. Numerous gifts from the Russian court, such as
gospels lettered in gold and silver relief, or jewelled crucifixes, are
preserved on the spot; but the valuable library was removed,
in the 15th century, to Mount Athos.
CHUQUISACA, a department of S.E. Bolivia, bounded N.
by Cochabamba and Santa Cruz, E. by Santa Cruz and Brazil,
S. by Tarija, and W. by Potosi. It lies partly upon the eastern
plateau of Bolivia and partly upon the great plains of the upper
La Plata basin; area, 26,418 sq. m. The Pilcomayo, a large
tributary of the Paraguay, crosses N.W. to S.E. the western part
of the department. The climate of the lowlands is hot, humid
and unhealthy, but that of the plateau is salubrious, though
subject to greater extremes in. temperature and rainfall. The
seasons are sharply divided into wet and dry, the eastern plains
becoming great lagoons during the wet season, and parched
deserts during the dry. The mineral resources are important,
but are less developed than those of Potosi and Oruro. Grazing
is the principal industry of the plains, and cattle, sheep, goats
and llamas are raised and cereals grown in the fertile valleys of
the plateau. Three rough highways connect the department
with its neighbours on the N. and W., and pack animals arc the
common means of transporting merchandise. The population
was estimated at 204,434 in 1000, and is largely composed of
Indians and mestizos. The plateau Indians are generally Aymaras,
but on the eastern plains there are considerable settlements of
partly civilized Chiriguanos, of Guarani origin. The depart-
ment is divided into four provinces, the greater part of the
lowlands being unsettled and without effective political
organization. Its principal towns are Sucrl, Camargo, Pad ilia
and Yotala.
CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1000), American
landscape painter, was born at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 4th
of May 1826. He was a pupil of Thomas Cole at Catskill, New
York, where his first pictures were painted. Developing unusual
technical dexterity, Church from the beginning sought for his
themes such marvels of nature as Niagara Falls, the Andes, and
tropical forests— he visited South America in 1853 and 1857, —
volcanoes in eruption, and icebergs, the beauties of which he
portrayed with great skill in the management of light, colour, and
the phenomena of rainbow, mist and sunset, rendering these
plausible and effective. In their time these paintings awoke the
wildest admiration and sold for extravagant prices, collectors in
the United States and in Europe eagerly seeking them, though
their vogue has now passed away. In 1849 Church was made a
member of the National Academy of Design. His " Great Fall at
Niagara " (1857) is in the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington,
D.C., and a large " Twilight " is in the Walters Gallery, Baltimore,
Maryland. Among his other canvases arc " Andes of Ecuador "
(1855), "Heart of the Andes" (1859), "Cotopaxi" (1862),
•' Jerusalem M (1870), and " Morning in the Tropics " (1877).
He died on the 7th of April 1000, at his house on the Hudson
river above New York City, where he had lived and worked for
many years. He was the most prominent meml>er of the so-
called " Hudson River School " of American artists.
CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835-1910), American geographer,
was born in New Bedford. Massachusetts, on the 7th of December
1835. He was educated as a civil engineer, and was early
engaged on the Hoosac Tunnel. In 1858 he joined an exploring
expedition to South America. During the American Civil War he
CHURCH, SIR R.— CHURCH, R. W.
3*5
•erred (1861-1865) in the Army of the Potomac, rising to the
command of a brigade and the rank of colonel; and in 1866-2867
he was war correspondent of the New York Herald in Mexico.
He explored the Amason (1868-1879), and gradually became the
leading authority on that region of South America, being
appointed United States commissioner to report on Ecuador in
1880, and visiting Costa Rica in 1895 to report on its debt and
railways. He wrote extensively on South and Central American
geography, and became a vice-president of the Royal Geographical
Society (London), and in 1808 president of the geographical
se ction o f the British Association.
CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784-1873), British military officer
and general in the Greek army, was the son of a Quaker, Matthew
Church of Cork. He was born in 1784, and at the age of sixteen
ran away from home and enlisted in the army. For this violation
of its principles he was disowned by the Society of Friends, but
his father bought him a commission, dated the 3rd of July 1800,.
in the 13th (Somersetshire) Light Infantry. He served in the
demonstration against Ferrol, and in the expedition to Egypt
under Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1801. After the expulsion of the
French from Egypt he returned home, but came back to the
Mediterranean in 1805 among the troops sent to defend the
island of Sicily. He accompanied the expedition which landed in
Calabria, and fought a successful battle against the French at
Maida on the 6th of July 1806. Church was present on this
occasion as captain of a recently raised company of Corsican
Rangers. His seal attracted the notice of his superiors, and he
had began to show his capacity for managing and drilling foreign
levies. His Corsicans formed part of the garrison of Capri from
October 1806 till the island was taken by an expedition directed
against it by Murat, in September 1808, at the very beginning of
his reign as king of Naples. Church, who had distinguished
himself In the defence, returned to Malta af tei the capitulation.
In the summer of 1809 he sailed with the expedition sent to
occupy the Ionian Islands. Here he increased the reputation he
had already gained by forming a Greek regiment In English pay.
It included many of the men who were afterwards among the
leaders of the Greeks In the War of Independence. Church
commanded this regiment at the taking of Santa Maura, on which
occasion his Jeft arm was shattered by a bullet. During his slow
recove r y he travelled in northern Greece, and Macedonia, and to
Constantinople. In the years of the fall of Napoleon (1813 and
1814) he was present as English military representative with the
Austrian troops until the campaign which terminated in the
expulsion of Murat from Naples. He drew up a report on the
Ionian Islands lor the congress of Vienna, in which he argued in
support, not only of the retention of the islands under the
British flag, but of the permanent occupation by Great Britain of
Parga and of other formerly Venetian coast towns on the main-
land, then in the possession of All Pasha of Iannina. The peace
and the disbanding of his Greek regiment left him without
employment, though his reputation was high at the war office, and
his services were recognized by the grant of a companionship of
the Bath. In 181 7 be entered the service of King Ferdinand of
Naples as lieutenant-general, with a commission to suppress the
brigandage then rampant in Apulia. Ample powers were given
him, and he attained a full measure of success. In 18 jo he was
appointed governor of Palermo and commander-in-chief of the
troops in Sicily, The revolution which broke out in that year
led to the termination of his services in Naples. He escaped from
violence in Sicily with some difficulty. At Naples he was im-
prisoned and put on his trial by the government, but was
acquitted and released In January 182 1 ; and King George IV. con-
ferred on Mm a knight commandcrship of the Hanoverian order.
The rising of the Greeks against the Turks, which began at this
lime, had his full sympathy from the first. But for some years he
had to act only as the friend of the insurgents in England. In
1827 he took the honourable but unfortunate step of accepting
the conunandershlp-in-chief of the Greek army. At the point of
anarchy and indiscipline to which they had now fallen, the
Greeks could no longer form an efficient army, and could look for
salva t ion only to foreign intervention. Sir Richard Church, who
landed in March, was sworn " archistrategos " on the 15th of
April 1827. But he could not secure loyal co-operation or
obedience. The rout of his army in an attempt to relieve the
acropolis of Athens, then besieged by the Turks, proved that it
was incapable of conducting regular operations. The acropolis
capitulated, and Sir Richard turned to partisan warfare in
western Greece. Here his activity had beneficial results, for it
led to a rectification in 1832, in a sense favourable to Greece, of
the frontier drawn by the powers in 1830 (see his Observations
on an Eligible Line of Frontier for Greece, London, 1830). Church
bad, however, surrendered his commission, as a protest against
the unfriendly government of Capo d'Istria, on the 25th of August
1829. He lived for the rest of his life in Greece, was created
general of the army in 1854, and died at Athens 00 the 30th of
March 1873. Sir Richard Church married in 1826 Elisabeth
Augusta Wilmot-IIorton, who survived him till 1878.
See Sir Richard Church, by Stanley Lane Poole (London, 1890);
Sir Richard Church in Italy and Greece, by E. M. Church (Edinburgh,
suwiucuu; aiiu ia|«a m o» i\h.imiu vuuivii. hi <cy vi/19., nowiq
the British Museum (Add. MSS. .56543-36^71), contain invaluable
material for the history of the War of Greek Independence, in-
cluding a narrative of the war during Church's tenure of the
command, which correct! many errors in the published accounts and
successfully vindicates Church's reputation against the strictures of
Finlay, Mendelsfiohn-BarthuttJy, and other historians of the war
(see Cam, Mod. Uist. x. p. 804). (D. II.)
CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815-1890). English divine,
son of John Dearman Church, brother of Sir Richard Church (q.v.) ,
a merchant, was born at Lisbon on the 25th of April 1815,
bis early years being mostly spent at Florence. After his
father's death in 1828 he was sent to a school of a pronounced
evangelical type at Redlands, Bristol, and went in 1833 to
Wadham College, Oxford, then an evangelical college. He took
first-class honours in 1836, and in i.8j8 was elected fellow of
Oriel. One of his contemporaries, Richard Mitchell, commenting
on this election, said: " There is such a moral beauty about
Church that they could not help taking him." He was appointed
tutor of Oriel in 1839, and was ordained the same year. He was
an intimate friend of J. H. Newman at tlus period, and closely
allied to the Tractnrian party. In 1841 No. 00 of Tracts for the
Times appeared, and Church resigned his tutorship. In 1844-
1845 he was junior proctor, and in that capacity, in concert with
his senior colleague, vetoed a proposal to censure Tract 90 publicly.
In 1846 Church, with others, started Tlu Guardian newspaper,
and he was an early contributor to The Saturday Review. In
1850 he became engaged to Mi»s H. F. Bennett, of a Somerset-
shire family, a niece of George Mobcrly, bishop of Salisbury,
After again holding the tutorship of Oriel, he accepted in 185a
the small living of Whatley in Somersetshire, near Fromc, and
was married in the following year. He was a diligent parish
priest and a serious student, and contributed largely to current
literature. In 1869 he refused a canonry at Worcester, but in
1871 he accepted, most reluctantly (calling it "a sacrifice en
pure pcrte ") , the deanery of St Paul's, to which he was nominated
by W. E. Gladstone.
His task as dean was a complicated one. It was (1) the restora-
tion of the cathedral; (2) the adjustment of the question of the
cathedral revenues with the Ecclesiastical Commissioners; (3)
the reorganization of a conservative cathedral staff with
anomalous vested rights. He described the intention of his
appointment to be " that St Paul's should waken up from its
long slumber." The first year that he spent at St Paul's was,
writes one of his friends, one of " misery " for a man who loved
study and quiet and the country, and hated official pomp
and financial business and ceremonious appearances. But he
performed his difficult and uncongenial task with almost in-
credible success, and is said never to have made an enemy or a
mistake. The dean was distinguished for uniting in a singular
degree the virtues of austerity and sympathy. He was pre-
eminently endowed with the faculty of judgment, characterized
by Canon Scott Holland as the gift of " high. and. fa*. vb*V*
Z2b
CHURCH
and robust decision." Though of unimpressive stature, he had
a strong magnetic influence over all brought into contact with
him, and though of a naturally gentle temperament, he never
hesitated to express censure if he was convinced it was deserved.
la the pulpit the voice of the dean was deliberately monotonous,
and he employed no adventitious gesture. He may be described
as a High Churchman, but of an essentially rational type, and
with an enthusiasm for religious liberty that made it impossible
for him to sympathize with any unbalanced or inconsiderate
demands for deference to authority. He said of the Church of
England that there was " no more glorious church in Christen-
dom than this inconsistent English Church." The dean often
meditated resigning his office, though his reputation as an
ecclesiastical statesman stood so high that he was regarded in
1882 as a possible successor to Archbishop Tait. But his health
and mode of life made it out of the question. In 1888 his only
ion died; his own health declined, and he appeared for the last
time in public at the funeral of Canon Liddon in 1800, dying on
oth December 1890, at Dover. He was buried at Whatlcy.
The dean's chief published works are a Life of St Ansdm
(1870), the livesof Slower (1879) and 5ac««( 1884) in Macmillan's
" Men of Letters " scries, an Essay on DanU (1878), The Oxford
Movement (1891), together with many other volumes of essays
and sermons. A collection of his journalistic articles was
published in 1897 as Occasional Papers, In these writings he
exhibits a great grasp of principles, an accurate mastery of detail,
and the same fusion of intelligent sympathy and dispassionate
judgment that appeared in his handling of business. His style
is lucid, and has the charm of austerity. He stated that he had
never studied style per se, but that he had acquired it by the
exercise of translation from classical languages; that he watched
against the temptation of using unreal and fine words; that he
employed care in his choice of verbs rather than in his use of
adjectives; and that he fought against self-indulgence in writing
just as he did in daily life. His sermons have the same quality
of self-restraint. His private letters are fresh and simple, and
contain many unaffected epigrams; in writing of religious
subjects he resolutely avoided dogmatism without ever sacrificing
precision. The dean was a man of genius, whose moral stateless-
ness and instinctive fire were indicated rather than revealed
by his writings.
Sec Life and Letters of Dean Church, by his daughter. M. C. Church
(189O; memoir by H. C. Bcecbing in Diet. Nat. Bioi.; and D. C.
Uthbury, Dean Church (1907). (A- C Be.)
CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr.
Kvptaxdr [buu*), " the Lord's [house)," and common to many
Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms-
Scottish kirh y Ger. Kirche, Swcd. hirha t Dan. hirke, Russ. tserkoo,
Bulg. cerkovo, Csech cirhcx, Finn, kirkko, &c.), a word originally
applied to the building used for Christian worship, and subse-
quently extended to the Christian community (ecclesia) itself.
Similarly the Greek word ecclesia (iaXvrfa), " assembly," was
very early transferred from the community to the building, and
is used in both senses, especially in the modern Romance and
Celtic languages (e.g. Fr. tglisc, Welsh eghoys, &&).
(1) Church Architecture.— From the strictly architectural
point of view the subject of church building, including the
development of the various styles and the essential features of
the construction and arrangement of churches, is dealt with
elsewhere (see Akoiitecture; Abbey; Basilica). It is, how-
ever, impossible to understand the development of church
architecture without realizing its intimate connexion with that of
the doctrine, organization and ritual of the Christian Church as a
religious community, and a brief sketch of this connexion may be
given hereby way of introduction to the more technical treatment
of the subject. In general it may be said of church architecture,
more truly than of any other, that artistically it is " frozen
music." It is true that at all times churches have been put to
secular uses; in periods of unrest, as among the Ncstorian
Christians now, they were sometimes built to serve at need as
fortresses; their towers were used for beacons, their naves for
rucrfi'nsr* on secular affairs. But as a rule, and especially in the
great periods of church architecture, their builders were un-
trammelled by any utilitarian considerations; they built for the
glory of God, for their own glory perhaps, in honour of the saints;
and their work, where it survives, is (as it were) a petrification of
their beliefs and ideals. This is, of course, more true of the
middle ages than of the times that preceded and followed them;
the Church under the Roman empire hardly as yet realized the
possibilities of " sermons in stones," and took over, with little
change, the model of the secular and religious buildings of pagan
Rome; the Renaissance, essentially a neo-pagan movement,
introduced disturbing factors from outside, and, though develop-
ing a style very characteristic of the age that produced it,
started that archaeological movement which has tended in
modern times to substitute mere imitations of old models for any
attempt to express in church architecture the religious spirit of
the age.
The earliest type of Christian Church, out of which the others
developed, was the basilica. The Church, emerging in the 4th
century into imperial favour, and established as part of the
organization of the Roman empire, simply adopted that type of
secular official building which she found convenient for her
purposes. The clergy, now Roman officials, vested in the robes
of the civil dignitaries (see Vestments), took their seats in the
apse of the basilica where the magistrates were wont to sit in
front of them the holy table, facing the congregation. The
canceliiy the lattice or bar, which in the civil tribunal had divided
the court from the litigants and the public, now served to separate
clergy and laity. This arrangement still survives in some of the
ancient churches of Rome; it has been revived in many
Protestant places of worship. It symbolized principally an
official distinction; but with the theocratizing of the empire in
the East and its decay in the West the accentuation of the mystic
powers of the clergy led to a more complete separation from the
laity, a tendency which left its mark on the arrangements of the
churches. In the East the cancdli, under the influence possibly
of the ritual of the Jewish temple, developed into the iconostasis t
the screen of holy pictures, behind the closed doors of which the
supreme act of the eucharistic mystery is hidden from the lay
people. In the West the high altar was moved to the cast end
(the preshytcrium) with a space before it for the assisting deacons
and subdeacons (the chancel proper) railed off as a spot peculiarly
holy (now usually called the sanctuary); between this and the
nave, where the laity were, was the choir, with scats for the
clergy on cither side. The whole of this space (sanctuary and
choir) came to be known as the " chancel." This was divided
from the nave, sometimes by an arch forming part of the structure
of the building, sometimes by a screen, or by steps, sometimes by
all three (see Chancel). The division of churches into chancel
and nave, the outcome of the sacramental and sacerdotal spirit of
the Catholic Church, may be taken as generally typical of church
construction in the medieval West, though there were exceptions,
e.g. the round churches of the Templars. There were, however,
further changes, the result partly of doctrinal developments,
partly of that passion for symbolism which by the 13th century
had completed the evolution of the Catholic ritual. Transepts
were added, to give to the ground-plan of the building the
figure of the cross. The insistence on the unique efficacy of the
sacrifice of the altar led to the multiplication of masses, and so of
altars, which were placed in the transepts or aisles or in chapels,
dedicated to the saints whose relics they enshrined. The chief of
these subsidiary chapels, that of the Blessed Virgin (or Lady
chapel), behind the high altar, was often of large size. Finally,
for the convenience of processions, the nave and chancel aisles
were carried round behind the high altar as ambulatories.
The Romanesque churches, still reminiscent of antique models,
had preserved all the simplicity of the ancient basilicas with
much more than their grandeur; but the taste for religious
symbolism which culminated in the 13th century, and the
imaginative genius of the northern peoples, transformed them
into the marvellous dreams in stone of the " Gothic " period.
Churches now became, in form and decoration, epitomes of the
Christian scheme of salvation as the middle ages understood it,
CHURCH
327
In the plan of the buildings and their decoration everything still
remained subordinate to the high altar; but though on this and
its surroundings ornament was most lavishly expended, the
churches— wherever wealth permitted— were covered within and
without with sculpture or painting: scenes from the Old and
New Testaments, from the lives of saints, even from evcry-day
fife; figures of the Almighty, of Christ, of the Virgin Mother, of
apostles, saints, confessors; pictures of the joys of heaven and
the torments of hell; and outside, grimacing from every angle,
demons and goblins, amusing enough to us but terrible to the age
that set them there, visible embodiments of the evil spirits driven
from within the sacred building by the efficacy of the holy rites.
In considering the origins of medieval churches, moreover, it
most be borne in mind that as a general rule their builders were
not actuated by the motives usual in modern times, at least
among Protestants, The size of churches was not determined
by the needs of population but by the piety and wealth of the
founders; and the same applies to their number. Often they
were founded as acts of propitiation of the Almighty or of the
saints, and the greater their size and splendour the more effective
they were held to be for their purpose. Local rivalry, too,
played a large part, one wealthy abbey building " against "
another, much in the same way as modern business houses
endeavour to outshine each other in the magnificence of their
buildings. Of all the mixed motives that went to the evolution
of church architecture in the middle ages, this rivalry in ostenta-
tion was probably the most fertile in the creation of new forms.
A volume might be written on the economic effects of this locking
up of vast capital in unproductive buildings. In Catholic
countries (notably in Ireland) great churches are still built out
of the savings of a poverty-stricken peasantry; and from this
point of view the destruction of churches in the 16th century
was probably a benefit to the world. This, however, is a con-
sideration altogether alien to the Christian spirit, the aspiration
of which is to lay up treasures not on earth but in heaven.
The Reformation was a fateful epoch in the history of church
architecture. The substitution of the Bible for the Mass destroyed
the raison (TUre of churches as the middle ages had made them.
Pictures and stories, carved or painted, seemed no longer
necessary now that the open Bible was in the hands of the common
people; they had been too often prostituted, moreover, to
idolatrous uses, — and " idolatry " was the worst of blasphemies
to the re-discoverers of the Old Testament. Save in some parts
of Germany, where the influence of Luther saved the churches
from wreck, an iconoclast ic wave spread over the greater part
of Western Europe, wherever the "new religion" prevailed;
everywhere churches were cleared of images and reduced to the
state of those described by William Harrison in his Description
tf England (1570), only the " pictures in glass " being suffered
in some cases to survive for a while " by reason of the extreme
cost of replacing them." The structures of the churches, however,
remained; and these, even in countries which departed furthest
from the Catholic system, served in some measure to keep its
tradition alive. Protestantism has, indeed, produced a distinctive
church architecture, i.e. the conventicle type, favoured more
especially by the so-called " Free Churches." Its distinctive
features are pulpit and auditorium, and it is symbolical of the
complete equality of ministers and congregation. In general,
however, Protestant builders have been content to preserve or
to adapt the traditional models. It would be interesting in this
connexion to trace the reverse effect of church architecture upon
Church doctrine. In England, for instance, the chancels were
for the most part disused after the Reformation (see Harrison,
•p. cit.), but presently they came into use again, and on the
Catholic revival in the Church of England in the 19th century
it is certain that the medieval churches exercised an influence
by giving a sense of fitness, which might otherwise have been
lacking, to the restoration of medieval ritual. A similar tendency
has of late years been displayed in the Established Church of
Scotland.
Churches, as the outcome of the organization of the Catholic
Church, are divided into classes as " cathedral," " conventual "
and "collegiate," "parochial " and " district w churches. It
must be noted, however, that the term cathedral (?.*.), ecclesi-
astically applicable to any church whicn* ha p pens to be a bishop's
see, architecturally connotes a certain size and dignity, and is
sometimes applied to churches which have never been, or have
long ceased to be, bishop's seats. (W. A. P.)
(2) The Religious Community.— In the sense of Christian
community (ecclesia) the word " Church " is applied in a narrow
sense to any one of the numerous separate organizations into
which Christendom is divided (e.g. Roman Catholic Church,
Orthodox Eastern Church, Church of England, Evangelical
(Lutheran] Church)— these are dealt with under their several
headings— and in a comprehensive sense (with which we are now
concerned) to the general body of all those " who profess and
call themselves Christians." Religion, according to the oU
definition, is the bond which binds the soul of man to God. 1
It begins as the relation of a tribe to its God. Personal religious
conviction grows out of the tribal (corporate) religious bond.
But the social instinct is strong. Men owning the same religious
convictions will naturally draw together into some sort of associa-
tion. Using the word religion to cover all the imperfect ways
in which men have felt after God, we note that in every case
men have found the need alike of a teacher and of fellowship.
Thus the idea of a church as " the pillar and ground of the truth "
(1 Tim. iii. 15) corresponds to some of the primary needs of man.
Even at Stonehenge, the oldest relic of prehistoric religion ia
England, where we picture in imagination the worship of the
rising sun, nature worship degraded to a horrible depth by human
sacrifice, we find struggling for expression the idea of a corporate
religious life. From all the lower levels where superstition and
cruelty reign, from the depths of fear inspired by fctichism, we
look on to the higher level of Judaism as the progressive religion
of the old world. This does not mean that we shut our eyes to
the ideals of Greek philosophers, with whom morality was
constantly outgrowing religion. " The vision of an ideal state
which the master-mind of Plato contemplated, but thought too
good ever to become true in actual realization, is full of aspirations
which the Christian Church claims to satisfy. The problems of
the relations of the life of the State and the life of the individual,
which Aristotle ever suggests and never solves, are problems
with which the Christian Church has at least attempted to
deal."*
From the beginning of the history of the Jewish race the idea
that the world is a kingdom under the rule of God began to find
expression. The conception of Israel as " a kingdom of priests
and an holy nation " (Exod. xix. 6) bore witness to it. The idea
of kingship from the first was that of a ruler representing God.
As time went on and even the dynasty of David failed in the
persons of unworthy representatives to maintain this ideal, both
psalmists and prophets taught the people to look beyond the
earthly kingdom to the spiritual kingdom of which it was a type.
But even Isaiah tended to think of the spiritual life and worship
of the nation as a department of political organization only,
controlled by the king and his princes. It was reserved for
Jeremiah, in the darkest days of his life, to build up the ideal of a
spiritual society which should weld Israel together, to proclaim a
new covenant (xxxi. 31-34) which Jehovah would make with
Israel when representatives of the previously exiled ten tribes
should return with the exiles of Judah. This prophecy is
instinct with the growing sense of the personal responsibility of
individual men brought into communion with God. The
religion of Israel from this time of the captivity ceased to be a
merely national religion connected with particular forms of
sacrifice in a particular land. The synagogues which traced their
origin to the time of Ezckiel, when the sacrificial cultus was
impossible, extended this ideal yet further. During the centuries
preceding the birth of Christ there grew up an apocalyptic
literature which regarded as a primary truth the conception of a
1 Lactantius, Inst. Dm, iv. 28 " Vinculo pietatis obtrricti, Deo
religati sumus unde ipsa religio nomen accepit." The etymology may
be wrong, but this is the popular sense of the word.
* Darwell Stone, Tk* Christian Church, p. 18.
328
CHURCH
kingdom of righteousness ruled over by a present God. The
preaching of John the Baptist was thus in sympathy with the
ideals of his generation, \bough the sternness of the repentance
which he set forth as the necessary preparation for entrance into
the new kingdom of heaven, which was to be made visible on
earth, was not less repugnant to the men of his day than of later
times. Christ's own teaching and that of his disciples began with
the proclamation of the kingdom of God (or of heaven) (Luke iv.
43, viii. i, ix. 2; Matt. x. 7). That he intended it to find
outward expression in a visible society appears from the careful
way in whkh he trained the apostles to become leaders hereafter,
crowning that work by the institution of the sacraments of
baptism and the Eucharist. " It was not from accident or for
convenience that Christ formed a society." l His parables even
more than his sermons reveal the principles of his endeavour.
But he seldom used the word ccclcsia, church, which became the
universal designation of his society.
All the more emphatic is Christ's use of the term ccclcsia upon
the distinct advance in faith made by the apostles when St Peter
as their spokesman confessed him to be " the Christ, the Son of
the living God " (Matt. xvi. 16). Instantly came the reply, " I
say unto thee, that thou art Pclros (rockman), and on this Pctra
(rock) I will build my ccclcsia (church); and the gates of Hades
shall not prevail against it" On the rock of a human character,
ennobled by faith in his divine Sonship, he could raise the church
of the future, which should be at the same time continuous with
the old, new in spiritual power, one in worship and in work,
To the Jew the word ccclcsia as used in the Septuagint suggested
the assembly of the congregation of Israel. To a Greek it
suggested the assembly of freeborn citizens in a city state.
Without ceasing to be the congregation of Jehovah, it would
claim for itself all the hopes of an ideal state over which Greek
philosophers had sighed in vain.
Opinions differ upon the question whether the apostles were
chosen as representatives of the ccclcsia to be founded (Hort) or
as men fitted to become its duly authorized teachers and leaders
from the beginning (Stone). But as Mr Stone well puts it, " It
would not be a necessary inference [from Dr Hort's opinion] that
there ought to be no ministry in the Christian Church."*
At first the church was limited to the Christian believers in the
city of Jerusalem, then by persecution their company was broken
up, and, since those who were scattered went everywhere
preaching the word, the conception was enlarged to include all
" of the way " (Acts ix. 2) in the Holy Land. A new epoch
began from the return of St Paul and St Barnabas to Antioch
after their first missionary journey, when they called together the
church and narrated their experiences, and told how " God had
opened to the Gentiles the door of faith " (Acts xiv. 27). Hitherto
the term Church had been " ideally conterminous " with the
Jewish Church. Now it was to contain members who had never
in any sense belonged to the Jewish Church. Thus the way was
opened for new developments and for illimitable extension.
St Paul, in his address to the elders at Ephesus (Acts xx. 28),
adapted the words of Ps. Ixxiv. 2, " Remember thy congregation,
which thou hast purchased of old," claiming for the Christian
ccclcsia the title of God's ancient ccclcsia. But he never, how-
ever fiercely opposed by Judaizcrs, set a new ccclcsia of Christ in
opposition to the old. We wait, however, for the Epistles of his
captivity at Rome to find the full meaning of the idea of the
church dawning uoon his imagination. " Here at least, for the
first time in the Acts and Epistles, we have the ccclcsia spoken of
in the sense of the one universal ccclcsia, and it comes more from
the theological than from the historical side; i.e. less from the
actual circumstances of the actual Christian communities than
from a development of thoughts respecting the place and office of
the Son of God: his headship was felt to involve the unity of all
those who were united to him." * Similar development of the
idea of the one ccclcsia as including all members of all local
* Eccc Homo, ed. 5, p. 87. Cf. the interesting comparison between
Socrates and Christ.
• OP. cit._p. 262.
*JJcrt, The Christian EccUsia, p. 148.
cccUsiae does not lead St Paul to regard membership of the
universal church as invisible.
But the mere history of the word ccclcsia does not exhaust the
subject. We must take into account not only the idea of the
visible actual church, but also the ideal pictured by St Paul in the
metaphors of the Body (Rom. xii. 5), the Temple (1 Cor. iii.
10-15) and the Bride of Christ (2 Cor. xL 2). The actual church
is always falling short of its profession; but its successive reforma-
tions witness to the strength of its longing after the beauty of
holiness.
Membership in the actual church is acquired through baptism
" in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost "
(Matt, xxviii. 19). The references in the New Testament to
baptism " in the name of Jesus " (or the Lord Jesus) (Acts ii.
38, viii. 16, x. 48, xix. 5; Rom. vi. 3; Gal. iii. 27), which are
by some critics taken to refer to a primitive Christological
baptismal formula, seem to refer to the confession made by the
baptized, or to the new relationship into which they are brought
as " members of Christ.*' 4 Candidates for baptism were exhorted
to prepare for it by repentance and faith (Acts ii. 38). The
laying on of hands (Hcb. vi. 2), in the rite called in later times
confirmation, followed baptism (Acts viii. 17). In the modern
Greek Church it is administered by priests with oil which has
been consecrated by the bishop, in the Roman Church by the
bishop himself. Such use of the chrism can be traced from the
2nd century. The Anglican Church retains only the Biblical
symbolism of " the blessing of the hand." Presbyterians and
other Protestant churches have abandoned the use, except the
Lutherans. We need not here trace the history of Christian
worship, in daily services (Acts ii. 46), or on the Lord's Day
(Acts xx. 7), meeting for the Lord's Supper (1 Cor. xi. 17-34), or
for mutual edification in prayer, praise and prophecy (1 Cor. xiv.).
These things represent the ideal of Christendom. In the words of
an eminent Roman Catholic scholar, Monsignor Duchesne,
" Faith unites, theology often separates." It must be our task to
summarize the leading ideas of the church in which all Christians
are agreed.
(a) The first is certainly fellowship with Christ and with the
brethren. The early Christians earnestly believed that their
life was " hidden with Christ in God " (Ccl. iii. 3), and found in
their union with Christ the lasting and strongest motive of love
to the brethren. Such fellowship is attributed by St Paul
pre-eminently to the work of the Holy Spirit (2 Cor. xiii. 14).
Its strength is shown in England in the growing readiness of the
different religious bodies to co-operate in movements for the puri-
fying of public morality and for the better observance of Sunday.
(M The second is unity. We have seen how St. Paul was led
on to grasp the conception of one church universal manifested
in all the local churches. Its unity is not purely accidental in
that individuals have been forced to act together under pressure
of chance circumstances. Nor is the ideal of unity adopted
simply because experience teaches that " union is strength."
Nor is it even based on the philosophical conception oi the
incompleteness of the individual life. As Dr Sanday finely
says, " If the church is in something more than mere metaphor
the Body of Christ, if there is circulating through it a continual
flow and return of spiritual forces, derived directly from him, if
the Spirit which animates the Body is one, then the Body itself
also must be in essence one. It has its centre not on earth but in
heavenly places, where Christ sitteth at the right hand of God." 1
(c) Thirdly, there is no question that the Lord intended the
one fellowship of his saints to be a visible fellowship. The idea
of an invisible church has only commended itself in dark hours
when men despaired of unity even as an ideal. The view of
Zwingli and Calvin in the 16th century was not by any means
acceptable to other reformers. Luther distinguished between
the Spiritual Church, which he identified with the Communion
of Saints, and the Corporeal Church, the outward marks of which
are Baptism, Sacrament and Gospel. But he regarded them
* For a full defence of the Authenticity of Matt, xxviii. 19, sea
Rirccnbach, Dcr trinitarische Taujbefehl (Gutersloh 1903).
*Th* Conception of Priesthood, p. 13.
CHURCH ARMY
329
is different aspects of the same church, and Mclanchthon was
even more explicit. 1 As the saint purified in heaven is he who
struggled with his sins on earth, so is the church triumphant one
with the church militant. In Dr Lindsay's words, " it is one of
the privileges of faith, when strengthened by hope and by love,
to see the glorious ideal in the somewhat poor material reality.
It was thus that St Paul saw the universal Church of Christ
made visible in the Christian community of Corinth."'
But it is at this point that we come to the dividing line which
has been drawn by different conceptions of catholicity. Dr
Lindsay goes on to argue that all insistence on the principle of
historical continuity, whether urged by members of the Anglican
or the Roman Catholic Church, as upholders of episcopacy, is a
deliberate return to the principle of Judaism, which declared
that no one who was outside the circle of the " circumcised,"
no matter how strong his faith nor how the fruits of the Spirit
were manifest in his life and deeds, could plead " the security
of the Divine Covenant" Without entering into controversy
It most suffice to point out that, from the point of view of all
episcopal churches, the ministry of the bishops succeeding the
ministry of the apostles, however it came to pass, was for fifteen
centuries accepted as the pledge of unity. This principle, how-
ever, of continuity in ministry, belongs to a different department
of Christian thought from the sacrament of baptism, which really
corresponds to the Jewish rites of admission to the covenant.
And it has been an established principle of the undivided church
since the 3rd century, the bishop of Rome in this case upholding
against St Cyprian the view which subsequent generations have
ratified as Catholic truth, that baptism by whomsoever admin-
istered is valid if water is used with the right words. From this
point, alas, divergence begins.
(«*) The fourth clement is authority. Probably all Christians
can agree in the statement that the Christian democracy is also
a theocracy, that Christ is the source of all authority. There
are three passages in the Gospel which claim notice: (i.) the
promise to St Peter (Matt. xvi. 1 8 f) , as spokesman for the apostles,
of the key of the household of God, of power to admit and exclude;
(fi.) the promise (Matt, xviii. 15-20) probably given to the Twelve,
regarding offences against the peace of the society, advocating
exclusion only when brotherly appeals had failed; (iii.) the
commission of the whole ecciesia or of the Christian ministry
(John xx. aa, 33). Again the root difference between the
Presbyterian and Episcopalian conceptions of the church comes
to light. Is the authority of the church manifested in the
decisions which a local church arrives at by a majority of votes,
or In the decisions of apostles and prophets after taking counsel,
of the episcopate In later times, ratified by common consent of
Christendom? As has been well said, " the church is primarily
a witness — the strength of its authority lies in the many sides
from which the witness conies." It witnesses to the Divine
Life of Christ as a power of the present and of the future as of
the past, ministered in the Word and sacraments.
(<) The church is a sacerdotal society. St Paul delighted to
represent it as the " ideal Israel," and St John echoes the thought
in the words of praise (Rev. i. 5, 6), " Unto him that hath loved
us . . . and made us to be a kingdom, ami priests unto his
God and Father." This idea of the priesthood of the whole
church has three elements— the divine clement, the human
element and self-sacrifice. The promise that Christians should
be temples of the living God has been fulfilled. As Dr Milligan
has said very well, " It is not only in things to which we commonly
confine the word miracle that the Divine appears. It may ap-
pear not kss in the whole tone and spirit of the Church's life,
in the varied Christian virtues of her members, in the general
character of their Christian work, and in the grace received by
them in the Christian sacraments. When that life is exhibited,
as it ought to be, in its distinctively heavenly character, it bears
witness to the presence of a power in Christian men which no
mere recollection of a past example, however heroic or beautiful,
> The Conception of Priesthood, p. 29.
1 Lindsay. Tht Church and tht Ministry in the Early Centuries,
p. 17.
can supply. The difficulties of exhibiting and maintaining It
arc probably far greater now than they were in the apostolic age;
and as nothing but a present divine support can enable us to
overcome these, so, when they arc overcome, a testimony is given
to the fact that God is with us."*
But this life is to be a human life still, to be in touch with all
that is noble and of good report in art and literature, keenly
interested in all the discoveries of science, active in all movements
of social progress. It cannot, however, be denied that to live
such a life, divine in its powers and human in its sympathies,
demands daily and hourly self-sacrifice. As the author of the
Imitation of Christ put it long ago, " There is no living in love
without pain." The thought of self-sacrifice has been emphasised
from the earliest times in the liturgies. By a true instinct the
early Christian writers called widows and orphans the altar of
God on which the sacrifices of almsgiving arc offered up. 4 Such
works of charity, however, represent only one of the channels
by which self-sacrifice is ministered, to which all prayers and
thanksgiving and instruction of psalms, prophecy and preaching
contribute. Thus in the Eucharist the offering of the church is
made one with the offering of the Great High Priest.*
All this represents an ideal. It suggests In a modern form
the perpetual paradox of the Christian life: we are what we are
to be. The church is the divine society in which all ot her religious
associations are eventually to find their home. The prayer,
" Thy kingdom come," embraces all spiritual forces which make
for righteousness. They were acknowledged in Christ's words,
" He that is not against you is for you " (Luke ix. 50). But
the divisions of Christendom testify to the harm done by undue
insistence on the claims of the individual to gain scope to extend
the kingdom in his own way. As in a choir all the resources of
an individual voice are used to strengthen the general effect, so
must the individual lose his life that be may find it, witnessing
by his share in the common service of the church to the ultimate
unity of knowledge and harmony of truth.
For the various conceptions of the church an an organized body
ice Ciiuacu UiSTOav, tec. 3, and the articles on the various
churches. (A. E. B.)
CHURCH ARMY, an English religious organization, founded
in 1882 by the Rev. Wilson Carlile (afterwards prebendary of
St Paul's), who banded together in an orderly army of " soldiers "
and " officers " a few working men and women, whom he and
others trained to act as " Church of England evangelist* "
among the outcasts and criminals of the Westminster slums.
Previous experience had convinced him that the moral condition
of the lowest classes of the people called for new and aggressive
action on the part of the Church, and that this work was most
effectively done by laymen and women of the same class as those
whom it was desired to touch. " Evangelistic zeal with Church
order " is the principle of the Church Army, and it is essentially a
working men's and women's mission to working people. As the
work grew, a training institution for evangelists was started in
Oxford, but soon moved (1886) to London, where, in Bryanslon
Street near the Marble Arch, the headquarters of the army are
now established. Working men arc trained as evangelists, and
working women as mission sisters, and arc supplied to the clergy.
The men evangtlists have to pass an examination by the arch-
deacon of Middlesex, and arc then (since 1806) admitted by the
bishop of London as "lay evangelists in the Church"; the
mission sisters must likewise pass an examination by the diocesan
inspector of schools. All Church Army workers (of whom there
are over 1800 of one kind and another) are entirely under the
control of the incumbent of the parish to which they are sent.
They never go to a parish unless invited, nor stay when asked to
go by the parish priest. Officers and sisters arc paid a limited
sum for their services cither by the vicar or by voluntary local
contributions. Church Army mission and colportagc vans
circulate throughout the country parishes, if desired, with
* The Ascension, p. 354.
« Polycarp. Phil. 4; cl. Tcrtullian, Ad Uxor. i. 7.
'This teaching is not confined to F.fiiacoudlun writers. It has
been finely expressed from the Presbyterian standpoint by Dr
Milligan, op. til . p. 365 ff . ; cf . Lindsay, p. 37.
33°
CHURCH CONGRESS— CHURCH HISTORY
itiacnct evangelists, who bold simple missions, without charge.
mmt distribute literature. Each van missioncr has a clerical
** adviser." M i&skms arc also held in prisons and workhouses, at
the invitation of the authorities. In 1888 (before the similar work
of the Salvation Army was inaugurated) the Church Army
established labour homes in London and elsewhere, with the
object of giving a " fresh start in life " to the outcast and destitute.
These homes deal with the outcast and destitute in a plain,
straightforward way. Tbcy demand that the persons should
show a desire for amendment; they subject them to firm
discipline, and give them hard work; they give them decent
clothes, and strive to win them to a Christian life. The inmates
earn their board and lodging by piece-work, for which they are
paid at the current trade rates, while by a gradually lessening
yU of work and pay they arc stimulated to obtain situations
for themselves and given time to seek for them. There arc about
1 30 homes in London and the provinces, and 56% of the inmates
are found to make these the successful beginning of an honest
self-supporting life. The Church Army has lodging homes,
employment bureaus, cheap food dcpotsyold clothes department,
dispensary and a number of other social works. Every winter
employment b found for a great number of the unemployed in
special depots, among them being the King's Labour Tents and
the Queen's Labour Relief Depots. There is also an extensive
emigration system, under which many hundreds (3000 in 1006) of
carefully tested men and families, of good character, chiefly of
the unemployed class, are placed in permanent employment in
Canada through the agency of the local clergy. The whole of the
work is done in loyal subordination to the diocesan and parochial
organization of the Church of England.
Sec Edgar Rowans, Wilson CarlUe and the Church Army.
CHURCH CONGRESS, an annual meeting of members of the
Church of England, by and clerical, to discuss matters religious,
moral or social, in which the church is interested. It has no
legislative authority, and there is no voting on the questions
discussed. The first congress was held in 1861 in the hall of
King's College, Cambridge, and was the outcome of the revival of
convocation in 1852. The congress is under the presidency of the
bishop in whose diocese it happens to be held. Recent places of
meeting are Brighton (1001), Northampton (1902), Bristol (1903),
Liverpool (1004), Weymouth (1905), Barrow-in-Furness (1906),
Great Yarmouth (1907), Manchester (1908), Swansea (1909).
The meetings of the congress have been mainly remarkable as
illustrating the wide divergences of opinion and practice in the
Church of England, no less than the broad spirit of tolerance which
has made this possible and honourably differentiates these
meetings from so many ecclesiastical assemblies of the past. The
congress of 1908 was especially distinguished, not only for the
expression of diametrically opposed views on such questions as
the sacrifice of the mass or the M higher criticism," but for the
very brgc proportion of time given to the discussion of the
attitude of the Church towards Socialism and kindred subjects.
CHURCH HISTORY. The sketch given below of the evolution
of the Christian Church (sec Church) may well be prefaced by a
Chunk summary of the history of the great Church historians,
khtorUmt. concerning whom fuller details are given in separate
articles. Hcgcsippus wrote in the 2nd century a
collection of memoirs containing accounts of the early days of
the church, only fragments of which arc extant. The first real
church history was written by Euscbius of Cacsarca in the early
part of the 4th century. His work was continued in the 5th
century by Philostorgius, Socrates, Sozomcn and Theodorct, and
in later centuries by Theodoras Lector, Evagrius, Thcophancs
and others. In the 14th century Niccphorus Callisti undertook a
complete church history which covers in its extant form the first
six centuries. In the West Euscbius' History was translated into
Latin by Rufinus, and continued down to the end of the 4th
century. Augustine's City of Cod, published in 426, was an
apologetic, not an historical work, but it had great influence in
our field, for in it he undertook to answer the common heathen
accusation that the growing misfortunes of the empire were due to
the prevalence of Christianity and the forsaking of the gods of
Rome. It was to sustain Augustine's thesis that Orosius pro-
duced in 417 his Historiarum libri scptem, which remained the
standard text-book on world history during the middle ages.
About the same time Sulpicius Severus wrote his Historia Sacra,
covering both biblical and Christian history. In the 6th century
Casskxlorus had a translation made of the histories of Socrates,
Sozomcn and Theodoret, which were woven into one continuous
narrative and brought down to 518. The work was known as the
Historia EcclesUstica Tripartita, and constituted during the
middle ages the principal text-book of church history in the West
Before writing his history Euscbius produced a world chronicle
which was based upon a similar work by Julius African us and a
now extant only in part. It was continued by Jerome, and
became the basis of the model for many similar works of the 51b
and following centuries by Prosper, Idatius, Marccllinus Comes,
Victor Tununcnsis and others. Local histories containing more'
or less ecclesiastical material were written in the 6th and following
centuries by Jordancs (History of the Goths), Gregory of Tours
(History of the Franks), Isidore of Seville (History of the Goths,
Vandals and Sunt), Bcde (Ecclesiastical History of England),
Paulus Diaconus (History of the Lombards), and others. Of the
many historians of the middle ages, besides the authors of
biographies, chronicles, cloister annals, &c, may be mentioned
Iiaymo, Anastasius, Adam of Bremen, Ordcricus Vitalis, Honorius
of Autun, Otto of Frcising, Vincent of Beauvais and Antoninus of
Florence.
The Protestant reformation resulted in a new development
of historical writing. Polemic interest led a number of Lutheran
scholars of the 16th century to publish the Magdeburg Centuries
(1 559 ff.), in which they undertook to show the primitive character
of the Protestant faith in contrast with the alleged corruptions of
Roman Catholicism. In this design they were followed by many
other writers. The opposite thesis was maintained by Baronius
(Annates Ecclcsiastici , 1588 ff.), whose work was continued
by a number of Roman Catholic scholars. Other notable Roman
Catholic historians of the 17th and 18th centuries were Natalis
Alexander, Bossuct, Tillcmont, Fleury, Dupin and Ceillier.
Church history began to be written in a genuinely scientific
spirit only in the 18th century under the leadership of Moshcim,
who is commonly called the father of modern church history
With wide learning and keen critical insight he wrote a number
of historical works of which the most important is his Institutions
Hist. Ecclcs. (175s; best English trans, by Murdock). He was
followed by many disciples, among them Schfocckh (Ckristlich*
Kirchcugcschicktc, 1772 ff. in 45 vols.). Other notable names
of the iSth century arc Scralcr, Spittler, Hcnke and Planck.
The new historical spirit of the 19th century did much for
church history. Among the greatest works produced were those
of J. C. L. Gicsclcr (Lchrbucb der Kirchcngcsehichle, 1824 ff.,
best Eng. tr. revised and edited by H. B. Smith), exceedingly
objective in character and still valuable, particularly 011 account
of its copious citations from the sources; Ncander (AUgcmeini
Geschichtc dcr christiichen Religion und Kirche, 1825 ff., Eng. tr.'
by Torrcy), who wrote in a sympathetic spirit and with special
stress upon the religious side of the subject, and has been followed
by many disciples, for instance, Hagenbach, Schaff and Herzog;
and Baur (Das Christenthum und die christliehe Kircht, X853
ff.), the most brilliant of all, whose many historical works were
dominated by the principles of the Hegelian philosophy and
evinced both the merits and defects of that school. Baur has
had tremendous influence, even though many of his positions
have been generally discredited. The problems particularly
of the primitive history were first brought into clear light by
him, and all subsequent work upon the subject must acknowledge
its indebtedness to him.
A new era was opened by the publication in 1857 of the second
edition of Ritschl's Eutstehung dcr allkatholisckcn Kirche, in
which he broke away from the Tubingen school and introduced
new points of view that have revolutionized the interpretation
of the early church. Of recent works the most important arc
the KirchcHgcschicht* of Carl Mttllcr (1892 ff.) and that of \V.
M oiler (1889 ff., second edition by von Schubcrth, 1898 ff.,
CHURCH HISTORY
331
greeUy enlarged tad improved), the translation of the Utter
(289s £.) being the most useful text-book in English. Of modern
Soman Catholic works may be mentioned those by J A. Mahler,
T. B. Abag, F. X. Kraus. Cardinal Joseph von Hergenrother
and C. J. von Hefele (edited by Kndpfler.)
In addition to these general works on church history should
be named the histories of doctrine by Harnack, Loofs, Seeberg
and Fisher; and on the early Church the works on the apostolic
age by Wcuslcker (1886, English translation 1804), McGiffert
(1897), and Bartlet (1899); Kenan's Histoire des origines du
chrisUamismo (1867 ff-, in 7 vols., translated in part); Pfleiderer's
Urckritienikum (1887); S. Cheetham's History of the Christum
Church during the first Six Centuries (1804); Wernle's Anftnge
unserer Religion (1001; Eng. tr. 1003 ff.); Rainy's Ancient
Catholic Church (100a); Knopf's NachapoUolisches Zeitalter
(1905); Duchesne's Histoirc oncienne do f£gUse (vol. i.,
1006). (A. C. McG.)
In the following account of the historical evolution of the
Hhiwj Church, the subject will be treated in three sections:—
mttbo (A) The ancient Church to the beginning of the pontifi-
cate of Gregory the Great (a.d. 500); (B) The Church
in the middle ages; (C) The modern Church.
A. The Ancient Church
1. Origin and Growth. — The crucifixion of Jesus Christ resulted
in the scattering of his followers, but within a short time they
became convinced that he had risen from the dead, and would
toon return to set up the expected Messianic kingdom, and so
to accomplish the true work of the Messiah (cf. Acts i. 6 ff.).
They were thus enabled to retain the belief in his Messiahship
which his death had threatened to destroy permanently. This
belief laid upon them the responsibility of bringing as many of
their countrymen as possible to recognize him as Messiah, and
to prepare themselves by repentance and righteousness for the
coming kingdom (cf. Acts ii. si, 38, iii. 19 sq.). It was with
the sense of this responsibility that they gathered again in
Jerusalem, the political and religious metropolis of Judaism.
In Jerusalem the new movement had its centre, and the church
established there is rightly known as the mother church of
Christendom. The life of the early Jewish disciples, so far as
we are able to judge from our meagre sources, was very much
the same as that of their fellows. They continued faithful to
the established synagogue and temple worship (cf. Acts iii. 1),
and did not think of founding a new sect, or of separating from
the household of Israel (cf. Acts x. 14, xv. 5, xxi. 31 sq.).
There is no evidence that their religious or ethical ideals differed
in any marked degree from those of the more serious-minded
among their countrymen, for the emphasis which they laid upon
the need of righteousness was not at all uncommon. In their
belief, however, in the Messiahship of Jesus, and their consequent
assurance of the speedy establishment by him of the Messianic
kingdom, they stood alone. The first need of the hour, therefore,
was to show that Jesus was the promised Messiah in spite of his
crucifixion, a need that was met chiefly by testimony to the
resurrection, which became the burden of the- message of the
early disciples to their fellow-countrymen (cf. Acts ii. 94 ff.,
UL x s ff., v. 31). It was this need which led also to the develop-
ment of Messianic prophecy and the ultimate interpretation of
the Jewish Bible as a Christian book (see Bible). The second
need of the hour was to bring the nation to repentance and
righteousness in order that the kingdom might come (cf. Acts
SL 19). The specific gospel of Jesus, the gospel of divine father-
hood and human brotherhood, received no attention in the
earliest days, so far as our sources enable us to judge.
Meanwhile the new movement spread quite naturally beyond
the confines of Palestine and found adherents among the Jews of
the dispersion, and at an early day among the Gentiles as well.
Many of the latter had already come under the influence of
Judaism, and were more or less completely in sympathy with
Jewish religious principles. Among the Christians who did most
to spread the gospel in the Gentile world was the apostle Paul,
whose conversion was the greatest event in the history of the early
Church. In liis hands Christianity became a iiewrehg^
to meet the needs of all the world, and freed entirely of the local
and national meaning which had hitherto attached to it. Accord-
ing to the early disciples Jesus was the Jewish Messiah, and had
significance only in relation to the expected Messianic kingdom.
To establish that kingdom was his one great aim. For the
Gentiles he had no message except as they might become members
of the family of Israel, assuming the responsibilities and enjoying
the privileges of proselytes. But Paul saw in Jesus much more
than the Jewish Messiah. He saw in Christ the divine Spirit, who
had come down from heaven to transform the lives of men, all of
whom are sinners. Thus Jesus had the same significance for one
man as for another, and Christianity was meant as much for
Gentiles as for Jews. The kingdom of which the early disciples
were talking was interpreted by Paul as righteousness and peace
and joy in the Holy Ghost (Rom. xiv. 27), a new principle of
living, not a Jewish state. But Paul taught also, on the basis of a
religious experience and of a distinct theory of redemption (see
McGiffert's Apostolic Age, ch. iii.), that the Christian is freed
from the obligation to observe the Jewish law. He thus did away
with the fundamental distinction between Jews and Gentiles.
The transformed spiritual life of the believer expresses itself not in
the observance of the Jewish law, but in love, purity and peace.
This precipitated a very serious conflict, of which we learn some-
thing from the Epistle to the Galatians and the Book of Acts
(xv. and xxii.). Other fundamental principles of Paul's failed of
comprehension and acceptance, but the belief finally prevailed
that the observance of Jewish law and custom was unnecessary,
and that in the Christian Church there is no distinction between
the circumcised and the undrcumcised. Those Jewish Christiana
who refused to go with the rest of the Church in this matter lived
thdr separate life, and were regarded as an heretical sect known
as the Ebionites.
It was Christianity in its universal form which won its great
victories, and finally became permanently established In the
Roman world. The appeal which it made to that world was
many-sided. It was a time of moral reformation, when men were
awaking to the need of better and purer living. To all who felt
this need Christianity offered high moral ideals, and a tremendous
moral enthusiasm, in its devotion to a beloved leader, in its
emphasis upon the ethical possibilities of the meanest, and in its
faith in a future life of blessedness for the righteous. It was a
time of great religious interest, when old cults were being revived
and new ones were finding acceptance on all sides. Christianity,
with its one God, and its promise of redemption and a blessed
immortality based upon divine revelation, met as no other
contemporary faith did the awakening religious needs. It was a
time also of great soda! unrest With its principle of Christian
brotherhood, its emphasis upon the equality of all believers in
the sight of God, and its preaching of a new social order to be set
up at the return of Christ, it appealed strongly to multitudes,
particularly of the poorer classes. That it won a permanent
success, and finally took possession of the Roman world, was due
to its combination of appeals. No one thing about it commended
it to all, and to no one thing alone did it owe its victory, but to
the fact that it met a greater variety of needs and met them more
satisfactorily than any other movement of the age. Contributing
also to the growth of the Church was the zeal of its converts, the
great majority of whom regarded themselves as missionaries and
did what they could to extend the new faith. Christianity was
essentially a proselytizing religion, not content to appeal simply
to one class or race of people, and to be one among many faiths,
but believing in the falsity or insufficiency of all others and eager
to convert the whole world. Moreover, the feeling of unity
which bound Christians everywhere together and made of them
one compact whole, and which found expression before many
generations had passed in a strong organization, did much for the
spread of the Church. Identifying himsdf with the Christian
circle from the 2nd century on, a man became a member of a
sodety existing in all quarters of the empire, every part conscious
of its oneness with the larger whole and all compactly organized
to do the common work. The growth of the Church daxvut>bav
332
CHURCH HISTORY
earlier ceniiirle* was chiefly In the middle and lower classes, but
it w;m nut vilely i he re. No Urge number of the aristocracy were
trai bed, hut in Iramrd and philosophical circles many were won,
attracted IhiIIi by 1'luisti.inity'a evident ethical power and by its
philiMioplmnI ihaiat tcr (if. the AiKilogists of the and century).
"Ilial it i mild mtiii at ihuv a simple way of living for the common
nun mid a ptoloiiml philoviphy of the universe for the speculative
thinker tnrint niurh fur it* success. 1
Hut it dul imt win itn victory without a struggle. Superstition,
tnisiiiiili-iHtutulinti nml hat ml caused the Christians trouble for
liiauv RrurnlioiiH, ami govirrnmrntal repression they had to
aullei mtiiiioiMllv, as a result of popular disturbances. No
syMriiiittK rH. »U wan made by the im]ierial authorities to put an
rail In the movement until the reign of Dccius (iso-*5i), whose
polity u( iuppif^iou was followed by Diocletian (303 ff.) and
vuuiiiuii-i| 1. 11 M »,nc years after his abdication In spite of all
ujMH>'.itnm thr Church steadily grew, until in 311 the emperor
(iuUim* u|hmi l\in death bed giantcd toleration (sec Eusebiua,
II. H x |, ami \jh tjutiiis, IV m-'rtihts f^rstXHlorum, 34), and in
ji.l thr cuipi-ium I \»uM. inline .ind 1 icinius published the edict of
Milan, pi ,1, |.iinitiiis thrpiim-iplo vf lomplete religious liberty, and
making 1'hiKii.uuiv a legal religion in the full sense (see Eusrbius
a. \. and |..u Liiiiiu^ jS. SeccU. /.rAsxhtiU jtir Kir, fre«ee* A:YA/r,
»i» .«Si v,j., l u .. Attempted to show that the edict of Milan had no
•igm In .uue. 1m it without MiitessV
Coim mime, ifiogni-mg the giowing strength of the Church
and w tilling t,i vnlist 1 he lo\al Mippoit ot the Christians, treated
tin n\ with in,i,-. l ^,. ll< 1.1MMU. and tmally was baptised upon his
de uli b, .1 v u ^ \'u,W\ hi* Mit . owls, except during the brief
ii ifi'i ol li-Ym v |lM , (M \. when the olloil was m.ule to reinstate
pij: no .:n in r.s i.,;,,,, , j»i „ ,. ot ^iipieniaev. the Church received
gi.»«m.; ■■.,»,...,!. li:l ...t t » P1 .i.-i I b.vdoMii* the Clival 1.170-30.0.
•Mtli.-.1..« \ liu.i,,..,,^ i 1 lM.!is».s».liilv:ith.T l «» ! t» ,,l «' l »l ,;i P 1 .^* 1
Nn -iiaui , N n.i.ii-n'.U ,.%i. l b , .ivhe.l.i>lh.*»«»U*or:;»mliehgioiii»f
I h« it -•!•-. .111.I it* -ub.-iiii,*! .Ii'.pn .input uiidei the ban. The union
|ie(*ci n \ Inn, h . m .|s| , u - ihi!*ion<iitulcd continued unbrokenin
I lie 1-.I-.I ihioii^boui ilieiiu.l.lle.i^'* TbvJivisionof the Empire
n'Milted 1 1 11.1 1 h m iheduiMonof the Chin* h, which was practically
complete b\ the end ol the Mil icnlury. but was made oilkial and
fu1.1l onI> in io> i. ,m.| the Fast em and Western halves, the Greek
fAlholii and the Koman Catholic ClniKhes. went each its separate
^uriiy. (Sec TheodoM.m Code, lvok ift, for the various imperial
gtlicts relating to the Chuuh. and for fuller particulars touching
iftr. relation between Church and F.mpiie see the articles Con-
5f ANnsv.; CtR/iruN; Tiiroiiosirs; Ji-shnun.)
For n long time after the establishment of Christianity as the
^t.ite religion, paganism continued strong, especially in the
country districts, ami in some parts of the world had more
adherents than Christianity, but at length the latter became, at
5 ny rate nominally, the faith of the whole Koman world. Mean-
while already before the beginning of the 3rd century it went
beyond the confines of the Empire in Asia, and by the end of our
period was strong in Armenia, Persia. Arabia and even farther
c a5t. It reached the barbarians on the northern and western
orders at an early day, and the Goths were already Christians of
t pc Arian type before the great migrations of the 4th century
gyegan. Other barbarians became Christian, some in their own
jjomes beyond the confines of the Empire, some within the Empire
Itself, so that when the hegemony of the West passed from the
Romans to the barbarians the Church lived on. Thenceforth for
gtnturies it was not only the chief religious, but also the chief
civilizing, force at work in the Occident. Losing with the dissolu-
tion of the Western Empire its position as the state church, It
tjecame itself a new empire, the heir of the glory and dignity of
jlome, and the greatest influence making for the peace and unity
f the western world.
a. The Christian Life.— The most notable thing about the life of
» Upon the iprcad of the Church during the early centuries see
^penally HartMck's Mission und Au\bnitung des Chrxilenthumi in
,/#» ft Urn drti Jahrkunderten. An interesting parallel to the spread
„l f luiMwnuy TO thc Koman empire is afforded by the contcny
E,miv ai»UHji,ii,. see Cumont's L** UysUres <U Alithr* (1Q00),
,ig. tr. Ik* if yxinfa ,./ Xlilkra (19OJ).
the early Christina
called and set wpsr^
divine, not a ki
by God, and rm
SJuphcrd of Hi
ception, whkh
the early Christians boa ai-i
themselves as separa*^ ±-zi *±±
together by peculiar ties. Tx= z
earth (cf. Phil. iii. to. aad
rf *±- 1T3Z£. TZ:± \tez2-'
principles and laws by wijci laey s=t*s zz p /ig^L 'ir nr'-.a
were from above. The prcsei vjljI «u bii zs=scnrr ir;
their true life was in the fstce. Oras wxs soc= zz r~zn ir :
the employments and labocxs aid pifc »-:es of this ar= v-r* ::
small concern. Some went so far as la pre ~> tier z:zzs~. -zziri
vocations, and with such Paul had to expostulate ± ha ep^i.s *o
thc Thessalonians. A more or less ascetic cafe c: Lie t« 1^3
natural under the drcumstancea. Not cecessar^j !Jn: tr:
present world was evil, but that it was temporary ar.i si ssal
worth, and that a Christian's heart should be set or hLgz*: •— rp.
The belief that the Church was a supernatura: zcstitc-Jc^ f:-r i
expression in the Jewish notion of the presence and peer c: i>e
1 Ioly Spirit. It was believed among the Jews that the M esslir. :
age would be the age of the Spirit in a marked degree. xz.z '±j
belief passed over into the Christian Church and eontroLed m
thought and life for some generations. The Holy Spirit was
supposed to be manifest in various striking ways, in prophecy,
speaking with tongues and miracle working. In this idea Fi J
also shared, but he carried the matter farther than most of La
contemporaries and sew in the Spirit the abiding power azs!
ground of the Christian life. Not simply in extraordinary
phenomena, but also in the everyday life el Christians, the Holy
Spirit was present, and all the Christian graces were the fruits
Vcf. Gal. v. 22). A result of this belief was to give their hves a
peculiarly enthusiastic or inspirational character. Theirs were
not the everyday experiences of ordinary men, but of men lifted
out of themselves and transported into a higher sphere. With
the passing of time the early enthusiasm waned, the expectation
of the immediate return of Christ was widely given up, the
conviction of the Spirit's presence became less vivid, and the
comlict with heresy in the and century led to the substitution of
oirui.il control for the original freedom (see below). The late and
century movement known as Montanism waa in essence a revolt
against this growing secularization of the Church, but the move-
ment failed, and the development against which it protested was
only hastened. Thc Church as an institution now looked forward
to a long life upon earth and adjusted itself to the new situation,
taking on largely the forms and customs of the world in which it
lived. This did not mean that the Church ceased to regard itself
as a supernatural institution, but only that its supernatural
character was shown in a different way. A Christian was still
dependent upon divine aid for salvation, and his life was still
supernatural at least in theory. Indeed, the early conviction of
the essential difference between the life of this world and that of
the next lived on. and, as thc Church became increasingly a world-
institution, found vent in monasticism, which was simply the
effort to put into more consistent practice the other-worldly life,
and to make more thoroughgoing work of the saving of one's
soul Contributing to thc same result was the emphasis upon the
necessity of personal purity or holiness, which Paul's contrast
between flesh and spirit had promoted, and which early took the
supreme place given by Christ to love and service. The growing
difficulty of realizing the ascetic ideal in the midst of the world,
and within the world-church, inevitably drove multitudes of those
who took their religion seriously to retire from society and to
seek salvation and the higher life, either in solitude, or in company
with kindred spirits.
There were Christian monks as early as the 3rd century, and
before the end of the 4th monasticism (o.».) was an established
institution both in East and West. The monks and nuns
were looked upon as the most consistent Christians, and were
honoured accordingly. Those who did not adopt the monastic life
CHURCH HISTORY
333
endeavoured on a lower plane and in a less perfect way to realize
the common ideal, and by means of penance to atone for the
deficiencies in their performance. The existence of monasticism
made it possible at once to hold up a high moral standard before
the world and to permit the ordinary Christian to be content with
something lower. With the growth of clerical sacerdotalism the
higher standard was demanded also of the clergy, and the
principle came to be generally recognized that they should live
the monastic life so far as was consistent with their active duties
in the<world. The chief manifestation of this was clerical celi-
bacy, which had become widespread already in the 4th century.
Among the laity, on the other hand, the ideal of holiness found
realization in the observance of the ordinary principles of
morality recognized by the world at large, in attendance upon
the means of grace provided by the Church, in fasting at stated
intervals, in eschewing various popular employments and amuse-
ments, and in almsgiving and prayer. Christ's principle of love
was widely interpreted to mean chiefly love for the Christian
brotherhood, and within that circle the virtues of hospitality,
charity and helpfulness were widely exercised; and if the
salvation of his own soul was regarded as the most important
affair of every man, the service of the brethren was recognized as
an imperative Christian duty. The fulfilling of that duty was one
of the most beautiful features of the life of the early Church, and
it did perhaps more than anything else to make the Christian
circle attractive.
3. Worship.— The primitive belief in the immediate presence of
the Spirit affected the religious services of the Church. They were
regarded in early days as occasions for the free exercise of spiritual
gifts. As a consequence the complctest liberty was accorded to
all Christians to take such part as they chose, it being assumed
that they did so only under the Spirit's prompting. But the
result of this freedom was confusion and discord, as is indicated
by Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians (sec chapters xl, xiv.).
This led to the erection of safeguards, which should prevent the
continuance of the unseemly conditions (on Paul's action in
the matter, see McGiffcrt's Apostolic Age, p. 523). Particular
Christians were designated to take charge of the services, and
orders of worship were framed out of which grew ultimately
elaborate liturgies (see Liturgy). The Lord's Supper first took
on a more stereotyped character, and prayers to be used in
connexion with it are found already in the Didachi (chapters ix.
and a.). The development cannot here be traced in detail.
It may simply be said that the general tendency was on the one
hand toward the elaboration and growing magnificence of the
services, especially after the Church had become a state institu-
tion and had taken the place of the older pagan cults, and on the
other hand toward the increasing solemnity and mystery of
certain parts, particularly the euchsrist, the sacred character of
which was such as to make it sacrilegious to admit to it the
unholy, that is, outsiders or Christians under discipline (cf.
Didachi, ix.). It was, in fact, from the Lord's table that offending
disciples were firat excluded. Out of this grew up in the 3rd or
4th century what is known as the arcani discipline, or secret
discipline of the Church, involving the concealment from the
uninitiated and unholy of the more sacred parts of the Christian
cult, such as baptism and the eucharist, with their various
accompaniments, including the Creed and the Lord's Prayer.
The same interest led to the division of the services into two
general parts, which became known ultimately as the missa
caUckumencrum and the missa fidclium, — that is, the more public
service of prayer, praise and preaching open to all, including the
catechumens or candidates for Church membership, and the
private service for the administration of the eucharist, open
only to full members of the Church in good and regular standing.
Meanwhile, as the general service tended to grow more elaborate,
the missa fidclium tended to take on the character of the
current Greek mysteries (sec Eucharist; Hatch, Influence
#/ Creek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church, 1890;
Anrich, Das antike Xlystericnwesen in seiuem Einfluss auf
das Christen turn, 1894; Wobbcrmin, Rcligionsgcschichlliche
Studieu tur Frage dcr Beeirjlussuug des UrchristctUums dutch
das antike Mysterienwesen, 1806). Many of the terms in common
use in them were employed in connexion with the Christian rites,
and many of the conceptions, particularly that of sharing in
immortality by communion with deity, became an essential
part of Christian doctrine. Thus the early idea of the services.
as occasions for mutual edification through the Interchange of
spiritual gifts, gave way in course of time to the theory that they
consisted of sacred and mysterious rites by means of which
communion with Cod is promoted. The emphasis accordingly
came to be laid increasingly upon the formal side of worship, and
a value was given to the ceremonies as such, and their proper
and correct performance by duly qualified persons, fa. ordained
priests, was made the all-important thing.
4. The Church and the Sacraments.— According to Paul, man
is flesh and so subject to death. Only as he becomes a spiritual
being through mystical union with Christ can he escape death
and enjoy eternal life in the spiritual realm. In the Epistle to
the Ephcsians the Christian Church is spoken of as the body of
Christ (iv. 12 fi\, v. 30); and Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, early
in the 2nd century, combined the two ideas of union with Christ,
as the necessary condition of salvation, and of the Church as the
body of Christ, teaching that no one could be saved unless ho
were a member of the Church (cf. his Epistle to the Ephesians 4,
5, 15; Trail. 7; Phil. 3, 8; Smyr. 8; Magn. 2, 7). Traces of the
same idea are found in Ircnacus (cf. Adv. Haer. ail. 24, I, iv.
16, 2), but it is first clearly set forth by Cyprian, and receives
from him its classical expression in the famous sentence " Salua
extra ecclesiam non est" (Ep. 73, 21; cf. also Ep. 4, 4; 74,7; and
Dc untitle ecclcsiae, 6: " habere non potest Dcum patrcm qui
ecclesiam non habct matrem "). The Church thus became the
sole ark of salvation, outside of which no one could be saved.
Intimately connected with the idea of the Church as an ark
of salvation are the sacraments or means of grace. Already u
early as the 2nd century the rite of baptism had come to be
thought of as the sacrament of regeneration, by means of which
a new divine nature is born within a man (cf. Ircnacus, Adv.
Hacr. i. 21, 1, iii. 17, x; and his newly discovered Demonstration
0/ the Apostolic Teaching, chap. 3), and the eucharist as the
sacrament of the body and blood of Christ, feeding upon which
one is endowed with immortality (cf. Ircnacus, Adv. Haer. iv.
18, 5, v. 2, 2). In the early days the Church was thought of as
a community of saints, all of whose members were holy, and as
a consequence discipline was strict, and offenders excluded from
the Church were commonly not readmitted to membership but
left to the mercy of God. The idea thus became general that
baptism, which had been almost from the beginning the rite of
entrance into the Church, and which was regarded as securing
the forgiveness of all pre -baptismal sins, should be given but once
to any individual. Meanwhile, however, discipline grew less
strict (cf. the Shepherd of Her mas, Vis. v. 3; M.iv. 7; Sim. viil.
6, ix. 19, 26, &c); until finally, under the influence of the idea
of the Church as the sole ark of salvation, it became the custom
to readmit all penitent offenders on condition that they did
adequate penance. Thus there grew up the sacrament of penance,
which secured for those already baptized the forgiveness of
post-baptismal sins. This sacrament, unlike baptism, might be
continually repeated (see Penance). In connexion with the
sacraments grew up also the theory of clerical sacerdotalism.
Ignatius bad denied the validity of a eucharist administered
independently of the bishop, and the principle finally established
itself that the sacraments, with an exception in cases of emergency
in favour of baptism, could be performed only by men regularly
ordained and so endowed with the requisite divine grace for
their due administration (cf. Tcrtullian, Dc Exhort, east. 7; De
BiipL 7, 17; De Praescriptione Hacr. 41; and Cyprian, Ep. 67.
For the later influence of the Donatist controversy upon the
sacramental development sec Doxatisis). Thus the clergy as
distinguished from the laity became true priests, and the latter
were made wholly dependent upon the former for sacramental
grace, without which there is ordinarily no. salvation (see Ordea,
Holy).
5. Christian Doctrine.— Two tendencies appeared in. th&lV«»u&&.
CHURCH HISTORY
335
prophets, called permanently or temporarily to the special work
of evangelization (cf. Acts xiii. i ; Did. xi.), while the teachers
scan to have been distinguished both from apostles and prophets
by the fact that their spiritual endowment was less strikingly
supernatural. The indefinitcness of the boundaries between the
three classes, and the free interchange of names, show how far
they were from being definite offices or orders within the Church.
Apostleship, prophecy and teaching were only functions, whose
frequent or regular exercise by one or another, under the inspira-
tion of the Spirit, led bis brethern to call him an apostle, prophet
or teacher.
But at an early day we find regular officers in this and that
local Church, and early in the 2nd century the three permanent
offices of bishop, presbyter and deacon existed at any rate in Asia
Minor (cf. the Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch). Their rise was
due principally to the necessity of administering the charities of
the Church, putting an end to disorder and confusion in the
religious services, and disciplining offenders. It was naturally to
the apostles, prophets and teachers, its most spiritual men, that
the Church looked first for direction and control in all these
natters. But such men were not always at hand, or sometimes
they were absorbed in other duties. Thus the need of sub-
stitutes began to be felt here and there, and as a consequence
regular offices within the local Churches gradually made their
appearance, sometimes simply recognized as charged with
responsibilities which they had already voluntarily assumed
(cf.i. Cor: xvl 15), sometimes appointed by an apostle or prophet
or other specially inspired man (cf. Acts xiv. 23; Titus i. 5; 1
Qement 44), sometimes formally chosen by the congregation
itself (cf - Acts vi. t Did. xi.). These men naturally acquired more
and more as time passed the control and leadership of the Church
in all its activities, and out of what was in the beginning more or
less informal and temporary grew fixed and permanent offices,
the incumbents of which were recognized as having a right to rule
over the Church, a right which once given could not lawfully be
taken away unless they were unfaithful to their trust. Not
continued endowment by the Spirit, but the possession of an
ecclesiastical office now became the basis of authority. The
earliest expression of this genuinely official principle is found in
Clement's Epistle to the Corinthians, ch. xliv. Upon these
officers devolved ultimately not only the disciplinary, financial
and liturgical duties referred to, but also the still higher function
of instructing their fellow-Christians in God's will and truth, and
so they became the substitutes of the apostles, prophets and
teachers in all respects (cf 1 Tim. iii. a, v. 17; Titus i. 9; Did.
15; 1 Clement 44; Justin's first Apology, 67).
Whether in the earliest days there was a single officer at the
bead of a congregation, or a plurality of officers of equal
authority, it is impossible to say with assurance. The few
references which we have look in the latter direction (cf., for
instance, Acts vi.; Phil. i. 1; 1 Clement 42, 44; Did. 14), but we
are not justified in asserting that they represent the universal
custom. The earliest distinct evidence of the organization of
Churches under a single head is found in the Epistles of Ignatius
of Antioch, which date from the latter part of the reign of
Trajan (c z 16). Ignatius bears witness to the presence in various
Churches of Asia Minor of a single bishop in control, with whom
are associated as his subordinates a number of ciders and deacons.
This form of organization ultimately became universal, and
already before the end of the 2nd century it was established in
all the parts of Christendom with which we arc acquainted,
though in Egypt it seems to have been the exception rather than
the rule, and even as late as the middle of the 3rd century many
churches there were governed by a plurality of officers instead
of by a single head (sec Harnack, Mission und Ausbrcitung des
Ckrislcntkums, pp. 337 seq.). Where there were one bishop and a
number of presbyters and deacons in a church, the presbyters
constituted the bishop's council, and the deacons his assistants
In the management of the finances and charities and in the
conduct of the services. (Upon the minor orders which arose
m the 3rd and following centuries, and became ultimately a
; school for the higher clergy, see llarnack, Text* und
Unlet suchungen, ii. 5; English translation under the title of
Sources of the Apostolic Canons, 1895.)
Meanwhile the rise and rapid spread of Gnosticism produced
a great crisis in the Church of the and century, and profoundly
affected the ecclesiastical organization. The views of the
Gnostics, and of Marcion as well, seemed to the majority of
Christians destructive of the gospel, and it was widely felt that
they were too dangerous to be tolerated. The original dependence
upon the Spirit for light and guidance was inadequate. The
men in question claimed to be Christians and to enjoy divine
illumination as truly as anybody, and so other safeguards
appeared necessary. It was in the effort to find such safeguards
that steps were taken which finally resulted in the institution
known as the Catholic Church. The first of these steps was the
recognition of the teaching of the apostles (that is, of the twelve
and Paul) as the exclusive standard of Christian truth. This
found expression in the formulation of an apostolic scripture
canon, our New Testament, and of an apostolic rule of faith, of
which the old Roman symbol, the original of our present Apostles'
Creed, is one of the earliest examples. Over against the claims
of the Gnostics that they had apostolic authority, either oral or
written, for their preaching, were set these two standards, by
which alone the apostolic character of any doctrine was to be
tested (cf. Irenacus, Adv. Hacr. L 10, iii. 3, 4; and Tcrtullian,
Dt Prescription* Hacr. passim). But these standards proved
inadequate to the emergency, for it was possible, especially by
the use of the allegorical method, to interpret them in more than
one way, and their apostolic origin and authority were not
everywhere admitted. In view of this difficulty, it was claimed
that the apostles had appointed the bishops as their successors,
and that the latter were in possession of special divine grace
enabling them to transmit and to interpret without error the
teaching of the apostles committed to them. This is the famous
theory known as "apostolic succession." The idea of the
apostolic appointment of church officers b as old as Clement
of Rome (see 1 Clement 44), but the use of the theory to guarantee
the apostolic character of episcopal teaching was due to the
exigencies of the Gnostic conflict. Irenacus (Adv. Hacr. iii.
3 ff., iv. 26, iv. 33, v. 20), Tcrtullian {Dc prescription, ja),
and Hippolytus (Pkilosophumena. bk. i., preface) are our earliest
witnesses to it, and Cyprian sets it forth clearly in his epistles
(e.g. Ep. 33, 43, 59,66, 69). The Church was thus in possession not
only of authoritative apostolic doctrine, but also of a permanent
apostolic office, to which alone belonged the right to determine
what that doctrine is. The combination of this idea with that
of clerical sacerdotalism completed the Catholic theory of the
Church and the clergy. Saving grace is recognized as apostolic
grace, and the bishops as successors of the apostles become its
sole transmitters. Bishops are therefore necessary to the very
being of the Church, which without them is without the saving
grace for the giving of which the Church exists (cf. Cyprian, Ep.
33, " ecclesia super cpiscopos constituitur "; 66, " eccksia in
cpiscopo " ; also Ep. 59, and Dc unitate ecclcs. 17).
These bishops were originally not diocesan but congregational,
that is, each church, however small, had its own bishop. This is
the organization testified to by Ignatius, and Cyprian's insistence
upon the bishop as necessary to the very existence of the Church
seems to imply the same thing. Congregational episcopacy was
the rule for a number of generations. But after the middle of
the 3rd century diocesan episcopacy began to make its appear-
ance here and there, and became common in the 4th century
under the influence of the general tendency toward centralization,
the increasing power of city bishops, and the growing dignity of
the episcopate (cf. canon 6 of the council of Sardica, and canon
57 of the council of Laodicca; and see Harnack, Mission und
Ausbreitung, pp. 319 seq.)- This enlargement of the bishop's
parish and multiplication of the chuches under his care led to a
change in the functions of the presbyterate. So long as each
church had its own bishop the presbyters constituted simply
his council, but with the growth of diocesan episcopacy it became
the custom to put each congregation under the care of a particular
presbyter, who performed within it most of the pastoral du5ica>
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CHURCH HISTORY
337
I Scriptnrnm ec(U:uilti~
t^^T **rate importance. There
^^flt dJ the Writings of the
Mi^Jpo^ldson {Anti-NktHt.
^^»»_ Ho8 ff., A irtcri.cn n reprint
H^T^ * ' of it, containing ■rlccu-d
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* «^ J 0/ JN'l«3M! aW pott- fact AC
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t ^ ^° fl *° t ' ,c works on Church
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1897) ii a very convenient
" hia &
* ^
i^4> and bb tvurfcrAM <fcj*
|dld also be tnctitiomd, Sec
ioihiry of Christian Ihorrtpfiy
(AX.McG)
Ein rax Mjddle Ages
urch of tie Roman empire,
■ ft«r onwards it expanded beyond
'*s»t and west, north and south;
gradually arose in Persia and
red Teutonic races, and
#&l first not aj-opcrai tng factor*
^jidom; they received without
Jfe a only to be found within the
tag at the time * hen the political
pon the conquests of Alexander
Its of Julius Caesar, began to
ttwhen the believers in Mahomet
rfcan provinces which Alexander
effectual influence of Hellenism;
Sotbs, the Franks and the Anglo-
mis in Italy, Spain, Gaul and
{ was the position of the Church
stances, and what form did the
from this time onwards? In
.1 consider East and West separ-
t longer coincident, as they had
dominion.
: Chvrt-h^ Ancient and medieval
deep a gulf in the East as in the
Ire continued to exist, although
aids the end of the middle ages.
\, Ecclesiastical By^anlinism is
nfddle ages: it is the outcome of
olf of the empire f torn the time of
it Justinian I. all its essential
imperial power extended equally
4, care for the preservation of
priesthood was the chief duty of
as to serve the interests of both
line harmony is established, and
Jke portion of the whole human
. the Church there was no longer
t the bishops, leas! Of all for the
bey wet* in every respect iub-
Church was also a tesult of the
Jme of Cons lant inc. In th c ton g
f of the Greets in the value of
and this faith was not extinct in
to doubt that in the beginning of
ind theological education stood
. more we&l em countries* In (he
sn who could vfo with Photiua
vledge and variety of scientific
r dogma came to an end with the
1 a lion of the monothclktc con*
doctrines were Complete^ it was
m intact. Theology , therefore,
Jectioo and reoioduction of the
teaching of andent authorities. The great dogmatist of the
Eastern Church, John of Damascus (td. 600-753), ^bo stood 00
the threshold of the middle ages, formula ted clearly and precisely
his working principle: to put forward nothing of his own, but to
present the truth according to the authority of die Bible and of
the Fathers of the Church, Later teachers, Euihymms Zigadenus
(d. ciWo nao), Nice las Chouiates (d. cina tioo) t and others,
proceeded further on the same lines; Euthymius, in particular,
often uses an excerpt Instead of giving his own exposition.
This Attitude towards dogma did not mean that it was less
prized than during the period of strife* On the contrary, the
sacred formulae were revered because they were believed to
contain the determination of the highest truths; the knowledge
of God and of the mystery of salvation. Yet it is intelligible
that religious interest should have concerned itself more keenly
with the mystic rites of divine worship than with dogma, Here
was more than knowledge; here were representations of a mystic
senauonsaess* solemn rites, which brought the faithful into
immediate contact with the Divine, and guaranteed to them the
reception of heavenly powers. What could be of more impo rtanco
than to be absorbed in this transcendental world? We may
gauge the energy with which the Greek intellect turned in this
direction if we calf to mind that the controversy about dogma
was replaced by the con trov ersy ubo u t images. This raged in the
Eastern Church for more than a century (7J6-S43,), and only
sank to rest when the worship of images was unconditionally
conceded. In this connexion the image-"was not looked upon
merely as a symbol, but as the vehicle of the presence and power
of that which it represented: in the image the invisible becomes
operative in the visible world Christ did not seem to be Christ
unless be were visibly represented. What an ancient teacher had
said with regard to the worship of Christ as the revelation of the
Eternal Father — " Honours paid to the earthly representative
are shared by the heavenly Archetype M — was now transferred to
the painted image: it appeared as an analogy to the Incarnation,
It was for this reason that the victory of image worship was
celebrated by the introduction of the festival of the Orthodox
Faith,
It 3s consistent with this circle of ideas that initiation into the
profound mysteries of the liturgy was regarded, together with the
preservation of dogma, as the most exalted function of theology.
A beginning had been made, in the 5th century, by the nco-
pta tonic Christian who addressed, his contemporaries under the
mask of Dionysius the Arcopagite, He is the first of a series of
theological mystics -which continued through every century of
the middle ages. Maxim us Confessor, the heroic defender of
Dyothelctisnt (d 66a), Symeaa, the New Theologian (d- circa
1 040), Nicolaus Cahasitas (d, 1471), and Symeon, like Nichulas,
archbishop of Thessalonica (d* 14 Jf)} , were tbc most conspicuous
representatives of this Oriental mysticism. They left all the
dogmas and institutions of the Church untouched, aspiring
above and beyond these, their aim was religious experience.
It b this striving after religious experience that gives to the
Oriental monachisnt of the middle ages its peculiar character*
In the 5th and 6th centuries Egypt and Palestine had been the
classic lands of monks and monasteries. But when, in conse-
quence of the Arab invasion, the monaslici&Ea of those count lies
was cut of! from intercourse with the rest of Christendom, it
decayed, Constantinople and Mount Athos gamed proportion-
ately in importance during the middle ages- At Constantinople
the monastery of Stud i una, founded about 460, attained to
supreme influence during the controversy about images. On
Mount Aihoa the first monastery was founded in the year 0,63,
and in 1045 the number of monastic foundations bad reached i&a,
In Greek monachism the old Hellenic ideal of tbc wise man who
has no wants (mOrApimo) was from the first futcd with the
Christian conception of unreserved self -surrender to God as the
highest aim and the highest good. These ideas governed it in
medieval limes also, and in this way monastic life received a
decided bent towards mysticism: the monks strove to realize
the heavenly life even upon earth, their highest aim bein%\bjc
contempjatiqn of God ani «L Hk .^HfcjV Tft* L .^*^»1ft *^.
1
33*
CHURCH HISTORY
formerly discharged by the bishop himself. The presbyters,
however, were not independent officers. They were only
representatives of the bishop, and the churches over which they
were set were all a part of his parish, so that the Cyprianic
principle, that the bishop is necessary to the very being of the
Church, held good of diocesan as well as of congregational
episcopacy. Tne bishop alone possessed the right to ordain;
through him alone could be derived the requisite clerical grace;
and so the clergy like the laity were completely dependent upon
him.
The growth of the diocesan principle promoted the unity of the
churches gathered under a common head. But unity was carried
much further than this, and finally resulted in at least a nominal
consolidation of ail the churches of Christendom into one whole.
The belief in the unity of the entire Church had existed from the
beginning. Though made up of widely scattered congregations,
it was thought of as one body of Christ, one people of God. This
ideal unity found expression in many ways. Intercommunica-
tion between the various Christian communities was very active.
Christians upon a journey were always'sure of a warm welcome
and hospitable entertainment from their fellow-disciples.
Messengers and letters were sent freely from one church to
another. Missionaries and evangelists went continually from
place to place. Documents of various kinds, including gospels
and apostolic epistles, circulated widely. Thus in various ways
the feeling of unity found expression, and the development of
widely separated parts of Christendom conformed more or less
closely to a common type. It was due to agencies such as these
that the scattered churches did not go each its own way and
become ultimately separate and diverse institutions. But this
general unity became official, and expressed itself in organisation ,
only with the rise of the conciliar and metropolitan systems.
Already before the end of the and century local synods were held
in Asia Minor to deal with Montanism, and in the 3rd century
provincial synods became common, and by the council of Nicaca
(canon 5) it was decreed that they should be held twice every year
in every province. Larger synods representing the churches of a
number of contiguous provinces also met frequently ; for instance,
in the early 4th century at Elvira, Ancyra, Nco-Caesarea and
Aries, the last representing the entire Western world. Such
gatherings were especially common during the great doctrinal
controversies of the 4th century. In 325 the first general or
ecumenical council, representing theoretically the entire Christian
Church, was held at Nicaea. Other councils of the first period
now recognized as ecumenical by the Church both East and West
are Constantinople I. (381), Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451),
Constantinople II. (553)* All these were called by the emperor,
and to their decisions he gave the force of law. Thus the
character of the Church as a state institution voiced itself in
them. (See Council.)
Hie theory referred to above, that the bishops are successors of
the apostles, and as such the authoritative conservators and
interpreters of apostolic truth, involves of course the solidarity of
the episcopate, and the assumption that all bishops are in
complete harmony and bear witness to the same body of doctrine.
This assumption, however, was not always sustained by the facts.
Serious disagreements even on important matters developed
frequently. As a result the ecumenical council came into
existence especially for the purpose of settling disputed questions
of doctrine, and giving to the collective episcopate the opportunity
to express its voice in a final and official way. At the council of
Nicaea, and at the ecumenical councils which followed, the idea
of an infallible episcopate giving authoritative and permanent
utterance to apostolic and therefore divine truth, found clear
expression, and has been handed down as a part of the faith of the
Catholic Church both East and West. The infallibility of the
episcopate guarantees the infallibility of a general council in
which not the laity and not the clergy in general, but the bishops
as successors of the apostles, speak officially and collectively.
Another organized expression of the unity of the Church was
found in the metropolitan system, or the grouping of the churches
of a province under a single head, who was usually the bishop of
the capital city, and was known as the metropolitan bishop.
The Church thus followed in its organization the political divisions
of the Empire (cf. for instance canon 1 2 of the council of Chalcedon,
which forbids more than one metropolitan see in a province; also
canon 17 of the same council: " And if any city has been or
shall hereafter be newly erected by imperial authority, let the
arrangement of ecclesiastical parishes follow the political and
municipal forms "). These metropolitan bishops were common
in the East before the end of the 3rd century, and the general
existence of the organisation was taken for granted by the council
of Nicaea (sec canons 4, 6, 7). In the West, on the other hand, the
development was much slower.
Meanwhile the tendency which gave rise to the metropolitan
system resulted in the grouping together of the churches of a
number of contiguous provinces under the headship of the bishop
of the most important city of the district, as, for instance,
Antioch, Ephesus, Alexandria, Rome, Milan, Carthage, Aries.
In canon 6 of the council of Nicaca the jurisdiction of the bishops
of Alexandria, Rome and Antioch over a number of provinces is
recognized. At the council of Constantinople (38 1) the bishop of
Constantinople or New Rome was ranked next after the bishop
of Rome (canon 3), and at the council of Chalcedon (451) he was
given authority over the churches of the political dioceses of
Pontus, Asia and Thrace (canon 28). To the bishops of Rome,
Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria was added at the council
of Chalcedon (session 7) the bishop of Jerusalem, the mother
church of Christendom, and the bishops thus recognized as
possessing supreme jurisdiction were finally known as patriarchs.
Meanwhile the Roman episcopate developed into the papacy,
which claimed supremacy over the entire Christian Church, and
actually exercised it increasingly in the West from the 5th century
on. This development was forwarded by Augustine, who in his
famous work De civitate Dei identified the Church with the
kingdom of God, and claimed that it was supreme over all the
nations of the earth, which make up the civiias krrena or earthly
state. Augustine's theory was ultimately accepted everywhere
in the West, and thus the Church of the middle ages was regarded
not only as the sole ark of salvation, but also as the ultimate
authority, moral, intellectual and political. Upon this doctrine
was built, not by Augustine himself but by others who came after
him, the structure of the papacy, the bishop of Rome being
finally recognized as the head under Christ of the civitas Dei, and
so the supreme organ of divine authority on earth (see Papacy
and Pope).
Historic*! Sources of the First Period. — These are of the same
general character for Church history as for general history — on the
one hand monumental, on the other hand documentary. Among the
monuments are churches, catacombs, tombs and inscriptions of
various kinds, few antedating the 3rd century, and none adding
greatly to the knowledge gained from documentary sources (see
Dc Rossi, Roma sotteranea, 1864 ff., and its English abridgment
by Northcotc and Brownlow, 1870; Andre Pcrat6, L'Archeologit
ckrttienne, 1802; W. Lowrie. Monuments of the Early Church, iqoi.
with good bibliography). The dot u nunt 5 comprise imperial edict*,
rescripts, &c, liturgies, acts of council*, decretal* and lettcra of
bishops, references in contemporary heathen writing and above all
the works of the Church Fathers. Written sources from the 1st and
and centuries are relatively few, comprising, in addition to «ome
scattered allusions by outsiders, the New Testament, the Apostolic
Fathers, the Creek Apologists, Clement of Alexandria, the old
Catholic Fathers (Irenacus, TcrtuULan and HippdytutJ and a few
Gnostic fragments. For the 3rd, and especially the 4th and following
centuries, tne writers are much more numerous; for instance, in the
East, Origen and his disciples, and brer EuAebius of Caefarea,
Athanasius, Apollinaris, Basil and the two Grcgoritt. Cyril of
Jerusalem, Epiphanius, Chrysotiora, Ephraint (he Syrian, Cyril of
Alexandria, rscudo-Dionysius ; in the West, Novation, Cyprian,
Commodian, Arnobius, Lactantiu;, Hilary, Ambrose, Kufinus,
Jerome, Augustine, Prosper v Leo the. Great, Cassia n* Vincent of
Lcrins. Faustus, Gennadius, Ennodius., A vitas. Caesaxius, Ful^eatius
and many others.
There are many editions of the works of the Fathers in the original,
the most convenient, in spite of its defects, being that of J. P. Migne
(Palrologia Graeca, 166 vols., Paris, 1857 ff.; Patroiogia Laitna,
221 vols., 1844 ff.). Of modern critical editions, besides those con*
taining the works of one or another individual, the beat are tho
Berlin edition of the early Greek Fathers {Die griechischen ckrist*
lichen SchriflsteBer der ersten irti Jahrhundertt, 1897 ff.), and tho
CHURCH HISTORY
337
Vienna edrtkm of the Latin Fathers (Corpus scriptomm ecclesiastic
dm Latinonim,'' 1867 ff.), both of tint-rate importance. There
k a convcJiieat English translation of most of the writings of the
aate-Nicene Fathers by Roberts and Donaldson (Ante-Nicene
Christian Library, 25 vols., Edinburgh, 1868 ff., American reprint
in nine vols., 1886 ft.). A continuation of it, containing selected
1 of the Nicene and post-Niccne period, was edited by ScharT
and others under the title A Select Library of Kicene and post-Niccne
fathers (scries 1 and .2; 28 vols., Buffalo and New York, 1886 if.).
On early Christian literature, in addition to the works on Church
history, see especially the monumental Gcsckickle der altekristiichen
LUUrmtur bis Eusebius, by Harnack ( 1 893 ff.)' The brief Gcsckithtc
der aUchrisUichen Litieraiur in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten, by
G. Kruger (1895, English translation 1897) is a very convenient
summary. Baraenhcwcr't Patrotoiie (1894) and his Gesckichte der
altkirchltchen Litieraiur (1902 ff.) should alto be mentioned. See
also Smith and Wace's invaluable Dictionary of Christian Biography
(rt77 «•). (A.C.MCG5
B. The Christian Chuich in the Middle Aces
Hie ancient Church was the church of the Roman empire.
It is true that from the 4th century onwards it expanded beyond
the borders of that empire to east and west, north and south;
but the infant churches which gradually arose in Persia and
Abyssinia, among some of the scattered Teutonic races, and
among the Celts of Ireland, were at first not co-operating factors
in the development of Christendom: they received without
giving In return. True historic life b only to be found within the
church of the Empire.
The middle ages came into being at the time when the political
structure of the world, based upon the conquests of Alexander
the Great and the achievements of Julius Caesar, began to
disintegrate. They were present when the believers in Mahomet
held sway in the Asiatic and African provinces which Alexander
had once brought under the intellectual influence of Hellenism;
while the Lombards, the West Goths, the Franks and the Anglo-
Saxons had established kingdoms in Italy, Spain, Gaul and
Britain. The question is: what was the position of the Church
In this great change of circumstances, and what form did the
Church's development take from this time onwards? In
answering this question we must consider East and West separ-
ately; for their histories are no longer coincident, as they had
been in the time of the Roman dominion.
L The East, (a) The Orthodox Church.— Ancient and medieval
times trere not separated by so deep a gulf in the East as in the
West; for in the East the Empire continued to exist, although
within narrow limits, until towards the end of the middle ages.
Constantinople only fell in 1453. Ecclesiastical Byzantinism is
therefore not a product of the middle ages: it is the outcome of
the envelopment of the eastern half of the empire from the time of
Constantine the Great. Under Justinian I. all its essential
features were already formed: imperial power extended equally
over State and Church; indeed, care for the preservation of
dogma and for the purity of the priesthood was the chief duty of
the ruler. To fulfil this duty was to serve the interests of both
State and people; for thus " a fine harmony is established, and
whatever good exists becomes the portion of the whole human
face." Since the emperor ruled the Church there was no longer
any question of independence* for the bishops, least of all for the
patriarch in Constantinople; they were in every respect sub-
ordinate to the emperor.
The orthodoxy of the Eastern Church was also a result of the
Church's development after the lime of Constantine. In the long
strife over dogma the old belief of the Greeks in the value of
knowledge had made itself felt, and this faith was not extinct in
the Eastern Church. There is no doubt that in the beginning of
the middle ages both general and theological education stood
higher among the Greeks than in more western countries. In the
West there were no learned men who could vie with Photius
(rt. 820-891) in range of knowledge and variety of scientific
attainment. But the strife over dogma came to an end with the
7th century. After the termination of the monolhehte con-
troversy (638-680), creed and doctrines were complete; it was
only necessary to preserve them intact Theology, therefore,
now resolved itself into the collection and
vi. «•
teaching of ancient authorities. The great dogmatist of the
Eastern Church, John of Damascus (ca. 699-753), * D0 stood on
the threshold of the middle ages, formulated dearly and precisely
his working principle: to put forward nothing of his own, but to
present the truth according to the authority of the Bible and of
the Fathers of the Church. Later teachers, Euthymius Zigadcnus
(d. circa 11 20), Nicctas Choniatcs (d. circa 1200), and others,
proceeded further on the same jines; Euthymius, in particular,
often uses an excerpt instead of giving his own exposition.
This attitude towards dogma did not mean that it was less
prized than during the period of strife. On the contrary, the
sacred formulae were revered because they were believed to
contain the determination of the highest truths: the knowledge
of God and of the mystery of salvation. Yet it is intelligible
that religious interest should have concerned itself more keenly
with the mystic rites of divine worship than with dogma. Here
was more than knowledge; hero were representations of a mystic
sensuousness, solemn rites, which brought the faithful into
immediate contact with the Divine, and guaranteed to them the
reception of heavenly powers. What could be of more importance
than to be absorbed in this transcendental world? We ma/
gauge the energy with which the Greek intellect turned in this
direction if we call to mind that the controversy about dogma
was replaced by the controversy about images. This raged in the
Eastern Church for more than a century (726-843), and only
sank to rest when the worship of images was unconditionally
conceded. In this connexion the imagc*was not looked upon
merely as a symbol, but as the vehicle of the presence and power
of that which it represented: in the image the invisible becomes
operative in the visible world. Christ did not seem to be Christ
unless he were visibly represented. What an ancient teacher had
said with regard to the worship of Christ as the revelation of the
Eternal Father—" Honours paid to the earthly representative
are shared by the heavenly Archetype " — was now transferred to
the painted image: it appeared as an analogy to the Incarnation.
It was for this reason that the victory of image worship was
celebrated by the introduction of the festival of the Orthodox
Faith.
It is consistent with this circle of ideas that initiation into the
profound mysteries of the liturgy was regarded, together with the
preservation of dogma, as the most exalted function of theology.
A beginning had been made, in the 5th century, by the neo-
platonic Christian who addressed his contemporaries under the
mask of Dionysius the Arcopagite. He is the first of a series of
theological mystics which continued through every century of
the middle ages. Maximus Confessor, the heroic defender of
Dyothclctism (d. 66 j), Symcon, the New Theologian (d. cirta
1040), Nicolaus Cabasilas (d. 137 1), and Symeon, like Nicholas,
archbishop of Thessalonica (d. 1429), were the most conspicuous
representatives of this Oriental mysticism. They left all the
dogmas and institutions of the Church untouched; aspiring
above and beyond these, their aim was religious experience.
It is this striving after religious experience that gives to the
Oriental monachism of the middle ages its peculiar character.
In the 5th and 6th centuries Egypt and Palestine had been the
classic lands of monks and monasteries. But when, in conse-
quence of the Arab invasion, the monasticism of those countries
was cut off from intercourse with the rest of Christendom, it
decayed. Constantinople and Mount Athos gained proportion-
ately in imi>ortance during the middle ages. At Constantinople
the monastery of Studium, founded about 460, attained to
supreme influence during the controversy about images. On
Mount Athos the first monastery was founded in the year 963,
and in 1045 the number of monastic foundations had reached 180.
In Greek monachism the old Hellenic ideal of the wise man who
has no wants (avr&pKua) was from the first fused with the
Christian conception of unreserved self-surrender to God as the
highest aim and the highest good. These ideas governed it in
medieval times also, and in this way monastic life received a
decided bent towards mysticism: the monks strove to realize
the heavenly life even upon earth, their highest aim being the
of God and of His ways. The teadua** <&
338
CHURCH HISTORY
Symcon " the New Theologian " on these matters lived on In the
cloisters; it was taken up by the Hcsychasts of the 14th century,
and developed into a peculiar theory as to the perception of the
Divine light In spite of all opposition their teaching was
finally justified by the Eastern Church (sixth synod of Constanti-
nople, 1351). And rightly so, for it was the old Greek piety
minted afresh.
The Eastern Church, then, throughout the middle ages,
remained true in every particular to her ancient character. It
cannot be said that she developed as did the Western Church
during this period, for she remained what she had been; but she
freely developed her original characteristics, consistently, in
every direction. This too is life, though of a different type from
that of the West.
That there was life in the Eastern Church is also proved by the
fact that the power of expansion was not denied her. Through
her agency an important bulwark for the Christian faith was
created in the new nations which had sprung into existence since
the beginning of the middle ages: the Bulgarians, the Servians,
and the multifarious peoples grouped under the name of Russians.
There is a vast difference in national character between these
young peoples and the successors of the Hellenes; and it is there-
fore all the more significant to find that both the Church and
religious sentiment should in their case have fully preserved the
Byzantine character. This proves once more the ancient capacity
of the Greeks for the assimilation of foreign elements.
There was yet anotner outcome of this stubborn persistency
of a peculiar type— the impossibility of continuing to share the
life of the Western Church. Neither in the East nor in the West
was a separation desired; but it was inevitable, since the lives
of East and West were moving in different directions. It was
the fall of Constantinople that first weakened the vital force
of the Eastern Church. May we hope that the events of modern
times are leading her towards a renaissance?
(6) The Nestorian and the Monophysite Churches.— -Since the
time when the church of eastern Syria had decided, in opposition
to the church of the Empire, to cling to the ancient views of
Syrian theologians— therefore also to the teaching and person
of Nestorius— her relations were broken off with the church in
western Syria and in Greek and Latin countries; but the power
of Nestorian, or, as it was termed, Chaldaic Christianity, was
not thereby diminished. Separated from the West, it directed
its energies towards the East, and here its nearest neighbour
was the Persian church. The latter followed, almost without
opposition, the impulse received from Syria; from the rule of
the patriarch Babaeus (Syr. Bib-hai, 498-503) she may be
considered definitely Nestorian. A certain number, too, of
Arabic Christians, believers living on the west coast of India,
the so-called Christians of St Thomas, and finally those belonging
to places nearer the middle of Asia (Merv, Herat, Samarkand),
remained in communion with the Nestorian church. Thus there
survived in mid-Asia a widely-scattered remnant, which, although
out of touch with the ancient usages of Christian civilization,
yet in no way lacked higher culture. Nestorian philosophers
and medical practitioners became the teachers of the great
Arabian natural philosophers of the middle ages, and the latter
obtained their knowledge of Greek learning from Syriac trans-
lations of the works of Greek thinkers.
Political conditions at the beginning of the middle ages
favoured the Nestorian church, and the fact that the Arabs
had conquered Syria, Palestine and Egypt, made it possible
for her to exert an influence on the Christians in these countries.
Of still more importance was the brisk commercial intercourse
between central Asia and the countries of the Far East; for
this led the Nestorians into China. The inscription of Si-ngan-fu
(before 781) proves a surprisingly widespread extension of the
Christian faith in that country. That it also possessed adherents
in southern Siberia we gather from the inscriptions of Semiryet-
chensk, and in the beginning of the nth century it found its
way even into Mongolia. Nowhere were the nations Christian,
but the Christian faith was everywhere accepted by a not
insignificant minority. The foundation of the Mongolian empire
in the beginning of the 13th century did not disturb the position
of the Nestorian church; but the revival of the Mahommcdan
power, which was coincident with the downfall of the Mongolian
empire, was pregnant with disaster for her. The greater part
of Nestorian Christendom was now swallowed up by Islam, so
that only remnants of this once extensive church have survived
until modern times.
The middle ages were far more disastrous for the Monophysites
than for the Nestorians; in their case there was no alternation
of rise and decline, and we have only a long period of gradual
exhaustion to chronicle. Egypt was the home of Monophysitism,
whence it extended also into Syria. It was due to the great
Jacob of Edcssa (Jacob Baradaeus, d. 578) that it did not succumb
to the persecution by the power of the Orthodox Empire, and
out of gratitude to him the Monophysite Christians of Syria
called themselves Jacobites. The Arab conquest (after 635)
freed the Jacobite church entirely from the oppression of the
Orthodox, and thereby assured its continuance. The church,
however, never attained any greater development, but on the
contrary continued to lose adherents from century to century.
While Jacob of Edcssa is said to have ordained some 100,000
priests and deacons for his fellow-believers, in the 16th century
the Jacobites of Syria were estimated at only 50,000 families.
The Monophysite church of Egypt had a like fate. At the
time of the separation of the churches the Greeks here had re-
mained faithful to Orthodoxy, the Copts to Monophysitism.
Here too the Arab conquest (641) put an end to the oppression
of the native Christians by the Greek minority; but this did not
afford the Coptic church any possibility of vigorous development
It succumbed to the ceaseless alternation of tolerance and
persecution which characterized the Arab rule in Egypt, and
the mass of the Coptic people became unfaithful to the Church.
At the time of the conquest of the country by the Turks (15 17)
the Coptic church seems already to have fallen to the low
condition in which the 19th century found it. Though at the
time of the Arab conquest the Copts were reckoned at six
millions, in 1820 the Coptic Christians numbered only about
one hundred thousand, and it is improbable that their number
can have been much greater at the dose of the middle ages. Only
in Abyssinia the daughter church of the Coptic church succeeded
in keeping the whole people in the Christian faith. This fact,
however, is the sole outcome of the history of a thousand years;
a poor result, if measured by the standard of the rich history
of the Western world, yet large enough not to exclude the hope
of a new development.
IL The West, (a) The Early Middle Ages. The Catholic
Church as infiuenced by the Foundation of the Teutonic States. —
While the Eastern Church was stereotyping those peculiar
characteristics which made her a thing apart, the Church of
the West was brought face to face with the greatest revolution
that Europe has ever experienced. At the end of the 6th century
all the provinces of the Empire had become independent king-
doms, in which conquerors of Germanic race formed the dominant
nationality. The remnants of the Empire showed an uncommonly
tough vitality. It is true that the Teutonic states succeeded
everywhere in establishing themselves; but only in England
and in the erstwhile Roman Germany did the Roman nationality
succumb to the Teutonic. In the other countries it not only
mantained itself, but was able to assimilate the ruling German
race; the Lombards, West Goths, Swabians, and even the
Franks in the greater part of Gaul became Romanized. Con-
sequently the position of the Christian Church was never seriously
affected. This is the great fact which stands out at the beginning
of the history of the Church in the middle ages. The continuity
of the political history of Europe was violently interrupted by
the Germanic invasion, but not that of the history of the Church.
For, in view of the facts above stated, it was of small significance
that in Britain Christianity was driven back into the western
portion of the island still held by the Britons, and that in the
countries of the Rhine and Danube a few bishoprics disappeared.
This was of the less importance, as the Church immediately
made preparations to win back the lost territory. On the
CHURCH HISTORY
339
frontier One of ancient and medieval times stands the figure of
Gregory I., the incarnation as it were of the change that was
taking place: half Father of the Church, half medieval pope.
He it was who sent the monk Augustine to England, in order
to win over the Anglo-Saxons to the Christian faith. Augustine
was not the first preacher of the Gospel at Canterbury. A
Fiankish bishop, Liudhard, had laboured there before his time;
but the mission of Augustine and his ordination as a bishop
were decisive in the conversion of the country and the estab-
lishment of the Anglo-Saxon church. On the continent
an extension of the Frankish supremacy towards the east had
already led to the advance of Christendom. Not only were the
bishoprics in the towns of the Rhine country re-established,
but as the Franks colonized the country on both sides of the
Main, they carried the Christian faith into the very heart of
Germany. Finally, the dependence of the Swabian and Bavarian
peoples on the Frankish empire paved the way for Christianity
in those provinces also. Celtic monks worked as missionaries
in this part of the country side by side with Franks. In England
it had not been possible to bring the old British and the young
Anglo-Saxon churches into friendly union; but in spite of this
the Celts did not abstain from working at the common tasks
of Christendom, and the continent has much to thank them for.
When the first century of the middle ages came to an end the
Church had not only reoccupicd the former territory of the
Empire, she had already begun to overstep its limits.
In so doing she had remained as of old and had yet become
new. Creed and dogma, above all, remained unchanged. The
doctrinal decisions of the ancient Church remained the inde-
structible canon of belief, and what the theologians of the
ancient Church had taught was reverenced as beyond improve-
ment. The entire form of divine worship remained therefore
mattered. Even where the Latin tongue was not understood
by the people, the Church preserved it in the Mass and in the
administration of the sacraments, in her exorcisms and in her
benedictions. Furthermore, the organization of ecclesiastical
offices remained unchanged: the division of the Church into
bishoprics and the grouping together of bishoprics into metro-
politan dioceses. Finally, the property and the whole social
status of the Church and of the hierarchy remained unchanged,
as did also the conviction that the perfection of the Christian
fife was to be sought and found in the monastic profession.
Nevertheless, the new conditions did exercise the strongest
influence upon the character of the Church. The churches of
the Lombards, West Goths, Franks and Anglo-Saxons, all
counted themselves parts of the Catholic Church; but the
Catholic Church had altered its condition; it lacked the power
of organization, and split up into territorial churches. Under
the Empire the ecumenical council had been looked upon as
the highest representative organ of the Catholic Church; but
the earlier centuries of the middle ages witnessed the convocation
of no ecumenical councils. Under the Empire the bishop of
Some had possessed in the Church an authority recognized and
protected by the State; respect for Rome and for the successor
of Saint Peter .was not forgotten by the new territorial churches,
but it had altered in character; legal authority had become
merely moral authority; its wielder could exhort, warn, advise
but could not command.
On the other band, the kings did command in the Church.
They certainly claimed no authority over faith or doctrine, and
they too respected doctrinal law; but they succeeded in asserting
their rights to a practical share in the government of the Church.
The clergy and laity of a diocese together elected their bishop,
as they had done before; but no one could become a bishop
against the will of the king, and the confirmation of their choice
rested with him. The bishops continued to meet in synods as
before, but the councils became- territorial synods; they were
called together at irregular intervals by the king, and their
decisions obtained legal effect only by royal sanction.
In these circumstances the intrusion of Germanic elements
bto ecclesiastical law is easy to understand. This is most
dearly recognizable in the case of churches which arose alongside
the episcopal cathedrals. In the Empire aH churches, and all
the property of the Church, were at the- disposal of the bishops;
in Germanic countries, on the contrary, the territorial nobles
were looked upon as the owners of churches built upon their
lands, and these became " proprietary churches." The logical
consequence of this was that the territorial nobles claimed the
right of appointing clergy, and the enjoyment of the revenues
of these churches derived from the land (tithes). Even a certain
number of the monastic establishments came in this way into
the possession of the feudal landowners, who nominated abbots
and abbesses as they appointed the incumbents of their churches.
With these conditions, and with the diminution of the as-
cendancy of town over country that resulted from the Teutonic
conquests, is connected the rise of the parochial system in the
country. The parishes were further grouped together into rural
deaneries and archdeaconries. Thus the diocese, hitherto a
simple unit, became an elaborately articulated whole. The
bishopric of the middle ages bears the same name as that of the
ancient Church; but in many respects it has greatness that
is new.
This transformation of old institutions is the first great result
of Germanic influence in the Christian Church. It continues to
the present day in the universal survival of the parochial system,
In the middle ages the civilizing task of the Church was first
approached in England. This was the home of the Latin
Christian literature and theology of medieval times. Aldhclm
(d. 709) and the Venerable Bede (d. 735) were the first scholars
of the period. England was also the home of Winfrid Bonifatiut
(d. 757)* We are accustomed to look upon him chiefly as a
missionary; but his completion of the conversion of the peoples
of central Germany (Thuringians and Hessians) and his share
in that of the Frisians, are the least part of his life-work. Of
more importance is the fact that, in co-operation with the bishops
of Rome, he carried out the organization of the church in Bavaria,
and began the reorganization of the Frankish church, which had
fallen into confusion and decay during the political disorders
of the last years of the Merovingians. It was Boniface, too,
who, with the aid of numerous English priests, monks and nuns,
introduced the literary culture of England into Germany.
Pippin (d. 768) and Charlemagne (d. 814) built on the founda-
tions laid by Winfrid. For the importance of Charlemagne's
work, from the point of view of the Church, consists also, not so
much in the fact that, by his conversion of the Saxons, the Avars
and the Wends in the eastern Alps, he substantially extended the
Church's dominions, as in his having led back the Frankish Church
to the fulfilment of her functions as a religious and civilizing
agent. This was the purpose of his ecclesiastical legislation.
The principal means to this end taken by him was the raising of
the status of the clergy. From the priests he demanded faithful*
ness in preaching and teaching, from the bishops the conscientious
government of their dioceses. The monasteries, too, learned
to serve the Church by becoming nurseries of literary and
theological culture. For the purpose of carrying out his ideas
Charlemagne gathered round him the best intellects of Europe.
None was more intimately associated with him than the Anglo-
Saxon Alcuin (d. 804); but he was only one among many.
Beside him are the Celts Josephus Scottus and Dungal, the
Lombards Paulinus and Paulus Diaconus, the West Goth
Thcodulf and many Franks. Under their guidance theology
flourished in the Frankish empire. It was as little original at
that of Bede; for on the continent, too, scholars were content to
think what those of old had thought before them. But in so
doing they did not only repeat the old formulae; the ideas of the
men of old sprang into new life. This is shown by the searching
discussions to which the Adoptionist controversy gave rise. At
the same time, the controversy with the Eastern Church over the
adoration of images shows that the younger Western theology
felt itself equal , if not superior to the Greek. This was in fact the
case; for it knew how to treat the question, which divided the
Greeks, in a more dispassionate and practical manner than they.
The second generation of Frankish theologians did not lag
behind the first Hrabanus of Fulda (who died archbishop of
34°
CHURCH HISTORY
Mains in 856) was in the range of his knowledge undoubtedly
Akuin's superior. He was the first learned theologian produced
by Germany. His disciple, Abbot Walaf rid Strabo of Reichcnau
(d. 840), was the author of the Glossa Oi dinar ia, a work which
formed the foundation of biblical exposition throughout the
middle ages. France was still more richly provided with theo-
logians in the 9th century: her most prominent names arc
Hincmar, archbishop of Reims (d. 882), Bishop Frudcntius of
Troyes (d. S6i), the monks Servatus Lupus (d. 86:), Radbert
Paschasius (d. circa 860), and Ratramnus (d. after 868); and the
last theologian who came into France from abroad, Johannes
Scotus Erigena (d. circa 880). The theological method of all
these was merely that of restatement. But the controversy
about predestination, which, in the oth century, Hincmar and
Hrabanus fought out with the monk Gotlschalk of Fulda, as well
as the discussions that arose from the definition of the doctrine of
transubstantiation of Radbert. enable us to gauge the intellectual
energy with which theological problems were once more being
handled.
Charlemagne followed his father's policy in carrying out his
ecclesiastical measures in close association with the bishops of
Rome. He renewed the donation of Pippin, and as Patrician he
took Rome under his protection. From Pope Adrian I. he
received the Dionyso-Hadriana, the Roman collection of material
bearing on the ancient ecclesiastical law. But the Teutonic
elements maintained their place in the law of the Frankish
Church; and this was not altered by the fact that, since Christmas
800, the king of the Franks and Lombards had borne the title of
Roman emperor. On the contrary, Rome itself was now for the
first time affected by the predominance of the new empire; for
Charlemagne converted the patriciate into effective sovereignty,
and the successor of St Peter became ihc chief metropolitan of
the Frank ish empire.
There wen;, indeed, forces tending in the contrary direction;
and these were present in the Frank --sh empire. Evidence of t his
is given by the canon law forgeriis of the 9th century: the
eapitula of Angelram, the Capitularies of Bencdictus Levita (see
Capitulary), and the great collection of the Pscudo-Isidorian
Decretals. For the moment, however, this party met with no
success. Of more importance was the fact that at Rome the old
conditions, the old claims, and the old law were unforgottcn.
Developing the ideas of Leo I., Gclasius I. and Gregory the
Great, Nicholas I. (858-867) drew a picture of the divine right
and unlimited power of the bishop of Rome, which anticipated
all that the greatest of his successors were, centuries later, actually
to effect. The time had not, however, yet come for the establish -
ment of the papal world-dominion. For, while the power of
Charlemagne's successors was decaying, the papacy itself became
involved in the confusion of the party strife of Italy and of the
city of Rome, and was plunged in consequence into such an abyss
of degradation (the so-called Pornocracy), that it was in dangerof
forfeiting every shred of its moral authority over Christendom.
(ft) Central Period of Ike Middle A$es. Dominance of the
Roman Spirit in the Church. — After the accession of the House of
Saxony (919). the national ecclesiastical system, founded upon the
principles of Caroliugian law, developed in Germany with fresh
energy. The union in 962 by Otto I. of the revived Empire with
the German kingship brought the latter into uninterrupted
contact with the papacy. The revelation of the antagonism
between the German conception of ecclesiastical affairs and
Roman views of ecclesiastical law was sooner or later inevitable.
This was most obvious in the matter of appointment to bishoprics.
At Rome canonical election was alone regarded as lawful; in
Germany, on the other hand, developments since the time of
Charlemagne had led to the actual appointment of bishops being
in the hands of the king, although the form of ecclesiastical
election was preserved. For the transference of a bishopric a
special legal form was evolved— that of investiture, the king
investing the bishop elect with the see by delivering to him the
ring and pastoral staff. No one found anything objectionable in
this; investiture with a bWiopric was parallel with the appoint-
ment by a territorial proprietor to a patronal church.
The practice customary in Germany was finally transferred to
Rome itself. The desperate position of the papacy in the mh
century obliged Henry III. to intervene. When, on the 24th Di
December 1046. after three rival popes had been set aside, he
nominated Suidgar. br-hop of Bamberg, as bishop of Rome Ufcre
all the people in St Peter's, the papacy was bestowed in the sane
way as a German bishopric; and what had occurred in this cue
was to become the rule. By procuring the transference of the «
patriciate from the Roman people to himself Henry assured Its I
influence over the appointment of the popes, and according ■„
also nominated the successors of Clement II.
I lis intervent ion saved the papacy. For the popes nominated 7
by him, Leo IX. in particular, were men of high character, *d» 1
exercised their office in a loftier spirit than their corrupt pet- 1
deccssnrs. They placed themselves at the head of the movement
for ecclesiastical reform. But was it possible for the rrjalioa
between Empire and Papacy to remain what Henry HI. bd
made it?
The original sources of this reform movement lay far bad, „
in the time of the Carolingians. It has been pointed out fcot %
Charlemagne pressed the monks into the service of his civOftog 7 _
aims. We admire this: but it is certain that he thereby alienated ""
monasticism from its original ideals. These, however, had fart* •".
strong a hold upon the Roman world for a reaction against tie "
new tendency to be long avoided. This reaction began with tie
reform of Benedict of Anianc ^d. 821), the aim of which w to
bring the Benedictine order back to the principles of its original
rule?. In the next century the reform movement acquired a "
fresh centre in the Burgundian monastery of Cluny. The energy J
of a succession of distinguished abbots and the disciples nhoo
they inspired succeeded in bringing about the victory of the '
reforming ideas in the French monasteries; once more the rule
of St Benedict controlled the life of the monks. A large number "
of the reformed monasteries attached themselves to the cce-
gregation of Cluny, thus assuring the influence of reformed
monasticism upon the Church, and securing likewise its inde- "
pendencc of the diocesan bishops, since the abbot of Cluny ww
subordinate of the pope alone. (Sec Cluny; Bekedictjkls -
and Moxasticism.) At the same time that Cluny began to gro*
into importance, other centres of the monastic reform movement
were established in Upper and Lower Lorraine; and before bog
the activity of the Cluniac monks made itself felt in Italy. la
Germany Poppo of Stavdot (d. 104S) was a successful champioc "
of their ideas; in England Dunslan (d. 98S as archbishop of
Canterbury) w'orked independently, but on similar lines. Every* "
where the object was the same: the supreme obligation of tie
Rule, the renewal of discipline, and also the economic improve-
ment of the monasteries. The nform movement had originally
no connexion with ecclesiastical politics; but that came later
when the leaders turned their attention to the abuses prevalent
among the clergy, to the conditions obtaining in the Church in
defiance of the ecclesiastical law. " Return to the canon lawl"
was now the battle-cry. In the Cluniac circle was coined the
principle: Canonica auchrilas Dei lex est, canon law being taken
in the Pscudo-Isidorian sense. The programme of reform thus
included not only the extirpation of simony and Nicolaitism,
but also the freeing of the Church from the influence of the State,
the recovery of her absolute control over all her possessions,
the liberty of the Church and of the hierarchy.
As a result, the party of reform placed itself in opposition to
those ecclesiastical conditions which had arisen since the con-
version of the Teutonic peoples. It was, then, a fact pregnant
with the most momentous consequences that Leo IX. attached
himself to the party of reform. For, thanks to him and to the
men he gathered round him (Hildcbrand, Humbert and others),
their principles were established in Rome, and the pope himself
became the leader of ecclesiastical reform. But the carrying
out of reforms led at once to dissensions with the civil power,
the starting-point being the attack upon simony.
Originally, in accordance with Acts viii. 18 ct seq. f simony
was held to be the purchase of ordination. In the 9th century
the interpretation was extended to include all acquisition of
CHURCH HISTORY
34i
Mdesutkil offices or benefices for money or money's worth.
Since the landed proprietors disposed of churches and convents,
and the kings of bishoprics and abbeys, it became possible for
dm too to commit the sin of simony; hence a final expansion,
li the nth century, of the meaning of the term. The Pscudo-
Udocian idea being that all lay control over things ecclesiastical
li wrong, all transferences by laymen of ecclesiastical offices or
benefices, even though no money changed hands in the process,
tocfe bow classed as simony (Humbert, Advcrsus Simoniacos,
1057-1058). Thus the lord who handed over a living was a
rinonist, and so too was the king who invested a bishop. On
thai question the battle began. The Church at first refrained
from contesting the rights of the landowners over their own
churches, and concentrated her attack upon investiture. In
1059 the new system of papal election introduced by Nicholas II.
ensured the occupation of the Holy Sec by a pope favourable to
the party of reform; and in 1078 Gregory VII. issued his pro-
hibition of lay investiture. In the years of conflict that followed
Gregory looked far beyond this point; he set his aim ever
higher; until, in the end, his idea was to concentrate all ecclesi-
astical power in the hands of the pope, and to raise the papacy
to the dominion of the world. Thus was to be realized the old
dream of Augustine: that of a Kingdom of God on earth under
the rule of the Church. But it was not given to Gregory to reach
this goal, and his successors ha'd to return again to the strife
over Investiture. The settlement of mi may be said to have
embodied the only solution of the great question that was right
In principle, since it pronounced in favour of a clear distinction
be t we e n the spiritual and temporal spheres. However, a solution
that was right in principle proved impossible in practice, and the
bog struggle ended in a compromise by the Concordat of Worms
(li as). The essential part of this was that the Empire accepted
the canonical election of bishops, and allowed the metropolitan
lo confer the sacred office by gift of ring and pastoral staff;
wUk the Church acknowledged that the bishop held his temporal
rights from the Empire, and was therefore to be invested with
them by a touch from the royal sceptre. A similar solution was
arrived at In England. Henry I. also renounced his claim to
bestow ring and pastoral staff, but kept the right of induction
hto the temporalities (1x06-1107). In France the demands of
the Church were successful to the same degree as in England
and Germany, but without ahy conflict. Thus the Germanic
dement in the law regarding appointment to bishoprics was
eliminated. Somewhat later it disappeared also in the case of
the churches of less importance, patronal rights over these being
Ojbstitutcd for the former absolute ownership. The pontificate
Of Alexander III. (1150-1181) decided this.
Since the time of Charlemagne Germanic influence had pre-
ponderated in the West, as is shown in the expansion of the
Church no less than in matters of ecclesiastical law. The whole
progress of Christianity in Europe from the 9th to the 12th
century was due — if we exclude Eastern Christendom — to the
Teutonic nations; neither the papacy nor the peoples of Latin
lice were concerned in it. German priests and bishops carried
the Christian faith to the Czechs and the Moravians, laboured
among the Hungarians and the Poles, and won the wide district
between the Elbe and the Oder at once for Christianity and for
the German nation. Germany, too, was the starting-point for
the conversion of the Scandinavian countries, which was com-
pleted by English priests with the assistance of native princes.
But, even while the Teutonic peoples were thus taking the
lead, we can see the Latin races beginning to assert themselves.
The monastic reform movement was essentially Latin in origin;
tad even more significant was the fact that scholasticism, the
new theology, had its home in the Latin countries. Aristotelian
dialectics had always been taught in the schools; and reason as
1 aa authority had been appealed to as the foundation of
p;.but for the theologians of the 9th and 10th centuries,
rthod had been merely that of restatement, ratio and
were in perfect accord. Then Bcrengar of Tours
(d. 1088) ventured to set up reason against authority: by reason
tht truth must be decided. This involved the question of the
relation in theology of authority and reason, and of whether the
theological method is authoritative or rational. To these ques-
tions Bcrengar gave no answer; he was ruined by his opposition
to Radbert's docfUne of transubstantiation. The Lombard
Anselm (d. nop), archbishop of Canterbury, was the first to deal
with the subject. He took as his starting-point the traditional
faith; but he was convinced that whoever has experience of the
truths of the faith would be able to understand them. In
accordance with this principle he pointed out the goal of theology
and the way to its attainment: the function of theology is to
demonstrate dogmas sola ration*.
It was a bold conception— too bold for the medieval world, for
which faith was primarily the obligation to believe. It was easy,
therefore, to understand why Anselm's method did not become
the dominant one in theology. Not he, but the Frenchman
Abelard (d. 1142), was the creator of the scholastic method.
Abelard, too, started from tradition; but he discovered that the
statements of the various authorities are very often in the relation
of sic ci tion, yes and no. Upon this fact he based his pronounce-
ment as to the function of theology: it must employ the .dialectic
method to reconcile the contradictions of tradition, and thus to
shape the doctrines of the faith in accordance with reason. By
teaching this method Abelard created the implements for the
erection of the great theological systems of the schoolmen of the
1 2th and 13th centuries: Peter Lombard (d. 1160), Alexander
of If ales (d. 1245), Albcrtus Magnus (d. 1280), and Thomas
Aquinas (d. 1275). They adventured a complete exposition of
Christian doctrine that should be altogether ecclesiastical and
at the same time altogether rational. In so doing they set to
work at the same time to complete the development of ecclesi-
astical dogma; the formulation of the Catholic doctrine of the
Sacraments was the work of scholasticism.
Canon law is the twin-sister of scholasticism. At the very
time when Peter Lombard was shaping his Sentences, the monk
Gratian of Bologna was making a new collection of laws. It was
not only significant that in the Concordia discordantium canonum
ecclesiastical laws, whether from authentic or forged sources,
were gathered together without regard to the existing civil law;
of even greater eventual importance was the fact that Gratian
taught that the contradictions of the canon law were to be
reconciled by the same method as that used by theology to
reconcile the discrepancies of doctrinal tradition. Thus Gratian
became the founder of the science of canon law, a science which,
like the scholastic theology, was entirely ecclesiastical and
entirely rational (sec Canon Law).
Like the new theology and the new science of law, the new
monastic ism was also rooted in Latin soil. In the first of the
new orders, that of the Cistercians (1098), the old monastic
ideal set forth in the Rule of Benedict of Nursia still prevailed;
but in the constitution and government of the order new ideas
were at work. In the Premonstratensian order, however,
founded in 11 20 by Norbert of Xanten, a new conception of
the whole function of monachism was introduced: tho duty
of the priest-monk is not only to work out his own salvation,
but, by preaching and cure of souls, to labour for others. This
was the dominant idea of the order of friars preachers founded
in 1 216, on the basis of the Premonstratensian rule, by Dominic
of Osma (see Dominic, Saint, and Dominicans). It was also
the basis of the order of friars minor (Franciscans, a.v.), founded
in X2XO. For the foundation of Francis of Assisi came into
existence as a society of itinerant preachers: no one was more
deeply convinced than Francis of the duty of working for others,
and his own mission was, as he said, to win souls. But with
this idea he fused another, namely, that it is the task of the monk
to imitate the humility and poverty of Jesus; and his order
thus became a mendicant order. From the earliest times the
monks had renounced all private property, and no individual
monk, but only the order to which he belonged, could acquire
possessions. For Francis this was not enough: he put " holy
poverty" in place of renunciation of private property, and
allowed neither monk nor monastery to have any possessions
whatever; for only thus b the faUQNita%<& yaH&oosw^RXfc* \*
»»* -0 — - -s^ji •*».■*> :
s^
CHLRCH HISTORY
Tj a _ae 3^jr js. -.-=1 :t' t--^-. -J;
•»■&■■ ^ ^.-.•.t^ r* - . -r-<
< 1* T
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;cas:n:t.; :*r le;.,::^
:- e:iir l; lie
:i. s^:i is lie
::? i_i.: r^-' liise
s.i_i*j xzi lie .."ic
L:v :r:= i>e ucfe-ii
C^:-::=. L: tie
cf 5pili ni scile-m
.lywar. In
+r~srK'; b .- -. ti . »r» h"-js • i :t :: "•.".ir 1^.1 :>i p-ijil
i_ioe-. :l £ : "• j^ur
n; :i izir. ? «'ii *-
Vf. .v .
V v>
> V 7?
v •.*.« •v-iiiii.i: :***.—. *rrs*Z-'~:
■•*-* its. :.*■>««: ..-.*» _i_... r-iry
7*ut s*r» £#.»•./ '...; t*.- v.\ .zaJ.
\*'\::: I '& v. •-«• ."./..' «-.."i -
M/**r.*»-*; \- -.-*. '. y ' r •* v. piziz
Svjr/. *.,—>-.•.; !>'.■••- ..tt., ■■-.rrclT.
m \ ■• :jk*. yi\*y£ -A '..". uza .:.'* dr.
*v * I v. ••rr.x* *« z,-.: cnviil. t
I* >»-■: ">.*. ir '„-*.*. vy; .-_&*.; •-.-.* 11 bi::."» i
i jr. %vi ir.*. «-• j-.a tie cil-alry
ftiT-tA lV/« .p ihe i:r-^t -*l:i the Mxn « a h
liyr j.'.rr. of rv/ '.he r./i-es of f rar.ie aii lizLy. ;:lrsi hy
t v ^ ?r*/nr.ir. r,trr,.'.s of Er.jLir.i ir.i £.:„>-. k: c: :.; -»r^; d^
}(*«V L»:.'l rroT. :h* ■..-.'-, i..'ev«s, a-. _ -i f*.r -"-re :iia a C£-:-_ry
t-* t/ " (Jr.?'..\'\ Itr.l rr. -:t Lc > ir. for Cirj:/' eicrc^id as
Aii •»..*. Tr'^r.? % .T.'jrK'y tri.'a'ior. '.: ?'r.t Cr.urcr.. *iiJ: ruled
i:.* r.-.,.'.-: , of rr.*r. 4'. ■.: * hjb.'l hir'./ «vc: 'l»r. a . be: ire. Ncr *ia
it ;/a'.iM'. fh*i ir.* ys. '.'..*:. of tht Li.Kopof k',sc. the s„-r«ne
»..»/! r/f i^ V.'-.'^rr. f.r..rth, ihi.M r-crri;'. M -aftc:*i by it.
'I *o of \\.-. n.'*A j*sA*riil of the Orr.ir. cspercrs, Freiirick
J »r./i hi-. t//ri if«:r.ry v I , sT-jg-'td to r-.r.t* ar.i to rilr.iila the
iffij/* /•al'...;#rrrr.*'/'''' <! r '-^ J*4p^cy. Tht^j-.&e rtliliirj tetv.ecn
/•onh'.rii I'a'y sr.'l tK* hrr.p.rc, ar.d iJ.c -.'.I^ri cf the sovereiy.ty
of ViUik'.rn I'--..'/ *iih th*i Orr.iri r.:r,-?.r,, set^.td to afford the
rii« ar,-. for lr*» j«: ;: f'orrt in vj*#j».i.f ior t . U-t Frederick I. fought
a Iv.ihK l#'in!'\ *:■'! ViiK-n at lh*r p^aie of Vcr.ice f 1 177^ he
tif,y.uit/'l Al</4.'i'f'r III a% jx#[y.', hr ; rcli'n'-jii'.h'.'i the hope of
*iTt/iuf, out In-. |i.»Jiifj ffAry, *hiJ'r ifcr.ry VI. die*J at the
«-<rly »J5t of ilurty i/.o dioj;, r^forc his far-rtaohir.g schemes
'Ilir fifM wa-, tlnr. 'l*-ar»:«l for tht full o'cvclopmrr.l of papal
power. 'I his had Kr<:.*it|y ir.-' r*a«.r.'I iintc the Concordat of
Worm*., arct t'A(\,A it. h« ;;«ht ur ( 'I«r Inrio<f:M III. ^no3-iai6).
Innorrrit l/*licv«:'I hi»rr«.lf to Ik- th«! rr-prf'-rttativc of God, and
hs tw.li thr ^jpn-rrt^ po.^.'-.-.or of hoth spiiitual and temporal
powrr. \\f. lliMrfor*.- i\.nmA in both '.phrres the supreme
adinini'.lrativi', Ugi .l.itjvr and judi' i;il Authority. Ju:.t as he
c«»n%i'hrrd him. 4 If Mitiidd loiippoint to nil '.M.lt.iastical offices,
so nlv> h<- in ■/«■•.! 1 d the * rnjM-r««r Willi his tropin: and kings with
thtir kiNKdoriii Nut only did h«.- d«..piw h hh drc.rttals to the
1if1lvrrr.il ir*. to form I hi: h;i i-. of tin ti:iihiiig of the canon law
and <»f fh<- dniiioir. foundrd ujkmi it, hut he considered himself
rm|Mjwrr<-d lo Aiitml <ivil Ijw .. 'Unit In; annulled the Great
C hiirtrr in uiv Jtr.l n-i thr Curi.t u.v. the i.nprcmr court of
•p|M-a| in t-wlf '.iirilif ;il t;\u.r'., *,o nlv» the po|>c threatened
divihrdirnl ptiiiff. with d» jfi.il ji.ri, e % ihf; cmjicror Otto IV.
111 nio, ami Jnlui of l.ni'.hud in isis.
Thr old iir.liliiiiniii of I In- (';iihfi|n Chunli win- transformed
t«» suit llir rirw p^imIioii nf I hi- |ni|N'. I- linn 1 r j ^ onward there
h.td .iK««ln \i-in Inlk of kmhi.iI i'miiu il., Iml, unlike those of
r.nliir Iihm-\ thi-,r wrir ii-.MinMir. Miintnoiird hy ihc pope,
who 1 iiiifii mi d tlnir irviliitiniit 'I In- 1 .umiiii .1] rlettion of
liiHlmp-. nlvi iiiiitiniiid to Im- di ■• 11 ,i'|, Iml the <»ld tin" tors,
i.M. 1 ha Lkigy and Imly ul tlic diocr^^ yvcie deprived of the
: :t
;«:
ri exd'isr.'iiy to the
~^=- Tjm :«iicc5 ii-c i-c-- :.-i tlie, but they
£=s&--s l-.tt - ..- as :_^.:?s hy jraxe of the
l" ::r :irr 1 •— - *iirr i iicir Lxeses as pkni-
^ ^s >?e. ir.: £s ^j=e >-=: cc e-.tz ibc Church's
s"i~r.- zeexzut =^r= xz«i r/:r- ccc^efitratcd is
ire pepe ie- 1a ;nsm:>
•Ju a-:cj_r h iib:- lii tius become
-s :r iv^rsr-e :j—-cral authority
^u-z. al^cr^i Iz>xeat III. had
'_:■ iz_":rc£-i .^ i.r< j:cf scr-igle afloat Frederick
zj?i :c z\: C^fzr; IX. izz:-iz±: izi Innocent IV.
:•- - -i sc; rau-i ^ -."ic:^. =c ;apal sentence,
• iii± .1st; i*jrrr»i 12* ezrpercr cf his dominions;
e= Sr-irg '.HI :r^-:j=; . xhc ^ the bull L'm«
1 :;s: fx~s lie ?■*£<*- cli.-s :c i^vcrsil dominion
irsi. ^iims--i-i -x-.^: FrJ., IV. c: Frarce about
li: -Tiici^c re" iie rry*! pc-r-r. ie c:ili -■:: ru: perceive that
lie ^iw:=-k. =:cirii7 i^i :«■:.:=* a :;r:e * L^ 1: was impossible
_ : J.- re :; -u IT^i^ .1;-^". Liz^^r -:«.'*.— iniae the
Lz_rr: -ia ;. s: a: us isip: cr *er pc»tr ike great revolution
i«x=- »h_ii » is :; t:: _i ^ ur-cuvic cf iiat uzioa between
^e Ti.-;cn! 1:1 iiz 5? _-.rjL *«:_-■;. *-r icr her denurioa, had
ciinciirlai ^u: \Jt c: ih< Wes^ T>.< Terrr-cnl now claimed
.is r~~-7*~ "-*="-*- The ^:L-_^ ^:-v er c: zi< E— jire, indeed, had
:«- sii::erri. hi: ii-s I:i: ill lie =:re r:<a for the vigorous
ieve.';-— s-; cf rj.i:c_L 511:25. r:n:ly c: Frxrce and England.
A: :i* sa— < ti=e iz'.Ci-z'-^x. L:; *i5 crrlciii by a ireaith of
fresh v:*-** izi re*" iiiii. ?«ir*J> ;ie rcsJ: cf the bus>- inter-
ccirse ■■i-Ji r±e Eas; :o '•i:^ lie Cr^saies had given the first
i=ijje:-^s. xzd *t:'zh hoi beez sire-igiiened azd extended by
Lvely -^aie reixLcr*. P" 1 ^:-* c: " «^ c revived s;udy. eagerly
p'-rs^e-i. cf az^Jeii 7hilcscphy azi lieraiure s« Renaissanci).
Old ferns beca=:e too nazre-v. azi \*ip:rcusly growing national
literatures appeared s'.U by side «:ii the universal Latin
Lien:ure. The life cf the Church, ccrcovcr. was afected by the
eccrr.—'.z chafes due to *J>e rise cf the power of money as
opposed to the ell ecczcnuc systc-s kiied upon land.
The efTccrj cf these changes cade therr^elves felt on all sides,
in so case more strongly th^n in that cf ihe papal claims to the
supreme goverr.mes t c f the wc rid. Thcore tically they * ere suH
ur.v.ivchr.gly asserted; indeed il was not till this time that they
received the.'r most uncompromising expression (Augustinns
I Triumphus. d. ijrS; .\I varus Pclagi'-s. d. 135^. After Boniface
VIII., ho v. ever, no pepe seriously attempted to realize them;
to do so had in fact become impossible, for from the time of their
residence at Avignon (1305-1377) the popes were in a state of
complete dependence upon the French crown. But even the
curialistic theory met everywhere with opposition. In France
Philip IV.'s jurists maintained that the temporal power was
independent of the spiritual. In Italy, a little later, Dante
championed the divine right of the emperor (De Monorchia,
13 1 1). In Germany, Marsiglio of Padua and Jean of Jandun, the
literary allies of the emperor Louis IV., ventured to define anew
the nature of the civil power from the standpoint of natural law,
and to assert its absolute sovereignly {Defensor pads, c. 135*);
while the Franciscan William of Occam (d. 1349) examined, alio
in Louis' interests, into the nature of the relation between the two
powers. He too concluded that the temporal power is inde-
pendent of the spiritual, and is even justified in invading the
sphere of the latter in cases of necessity.
While these thoughts were filling men's minds, opposition to
the papal rule over the Church was also gaining continually in
strength. The reasons for this were numerous, first among them
being the abuses of the papal system of finance, which had to
provide funds for the vast administrative machinery of the
Curia. There was also the boundless abuse and arbitrary
exercise of the right of ecclesiastical patronage (provisions,
reservations); and further the ever-increasing traffic in dis-
pensations, the abuse of spiritual punishments for worldly ends,
and so forth; No means, however, existed of enforcing an/
CHURCH HISTORY
343
remedy until the papal schism occurred in 1378. Such a schism
as this, so intolerable to the ecclesiastical sense of the middle ages,
necessitated the discovery of some authority superior to the rival
popes, and therefore able to put an end to their quarrelling.
General councils were now once more called to mind; but these
were no longer conceived as mere advisory councils to the pope,
but as the highest representative organ of the universal Church,
and as such ranking above the pope, and competent to demand
obedience even from him. This was the view of the Germans
Conrad of Gelnhausen (d. 1300) and Hcinrich of Langenstein (d.
1397)1 as also of the Frenchmen Pierre d'Ailli (d. 1420) and Jean
Charlier Cerson (d. 1429). These all recognized in the convoca-
tion of a general council the means of setting bounds to the
abuses in the government of the Church by an extensive reform.
The council of Pisa (1409) separated without effecting anything;
but the council of Constance (1414-1418) did actually put an end
to the schism. The reforms begun at Constance and continued
at Basel (1431-1449) proved, however, insufficient. Above all,
the attempt to set up the general council as an ordinary institu-
tion of the Catholic Church failed; and the Roman papacy,
restored at Constance, preserved its irresponsible and unlimited
power over the government of the Church. (See Papacy;
Constance, Council op, and Basel, Council op.)
Thus the attempt to reform the Church by means of councils
failed; but this very failure led to the survival of the desire for
reform. It was kept alive by the most various circumstances;
in the 6rst instance by the attitude of the European states.
Thanks to his recognition by the powers, Pope Eugcnius IV.
(1431-1447) had been victorious over the council of Basel; but
neither France nor Germany was prepared to forgo the reforms
passed by the council. France secured their validity, as far as
she herself was concerned, by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourgcs
Only 7, 1438); Germany followed with the Acceptation of Mainz
(March ao, 1439). The theory of the papal supremacy held by
the Curia was thus at least called in question.
The antagonism of the opposition parties was even more
pronounced. The tendencies which they represented had been
present when the middle ages were yet at their height; but the
papacy, while at the zenith of its power, had succeeded in
crushing the attacks made upon the creed of the Church by its
most dangerous foes, the dualistic Cathari. On the other hand it
had not been able to overcome the less radical opposition of the
" Poor Man of Lyons " (Waldo, d. c. 1217), and even in the 15th
century stray supporters of the Waldensian teaching were to be
found in Italy, France and Germany, everywhere keeping alive
mistrust of the temporal power of the Church, of her priesthood
and her hierarchy. In England the hierarchy was attacked by
John Wycliffe (d. 1384), its greatest opponent before Luther.
Starting from Augustine's conception of the Church as the
community of the elect, he protested against a church of wealth
and power, a church that had become a political institution
instead of a school of salvation, and against its head, the bishop of
Rome. Wycliffe's ideas, conveyed to the continent, precipitated
the outbreak of the Hussite storm in Bohemia. The council of
Constance thought to quell it by condemnation of Wycliffc's
teaching and by the execution of John Huss (1415)* But in vain.
The flame burst forth, not in Bohemia alone, where Huss's death
gave the signal for a general rising, but also in England among the
Lollards, and in Germany among those of Huss's persuasion, who
had many points of agreement with the remnant of the Waldenscs.
(See Huss; Wycliffe; Lollards; Waldenses.)
This was open opposition; but there was besides another
opposing force which, though it raised no noise of controversy,
yet was far more widely severed from the views of the Church
than either Wycliffe or Huss: this was the Renaissance, which
began its reign in Italy during the 14th century. The Re-
naissance meant the emancipation of the secular world from
the domination of the Church, and it contributed in no small
measure to the rupture of the educated class with ecclesiastical
tradition. Beauty of form alone was at first sought, and found in
the antique; but, with the form, the spirit of the classical
towards life was revived. While the Church, like a
careful mother, sought to lead her children, never allowed to grow
up, safely from time into eternity, the men of the Renaissance
felt that they had come of age, and that they were entitled to
make themselves at home in this world. They wished to possess
the earth and enjoy it by means of secular education and culture,
and an impassable gulf yawned between their views of religion
and morality and those of the Church.
This return to the ideals of antiquity did not remain confined to
Italy, but the humanism of the northern countries presents no
dose parallel to the Italian renaissance. However much it
agreed in admiration of the ancients, it differed absolutely in its
preservation of the fundamental ideas of Christianity. But
neither Rcuchlin (d. 1522), Erasmus (d. 1536), Faber d'£taples
(d. 1536), Thomas More (d. 1535), nor the numerous others who
were their disciples, or who shared their views, were in the least
degree satisfied with the conditions prevailing in the Church.
Their ideal was a return to that simplicity of primitive Christen-
dom which they believed they found revealed in the New
Testament and in the writings of the early Fathers.
To this theology could not point the way. Since the time of
Duns Scotus (d. 1308) theologians had been conscious of the
discrepancy between Aristotelianism and ecclesiastical dogma.
Faith in the infallibility of the scholastic system was thus shaken,
and the system itself was destroyed by the revival of philosophic
nominalism, which had been discredited in the nth century by
the realism of the great schoolmen. It now found a bold sup-
porter in William of Occam (g.v.), and through him became widely
accepted. But nominalism was powerless to inspire theology
with new life; on the contrary, its intervention only increased
the inextricable tangle of the hairsplitting questions with which
theology busied itself, and made their solution more and more
impossible.
Mysticism, moreover, which had no lack of noteworthy
supporters in the 14th and 15th centuries, and the various new
departures in thought initiated by individual theologians such
as Nicolaus Cusanus (d. 1464) and Wcssel Gansfort (d. 1489),
were not competent to restore to the Church what she had once
possessed in scholasticism— that is to say, a conception of
Christianity in which all Christendom recognized the convictions
in which it lived and had its being.
This was all the more significant because Western Christendom
in the 15th century was by no means irreligious. Men's minds
were agitated by spiritual questions, and they sought salvation
and the assurance of salvation, using every means prescribed
by the Church: confession and the communion, indulgences
and relics, pilgrimages and oblations, prayers and attendance
at church; none of all these were contemned or held cheap.
Yet the age had no inward peace.
After the failure of the attempts at reform by the councils,
the guidance of the Church was left undisturbed in the hands of
the popes, and they were determined that it should remain so.
In 1450 Eugcnius IV. set up in opposition to the council of Basel
a general council summoned by himself, which met first at
Ferrara and afterwards at Florence. Here he appeared to score
a great success. The split between East and West had led In
the 1 1 th century to the rupture of ecclesiastical relations between
Rome and Constantinople. This schism had lasted since the
16th of July 1054; but now a union with the Eastern Church
was successfully accomplished at Florence. Eugcnius certainly
owed his success merely to the political necessities of the emperor
of the East, and his union was forthwith destroyed owing to its
repudiation by oriental Christendom; yet at the same time his
decretals of union were not devoid of importance, for in them the
pope reaffirmed the scholastic doctrine regarding the sacraments
as a dogma of the Church, and he spoke as the supreme head of
all Christendom.
This claim to the supreme government of the Church was to be
steadily maintained. In the year 151 2 Julius II. called together
the fifth Latcran general council, which expressly recognized the
subjection of the councils to the pope (Leo X.'s bull Pastor
I Aeiernum, of the 19th of December 1516), and also declared the
I constitution Uuam Sanciam (see above) valid fo\acw«
344
CHURCH HISTORY
But the papacy that sought to win back Its old position was
itself do longer the same as of old. Eugcnius IV 's succes?cr.
Nicholas V. ( 1447-14 5 5^ was the first of the Renaissarce per**.
Under his successors the views which prevailed at the secular
courts of the Italian princes came likewise into play at the Cu::a :
the papacy became an Italian princedom. Innocent VIII..
Alexander VI., Julius II. were in many respects rerrarkal !e n-cn.
but they were scarcely affected by the convictions of the Christiar.
faith. The terrible tragedy which was consummated on the r.-rd
of May 1498 before the Palazzo Veochio. in Florence, casts a
lurid light upon the irreconcilable opposition in which the wearers
of the papal dignity stood to medieval piety; for Girolarco
Savonarola was in every fibre a loyal son of the medieval Church.
Twenty years after Savonarola's death Martin Luther male
public his theses against indulgences. The Reformation which
thus began brought the disintegrating rrocess of the middle
ages to an end, and at the same time divided Western Catholicism
in two. Yet we may say that this was its salvation; for the
struggle against Luther drove the papacy back to its ecclesiastical
duties, and the council of Turn established medieval dogma
as the doctrine of modern Catholicism in contradistinction to
Protestantism. fSee also Papacy; Renaissance; Reforma-
tio.*, and biographies of popes, &c.)
ACTHoainrs.— For sources see U. Chevalier. Repertoire des
t&urifi kultrifrgt du mojfndre (Paris. 1003); A. Pottha&t. Bit! to-
Out* titfftruA mted%i cjt.i (B-rlin, 1896); «• Watrcnbach, Deuiuh-
lamdi Ceukickti^itfilrn im Mutelzller (;ih ed.. Stuttgart. 1904^;
A. M '•tinier, Les Sounti d< I'hii'.oire de la France (Paris, 1901).
Gf ji I Tnntbe»: I*hi1rp Sthan*. History ej the Christian Chunk
tu YtA* t sih ed-, N™ York. ii^iSo^j. vol. iv. Medieval Chris-
tinw\t fv W. Moclkf, Lrhrfaih der Ktrckeneeschuhte, vol. ii. Das
MtfUMicr {FrtiUuti, i&yij. H. II. Mil man. History ofLatin Chris-
/!**>?/ 'fc vol*, sad cd .. London, 1857). Particular Treatises: J.
Lin^rd. The History end Antiquities of the Ar.t!o~Saxon Church
(2 \u\\. ird ed., London. 1845;; E. Churion. The Early Entlish
Churth (London, 187*;; A. Martineau, Chunk History in Enrland
from the Lnrlie.it Times to the Pu formation (London. 1S78) ; \V. Hunt.
The English Church from its Foundation to the Norman Conquest
(London. i8yy); W. Stufibs. Constitutional History of England
(\ volt.. London, 1874-1870;: A. Bellesheim, Ceschichte der kathol.
Ktrrhe tn Uhotlland (2 vols., Mainz, iSSj; Engl, tran&l. with Notes
and Additions by O. H. UUir. 4 vols.. Edinburgh. 1887-1890);
V.. ^n-phfn. Hi'.lory of the Scottish Church (Edinburgh, 1894-1896,
2 vol-.., ; W. D. K.I'en, The EcrlrtiaUical Hiztory of Ireland {2 vol*.,
J-ond<.n, 1875-1878); A. Belledu-im, Ceschichte der kath. K ire he
in hhnf (3 \iAs. t Main*. 1 *>&- 1 09 1) ; F. Ret there. Kirchentestkickte
IJtutuhtandt (2 \'.U. Gfttingea, 1^46, iSjfc); A. Hau^lt, Ktrthen-
tr-.'hukte DeutuUantit (4 vols., Lcipiig. 3rd cd. f 1904): GtfTu
Lhn-.uana tn provincint tut. dirtrifai* (16 and 3 vols,. Pari*, 1715^
l'/*'K h. N. Kagpr. tfiitoire de Vrgtii* caikot. en Franct dt fruit sen
origin*, (iff vol v. Pari*, 160J-1873); Uchelli. Italia mot (lo vols..
Venue, 1717- 1 7aa j ; P r Cams, Kitdv*tuck4ckU ton Spovien
(e, vols., Kf-ifen-Jjurg, i«£j-r&;9); H, Rtmrrdahl. Stenske Kyrkans
h\\u,na (3 volv, Lund, JSjS-iSoi); A. v. Maurer, Die Bekchrkng
d'\ norwegiscken Sta-mmts (j vol*,, Munich, TBs^-tSjo) ; Banp;
Vdiigt over den norzke Kitkrt AiiJtru mndet KatfiJieiimen (Chri^
tiania, 1887;; P. Gim* k .Series epiitapctnm ttdtsiae ictkriiioe
(H'yrnsluT?. 1873); C, Eubel, Hifrankia caiholiiQ malii am"
(2 vtA*., Mumter. i8^ t 1001): P + Htrischiu^, Syium An kath.
K\r<hmrrihti (t, vols, Berlin, 1 860-189*) * E, Frifiberj, Lthrbuck
des Kirchenrechtt (stu rd. # Leiptri. 1903); U. Stuu, '* Kirthcn-
mht " flloltaefylorli-KuPder. Emykiopaedie der Rtcfitntiiirnnhajh
<T#ih ti\. IL l^-ipzig, 1004); B. Itaur^jtr, Ilistoire dt In pkijinopkit
scola'.tijue (Pari%, 1872); F. S-hnranr, Dor;mrnrestkit&£e der vtiu
tier en Zeit (Yv.'AmTZ, \UfT)\ \. Eberl t Atttrm. Getekickt* drr Liit™t*r
dri Miitelalters im AlnrnftkyJ* { \ \uW r Lripti^, 1874-1887)^. F. \ t
llcftlc, Coniilieniesthuhtt {md ed,, g vols,, rreiburg, i8ji-i Ftooi
C. The Modern Chuicb
The hsu'e in 1 564 of the canons of the council of Trent marks
a very definite epoch in the history of the Christian Church.
Up till that time, in spite of the schism of East and West and of
innumerable heresies, the idea of the Church as Catholic, not only
in its faith but in its organization, had been generally accepted.
From this conception the Reformers had, at the outset, no
intention of depart in, «. Their object had been to purify the
Church of medieval arm:! ions, and to restore the primitive
model in the light of the new learning; the idea of rival
" churches," differing in their fundamental doctrines and in
their principles of organization, existing side by side, was as
abherret: to then as to the moil rigid ptrtbnof Human cental.
iz2\:-. a. The actual divisions of Western Christendom axe the
c ut ; .- rre. less of the purely religious influences of the ReioraaliM
1 <r\<l :^an c f the political forces with whkh they were assochled
a r d c jexused. W hen it became dear that the idea of doctrinal
charge »ou!d nnd no acceptance at Rome, the Kefonoi
arr^^cd to the divine authority of the civil power against tail
of the popes: and princes within their several states succeeded
as the result of purely political struggles and co m b rntH oat, I
<s:al S;«h:rg the form of religion best suited to their conviction
or their policy. Thus over a great part of Europe the Cathofi
Church nas split up into territorial or national churches, wbkl,
wfca:e\er the theoretical ties which bound then together, wi
in fact serrate organizations, tending ever more and mmt I
become isolated and self-contained units with no formal sstn
commur.ion. and. as the rivalry of nationalities grew, m^l
increasingly little e\Tn of intercommunication.
It was not. indeed, till the settlement of Westphalia la rM
after the Thirty Years' War, that this territorial drriskai
Christ cr.dom became stereoiyped, but the process had bee
coir.g on for a hundred years previously; in some states, ml
England and Scotland, it had long been completed; in otkfl
as in South Germany, Bohemia and Poland, it was defca*
by the political and missionary efforts of the Jesuits and otat
agfnts of the counter-Reformation. In any case, it recerwdi
vast impetus from the action of the council of Trent. With 4
issue of the Tridentine canons, all hope even of compress)
between the " new " and the " old " religions was deinfee}
closed. The anathema of the Roman Church had fallen uposs 1
the fundamental doctrines for which the Reformers had contcsss
and died; the right of free discussion within the hnrits of ft
creeds, w hich had given room for the speculations of the medieU
philosophers, was henceforth curtaQed and confined; and A
definitions of the schoolmen were for ever exalted by thesutkg
of Rome into dogmas of the Church. The Latin Church, wHp
by combining the tradition of the Roman centralized organisstio
with a gTcat elasticity in practice and in the interpretation t
doctrine, had hitherto been the moulding force of dvilixauml
the West, is henceforth more or less in antagonism to A
civilization, which advances in all its branches— in scienesj
literature, in art— to a greater or less degree outside of tad!
spite of her, until in its ultimate and most characteristic dr*sj
ments it falls under the formal condemnation of the ff
formulated in the famous Syllabus of 1864. Considered framt
standpoint of the world outside, the Roman Church Is, noli
than the Protestant communities, merely one of the sects ■
which Western Christendom has been divided— the most I
portant and widespread, it is true, but playing in the feat
life and thought of the world a part immeasurably less import]
than that filled by the Church before the Reformation, andi
in no sense justifying her claim to be considered as. the J
inheritor of the tradition of the pre-Reformation Church.
If this be true of the Roman Catholic Church, it is still n
so of the other great communities and confessions which emer
from the controversies of the Reformation. Of these the AngU
Church held most closely to the tradition of Catholic organizafi
but she has never made any higher claim than to be one of "
three branches of the Catholic Church," a claim repudiated
Rome and never formally admitted by the Church of the E
The Protestant churches established on the continent, e
where— as in the case of the Lutherans— they approximate n
closely than the official Anglican Church to Roman doct:
and practice, make no such claim. 'The Bible is for them
real source of authority in doctrine; their organization is f
and parcel of that of the state. They are, in fact, the state ir
religious aspect, and as such are territorial or national,
Catholic. This tendency has been common in the East •
where with the growth of Tacial rivalries the Orthodox Chi
has split into a series of national churches, holding the same fi
but independent as to organization.
A yet further development, of comparatively recent groi
has been the formation of what are now commonly caUet
CHURCHILL, C.
345
3
England the " free churches." These represent a theory of the
Church practically unknown to the Reformers, and only reached
through the necessity for discovering a logical basis for the
coflinumifift of conscientious dissidents from the established
ch u rches. According to this the Catholic Church is not a visibly
organized body, but the sum of all " faithful people " throughout'
the world, who group themselves in churches modelled according
to their convictions or needs. For the organization of these
chuTches no divine sanction is claimed, though all are theoretically
modelled on the lines laid down in the Christian Scriptures.
It follows that, while in the traditional Church, with its c'lim to
an unbroken descent from a divine original, the individual is
subordinate to the Church, in the " free churches " the Church
is in a certain sense secondary to the individual. The believer
may pass from one community to another without imperilling his
spiritual life, or even establish a new church without necessarily
incurring the reproach of schism. From this theory, powerful in
Great Britain and her colonics, supreme in the United States of
America, has resulted an enormous multiplication of sects.
It follows from the above argument that, from the period
of the Reformation onward, no historical account of the Christian
Church as a whole, and considered as a definite institution, is
pftffiM** The stream of continuity has been broken, and divides
into innumerable channels. The only possible synthesis is that
of the Christianity common to all; as institutions, though they
many features in common, their history is separate and
it be separately dealt with. The history of the various
of the Christian Church since the Reformation will
therefore be found under their several titles (sec Roman Catholic
Gbuxch; England, Church of; Peesbyteriaxism; Baptists,
tej&c). (W. A. P.)
CHURCHILL, CHARLES (1731-1764)1 English poet and
satirist, was born in Vine Street, Westminster, in February 1731.
His father, rector of Rain ham, Essex, held the curacy and
lectureship of St John's, Westminster, from 1733, and the son
was educated at Westminster school, where he became a good
fU—iral scholar, and formed a close and lasting intimacy with
Robert Lloyd Churchill was entered at Trinity College,
Cambridge, in 1749, but never resided. lie had been refused at
Oxford, ostensibly on the unlikely grounM of lack of classical
knowledge, but more probably because of a hasty marriage
which he had contracted within the rules of the Fleet in his
eighteenth year. He and his wife lived in his father's house,
and Churchill was afterwards sent to the north of England to
prepare for holy orders. He became curate of South Cadbury,
Somersetshire, and, on receiving priest's orders (1756), began to
act as his father's curate at Rainham. Two years later the elder
Churchill died, and the son was elected to succeed him in his
curacy and lectureship. His emoluments amounted to less than
£100 a year, and he increased his income by teaching in a girls'
school. He fulfilled his various duties with decorum for a while,
but bis marriage proved unfortunate, and he spent much of his
time In dissipation in the society of Robert Lloyd. He was
separated from his wife in 1761, and would have been imprisoned
for debt but for the timely help of Lloyd's father, who had been
an usher and was now a master of Westminster school.
Churchill had already done some work for the booksellers,
and his friend LToyd had had some success with a didactic poem,
" The Actor." His intimate knowledge of the theatre was now
turned to account in the Rosciod, which appeared in March 1761.
This reckless and amusing satire described with the most dis-
concerting accuracy the faults of the various actors and actresses
on the London stage. Its immediate popularity was no doubt
largely due to its personal character, but its real vigour and
nciness make it worth reading even now when the objects of
Churchill's wit are many of them forgotten. The first impression
was published anonymously, and in the Critical Review, conducted
by Tobias Smollett, it was confidently asserted that the poem
was the joint production of George Colman, Bonnell Thornton
and Robert Lloyd. Churchill owned the authorship and ini medi-
ately published an Apology addressed to the Critical Rcxim-crs,
which, titer developing the subject that it is only the caste of
authors that prey on their own kind, repeats the fierce attack
on the stage. Incidentally it contains an enthusiastic tribute to
Dryden, of whom Churchill was a not unworthy scholar. In
the Rosciad he had given warm praise to Mrs Fritchard, Mrs
Cibber and Mrs dive, but no leading London actor, with the
exception of David Garrick, had escaped censure, and in the
A pology Garrick was clearly threatened. He deprecated criticism
by showing every possible civility to Churchill, who became a
terror to the actors. Thomas Davies wrote to Garrick attributing
his blundering in the part of Cymbeline " to my accidentally
seeing Mr Churchill in the pit, it rendering me confused and
unmindful of my business." Churchill's satire made him many
enemies, and inquiries into his way of life provided abundant
matter for retort. In Night, an Epistle to Robert Lloyd (1761),
he answered the attacks made on him, offering by way of defence
the argument that any faults were better than hypocrisy. His
scandalous conduct brought down the censure of the dean of
Westminster, and in 1763 the protests of his parishioners led
him to resign his offices, and he was free to wear his " blue coat
with metal buttons " and much gold lace without remonstrance
from the dean. The Rosciad had been refused by several pub-
lishers, and was finally published at Churchill's own expense.
He received a considerable sum from the sale, and paid his old
creditors in full, besides making an allowance to his wife.
He now became a dose ally of John Wilkes, whom he regularly
assisted with the North Briton. The Prophecy of Famine: A
Scots Pastoral (1763), his next poem, was founded on a paper
written originally for that journal. This violent satire on
Scottish influence fell in with the current hatred of Lord Bute, and
the Scottish place-hunters were as much alarmed as the actors
had been. When Wilkes was arrested he gave Churchill a timely
hint to retire to the country for a time, the publisher, Kcarslcy,
having stated that he received part of the profits from the paper.
His Epistle to William Hogarth (1763) was in answer to the
caricature of Wilkes made during the trial. In it Hogarth's
vanity and envy were attacked in an invective which Garrick
quoted as " shocking and barbarous." Hogarth retaliated by a
caricature of Churchill as a bear in torn clerical bands hugging a
pot of porter and a club made of lies and North Britons. The
Duellist ( 1 763) is a virulent satire on the most active opponents of
Wilkes in the House of Lords, especially on Bishop Warburton.
He attacked Dr Johnson among others in The Ghost as" Pomposo,
insolent and loud, Vain idol of a scribbling crowd." Other
poems arc " The Conference " (1763); " The Author " (1763),
highly praised by Churchill's contemporaries; " Gotham "
(1764), a poem on the duties of a king, didactic rather than
satiric in tone; "The Candidate" (1764), a satire on John
Montagu, fourth carl of Sandwich, one of Wilkes's bitterest
enemies, whom he had already denounced for his treachery in the
Duellist (Bk. iii.) as " too infamous to have a friend "; " The
Farewell" (1764); "The Times" (1764); "Independence,"
and an unfinished " Journey."
In October 1 764 he went to Boulogne to join Wilkes. There he
was attacked by a fever of which he died on the 4th of November.
He left his property to his two sons, and made Wilkes his literary
executor with full powers. Wilkes did little. He wrote an
epitaph for his friend and about half a dozen notes on his poems,
and Andrew Kippis acknowledges some slight assistance from him
in preparing his life of Churchill for the Biographia Britannic*
(17S0). There is more than one instance of Churchill's generosity
to his friends. In 1763 he found his friend Robert Lloyd in
prison for debt. He paid a guinea a week for his better mainten-
ance in the Fleet, and raised a subscription to set him free.
Lloyd fell ill on receipt of the news of Churchill's death, and died
shortly afterwards. Churchill's sister Patty, who was engaged to
Lloyd, did not long survive them. William Cowper was bis
schoolfellow, and left many kindly references to him.
A partial collection of Churchill's poems appeared in 1765. They
arc included in Chalmers's edition of the English poets, and were
editt-d (1804) by W. Tooke. This was reprinted in the Aldine
edition (1844). There is a revised edition (1892) in the same series,
The Poetical Works of Charles Churchill, with a Memoir by J. L.
Uannay and copious notes by W. Tooke. For Churchill's btaQro^tati
CKVJ.r-ZH- LORD 1A9
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»i". r .• i .* \t:.*A, v ii t"'.'"!!"."?: i*. f •;" r. * ! :•: r-. - _*.h :.-. :
gv.-'-r :.?••..-• **, is. iT/ikcr.:-; ::.* <-. ;;-:■::•.:■.:: :::rr
*. l ..'.J: \M \.':r* *y.n it af:cr its i.i-'-' at :h? ;>---'
rvj:«/! tJ.i Oir.vcrvs'.Ivcs ar.d give :>.;■=: a fjr.-.Ir.j iss.:. Yy
putt Ins Kir.'ij'.f at the hc^-i of ths rc^iti-ce lo Mr Bred! v. ph.
ihc ir.'-mbcr for Xorthasfip'.en. who, lh:-j;h an avc-.-td a:ht:s; cr
agnostic, was prepared to take the pirilarr.er.tary oath. Sir
Stafford Xorthcote, the Conservative lead:.- ir. the Lo~ cr He::*?.
mas forced to take a strong line on this cf:£cu!t q-csiicr. by the
energy of the fourth party, who in this case clearly expressed :he
views of the bulk of the opposition. The long and acrirr.oricjs
controversy over Mr Bradlaugh's scat, if it added little to the
reputation of the Engli*h legislature, at least showed that Lord
I 1 mdolph Churchill was a parliamentary champion who added to
hi> .nida* ity much tactical skill and shrewdness. He continued
l'i play a conspicuous part throughout the parliament of iSS>-
|H1«;, dculinK his blows with almost equal vigour at Mr Gladstone
and m flu: Conservative front bench, some of whose members,
and juMiiiihrly Sir Richard Cross and Mr \V. H. Smith, he
m. . ii|ii| v/|ili f-Hrrme virulence. From the beginning of the
I.K'/liil.ui imbroglio I«ord Randolph was emphatically opposed to
■ lmo*i i vi iy u< jj t .t !• - ri by I ho government. He declared that
tin »n|i|iif v.lmi nf Anl.i |'.iiliii'<i r<U;llion was an error, and the
!• I'll iimii nt ihr I linfivi \ rmilioriiy a crime. He called Mr
'•liil. i ■ tin " M'llo'li ill Midlothian," for whom torrents of
I'IimiiI Ii.hI |,i i it hli«d lii Aliii.i. Ilr. was equally severe on the
'(•inn Hi |.n|ii y i,| flu mliiiiiii .tr.iiion, nnd was particularly
biiii i in In,, mi. Km nl i In r.ilin-iiiili.ini In-.-ifynnd lUv. rap prof /ir-
mml tularin || H l,],n| liMii.un mid ihr I'uriif llites. It is true
.i_: is Pirv^i Lit: TiwWj^il
" : —_-_ : :- -jrr. " Ea scrnr=» -^rt. i: ZttJ *J2
-.: si— f-iry -f j— t iv: Irij. I>=r=* d« few «■*••
r. . re : : - .. rr -j±t p«: "Jx v= , =S f^e-Si=K» rf Ttay ^■^J.
s-r7T:>*i -.:-.- ^.rr-.i-s-: c5=iii szkf bs rv% fifierfilg
£5i.i-.:y - J: 1 : r :-; : h b* at^rdsd ts ha d^artscatil Mi*
the rs; :-".:>■ *;:h *.>j : h he r^sterrd -J« crsr^attdq^
of L: J .:ir. t^-Jvr-ra-Jta. la the acc=s r>.-±!8(>$
cor.t«-ed Cer.'.nl B :.-=::. -.ghaa a^st M? Br^Ss. iad«>
dtfcsicd k:re. wat a: the sane tirae retrace Vr s voyMl
Eijonry f-.r Sou:h Pt^dfefitca. la the ccctas ^dA<5
over Mr Ghd : :or.e's Hose Rule xheae. belh aoltf
psrliament. Lord Randolph again bore a ca=spt£sxs pn^*
in the elect ior.ctnr.g carr.paign his ac'J«:y was or?r worn*
that of some of the Liberal LYionists, the mutpesof Huvtfi
Mr Goschen and Mr Chamberlain. He was now the leaf*
Conservative champion in the Lower Chamber, aad wwa*
second Salisbury administration was formed alter the flOl
election of 1S86 he became chancellor of the exchequer I
leader of the House of Commons. His managvmeat of i
House was on the whole successful, and was marked by ti
discretion and temper. But be had never really recoud
himself u-iih some of his colleagues, and there was a good d
of friction in his relations with them, which ended with
sudden resignation on the *oth of December 1886. Vat)
motives influenced him in taking this surprising step; bat
only ostensible cause was that put forward in his letter to L
Salisbury, wlrnh was read in the House of Commoa*
771 h January. In this document he stated that his reslgnal
was due to his inability, as chancellor of the exchequer, to on
CHURCHILL— CHURCHING OF WOMEN
347
the demand* made on the treasury by the minister* at the
ad of the naval and military establishments. It was commonly
ppostd that he expected his resignation to be followed by the
itoaditioaal surrender of the cabinet, and his restoration to
Bos oa his own terms. The sequel, however, was entirely
brent The cabinet was reconstructed with Mr Goscben as
■cBOtDor of the exchequer (Lord Randolph had "forgotten
ftchen," as he is said to have remarked), and Churchill's own
■ajar as a Conservative chief was practically closed,
■t continued, for some years longer, to take a considerable
BBt in the proceedings of parliament, giving a general, though
ddedry independent, support to the Unionist administration.
rfhe Irish question be was a very candid critic of Mr Balfour's
Bhavrts, and one of his later speeches, which recalled the
■taonious violence of his earlier period, was that which he
■fsjasd in 1800 on the report of the Farncll commission. He
IvfaJfiUed the promise made on his resignation by occasionally
Msjentjng the principles of economy and retrenchment in the
tsstea on the naval and military estimates. In April 1880,
1 H* death of Mr Bright, he was asked to come forward as a
fcrisiate for the vacant seat in Birmingham, and the result
kjntstber angry controversy with Mr Chamberlain, terminating
ribto so-called " Birmingham compact " for the division of
^Mentation of the Midland capital between Liberal Unionists
js Conservatives. But his health was already precarious,
tfhJs, combined with the anomaly of his position, induced
*p relax his devotion to parliament during the later years
iJgje Salisbury administration. He bestowed much attention
lllity, travel and sport. He was an ardent supporter of
fftnrf, and in 1889 he won the Oaks with a mare named the
passe de Jouarre. In 189 1 he went to South Africa, in search
sjgj of health and relaxation. He travelled for some months
ssjsjgji Cape Colony, the Transvaal and Rhodesia, making
pm on the politics and economics of the countries, shooting
■a, tad recording his impressions in letters to a London
■■paper, which were afterwards republished under the title
gjfa*, Mines and Animals in South Africa. He returned with
asjsjod energy, and in the general election of 1802 once more
M| himself, with his old vigour, into the strife of parties.
m seat at South Paddington was uncontested; but he was
list on the platform, and when parliament met he returned
JHssi opposition front bench, and again took a leading part in
■MO, attacking Mr Gladstone's second Home Rule Bill with
MisJ energy. But it was soon apparent that his powers were
pjsjwliiiil by the inroads of disease. As the session of 1893
IK on his speeches lost their old effectiveness, and in 1894
feOOBS listened to not so much with interest as with pity. His
■t speech in the House was delivered in the debate on Uganda
I Jhne 1894, and was a painful failure. He was, in fact, dying
(•vacral paralysis. A journey round the world was undertaken
|i» forlorn hope. Lord Randolph started in the autumn of
fee, accompanied by his wife, but the malady made so much
■ssnas that he was brought back in haste from Cairo. He
SjEhsd England shortly before Christmas and died in London
1 the 94th of January 1895.
Lord Randolph Churchill married, in January 1874, Jennie,
asmhter of Mr Leonard Jerome of New York, U.S.A., by whom
l had two sons. In 1900 Lady Randolph Churchill married
frCCornwallis-West.
Bis elder son, Winston Chubckxll (1874- ), was educated
t Harrow, and after serving for a few years in the army and
Ifesf as a special correspondent in the South African War
SJlfg taken prisoner by the Boers, Nov. 15, 1899. but escaping
S. Dec is), was elected Unionist member of parliament for
lAun in October 1900. As the son of his father, his political
flnjt excited much interest. His views, however, as to the
Aqrof the Conservative party gradually changed, and having
•Jftg 1900-1005 taken an active part in assisting the Liberal
sra/inpsrtiainent, bo stood for N W. Manchester at the general
jsjajoji (1906) and was triumphantly aetnracd m'±
Hew
conspicuous in parliament as he had already become on the
platform as a brilliant and aggressive orator, and no politician
of the day attracted more interest or excited more controversy.
He was promoted to cabinet rank as president of the Board of
Trade in Mr Asquith's government in April (1908), but was
defeated at the consequent by-election in Manchester after a con-
test which aroused the keenest excitement. He was then returned
f or Dundee, andlater in the year married Miss Clementine Hosier.
An interesting and authoritative biography of Lord Randolph,
by hi* son Winston (who had already won his spurs as a writer in
his River War, 1899, and other books on his military experiences),
appeared in 1906; and a brief and intimate appreciation by Lord
Rosebery, inspired by this biography, was published a few months
later. Lord Randolph's earner speeches were edited, with an
introduction and notes, by Louis Jennings (2 vols., l.ondon, 1889).
See also T. H. S. Escott, Randolph Spencer Churchill (1895); H. W.
Lucy, Diary of Tiso Parliaments (1892) ; and Mrs Cornwallis-Wcst,
The Reminiscences of Lady Randolph Churchill (i.e. of the author)
(1908). r (S.J.L.)'
CHURCHILL (Missinnippi or English), the name of a river
of the province of Saskatchewan and district of Keewatin,
Canada. It rises in La Loche (or Methy) lake, a small lake in
56° 30' N. and 109° 30' W. t at an altitude of 1577 ft. above the
sea, and flows E.N.E. to Hudson's Bay, passing through a number
of lake expansions. Its principal tributaries are the Beaver
(350 m. long), Sandy and Reindeer rivers. Between Frog and
Methy portages (480 m.) it formed part of the old voyage**
route to the Peace, Athabasca, and Mackenzie. It is still
navigated by canoes, but has many rapids. Its principal affluent,
the Reindeer, discharges the waters of Reindeer Lake (11 50 ft
above the sea, with an area of 2490 sq. m.) and Wollaston Lake
(altitude, 1300ft.). The Churchill is 025 m. long. Fort Churchill,
at its mouth, is the best harbour in the southern portion of
Hudson's Bay. The portage of La Loche (or Methy), 12} m.
in length, connects its head waters with the Clearwater river, a
tributary of the Athabasca, draining into the Arctic Ocean.
CHURCHING OF WOMEN, the Christian ceremony of thanks-
giving on the part of mothers shortly after the birth of
their children. It no doubt originated in the Mosaic regula-
tion as to purification (Lev. xii. 6). In ancient limes the
ceremony was usual but not obligatory in England. In the
Greek and Roman Catholic Churches to-day it is imperative.
The custom is first mentioned in the pseudo-Nicene Arabic
canons. No ancient form of service exists, and that which
figures in the English prayer-book of to-day dates only from the
middle ages. Custom differs, but the usual date of churching
was the fortieth day after confinement, in accordance with the
Biblical date of the presentment of the Virgin Mary and the
Child Jesus at the Temple. It was formerly regarded as unlucky
for a woman to leave her bouse to go out at all after confinement
till she went to be churched. It was not unusual for the church-
ing service to be said in private houses. In Herefordshire it
was not considered proper for the husband to appear in church
at the service, or at all events in the same pew In some parishes
there was a special pew known as " the churching Mat" The
words in the rubric requiring the woman to come " decently
apparelled " refer to the times when it was thought unbecoming
for a woman to come to the service with the elaborate head-dress
then the fashion. A veil was usually worn, and in some parishes
this was provided by the church, for an inventory of goods
belonging 10 St Benct's, Gracechurch Street, in 1560, includes
" A churching cloth, fringed, white damask."
The " convenient place," which, according to the rubric, the
woman must occupy, was in pre-Rcformation times the church-
door In the first prayer-book of Edward VI., she was to be
" nigh unto the quire door." In the second of his books, she was
to be " nigh unto the place where the Table standcth." Bishop
Wren's orders foT the diocese of Norwich in 1636 are " That
women to be churched come and kneel at a side near the Com-
munion Tabic without the rail, being veiled according to custom,
and not covered with a hat." In Devonshire churching was
called " being uprose." Churchings were formerly
in some parishes. In pre-Reformation days it was
' for women to carx* tia>\sA\wvxw^w».
3+5
CHURCH RATE— CHURCHYARD, T.
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are ar>poir.trd in EaMcr week
>■:'.;'.'■
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:L-e : . v*.*-" • = •-- i.«pisg of order duriof the divine service,
>-- — : f ' ~z -■ cf coders iato custody; the assignment of
« . • * : : ; _ :..• :. * :s in guardianship of the movable goods of
:-. :;._: * ::= ;.\>;nitJoa and repair of the church and
.:„•:!.. .: . : .- : . _.-. ~ ±z£ the axlures; and the presentment uf
. \::vs _»- _-: o:..\*.^i:.;ii law.
Ir :ir :; -v.:-. c-.:».a of the United States churchirardcu
:.4..-rcr r..:* :;.; scae duties as those performed by the
: - r ■ . . j...- :;..r c.iies. however, are regulated by canoas
. •:->; - . : : .. carpus geaeraL In the United Slates, U«,
■*. ..-.-. ;:_;'...£ »s foe the parishes to elect both the church.
>.-: ':- ■ -..\* "■■-•:Vrj»frt , f Guide fiCth cd., Lcndon. 189;};
t ' * * - : - ' 1 -■-■*-.«: . Losdwu. J 699; ; Blunt'* Book cj Civil
CHURCHYARD. THOMAS (r. 1520-1604), English author,
■- ii :v:z *: ?hrs«?iury about 15:0, the son of a fanner. He
re-:...: a ;xi ei'.at.ca, and. having speedily dissipated at
.-: _-: L*.r t. . -'... »;:h »hkh his father provided him, he enteifd
.* *■:_». h .. i c: K.iry Howard, earl of Surrey. There ftt
::-:-:-ri :.*.- :'* .: >ears. leaning something of the art of poetrj
::. « "r_* po::.r. . scrr.e cf the poems he contributed later (1557)
■.: y. -;..• j-i y. ■: :.Vj may *cU date from this early period.
I- : -n h; bt^ir. b^i career as a soldier of fortune, being, he sud,
* ■ ^a*-- :-*.j :he ^n.-icc.' 1 He fought his way through t<ulf
.-...-. w-.-:c ;: b ScJtlicd and the Low Countries for thirty
■■ ._:«. H. s.:..i ur.ier the emperor Charles V. in Flaadctt
.-. : :,:. :::■_—..-; :o England alter the peace of Crepy fi5«).
'.- : ; S.-::: h ^i~;aign of 1547 he was present at the baiTco
\ .::r. c: i ,:.m.. ar.d in the next year was tahen prisoner at
j^:: : N!v - :.-ri-. ; .: aided by his persuasive tongue he escaped
:.- :h; E: ; .?h f.rnson at Lauder, where he was once owe
:*.r.\. ;:■*". crl> aiLrrJng to England on the conclusion of peace
::: : 5 ;c A 1 : x-i«Mc entitled Dc:y Dycars Dreamt, a short ud
*rv:.— "c'y i"..:erative poem in the manner of Tiers I'lowmifl,
b:. _.; :: h. r. b:o trouble with the privy council, but he waid*
s^j.v. : v..:i? a rvprisund. This tract was the stariing-poiot of
a :.>:-.:: :-.v-fy bcincen Churchyard and a certain Thomas Camtl
Th: \.'.S.c of the "flyting"' was reprinted in 1560 as Ik
C.—-'.**..':.": ." rtiste Ckurckyard end CatKcU.
I- 1553 he went to Ireland to serve the lord deputy, Sr
Av.hor.y S: Uger. who had been sent to pacify the country.
I!. -re Churchjard enriched himself at the expense, it is to be
1 ear. J. oi the ur.happy Iriih; but in 1552 he was in Engbsd
i^in, tr>ir.j* vainly to secure a fortune by marriage with a rich
vi :: v. Ai:er this failure he departed once more to the nd
j. N.*; t_: i: j to the siege of Mcu( 1552), and" traikdapike " in the emperor 1
ar^y, until he joined the forces under William, Lord Grey of
\V:!:o.n, ui:h whom he says he served eight years. Grey was is
charge of the fortress of Gaines, which was besieged by the duke
of Guise in 155S. Churchyard arranged the terms of surrender,
and v.as sent with his chief to Paris as a prisoner. He was not
rclc:*cd at the pi ace of Catcau Cambresis for lack of money to
pay h:s ransom, but he was finally set free on giving his bond
for th-.* ar.v-r.t. an engagement which he repudiated as soon at
he was safely in England. He is not to be id en ti tied with the
T. C- who wrote for the Mirror for Magistrates (ed. 1550), " How
the Lord Mowbray . . . was banished . . . and after died
iri*«:rib".ie i:". evle." which i& the work of Thomas Chaloncr, but
*■ Shore's Wife." his most popular poem, appeared in the 1563
edi'.ior. of the same work, and to that of 1587 he contributed the
" Tragcdic of Thomas Wolsey." These are plain manly com-
petitions in the seven-lined Chaucerian stanaa. Repeated
petitions to the queen for assistance produced at first fair words,
and then no answer at all. He therefore returned to active
sen-ice under Lord Grey, who was in command of an English
army sent ( 1 560) to help the Scottish rebels, and in 1564 he served
in Ireland undtr Sir Henry Sidney. The religious disturbances
of J in the Netherlands attracted him to Antwerp, where as the
" r / j 4 *'" 1 of William of Orange he allowed the insurgents to place
"' ' «ii' n at f '"" ,r hrilti ' anf * wa * ab,e t0 **« mucB properly from
-true Lion. This Action made him so hated by the mob that
CHURCHYARD— CHURL
349
b hid to fly for his life in the disguise of a priest. In the next
ear he was sent by the earl of Oxford to serve definitely under
ic prince of Orange. After a year's service he obtained leave
> return to England, and after many adventures and narrow
capes in a journey through hostile territory he embarked for
neznsey, and thence for England. Iiis patron, Lord Oxford,
■owned him, and the poet, whose health was failing, retired
> Bath. ■ He appears to have made a very unhappy marriage
• this time, and returned to the Low Countries. Falling into
it bands of the Spaniards he was recognized as having had a
lad in the Antwerp disturbance, and was under sentence to be
Qecnted as a spy when he was saved by the intervention of a
able lady- This experience did not deter him from joining in
■ defence of Zutphen in 1572, but this was his last campaign,
id the troubles of the remaining years of his life were chiefly
Churchyard was employed to devise a pageant for the queen's
ceprion at Bristol in 1574, and again at Norwich in 1578.
in had published in 1 57 5 The fir sU parte of Churchy aide's Chippes,
st title which he gives to his works. No second part
} but there was a much enlarged edition in 1578. A
tstmge in Churchyardc's Ckoise (1579) gave offence to Elizabeth,
ad the author fled to Scotland, where he remained for three
ears. He was only restored to favour about 1584, and in 1503
i a ec ei ved a small pension from the queen. The affectionate
tan with which he was regarded by the younger Elizabethan
tilass it expressed by Thomas Nashe, who says (Foure Letters
!fit/atfid) that Churchyard's aged muse might well be " grand'
ntber to our grandiloquentcst poets at this present." Francis
fares (PaUadis Tamia, 1598) mentions him in conjunction with
nay great names among " the most passionate, among us,
• bewail and bemoan the perplexities of love." Spenser, in
ihm Clout's come home again/' calls him with a spice of
4 old Palaemon " who " sung so long until quite hoarse
_ " His writings, with the exception of his contributions
ft the Mirror for Magistrates, arc chiefly autobiographical in
fcanrtfT or deal with the wars in which he had a share,
[bay are very rare, and have never been completely reprinted.
Ibnrthyard lived right through Elizabeth's reign, and was buried
a St Margaret's church, Westminster, on the 4 th of April 1604.
1st extant works of Churchyard, exclusive of commendatory
fed occasional verses, include: — A lamentable and pit if till Des-
fijUen of the xeofull wanes in Flanders (1578); A general
afarrnff of wanes, called Churchyard's Choise (1579)1 really a
■apletion of the Chippes, and containing, like it, a number of
Maned pieces; A light Bondel of livelie Discourses, called Church-
^mmiCmrgt (1580); The Worlhines of Wales (1S87), a valuable
mfara-r>- work in prose and vcn>c, anticipating Michael Drayton;
luwchyard's Challenge (1593); A if 11 sic all Consort of Heavenly
" I Ch\ ' ' "' "' " * --- - "*'
1 ... called Churchyards Charitie (1595): A True Discourse
U, of the succeeding Governors in the Netherlands (1605).
■.The chief authority for Churchyard's biography is his own
'Tkagkall Discourse of the unhappy man's life " (Ckurekyardes
thippes). George Chalmers publUhed (1817) a selection from his
Rons relating to Scotland, for which he wrote a useful life. See
van edition of the Chippes (cd. J. P. Collier, 1 870). of the Worthies
fWoles JSpeiwer Soc. 1876). and a notice of Churchyard by II. W.
tdaiitt {Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological and Nat. 1 list.
f Woks (Spenser Soc. 1876). and a notice of Churchyard by II. W.
idaitt {Transactions of the Shru
Joc^ reprinted separately 1884).
CHURCHYARD, a piece of consecrated ground attached to a
1 church, and used as a burial place. It is distinguished
1 a cemetery (?.?.), which is also a place of burial, but is
Kpaiate and apart from any parochial church. A cemetery in
England is either the property of a private company, incorporated
y special act of parliament, or of a local authority, and is
object to the Cemeteries Clauses Act 1847, incorporated in the
Pabhc Health Acts* The practice of burying in churches or
tachyards is said to have been connected with the custom of
Mjmg for the dead, and it would appear that the earlier practice
■» buying in the church itself. In England, about the year
'jot apace* of ground adjoining the churches were enclosed and
npfopriated to the burial of those who had ban entitled to
fttapd divine service in those churches* . ._..{.-. .« u. ■«-.» ••
Ibo right to burial in the parish —
{gat, controlled in many point* by tbfcjt
ecclesiastical. This double character is sufficient to explain
the controversy which has so long raged round the subject of
burials in England. Every man, according to tbe common law,
has a right to be buried in his own churchyard, or, as it is some*
times put, in the churchyard of the parish where he dies. But
the churchyard, as well as the church itself, fa the freehold of the
parson, who can in many respects deal with it as if it were a
private estate. A statute of Edward I. (55, st. 2) speaks of the
churchyard as the soil of the church, and the trees growing in the
churchyard " as amongst the goods of the church, the which
laymen have no authority to dispose," and prohibits "the
parsons from cutting down such trees unless required for repairs."
Notwithstanding the consecration of the church and churchyard,
and the fact that they arc the parson's freehold, a right of way
may be claimed through them by prescription. The right to
burial may be subject to the payment of a fee to the incumbent,
if such has been the immemorial custom of the parish, but not
otherwise. The spirit of the ancient canons regarded such burial
fees as of a simoniacal complexion, inasmuch as the consecrated
grounds were among the res sacrae — a feeling which Lord Stowcll
says disappeared after the Reformation. No person can bo
buried in a church without the consent of the incumbent, except
when the owner of a manor-house prescribes for a burying-place
within the church as belonging to the manor-house. In the case
of Rex v. Taylor it was held that an information was grantable
against a person for opposing the burial of a parishioner; but
the court would not interpose as to the person's refusal to read
the burial service because he never was baptized — that being
matter for tho ecclesiastical court. Strangers (or persons not
dying in the parish) should not be buried, it appears, without the
consent of the parishioners or churchwardens,. " whose parochial
right of burial is invaded thereby."
In Scotland the obligation of providing and maintaining the
churchyard rests on tfce heritors of the pariah. The guardianship
of the churchyard belongs to the heritors and also to the kirk*
session, cither by delegation from the heritors, or in right of its
ecclesiastical character. 'The right of burial appears to be strictly
limited to parishioners, although an opinion has been expressed
that any person dying in the parish has a right to be buried in
the churchyard. The parishioners have no power of management.
The presbytery may interfere to compel the heritors to provide
due accommodation, but has no further jurisdiction. It is the
duty of the heritors to allocate the churchyard. The Scottish
law hesitates to attach the ordinary incidents of real property
to the churchyard, while English law treats the ground as the
parson's freehold. It would be difficult to say who in Scotland
is the legal owner of the soil. Various opinions appear to prevail,
e.g. as to grass growing on the surface and minerals found beneath.
The difliculty as to religious services does not exist. On the
other hand, the religious character of the ground is hostile to
many of the legal rights recognized by the English law.
See also Burial and Burial Acts; Cemetery.
CHURL (A.S. ccorl, cognate with the Ger. Kerl and with
similar words in other Teutonic languages), one of the two main
classes, tori and ceorl, into which in early Anglo-Saxon society
the freemen appear to have been divided. In the course of time
the status of the ceorl was probably reduced; but although his
political power was never large, and in some directions his
freedom was restricted, it hardly accms possible previous to
the Norman Conquest to class him among the unfrcc Some
authorities, however, accept this view. At all events it is certain
that the ceorl was frequently a holder of land, and a person of
some position, and that he could attain the rank of a thegn.
Except in Kent his wergild was fixed at two hundred shillings, or
one-sixth of that of a thegn, and he is undoubtedly the twyhynde
man of Anglo-Saxon law. In Kent his wergild was considerably
higher, and his status probably also, but his position in this
kingdom is a matter of controversy. After the Norman Conquest
tbe caoris were reduced to a condition of servitude, and the word
the villanus of Domesday Book, although it also covers
otbac than tbe tillani. The form ceorl soon became ch<tl y
' a»]n}4fti Aom (aafe i&oo) ami «w «n\ te»\*>Q»a»RR*%
3 SO
CHURN— CIBBER, C. G.
and subsequently churl. Taking a less technical sense than the
ceorl of Anglo-Saxon law, churl, or cherl was used in general to
mean a " man/' and more particularly a " husband." In this
sense it was employed about 1000 in a translation of the New
Testament to render the word arfjp (John iv. 16, 18). It was
then employed to describe a " peasant," and gradually began
to denote undesirable qualities. Hence comes the modern use
of the word for a low-born or vulgar person, particularly one with
an unpleasant, surly or miserly character.
See H. M. Chadwidc, Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (Cam-
bridge. 1905); F. Seebohm, Tribal Custom in Angle-Saxon Law
. 1902).
CHURN (O. Eng. cyrin; found in various forms in most
Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch karn; according to the New
English Dictionary not connected with " quern," a mill), a vessel
in which butter is made, by shaking or beating the cream so as
to separate the fatty particles which form the butter from the
serous parts or buttermilk. Early churns were upright, and in
shape resembled the cans now used in the transport of milk,
to which the name " churn " is also given. The upright churn
was worked by hand by a wooden " plunger ", later came a
box-shaped churn with a "splasher" revolving inside and
turned by a handle. The modern type of churn, in large dairies
worked by mechanical means, either revolves or swings itself,
thus reverting to the most primitive method of butter-making,
the shaking or swinging of the cream in a skin-bag or a gourd.
(See Dairy.)
CHUSAN, the principal island of a group situated off the
eastern coast of China, in 30 N. 122° E., belonging to the
province of Cheh-kiang. It lies N.W. and S.E., and has a
circumference of 51 m., the extreme length being 30, the extreme
breadth 10, and the minimum breadth 6 m. The island is
beautifully diversified with hill and dale, and well watered with
numerous small streams, of which the most considerable is the
Tungkiang, falling into the harbour of Tinghai Most of the
surface is capable of cultivation, and nineteen-twentieths of
the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture. Wherever it is
possible to rear rice every other product is neglected; yet the
quantity produced is not sufficient for the wants of the inhabi-
tants. Millet, wheat, sweet potatoes, yams and tares are also
grown. The tea plant is found almost everywhere, and the
cotton plant is largely cultivated near the sea. The capital,
Tinghai, stands about half a mile from the southern shore, and
is surrounded by a wall nearly 3 m. in circuit. The ditch outside
the wall is interrupted on the N.W. side by a spur from a neigh-
bouring hill, which projects into the town, and forms an easy
access to an attacking force. The town is traversed by canals,
and the harbour, which has from 4 to 8 fathoms water, is land-
locked by several islands. Temple (or Joss-house) Hill, which
commands the town and harbour close to the beach, is 122 ft.
high. The population of the er tire island is estimated at 250,000,
of which the capital contains about 40,000. Chusan has but few
manufactures; the chief are coarse cotton stuffs and agricultural
implements. There are salt works on the coast; and the
fisheries employ a number of the inhabitants. In Tinghai a
considerable business is carried on in carving and varnishing,
and its silver wares are in high repute. The principal exports
are fish, coarse black tea, cotton, vegetable tallow, sweet
potatoes, and some wheat. Chusan was occupied by the Japanese
during the Ming dynasty, and served as an important commercial
entrepot. It was taken by the British forces in 1840 and 1841,
and retained till 1846 as a guarantee for the fulfilment of the
stipulations of the treaty. It was also occupied by the British
in i860.
-CHUTE (Fr. for " fall," of water or the like; pronounced as
" shoot," with which in meaning it is identical), a channel or
trough, artificial or natural, down which objects such as timber,
coal or grain may slide from a higher to a lower level. The word
is also used of a channel cut in a dam or a river for the passage
of floating timber, and in Louisiana and on the Mississippi of
a channel at the side of a river, or narrow way between an island
*nd the shore. The " Water-Chute " or water tobogganing, is a
Canadian pastime, which has been popular in London and else*
where. A steep wooden slope terminates in a shallow lake ; down
this run flat-bottomed boats which rapidly increase their velocity
until at the end of the '* chute " they dash into the water.
CHUTNEY, or Chutnee (Hindustani chatni), a relish or
seasoning of Indian origin, used as a condiment. It is prepared
from sweet fruits such as mangoes, raisins, &c, with acid flavour*
ing from tamarinds, lemons, limes and sour hcrbs 1 and with a
hot seasoning of chillies, cayenne pepper and spices.
CHUV ASHES, or Tchuv ashes, a tribe found in eastern Russia.
They form about one-fourth of the population of the government
of Kazan, and live in scattered communities throughout the
governments of Simbirsk, Samara, Saratov, Orenburg and Perm.
They have been identified with the Burtasscs of the Arab
geographers, and many authorities think they are the descendants
of the ancient Bolgars. In general they physically resemble the
Finns, being round-headed, flat-featured and light-eyed, but they
have been affected by long association with the Tatar element.
In dress they are thoroughly Russianized, and they are nominally
Christians, though they cling to many of the Old Shamanistic
practices. They number some half a million. Their language
belongs to the Tatar or Turkish group, but has been strongly
influenced by the Finno-Ugrian idioms spoken round it
See Schott. De Lingua Tschvwaschorum (Berlin. 1841).
CIALDINI, ENRICO (1811-1S02), Italian soldier, politician and
diplomatist, was born at Castelvetro, in Modcna, on the 10th of
August 181 1. In 1831 he took part in the insurrection at
Modena, fleeing afterwards to Paris, whence he proceeded to
Spain to fight against the Carlists. Returning to Italy in 1848,
he commanded a regiment at the battle of Novara. In 1859 he
organized the Alpine Brigade, fought at Palcstro at the head of
the 4th Division, and in the following year invaded the Marches,
won the battle of Castelfidardo, took Ancona, and subsequently
directed the siege of Gaeta. For these services he was created
duke of Gaeta by the king, and was assigned a pension of 10,000
lire by parliament. In 1861 his intervention envenomed the
Cavour-Garibaldi dispute, royal mediation alone preventing a
duel between him and Garibaldi. Placed in command of the
troops sent to oppose the Garibaldian expedition of 1862, he
defeated Garibaldi at Aspromonte. Between 1862 and 1866 he
held the position of lieutenant-royal at Naples, and in 1864 was
created senator. On the outbreak of the war of 1 866 he resumed
command of an army corps, but dissensions between him and La
Marmora prejudiced the issue of the campaign and contributed
to the defeat of Custozza. After the war he refused the command
of the General Staff, which he wished to render independent of
the war office. In 1867 he attempted unsuccessfully to form a
cabinet sufficiently strong to prevent the threatened Garibaldian
incursion, into the papal states, and two years later failed in a
similar attempt, through disagreement with Lanza concerning
the army estimates. On the 3rd of August 1870 he pleaded in
favour of Italian intervention in aid of France, a circumstance
which enhanced his influence when in July 1876 he replaced
Nigra as ambassador to the French Republic. This position he
held until 1882, when he resigned on account of the publication
by Mancini of a despatch in which he had complained of arrogant
treatment by M. Waddington. He died at Leghorn, on the 8th of
September 1892. (H. W. S.)
CIBBER (or Cibest), CAIUS GABRIEL (1630-1700), Danish
sculptor, was born at Flcnsburg. He was the son of the king's
cabinetmaker, and was sent to Rome at the royal charge while yet
a youth. He came to England during the Protectorate, or during
the first years of the Restoration. Besides the famous statues
of Melancholy and Raving Madness (" great Cibbcr*s brazen
brainless brothers "), now at South Kensington, Cibber produced
the bas-reliefs round the monument on Fish Street Hill. The
several kings of England and the Sir Thomas Grcsham executed
by him for the Royal Exchange were destroyed with the building
itself in 1838. Cibber was long employed by the fourth earl of
Devonshire, and many fine specimens of his work are to be seen
at Chatsworth. Under that nobleman he took up arms in 1688
for William of Orange, and was appointed in return carver to the
CIBBER, COLLEY
35'
king's closet He died rich, and, according to Horace Walpole,
built the Danish church in London, where he lies buried beside
his second wife, to whom he erected a monument. She was a
Miss CoUcy of Glaiston, grand-daughter of Sir Anthony Colley,
and the mother of his son Colley Cibber.
: GIBBER, COLLEY (1671-1757), English actor and dramatist,
was born in London on the 6th of November 1671, the eldest son
of Cains Gabriel Cibber, the sculptor. Sent in 1682 to the free
school at Grantham, Lincolnshire, the boy distinguished himself
by an aptitude for writing verse. He produced an " Oration " on
the death of Charles II. — whom he had seen feeding his ducks In
St James's Park,— and an " Ode " on the accession of James II.
He was removed from school in 1687 on the chance of election to
Winchester College. His father, however, had not then presented
that institution with his statue of William of Wykeham, and the
son was rejected, although through his mother he claimed to be
of " founder's kin." The boy went to London, and indulged his
passion for the theatre. He was invited to Chatsworth, the scat
of William Cavendish, earl (afterwards duke) of Devonshire, for
whom his father was then executing commissions, and he was on
his way when the news of the landing of William of Orange was
received; father and son met at Nottingham, and Colley Cibber
.was taken into Devonshire's company of volunteers. He served
In the bloodless campaign that resulted in the coronation of the
Prince of Orange, and on its conclusion presented a Latin petition
to the eari imploring his interest. The carl did nothing for him,
however, and he enrolled himself (1690) as an actor in Betterton's
company at Drury Lane.
After playing " full three-quarters of a year " without salary,
as was then the custom of all apprentice actors, he was paid ten
fhill«ig« a week. I lis rendering of the little part of the chapla in
in Otway's Orphan procured him a rise of five shillings; and a
Subsequent impersonation (1604) on an emergency, and at the
author's request, of Lord Touchwood in The Double Dealer.,
advanced him, on Congrcve's recommendation, to a pound
a week. On this, supplemented by an allowance of £20 a year
from his father, he contrived to live with his wife and family —
he bad married in 1603 — and to produce a play, Love's Last
Shift, or Ike Pool in Fashion (1606). Of this comedy Congreve
said that it had " a great many things that were like wit in it ";
sad Vanbnigh honoured it by writing his Relapse as a sequel.
Cibber played the part of Sir Novelty Fashion, and his perform-
ance as Lord Foppington, the same character Tcnamcd, in
Vanbrugh's piece, established his reputation as an actor. In 1 698
he was assailed, with other dramatists, by Jeremy Collier in the
Short View. In November 1702 he produced, at Drury Lane,
She Wou'd and She Wou'd Not; or the Kind Impostor, one of his
best comedies; and in 1704, for himself and Mrs Oldficld, The
Careless Husband, which Horace Walpole classed, with Cibber's
Apology, as " worthy of immortality." In 1706 Cibber left
Drury Lane for the Hayroarket, but when the two companies
united two years later he rejoined his old theatre through the
Influence of his friend Colonel B rctt, a shareholder. Brett made
over bis share to Wilks, Estcourt and Cibber. Complaints
against the management of Christopher Rich led, in 1709, to the
^dosing of the theatre by order of the crown, and William Collier
obtained the patent. After a series of intrigues Collier was
bought out by Wilks, Doggett and Cibber, under whose manage-
ment Drury Lane became more prosperous than it ever had been.
|n 1715 a new patent was granted to Sir Richard Steele, and
Barton Booth was also added to the management. Jn 1717
Cibber produced the Nonjuror, an adaptation from Molierc's
ToHuJit; the play, for which Nicholas Rowe wrote an abusive
prologue, ran eighteen nights, and the author received from
George L, to whom it was dedicated, a present of two hundred
guinea*. TartuAe became an English Catholic priest who incited
rebellion, and there is little doubt that the Whig principles
expressed in the Nonjuror led to Cibber's appointment as poet
laureate (1730). It also provoked the animosity of the Jacobite
and Catholic factions, and was possibly one of the c au sal of
Pope's hostility to Cibber. Numerous " keys " to ttaffifjftw
in 1718- In 1720 Drury Lain was cJsjbsMi
by order of the duke of Newcastle, ostensibly on account of the
refusal of the patentees to submit to the authority of the lord
chamberlain, but really (it is asserted) because of a quarrel
between Newcastle and Steele, in which the former demanded
Cibber's resignation. In 1726 Cibber pleaded the cause of the
patentees against the estate of Sir Richard Steele before Sir
Joseph Jekyll, master of the rolls, and won his case. In 1730
Mrs Oldfield died, and her loss was followed in 173a by that of
Wilks; Cibber now sold his share in the theatre, appearing
rarely on the stage thereafter. In 1 740 he published A n Apology
for the Life of Colley Cibber, Comedian . . . with an Historical
View of the Stage during his Own Time. u There are few," wrote
Goldsmith, " who do not prefer a page of Montaigne or Colley
Cibber, who candidly tell us what they thought of the world,
and the world thought of them, to the more stately memoirs
and transactions of Europe." But beside the personal interest,
this book contains criticisms on acting of enduring value, and
gives the best account there is of Cibber's contemporaries on
the London stage. Samuel Johnson, who was no friend of Cibber,
gave it grudging praise (see Boswell's Life of Johnson, ed.
Birkbeck Hill, vol. iii. p. 7a).
In 174a Cibber was substituted for Theobald as the hero of
Pope's Dunciad. Cibber had introduced some gag into the
Rehearsal, in which he played the part of Bayes, referring to the
ill-starred farce of Thru Hours after Marriage ( 1 7 1 7). This play
was nominally by Gay, but Pope and Arbuthnot were known
to have had a band in it Cibber refused to discontinue the
offensive passage, and Pope revenged himself in sarcastic
allusions in his printed correspondence, in the Epistle to Dr
Arbuthnot and in the Dunciad. To these, Cibber replied with
A Letter from Mr Cibber to Mr Pope, inquiring into the motives
that might induce him in his satirical works to be so frequently
fond of Mr Cibber* s name (174a). Cibber scored with an " idle
story of Pope's behaviour in a tavern " inserted in this letter,
and gives an account of the original dispute over the Rehearsal.
By the substitution of Cibber for Theobald as hero of the Dunciad,
much of the satire lost its point. Cibber's faults certainly did not
include dullness. A new edition contained a prefatory discourse,
probably the work of Warburton, entitled " Ri card us Aristarchus,'
or the Hero of the Poem," in which Cibber is made to look
ridiculous from his own Apology. Cibber replied in 1744 with
Another Occasional Letter . . ., and altogether he had the best
of the argument. When he was seventy-four years old he made
his last appearance on the stage as Pandulph in his own Papal
Tyranny in the Reign of King John (Covent Garden, 15th of
February 1745), a miserable paraphrase of Shakespeare's play.
He died on the nth of December 1757.
Cibber's reputation has suffered unduly from the depreciation
of Pope and Johnson. " I could not bear such nonsense," said
Johnson of one of Cibber's odes, " and I would not let him read
it to the end." Fielding attacked Cibber's style and language
more than once in Joseph A ndrews and elsewhere. Nevertheless,
Cibber possessed wit, unusual good sense and tact; and in the
Apology he showed himself the most delicate and subtle critic
of acting of his time. He was frequently accused of plagiarism,
and did not scruple to make use of old plays, but he is said to
have been ashamed of his Shakespearian adaptations, one of
which, however, Richard III. (Drury Lane, 1700), kept its place
as the acting version until 1821. Cibber is rebuked for his mutila-
tion of Shakespeare by Fielding in the Historical Register for
1736, where he figures as Ground Ivy.
If Cibber had not as much wit as his predecessors, he displayed
in his best plays abundant animation and spirit, free from the
extreme coarseness of many of his contemporaries, and a thorough
knowledge of the requirements of the stage. His most successful
comedies kept their place in the acting repertory for a long time.
He was an excellent actor, especially in the role of the fashionable
coxcomb. Horace Walpole said that as Bayes in The Rehearsal
he made the part what it was intended to be, the burlesque
of a great poet, whereas David Garrick degraded him to a
" famttcer."
lasmmlissmiMiwIiliiil Is 1822 by E. Beilchamber* %s*\*v*%
352
CIBORIUM— CIBRARIO
by R. \V. Lowe, who printed with it other valuable theatrical books
ami iMinphlrts. h i> also included in Hunt and Clarke's Auto-
biopiiphie* (|.S?6. flc). 1 ililjcr** Dramatic Works were published
in 17'">. with At\ aivonnt of the life and writing* of the author, and
again in 1777- Besides the plays already mentioned, he wrote
Woman's IJ i/. or the Lady in Fashion (1697). which was altered later
07°7) into The Schoolboy, or the Comical Rivals; Xerxes (1699), a
1 raged*- aeted only ome; The Pnnvked Husband (acted 1728),
emuplited irom \' tubman's unfinished Journey to Ismdon; The
A'i :.' ^> "
1 1. iv lit, tri.*/: the 1 1 union's rf Alexander the Great (acted 1 710),
i-omual tup'dy: /'jm.vi ana Phyllida (acted 1729), a ballad
M'livrv and t/or'neilk*.
Oblvr i» to fo found i
ikeatrujl Liter a!urt.
A Hbliocraphy of the numerous skits on
Lowe'» Hil-i'.cgraphtcal Account cf English
t!«;
ft.-
Coliev fibber's son. Tiiroraurs Cibmr (i 703-1 7$$), also an
actor ami plarwright. was born on the .*Mh of November 1703.
In 1M4 he was .ul;ns manager it the I lay market, and he
•ubto'tiut-ut'.y played at IVjry Lane. Lincoln's Inn Fields and
I'oirnt C>a:diu I Us host i:: , .p. , i^aat:on was a* Fitto!, but he
a!-** »!;»*. v\ £;:-xhc\i hinis.lt r: sonv of the tv.u*- gentleman parti
.'.Peccd b> r* i.:;'\t He was ct.c o! the ringleaders in the
i-;:>. »i ..,.:. ■ -: \ .-' ■: H^-ov. *K» had bought a share in
l\iu:".v'. IV..: \ l,i-v :.-v.v. Co'.:o> Ciobcr. Thcophilus Cibbcr,
? a iv.r'lvi oi o'Ver av,o:^, svorded from Drary Lane.
1 s.i ;>.:* , ! .:-r. :.;.. \c ;*:< \a!u»* os the patent, for which his
v; rx.'. :.■».■■.*»-.*. a co:\s:.;(rrAXe sun. aeted with doubtful
w.\ H. »»—-..T" l " : a:.v. i v ;p:l ,, ,ir..;:. of an autobiography,
.■ » : ;. .1 * , : . » .: .;.:»■ .* o * ; >v a prva: anoc \ 1 7 40^ of a sea ih-
ir x 4 a.w; «: ,•; > * .i:.v: V* ar. urksovn author. en:itlcd An
4>*.\» \».t. i . .* ».'• .". . . . 1*. . . . T*?y>edu*b< mitten
t\ •.*». In i* v ; *v K^ar. ."«»• j.rrrj jrJ Chjrj+lers ef tkt
» x >*» 1.1. (...'-».• * a *i {,:■..«. v .■ i "■«'-•: 5»j.'j:'i and Ireland,
V : V ».-: iv t. •, V: 1^1*. :V ". \- o: IVsrton Booth. He * rote
*■ *v ■. »»•» ,* ".' jt.va; r*r: : 1 •. i*».i a^varvd An .-t.wfcti ef
u . . . .- t. :'.. . .■ »'•.■■. .*?■ .■ «■ .•■j 2»;U\J, wi;h the name
v. V- \' 'Ix o- :V : . .* ;m£»\ •>.' !:ie\o".unie» of /./*«
*:v »>%-.'» :v.»,',* o.» : v .' »m :'..,■■. »»os%> i'! Ocrard I an^vaine and
vi. c» l.»»vV x-A \S< MS »oV. »: ,»-i> ol Thoru-* Ccxcter itoSo-
IV IsvV 1% x»:,i to hi* ,- l\»-n iar.ee! v mitten by Robert
l*i Ir'u'^o.'. > a: ,, .at , .iu':*.«-.s. Ihkvpl-lu* Cibber perished
b\ O- i»«uNk on hi> **v to Dublin to play at the Theatre
ko%.il
Msiwdi Mikti I'junFt u*«4>:wV »>'o of Theophilus.
».in m\ .1. :■, %* i»: .'.*;ii». ::,»n ^ho «a* ;hc daughter of a Covcnt
ii.ii.;»"i r;«W»!.-: ard >.^:e; »■! Pr \rne vi 7 1^-17?^^ the
»%»:ii v%. : M;n 1 iMs v )\i. ! . j !v.u;: .:»'.l \o:»vand lK*e.in her career
in »'p*».i M-e w.i* iV o: :<*:■,;! i>a!at.M in Handel's A*is and
( .■"..:,.■. .i:„! i!e !»»■.-.: :.-.'to .«;..;* i'.i \\\' XiiSy:.'-^ are s.iid to have
birn milieu im Ivt. She pl.-.\e.i .'.iiah i^i Varon Hill's version
ol Vflt.uu-*> .'...". 111 i-;e. ami it »a* **a trair»ait:e**, not a.s a
fci"Kt-r. tl:.it Ik 1 pi eat est tnu:nph% nose won lioiniVlley Cibber
she learned a s.;i«.^ > on J! method %M doj.iiualion. I lei mannerism*,
however, did i:..i uloeurc her real genius, and she freed hcrvelf
from thmi entirely when she Inrgan to Ax l with Oirrick. with
whom she was a^ lH iated at Pi urv lane from 1 - i 1. She died on
me join of J..i, : ,ary 1706. She manied l'heopl.ilus Tiblvr in
\i, M r 1 i 1 . V| I ! w,lh him hut - 1 * !lorl li ™- Appteeiat ion* of
w,,.". , ' S f " 1|, 1 ai ' ! " 1 R are to W found in manv toiitem^rarv
"' ' I. nU?i'h!ir!m mOSl disCTI ' n,ilialin * lH ' in 8 in lhtf AVai.:J
' Jir,
l-** 1
i> , i, „. . w " »» "*••■! Mir v.as soon sep.ira
||ip| ■ " nnd.rvtudy to actress* in loading part*.
... , I ". ,, V. n .* :,K< ' r ' Char, « Meetwcxxl. on whom
h '. »■■ 1. ...
»M,.,i" T1 y ? un P" t d -^ehter. Ci*\rlotte, married
. ;i vi.,i:r.:,i, from whom she was soon separated.
leading part*, but
ood, on whom she
,.„ .|„ , . t Art *•/ Management (17^5). She also
' '. '■••« .. ;,„',". ». nOVC,s of sm • 1,, mcrit . an <l an un-
//.*.• # -s .,./ ''-"'• rrprmled in Hunt
'•'i, y/i,
: and Cbrkc's
■1 1..
in «|,
'«! f-*«'in for a drinking-vesscl
1 "•' '»'. ci/y^/noi-
Church the cUtorium was a canopy over the altar (; r.) . supported
on columns, and fr^m it hung the receptacle in which was
reserved the consecrated wafir of the Euchari ? t. The use of
the word has probably been mur h influenced ty the early false
connexion with cibus, food, cf. Agatio, bishop of Pisa (quutcd
in Du Cangc, Gloss, f .».)-, " Ciborium vas esse ad fere n do s ciboi. *
In the Eastern Church the columns rested on the altar itseli, in
the Western they reached the ground. The name was early
transferred from the canopy to the vessel containing the reserved
sacrament, and in the Western Church the canopy was known
as a " baldaquin/' Ital. bald ace hino, from Baldacco, the Itilian
name of Bagdad, and hence applied to a rich kind of embroidered
tapestry made there and much used for canopies. &c. At the
present day it is usual in the Roman Church to use the term
11 pyx " (rtfis, properly a vessel made of boxwood) for the
receptacle for the reserved sacrament used in administering the
viaticum to the sick or dying. Medieval pyxes and ciboria are
often beautiful examples of the goldsmith's, cnamellcr's and
metal-worker's craft. They take most usually the shape of a
covered chalice or of a cylindrical box with conical or cylindrical
cover surmounted by a cross. An exquisite ciborium fetched
£6000 at the sale of the Jcrdone Braikcn ridge collection at
Christie's in 1008. It is supposed to have come from Malmcsbury
Abbey, and is probably of 13th-century English make. It is of
copper-gilt and ornamented with champlcvc enamels, apple and
chrysoprase green, scarlet, mauve and white, turquoise and
lapis lazuli, the flesh tints being of a pale jasper. Various
subjects from the Old and New Testament, such as the sacrifice
of Abel, the brazen serpent, the nativity, crucifixion and re-
surrection are represented on circular medallions on the outside.
It is illustrated in colours in the catalogue of the exhibition 0/
the Burlington Fine Arts Club, 1897.
CIBRARIO. LU10I, Count (1802-1S70), Italian statesman
and historian, descended from a noble but impoverished Pied-
montese family, was born in Usscglia on the 23rd of February
iSoj. He won a scholarship at the age of sixteen, and- was
teaching literature at eighteen. His verses to King Charles
Albert, then prince of Carignano, on the birth of his son Victor
Emmanuel, attracted the prince's attention and proved the
beginning of a long intimacy. He entered the Sardinian civil
service, and in 1824 was appointed lecturer on canon and civil
law. His chief interest was the study of ancient documents,
and he was sent to search the archives of Switzerland, France
and Germany for charters relating tq the history of Savoy.
During the war of 1848, after the expulsion of- the Austrian*
from Venice, Cibrario was sent to that city with Colli to negotiate
its union with Piedmont. But the proposal fell through when
the news of the armistice between King Charles Albert and
Austria arrived, and the two delegates were made the objects
of a hostile demonstration. In October 1S48 Cibrario was made
senator, and after the battle of Novara (March 1849), when
Charles Albert abdicated and retired to a monastery near Oporto,
Cibrario and Count Giacinto di Collcgno were sent as representa-
tives of the senate to express the sympathy of that body with the
fallen king. He reached Oporto on the 28th of May, and after
staying there for a month returned to Turin, which he reached
juM before the news of Charles Albert's death. In May 1852
he t-i-rame minister of finance in the reconstructed d'Axcglio
cabinet, and bter minister of education in that of Cavour. In
the same year he was appointed secretary to the order of SS.
Mauririo and Lazzaro. It was he who in 1853 dictated the
vigorous memorandum of protest against the confiscation by
Austria of the property of Lombard exiles who had been
naturalized in Piedmont. He strongly supported Cavour's
Crimean policy (1855), an< * * ncn General La Marmora departed
in command of the expeditionary force and Cavour took the war
office. Cibrario was made minister for foreign affairs.
— - — . „ -. He con-
ducted the business of the department with great skill, and ably
thr run d., r .'i ? cc< ? ^dc(, Cavour in brinu^ a^j tne admission of Piedmont
'■■v. .... , ,,. or nut.^X ; On* ^S "rSS-K^ 1 r ^^ lh ^^iT 1 **'
'"■" '" 1 he nriy Christian I In Isi hc ^TJ - -»^i^* C.brano was created count.
Between Victor Emmanuel's
CICADA— CICERO
353
t and the republic of San Marino, and arranged a
which the fetter's liberties were guaranteed. After
(866 by which Austria lost Venetia, Cibrarionegotiated
government for the restitution of state papers and art
emoved by it from Lombardy and Venetia to Vienna.
October 1870, near Said, on the lake of Cards,
t important work was his Economic politico dd medio
• 1839), which enjoyed great popularity at the time,
r of little value. His Schiavith strtaggio (Milan,
I gave an account of the development and abolition
and serfdom. Among- his historical writings the
leserve mention: — DdU ortiglierio dol 1300 al 1700
17); Origini .... ddlo monorchia di Savoia (Turin, j
tU ordini cavalUnschi (Turin, 1846); Degli ordini
Ruin, 1845); and the Memorio SegreU of Charles 1
itten by order of Victor Emmanuel but afterwards |
. Cibrario was a good example of the loyal, industrious,
dmontese aristocrat of the old school,
aphy has been written by F. Odorid, IlConUL. Cibrario '
187a). (L. V.*)
(Cicodidoe), insects of the homopterous division of
tera, generally of large sire, with the femora of the
gt toothed below, two pairs of large clear wings, and
compound eyes. Cicadas are chiefly remarkable for
ong of the males, whkh in some cases may be heard
it a distance of a quarter of a mile or more. The vocal
which there is a pair in the thorax, protected by an
plate, are quite unlike the sounding organs of other
Each consists in essence of a tightly stretched membrane
rhkh is thrown into a state of rapid vibration by a
made attached to its inner surface and passing thence
1 In the floor of the thoracic cavity. Although no
rgnns have been found in the females, the song of the
eneved to serve as a sexual call. Cicadas are also
f for their longevity, which so far as is known surpasses
other insects. By means of a saw-like ovipositor the
s her eggs in the branches of trees. Upon hatching,
which differ from the adult in possessing long antennae
of powerful fossorial anterior legs, fall to the ground,
bw the surface, and spend a prolonged subterranean
itence feeding upon the roots of vegetation. After
■ the larva is transformed into the pupa or nymph,
distinguishable principally by the shortness of its
tnd the presence of wing pads. After a brief existence
emerges from the ground, and, holding on to a plant,
scans of its powerful front legs, sets free the perfect
aigh a slit along the median dorsal line of the thorax.
tses the pupa upon emerging constructs a chimney of
le of which is not known. In one of the best-known
xoda septemdeeim, from North America, the life-cycle
xtend over seventeen years. Cicadas are pa r ticularly
in the tropics, where the largest forms are found,
occur in temperate countries, and were well known
jent Greeks and Romans. One spedes only is found
i, where it is restricted to the southern counties but 1
t not commonly met with.
, Myrrhis odorala (natural order Umbelliferae), a
herb with a leafy hollow stem, 2 to 3 ft. high, much
area, whitish beneath, a large sheathing base, and
tmbels of small white flowers, the outer ones only of 1
fertile. The fruit is dark brown, long (J to x in.),
i beaked. The plant is a native of central and southern
id is found in parts of England and Scotland in pastures,!
ar houses. It has aromatic and stimulant properties;
snnerly used as a pot-herb.
• the name of two families of ancient Rome. It may
b derived from cicer (pulse), in which case it would bet
to such names as LoUulus, Tuber 0, Piso. Of one
die plebeian Claudian gens, only a single member,
idius Cicero, tribune in 454 B.C., is known. The other
I a branch of the Tullii, settled from an andent period
m. This family, four of whose members are noticed!
specially below, did not achieve more than municipal eminence
until the time of M. Tullius Cicero, the great orator.
1. Maxcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 b.c), Roman orator and
politician, was bom at Arpinum on the 3rd of January 106 b.c
His mother, Hdvia, is said to have been of good family. His
father was by some said to have been descended from Attius
Tullius, the Volscian host of Coriolanus, while spiteful persons
declared him to have been a fuller; in any case he was a Roman
knight with property at Arpinum and a house in Rome. His
health was weak, and he generally lived at Arpinum, where he
devoted himself to literary pursuits. Cicero spent his boyhood
partly in his native town and partly at Rome. The poet Archias,
he says, first inspired him with the love of literature. He was
much impressed by the teaching of Phaedrus, the Epicurean,
at a period before he assumed the toga virilis; he studied
dialectic under Diodotus the Stoic, and in 88 B.C. attended the
lectures of Philo, the head of the Academic school, whose devoted
pupil he became. He studied rhetoric under Molo (Molon) of
Rhodes, and law under the guidance of Q. Mudus Scaevola,
the augur and jurisconsult After the death of the augur, he
transferred himself to the care of Q. Mucins Scaevola, the
poniifex maximus, a still more famous jurisconsult, nephew of
the augur. His literary education at this period consisted largely
of verse-writing and making translations from Greek authors.
We hear of an early poem named Pontius Gloucus the subject
of which is uncertain, and of translations of Xenophon's Oecono-
mico and the Phenomena of Aratns. Considerable fragments of
the latter work are still extant To this period also belongs his
dt Inventions rhetorico, of which he afterwards spoke lightly
(<U Oral. i. 5), but which enjoyed a great vogue in the middle
ages. Cicero also, according to Roman practice, received
military training. At the age of seventeen he served in the social
war successivdy under Pompous Strabo and Sulla (89 B.C.).
In the war between Marius and Sulla has sympathies were with
Sulla, but he did not take up arms (Sext. Rose. 136, 142).
• His forensic life begins in 81 B.C., at the age of twenty-five.
A speech delivered in this year, pro Quinctio, is still extant; it
is concerned with a technical point of law and has little literary
merit In the following year he made his celebrated defence of
Sextus Roscius on a charge of parridde. He subsequently
defended a woman of Arretium, whose freedom was impugned
on the ground that Sulla had confiscated the territory of that
town. Cicero then left Rome on account of his health, and
travelled for two years in the East. He studied philosophy at
•Athens under various teachers, notably Antiochus of Ascalon,
founder of the Old Academy, a combination of Stoicism, Platon-
ism and Peripateticism. In Asia be attended the courses of
Xenodes, Dionyshis and Menippus, and in Rhodes those of
Posidonius, the famous Stoic. In Rhodes also he studied
rhetoric once more under Molo, to whom he ascribes a decisive
influence upon the development of his literary style. He had
previously affected the florid, or Asiatic, style of oratory then
[current in Rome. The chief faults of this were excess of orna
ment, antithesis, alliteration and assonance, monotony of
rhythm, and the insertion of words purely for rhythmical effect.
I Molo, he says, rebuked his youthful extravagance and he came
back" a changed man." 1
I He returned to Rome in 7 7 B.C., and appears to have married at
[this lime Terentia, a rich woman with a domineering temper,
to whom many of his subsequent embarrassments were due. 1
j He engaged at once in forensic and political life. He was
quaestor in 75, and was sent to Lilybaeum to supervise the corn
supply. His connexion with Sicily led him to come forward in
70 b.c, when curule-aedile elect, to prosecute Gaius Verres, who
had oppressed the island for three years. Cicero seldom prose-
cuted, but it was the custom at Rome for a rising politician to
I * Brutus. I 316 " (Molon) dedit operand . . . ut nimis redundantis
no* et supra fluentis iuventu quadam dicendi impunitate et licentia
reprimeret et quasi extra ripas diffluent is co£rcerct."
■ According to Plutarch she urged her husband to take vigorous
action against Catiline, who had compromised her half-sister rabta*
a vesta! virgin; also to give evidence against OoAfettt^ud^V"*****
of his sister Clodia.
354
CICERO
win his spurs by attacking a rotable offender Kp** Cztlic, rj). j league of Gabinius in 58. We know from his letters that he
Ic the ::;;ow.r<j[ year he .iefizdid Marcis :.or Matuus) Fenteius I accepted financial aid from Caesar, but that he repaid the loan
on a change ci ev.erLcc :s O*-. -j-r$ \xr.^us arg^ents which before the outbreak of the civil war.* There is no doubt that he
cijih: ^ux.> well have teen
I:: ci » .0. b-s Otters ^eg-:
T. ror'jvnJ j A:^.'us. k\s
:\ azote cz behai: of VerreshfT.ylf.
rc=i * i>:h izi especially those to
seccrd self ": we obuia wholly
,uc i.-.o» ledge ct Rosas lire ar.i history, la 06 B.C. he was
r : Ae:or. a:?d w as cailei upon to bear cases of extortion. In the
*a.:c >ear he spoke en behalf of the proposal ox Gaius Manilius
tx« rrsnjscT the command against Mithradates from LuaiUus to
IVr-.jvy \Se Lt{t J/jfii.'i:\ and delivered his clever but dis-
i'cvr.-.-.ous defence of Aulus Cluentist \p** GarcfcV). At this
was easily deceived. He was always an optimist, and thought
that he was bringing good influence to bear upon Caesar as
afterwards upon Octavian. His actions, however, when Caesar's
projects became manifest, sufficiently vindicated his honesty.
During these unhappy years he took refuge in literature. The de
OrAvf was written in 55 B.C., the de Re public a in 54, and the de
Ltphus at any rate begun in 52. The latter year is famous for
the murder of Clodius by T. Annius Milo on the Appian Way
ion the xSth of January), which brought about the appointment
t;-.«e he was a prospective candidate for the consulship, and . of Pompey as sole consul and the passing of the special laws
was obliged by the hostility of the nobles towards " new men " j dealing with rioting and bribery. Cicero took an active part in
to look for help wherever i: was to be found. In 05 ».e. he even the trials which followed, both as a defender of Milo and his
tho;£ht of defending Catiline on a charge of extortion, and | adherents and as a prosecutor of the opposite faction. At the
delivered two brilliant speeches on behalf of Gaius CorncLus. close of the year, greatly to his annoyance, he was sent to govern
tribune in c-7 nc. a leader of the d. a sux;at:c partw In cm *.c. Cilicia under the provisions of Fompcy's law (see Pompey and
he lost his father and his son Marcus was tvrr. The estimates ' Rome: History). His reluctance to leave Rome, already shown
finally dec: Jed to suprvrt fc:w for the consulship in order to ( by his refusal to take a province, after his praetorship and
ace;* out Catiline, and he cagerlv embraced the " good cause,** . consulship, was increased by the inclination of his daughter
hi> affection lor which trvm t^» time cr.ward never varied, Tuiiia. then a widow, to marry again.' During his absence she
though hi* actions were not always consistesL I married the profligate spendthrift, P. Cornelius Dolabeila.
The public career of Cicero her.oeforih i* largely covered by | The province of Cilicia was a large one. It included, in
the general article on Rcur : Jiis.vnr. II. " The Republic." ai f addition to Cilicia proper. Isauria, Lycaonia, Pisidia, Pamphylia
s *. The year of his ccnsul»h:p so.;* « as one of amazing activity, and Cyprus, as well as a protectorate over the client kingdoms of
bo:h administrative and oratorical. Voide* the three speeches \ Capp&docia and Galatix There was also danger of a Parthian
against Publius Ruilus and the four against Catiline, he deltvcrrd inroad. Cicero's legate was his brother Quintius Cicero (below),
a number of others, among which that on behalf of Gaius Rabirius | six experienced soldier who had gained great distinction under
is especially notable. The charge was that Rabirius U-r* bad Caesar in Gaul. The fears of Parthian invasion were not realized,
killed Saturnir.us in 100 n.c. and by bringing it the democrats ' but Cicero, after suppressing a revolt in Cappadocia, undertook
challenged the right of the senate to declare a man a public military operations against the hill-tribes of the Amanus and
enemy. Cicero, therefore, was fully aware of the danger which
would threaten himself from his execution of the Catilinarian
conspirators. He trusted, however, to receive the support of
the nobles. In this he was disappointed. They never forgot
that he was a " new man," and were jealous of the great house
upon the Palatine which he acquired at this time. Caesar had
made every possible ciTort to conciliate Cicero, 1 but, when all
overtures failed, allowed Publius Clodius to attack him. Cicero
found himself deserted, and on the advice of Cato went into exile
to avoid bloodshed. He left Rome at the end of March 58, and
arrived on the 23rd of May at Thcssalonica. where he remained
in the deepest dejection until the end of November, when he
went to Dyrrhachium (Duraxzo) awaiting his recall. He left
for Italy on the 4th of August 57, and on arriving at Brundisium
(Brindisi) found that he had been recalled by a law passed by the
comilia on the very day of his departure. On his arrival at Rome
captured the town of Pindenissus after a siege of forty-six days.
A s*?piL~:ij in his honour was voted by the senate. The early
months of 50 were occupied by the administration of justice,
chiefly at Laodicea, and by varicus attempts to alleviate the
distress in the province caused bv : *■.<■ exactions cf his predecessor,
Appius Claudius. He had to * :;>..*: m. ! . pressure from influential
persons (e.g. M. Brutus.* ho ha.: bm. :».;.»** interests in his province),
and refused to provide h.» !:*.e!'.ds wuh wild beasts for their
games in Rome. 1 oav. .ig >..> p:oi :nce on the earliest opportunity,
he reached Brundi<.-.^ o.*. «>e jjth of November, and found civil
war inevitable. He »■•»«! so Rome on the 4th of January, but
did not enter the »-.:*. since he aspired to a triumph for his
successes * A ft,- r the out break of war he was placed by Pompey
in charge ol the \'at»panian coast. After much irresolution he
refused CacMiV lavitations and resolved to join Fompcy's
forces in Giwve He was shocked by the ferocious language of
hi: was received with enthusiasm by all classes, but did not find ' his party. a::d himself gave offence by his bitter jests (PluL
the nobles at all eager to give him compensation for the loss of
his house and villas, which had been destroyed by Clodius.
He was soon encouraged by the growing coolness between
Pompey and Caesar to attack the acts of Caesar during his
con.nMiip, and aficr his successful defence of Publius Scstius
on the 1 or h of March he proposed on the 5th of April that the
senate should on the 1 ?th of May discuss Caesar s distribution
ol the «"ampanian land. This brought about the conference of
Ltj* .1 ( Lurxa). Cicero was again deserted by his supporters and
th 1 1 .itcnwl with fresh exile. He was forced to publish a " re-
faniaiion," probably the speech de Provituiis Consultribus.
and in a private letter says frankly, " I know that I have been a
PKnlar «■»." Hi, conduct for the next three yeara teems with
Ifii'ffiusff'Qfiri which wc may deplore but cannot pass over.
Ilr w;i» obliged to defend in 54 Publius Vatinius, whom he had
fii-ii fly altar kid during the trial of Scstius; also Aulus Gabinius,
on.- of l hr coribuh to whom his exile was due; and Rabirius
1 •i-.i iiiniin, nn Agent of Gabinius. On the other hand, he made a
vMnii :.j,ee<.li in the senate in 55 against Lucius Piso, the col-
' r-rwr, ,11 ,,„,■ ti,„r, offered him .1 place on the coalition, which
on In- rf-fux.il | MVd iiM- a triumvirate (All. U. x. «• PrnGnuAi)
r a l, , i ,,w 'V ,l, l a '"** -n.hiHcommis.iou tor the iviaion^fUe
Cautpjiiuii lanj, or a /eja/w hUra. """ m MC
CiV. jSV through illness he was not present at the battle of
Pharealu*. but afterwards was offered the command by Cato
the Younger at Corcyra, and was threatened with death by the
young Cn. Tompcius when he refused to accept it Thinking it
useless to continue the struggle, he sailed to Brundisium, where
he remained until the iath of August 47, when, after receiving
a kind letter from Caesar, he went to Rome. Under Caesar's
dictatorship Cicero abstained from politics. His voice was
raised on three occasions only: once in the senate in 46 to praise
Caesar's clemency to M. Claudius Marcellus (pro MarceMo), to
plead in the same year before Caesar for Quintus Ligarius, and in
45 on behalf of Dciotarus, tctrarch of Galatia, also before Caesar,
lie suffered greatly from family troubles at this period. In 46,
his patience giving way, he divorced Tcrentia, and married his
young and wealthy ward Publilia. Then came the greatest grief
• Alt. vii. 8. 5 "est enim biop^o* IrrmXtTtvonkpov yp<6>4«<\lrw esse."
•She was married in 63 B.C. to C. Calpurnius Fiso FrugTwhom
Cicero found a model son-in-law. He appears to have died before
50, rince in that year Tullia was betrothed to Furius Craaripes
(quaestor in Bithyma in 51). It u not known if this marriage actually
took place.
« That the loss of his triumph rankled in his mind may be seen
from Brutus, f 255: " hanr gluriam . . . tuac quidem aupplicationi
non. sed tnumphis multorum antepono."
CICERO
355
of his lib, the death of Tullia, his beloved daughter. He shortly
afterwards divorced Publiiia, who had been jealous of Tullia's
influence and proved unsympathetic. To solace his troubles
be devoted himself wholly to literature. To this period belong
several famous rhetorical and philosophical works, the Brutus,
Orator, PartUiouts Oratorios, Paradoxo, Acodemica, it Piuibus,
Tuscuien Disputations, together with other works now lost, such
as his Lous Catonis, Consolalio and Horlensius
His repose was broken by Caesar's murder on the 15th of
March 44, to which he was not a party. On the 17th of March
he delivered a speech in the senate urging a general amnesty like
that declared in Athens after the expulsion of the Thirty Tyrants.
When it became apparent that the conspirators had only removed
the despot and left the despotism, he again devoted himself to
philosophy, and in an incredibly short space of time produced the
it ftatura Deorum, it Divination*, dt Pott, Colo maior (or it
StncctuU), Latlius (or de Amicitia), and began his treatise it
Officii*. To this period also belongs his lost work dt Gloria,
He then projected a journey to Greece in order to see his son
Marcus, then studying at Athens, of whose behaviour he heard
unfavourable reports. He reached Syracuse on the 1st of August,
having during the voyage written from memory a translation
of Aristotle's Topica. He was driven back by unfavourable
winds to Leucopetra, and then, hearing better news, returned to
Rome on the 21st of August He was bitterly attacked by
Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony) in the senate on the ist of
September for not being present there, and on the next day
replied in his First Philippic. He then left Rome and devoted
himself to the completion of the de Officiis, and to the composition
of his famous Second Philippic, which was never delivered, but
was circulated, at first privately, after Antony's departure from
Rome to Cisalpine Gaul on the 28th of November.
Cicero returned to Rome on the 9th of December, and from
that time forward led the republican party in the senate. His
policy, stated briefly, was to make use of Octavian, whose name
was aD-powerful with the veterans, until new legions had been
Bawd which would follow the republican commanders (Phil. zi.
jo). Cicero pledged his credit for the loyalty of Octavian, who
styled him " father" and. affected to take his advice on all
arraafamt (Epp. ad Brut. i. 17. 5). Cicero, an incurable optimist
m politics, may have convinced himself of Octavian 's sincerity.
The breach, however, was bound to come, and the saying,
maliciously attributed to Cicero, that Octavian was an " excellent
youth who must be praised and—sent to another place/ 1 neatly
cipi cases the popular view of the situation. 1 Cicero was sharply
criticised by M. Junius Brutus for truckling to Octavian while
showing irreconcilable enmity to Antony and Lepidus {ad Brut.
L 16. 4 L 15. 9); but Brutus was safe in his province, and it is
difficult to see what other course was open to a politician in
Rome Whether Cicero was right or wrong, none can question
Us ami ring energy. He delivered his long series of Philippics
at Rome, and kept up a correspondence with the various
provincial governors and commanders, all short-sighted and
, and several of them half-hearted, endeavouring to keep
1 man in his place and to elaborate a common plan of opera-
He was naturally included in the list of the proscribed,
1 it is said that Octavian fought long on his behalf, and
was slain near Formiae on the 7th of December 43. He had a
ship near in which he had previously attempted to fly, but being
cast bach by unfavourable winds he returned to bis villa, saying,
"Let me die in the country which I have often saved." His
head and hands were sent to Rome and nailed to the rostra,
after Fulvia, wife of Antony and widow of Clodius, had thrust
a hairpin through the tongue.
Works. — The literary works of Cicero may be classed as (1)
rhetorical; (a) oratorical; (3) philosophical and political; (4)
epistolary.
Q.) XMdoricaL*— His chief works of this kind are: (0) it
* torn. xL so " laudandum adolescentem, ornandum. tenendum."
* With then it is usual to include a treatise to Herennius by an
kuthor, a contemporary of Sulla, in modern timet gener-
1 with a parson named Conindus, quoted by Quintiliaa
Orators, a treatise in three books dedicated to his brother Qufntns.
The discussion is conducted in the form of a dialogue which 2a
supposed to have occurred in 91 B.C. chiefly between the two
orators L. Crassus and M. Antonius. The first book deals with
the studies necessary for an orator; the second with the treat-
ment of the subject matter; the third with the form and delivery
of a speech. Cicero says of this work in a letter (Pom. i. 9. 23)
that it " does not deal in hackneyed rules and embraces the whole
theory of oratory as laid down by Isocrates and Aristotle."
(6) Brutus, or it darts oratoribus, a history of Roman eloquence
containing much valuable information about his predecessors,
drawn largely from the Chronicle (liber asmalis) of Alticus (§| 14,
15). (c) Orator, dedicated to M. Brutus, sketching a portrait
of the perfect and ideal orator, Cicero's last word on oratory.
The sum of bis conclusion is that the perfect orator must also
be a perfect man. Cicero says of this work that he has " con-
centrated in it all his taste " {Font, vi. 18. 4). The three treatises
are intended to form a continuous series containing a complete
system of rhetorical training.
It will be convenient to mention here a feature of Ciceronian
prose on which singular light has been thrown by recent inquiry.
In the ie Oratore, iu. 173 sqq., he considers the element of rhythm
or metre in prose, and in the Orator (174-226) he returns to the
subject and discusses it at length* His main point is that prose
should be metrical in character, though it should not be entirely
metrical, since this would be poetry {Orator, 220). Greek writers
relied for metrical effect in prose on those feet which were not much
used in poetry. Aristotle recommended the paean w u w -w Cicero
preferred the cretic -«-, which he says is the metrical equivalent
of the paean. Demosthenes was especially fond of the cretic.
Rhythm pervades the whole sentence but is most important at the
end or clausula, where the swell of the period sinks to rest. The ears
of the Romans were incredibly sensitive to such points. We are
told that an assembly was stirred to wild applause by a double
trochee -v-v.' If the order were changed, Cicero says, the
effect would be lost. The same rhythm should be found In the
membra which compose the sentence. He quotes a passage from
one of his own speeches in which any change in the order would
destroy the rhythm. Cicero gives various ctausulae which his ears
told mm to be good or bad, but his remarks are desultory, as also are
those of QulntiTLin, whose cxampld were largely drawn from Cicero's
writing;*. It was left for modern research id discover rules of har*
many which the Romans obeyed unconsciously. Other invesiigatura
had shown that Cicero's (hustdot are generally variations or tome
three or four forms in whkh the rhythm 11 trochaic, Dr Thaddaeus
£ielinsfci of St Petersburg, after exs mining all the clausula* 10
Cicero's speeches, finds that they are governed fay a law. In every
fteiuiiia there is a basis followed by a cadence. The bails coasts
of a cretic or its metrical equivalent, 1 This 11 followed by a cadence
trochaic in character h but varying in length. The three favourite
forma are (u) -v— *oi iii*) -u — wit* Wt) _ d™v~P- The*
He styles vera* (V). ■ Other frequent cW^WdA which he terms
iuitc4 {L), are those in which a lone syllable is resolved, aaia verse,
into two *h oris. *, t. is jf ihtfaiur These t* o oUa&es, V -1 rid L . i n <r I tide
AG % of the dauJwae in the orations. Some rarer dausufat wh ich he
terras M (—mala*) introduce no new principle. There remain two
interesting fnrms, via. S( m ifiectat}. in which a. spondee is substituted
for a trochee in the cadence, e.f, ~ u - — -«— , this being done
for special emphasis, and F ( -pc«ut«jc), where a dactyl is so uwtd (
e.g. -M"i>u-C, thii bring the htroica claujidd condemned
by Quintilian. Similar rule* apply to the membra of the sentence,
though in these the 5 and F forma are more frequent, harmony being
restored in the clausula.
These results apply not onfy to the speeches but also to the
(iii. 1 . 1 1 ). This ii a manual of rhetoric derived from Greek smirtcs
with illustrations of figures drawn, (rem Roman orators, Cicero's
juvenile work de Inorniicne appears to be drawn partly from this
and partly from a treatise by Hermagoras L This is a slight pro-
duction and does not require detailed nut ice. Other minor works
written in later life, such ^t the Fartttiorus Oratorio*, a catechism
of rhetoric, in which instruction is given by Cicero to his *on Marcus;
the To/Hoi. and an introduction to a translation of the speeches
delivered by Demosthenes and Aeschines for and against Cteaiphon,
styled ds Qptimo ggttert trajomm. also need only be mentioned-
* Orator, fi 314 " patris dictum sapiens t omenta* fili cflmpro^
blvit— hoc dichorem tint us clamor coAtionisextitaius e*t ut admira-
ble csset. Quaero, nemne id numeruseJficentf Verborum ordinem
immuLa, fac sic: " Comprobavit filt temeritas' jam nihil erir,"
* Thii theory is partly anticipated by Tcrentiami* Maunis fa a.d.
J9<>) + who says o! the cretic (v. 1440 sqq,)
" Plurimum orames deccbit quando pacrtc in ultimo
Obtinet sedem htaum, term i net si tlausiiLim
Dactyl us sponceui imam, nee trochaeum retpiw;
Pleuuis tractatur ismd arte prosa rhetjwvLia-
CICERO
ie more elaborate letters, and with
tnkal prose, t.g. that of Pliny and
i by Caesar who was an Atticist, and
:. Livy's practice is exactly opposite
a marked preference for the S forms,
saying that long syllables are more
oratory. 1
generally delivered before the senate
racter, and before jurors sitting in
eech against Vatinius was an attack
lination; that de Domo was made
pro C. Rabirio perduellionis reo in
i the people; and those pro Ligario
e Caesar. The five orations com-
n V err cm were never spoken, but
e into exile. The Second Philippic
ued as a pamphlet. Cicero's speech
>t a success, though, as Quintilian
taken down by shorthand reporters,
gure well used, it cannot have been
y later writers. The extant speech
leisure. None of the other speeches
lich they were delivered. Cicero's
a commentarius or skeleton of his
i speaking. If he was pleased with
)ut for publication. Sometimes he
h a subject on which he had spoken,
imes preserved: eg. "de Postumi
teste Fufio " (Cad. 19). Theseiom-
his freedman Tiro and are quoted
ga Candida, p. 87).
1st be given all the privileges of an
ad a bad client; he naively confesses
as put when defending Scamandcr
He thought of defending Catiline,
lilt is clear as noon-day (Alt. i. i-a
brief which he held at the moment
iew of facts contrary to that which
ted. Thus in the pro Caecina he
against a witness, Falcula, while in
ds that the offence was not proved
ays quite openly that " it is a great
atements in his speeches express his
It is therefore idle to reproach him
h these are sometimes very singular,
speaks with praise of Aulus Gabinius,
•cd his proposal, proceeded to depose
t by Tiberius Gracchus (Asconius in
lucntio, 1 u , he contends that nothing
n to rise at Rome. In the pro Caelio
dim undeveloped germs of the greatest
Jie good in him that made him so
He sometimes deliberately puts the
In the pro XI Hone he says that either
ait for Clodius or Clodius for Mflo,
ruth, that the encounter was due to
that he had cast dust into the eyes
Uuentius (Quintil. ii. 17-21).
astcry of all weapons wielded by a
• specially famous for his pathos, and
eral counsel were employed, always
splendid specimen of pathos is to be
e condemnation and execution of the
t.il)y. 106-122). Much exaggeration
an orator. Thus Cicero frequently
to be put to death, though a criminal
al consequences by going into exile.
1 " tear-drops." He indulged in the
rhich, though shocking to a modern
s against Vatinius and Piso, was not
de Oral, ii. 3x6-290). He was much
contcntiones magi* requirunt, expos!-
criticfaed for his jokes, and even Quintflian fii i*-„> rtm *
that he made so many in his «n^ST S l .L 7 "' rc * r ? s
thetempUtfontomakeV^n T^heS^^ET "**
that he wax *h* «r M » «;♦ « »t . ** remembered, however,
^ -^^^^fa^^" ^.^elf -eluding
SSiS-S£**3w=aa.r
t^spe^^^
Sh^uFSF *"7* ¥L W ° U,d makc thcm able To ex^S
!?^1!LL "iJ V>' The P° litical w °*s are de Xefiubtea
the best form of consUtution, in which the speakers are Scfoio
Africanu. Minor and members of his circle. He te£ us tfflC
*7ZJ&? ^? PU ^' Ari5totle ' T°«>Phrastus and writing
the " Vwion of Er ' m Plato's Republic (Book x. ad fin.). The
deLegtims, a sequel to this work in imitation of Plato's Laws
is drawn largely from Chrysippus. '
Cicero as a philosopher belonged to the New Academy. The
followers of this school were free to hear all arguments for and
against, and to accept the conclusion which for the moment
appeared most probable (Acad, it 131). Thus in the Tuscutan
Disputations v. he expresses views which conflict with de Finibus
iv., and defends himself on the ground that as an Academic he
is free to change his mind. He was much fascinated by the
Stoic morality, and it has been noticed that the Tuscutan Dis-
putatums and de Officiis are largely Stoic in tone. He has
nothing but contempt for the Epicureans, and cannot forgive
their neglect of literary style. As Cicero's philosophical writings
have been severely attacked for want of originality, it is only
fair to recollect that he resorted to philosophy as an anodyne
when suffering from mental anguish, and that he wrote incredibly
fast. He issued two editions of his Academics. The first con-
sisted of two books, in which Catulus and Lucullus were the chief
speakers. He then rewrote his treatise in four books, -making
himself, Varro and Atticus the speakers. The Romans at thfa
time had no manuals of philosophy or any philosophical writings
in Latin apart from the poem of Lucretius and some unskilful
productions by obscure Epicureans. Cicero set himself to supply
this want His works are confessedly in the main translations
and compilations (AU. xii. 5s. 3); all that he does is to turn
the discussion into the form of a dialogue, to adapt it to Roman
readers by illustrations from Roman history, and to invent
equivalents for Greek technical terms. This is equally true of
the political treatises. Thus, when Atticus criticized a strange
statement in de Republ. ii. 8, that all the cities of the Peloponnese
had access to the sea, he excuses himself by saying that he found
it in Dicaearchus and copied it word for word (AU. vi. a. 3).
In the same passage he used an incorrect adjective. PkliunlU
for Pkliasii; he says that he had already corrected his own
copy, but the mistake survives in the single palimpsest in which
this work has been preserved. The only merits, therefore,
which can be claimed for Cicero are that he invented a philo-
sophical terminology for the Romans, and that he produced a
CICERO
357
series of manuals which from their beauty of style have had
enduring influence upon mankind.
The roo«t famous of these treatises are the following:—
Da Fimibus, on the Supreme Good. In Book i. L. Manlius Tor-
quatns explains the Epicurean doctrine, which is refuted in ii. by
Cicero. In iii. and iv. M. Porcius Cato sets forth the doctrine of the
Stoic* which is shown bv Cicero to agree with that of Antiochus of
Anion ; in v. M. Pupius Piso explains the views of the Academics
and Peripatetics.
TmscnUna* Ditputalionts, so called from Cicero's villa at Tusculum
in which the discussion is supposed to have taken place. The sub-
jects treated are. — in Book i., the nature of death and the reasons for
despising it; Book ii., the endurance of pain: Pain is not an evil;
Book iii., wisdom makes a man insensible to sorrow; Book iv.,
wisdom banishes all mental disquietude; Book v., virtue is sufficient
to secure happiness. The materials are drawn largely from works
of Dicacarchus.
Da D t ar um Noima.— The dialogue is placed in 77 B.C. In Book i.
VeOetua attacks other philosophies and explains the system of
Epicurus. He is then refuted by Cotta. In Book ii. Balbua, speak-
ing aa a Stoic, discusses the existence of the gods, nature, the govcrn-
ssent of the world and providence. In Book iii. Cotta criticizes the
views of Balbua. The statement of the Epicurean doctrine is drawn
from the work of Phacdrus Utpt *«£■'. the criticism of this from
Doiua. The Stoic teaching is derived from Cleanthes, Chry-
1 and Zeno, and is criticized from the writings of Carneades
I CEtornachus.
Dw Qfciu, addressed to his son Marcus. In this the form of
dialogue was not employed. The material is chiefly drawn from
Stoic aoorces, e.g. works of Panaetius in Books i. and ii., of Posidonius
asdHocatotn Book iii.
The Acadtmica, as they have come down to us, are a conflation
from the two editions of this work. They consist of the second book
from the first edition, and a portion of the first book from the second
edition.
Cam saosV, or de Semctute, a dialogue placed in 150 B.C. In which
I Cato, addressing Scipio and Laeliu». set forth the praises of old age.
The idea is drawn from Aristo of Chios, and the materials largely
derived from Xenophon and Plato.
loaNmt, or dt Amicitia, a dialogue between Laelius and his son*
is-law, in which he sets forth the theory of friendship, speaking
whh special reference to the recent death of Scipio. Cicero here
draws from a work of Theophrastus on the same subject and from
andCEi
(hr.) Letters.— Those preserved are (1) ad Familiares, i.-xvi.;
(1) ad Atticum, i.-xvi.; (3) ad Quintum, i.-iii., ad Brut urn, i.-ii.
Some thirty-five other books of letters were known to antiquity,
ag. to Caesar, to Pompcy, to Octavian and to his son Marcus.
The collection includes nearly one hundred letters written by
ether persona. Thus, the eighth Book, ad Fam. consists entirely
of letters from Caelius to Cicero when in Cilicia. When writing
to Aniens Cicero frequently sent copies of letters which he had
received. There is a great variety in the style not only of
Cicero's correspondents, but also of Cicero himself. Caelius
writes In a breexy, school-boy style; the Latinity of Plancus is
Ckeroalan in character; the letter of Sulpicius to Cicero on
the death of Tullia is a masterpiece of style; Matius writes a
■OH 'Kg'"*— * letter justifying his affectionate regard for Caesar's
ajetnory. There b an amazingly indiscreet letter of Quintus
to Us brother's fieedman, Tiro, in which he says of the consuls-
elect, Hirtras and Pansa, that be would hesitate to put one of
them in charge of a village on the frontier, and the other in that
of the basement of a tavern (Fam. rvi. 37. 3). Several of his
1 are indifferent stylists. Cato labours to express
[ in an awkward and laconic epistle, apologising for its
euuj Celer is very rude, but gives himself away in
Antony writes bad Latin, while Cicero himself
writes in various styles. We have such a cri de camr as his few
words to one of the conspirators after Caesar's murder, " I
congratulate you. I rejoice for myself. I love you. I watch
your interests; I wish for your love and to be informed what
yea are doing and what is being done" (Fam. vi. 15). When
writing to Attlcus he eschews all ornamentation, uses short
rilfi i " 1 !'! colloquial idioms, rare diminutives and continually
quotes Greek. This use of Greek tags and quotations is also
I in letters to other intimate friends, e.g. Paetus and Caelius;
> hi letters written by other persons, e.f . Cassius to Cicero;
> to Tiro, and lubtequently in those of Augustus to
It is a feature of the roltocmial style and often corre-
1 lo the modern use of "shag." Other letters of Cicero,
especially those written to persons with whom he was not quite
at his ease or those meant for circulation, are composed in his
elaborate style with long periods, parentheses and other devices
for obscuring thought. These are throughout rhythmical in
character, like his speeches and philosophical works.
We know from Cicero's own statement (Alt. zvi 5. 5) that he
thought of publishing some of his letters during Id* lifetime.
On another occasion he jestingly charges Tiro with wishing to
have his own letters included in the "volumes" (Fam. rvi. 17. 1).
It is obvious that Cicero could not have meant to publish his
private letters to Atticus in which he makes confessions about
himself, or those to Quintus in which he sometimes outsteps
the limits of brotherly criticism, but was thinking of polished
productions such as the letters to Lentulus Spinther or that to
Lucceius which he describes as "very pretty" (AU. iv. 6. 4).
It is universally agreed that the letters ad Familiar es were
published by Tiro, whose hand is revealed by the fact that he
suppresses all letters written by himself, and modestly puts at
the end those written to him. That Cicero kept copies of hla
letters, or of many of them, we know from a passage In which,
when addressing a friend who had inadvertently torn up a letter
from him, he says that there is nothing to grieve about; he has
himself a copy at home and can replace the loss (Fam. vii. 25. 1).
Tiro may have obtained from Tcrentia copies of letters written
to her. It has been suggested that he may also have edited the
letters to Quintus, as he could obtain them from members of
the family. The letters ad Familiares were generally quoted in
antiquity by books, the title being taken from the first letter, e.g.
Cicero ad Varrontm e fistula Pacti.
While the letters ad Familiares were circulated at once, those
to Atticus appear to have been suppressed for a considerable time.
Cornel ius Nepos (Alt.i 6) knew of their existence but distinguishes
them from the published letters. Asconius (p. 87) , writing under
Claudius, never quotes them, though, when discussing Cicero's
projected defence of Catiline, he could hardly have failed to do
so, if he bad known them. The first author who quotes them is
Seneca. It is, therefore, probable that they were not published
by Atticus himself, who died 32 B.C., though his hand may be
seen in the suppression of all letters written by himself, but that
they remained in the possession of his family and were not
published, until about a.d. 60. At that date they could be pub-
lished without expurgation of any kind, whereas in the letters ad
Familiares the editor's hand is on one occasion (iii. 10. 11)
manifest. Cicero is telling Appius, his predecessor in Cilicia,
of the measures which he is taking on his behalf. There then
follows a lacuna. It is obvious that Tiro thought the passage
compromising and struck it out. In the letters to Atticus, on
the other hand, we have Cicero's private journal, his confessions
to the director of his conscience, the record of his moods from
day to day, without alterations of any kind.
Cicero's letters are the chief and most reliable source of
information for the period. It is due to them that the Romans
of the day arc living figures to us, and that Cicero, in spite of,
or rather in virtue of his frailties, is intensely human and sym-
pathetic. The letters to Atticus abound in the frankest self-
revelation, though even in the presence of his confessor hit
instinct as a pleader makes him try to justify himself. The
historical value of the letters, therefore, completely transcends
that of Cicero's other works. It is true that these are full of
information. Thus we learn much from the de Legibus regarding
the constitutional history of Rome, and much from the Brutus
concerning the earlier orators. The speeches abound in details
which may be accepted as authentic, either because there is no
reason for misrepresentation or on account of their circumstan-
tiality. Thus the Verrines are our chief source of information for
the government of the provinces, the system of taxation, the
powers of the governor. We hear from them of such interesting
details as that the senate annul a judicial decision improperly
arrived at by the governor, or that the college of tribunes could
consider the status at Rome of a man affected by this decision
(Vcrr. II. ii. 05-100). We have unfolded to us tha xasneaaa *a»a»
system by which the gpvtroot ca\M ta. m^o* *■ xwnaa*. t$»»
35»
CICERO
for the delivery of corn, end so compel the fanner to compound
by a payment in money which the orator does not blame, on
the ground that it is only proper to allow magistrates to receive
corn wherever they wish (ib. lit. tgo). From the speech pro
Cluentio (145-154) we gain unique information concerning the
condition of society in a country town, the extraordinary exemp-
tion of equites from prosecution for judicial corruption, the
administration of domestic justice in the case of slaves examined
by their owner (ib. 176-187). But we have always to be on our
guard against misrepresentation, exaggeration and falsehood.
The value of the letters lies in the fact that in them we get behind
Cicero and are face to face with the other dramatis personae;
also that we are admitted behind the scenes and read the secret
history of the times. One of the most interesting documents in
the correspondence is a despatch of Caesar to his agent Oppius,
written in great haste and in disjointed sentences. It runs as
follows: " On the 9th I came to Brundisium. Pompey is at
Brundisium. He sent Magius to me to treat of peace. I gavel
him a suitable answer " (Alt. ix. 13, Ai.). In thede Bello civili,
on the other hand, Caesar, who wishes to show that he did
his best to make peace, after stating that he sent his captive
Magius to negotiate, expresses mild surprise at the fact that
Pompey did not send him back (Bell. Civ. i. 26). Wc hear of the
extraordinary agreement made by two candidates for the consul-
ship in Caesar's interest with the sitting consuls of 54 B.C., which
Cicero says he hardly ventures to put on paper. Under the terms
of this the consuls, who were optimalcs, bound themselves to
betray their party by securing, apparently fraudulently, the
election of the candidates while they in turn bound themselves
to procure two ex-consuls who would swear that they were present
in the senate when supplies were voted for the consular provinces,
though no meeting of the senate had been held, and three augurs
who would swear that a lex cur iota had been passed, though the
eomitia curiata had not been convened (Alt. iv. 18. 2). But
perhaps the most singular scene is the council of three great ladies
presided over by Scrvilia at Antium, which decides the movements
of Brutus and Cassius in June 44 B.C., when Cassius " looking
very fierce— you would say that he was breathing fire and
sword " — blustered concerning what he considered an insult,
viz. a commission to supply corn which bad been laid upon him.
Servilia calmly remarks she will have the commission removed
from the decree of the senate (i4tf.xv.iz. 2).
(v.) Miscellaneous. — It is not necessary to dwell upon the
other forms of literary composition attempted by Cicero. He
was a fluent versifier, and would write 500 verses in one night.
Considerable fragments from a juvenile translation of Aratus
have been preserved. His later poems upon his own consulship
and his exile were soon forgotten except for certain lines which
provoked criticism, such as the unfortunate verse:
" fortunatam natam me consule Romam.'*
He wrote a memoir of his consulship in Greek and at one time
thought of writing a history of Rome. Nepos thought that he
would have been an ideal historian, but as Cicero ranks history
with declamation and on one occasion with great nalveti asks
Lucius Lucceius (?.».), who was embarking on this task, to
embroider the facts to his own credit, we cannot accept this
criticism (Fam. vi. 2. 3).
(vi.) Authenticity. — The genuineness of certain works of Cicero 1
has been attacked. It was for a long time usual to doubt
the authenticity of the speeches post redilum and pro Mar cello}
Recent scholars consider them genuine. As their rhythmical
structure corresponds more or less exactly with the canon of
authenticity formed by Zielinski from the other speeches, the
question may now be considered dosed.' Absurd suspicion has
been cast upon the later speeches in Catilinam and that pro
Arckia. An oration pridie quam in exsilium tret is certainly
a forgery, as also a letter to Octavian. There is a M controversy M
between Cicero and Sallust which is palpably a forgery, though |
1 Markland and F. A. Wolf first rejected them.
* In the speeches generally L+ K-86 %. In the de Dome the
proportion is 88 and in the pro ilarcetlo 87 %.
a quotation from it occurs in Quintilian.' Suspicion has been
attached to the letters to Brutus, which in the case of two letters
(i. 16 and 17) is not unreasonable since they somewhat resemble
the style of suasoriae, or rhetorical exercises, but the latest
editors, Tyrrell and Purser, regard these also as genuine.
Crtticism. (i.) Ancient.— After Cicero's death his character was
attacked by various detractors, such as the author of the spurious
Controvcrsiapui into the mouth of Sallust. and the calumniator from
whom Dio Cassius (xlvi. 1-28) draws the libellous statements which
he inserts into the speech of Q. Fufius Calenus in the senate. Of such
critics, Asconius (in Tog. Cand. p. 95) well says that it is best to ignore
them. His prose style was attacked by Pollio as Asiatic, also by
his son, Asimus Gallus, who was answered by the emperor Claudius
(Suet. 41). The writers of the silver age found fault with his pro-
lixity, want of sparkle and epigram, andmonotony of his dausuUe. 4
A certain Largius Licinius gained notoriety by attacking his Latinity
in a work styled Ciceromastix. His most devoted admirers were
the younger Pliny, who reproduced his oratorical style with con-
sidcrable success, and Quintilian (x. 1. 1 12), who regarded him as the
perfect orator, and draws most of his illustrations from his works.
At a later period his style fascinated Christian writers, notably
Lactantius, the " Christian Cicero." Jerome and S. Augustine, who
drew fredy from his rhetorical writings.
The first commentator upon Cicero was Asconius, a Roman senator
living in the reign of Claudius, who wrote a commentary upon the
speeches, in which he explains obscure historical points for the
instruction of his sons (see Asconius). Passing over a number of
grammatical and rhetorical writers who drew illustrations from
Cicero, we may mention the Commentary of Victorinus, written in
the 4th century, upon the treatise de Inventione, and that of Boethius
(a.d. 480-524) upon the Tofnca. Among scholiasts may be men-
tioned the SckoUasla Bobiensis who is assigned to the 5th century,
and a pseudo-Asconius, who wrote notes upon the Verrines dealing
with points of grammar and rhetoric.
(ii.) Medieval Scholars, — In the middle am Cicero was chiefly
known as a writer on rhetoric and morals. The works which were
most read were the de Invention* and Tcpica— though wither of
these was quite so popular as the treatise ad Herenniujn, then sup-
posed to be by Cicero— and among the moral works, the it Officii 1,
and the Cato Maior. John of Salisbury (11 10- it ,10) continually
Jiuotes from rhetorical and philosophical wri lines, but only oner
rom the speeches. The value set upon the work de Itn*rttio*e it
shown by a passage in which Notker (d. 1022} writing- to Jus bishop
says that he has lent a MS. containing The Ptalxppus and a com-
mentary upon the Topics, but has received as a pledge something fir
more valuable, viz. the de Inventione, and the "' famous comment
tary of Victorinus."* We have an interesting scries of e*ccrpt»
made by a priest named Hadoard, in the 9th century, taken from
all the philosophical writings now preserved, also from the de
Oratore.*
The other works of Cicero are seldom mentioned. The most
popular speeches were those against Catiline, the Verrines. Cacsari-
anae and Philippics, to which may be added the spurious Contro-
version A larger knowledge of the speeches is shown by YVibald.
abbot of Corvey, who in 1146 procured from Hildesheim a MS.
containing with the Philippics the speeches against Rullus, wishing
to form a corpus of Ciceronian works. 1 Gerbert (afterwards Pope
Silvester II.. 940-1003) was especially interested in the speeches, and
in a letter to a friend (EpisL 86) advises him to take them with him
when journeying. The letters are rarely mentioned. The abbey
of Lorsch possessed in the 9th century five MSS. containing " Letters
of Cicero. ' but those to Atticus are only mentioned once, in the
catalogue of Cluny written in the I2tb century.* Letters of Cicero
were known to Wibald of Corvey, also to Servatus Lupus, abbot
of Ferrieres (805-832). who prosecuted in the 9U1 century a search
for MSS. which reminds us of the Italian humanists in the 15th
century. A good deal of textual criticism must have been devoted
to Cicero's works during this Deriod. The earliest critic was Tiro,
who, as we know from Aulus Cellius (t. 7. 1). corrected MSS. which
were greatly valued as containing his recension. We have a very
interesting colophon to the speeches against Ruilus, in which Statilius
Maximus states that be had corrected the text by the help of a MS.
giving the recension of Tiro, which he had collated with five other
ancient copies.*
It is interesting to notice that Servatus Lupus did similar work
in the 9th century. Thus, writing to Ansbald of Prum. he says,
" I will collate the letters of Cicero which you sent with the copy
a Quintil. iv. 1. 66. It b possible that the writer may have used
a quotation preserved from a real speech by Quintilian.
1 Tacitus, Dial. 22 "omnis clausula* uno et eodem modo
determine!.** * Ed. P. Piper, p. 861.
• Philohgus 0886). Suppl. Bd. v.
v Jaffe. Bibl. Iter. German., i. 326.
• Dclisle. Cabinet des MSS., ii. 459.
• " Statilius Maximus rursus emendavi ad Tironem et Laeccama-
num et dom. et alios vetcres 1 1 1." ^e was a grammarian who lived
at the end of the and century.
CICERO
359
which I have so a* to elicit the true reading, if possible, by comparing
Che two." 1 He asks another correspondent to supply him with
a copy of the Verrints or any other works for a similar purpose.
Brunetto Latini (d. ca. 1204). the master of Dante, translated the
Ctneriantu into Italian. Dante himself appears to be acquainted
only with the Latlius, Cato Ma tor, de Ojficiis, dt Finibus, dt
Inmticnt and Paradoxa. Petrarch says that among his country-
men Cicero wa* a ereit narnt, but was studied by lew. Petrarch
himself sought for MSS. of Cicero with, peculiar ardour. He found
the speech pro Arckia at Liege in j^j, and in 134* at Verona made
his famous discovery of the letter* to At tic us, which revealed to
the world Cicero as a man in place of the " god of eloquence " whom
they had worshipped. Petrarch was under the impression in his old
age that he had once possessed Cicero's lost work de Gt&ria. but
it is probable that he was misled by one of the numerous passage*
in the extant writings dealing wiLh this subject* The letters ad
Famiit&rti were discovered towards the clow of the 14th century
at Wrcelli. The largest addition to the sum of Ciceronian writings
was made by Pugfeio (Cian Francesco PoggEo Bracciolini} in the
course of bis celebrated mission to the Council of Constance (1414-
1417}. He brought back no less than ten speeches of Cicero previ-
ously unknown to the Italian-*, viz, pra Stxta Rosdo, pra&furtna.
pre Carina*, dt it£t agraria i„-tii-, pto Rabiria ptrduettionii reo,
fro Ra&itiQ Founts, pro Ronio Camoeda, and sn Piionem. An
important discovery was mad? at Lodi in 14" of a. MS- which,
in addition to complete enpie* vi the de QtaUire and Orator, hitherto
known from mutilated M5S, t contained an entirely new work, the
BntfKt, The second bonk of Cicero's tetters to Brutus was first
printed by Cra lander of Basel in i$jB from a MS. obtained for him
by Skhardus fnrun the abbey of Locach* 1
All these MS& are now lost, except that containing the Epittdac
ad FamUi^res, a MS+ written in the 7th century and now at Florence
(Lauf r xlit- 9), A similar fate overtook three other MSS. containing
the letters to Attieus. independent of the Vtroncnsii, via. a mutilated
MSr iif Books t.-vU. discovered by Cardinal Capra in 1409,, a Lorsch
MS. used by Cra lander (C>, and a French MS. (Z), generally termed
Terwaesiarms from its owner, Jean de Tournes, a printer of Lyons,
probably identical with No. 492 in the old Cluny catalogue, used
oy Turnebus, Lambinus and Bo&ius. A strange mystification was
practised by the last named, a scholar of singular brilliancy, who
****j™*d to have a mutilated MS, which he called his Da urtaius,
bought from a common soldier who had obtained it from a sacked
monastery; also to have been furnished by a friend, Pierre de
Ciouseil, a doctor of Limoges, with variants taken from an old MS.
foaod at Noyon, and entered in the margin of a copy of the Lyons
atKtkMt. The rough draft of his notes, however, upon Books x.-xvi.,
which afterwards came into the hands of Balurc, ts preserved in the
fans library (Lat. 8538 A), in which he continually ascribes different
leadings to these MSS., the alteration corresponding with a change
in his own conjecture. It is, therefore, obvious that he invented
the readings in order to strengthen his own corrections. The book,
which he* termed his Crusellinus, may well be his copy of the Lyons
edition of 1545 (number 8665 in the sale-catalogue of Baluze). which
Is described aa cum notis et emendalionibus USS. manu ejusdem
Bern.*
The oldest evidence now existing for any works of Cicero is to be
found in palimpsests written in the 4th or 5th century. The most
:ing of these, now in the Vatican (Lat. 5757). discovered by
--„--- Mai in 1822, contains the treatise de Republica, only known
from this source. Fragments of the lost speeches pro TuUio and
pro Scamro were discovered in two Milan and Turin palimpsests.
The Vatican also possesses an important palimpsest of the Verrines
(Reg. 2077) A palimpsest containing fragments of various orations
was recently destroyed by the fire at the Turin library. The works
it Orator* and Orator are well represented by ancient MSS.. the two
best known being one at Avranches (Abrincensis 238) and a Harlcian
MS. (J736), both written in the 9th century. The Brulus is only
known from 15th-century transcripts of the lost cod. Lodensit.
The oldest MS. of any speeches, or indeed of any work of Cicero's,
apart from the palimpsests, belongs to the Chapter- house of St Peter's
in Rome (H. 25). It contains the speeches in Pisonem, pro Foateio,
pro Flacco ana the Philippics. The earlier part of the MS. was
written in the 8th century. The Paris library has two 9th -century
MSS., viz. 7774 A. containing in Verrem (Act ii.), iv. and v., and
7794. containing the post reditum speeches, together with those
pro Scitio. in Valinium, de provinciit consularibus, pro Balbo, pro
Cattio .The only other 9th-ccntury MS of the speeches is now in
Lord Leicester's library at HoJkham. No. 387 • It originally belonged
to Cluny, being No 498 in the old catalogue It contains in a muti-
lated form the speeches in Cattlinam, pro Ltgario. pro reft Dtrotaro
and m Verrem (Act ii )il
The speeches pro Sex. Roscio and pro Murena are only known
from an ancient and illegible MS discovered by Poggio at Cluny.
1 Epist 69 " Tu I lianas epistulas quas misisti cum nostris conferri
faciam ut ea ulrisque. si possit hen. Veritas exsculpatur "
■ Nolhac. PHrarqut et I humanism* pp 216-223.
1 Lehmann, De Cittronu ad AUtcum epp recensendii, p. 128.
4 Philoiofns. 1901, p. 216.
% Anecdote. Oxonttntia, Classical Series, part ix. (W Petersen).
No. 496 in the old catalogue, and now lost. The most faithful
t ran script was made in France (Parts, Lat, 14,749) before the MS.
passed into Poggio's hand by a writer who cant Fully reproduced
rhc corruptions, sometimes in facsimile* The speeches pro Roscio
Comotdo, pro Rabirto perdmtttanis «d and pro Rat/trio Foituma are
only known from Italian copies of the transcript (now lost) made by
P'oggio from lo^t MSS. The dt Qfliciu, Tuitttfan Deputations ana
Cola Sda ior are fou nd i n a nu mber ot oth-ee n l ury M 5S> A collection,
consisting of de Natura oVprsm* de Dwtnatwne, Timaeut, de Fatv y
Ramdvia. LueuUns {*j4oad. PriarS and de Le&bm, is found in
several MSS. of the same date* Only one MS. of the Lectins is as
eld as the 10th century.
The Acidemia* Poilcriora are said by editors to be found ojily.in
15th-century MSS. A MS, in the Pans library (Lat. 6331 J is, how-
ever, assigned by Chatebin to the 12th century.
For the letters ad Familiates our chief source of information is
Laur, xljx* 9 (9th century), which contains all the sixteen books.
There are independent MSS. written in France and Germany m the
t tth and mh centuries, containing L*viii, and ix.-xvi. respectively.
There is no extant MS. of the letters to Amicus older than the lath
century, apart from a few leaves from a 1 2th -cent ury MS. discovered
at or near Wfl rib urg in the last century* Very great importance has
been attached to aTlorcntine MS. (Laur. \\\x- tS) M r , which until
TTtenily was supposed to have been copied by Petrarch himself from
the lost Veroxttosis, It is now known not to be in the hand ol
Vtiraich. but it was still supposed to be the archetype of all Italian
MSS., and powiuly of all M5S>t including the lost C and Z, It has,
however, been shown by Lehmann that there U an. Independent
croup of Italian MSS., termed by him 2, containing Books L-vq,
in a mutilated form, and probably connected with the MS- of Capra.
These often afitee with CZ against M. and the readings of CZ^ are
generally superior.
Emt.ja'GjiA.rnY.— It Es impossible to mention more than a few
wnrk* as the literature is so vast, (t) fitsteritaL—J , L. Strachan-
Davidson, Lift oj Cicero (Heroes of the Nations); G. UoL-sicr.
Cidren ei its amis', Suringor. Cicero dt rt& sua (Leiden. 1854):
W Warde Fowler. Sotial Lift at Rome (1906); introductions to
Tyr n-H and Purwr's edition of the letters. {3) PaiaeotraphuaL —
Fa™ mile* of the best -known MSS, are given by E, Chatebln in
Pciioxrapki* da flasiiquei latins, parts i, 3 and 7. Information
regarding various MSS. *dl be found in lialm, Znr Ilandithrijten-
kunde Jet fkerantstke* $chrifi*n. (Munich, 1850); Deschamps,
^irdi btbti#£rapkique sur Citrran (Paris, i3tjj) fan unscientific
wr*rk>; Lehmann, Or Citercnis ad Attirum epiitutti reteniendts
(Hrrltn, t&q?); Atte/data Oxptiiensia, classical series, pans vii.,
in. % a. (3) Literary. — M. Sehariij GrscJdfiiU &tr rifmijihen Littrratur,
y- 1^4-274 (Mtinchen. tSoojf. U) Li*txitlit. — Mcrgviet. Lexittrn
to Oratorical and Pkiiosapkual IVryrki; Le Breton, Eiudtt jut to
tan f me et ta grammairt de Cidran (Paris, loot) 1 Norden, Die ah like
KututproTa [Leipzig, iflo/ftj ; Th_ Ziclinski, Das Claustigeietz in
Ctieros Rrdem (Lei prig, 1004). Much information on points or
Ciceronian idiom and language will be found in J. S> Reios Acade*
mica (London, ]B&5) and LandgraTs Pro SexL Roicfo {F-ftangtn
_ n
Tht Legat Procedure of
1*84]. [<} Utpl—A. H. J. Crwnidee, Tht UtaS
Cicero's Timt ( Oxford t tool). (6) Pkilosapki(aJ>— An e^ceUeh't
account of Cicero as a philosopher is gh'cn in the preface to Re id's
edition of the Academua. (7) Editin>m (critiealj of the complete
lents— nafter-HaTm (1S45-1H6O; C. F, W. MQtlcr (i8So-I&9fi>;
Oxford Clasiica! Texts. {A, C. C)
t. Ql-intus Tulltus Cicero, brother of the orator and
brother-in-law of T. Pomponius Attieus, was born about 10a B.C.
lie was aedile in 67, praetor in 6a, and for the three following
years propraetor in Asia, where, though he teems to have
abstained from personal aggrandizement, his profligacy and
ill-temper gained him an evil notoriety. After his return to
Rome, he heartily supported the attempt to secure his brother's
recall from exile, and was nearly murdered by gladiators in the
pay of P. Clodius Pulcher. He distinguished himself as one of
Julius Caesar's legates in the Gallic campaigns, served in Britain,
and afterwards under his brother in Cilicia. On the outbreak
of the civil war between Pompcy and Caesar, Quintus, like
Marcus, supported Pompcy, but after Pharsalus he deserted
and made peace with Caesar, largely owing (0 the Intercession
of Marcus. Both the brothers fell victims to the proscription
which followed Caesar's death, Quintus being put to death in
43, some time before Marcus. His marriage with Pomponia was
very unhappy, and he was much under the influence of his slave
Statius. Though trained on the same lines as Marcus he never
spoke in public, and even said, " One orator in a family is enough,
nay even in a city." Though essentially a soldier, he took
considerable interest in literature, wrote epic poems, tragedies
and annals, and translated plays of Sophocles. There are extant
• Anecdote Oxoniensia, Classical Series, part x. (A. C. Clark).
360
CICERONE— CICOGNARA
four letters "written by him (one to his brother Marcus, and three
to his freedman Tiro) and a short paper, De Pttitione Consulalus
(on canvassing for the consulship), addressed to his brother in 64.
Some consider this the work of a rhetorician of later date. A
few hexameters by him on the twelve signs of the Zodiac are
quoted by Ausonius.
Cicero in several of his Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser); pro Sestio,
31; Caesar, Bell. Cal.i Appian, Bell. Cw. iv. 20; Dio Caasiua. xL
7, xlvii. 10; text of the De Petit, Cans, in A. Eussner. Comrnen-
tariolum Pelltionis (1872), see also R. Y. Tyrrell in Hermatkena, v.
(1877), « nd A « Beltrami, De Contnuntariolo PetUionks Q. Ciceroni
vinduando (1892) ; G. Boissier, Cicero and His Friends (Eng. trans.,
1897), especially pp. 235-241.
3. Marcus Tullius Cicero, only son of the orator and his
wife Tcrentia, was born in 65 B.C. At the age of seventeen he
served with Pompey in Greece, and commanded a squadron of
cavalry at the battle of Pharsalus. In 45 he was sent to Athens
to study rhetoric and philosophy, but abandoned himself to a
life of dissipation. It was during his stay at Athens that his
father dedicated the de Officii* to him. After the murder of
Caesar (44) he attracted the notice of Brutus, by whom he was
offered the post of military tribune, in which capacity he rendered
good service to the republican cause. After the battle of Philippi
(42), he took refuge with Sextus Pompeius in Sicily, where the
remnants of the republican forces were collected. He took
advantage of the amnesty granted by the treaty of Misenum (39)
to return to Rome, where he took no part in public affairs,
but resumed his former dissipated habits. In spite of this, he
received signal marks of distinction from Octavian, who not only
nominated him augur, but accepted him as his colleague in the
consulship (30). He had the satisfaction of carrying out the
decree which ordered that all the statues of Antony should be
demolished, and thus " the divine justice reserved the completion
of Antony's punishment for the house of Cicero" (Plutarch),
lie was subsequently appointed proconsul of Asia or Syria,
but nothing further is known of his life. In spite of his de-
bauchery, there is no doubt that he was a man of considerable
education and no mean soldier, while Brutus, in a letter to his
father {Epp. ad Br u turn, ii. 3), even goes so far as to say that the
son would be capable of attaining the highest honours without
borrowing from the father's reputation.
See Plutarch, Cicero, Brutus-, Appian. BdL Ch. ii. 20. 51, >v. 20;
Dio Cassius xlv. 15, xlvi. 18, Ii. 19; Cicero's Letters (ed. Tyrrell and
Purser); G. Boissier, Cicero and His Friends (Eng. trans.. 1897),
pp. 104-107.
4. Quintus Tulltus Cicero (c. 67-43 B.C.), son of Quintus
Tullius Cicero (brother of the orator). He accompanied his
uncle Marcus to Cilicia, and, in the hope of obtaining a reward,
repaid his kindness by informing Caesar of his intention of
leaving Italy. After the battle of Pharsalus he joined his father
in abusing his uncle as responsible for the condition of affairs,
hoping thereby to obtain pardon from Caesar. After the death
of Caesar he attached himself to Mark Antony, but, owing to
some fancied slight, he deserted to Brutus and Cassius. He was
included in the proscription lists, and was put to death with his
father in 43. In his last moments he refused under torture to
disclose his father's hiding-place. His father, who in his conceal-
ment was a witness of what was taking place, thereupon gave
himself up, stipulating that he and his son should be executed
at the same time.
See Cicero. adAU.%. 4. 6, 7. 3 ; xiv. so. 5 ; Dio Caseius xlviL 10.
CICERONE, a guide, one who conducts visitors to museums,
galleries, &c, and explains matters of archaeological, antiquarian,
historic or artistic interest. The word is presumably taken from
Marcus Tullius Cicero, as a type of learning and eloquence.
The New English Dictionary finds examples of the use earlier in
English than Italian, the earliest quotation being from Addison's
Dialogues on Medals (published posthumously 1 726). It appears
that the word was first applied to " learned antiquarians who
show and explain to foreigners the antiquities and curiosities of
the country " (quotation of 1762 in the New English Dictionary).
CICHUD (Cicklidae), a family of Acanthoptcrygian fishes,
related to the perches and wrasses, and confined to the fresh
and brackish waters of Central and South America, Africa,
Syria, and India and Ceylon. It has recently assumed special
importance through the large number of genera and species,
many of them showing extraordinary modifications of the
dentition, which have been discovered in tropical Africa, especi-
ally in the great lakes Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyasa. About
180 species are known from Africa (with Syria and Madagascar),
150 from America, and 3 from India and Ceylon. They were
formerly known under the inappropriate name of Chromides.
These fish are further remarkable for their nursing habits.
It was formerly believed that the male takes charge of the eggs,
and later the young, by sheltering them in the mouth and
pharynx. This may still be true of some of the American species,
but a long series of recent observations have shown that this
most efficacious parental care devolves invariably on the female
in the African and Syrian species. We are now acquainted with
a large number of species in which this extraordinary habit has
been observed, the number having lately been greatly increased
by the collections made in Lakes Tanganyika and Victoria.
L. Lortet had described a fish from Lake Tiberias in which he
believed he had observed the male take up the eggs after their
deposition and retain them in his mouth and pharynx long after
eclosion, in fact until the young are able to shift for themselves,
and this fish he named Chrotnis poUrjamilios. A. Gilnther had
also ascribed the same sex to a fish from Natal, Chrotnis philander,
observed by N. Abraham to have similar habits. G. A. Boulenger
has since had an opportunity to examine the latter specimen
and found it to be a female, as in all other nursing individuate
from various parts of Africa, previously observed by himself;
whilst J. Pellegrin has acertained the female sex of a specimen
with eggs in the mouth presented to the Paris museum by Lortet
as his Chrotnis paterfamilias (-Tilapia simonis). Further
observations by Pellegrin on Tilapia galUaea and Pelmalochromis
lateralis, by E. Schoeller on Paratilapia multicolor, have led to
the same result.
It therefore remains unproven whether in any of the African
Cicklidae the buccal " incubation," as it has been called by
Pellegrin, devolves on the male; the instances previously
adduced being unsupported by the only trustworthy evidence— as
examination of the genital glands.
The relative size and number of the eggs thus taken charge
of vary very much according to the species. Thus they may
be moderately large and numerous (100 to 200) in Tilapia
nilolica and galilaea, larger and only about 30 in number in
Paratilapia multicolor, while in Tropheus moorii, a fish measur-
ing only ixo mm., the eggs filling the mouth and pharynx
measure 4 mm. in diameter and are only four in number, they
being proportionally the largest Tclcostome eggs known. In
Paratilapia pfefferi, a fish measuring 75 mm., the eggs found in
the pharynx were only about a dozen in number, and they
measure 2 J mm. in diameter. In Tilapia dardennii, which grows
to a length of 240 mm., a score of eggs fills the mouth and
pharynx, and each measures 5 to 6 mm. in diameter, an enormous
size for so small a fish.
Pellegrin has made the interesting observation on Tilapia
galilaea that while the eggs are developing in the bucco-pharyngeal
cavity the ovarian eggs are rapidly growing towards maturity,
so that a fresh deposition of ova may almost immediately follow
the release of the young fishes from maternal care. (G. A. B.)
CICISBEO (Ital., of uncertain origin; perhaps an inversion
of bcl cue, " beautiful chick (pea)," or from Fr. chiche beau,
with same meaning), the term in Italy from the 17th- century
onwards for a dangler about women. The cicisbeo was the pro-
fessed gallant of a married woman, who attended her at all
public entertainments, it being considered unfashionable for the
husband to be escort.
CICOGNARA, LEOPOLDO, Count (1 767-1834), Italian archae-
ologist and writer on art, was born at Ferrara on the 17th of
November 1767 Mathematical and physical science diverted
him a while; but his bent was decided, and not even the notice
of such men as Spallanzani and Scarpa could make a savant of
him. A residence of some years at Rome, devoted to painting
cm
361
and the atndy of the antiquities and galleries of the Eternal City,
was followed by a visit to Naples and Sicily, and by the publica-
tion, at Palermo, of his first work, a poem of no merit. The
island explored, be betook himself to Florence, Milan, Bologna
and Venice, acquiring a complete archaeological knowledge of
these and other cities. In 1 795 he look up his abode at Modena,
aad was for twelve years engaged in politics, becoming a member
of the legislative body, a councillor of state, and minister pleni-
potentiary of the Cisalpine Republic at Turin. Napoleon
decorated him with the Iron Crown; and in 1808 he was made
president of the Academy of the Fine Arts at Venice, a post in
which be did good work for a number of years. In 180S appeared
ail treatise Dd hello raghnamenli, dedicated in glowing terms
to Napoleon. Thiswasfollowed(i8i3-i8i8) by his magnum opus,
the Storia delta scultura dalsuo risorgimenlo in Italia at secolo di
NapoUone, in the composition of which he had been encouraged
aad advised by Giordano and Wiihclm Schlegcl (1767-1845).
The book was designed to complete the works of Winckclmann
and D'Agincourt, and is illustrated with 180 plates in outline.
la 1814, on the fall of Napoleon, Cicognara was patronized by
Francis I. of Austria, and published (1815-1820), under the
auspices of that sovereign, his Fobbriche piu cospicue di Vcnciia,
two superb folios, containing some 150 plates. Charged by the
Venetians with the presentation of their gifts to the empress
Caroline at Vienna, Cicognara added to the offering an illustrated
catalogue of the objects it comprised; this book, Ontario dctle
Prmncie Vault alia maestd di Carolina Augusta, has since
become of great value to the bibliophilist. Reduced to poverty
by these splendid editorial speculations, Cicognara contrived to
atienale the imperial favour by his political opinions. He left
Venice for Rome; his library was offered for sale; and in 18 21
be published at Pisa a catalogue raisonnt, rich in bibliographical
lore, of this fine collection, the result of thirty years of loving
labour, which in 1824 was purchased en bloc by Pope Leo XII.,
aad added to the Vatican library. The other works of Cicognara
are— the Memoric sioriche de'litterati ed arlisli Ferraresi (1811);
the ViU de' piu insigni pittori t scullori Ferraresi, MS.; the
Memorit sptttanii alia storia delta calcografio (1831); and a large
number of dissertations on painting, sculpture, engraving and
other kindred subjects. (See Papoli, in No. 11 of the Exile, a
print written and published by Italian refugees.) Cicognara's
work in the academy at Venice, of which he became president in
1808, had important results in the increase in number of the
professors, the improvement in the courses of study, the institu-
tion of prizes, and the foundat ion of a gallery for the reception
of Venetian pictures. He died on the 5th of March 1834.
See Zanctti. Cenni biografici di Leopoldo Cicognara (Venice. 1834) ;
Malmani, Memdric del conte Leopoldo Cicognara (Venice, 1886).
CID, THE, the favourite hero of Spain, and the most prominent
figure in her literature. The name, however, is so obscured by
myth and fable as scarcely to belong to history. So extravagant
are the deeds ascribed to him, and so marvellous the attributes
with which he has been clothed by the fond idolatry of his country-
men, that by some he has been classed with the Amadises and
the Orlandos whose exploits he emulated. The Jesuit Masdeu
stoutly denies that he had any real existence, and this heresy
has not wanted followers even in Spain. The truth of the matter,
however, has been expressed by Cervantes, through the mouth
of the Canon in Don Quixote: " There is no doubt there was
such a man as the Cid, but much doubt whether he achieved
what is attributed to him." The researches of Professor Dozy,
of Leiden, have amply confirmed this opinion. There is a Cid
of history and a Cid of romance, differing very materially in
character, but each filling a large space in the annals of his
country, and exerting a singular influence in the development
of the national genius.
The Cid of history, though falling short of the poetical ideal
which the patriotism of his countrymen has so long cherished,
is still the foremost man of the hcroical period of Spain— the
greatest warrior produced out of the long struggle between
Christian and Moslem, and the perfect type of the Castilian of
the 1 2th century. Rodrigo Diaz, called de Pivar, from the place
of his birth, Detter known by the title given him by the Arabs
as the Cid (El Seid, the lord), and El Campeador, the champion
par excellence, was of a noble family, one of whose members in a
former generation had been elected judge of Castile. The date
of his birth cannot be fixed with any certainty, but it was
probably between 1030 and 1040. As Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar
he is first mentioned in a charter of Ferdinand I. of the year
1064. The legends which speak of the Cid as accompanying this
monarch in his expeditions to France and Italy must be rejected
as purely apocry phaL Ferdinand, a great and wise prince, under
whom the tide of Moslem conquest was first effectually stemmed,
on his deathbed, in 1065, divided his territories among his five
children. Castile was left to his eldest son Sancho, Leon to
Alphonso, Galicia to Garcia, Zamora and Toro to his twodaughters
Urraca and Elvira. The extinction of the western caliphate
and the dispersion of the once noble heritage of the Ommayads
into numerous petty independent states, had taken place some
thirty years previously, so that Castilian and Moslem were once
again upon equal terms, the country being almost equally divided
between them. On both sides was civil war, urged as fiercely as
that against the common enemy, in which the parties sought
allies indiscriminately among Christians and Mahommedans.
No condition of affairs could be more favourable to the genius
of the Cid. He rose to great distinction in the war between
Sancho of Castile and Sancho of Navarre, in which he won his
name of Campeador, by slaying the enemy's champion in single
combat. In the quarrel between Sancho and his brothcrAlphonso,
Rodrigo Diaz espoused the cause of the former, and it was
he who suggested the perfidious stratagem by which Sancho
eventually obtained the victory and possession of Leon. Sancho
having been slain in 1072, while engaged in the siege of Zamora,
Alphonso returned from exile and occupied the vacant throne.
One of the most striking of the passages in the Cid's legendary
history is that wherein he is represented as forcing the new king
to swear that he had no part in his brother's death; but there
was cause enough without this for Alphonso's animosity against
the man who had helped to despoil him of his patrimony. For
a time the Cid, already renowned throughout Spain for his
prowess in war, was even advanced by the king's favour and
entrusted with high commissions of state. In 1074 the Cid was
wedded to Ximcna, daughter of the count of Oviedo, and grand-
daughter, by the mother's side, of Alphonso V. The original
deed of the marriage-contract is extant. Some time afterwards
the Cid was sent on an embassy to collect tribute from Motamid,
the king of Seville, whom he found engaged in a war with
Abdallah, the king of Granada. On AbdalLah's side were many
Castilian knights, among them Count Garcia Ordonez, a prince
of the blood, whom the Cid endeavoured vainly to persuade of
the disloyalty of opposing their master's ally. In the battle
which ensued under the walls of Seville, Abdallah and his
auxiliaries were routed with great slaughter, the Cid returning
to Burgos with many prisoners and a rich booty. There fresh
proofs of his prowess only served to kindle against him the
rancour of his enemies and the jealousy of the king. Garcia
Ordonez accused him to Alphonso of keeping back part of the
tribute received from Seville, and the king took advantage of
the Cid's absence on a raid against the Moors to banish him
from Castile.
Henceforth Rodrigo Diaz began to live that life of a soldier
of fortune which has made him famous, sometimes fighting
under the Christian banner, sometimes under Moorish, but
always for his own hand. At the head of a band of 300 free lances
he offered his services first to the count of Barcelona; then,
failing him, to Moktadir, the Arab king of Saragossa, of the race
of the Beni Houd. Under Moktadir, and his successorsMoutamin
and Mostain, the Cid remained for nearly eight years, fighting
their battles against Mahommedan and Christian, when not
engaged upon his own, and being admitted almost to a share
of their royal authority. He made more than one attempt to
be reconciled with Alphonso, but, his overtures being rejected,
he turned his arms against the enemies of the Beni Houd,
extending their dominions at the expense of the Christian ttatas*
362
CIDER
of Aragon and Barcelona, and harrying even the border lands
of Castile. Among the enterprises of the Cid the most famous
was that against Valencia, then the richest and most flourishing
city of the peninsula, and an object of cupidity to both Christian
and Moslem. The Cid appeared before the place at the head
of an army of 7000 men, for the greater part Mahommedaus.
In vain did the Valencians implore succour from the emir of
Cordova, and from their co-religionists in other parts of the
peninsula. In defiance of an army which marched to the relief
of the beleaguered city under Yusef the Al mora vide, the Cid took
Valencia after a siege of nine months, on the 15th of June 1004—
the richest prise which up to that time had been recovered from
the Moors. The conditions of the surrender were all violated—
the cadi Ibn Djahbaff burnt alive, a vast number of the citizens
who had escaped death by famine slaughtered, and thepossessions
divided among the Campeador's companions. In other respects
the Cid appears to have used his victory mildly, ruling his
kingdom, which now embraced nearly the whole of Valencia
and Murcia, for four years with vigour and justice. At length
the Almoravides, whom he had several times beaten, marched
against him in great force, inflicting a crushing defeat at Cucnca
upon the Cid's army, under his favourite lieutenant, Alvar
Fancz. The blow was a fatal one to the aged and war-worn
Campeador, who died of anger and grief in July xooq. His
widow maintained Valencia for three years longer against the
Moors, but was at last compelled to evacuate the city, taking
with her the body of the Cid to be buried in the monastery of
San Pedro at Cardefia, in the neighbourhood of Burgos. Here,
in the centre of a small chapel, surrounded by his chief com-
panions in arms, by Alvar Fanes Minaya, Pero Bcrmudez,
Martin Antolincz and Pelaez the Asturian, were placed the
remains of the mighty warrior, the truest of Spanish heroes,
the embodiment of all the national virtues and most of the
national vices. The bones have since been removed to the
town hall of Burgos. Philip II. tried to get him canonized,
but Rome objected, and not without reason.
Whatever were his qualities as a fighter, the Cid was but
indifferent material out of which to make a saint,— a man who
battled against Christian and against Moslem with equal
seal, who burnt churches and mosques with equal zest,
who ravaged, plundered and slew as much for a livelihood as
for any patriotic or religious purpose, and was in truth almost
as much of a Mussulman as a Christian in his' habits and his
character. His true place in history is that of the greatest of
the guerrilleros— the perfect type of that sort of warrior in
which, from the days of Viriathus to those of Juan Diaz, El
Empecinado, the soil of Spain has been most productive.
The Cid of romance, the Cid of a thousand battles, legends
and dramas, the Cid as apotheosized in literature, the Cid
invoked by good Spaniards in every national crisis, whose name
is a perpetual and ever-present inspiration to Spanish patriotism,
is a very different character from the historical Rodrigo Diaz—
the freebooter, the rebel, the consorter with the infidels and the
enemies of Spain. He is the Perfect One, the Born in a Happy
Hour, " My Cid," the invincible, the magnanimous, the all-
powerful. He is the type of knightly virtue, the mirror of
patriotic duty, the flower of all Christian grace. He is Roland
and Bayard in one. In the popular literature of Spain he holds
a place such as has no parallel in other countries. From an
almost contemporary period. he has been the subject of song;
and he who was chanted by wandering minstrels in the isth
century has survived to be hymned hi revolutionary odes of the
10th. In a barbarous Latin poem, written in celebration of the
conquest of Almeria by Alphonso VII. in the year 1147, we
have the bard testifying to the supereminence of the Cid among
his country's heroes:—
" Ipse RodericuB Mio Cid semper voratus,
tie quo cantatur quod ab host i bus hand superatus.
Qui domuit Mauros, comites domuit quoque nostroa,"
Within a hundred years of his death the Cid had become
the centre of a whole system of myths. The Pocma del Cid,
written in the latter half of the 12th century, has scarcely any
trace of a historical character. Already the Cid had reached ha
apotheosis, and Castilian loyalty could not consent to degrade
him when banished by his sovereign:—
" Dios, que buen vassalo si oviesc bucn seflor ! "
cry the weeping citizens of Burgos, as they speed the exile oa
his way.
The Poem of the Cid is but a fragment of 3744 lines, written
in a barbarous style, in rugged assonant rhymes, and a rude
Alexandrine measure, but it glows with the pure fire of poetry,
and is full of a noble simplicity and a true epical grandeur,
invaluable as a living picture of the age. The ballads relating
to the Cid, of which nearly two hundred are extant, are greatly
inferior in merit, though some of them are not unworthy to be
ranked with the best in this kind. Duran believes the greater
part of them to have been written in the 16th century. A few
betray, not more by the antiquity of their language than by their
natural and simple tone, traces of an earlier age and- a freer
national life. They all take great liberties with history, thus
belying the opinion of Sancho Panza that " the ballads are too
old to tell lies." Such of them as are not genuine relics of the
12th century are either poetical versions of the leading episodes
in the hero's life as contained in the Chronicle, that CkronkU
itself having been doubtless composed out of still earlier legends
as sung by the wandering ju glares, or pure inventions of a later
time, owing their inspiration to the romances of chivalry. In
these last the ballad-mongers, not to let their native hero be
outdone by the Amadiscs, the Esplandians, and the Fclixmartes,
engage him in the most extravagant adventures — making war
upon the king of France and upon the emperor, receiving em*
bassies from the soldan of Persia, bearding the pope at Rome,
and performing other feats not mentioned even in the Poem or
the Chronicle. The last and the worst of the Cid ballads are
those which betray by their frigid conceits and feeble mimicry
of the antique the false taste and essentially unheroic spirit
of the age of Philip II. As for the innumerable other poena,
dramas and tales which have been founded on the legend of the
Cid, from the days of Guillen de Castro and Diamante to those
of Quintana and Trueba, they serve merely to prove the abiding
popularity of the national hero in his native land.
The chief sources from which the story of the Cid is to be gathered
are, first, the Latin chronicle discovered by Risco in the convert
of San Isidro at Leon, proved by internal evidence to have been
written before 1258; the Cronica General, composed by Alphonso X.
in the second hall of the 13th century, partly (so far as relates to the
Cid) from the above, partly from contemporary Arabic histories, and
partly from tradition; the Cronica del Cid, first published in 15U,
by Juan de Vetorado, abbot of the- monastery of San Pedro at
Cardena, which is a compilation from the last, interlarded with new
fictions due to the piety of the compiler; lastly, various Arabic
manuscripts, some of contemporary date, which are examined and
their claims weighed in the second volume of Professor Doxy's
Recherckes sur I'kistoire politique el HtUraire de PEspagn* pendant
It moyen dge (Leiden, 1849)- nuber. M ullcr. and Ferdinand Wolf are
among the leading authorities in the history and literature of the
Cid. M. Damas Hinard has published the poem, with a literal French
translation and notes, and John Hookham Frcre has rendered it into
English with extraordinary spirit and fidelity. The largest collection
of the Cid ballads is that of Durant, in the Romanuro general, m
two volumes, forming part of Rivadcncyra's Biblioteca de anions
espaMoles. (H. E. W.)
CIDER, or Cyder (from the Fr. cidre, derived from the Lat.
sicera or ciscra, Gr. eU(pa, Hcb. shlkdr, strong drink), an
alcoholic beverage made from apples.
Cider and perry (the corresponding beverage made from pears)
are liquors containing from as little as 2% of alcohol to 7 or
8%, seldom more, and rarely as much, produced by the vinous
fermentation of the expressed juice of apples and pears; but
cider and perry of prime quality can only be obtained from
vintage fruit, that is, apples and pears grown for the purpose
and unsuited for the most part for table use. A few table apples
make good cider, but the best perry is only to be procured from
pears too harsh and astringent for consumption in any other
form. The making of perry is in England confined , in the main,
to the counties of Hereford, Worcester and Gloucester. These
three counties, together with Somerset and Devon, constitute,
too, the principal cider-making district of the country; but the
CIDER
363
kducry. winch was once more widely spread, stfll survives in
Norfolk, and has lately been revived in Kent, though, in both
these counties, much of the fruit used in cider-making is imported
from the west country and some from the continent. Speaking
r generally, the cider of Herefordshire is distinguished for its
lightness and briskness, that of Somerset for its strength, and
that of Devonshire for its lusciousness.
Oder used to be made in the south of Ireland, but the industry
had almost become extinct until revived by the Department of
Agriculture, which in 1004 erected a cider-making plant at
Droghcda, Co. Louth, gave assistance to private firms at Dun-
garvan, Co. Watcrford, and Fermoy, Co. Cork, and provided a
J travelling mill and press to work in the South Riding of Co.
• Tipperary The results have been highly satisfactory, a large
quantity of good cider having been produced.
Inasmuch as English orchards are crowded with innumerable
' varieties of cider apples, many of them worthless, a committee
composed of members of the Herefordshire Fruit-Growers'
Association and of the Fruit and Chrysanthemum Society was
appointed in 1800 to make a selection of vintage apples and
pears best suited to Herefordshire and the districts adjoining.
The following is the list drawn up by the committee: —
Apples.-' Old Foxwhclp, Cherry Pearmain, Cowarne Red,
j Dymock Red, Eggleton Styre, Kingston Black or Black Taunton,
' Stymie's Kernel, Spreading Redstrcak, Carrion apple, Cherry
Norman, Cummy Norman, Royal Wilding, Handsome Norman,
j Strawberry Norman, White Bache or Norman, Broad-leaved
I Norman, Argilc Crise, B ram tot, De Boutville, Frcquin Audicvre,
Medaille d'Or, the last five being French sorts introduced from
Normandy about 1880, and now established in the orchards of
Herefordshire.
Frari.— Taynton Squash, Barland, Oldfield, Moorcroft or
j Malvern Hill, Red-pear, Thurston's Red, Longland, Pine pear.
No equally authoritative selection has been made for the
Somerset and Devon districts, but the following varieties of
cider apples are held in good repute in those parts:— Kingston
Black, Jersey Chisel, Hangdowns, Fair Maid of Devon, Woodbine,
Dock's BUI, Slack-my-Girdle, Bottle Stopper, Golden Ball,
Sugar-loaf, Red Cluster, Royal Somerset and Cadbury (believed
to be identical with the Royal Wilding of Herefordshire). As a
role the best cider apples are of small size. " Petites pommes,
gros cidre," say the French.
Cider and perry not being taxable liquors in England, it is
impossible to estimate with even an approach to accuracy the
amount of the annual production of them. In 1806 Mr Sampson,
the then secretary of the National Association of English Cider-
makers, in his evidence before the royal commission on agricul-
ture, put it at 55 J million gallons. Since that date the increased
demand for these native wines has given such an impetus to the
industry that this figure might with safety be doubled. In France
official statistics are available, and these show not only that that
country is the largest producer of cider (including perry) in the
world, but that tie output is yearly increasing. A great pro-
portion, however, of what passes as cider in France is Msscn,
U. cider to which water has been added in the process of making
or at a. subsequent stage; while much of the perry is disposed
of to the makers of champagne. Although some cider is made in
sixty-five departments, by far the largest amount comes from
the provinces of Normandy and Brittany. In Germany cider-
making is a considerable and growing industry. Manufactories
on a small scale exist in north Germany, as at Guben and Grttn-
berg, but the centre of the industry is at Frankfori-on-Main,
Sachsenhauscn and the neighbourhood, where there are five
large and twenty-five small factories employing upwards of
1000 hands. Large quantities of cider fruit are imported from
foreign countries, as, speaking generally, the native-grown fruit
used in Germany for cider-making consists of inferior and
undersized table apples not worth marketing. The bottled cider
for export is treated much like champagne, and is usually fortified
and flavoured until, in the words of an acknowledged French
authority, M Truellc, it becomes a hybrid between cider and
white wine rather than pure cider
The practice which formerly prevailed in England of making
cider on the farm from the produce of the home orchards has
within the last few years been to a large extent given up, and,
as in Germany and many parts of France, farmers now sell their
fruit to owners of factories where the making of cider and perry
is carried on as a business of itself. In these hand or horse power
is superseded by steam and sometimes by electricity, as in the
factory of E. Seigd in Grunberg, and the old-fashioned appliances
of the farm by modern mills and presses capable of turning out'
large quantities of liquor. The clearing of the juice, too, which
used to be effected by running it through bags, is in the factories
accomplished more quickly by forcing it through layers of
compressed cotton in a machine of German origin known as
Lumley's filter. The actual process of cider and perry making
is simple, and resembles that of making grape wine. The fruit is
ground or crushed in machines of various construction, the latest
and most powerful being of American origin. The resulting
pomace Is pressed for the extraction of the juice, which is then
run into vats, where it undergoes fermentation, which, converting
the saccharine ingredients into alcohol and carbonic acid gas,
turns it into cider. Cider made from a judicious mixture of
several varieties of apples is to be preferred to cider made from
one variety only, inasmuch as it is less difficult to find the requisite
degrees of richness, astringency and flavour in several varieties
than in one; but the contrary is the case with pears, of which
the most noted sorts, such as the Barland, the Taynton Squash
and the Oldfield, produce the best perry when unmixed with
other varieties. Some fining of an albuminous nature is generally
requisite in order to clear the juice and facilitate its passage
through the filter, but the less used the better. The simplest
and cleanest is skim milk whipped to a froth and blended gradu-
ally with the cider as it is pumped into the mixing vat. Many
nostrums arc sold for the clearing of cider, but none is necessary
and most are harmful.
Of late years the practice has largely obtained of using
preservatives for the purpose of checking fermentation. The
principal preservatives employed are salicylic and boradc acids
and formalin. The two former are ineffective except in quantities
likely to prove hurtful to health, while formalin, in itself a
powerful and deleterious drug, though it stops fermentation,
renders the liquor cloudy and undrinkable. Other foreign in-
gredients, such as saccharin and porcherine, both coal-tar
derivatives— the latter a recent discovery of a French chemist,
after whom it is named— are used by many makers, chiefly for
the purpose of rendering bad and therefore unwholesome cider
palatable and saleable. Provided that cider and perry be properly
filtered, and attention paid to perfect cleanliness of vessels and
appliances, there is no need of preservatives or sweeteners, and
their use ought to be forbidden by law in England, as it is in
most continental states in the case of liquors to be consumed
within their borders, though not, it is significant to note, in the
case of liquors intended for exportation.
The wholesome properties of cider and perry when pure and
unadulterated have been recognized by medical men, who
recommend them as pleasant and efficacious remedies in affec-
tions of a gouty or rheumatic nature, maladies which, strange
to say, these very liquors were once supposed to foster, if
not actually to originate. Under a similar false impression the
notion is general that hard rough cider is apt to cause diarrhoea,
colic and kindred complaints, whereas, as a fact, disorders
of this kind are conspicuous by their absence in those parts of
the country where rough cider and perry constitute the staple
drinks of the working-classes. This is especially the case in
Herefordshire, which is said also to be the only county in England
whence no instance of the occurrence of Asiatic cholera has ever
been reported.
The importance which the cider industry has of late attained
in England has been marked by the establishment of the National
Fruit and Cider Institute at Long Ashton near Bristol. This
institute, founded in 1003 at the instance of the Board of
Agriculture, is supported by grants from the board, the Bath
and West of England Society, the councils of the cider-producing
3^4
CIENFUEGOS— CIGNANI
counties ol Hereford, Gloucester, Worcester, Monmouth, Devon
and Somerset, and by subscription of members. The objects of
the institute are the promotion of research into the causes of
the changes which occur in cider and perry during fermentation,
with the view of imparting to these liquors a degree of exactitude
hitherto unattainable; the adoption from time to time of im-
proved machinery and methods in cider-making; the detection
of adulteration; the giving of instruction in the principles and
practice of cider-making; the publication of reports detailing
the results of the researches undertaken at the institute; the
testing and selection of the sorts of fruit best suited for vintage
purposes; the propagation of useful varieties likely from neglect
to go out of cultivation; and the conducting of experiments
in regard to the best systems of planting and protecting young
fruit trees.
Fruit-growers' who look to cider-making " as a means of
utilizing windfalls and small and inferior apples of cooking and
dessert varieties not worth sending to market " should be warned
that it is as important to the cider industry that good cider only
should be on sale as it is to the fruit-growing industry that good
fruit only should be sent to market. The juice of the apple is
naturally affected by the condition of the fruit itself, and if this
be unripe, unsound or worm-eaten the cider made from it will
be inferior to that made from full-grown, ripe and sound fruit.
If such fruit be not good enough to send to market, neither will
the cider made from it be good enough to place before the public.
Nevertheless, it may furnish a sufficiently palatable drink for
home consumption, and may therefore be so utilised. But
when, as happens from time to time in fruit-growing districts,
there is a glut, and even the best table fruit is not saleable at
a profit, then, indeed, cider-making is a means of storing in a
liquid form what would otherwise be left to rot on the ground;
whilst if a proportion of vintage fruit were mixed therewith,
a drink would be produced which would not discredit the cider
trade, and would bring a fair return to the maker. (C. W. R. C.)
CIENFUEGOS, NICASIO ALVAREZ DE (i 764-1809), Spanish
poet and publicist, was born at Madrid on the 14th of December
1764. He studied with distinction at Salamanca, where he met
the poet Melendez Valdes. His poems, published in 1778,
immediately attracted attention. He was successively editor
of the Goceta and Mcrcurio, and was condemned to death for
having published an article against Napoleon; on the petition
of his friends, he was respited and deported to France; he died
at Orthcz early in the following year. His verses are modelled
on those of Melendez Valdes; though not deficient in technique
or passion, they are often disfigured by spurious sentimentality
and by the flimsy philosophy of the age. Cienfuegos was blamed
for an unsparing use of both archaisms and gallicisms. His
plays, Pitaco, Zoroida, La Condcsa de Costilla and Idometuo,
four tragedies on the pseudo-classic French model, and Las
Her Manas generosas, a comedy, are deservedly forgotten.
CIENFUEGOS (originally Fernandina de Jacua), one of the
principal cities of Cuba, in Santa Clara province, near the central
portion of the S. coast, 195 m. E.S.E. of Havana. Pop. (1007)
30,100. Cienfuegos is served by the United railways and by
steamers connecting with Santiago, Bataban6, Trinidad and
the Isle of Pines. It lies about 6 m. from the sea on a peninsula
in the magnificent landlocked bay of Jagua. Vessels drawing
16 ft. have direct access to the wharves. A circular railway
about the water-front, wharves and warehouses facilitates the
loading and unloading of vessels. The city, streets are broad
and regularly laid out. There is a handsome cathedral; and
the Tomas Terry theatre (given to the city by the heirs of
one of the millionaire sugar planters of the jurisdiction), the
governor's house (1841-1844), the military and government
hospitals, market place and railway station are worthy of note.
In the Cathedral Square (Plaza de Armas), embracing two city-
squares, and shaded— like all the plazas of the island— with
laurels and royal palms, are a statue of Isabel the Catholic,
and two marble lions given by Queen Isabel II.; elsewhere there
are statues of General Clouct and Marshal Serrano, once captain-
general. The city is lighted by gas and electricity, has an
abundant water-supply, and cable connexion with Europe,
the United States, other Antilles and South America. The
surrounding country is one of the prettiest and most fertile
regions in Cuba, varied with woods, rivers, rocky gulches,
beautiful cascades and charming tropic vegetation. Several
of the largest and finest sugar estates in the world are situated in
the vicinity, including the Soledad (with a botanical experiment
station maintained by Harvard University), the Terry and
others—most of them connected with the city by good drive-
ways. Cienfuegos is a centre of the sugar trade on the south
coast; tobacco too is exported.
The bay of Jagua was visited by Columbus. The city was
founded in 1819, with the aid of the Spanish government, by a
Louisianian, General Luis de Clouet; it was destroyed by a
hurricane and was rebuilt in 1825. Many naturalized foreign
Catholics, including Americans, were among the original settlers.
The settlement was first named in honour of Ferdinand VII.,
and later in honour of Captain-General Jose* Cienfuegos Jovd-
lanos. The harbour was known from the earliest times, and has
been declared by Mahan to be the most important of the
Caribbean Sea for strategic purposes. In 1740-1745 a fortifica-
tion called Nuestra Scnora de los Angeles was erected at the
entrance; it is still standing, on a steep blurt overlooking the
sea, and is one of the most picturesque of the old fortifications
of the bland. On the 1 ith of May 1808 a force from two vessels
of the United States fleet under Admiral Schley, searching for
Cervera and blockading the port, cut two of the three cables
here (at Point Colorado, at the entrance of the harbour), and for
the first time in the Spanish-American War the American troops
were under fire.
CIEZA, a town of south-eastern Spain, in the province of
Murcia, on the right bank of the river Segura, and on the Madrid*
Cartagena railway. Pop. (1000) 13,626. Cicza is built in a
narrow bend of the Segura valley, which is enclosed on the north
by mountains, and on the south broadens into a fertile plain,
producing grain, wine, olives, raisins, oranges and esparto grass.
In the town itself there are flour and paper mills, sawmills and
brandy distilleries. Between 1870 and 1000 local trade and
population increased rapidly, owing partly to improved means
of communication; and the appearance of Cieza is thoroughly
modern.
CIGAR* the common term for tobacco-leaf prepared for smok-
ing by being rolled into a short cylinder tapering to a point at
the end which is placed in the mouth, the other end, which h
lighted, being usually cut square (see Tobacco). The Spantso
cigarro is of doubtful origin, possibly connected with cigarra, 1
cicada, from its resemblance to the body of that insect, or witb
cigarral, a word of Arabic origin meaning a pleasure garden.
The explanation that it comes from a Cuban word for a ccrtair
species of tobacco is probably erroneous, since no native won!
of the kind is known. The diminutive, cigarette, denotes a roll
of cut tobacco enclosed usually in thin paper, but sometime!
also in tobacco-leaf or the husk of Indian com.
CIGNANI, CARLO (1628-17x9), Italian painter, was born of 1
noble family at Bologna, where he studied under Battista Cairo
and afterwards under Francesco Albani. Though an intimaU
friend of the latter, and his most famous disciple, Cignani was
yet strongly and deeply influenced by the genius of Correggio
His greatest work, moreover, the " Assumption of the Virgin,'
round the cupola of the church of the Madonna dclla Fuoca ai
Forli, which occupied him some twenty years, and is in sonx
respects one of the most remarkable works of art of the 171!
century, is obviously inspired from the more renowned fresco ol
Correggio in the cupola of the cathedral of Parma. Cignani hac
some of the defects of his masters; his elaborate finish, his
audacious artificiality in the use of colour and in composition
mark the disciple of Albani; but he imparted to his work 1
more intellectual character than either of his models, and is nol
without other remarkable merits of his own. As a man Cignani
was eminently amiable, unassuming and generous. His success
however, made him many enemies; and the envy of some ol
these is said to have impelled them to deface certain of his works
CIGOLI-^-CILICIA
3*5
He accepted none of the honours offered him by the duke of
Parma and other princes, but lived and died an artist. On his
removal to Forli, where he- died,- the school he had founded at
Bologna was fain in some sort to follow its master. His most
famous pictures, in addition to the Assumption already cited,
are— the " Entry of Paul III. into Bologna "; the " Francois I.
Touching for King's Evil "; a " Power of Love," painted under
a fine ceiling by Agostino Carracci, on the walls of a room in the
ducal palace at Parma; an " Adam and Eve " (at the Hague);
and two of " Joseph and Potiphar's Wife " (at Dresden and
Copenhagen). His son Felice (1660-1724) and nephew Paolo
(1700-1764) were also painters.
aOOU (orCrvou), LODOVICO CARDI DA(i 550-1613), Italian
painter, architect and poet, was born at Cigoli in Tuscany.
Educated under Alessandro Auori and Santi di Tito, he formed a
peculiar style by the study at Florence of Michelangelo, Cor-
reggio, Andrea del Sarto and Pontormo. Assimilating more of
the second of these masters than of all the others, he laboured for
tome years with success; but the attacks of his enemies, and
intense application to the production of a wax model of certain
anatomical preparations, induced an alienation of mind which
affected him for three years. At the end of this period he
visited Lombardy, whence he returned to Florence. There he
painted an " Ecce Homo," in competition with Pasaignani and
Caravaggio, which gained the prize. This work was afterwards
taken by Bonaparte to the Louvre, and was restored to Florence
in 181 5. Other important pictures are — a " St Peter Healing
the Lame Man," in St Peter's at Rome; a " Conversion of St
Paul," in the church of San Paolo fuori le Mura, and a " Story of
Psyche," in fresco, at the Villa Borghesc; a " Martyrdom of
Stephen," which earned him the name of the Florentine Cor-
reggio.a" Venus and Satyr," a " Sacrifice of Isaac," a "Stigmata
of St Francis," at Florence. Cigoli, who was made a knight of
Malta at the request of Pope Paul III., was a good and solid
draughtsman and the possessor of a rich and harmonious palette.
He died, it is said, of grief at the failure of his last fresco (in the
Roman church of Santa Maria Maggiore), which is rendered
ridiculous by an abuse of perspective.
QUA (plural of Lat. c ilium, eyelash), in biology, the thread-
like processes by the vibration of which many lowly organisms,
or the male reproductive cells of higher organisms, move through
water.
CILIATA (M. Peru), one of the two divisions of Infusoria,
characterized by the permanent possession of cilia or organs
derived from these (cirrhi, mcmbranellcs, &c), and possessing
a single mouth (except in the Opalinopsidac, all parasitic). They
are the most highly differentiated among the Protozoa.
CIUCIA, in ancient geography, a district of Asia Minor,
extending along the south coast from the Alara Su, which
separated it from Pamphylia, to the Giaour Dagh (Mt. Amanus),
which parted it from Syria. Its northern limit was the crest of
Mt. Taurus. It was naturally divided into Cilicia Trachea,. W.
of the Lamas Su, and Cilicia Pedias, E. of that river.
Cilicia Trachea is a rugged mountain district formed by the
spurs of Taurus, which often terminate in rocky headlands with
small sheltered harbours, — a feature which, in classical times,
made the coast a resort of pirates, and, in the middle ages, led
to its occupation by Genoese and Venetian traders. The district
is watered by the Geuk Su (Calycadnus and its tributaries), and
is covered to a large extent by forests, which still, as of old,
supply timber to Egypt and Syria. There were several towns
but no large trade centres. In the interior were Coropissus (Da
Bazar), Olba (Uzunjaburj), and, in the valley of the Calycadnus,
Cbudiopolis (Mut) and Gcrmanicopolis (ErmcnekV On or
near the coast were Coracesium (Alaya). Selinus-Trajanopolis
(Selinti), Ancmourium (Anamur), Kclcndcris (Kilindria), Selcucia
ad Calycadnum (Selefkch), Corycus (Korghoz) and Elacusa-
6ebaste(Ayash). Roads connected Laranda, north of the Taurus,
with Kcknderis and Selcucia.
Cilicia Pedias included the rugged spurs of Taurus and a large
plain, which consists, in great part, of a rich stoncless loam. Its
eastern half is studded with isolated rocky crags, which are
crowned with the ruins of ancient strongholds, and broken by
the low hills that border the plain of Issus. The plain is watered
by the Cydnus (Tarsus Chai), the Sams (Sihun) and the Pyramus
(Jihun), each of which brings down much silt. The Sarus now
enters the sea almost due south of Tarsus, but there are clear
indications that at one period it joined the Pyramus, and that
the united rivers ran to the sea west of Kara-tash. Such appears
to nave been the case when Alexander's army crossed Cilicia.
The plain is extremely productive, though now little cultivated.
Through it ran the great highway, between the east and the west,
on which stood Tarsus on the Cydnus, Adana on the Sarus,
and Mopsucslia (Missis) on the Pyramus. North of the road
between the two last places were Sision-Flaviopolis (Sis), Ana-
zarbus (Anazarba) and Hicrapolis-Kastabala (Budrum); and
on the coast were Soli-Pompciopolis, Mallus (Kara-tash), Acgae
(Ayash), Issus, Baiac (Piyas) and Alexandria ad Issum (Alexan-
dre Ua). The great highway from the west, on its long rough
descent from the Anatolian plateau to Tarsus, ran through a
narrow pass between walls of rock called the Cilicia nGatc.Ghulck
Boghaz. After crossing the low bills cast of the Pyramus it
passed through a masonry (Cilician) gate, Dcrnir Kapu, and
entered the plain of Issus. From that plain one road ran south-
ward through a masonry (Syrian) gate to Alcxandrctta, and
thence crossed Mt. Amanus by the Syrian Gate, Bcilan Pass, to
Antiocb and Syria; and another ran northwards through a
masonry (Amanian) gate, south of Toprak Kalch, and crossed Ml
Amanus by the Amanian Gate, Baghchc Pass, to North Syria
and the Euphrates. By the last pass, which was apparently
unknown to Alexander, Darius crossed the mountains prior to
the battle of Issus. Both passes arc short and easy, and connect
Cilicia Pedias geographically and politically with Syria rather
than with Asia Minor. Another important road connected Sision
with Cocysus and Melitene. In Roman times Cilicia exported
the goats' hair cloth, Cilicium, of which tents were made.
The Cilicians appear as Khilikku in Assyrian inscriptions,
and in the early part of the first millennium B.C. were one of the
four chief powers of western Asia. It is generally assumed that
they had previously been subject to the Syro-Cappadocian
empire; but, up to 1009 at all events, " Hittite " monuments
had not been found in Cilicia; and we must infer that the
" Hittite " civilizations which flourished in Cappadocia and N.
Syria, communicated with each other by passes E. of Amanus
and not by the Cilician Gates. Under the Persian empire
Cilicia was apparently governed by tributary native kings, who
bore a name or title graecized as Syenncsis; but it was officially
included in the fourth satrapy by Darius. Xcnophon found a
queen in power, and no opposition was offered to the march of
Cyrus. Similarly Alexander found the Gates open, when he
came down from the plateau in 333 B.C.; and from these facts
it may be inferred that the great pass was not under direct
Persian control, but under that of a vassal power always ready
to turn against its suzerain. After Alexander's death it was long
a battle ground of rival marshals and kings, and for a lime
fell under Ptolemaic dominion, but finally under that of the
Sclcucids, who, however, never held effectually more than the
eastern half. Cilicia Trachea became the haunt of pirates, who
were subdued by Pompey. Cilicia Pedias became Roman
territory in 103 B.C., and the whole was organized by Pompey,
64 B.C., into a province which, for a short time, extended to and
included part of Phrygia. It was reorganized by Caesar, 47 B.C.,
and about 27 B.C. became part of the province Syria-Cilicia-
Phoenicc. At first the western district was left independent
under native kings or priest -dynasts, and a small kingdom, under
Tarkondimotus, was left in the cast; but these were finally
united to the province by Vespasian, a.d. 74. Under Diocletian
(circa 297), Cilicia, with the Syrian and Egyptian provinces,
formed the Dioccsis Orientis. In the 7th century it was invaded
by the Arabs, who held the country until it was rcoccupicd by
Niccphorus II. in 965.
The Seljuk invasion of Armenia was followed by an exodus of
Armenians southwards, and in 10S0 Rhupen, a relative of the last
king of Ani, founded in the heart of the Cilician Taurus a 1
CIMAROSA
367
before it* removal from the studio it was visited with admiration
by Charles of Anjou, with a host of eminent men and gentle
lathes, and it was carried to the church in a festive procession of
the people and trumpeters. Cimabue was at this time living in
the Borgo AUegri, then outside the walls of Florence; the legend
that the name AJlegri (Joyous) was bestowed on the locality in
consequence of this striking popular display is more attractive
than accurate, for the name existed already. Of this celebrated
picture, one of the great landmarks of modern and sacred art,
some details may be here given, which we condense from the
History cf Painting in Italy by Crowe and Cavalcasellc.
" The Virgin in a red tunic and hlue manttc, with her feet retting
on an open worked etool. ia lilting on a chair hung with a while
drapery flowered in gnld and blue, and carried by aix arigi'h kneeling
in three* above each other. A delicately engra\ed nimbut surrounds
hef head, and that or the infant Saviour on her Up, who is deesscd
in a white tunic, and purple mantle shot with gold* A dark-coloured
Inmc surrounds the gabled *n^are of the picture, delicately traced
with an ornament interrupted at interval* by thirty medallion* on
(old ground, each of *hkh contain! the half-figure of a saint,
the face of the Madonna it a soft and melancholy expression;
the form of the infant, a certain freshness, animation and natural
proportion ; in the group, affeaion— but too fare at thti period.
There it sentiment in the altitudes of the angets, energetic mien In
acmi* prophets, comparative clearness and soft harmony in the
colouri- A certain lots of balance it caused by the overweight of
lie head in the Virgin a* compared with the siightnc^ of her frame.
The features are the old ones of the ijth century; only softened,
u regard* the expression of the eye, by an exaggeration of elliptical
form in the iri*, and closeness of the curves of the fids. 1 n the angels
the absence of all true notion) of composition may be considered
striking; yet their movements are more natural and pleating than
hitherto. One indeed, to the spectator's right of the Virgin, com-
bines more tender reverence in its glance than any that had yet been
produced. Cimabue gave to the flesh-tints a clear and carefully
fined colour, and imparted to the forms tome of the rotundity which
tbey had lost. With him vanished the sharp contrasts of hard lights,
ball-tones and shadows."
In a general way, it may be said that Cimabue showed himself
forcible in his paintings, as especially in heads of aged or strongly
characterized men; and, if the then existing development of
art had allowed of this, he might have had it in him to express
the beautiful as wclL He, according to Vasari, was the first
painter who wrote words upon his paintings, — as, for instance,
round the head of Christ in a picture of the Crucifixion, the
words addressed to Mary, Mulicr eccejilius luus.
Other .paintings still extant by Cimabue arc the following:—
In the academy of Arts in Florence, a " Madonna and Child,"
with eight angels, and some prophets in niches,— better than
the Rucellai picture in composition and study of nature, but
Bore archaic in type, and the colour now spoiled (this work was
painted for the Badia of S. Trinita, Florence); in the National
Gallery, London, a "Madonna and Child with Angels," which
came from the Ugo Baldi collection, and had probably once
been in the church of S. Croce, Florence; in the Louvre, a
" Madonna and Child," with twenty-six medallions in the frame,
originally in the church of S. Francesco, Pisa. In the lower
church of the Basilica of S. Francesco at Assist, Cimabue,
succeeding Ciunta da Pisa, probably adorned the south transept,
—painting a colossal " Virgin and Child between four Angels,"
above the altar of the Conception, and a large figure -of St
Francis. In the upper church, north transept, he has the
11 Saviour Enthroned and some Angels," and, on the central
ceiling of the transept, the " Four Evangelists with Angels."
Many other works in both the lower and the upper church have
been ascribed to Cimabuc, but with very scanty evidence; even
the above-named can be assigned to him only as matter of
probability. Numerous others which he indisputably did paint
have perished,— for instance, a series (earlier in date than the
Rucellai picture) in the Carmine church at Padua, which were
destroyed by a fire.
From Assist Cimabue returned to Florence. In the dosing
years of his life he was appointed capomacstro of the mosaics
of the cathedral of Pisa, and was afterwards, hardly a year
before his death, joined with Arnolfo di Cambio as architect
for the cathedral of Florence. In Pisa Ik executed a Majesty
in the apse,—" Christ in glory between the Virgin and John
the Evangelist," a mosaic, now much damaged, which stamps
him as the leading artist of his time in that material. This was
probably the last work that he produced.
The debt which art owes to Cimabue is not limited to his own
performances. He was the master of Giotto, whom (such at
least is the tradition) he found a shepherd boy of ten, in the
pastures of Vespignano, drawing with a coal on a slate the figure
of a lamb. Cimabue took him to Florence, and instructed him
in the art; and after his death Giotto occupied a house which
had belonged to his master in the Via del Cocomero. Another
painter with whom Cimabue is said to have been intimate was
Gaddo Gaddi.
It had always been supposed that the bodily semblance of
Cimabue is preserved to us in a portrait-figure by Simon Mcmrai
painted in the Cappclla degli Spagnuoli, in S. Maria Novella,—
a thin hooded face in profile, with small beard, reddish and
pointed. This is, however, extremely dubious. Simone Martini
of Siena (commonly called Memmi) was born in 1 283, and would
therefore have been about nineteen years of age when Cimabue
died; it is not certain that he painted the work in question, or
that the figure represents Cimabue. The Florentine master is
spoken of by a nearly contemporary commentator on Dante
(the so-called Anonimo, who wrote about 1334) as arrogante a
disdtgnoso', so " arrogant and scornful " that, if any one
or if he himself, found a fault in any work of his, however
cherished till then, he would abandon it in disgust. This,
however, to a modern mind, looks more like an aspiring and
fastidious desire for perfection than any such form of " arrogance
and scorn " as blemishes a man's character. Giovanni Cimabue
was buried in the cathedral of Florence, S. Maria del Fiore, with
an epitaph written by one of the Nini: —
" Credidit ut Cimabos nicturae castra tenere.
Sic tcnuit vivens; nunc tenet astra poli."
Here we recognize distinctly a parallel to the first clause in the
famous triplet of Dante:
" Credette Cimabue nella pintura
Tcner lo campo: ed ora ha Giotto il grido,
SI chc la fama di colui s" o&cura."
Besides Vasari, and Crowe and Cavalcascllc (re-edited by Langton),
the following works may be consulted. — P. Angcli, 5/oria delta
basilica </* Assist; Cole and Stillman, Old Italian Masters (1892);
Mrs Ady. Painters of Florence (toco). (W. M. R.)
CIMAROSA. DOMEN1CO (1740-1801), Italian musical com-
poser, was bom at A versa, in the kingdom of Naples, on the 1 7 th
of December 1749. His parents were poor, but anxious to give
their son a good education; and after removing to Naples they
sent him to a free school connected with one of the monasteries
of that city. The organist of the monastery, Padre Tolcano,
was struck with the boy's intellect, and voluntarily instructed
him in the elements of music, as also in the ancient and modern
literature of his country. To his influence Cimarosa owed a
free scholarship at the musical institute of Santa Maria di Loreto,
where he remained for eleven years, studying chiefly the great
masters of the old Italian school. Piccini, Sacchini and other
musicians of repute arc mentioned amongst his teachers. At
the age of twenty-three Cimarosa began his career as a composer
with a comic opera called Le Straiaganze del Cottle, first per-
formed at the Teatro dei Fiorentini at Naples in 177?. The
work met with approval, and was followed in the same year by
Le Pazzie di Stcllidanza e di Zoroastro, a farce full of humour
and eccentricity. This work also was successful, and the fame
of the young composer began to spread all over Italy. In 1774
he was invited to Rome to write an opera for the stagione of
that year; and he there produced another comic opera called
L'ltaliana in Londra.
The next thirteen years of Cimarosa 's life are not marked by
any event worth mentioning. He wrote a number of operas for
the various theatres of Italy, living temporarily in Rome, in
Naples, or wherever else his vocation as a conductor of his works
happened to call him. From 1784-1787 he lived at Florence,
writing exclusively for the theatre of that city. The productions
of this period of his life arc very numerous, consisting of
operas, both comic and serious, cantatas, and various sacred
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CIMON T Or CLEONAE -CINCHONA
369
The Per.-i.in dangor w-»* now o\,t. an-! the irr.rm diate purpose
of the Delian League was achieved. Already, however, Athens
had introduced the policy of coercion which was to transform
the league into an empire, a policy which, after the ostracism
af Tbemistodcs and the death of Aristides, must be attributed
to Cimon, whose fundamental idea was the union of the Greeks
against all outsiders (sec Deli an League). Carystus was
compelled to join the league; Naxos (c. 460) and Thasos (465-
463), which had revolted, were compelled to accept the position
of tributary allies. In 464 Sparta was involved in war with her
Helots (principally of Messcnian origin) and was in great
difficulties. Cimon, then the most prominent man in Athens,
persuaded the Athenians to send assistance, on the ground that
Athens could not " stand without her yoke-fellow " and leave
M Hellas lame." The expedition was a failure, and Cimon was
exposed to the attacks of the democrats led by Ephialtcs. The
history of this party struggle is not dear. The ordinary account
n that Ephialtcs during Cimon's absence in Mcsscnia destroyed
the powers of the Areopagus (q.v.) and then obtained the ostra-
cism of Cimon, who attempted to reverse his policy. Without
Going fully into the question, which is full of difficulty, it may
be pointed out (1) that when the Messcnian expedition started
^Irnttn had twice within the preceding year triumphed over the
Opposition of Ephialtcs, and (2) that presumably the Cimonian
party was predominant until after the expedition proved a
failure. It is therefore unlikely that, immediately after Cimon's
triumph in obtaining permission to go to Mcsscnia, Ephialtcs
Was able to attack the Areopagus with success. The probability
la that when the expedition failed, Cimon was ostracized, and
that then Ephialtcs defeated the Areopagus, and also made a
Change in foreign policy by making alliances with Sparta's
enemies, Argos and Thessuly. This hypothesis alone explains
the absence of any account of a third struggle between Cimon
and Ephialtcs over the Areopagus. The chronology would
thus be: ostracism of Cimon, spring, 461; fall of the Areopagus
and reversal of Philo-Laconian policy, summer, 461.
A more difficult question is involved in the date of Cimon's
let urn from ostracism. The ordinary account says that he was
recalled after the battle of Tanagra (457) to negotiate the Five
Years' Truce (451 or 450). To ignore the unexplained interval
of six or seven years is an uncritical expedient, which, however,
has been adopted by many writers. Some maintaining that
Cimon did return soon after 457. say that the truce which he
arranged was really the four months' truce recorded by Diodorus
(only). To this there arc two main objections: (1) if Cimon
returned in 457, why does the evidence of antiquity connect his
return specifically with the truce of 451? and (2) why docs he
after 457 disappear for six years and return again to negotiate
the Five Years' Truce and to command the expedition to Cyprus?
It seems much more likely that he returned in 451, at the very
time when Athens relumed to his old policy of friendship with
Sparta and war in the East against Persia (i.e. the Cyprus
expedition). Thus it would appear that from 453 onwards there
was a recrudescence of conservative influence, and that for four
years (453-449) Pericles was not master in Athens (sec Pericles) ;
this theory is corroborated by the fact that Pericles, in the
alarm caused by the Egyptian failure of 454, was induced to
remove the Dclian treasury to Athens and to abandon his anti-
Spartan policy of land empire.
Cimon died in Cyprus before the walls of Citium (449), and
was buried in Athens. Later Attic orators speak in glowing
terms of a " Peace " between Athens and Persia, which is
sometimes connected with the name of Cimon and sometimes
with that of one Callias. If any such peace was concluded, it
cannot have been soon after the battle of the Eurymcdon as
Plutarch assumes. It can have been only after Cimon's death
and the evacuation of Cyprus (i.c. c. 448). It is only in this form
that the view has been maintained logically in modern times.
Apart from the fact that the peace is ignored by Thucydidcs
and that the earliest reference to it is the passage in Isocrates
{Paneg. 118 and 120), there are weighty reasons which render it
improbable that any formal peace can have been concluded at
vi. 1
that period between Athens and Persia (sec further Ed. Meyer's
Forsckun&cn, ii.).
Cimon's services in connexion with the consolidation of the
Empire rank with those of Themistocles and Aristides. He is
described as genial, brave and generous. He threw open his
house and gardens to his feUow-demesmen, and beautified the
city with trees and buildings. But as a statesman he failed to
cope with the new conditions created by the democracy of
Cleisthcncs. The one gTeat principle for which he is memorable
is that of the balance of power between Athens and Sparta,
as respectively the naval and military leaders of a united Hellas.
It has been the custom to regard Cimon as a man of little culture
and refinement. It is clear, however, from his desire to adorn
the city, that he was by no means without culture and imagina-
tion. The truth is that, as in politics, so in education and attitude
of mind, he represented the ideals of an age which, in the new
atmosphere of democratic Athens, seemed to savour of rusticity
and lack of education.
The lives of Cimon by Plutarch and Cornelius Neposarc uncritical;
the conclusions above expressed arc derived from a comparison of
Plutarch, Cimon. 17, Pericles, 10; Thcopompus, fragm. 92; Ando-
cides, de Pace, §§ 3, 4; Diodorus xi. 86 (the four months' truce).
See historic* of Greece (e.g. Grotc, ed. 1907. 1 vol.); also Pericles;
Delian League, with works quoted. (J* M. M.)
CIMON OF CLEONAE, an early Greek painter, who is said
to have introduced great improvements in drawing. He repre-
sented " figures out of the straight, and ways of representing
faces looking back, up or down; he also made the joints of the
body clear, emphasized veins, worked out folds and doublings
in garments" (Pliny). All these improvements are such as may
be traced in the drawing of early Greek red-figured vases (see
Greek Art).
CINCHONA, the generic name of a number of trees which
belong to the natural order Rubiaceae. Botanically the genus
includes trees of varying size, some reaching an altitude of 80 ft.
and upwards, with evergreen leaves and deciduous stipules.
The flowers are arranged in panicles, white or pinkish in colour,
with a pleasant odour, the calyx being 5-toothcd superior, and
the corolla tubular, 5-lobcd ami fringed- at the margin. The
stamens arc 5, almost concealed by the tubular corolla, and the
ovary terminates in a fleshy disk. The fruit is an ovoid or sub-
cylindrical capsule, splitting from the base, and held together
at the apex. The numerous seeds are hat and winged all round.
About 40 species have been distinguished, but of these not more
than about a dozen have been economically utilized. The plants
arc natives of the western mountainous regions of South America,
their geographical range extending from io° N. to 22° S. lat.;
and they flourish generally at an elevation of from 5000 to 8000
ft. above sea-level, although some have been noted growing as
high up as 1 1 ,000 ft., and others have been found down to 2600 ft.
The trees arc valued solely on account of their bark, which
long has been the source of the most valuable febrifuge or
antipyretic medicine, quinine (q.v.), that has ever been dis-
covered. The earliest well-authenticated instance of the medi-
cinal use of cinchona bark is found in the year 1638, when the
countess of Chine hon (hence the name), the wife of the governor
of Peru, was cured of an attack of fever by its administration.
The medicine was recommended in her case by the corregidor
of Loxa, who was said himself to have practically experienced
its supreme virtues eight years earlier. A knowledge of the bark
was disseminated throughout Europe by members of the Jesuit
brotherhood, whence it also became generally known as Jesuits'
bark. According to another account, this name arose from its
value having been first discovered to a Jesuit missionary who,
when prostrate with fever, was cured by the administration of
the bark by a South American Indian. In each of the above
instances the fever was no doubt malaria.
The procuring of the bark in the dense forests of New Granada,
Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia is a work of great toil and hardship
to the Indian cascarillcros or cascadorrs enpaged in the pursuit.
The trees grow isolated or in small clumps, which have to be
searched out by the experienced cascarHUro. who laboriously cuts
his way through the dense forest to the spot where he discovert
'la
37©
CINCINNATI
--_*» freed the stem from adhering parasites and
i tie*- Hav i . c p rocced *, by bea t in£ and cu ttlng oblon g pieces,
twining plants • rn bark as tar as is ^ithia bis reach. The lice is
to detach the st ^ e entire bark of stem and branches secured.
ihea felled, af ? ^mailer branches^ as it dries, curls up. farming
The baik. of *■■*_ . j C kcr masse* from the stems constituting the
"* quills," the f ^^jrfimerce* The drying, packing and transport
flat" bark o< operations of a laborious description conducted
ci the bark are &■ , % - a rttageoua conditions,
^ndermostcli^' medicinal consumption of these barks, and
•jhe enonno*** rcC j£lcss manner of procuring them in America
ic wasteful *"^l serious ind well-grounded apprehension that
JU15 iro. cause** ^^^uld quickly become exhausted. The alien-
•fag sa. -"'* f orc * -rtfjioumities was early directed to the necessity
-tgn V ^• rc P caI j- ur a* 1 * 1 permanent supplies by introducing the
v xr^T-^? 5 * ea z£|Lrie* u*to docilities likely to be favourable to
^jyfi — i.-ia'-"i* s r*^*j-|je first actual attempt to rear plants was
- tpg -r^.— i"-j*p- -^ 1S49; but the effort was not successful.
•s^ir s "^?T-^ government seriously undertook the task of
;v 7 -_ \i£ £ ■-"- "jj_^- j[~to the bland of Java, and an expedition
s^r:^ — 4 "-^ c "-JJ - fitted out on an adequate scale. Several
jr _j; i-T^-s* , -j-es were obtained, of which a small pro-
t--— ga "i ?^^T- "v landed and planted in Java; and as
-^r-."» -ra ^- r: " i;i " a !-"'7^:: oa the cultivation of cinchona plan la-
^ -s=«i : ^^Lj*^*£*iaB highly prosperous and promising.
p: 1 ^^- S5S** **- -3-»- - .-»ftf cinchonas into the East Indies
-^» r- — *-^~ * °X-T t _ iiiiessed to the East India Company
■^ — ^ s + * ~^ _ -f Sir Robert Chiisttson and backed by
«?T7-= 4'* ^^ i^T^ajlsS** step was taken till 1^52, when,
^~*"_ ~r iL^ft, sooie efforts to obtain plant*
■^ ^ ^-iir i;c=*Sj. In the end the question
= - ^ sc- C3ementi It Markham was
L to obtain young trees from
; to India. The transference
i difficulty, but in
[ of plants was
1 the Nllgiri Hills, For
of plants of
* of South
I fjea tbr Dutch plants*
Mead •«* i vide area
^— 1 of the HiMabjas,
_^k «ned through
overran as far a> 1
resistance. Near
Tcutoni and two caalai _
marched southwards by m
left towards the passes
arrived Tcutoni and ihci;
Italy. In 10a n.c. the Tim
defeated nt Aquae Se* liae by 1'
in passing the Alps sod driving
Adige and Po. In 10 1 llarius «.-■
Plain near Vcrccllae. Their king
whole army destroyed. The Ctmbn
line of the Teutonic invaders of Italy.
The original home of the Cimbri has
It is recorded in the Momtmttitvm Ancyr*-
flcet sailing eastwards from the mouth of il-
received at the farthest point reached thesubni.
called Cimbri, who sent an embassy to Augustus,
writers agree in saying that the Cimbri occupied
and in the map of Ptolemy Jutland appears as U.
Chersonese. As Ptolemy seems to have regarded the
rotatory, and in being Insoluble in ammonia except in much excess.
Ciruhnminc has the formula C»I!nNaO, quinine being nu-thoxy
cinchnnLne, i.e. CuHsi(OCH»)N;0. It occurs in inodorous, bitter,
colourless prisms; unlike the two alkaloids already named, decs
not yield a green colour with chlorine water and ammonia; is
dextro-rotatory; not fluorescent, and practically insoluble in
ammonia and in ether. A fourth alkaloid, cinchonidinc. is isomeric
widi cinchonine, which yields it when boiled with amyl alcoholic
potash, but is lacvo-rotatory, slightly soluble in ether, and faintly
fluorescent* When red bark is extracted with dilute hydrochloric
acid, the product filtered, and excess of sodium hydrate added
thereto, quinine and quinidinc arc precipitated: on concentrating
the mother liquor, cinchonine falls down, and on further concen-
tration with addition of still more alkali, cinchonidine is thrown
out. Yellow bark, which is not official, yields 3 % of quinine,
and pale bark about 10 % of total alkaloids, of which hardly
any is quinine, cinchonine and quinidinc being its chief constituents.
The various forms of bark also yield a very small quantity of an
unimportant alkaloid, congttinamine. In addition to the above,
red bark contains manic acid, CrliuOb, which is closely alli«d
to benzoic acid and is excreted in the urine as hipnunc acid.
There also occurs ckinovic acid, derived from a glucoside chincrin,
which occurs as such in the bark. Besides a trace of volatile
oil which fives the bark its characteristic odour, and cinchona red
(the bark pigment), there occurs about 3%' of cincko-tanuic acid,
closely allied to tannic acid and giving the bark its astringent
property. Cinchona is never used, however, in order to obtain an
astringent action.
The importance of recognizing the complex and inconstant
composition of cinchona bark lies, as in so many other instances,
in 1 His — that the physician who employs it can have only a \i:ry
imperfect knowledge of the drug he is using. t The latest work on
the action of these alkaloids has shown that cinchonine has a tend-
ency to produce convulsions in certain patients, and that this action
is a still more marked feature of cinchonidinc and cinchonaminc.
Even small dotes administered to epileptics increase the number
of their attacks. They will probably be classified later amonjt the
convulsive poisons. The use of cinchona bark and its preparations
now that definite active principles can be readily obtained and pre-
cisely studied, is almost entirely to be deprecated. Quinidinc is almost
ai powerful an antidote to malaria as quinine ; cinchonidine has about
two-thLrdi the power of quinine, and cinchonine less than one-half.
CINCINNATI, a city and the county-seat of Hamilton county,
Ohio, U.S-A., on the Ohio river, opposite the mouth of the
Licking, about 100 m. S.W. of Columbus, about 305 m. by rail
S E.of Chicago, and about 760 m. (by rail) W.S.W.of New York.
Through the city flows Mill Creek, which empties into the Ohio.
Pop. (tSoa 1 ) 206,008 ;" (1000) 325,002, of whom 197,896 were of
foreign parentage (*'.«. either their fathers or mothers or both
were foreign-born), 57,961 were foreign-born, and 14.482 were
negroes; (xgio) 363,591. The German is by far the most
important of the foreign elements. In addition to the large
number of inhabitants of German descent, there were, in 1900,
107,157 of German parentage, and of the foreign-bom 38,2x9
came from Germany.
Cincinnati b situated on the N. aide of the river upon two
terraces or plateau*— the first about 60 ft., the second from
loo to 150 ft, above low water— and upon lulls which enclose
these terraces on three sides hi the form of an amphitheatre,
rising to a height of about 400 ft on the £. and of about
460 ft, on the W., and commanding magnificent views of the
river, the valley, the numerous suburbs, and the more distant
wooded hi Ha. About half of the hill-enclosed plain lies S. of
the river, and it is upon this southern half that Covington,
Newport, Dayton, Ludlow and other Kentucky suburbs of
Ctadnna tTare situated. Cincinnati has a river-frontage of abou t
14 nv, extends back about 6 m. on the W. side in the valley of
ym Creek, and occupies a Jotal area of about 44 sq. m. Since
lift it has been connected with Covington by a wire suspension
teidfe designed by John A. Rocbling, and rebuilt and enlarged
^ till* Tins bridge is 1057 ft. long between towers (or, including
• tfe approaches, 2252 ft. long), with a height of 101 ft. above
■■" l* valet, ind has a double wagon road and two ways for
__ By two bridges there is direc t communicat ion wi th
■ by one, that of the Cincinnati Southern railway, with
.'ibA by one (Chesapeake & Ohio; sec vol. v., p. 109)
, . - jw^M reports of the total population were as follows:
r 1 jJateSs'So; l**fl ^ i l8 ? 0) f 4,8 * ,s , ( O oH 0) 46,338: J ,8 ^>
C****i *%bJ\ 161.044-. O870) 216,239: (1880) 225.139. In the
fT*» ^jy. Yggl fc radius ot 10 m. of the United States government
£, 1 ^^S^ tSJoassVn 1900 a population of about 480,000.
CINCINNATI
37»
with West Covington. On the terraces the streets generally
intersect at right angles, but on the hills their directions arc
irregular. To the " bottoms " (which have suffered much from
floods') between Third Street and the river the manufacturing
and wholesale districts arc for the most part confined, although
many of these interests are now on the higher levels or in the
suburbs; the principal retail houses are on the higher levels
N. of Third Street, and the handsomest residences are on the
picturesque hills before mentioned, in those parts of the city,
formerly separate villages, known as Avondale, Mt Auburn,
Clifton, Price Hill, Walnut Hills and Mt. Lookout The main
part of the city is connected with these residential districts by
electric street railways, whose routes include four inclined-plane
railways, namely, Mt. Adams (268 ft. elevation), Bcllevue (300
ft.), Fairvicw (210 ft.) and Price Hill (350 ft.), from each of which
an excellent panoramic view of the city and suburbs may be
obtained. There are various suburbs, chiefly residential, in the
Mill Creek valley, among them being Carthage, Hartwcll,
Wyoming, Lockland and Glendalc. Other populous and attrac-
tive suburbs N. of the Ohio river are Norwood and College
ilill.
Buildings, ore— Brick, blue limestone, and a greyish buff
freestone are the most common building materials, and the city
has various buildings of much architectural merit. The chamber
of commerce (completed 1889), designed by II. H. Richardson,
it one of the finest public buildings in the United States. Its
walls are of undressed granite, and it occupies a ground area of
100 by 1 50 ft. The U nited States government building (designed
by A. B. Mullet, and built of Maine and Missouri granite) is a
fine structure in classic style, 360 ft. long and 160 ft. wide, and
4} storeys high; its outer walls arc faced with sawn freestone.
It was erected in 1874-1S85 and cost (including the land)
$5,250,000. The city hall (332 ft. by 203 ft.), with walls of
ltd granite and brown sandstone, is a massive and handsome
building erected at a cost of Si, 600,000. The county court
house (rebuilt in 1887) is in the Romanesque style, and with
the gaol attached occupies an entire square. The Cincinnati
hospital (completed 1869), comprising eight buildings grouped
about a central court and connected by corridors, occupies a
square of four acres. A new public hospital for the suburbs was
projected in 1907. St Peter's (Roman Catholic) cathedral (begun
1839, consecrated 1844), Grecian in style, is a fine structure,
with a graceful stone spire 224 ft. in height and a chime of 13
betts; it has as an altar-piece Murillo's " St Peter Liberated by
an Angel." The church of St Francis dc Sales (in Walnut Hills),
built in 1888, has a bell, cast in Cincinnati, weighing fifteen
tons, and said to be the largest swinging bell in the world.
Several of the Protestant churches, such as the First Presbyterian
(built 1835; steeple, including spire, 285 ft. high), Second
Presbyterian (1872), Central Christian (1869), St Paul's Methodist
Episcopal (1870), and St Paul's Protestant Episcopal pro-
cathedral ( 1 85 1 ), are also worthy of mention, and in the residential
suburbs there arc many fine churches. Cincinnati is the scat
of a Roman Catholic archbishopric and a Protestant Episcopal
and Methodist Episcopal bishopric. The Masonic temple (195 ft.
long and 100 ft. wide), in the Byzantine style, is four storeys
high, and has two towers of 140 ft.; the building was completed
jn 1S60 and has subsequently been remodelled. Among other
prominent buildings are the Oddfellows' temple (completed
1804), the public library, the art museum (1886), a Jewish
synagogue (in Avondale), and the (Jewish) Plum Street temple
(1866), Moorish in architecture. The Soldiers', Sailors' and
Pioneers' building (1007) is a beautiful structure, classic in
design. The business houses arc of stone or brick, and many of
them arc attractive architecturally; there are a number of
modern office buildings from 1 5 to 20 storeys in height. There
are also several large hotels and ten theatres (besides halls and
i riums for concerts and public gatherings), the most
being Springer music hall.
4 he most destructive floods have been those of 1832, 1847. 1883,
004 and 1907; the hirhest st.-»j;e of the water before 1904 was
71 ft. 1 in. in 1884, the lowest 1 L. 11 in. in 18S1.
One of the most noted pieces of monumental art in the United
States is the beautiful Tyler Davidson bronze fountain in
Fountain Square (Fifth Street, between Walnut and Vine
streets), the business centre of the city, by which (or within one
block of which) all car lines run. The fountain was unveiled in
187 1 and was presented to the city by Henry Probasco (1820-
1902), a wealthy citizen, who named it in honour of his deceased
brother-in-law and business partner, Mr Tyler Davidson. The
design, by August von Kreling (1810-1876), embraces fifteen
bronze figures, all cast at the royal bronze foundry in Munich,
the chief being a female figure with outstretched arms, from
whose fingers the water falls in a fine spray. This figure reaches
a height of 45 ft. above the ground. The city has, besides,
monuments to the memory of Presidents Harrison and Garfield
(both in Garfield Place, the former an equestrian statue by
Louis T. Rcbisso, and the latter by Charles H. Nichaus) ; also,
in Spring Grove cemetery, a monument to the memory of the
Ohio volunteers who lost their lives in the Civil War. The art
museum, in Eden Park, contains paintings by celebrated Euro-
pean and American artists, statuary, engravings, etchings,
metal work, wood carving, textile fabrics, pottery, and an ex-
cellent collection in American ethnology and archaeology. The
Cincinnati Society of Natural History (incorporated 1870) has a
large library and a museum containing a valuable palaeontological
collection, and bones and implements from the prehistoric
cemetery of the mound-builders, at Madisonville, Ohio.
Parks. — In xooS Cincinnati had parks covering about 540
acres; there arc numerous pleasant driveways both within the
city limits and in the suburban districts, and several attractive
resorts are within easy reach. Eden Park, of 214 acres, on Mount
Adams, about x m. E. of the business centre and near the river,
is noted for its natural beauty, greatly supplemented by the
landscape-gardener's skill, and for its commanding views. The
ground was originally the property of Nicholas Longworth (178a-
1863), a wealthy citizen and well-known horticulturist, who
here grew the grapes from which the Catawba wine, introduced
by him in 1828, was made. The park contains the art museum
and the art academy. Its gateway, Elsinore, is a medieval
reproduction; other prominent features arc the reservoirs,
which resemble natural lakes, and a high water tower, from
which there is a delightful view. In Burnet Woods Park, lying
to the N.E. of Eden and containing about 163 acres, are the
buildings and groundsof the University of Cincinnati, and a lake
for boating and skating. The zoological gardens occupy 60
acres and contain a notable collection of animals and birds.
Other pleasure resorts arc the Lagoon on the Kentucky side (in
Ludlow, Ky.), Chester Park, about 6 m. N. of the business centre,
and Coney Island, about 10 m. up the river on the Ohio side.
Washington (56 acres), Lincoln (10 acres), Garfield and Hopkins
are small parks in the city. In 1907 an extensive system of
new parks, parkways and boulevards was projected. Spring
Grove cemetery, about 6 m. N.W. of Fountain Square, contains
600 acres picturesquely laid out on the park plan. It contains
many handsome monuments and private mausoleums, and a
beautiful mortuary chapel in the Norman style.
Watcr-Suppiy. — A new and greatly improved water-supply
system for the city was virtually completed in 1907. This
provides for taking water from the Ohio river at a point on the
Kentucky side opposite the villageof California, Ohio, and several
miles above the discharge of the city sewers; for the carrying
of the water by a gravity tunnel under the river to the Ohio side,
the water being thence elevated by four great pumping engines,
each having a daily capacity of 30,000,000 gallons, to settling
basins, being then passed through filters of the American or
mechanical type, and flowing thence by a gravity tunnel more
than 4 m. long to the main pumping station, on the bank of
the river, within the city; and for the pumping of the water
thence, a part directly into the distributing pipes and a part to
the principal storage reservoir in Eden Park.
Education. — Cincinnati is an important educational centre.
The University of Cincinnati, originally endowed by Charles
M'Micken (d 185S) and opened in 1873, occupies a number of
372
CINCINNATI
handsome buildings erected since 1805 on a campus of 43 acres
in Burnet Woods Park, has an astronomical observatory on the
highest point of Mt. Lookout, and is the only strictly municipal
university in the United States. The institution embraces a
college of liberal arts, a college of engineering, a college of law
(united in 1897 with the law school of Cincinnati College, then
the only surviving department of that college, which was founded
as Lancaster Seminary in 181 5 and was chartered as Cincinnati
College in 1819), a college of medicine (from 1819 to 1896 the
Medical College of Ohio; the college occupies the site of the old
M'Micken homestead), a college for teachers, a graduate school,
and a technical school (founded in 1886 and transferred to the
university in 1901); while closely affiliated with it are the
Clinical and Pathological School of Cincinnati and the Ohio
College of Dentistry. With the exception of small fees charged
for incidental expenses, the university is free to all students
who are residents of the city; others pay $75 a year for tuition.
It is maintained in part by the city, through public taxation,
and in part by the income from endowment funds given by
Charles M'Micken, Matthew Thorns, David Sin ton and others.
The government of the university is entrusted mainly to a
board of nine directors appointed by the mayor. In 1009 it
had a faculty of 144 and 1364 students. Lane Theological
Seminary is situated in Walnut Hills, in the north-eastern part
of the city; it was endowed by Ebenezer Lane and the Kemper
family; was founded in 1829 for the training of Presbyterian
ministers; had for its first president (1832-1852) Lyman
Beecher; and in 1834 was the scene of a bitter contest between
abolitionists in the faculty and among the students, led by
Theodore Dwight Weld, and the board of trustees, who forbade
the discussion of slavery in the seminary and so caused about
four-fifths of the students to leave, most of them going to Oberlin
College. The city has also Saint Francis Xavier College (Roman
Catholic, established in 1831 and until 1840 known as the
Athenaeum); Saint Joseph College (Roman Catholic, 1873);
Mount St Mary's of the West Seminary (Roman Catholic, theo-
logical, 1848, at Cedar Point, Ohio); Hebrew Union College
(1875), the leading institution in the United States for educating
rabbis; the largely attended Ohio Mechanics' Institute (founded
1828), a private corporation not conducted for profit, its object
being the education of skilled workmen, the training of industrial
leaders, and the advancement of the mechanic arts (in 1007
there were in all departments 1421 students, a large majority of
whom were in the evening classes); an excellent art academy,
modelled after that of South Kensington; the College of Music
and the Conservatory of Music (mentioned below); the Miami
Medical College (opened in 1852); the Pulte Medical College
(homeopathic; coeducational; opened 1872); the Eclectic
Medical Institute (chartered 1845); two women's medical
colleges, two colleges of dental surgery, a college of pharmacy,
and several business colleges. The public, district, and high
schools of the city are excellent. The City (or public) library
contained in 1006 301,380 vols, and 57,562 pamphlets; the
University library (including medical, law and astronomical
branches), 80,000 vols, (including the Robert Clarke collection,
rich in Americana, and the library — about 5000 vols. — of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science); the
Young Men's Mercantile library, 70,000 vols.; and the Law
library, 35,000 vols.; in addition, the Lloyd library and
museum of botany and pharmacy, and the library of the His-
torical and Philosophical Society of Ohio (1831), which contains
a valuable collection of rare books, pamphlets and manuscripts,
are worthy of mention.
Art, crc— The large German population makes the city note-
worthy for its music. The first Sangerfest was held in Cincinnati
in 1849, and it met here again in 1870, when a new hall was built
for its accommodation. Under the leadership of Theodore
Thomas (1835-1005), the Cincinnati Musical Festival Association
was incorporated, and the first of its biennial May festivals was
held in 1873. In 1875-1878 was built the large Springer music
hall, named in honour of Reuben R. Springer (1800-1884),
its greatest benefactor, who endowed the Cincinnati College of
Music (incorporated in 1878), of which Thomas was director in
1878-1881. Until his death Thomas was director of the May
festivals also. The grounds for the music hall were given by the
city and are perpetually exempt from taxation. The great organ
in the music hall was dedicated at the third of the May festivals
in 1878. The Sangerfest met in Cincinnati for the third time in
1879, and its jubilee was held here in 1899. By 1880 the May
festival chorus had become a permanent organization. The city
has several other musical societies — the Apollo and Orpheus
clubs (1881 and 1893), a Liederkranz (18S6), and a United
Singing Society (1806) being among the more prominent; and
there are two schools of music— the Conservatory of Music ajjd
the College of Music
The city has large publishing interests, and various religiouH
(Methodist Episcopal and Roman Catholic) and fraternal
periodicals, and several technical journals and trade papers are
published here. The principal daily newspapers are t he Enquirer,
a Democratic journal, established in 1842 and conducted for
many years after 1852 by Washington McLean (1 816- 1890),
and then by his son, John Roll McLean (b. 1848) ; the Commercial
Tribune (Republican; previously the Commercial-Gazette and
still earlier the Commercial, founded in 1793, The Tribune being
merged with it in 1896), the Times-Star (the Times established
in 1836), and the Post, established in 188 1 (both evening papers);
and several influential German journals, including the VolksblaU
(Republican; established 1836), and the Volksjreund (Demo-
cratic; established 1850).
Among the social clubs of the city are the Queen City Club,
organized in 1874; the Phoenix Club, organize^ in 1856 and the
leading Jewish club in the city; the Cuvier Club, organized in
1871 and originally an association of hunters and anglers for the
preservation of game and fish; the Cincinnati Club, the Business
Men's Club, the University Club, the Art Club, and the Literary
Club, of the last of which many prominent men, including
President Hayes, have been members. This club dates from
1849, and is said to be the oldest literary club in the country.
There are various commercial and trade organizations, the oldest
and most influential being the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce
and Merchants' Exchange, which dates from 1839.
Administration. — The city is governed under the municipal
code enacted by the state legislature in 1902, for the provisions
of which see Ohio.
Among the institutions are the City infirmary (at Hartwell, a
suburb), which, besides supporting pauper inmates, affords relief
to outdoor poor; the Cincinnati hospital, which is supported
by taxation and treats without charge all who arc unable to pay;
twenty other hospitals, some of which are charitable institutions;
a United States marine hospital; the Longview hospital for the
insane, at Carthage, 10 m. from the city, and belonging to
Hamilton county, whose population consists largely of the
inhabitants of Cincinnati; an insane asylum for negroes; six
orphan asylums — the Cincinnati, two Protestant, two Roman
Catholic, and one for negroes; a home for incurables; a day
nursery; a fresh-air home and farm for poor children; the
Franciscan Brothers' Protectory for boys; a children's home;
two widows' homes; two old men's homes; several homes for
indigent and friendless women; a foundling asylum; the
rescue mission and home for erring women; a social settlement
conducted by the University of Cincinnati; the house of refuge
(1850) for " the reformation and education of homeless and
incorrigible children under 16 years of age "; and a workhouse
for adults convicted of minor offences.
Communications. — Cincinnati is a railway centre of great im-
portance and has an extensive commerce both by rail and by
river. It is served by the following railways: the Pittsburg,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania system) , the Cleve-
land, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (New York Central system),
the Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville, the Cincinnati, New
Orleans & Texas Pacific (the lessee of the Cincinnati Southern
railway, 1 connecting Cincinnati and Chattanooga, Tenn., its line
1 The Cincinnati Southern railway is of especial interest in that it
was built by the city of Cincinnati in it* corporate capacity. Much
CINCINNATI
373
j put of the so-called Queen & Crescent Route to New
Orleans), the Erie, the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western (Balti-
more ft Ohio system), the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Norfolk &
Western, the Louisville & Nashville, the Cincinnati, Hamilton &
Dayton, the Cincinnati Northern (New York Central system),
the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania system),
and the Cincinnati, Lebanon & Northern (Pennsylvania system).
Host of these railways use the Union Station; the Pennsylvania
and the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, have separate stations.
The city's river commerce, though of less relative importance
since the advent of railways, is large and brings to its wharves
much bulky freight, such as coal, iron and lumber; it also helps
to distribute the products of the city's factories; and the National
government has done much to sustain this commerce by deepen-
ing and lighting the channel. Formerly there was considerable
commerce with Lake Eric by way of the Miami & Erie Canal to
Toledo; the canal was completed in 1830 and has never been
entirely abandoned.
Industries.— Although the second dty in population in the
state, Cincinnati ranked first in 1000 as a manufacturing centre,
but lost this pre-eminence to Cleveland in 1005, when the vuluc
of Cincinnati's factory product was $166,059,050, an increase of
17-2 % over the figures for 1000. In the manufacture of vehicles,
harness, leather, hardwood lumber, wood- working machinery,
machine tools, printing ink, soap, pig-iron, malt liquors, whisky,
shoes, clothing, cigars and tobacco, furniture, cooperage goods,
iron and steel safes and vaults, and pianos, also in the packing
of meat, especially pork, 1 it ranks very high among the cities
of the Union. The well-known and beautiful Rookwood ware
has been made in Cincinnati since 1880, at the Rookwood Pottery
(on Mt. Adams), founded by Mrs Bellamy (Maria Longworth)
Storer, named from her father's home near the city, the first
American pottery to devote exclusive attention to art ware.
The earlier wares were yellow, brown and red; then came deep
greens and blues, followed by mat glazes and by " vellum "
ware (first exhibited in 1904), a lustreless pottery, resembling
old parchment, with its decoration painted or modelled or both.
The clays used arc exclusively American, much being obtained
in Missouri Among the more important manufactures of the
city in 1005 were the following, with the value of the product for
that year: clothing ($16,972,484), slaughtering and meat-
packing products ($13,446,202), foundry and machine-shop
products ($11,528,768), boots and shoes ($10,506,928), distilled
liquors ($9,609,826), malt liquors ($7,702,693), and carriages
and wagons ($6,323,803).*
History. — Cincinnati was founded by some of the first settlers
in that part of the North- West Territory which afterwards became
the state of Ohio. It lies 'on part of the land purchased for
himself and others by John Cleves Symmes (1742-1814) from the
United States government in 1788, and the settlement was estab-
lished near the close of the same year by immigrants chiefly
from New Jersey and Kentucky. When the town was laid out
early in 1 789, John Filson, one of the founders, named it Losanti-
of the city's trade had always been with the Southern states, and the
urgent need of better facilities for this trade than the river and
existing railway lines afforded led to the building of this road by
the dty. The work was carried on under the direction of a board of
five trustees appointed by the superior court of Cincinnati in accord-
ance with the so-called Ferguson Act passed by the Ohio legislature
in 1869, and the railway was completed to Chattanooga in February
188a For accounts of the building and the management of the
railway, see I. H. Hollander, The Cincinnati Southern Railway;
A Study in Municipal Activity (Baltimore, 1894), one of the Johns
Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science;
and The Founding of the Cincinnati Southern Railway, with an Auto-
biographical Sketch by B. A. Ferguson (Cincinnati, 1005).
» Before 1863 Cincinnati was the principal centre in the United
States for the slaughtering of hogs and the packing of pork. The
industry began as early as 1830 and rapidly increased in importance,
but after 1863 Chicago took the lead.
1 These figures are from the U.S. census, and are of course for
Gncinnati proper: some of the largest industrial establishments,
however, are just outside the city limits — among these are manu-
factories of soap (the Ivory Soap Works), machine tools, electrical
machinery and appliances, structural and architectural iron work,
and office furnishings.
ville (L for Licking; os, Latin for mouth; anli, Greek for
opposite; and ville, French for town), but early in the next year
Symmes caused the present name to be substituted in honour of
the Order of the Cincinnati, General Arthur St Clair, the governor
of the North- West Territory, being then president of the Pennsyl-
vania State Society of the Cincinnati. St Clair arrived about (he
time the change in name was made, immediately erected Hamilton
County, and made Cincinnati its seat of government; the
territorial legislature also held its sessions here from the time of
its first organisation in 1709 until 1802, when it removed to
Chillicotbe. During the early years the Indians threatened the
life of the settlement, and in 1789 Fort Washington, a log building
for protection against the Indians, was built in the dty; General
Josiah Harmar, in 1700, and General St Clair, in 1791. made
unsuccessful expeditions against them, and the alarm .increased
until 1794, when General Wayne won a decisive victory over the
savages at Maumee Rapids in the battle of Fallen Timbers, after
which he secured their consent to the terms of the treaty of
Greenville (2705). Cincinnati was incorporated as a village in
iSoj, received a second charter in 2815, was chartered as a city
in 1S19, and received its second city charter in 1827 and its third
in 1832; since 2851 it has been governed nominally by general
laws of the state, although by the state's method of classifying
cities many acts for its government have been in reality special
When first incorporated its limits were confined to an area of
3 sq. m., but by annexations in 1849 and 1850 this area was
doubled; in 1854 another square mile was added; in 1869 and
1S70 large additions were made, which included the villages of
Sedamsville, Price Hill, Walnut Hills, Mount Auburn, Clinton-
ville, Corryville, Vernon, Mount Harrison, Barrsville, Fainnount,
West Fainnount, St Peters, Lick Run and Clifton Heights; in
1872 Columbia, which was settled a short time before Cincinnati,
was added, in 1873 Cumminsville and Woodburn; in 1895
Avondale, Riverside, Clifton, Lin wood and West wood; in 2903
Bond Hill, Winton Place, Hyde Park and Evans ton; in 2904
portions of Mill Creek township, and in 2905 a small tract in
Mill Creek Valley.
In 2829 Mrs Frances Trollopc established in Cincinnati, where
she lived for a part of two years, a " Bazar," which as the
principal means of carrying out her plan to benefit the town was
entirely unsuccessful; a vivid but scarcely unbiassed picture of
Cincinnati in the early thirties is to be found in her Domestic
Manners of the Americans (2832). In 284s began the marked
influx of Germans, which lasted in large degree up to 2860; they
first limited themselves to the district " Over the Rhine " (the
Rhine being the Miami & Erie Canal), in the angle north-east
of the junction of Canal and Sycamore streets, but gradually
spread throughout the city, although this " Over the Rhine " is
still most typically German.
For more than ten years preceding the Civil War the city
was much disturbed by slavery dissension — the industrial
interests were largely with the South, but abolitionists were
numerous and active, and the city was an important station on
the " Underground Railroad/' of which Dr Norton S. Townshend
(2825-95) was conductor, and one of the stations was the home
of Mrs. Harriet Bcecher Stowe, who lived in Cincinnati from 283a
to 2850, and gathered there much material embodied in Uncle
Tom's Cabin. In 2834 came the Lane Seminary controversies
over slavery previously referred to. In 2835 James G. Birney
established here his anti-slavery journal, The Philanthropist, but
bis printing shops were repeatedly mobbed and his presses
destroyed,, and in January of 2836 his bold speech before a mob
gathered at the court-bouse was the only thing that saved him
from personal violence, as the city authorities had warned him
that they had not sufficient force to protect him.
At the time of the Civil War the city was strongly in sympathy
with the North. In September 2862 the dty was threatened
by a Confederate force under General Kirby Smith, who led
the advance of General Bragg's army (see American Civil Was).
On the 28th of March 2884 many of the citizens met at Music
Hall to protest against the lax way in which the law was enforced,
notably in the case of a recent murder, when the confessed
•4
CESCESNATUS— CINEMATOGRAPH
i*^c was x*a«4e sa tie gh'i ry rbs !^Vj=
. -yit wis *irlt — tae as — jci. *arjg
^*cr*jca •; *".-.. * — '- »« Is is ^:c-j r:
'-""W.-aiMse tie =nc wis
:*« "»ia 5r~i by tie =nc rac md
xai jxsj hk pn ami
« macs
-7*zl'-<~s &n» set fs Csd:
-arm-ie -JX.-T— ±c rf : I f£ .tie a'ira' T.**n^Ragu£acaa
-.-•slice cf : 5-2 ti- ~j->»m* Rerciiaoa ■ ■■■: «— ,-r* cf r 5"^*
I tic ZAZkxal Deaocnzx .. ' J-g- scg « :S5c— *y wski.
*eC.T.'>ei- Cgearrraf JKb.it a* Ch
rsems rj^nfi. iy^t . tie -.^a:
i^u jccperti <rf the Ciaesaati Ch*=£er of
nKXnATQB, 1 LUCIUS QUDFCTTUS -"h. r. 5:9 »x.\ cae of 1
heroes of earfy Rose, a =»5el cf ok! Roots rrrae aad
■piicty- A persists: c?fcac=t cf lie pac V-a-tt . he resisted
proposal of Terer.tHia Ana 'cr Ham* tc drxw -j? a code of .
tten iaws applicable ec-=aSy to patrica=s aad ciebeiaas. He
» is bumble gin ■■- i«»-»»« aad Eved »=d wcrked co bis cm
all farm. The story tiat be ^^^ c puma bed by pay=g
ne incurred by his soz Caeso is an attempt to cipoi^ tie aeedy
lilioa of to distirg~sh*d a cao. Twice be was caSed fecza
: pfcwfh to the dictatorship of Rome in 45? aad 439- Is 45?
defeated the Aeqxarj in a sisgfe day, a=d after esterizsg
me in triumph with large spoils returned to his Cite- Tbe
n of ms success, related five times ur.dcr five <L£erect years,
i«My rests on an historical basis, but the £ccoc=t gxreaia Vxy
tbe achievements of the Roman army is obvicusly incredible.
« Livy ffi. 26-29: Dion. Ha!sc x. 23-25: Flcrua. L 11. For a
^examination of the story see Schwcvlcr. R:mii:te Geschichu.
xxvui 12; Sir C. Cornewall Lewis. Credibility c' esrly Reman
tgj. ch. xu. 40: W. Ihne, History tf Rome, i.; E. Pais. S*ri*
X™** «• ch. 4 (1898). ,
HHDERELLA ( f -^ mJ^ dlldcr pr i) > ^ heroine of an almost
'y^'^wy-tale. Its essential features are (1) the persecuted
™«n *bose youth and beauty bring upon her the jealousy
her step-mother and sisters, (2) the intervention of a fairy or
[«• supernatural instrument on her behalf, (3) the prince who
U in love with and marries her. In the English version, a
inslation of Perrault's Ccndrillon, the glass slipper which she
>ps on the palace stairs is due to a mistranslation of pankmjle
voir fa fur slipper) , mistaken for en Krre. It has been suggested
at the story originated in a nature-myth, Cinderella being
e dawn, oppressed by the night-douds (cruel relatives) and
^/rescued by the sun (prince).
^! .,!?£ n ***** Co «. Cinderella; Three Hundred and Forty-fire
vunlM (1893); A Ung, Perrault's Popular Tale* (i883).
9 NRAf • * Thessalian, the chief adviser of Pyrrhus, king of
>irus. He studied oratory in Athens, and was regarded as the
ost eloquent man of his age. He tried to dissuade Pyrrhus
am invading Italy, and after the defeat of the Romans at
eraclca (280 b.c.) was sent to Rome to discuss terms of peace,
hesc terms, which are said by Appian (De Rebus Samnitkis,
>, 11) to have included the freedom of the Greeks in Italy
id the restoration to the Bruttians, Apulians and Samnites of
1 that had been taken from them, were rejected chiefly through
ic vehement and patriotic speech of the aged Appius Claudius
» ecu » tf* censor. The withdrawal of Pyrrhus from Italy was
►manded, and Cincas returned to his master with the report
iat Rome was a temple and its senate an assembly of kings,
wo years later Cincas was sent to renew negotiations with
omc on easier terms. The result was a cessation of hostilities,
ad Cineas crossed over to Sicily, to prepare the ground for
yrrhus's campaign. Nothing more is heard of him. He is
lid to have made an epitome of the Taclica of Aeneas, probably
rferrcd to by Cicero, who speaks of a Cincas as the author of a
realise De Re Militari.
l /.«.thc ,, curly.halred."
ii-m: Jwstiaxvfia. a; EutropiusiL 12:
cr fjnxaroaarB(froiB ctnrjia, motion,
» aepict. . am app arafs m which a series of views
oDoe^r saacssrrepsases of a moving object are
eaiiicaf a npai s eq-aeaoc, grog a picture which, owing to
ce «Et i'Smb. m>raii to the observes* to be in continuous
I: xx «r>«kcjsKalof the aoetrope or M wheel of life,"
Yw W. G. Hxmer about 1S33, ^hich consists of a
en a vertical axis and having its surface
Tuzrsd *-:ii a nssher cf slots. Rouad the interior is arranged
a«a3apktxrrsrtycr»c rk c %acc i iM» csUge3c4sucha5ubject
as x gaSccng horst xad whea the cybflder is rotated an observer
kefr'-g ^rjqejk one of the siots sees the horse apparently in
Tie pKrsres wise at fast drawn by hand, but photo-
pi£&y was afaxwards a^ied to their production. E. Muy-
he>3fe ab««x iSr? ohcaiaed auctuan* pictures of a running
facrse by es^kcyisg a tew of caaxns, the shutters of which
we=e opeaed a=*i oased ekctricaSy by the passage of the horse
£a £rcc: of then, aad ia 1SS3 E. J. Marcy of Paris esUblished
a s^afso jer isrestieaiiag the ssotioa of **i-«*h b> <im;i»
pfco t iifXAp Lx -r*V > -H
The saodera cocsaatograph was imd e i e d possible by the
icvecSca of the ce3cieid roil fim (esp&oyed by Marey in 1800),
on which the serial pictures axe impressed by instantaneous
photoaraphy, a kc^ se»tiaed aM beisg caoved across the focal
pSaae cf a camera and exp o se d intermittently. In one apparatus
for r-jrHTg the exposures a cam jerks the aha across tbe field
ooce for each picture, the slack being gathered in on a drum
at a ceastaat rate. In another four lenses are rotated so as to
pre fear images for each rotation, the aim travelling so as to
present a new portion in the neM as neb lens conies in place.
Sixteen to fifty pictures nay be taken per second. Tbe films
are developed on large drums, within which a ruby electric
light may be fixed to enable the process to be watched. A
positive is made from the negative thus obtained, and is passed
through an optical lantern, the images being thus successively
projected through an objective lens upon a distant screen.
For an hour's exhibition 50,000 to 165,000 pictures are needed.
To regulate the feed ia the lantern a hole is punched in the film
for each picture. These holes must be extremely accurate in
position; when they wear the feed becomes irregular, and the
picture dances or vibrates in an unpleasant manner. Another
method of exhibiting cinematographic effects is to bind the
pictures together in book form by one edge, and then release
them from the other in rapid succession by means of the thumb
or some mechanical device as the book is bent backwards. In
this case the subject is viewed, not by projection, but directly,
either with the unaided eye or through a magnifying glass.
Cinematograph films produced by ordinary photographic
processes, being in black and white only, fail to reproduce the
colouring of the subjects they represent. To some extent this
defect has been remedied by painting them by hand, but this
method is too expensive for general adoption, and moreover
does not yield very satisfactory results. Attempts to adapt
three-colour photography, by using simultaneously three films,
each with a source of light of appropriate colour, and combining
the three images on the screen, have toovercome great difficulties
in regard to maintenance of register, because very minute errors
of adjustment between the pictures on the films are magnified
to an intolerable extent by projection. In a process devised by
G. A. Smith, tbe results of which were exhibited at the Society
of Arts, London, in December 1008, the number of colour records
was reduced to two. The films were specially treated to increase
their sensitiveness to red. The photographs were taken through
two colour niters alternately interposed in front of the film;
both admitted white and yellow, but one, of red, was in addition
specially concerned with the orange and red of the subject, and
the other, of blue-green, with the green, blue-green, blue and
violet. The camera was arranged to take not less than 16
pictures a second through each filter, or 3a a second in all. The
positive transparency made from the negative thus obtained
CINERARIA- CINNA
375
was used in a lantern so arranged that beams of red (composed
of crimson and yellow) and of green (composed of yellow and
Use) issued from the lens alternately, the mechanism presenting
the pictures made with the red filter to the red beam, and those
■tde with the green filter to the green beam. A supplementary
■sorter was provided to introduce violet and blue, to compensate
for the deficiency in those colours caused by the necessity of
cutting them out in the camera owing to the over-sensitiveness
of the film to them, and the result was that the successive pic-
tures, blending on the screen by persistence of vision, gave a
reproduction of the scene photographed in colours which were
sensibly the same as those of the original.
The cinematograph enables "living" or "animated pictures"
of such subjects as an army on the march, or an express train
at full speed, to be presented with marvellous distinctness
and completeness of detail. Machines of this kind have been
devised in enormous numbers and used for purposes of amuse-
ment under names (bioscope, biograph, kinetoscope, mutograph,
fcc) formed chiefly from combinations of Greek and Latin words
for life, movement, change, &c, with suffixes taken from such
words as onowtiv, to see, yfAfatv, to depict; they have also
been combined with phonographic apparatus, so that, for
example, the music of a dance and the motions of the dancer
are simultaneously reproduced to ear and eye. But when they
are used in public places of entertainment, owing to the extreme
ioflammability of the celluloid film and its employment in close
proximity to a powerful source of light and heat, such as is
required if the pictures are to show brightly on the screen,
precautions must be taken to prevent, as far as possible, the beat
rays from reaching it, and effective means must be provided
to extinguish it should it take fire. The production of films
composed of non-inflammable material has also engaged the
attention of inventors.
See H. V. Hopwood, Living Pictures (London, 1899), containing
J bibliography and a digest of the British patents, which is supple-
aiented in the Optician, vol. xviii. p. 85; Eugene Trutat, La Photo-
Eft
_ w \ie animie (1899), which contains a list of the French patents.
*or the camera see also Photography: Apparatus.
CINERARIA. The garden plants of this name have originated
from a species of Senccio, S. crucntus (nat. ord. Compositae), a
native of the Canary Isles, introduced to the royal gardens at
Kew in 1777. It was known originally as Cineraria crucnia,
but the genus Cineraria is now restricted to a group of South
African species, and the Canary Island species has been trans-
ferred to the large and widespread genus Senccio. Cinerarias can
be raised freely from seeds. For spring flowering in England the
seeds are sown in April or May in well-drained pots or pans, in
soil of three parts loam to two parts leaf-mould, with one-sixth
sand; cover the seed thinly with fine soil, and press the surface
firm. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, prick them
out in pans or pots of similar soil, and when more advanced pot
them singly in 4-in. pots, using soil a trifle less sandy. They
should be grown in shallow frames facing the north, and, if so
situated that the sun shines upon the plants in the middle of the
day, they must be slightly shaded; give plenty of air, and never
allow them to get dry. When well established with roots, shift
them into 6-in. pots, which should be liberally supplied with
manure water as they get filled with roots. In winter remove
to a pit or house, where a little heat can be supplied whenever
there is a risk of their getting frozen. They should stand on a
moist bottom, but must not be subjected to cold draughts.
When the flowering stems appear, give manure water at every
alternate watering. Seeds sown in March, and grown ori in this
way, will be in bloom by Christmas if kept in a temperature of
from 40 to 45 at night, with a little more warmth in the day;
and those sown in April and May will succeed them during the
early spring months, the latter set of plants being subjected to a
temperature of 38 or 40 during the night. If grown much
warmer than this, the Cineraria maggot will make its appearance
in the leaves, tunnelling its way between the upper and lower
surfaces and making whitish irregular markings all over. Such
affected leaves must be picked off and burned. Green fly is a
great p<-st on young plants, and can only be kept down by
fumigating or vapoiizing the houses, and syringing with a solu-
tion of quassia chips, soft soap and tobacco.
CINGOU (anc CingtdMm), a town of the Marches, Italy, in the
province of Macerata, about 14 m* N.W. direct, and 17 m. by
road, from the town of Macerata. Pop. (1901) 13,357. The
Gothic church of S. Esuperanxio contains interesting works of
art. The town occupies the site of the ancient Cingulum, a
town of Picenum, founded and strongly fortified by Caesar's
lieutenant T. Labienus (probably on the site of an earlier village)
in 63 B.C. at his own expense. Its lofty position (2300 ft) made
it of some importance in the civil wars, but otherwise little is
heard of it. Under the empire it was a municipium.
CINNA, a Roman patrician family of the gens Cornelia. The
most prominent member was Lucius Cornelius Cinna, a
supporter of Marius in his contest with Sulla. After serving in
the war with the Marsi as praetorian legate, he was elected
consul in 87 B.C. Breaking the oath he had sworn to Sulla that
he would not attempt any revolution in the state, Cinna allied
himself with Marius, raised an army of Italians, and took posses-
sion of the ci^y. Soon after his triumphant entry and the
massacre of the friends of Sulla, by which he had satisfied his
vengeance, Marius died. L. Valerius Flaccus became Cinna's
colleague, and on the murder of Flaccus, Cn. Papirius Carbo.
In 84, however, Cinna, who was still consul, was forced to advance
against Sulla; but while embarking his troops to meet him in
Thessaly, he was killed in a mutiny. His daughter Cornelia was
the wife of Julius Caesar, the dictator; but his son, L. Cornelius
Cinna, praetor in 44 B.C., nevertheless sided with the murderers
of Caesar and publicly extolled their action.
The hero of Corneille's tragedy Cinna (1640) was Cn. Cornelius
Cinna, sumamed Magnus (after his maternal grandfather
Pompcy), who was magnanimously pardoned by Augustus for
conspiring against him.
CINNA, OAIUS HELVIUS, Roman poet of the later Ciceronian
age. Practically nothing is known of his life except that he was
the friend of Catullus, whom he accompanied to Bithynia in the
suite of the praetor Mcmmius. The circumstances of his death
have given rise to some discussion. Suetonius, Valerius Maximus,
Appian and Dio Cassius all state that, at Caesar's* funeral, a
certain Helvius Cinna was killed by mistake for Cornelius Cinna,
the conspirator. The last three writers mentioned above add
that he was a tribune of the people, while Plutarch, referring to
the affair, gives the further information that the Cinna who
was killed by the mob was a poet. This points, to the identity
of Helvius Cinna the tribune with Helvius Cinna the poet.
The chief objection to this view is based upon two lines in the
9th eclogue of Virgil, supposed to have been written 41 or 40 B.C.
Here reference is made to a certain Cinna, a poet of such import-
ance that Virgil deprecates comparison with him; it is argued
that the manner in which this Cinna, who could hardly have been
any one but Helvius Cinna, is spoken of implies that he was
then alive; if so, he could not have been killed in 44. But such
an interpretation of the Virgilian passage is by no means
absolutely necessary; the terms used do not preclude a reference
to a contemporary no longer alive. It has been suggested that
it was really Cornelius, not Helvius Cinna, who was slain at
Caesar's funeral, but this is not borne out by the authorities.
Cinna's chief work was a mythological epic poem called Smyrna,
the subject of which was the incestuous love of Smyrna (or
Myrrha) for her father Cinyras, treated after the manner of the
Alexandrian poets. It is said to have taken nine years to finish.
A Propempticon Pollionis, a send-off to [Asinius] Pollio, is also
attributed to him. In both these poems, the langusge of which
was so obscure that they required special commentaries, his
model appears to have been Parthenius of Nicaea.
See A. Weichert, Poetarum Latinorum Vitae (1830); L. M tillers
edition of Catullus (1870), where the remains of Cinna's poems are
printed; A. Kiessling, " De C. Hclvio Cinna Pocta " in Commen-
tationes Pkilologicae in honorem T. Mommsen (1878); O. Ribbeck,
GeschickU der rbmischen Dichtunt, i. (1887): Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist.
of Roman Lit. (Eng. tr. 213, 2-5); Ples&is, Poisit latine (1909).
376
CINNABAR— CINNAMUS
CINNABAR (Ger. Zinnober), sometimes written dnnabarite,
a name applied to red mercuric sulphide (HgS), or native
vermilion, the common ore of mercury. The name comes from
the Greek rovA/fopt, used by Theophrastus, and probably
applied to several distinct substances. Cinnabar is generally
found in a massive, granular or earthy form, of bright red colour,
but it occasionally occurs in crystals, with a metallic adamantine
lustre. The crystals belong to the hexagonal system, and are
generally of rhombohedral habit, sometimes twinned. Cinnabar
presents remarkable resemblance to quartz in its symmetry and
optical characters. Like quartz it exhibits circular polarization,
and A. Des Cloizeaux showed that it possessed fifteen times the
rotatory power of quartz (see Polabuahon or Light). Cinnabar
has higher refractive power than any other known mineral, its
mean index for sodium light being 3*02, whilst the index for
diamond— a substance of remarkable refraction— is only 9*42 (see
Retraction). The hardness of cinnabar is 3, and its specific
gravity 8»oo8.
Cinnabar is found in all localities which yield quicksilver,
notably Almaden (Spain), New Almaden (California), Idria
(Austria), Landsberg, near Ober-Moschd in the Palatinate,
Ripa, at the foot of the Apuan Alps (Tuscany), the mountain
Avala (Servia), Huancavelica (Peru), and the province of Kwei-
chow in China, whence very fine crystals have been obtained.
Cinnabar is in course of deposition at the present day from the
hot waters of Sulphur Bank, in California, and Steamboat
Springs, Nevada.
Hepatic cinnabar is an impure variety from Idria in Carniola,
in which the cinnabar is mixed with bituminous and earthy
matter.
Metacinnabarite is a cubic form of mercuric sulphide, this
compound being dimorphous.
For a general description of cinnabar, see G. F. Becker's Geology
of the Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific Slope, U.S. Geol. Surv.
Monographs, No. xiu. (1888). (F. W. R.*)
CINNAMIC ACID, or Pbenylackyuc Acm, C»H 8 Oi or
C|Ht-CH:CH»COOH, an acid found in the form of its benzyl
ester in Peru and Tolu balsams, in storax and in some gum-
benzoins. It can be prepared by the reduction of phenyl propi-
olic add with zinc and acetic acid, by heating benzal malonic
acid, by the condensation of ethyl acetate with benzaldehyde
in the presence of sodium ethylate or by the so-called " Perkin
reaction "; the latter being tic method commonly employed.
In making the acid by this process benzaldehyde, acetic an-
hydride and anhydrous sodium acetate are heated for some
hours to about 180° C, the resulting product is made alkaline
with sodium carbonate, and any excess of benzaldehyde removed
by a current of steam. The residual liquor is filtered and
acidified with hydrochloric acid, when cinnamic acid is precipi-
tated, dH,CHO+CH,COONa - C«H,CH rCHCOONa+H-O. It
may be purified by recrystallization from hot water. Consider-
able controversy has taken place as to the course pursued by
this reaction, but the matter has been definitely settled by the
work of R. Fittig and his pupils (Annalcn, 1883, "6> PP- xoo >
115; 1885, 237, pp. 55, 119), in which it was shown that the
aldehyde forms an addition compound with the sodium salt
of the fatty add, and that the acetic anhydride plays the part of
a dehydrating agent. Cinnamic acid crystallizes in needles or
prisms, melting at 133° C; on reduction it gives phenyl propionic
acid, QHvCHj-CHrCOOH. Nitric add oxidizes it to benzoic
add and acetic acid. Potash fusion decomposes it into benzoic
and acetic acids. Being an unsaturated acid it combines directly
with hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic add, bromine, &c. On
nitration it gives a mixture of ortho and para nitrodnnamic
acids, the former of which is of historical importance, as by
converting it into orthonitrophenyl propiolic acid A. Baeyer was
enabled to carry out the complete synthesis of indigo (q.v.).
Reduction of orthonitrodnnamic acid gives orthoaminocinnamic
acid, C i H 4 (NH,)CH:CHCOOH, which is of theoretical import-
ance, as it readily gives a quinoline derivative. An isomer of
cinnamic acid known as aUo-cinnamic acid is also known.
For the oxy-cinnamic acids sec Couwarin.
CINNAMON, the inner bark of Cinnamomum uylanicum, a
small evergreen tree belonging to the natural order Lauraceae,
native to Ceylon. The leaves are large, ovatc-oblong in shape,
and the flowers, which are arranged in panides, have a greenish
colour and a rather disagreeable odour. Cinnamon has been
known from remote antiquity, and it was so highly prized among
ancient nations that it was regarded as a present fit for monarch*
and other great potentates. It is mentioned in Exod. xxx. 23,
where Moses is commanded to use both sweet dnnamon {Kinna-
mon) and cassia, and it is alluded to by Herodotus under th<
name jouva/iu/jot*, and by other classical writers. The tree h
grown at Tcilicherry, in Java, the West Indies, Brazil and Egypt,
but the produce of none of these places approaches in quality
that grown in Ceylon. Ceylon cinnamon of fine quality is a very
thin smooth bark, with a light-yellowish brown colour, a highly
fragrant odour, and a peculiarly sweet, warm and pleasing
aromatic taste. Its flavour is due to an aromatic oil which it
contains to the extent of from 0*5 to 1 %. This essential oil,
as an article of commerce, is prepared by roughly pounding the
bark, macerating it in sea-water, and then quickly distilling the
whole. It is of a golden-yellow colour, with the peculiar odour
of cinnamon and a very hot aromatic taste. It consists essenti-
ally of cinnamic aldehyde, and by the absorption of oxygen as
it becomes old it darkens in colour and develops resinous com-
pounds. Cinnamon is principally employed in cookery as a
condiment and flavouring material, being largely used in the
preparation of some kinds of chocolate and liqueurs. In medicine
it acts like other volatile oils and has a reputation as a cure foi
colds. Being a much more costly spice than cassia, that coin*
parativery harsh-flavoured substance is frequently substituted
for or added to it. The two barks when whole are easily enough
distinguished, and their microscopical characters are also quite
distinct. When powdered bark is treated with tincture of iodine,
little effect is visible in the case of pure cinnamon of good quality,
but when cassia is present a deep-blue tint is produced, the
intensity of the. coloration depending on the proportion of the
cassia.
CINNAMON-STONE, a variety of garnet, belonging to the
lime-alumina type, known also as essonite or hessoru'te, from
the Gr. fpouv, " inferior/' in allusion to its being less hard and
less dense than most other garnet. It has a characteristic red
colour, inclining to orange, much like that of hyacinth 01
jacinth. Indeed it was shown many years ago, by Sir A. H.
Church, that many gems, especially engraved stones, commonly
regarded as hyacinth, were really cinnamon-stone. The difference
is readily detected by the spedfic gravity, that of hessonitc bring
3*64 to 3-69, whilst that of hyacinth (zircon) is about 4*6.
Hessonite is rather a soft stone, its hardness being about that oi
quartz or 7, whilst the hardness of most garnet reaches 7*5.
Cinnamon-stone comes chiefly from Ceylon, where it is found
generally as pebbles, though its occurrence in its native matrix
is not unknown.
CINNAMUS [RiNNAifOs], JOHN, Byzantine historian, flourished
in the second half of the 1 2th century. He was imperial secretary
(probably in this case a post connected with the military ad*
ministration) to Manuel I. Comnenus (1143-1x80), whom he
accompanied on his campaigns in Europe and Asia Minor. He
appears to have outlived Andronicus I., who died in 1185.
Cinnamus was the author of a history of the period 1118-1176,
which thus continues the Alexiad of Anna Comnena, and em-
braces the reigns of John II. and Manuel I., down to the un-
successful campaign of the latter against the Turks, which ended
with the disastrous battle of Myriokephalon and the rout ol
the Byzantine army. Cinnamus was probably an eye- witness
of the events of the last ten years which he describes. The work
breaks off abruptly; originally it no doubt went down to the
death of Manuel, and there are indications that, even in its
present form, it is an abridgment. The text is in a very corrupt
state. The author's hero is Manuel; he is strongly impressed
with the superiority of the East to the West, and is a de-
termined opponent of the pretensions of the papacy. But be
cannot be reproached with undue bias; he writes with the
CINNOLIN— CINQUE PORTS
377
straightforwardness of a soldier, and is not ashamed on occasion
to confess his ignorance. The matter is well arranged, the style
(modelled on that of Xenophon) simple, and on the whole free
from the usual florid bombast of the Byzantine writers.
EdiHo prinups, C. Tollius (1652) ; in Bonn, Corpus Scriptorum
Hist. By*., by A. Metneke (1856), with Du Cange's valuable notes;
Migne, Patretoria Graeca, cxxxiii. ; see also C. Neumann, Gricckiscke
Gestkkkhschretoer im 12. . Jahrhundert (1888); H. von Kap-Herr,
Die abendldndiscke Politik Kaiser Manuels (1881); C. Krumbacher,
GitckUkU der bytantiniscken Litteratur (1897).
COmOLIN, QHtNj, a compound isomeric with phthalazine,
prepared by boiling dihydrocinnolin dissolved in benzene with
freshly precipitated mercuric oxide. The solution is filtered
and the hydrochloride of the base precipitated by alcoholic
hydrochloric acid; the free base is obtained as an oil by adding
caustic soda. It may be obtained in white silky needles, melting
at 24-25° C. and containing a molecule of ether of crystallization
by coating the oil dissolved in ether. The free base melts at
39* C. It is a strong base, forming stable salts with mineral
acids, and is easily soluble in water and in the ordinary organic
solvents. It has a taste resembling that of chloral hydrate,
and leaves a sharp irritation for some time on the tongue; it is
also very poisonous (M. Busch and A. Rast, Berichte, 1897, 30,
p. 5s 1). Cinnolin derivatives are obtained from oxycinnolin
arhoxyiic add, which is formed by digesting orthophenyl
propiotic acid diazo chloride with water. Oxycinnolin car-
boxviic add on heating gives oxycinnolin, melting at 225 ,
which with phosphorus pentachloride gives chlorcinnolin. This
substance is reduced by iron filings and sulphuric add to di-
hydrodnnolin.
The relations of these compounds are here shown:—
Offenpl pwpWtt OirrhuMtia OtyctaMlta CtaMUft
acM«»mfcjnlr«*M« ea» toiyUc Kid
CIVO DA PISTOIA (1 270-1336), Italian poet and jurist,
whose full name was Guittoncino de' Sinibaldi, was born in
Pistoia, of a noble family. He studied law at Bologna under
Dinus Muggelanus (Dino de Rossonis: d. 1303) and Franciscus
Accursius, and in 1307 is understood to have been assessor of
civil causes*in his native dty. In that year, however, Pistoia
was disturbed by the Gudph and Ghibclline feud. The Ghibcl-
lincs, who had for some time been the stronger party, being
worsted by the Guelphs, Cino, a prominent member of the former
faction, had to quit his office and the dty of his birth. Pitecchio,
a stronghold on the frontiers of Lombardy, was yet in the hands
of Filippo Vergiolesi, chief of the Pistoian GhibeUines; Sclvaggia,
his daughter, was beloved by Cino (who was probably already
the husband of Margherita degli Unghi); and to Pitecchio did
the lawyer-poet betake himself. It is uncertain how long he
remained at the fortress; it is certain, however, that be was not
with the Vergiolesi at the time of Selvaggia's death, which
happened three years afterwards (13 10), at the Monte dclla
Sambuca, in the Apennines, whither the GhibeUines had been
compelled to shift their camp. He visited his mistress's grave
on his way to Rome, after some time spent in travel in France
and elsewhere, and to this visit is owing his finest sonnet. At
Rome Cino held office under Louis of Savoy, sent thither by
the Ghibelline leader Henry of Luxemburg, who was crowned
emperor of the Romans in 13 1 2. In 1 3 13, however, the emperor
died, and the GhibeUines lost their last hope. Cino appears to
have thrown up his party, and to have returned to Pistoia.
Thereafter he devoted himself to law and letters. After filling
several high judicial offices, a doctor of civil law of Bologna in
his forty-fourth year, he lectured and taught from the professor's
chair at the universities of Treviso, Siena, Florence and Perugia
in succession; his reputation and success were great, his judicial
experience enabling him to travel out of the routine of the schools.
In literature he continued in some sort the tradition of Dante
during the interval dividing that great poet from his successor
Petrarch. The latter, besides celebrating Cino in an obituary
sonnet, has coupled him and his Sdvaggia with Dante and
Beatrice in the fourth capitdo of his Trionfi <P A mart,
Cino, the master of Bartolus, and of Joannes Andreae the
celebrated canonist, was long famed as a jurist. His commentary
on the statutes of Pistoia, written within two years, is said to
have great merit; while that on the code (Lcelura Cino Pistoia
super codice, Pa via, 1483; Lyons, 1526) is considered by Savigny
to exhibit more practical intelligence and more originality of
thought than are found in any commentary on Roman law since
the time of Accursius. As a poet he also distinguished himself
greatly. He was the friend and correspondent of Dante's later
years, and possibly of his earlier also, and was certainly, with
Guido Cavalcanti and Durante da Maiano, one of those who
replied to the famous sonnet A ciascun' alma presa e gentil core
of the Vita Nuova. In the treatise De Vulgari Eloquio Dante
refers to him as one of " those who have most sweetly and subtly
written poems in modern Italian," but his works, printed at
Rome in x 559, do not altogether justify the praise. Strained and
rhetorical as many of his outcries arc, however, Cino is not
without moments of true passion and fine natural eloquence.
Of these qualities the sonnet in memory of Sclvaggia, lo
fui in suIT alto e in sul beato montc, and the canzone to Dante,
Avegnacke di omaggio piu per tempo, arc interesting examples.
The text-book for English readers is D. G. Rossctti's Early Italian
Poets, wherein will be found not only a memoir of Cino da Pistoia,
but also some admirably translated specimens of his v erse the
whole wrought into significant connexion with that friendship of
Cino's which is perhaps the most interesting fact about him. See
also Ciampi, Vita e potsit di messer Cino da Pistoia (Pisa, 1813).
CINQ-MARS, HENRI COIFFIER RUZfi PEFFIAT, Makquxs
de ( 1 620-1642), French courtier, was the second son of Antoine
Coiffier Ruzc\ marquis d'Effiat, marshal of France (1581-1632),
and was introduced to the court of Louis XIII. by Richelieu,
who had been a friend of his father and who hoped he would
counteract the influence of the queen's favourite Mile, de
Hautefort. Owing to his handsome appearance and agreeable
manners be soon became a favourite of the king, and was made
successively master of the wardrobe and master of the horse.
After distinguishing himself at the siege of Arras in 1640, Cinq-
Mars wished for a high military command, but Richelieu opposed
his pretensions and the favourite talked rashly about over-
throwing the minister. He was probably connected with the
abortive rising of the count of Soissons in 1641; however that
may be, in the following year he formed a conspiracy with the
duke of Bouillon and others to overthrow Richelieu. This plot
was under the nominal leadership of the king's brother Gaston
of Orleans. The plans of the conspirators were aided by the
illness of Richelieu and his absence from the king, and at the
siege of Narbonne Cinq-Mars almost induced Lcuis to agree to
banish his minister. Richelieu, however, recovered, became
acquainted with the attempt of Cinq-Mars to obtain assistance
from Spain, and laid the proofs of his treason before the king,
who ordered bis arrest. Cinq-Mars was brought to trial, admitted
his guilt, and was condemned to death. He was executed at
Lyons on the 12th of September 1642. It is possible that
Cinq-Mars was urged to engage in this conspiracy by his affection
for Louise Marie de Gonzaga (1612-1667), afterwards queen of
Poland, who was a prominent figure at the court of Louis XIILj
and this tradition forms part of the plot of Alfred de Vign/a
novd Cinq-Mars.
See U P. GrirTct, Histoire de Louis XIII; A. Bazin, Histoire da
Louis XIII (1846); L. D'Astarac de Frontrailles, Relations des
ckoses farticulieres de la cour pendant lafaveur deU.de Cinq-Mars.
CINQUE CENTO (Italian for five hundred; short for 1500), in
architecture, the style which became prevalent in Italy in the
century following 1500, now usually called " 16th-century work."
It was the result of the revival of classic architecture known as
Renaissance, but the change had commenced already a century
earlier, in the works of Ghiberti and DonateUo in sculpture,
and of Brunelleschi and Albcrti in architecture.
CINQUE PORTS, the name of an andent jurisdiction in the
south of England, which is still maintained with considerable
modifications and diminished authority. As tha. ****». Sass^^a^
K»
CINQUE PORTS
*Sr yWA *s-^-.*X-j tAK.ir-~x£z{ the k*s.y ■»frt «Ty £■
■air "a *:wt ■■?-•. a/ .•-r*ir"i* i*^e?t tie ~ vzcxnz '/.ts " cf
Vara* va tv: 5r y ? * \s vae ia=* jrrr>.#s ac«£ a awi =1=7
v.vr yiAfjr* **sz vjryjrvjt trA 2rxLr<sjcz*.n?j£. wt^i. with
"V v.* '/ ir>. '.r srjm.vr. ieici a Uii>ir-a/a-*je ^j^*jtjb_ To
jiMTj^i »*« i.'u/icl *jjt *j.rpjaz£ xs.^txa cf Pe.rrsey
tui 'saStxi *i/i 'jut rss.^sxyxxr* scr^n ef B , J-.iri;«-±e,
f-.- JAkA 'Yi*r. «• H^*a.r. y . K^-iur?. h.k^bv^.. V-rtarye
%'S. <*ku!U 'A Ora.-.jp ; % Yvczx-f, L> il x=*i C« ferrjzty,
l>,-jpi=aru:. fjTv-i'+Wsjut, *zA Br^ottJ! cr Pr^tei^!; 10
Vvi*r, t'Xktt'JX* xtA frrtr-jMs:. xzA Mirgate. St Jc4s\
<*/!*t*zA 'u/m b.r't-ursjz;, hzKi-z?.-.* V.»i '=ww Wood-
'.fe.n&,. V. f".vr'i. fL.'.gsdr/vA a=/i Jr.--g*ocJd. to Saari»xh,
for!»^h *sA hfsd, tat WJr«r. Par-i^te. &#&'.?«, Staeor
<r:,u.v>r,, fcarre 'w S*trre y ai*! BrighrJ-zgsea 'rn E-;sn>. To
Jfye *u atta/.hed !he fx.ryxVK vjesSxt of T«s '.cries. az*i to a
Hyihe the c//fi-4Kp«ra".e rierr.ber of W*.st H>rS*. Tbc jsris-
dk*»r. thus eiVr/is iV,~7. ti> TAjt frosa Seaf-vri in Scssex
to BirtLx.gton near VLzr&?*. ir. Krr.t; ar.d it also iry\z.6a a
toa.Ur of fclar/2 dlsfrs.u, at a cor.uderatle distance frocs the
porU with »hkh they are coesected. The e/>::-xcor7<c.Tated
ir*ir.beri are within the mcridpal juriv&fion cf tie pons to
»fci/.b fhey are attached; tut the corporate members are as
free within their own Ltxrties as tie i£<L vidua! pons themselves.
11k incorporation of the Ci.v^'je Peru Lad its origin in the
nwetvty for v/Rie mea&s of defcrxe aiocg the southern seaboard
of EnjfarA, an/1 in the lack of any regular navy. Up to the
rHgn of Henry VII. they had to furnish the crown with nearly
•II ihe ships and nen that were needful for the state; and for
a long time after they were required to give large awtfanrr to
the permanent nVet. The oldest charter now 00 record is one
Ia longing to the 6th year of Edward I.; and it refers to previous
dor umtntt of the time of Edward the Confessor and William
Ihe Conqueror. In return for their services the ports enjoyed
extensive privileges. From the Conquest or even earlier they
had, betides various lesser rights — (1) exemption from tax
and tallage; (2) soe and sac, or full cognizance of all criminal
■nd civil cases within their liberties; (i) UA and team, or the
right of receiving VA1 and the right of compelling the person
in whose hands stolen property was found to name the person
from whom he received it; (4) blodwit and fled wit, or the right
to punish sbedders of blood and those who were seized in an
attempt to escape from justice; (5) pillory and tumbrel; (6)
In/angentheof and outfangentheof, or power to imprison and
execute felons; (7) mundbryce (the breaking into or violation
of a man's mund or property In order to erect banks or
dikes as a defence against the sea); (8) waives and strays,
or the right to appropriate lost property or cattle nqjL claimed
within a year and a day; (9) the right to seize all flotsam,
jetxam, or ligan, or, in other words, whatever of value was cast
■shore by the sea; (10) the privilege of being a gild with power
to impose taxes for the common weal; and (11) the right of
assembling in portmolc or parliament at Shepway or Shepway
Cross, a few miles west of Hythc (but afterwards at Dover),
the parliament being empowered to make by-laws for the
Cinque Ports, to regulate the Yarmouth fishery, to hear appeals
from the local courts, and to give decision in all cases of treason,
sedition, illegal coining or concealment of treasure trove. The
ordinary business of the ports was conducted in two courts
known respectively as the court of brotherhood and the court
of brotherhood and guestling, — the former being composed of
the mayors of the seven principal towns and a number of jurats
and freemen from each, and the latter including in addition the
mayors, bailiffs and other representatives of the corporate
members. The court of brotherhood was formerly called the
hrothcryecld, brodnll or brodhull; and the name guestling
seem* to owe its origin to the fact that the officials of the
" mrmbrra " were at first in the position of invited guests.
The hlghcut office in connexion with the Cinque Ports is that
of the lord warden, who also acts as governor of Dover Castle,
Mod h&9 m maritime jurisdiction (vide injra) as admiral of the
a pera.
Hs ?mr *?s fc t-ia&N «f bo: oaeaz. bet he has now
• ; nrn> ac zx&xusz zzz; So- ezer=ac esaepc tfcxi of chairman
1 of ue De-;*r Lirtoir ztacL Tie crsiu^xx^s ei the o£ce are
I caiiae:: :c catu rs g r . 'inar K *Tr . n '* y sraa. The patronage
. iri.-yii to lie c5oc Gcsua U the -y~ zz M ^"'r^ the judge
of tie Cj^jc Fccts iiz^rxlrr court. Lie .-rspsLrar of the Cinque
P:cti aad the sa-^ial of tie occrt; Ae na±t ci appointing
savnje c -— wrrrr sai eu± CLaqsr Piet aai the appointment
U a ce^iZj tottu charssaa at tbe £o«tr hartww board ia
tie a. L *ranr ci lie krd warVn Walter Cxstle was for loog
ihe cficai resioeoce cf the lard war5e=. ttt has, ^~-y the
revfra-irc d led Carmo ss xacj. cri-Brf to be so used, and
those pertjecs ci :t *£ch are of h'narx sterest are now open
to the yJxx- George, pciace of WaJes jsrl war*iea, 1903-1907),
was the £rst lord wariec of royal tfood si=ce tbe ofice was held
by George, peace cf Dea-urk, coosort cf Qtawz Anne.
Admif^ij Jmsiicsn—Tbe cocrt of aizcira!^ for the
C2=*p«e Ports exercises a co-or^-iv bet ace exclusive admiralty
j=risdactJGO o^xx peaces azd th~gs foc^d wiihin the territory
of the C=Kr;je Pcrts. The limits cf its j^rrsiktioq were declared
at an i^q^sitxa takea at the cocrt cf admiralty, held by the
seaade at Dover a i652. to exteoi L*oa Shore Beacon in Esstx
to ReckLf , near Seaibrd, in Scssex; axd with regard to salvage,
they comprise all the sea between Seaford In Sussex to a point
five rrflrs off Cape Grisaez 00 the coast cf France, asd the coast
of Essex. An oSder icquisi&a cf 1 5^ is pven by R.G. Marsdea
in his Sdut Pitas tf Ike Ccsrt cf Admir^y. II. *™ The court
is an ancient one. The judge sits as the o&cixl and commissary
of the lord warden, just as the judge cf the high court of admiralty
sat as the orrrial and cotaxnissary of the lord high admiral And,
as the o£ce of lord warden is more ancient than the office of
lord high admiral (Tie Lord Warden v. King in kis ofa *j
Admurdty, 183 1, 2 Hagg. Admy. Rep. 438), it is probable that
the Cinque Ports court is the more ancient of the two.
The jurisdiction of the court has been, except in one matter
of mere antiquarian curiosity, unaffected by statute. It exercises
only, therefore, such jurisdiction as the high court of admiralty
exercised, apart from restraining statutes of 1380 and 1391 and
enabling statutes of iSaoand 1861. Cases of collision have been
tried in it (the " Vivid," 1 Asp. Maritime Lc* Casts, 601).
But salvage cases (the " Clarisse," Swabey, 129; t^e *' Marie,"
Law. Rep. 7 P.D. 203) are the principal cases now tried. It has
no prize jurisdiction. The one case in which jurisdiction has
been given to it by statute b to enforce forfeitures tinder the
statute of 1538.
Dr (afterwards the Right Hon. Robert Joseph) Phiulmore
succeeded his father as judge of the court from 1855 to 1875,
being succeeded by Mr Arthur Cohen, K.C. As Sir R. Phillimore
was also the last judge of the high court of admiralty, from 1867
(the date of his appointment to the high court) to 1875, the two
offices were, probably for the first time in history, held by the
same person. Dr PhiHimore's patent had a grant of the " place
or office of judge official and commissary of the court of admiralty
of the Cinque Ports, and their members and appurtenances,
and to be assistant to my lieutenant of Dover castle in all such
affairs and business concerning the said court of admiralty
wherein yourself and assistance shall be requisite and necessary. 1 '
Of old the court sat sometimes at Sandwich, sometimes at other
ports. But the regular place for the sitting of the court has for
a long time been, and still is, the aisle of St James's church,
Dover. For convenience the judge often sits at the royal courts
of justice. The office of marshal in the high court is represented
in this court by a serjeant, who also bears a silver oar. There
is a registrar, as in the high court The appeal is to the king In
council, and is heard by the judicial committee of the privy
council. The court can hear appeals from the Cinque Ports
salvage commissioners, such appeals being final (Cinque Ports
Act 182 1). Actions may be transferred to it, and appeals made
to it, from the county courts in all cases arising within the
jurisdiction of the Gnque Ports as defined by that act. At the
solemn installation of the lord warden the judge as the next
principal officer installs him.
CINTRA— CIPRIANI
379
The Cinque Ports from the earliest times claimed to l>e exempt
from the jurisdiction of the admiral of England. Their early
charter* do not, like those of Bristol and other seaports, express
this exemption in terms. It seems to have been derived from
the general words of the charters which preserve their liberties
and privileges.
The lord warden's claim to prize was raised in, but not finally
decided by, the high court of admiralty in the " Ooster Ems,"
i C. Rob. 384, 1783.
See S. Jeake. Charters of the Cinque Ports (1728); Boys. Sandwich
and Cinque Ports; Knocker. Grand Court of Shepway (1862); M.
Burrows. Cinque Ports (1895); F. M. Hucffcr, Cinque Ports (1900);
Indices of the Great White and Black Books of the Cinque Ports (1905).
CINTRA, a town of central Portugal, in the district of Lisbon,
formerly included in the province of Estramadura; 17 m.
W.N.W. of Lisbon by the Lisbon-Caccm-Cintra railway, and
6 m. N. by E. of Cape da Roca, the westernmost promontory of
the European mainland. Pop. (1900) 5914. Cintra is magnifi-
cently situated on the northern slope of the Serra da Cintra, a
rugged mountain mass, largely overgrown with pines, eucalyptus,
cork and other forest trees, above which the principal summits
rise in a succession of bare and jagged grey peaks; the highest
being Cruz Alta (1772 ft.), marked by an ancient stone cross,
and commanding a wonderful view southward over Lisbon and
the Tagus estuary, and north-westward over the Atlantic and
the plateau of Mafra. Few European towns possess equal
advantages of position and climate; and every educated
Portuguese is familiar with the verses in which the beauty of
Cintra. is celebrated by Byron in Ckilde Harold (181 2), and by
Carnoens in the national epic Os Lusiadas (1572). One of the
highest points of the Serra is surmounted by the Palacio da Pena,
a fantastic imitation of a medieval fortress, built on the site of a
Hieronymite convent by the prince consort Ferdinand of Saxc-
Coburg (d. 1885); while an adjacent part of the range is occupied
by the Castello des Mouros, an extensive Moorish fortification,
containing a small ruined mosque and a very curious set of
ancient cisterns. The lower slopes of the Serra are covered
with the gardens and villas of the wealthier inhabitants of
Lisbon, who migrate hither in spring and stay until late
autumn.
In the town itself the most conspicuous building is a 14th-
I5th-century royal palace, partly Moorish, partly debased Gothic
in style, and remarkable for the two immense conical chimneys
which rise like towers in the midst. The 18th-century Palacio
de Seteaes, built in the French style then popular in Portugal,
is said to derive its name (" Seven Ahs ") from a sevenfold echo;
here, on the 22nd of August 1808, was signed the convention of
Cintra, by which the British and Portuguese allowed the French
army to evacuate the kingdom without molestation. Beside the
road which leads for 3 J m. W. to the village of Collares, celebrated
for its wine, is the Penha Verde, an interesting country house and
chapel, founded by Joao de Castro (1 500-1548), fourth viceroy
of the Indies. De Castro also founded the convent of Santa Cruz,
better known as the Convento de Cortica or Cork convent, which
stands at the western extremity of the Serra, and owes its name
to the cork panels which formerly lined its walls. Beyond the
Penha Verde, on the Collares road, are the palace and park of
Montserrate. The palace was originally built by William
Beckford, the novelist and traveller (1761-1844), and was
purchased in 1856 by Sir Francis Cook, an Englishman who
afterwards obtained the Portuguese title viscount of Montserrate.
The palace, which contains a valuable library, is built of pure
white stone, in Moorish style ; its walls are elaborately sculptured.
The park, with its tropical luxuriance of vegetation and its variety
of lake, forest and mountain scenery, is by far the finest example
of landscape gardening in the Iberan Peninsula, and probably
among the finest in the world. Its high-lying lawns, which
overlook the Atlantic, are as perfect as any in England, and
there is one ravine containing a whole wood of giant tree-ferns
from New Zealand. Other rare plants have been systematically
collected and brought to Montserrate from all parts of the world
by Sir Francis Cook, add afterwards by his successor. Sir
I'rrdeiii k Cook, the second viscount. The Praia das Ma^As, or
" beach ol apples," in the centre of a rich fruit-bearing valley,
is a favourite sea-bathing station, connected with Cintra by an
extension of the electric tramway which runs through the town.
CIPHER, or Cyphei (from Arab. sifr % void), the symbol o,
nought, or zero; and so a name for symbolic or secret writing
(see Cryptography), or even for shorthand (?.».), and also in
elementary education for doing simple sums (" ciphering ").
CIPPUS (Lat. for a " post " or " stake "), in architecture,
a low pedestal, either round or rectangular, set up by the Romans
for various purposes such as military or mile stones, boundary
posts, &c. The inscriptions on some in the British Museum show
that they were occasionally funeral memorials.
CIPRIANI. GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1727-1785), Italian painter
and engraver, Pistoiese by descent, was born in Florence in 1727.
His first lessons were given him by an Englishman, Ignatius
Hcckford or Hugford, and under his second master, Antonio
Domcnico Gabbiani, he became a very clever draughtsman.
He was in Rome from 1750 to 1753, where he became acquainted
with Sir William Chambers, the architect, and Joseph Wilton,
the sculptor, whom he accompanied to England in August 1755.
He had already painted two pictures for the abbey of Saa
Michclc in Pelago, Pistoia, which had brought him reputation,
and on his arrival in England he was patronized by Lord Tilney,
the duke of Richmond and other noblemen. His acquaintance
with Sir William Chambers no doubt helped -him on, for when
Chambers designed the Albany in London for Lord Holland,
Cipriani painted a ceiling for him. He also painted part of a
ceiling in Buckingham Palace, and a room with poetical subjects
at Stand lynch in Wiltshire. Some of his best and most ]>ermancnt
work was, however, done at Somerset House, built by his friend
Chambers, upon which he lavished infinite pains. He not only
prepared the decorations for the interior of the north block, but,
says Joseph Buret ti in his Guide through the Royal Academy
(1780), "the whole of the carvings in the various fronts of
Somerset Place — excepting Bacon's bronze figures — were carved
from finished drawings made by Cipriani." These designs
include the five masks forming the keystones to the arches on the
courtyard side of the vestibule, and the two above the doors
leading into the wings of the north block, all of which are believed
to have been carved by Nollckens. The grotesque groups
flanking the main doorways on three sides of the quadrangle
and the central doorway on the terrace appear also to have been
designed by Cipriani. The apartments in Sir William Chambers's
stately palace that were assigned to the Royal Academy, into
which it moved in 1780, owed much to Cipriani's graceful, if
mannered, pencil. The central panel of the library ceiling was
painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, but the four compartments
in the coves, representing Allegory, Fable, Nature and History,
were Cipriani's. These paintings still remain at Somerset House,
together with the emblematic painted ceiling, also his work, of
what was once the library of the Royal Society. It was natural
that Cipriani should thus devote himself to adorning the apart-
ments of the academy, since he was an original rocmljcr (1768)
of that body, for which he designed the diploma so well engraved
by Bartolozzi. In recognition of his services in this respect the
members presented him in 1769 with a silver cup with a com*
memorative inscription. He was much employed by the pub-
lishers, for whom he made drawings in pen and ink, sometimes
coloured. His friend Bartolozzi engraved most of them. Draw-
ings by him arc in both the British Museum and Victoria and
Albert Museum. His best autograph engravings are " The Death
of Cleopatra," after Bcnvcnuto Cellini; " The Descent of the
Holy Ghost," after Gabbiani; and portraits for HolhYs memoirs,
1780. He painted allegorical design* for George Ill's state
coach — which is still in use— in 1782, and repaired Verrio's
paintings at Windsor and Rubens's ceiling in the Banqueting
House at Whitehall. If his pictures were often weak, his decora*
tive treatment of children was usually exceedingly happy. Some
of his most pleasing work was that which, directly or indirectly,
he executed for the decoration of furniture. He designed many
groups of nymphs and amorini and medallion subject* to facox
380
CIRCA?.— CIRGASSIA
• L/.i * LS £"".■■ -" f 7*"" 1 - ' i 2_i. U.'.-*
c^» tit ii'i-w// -.. ■-".«- iLiU v .
is tie »aw* n^«» v' Lrr..-: : _-:- :-n
cs/.*a " ' -rj_ "jfci "«*--.■ F-^ ±z—'j?i u.
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tlr.
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frve ii z_=ier,
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' '— • - ^ i.-r.T- s 2 rurt i=f*- tar »tn a: ifce
~ ■■"-■- _-=£. _ ii» £-^iit.~ : ^ -.it "La:£C)■ a(
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r_ .■: v.-: ^ »-Li -.; p«. - j. iosf s^rjsaiy
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->.-—-..:_ -~ii :■ ■ j ir^r tt..- * 'na a* r<=ul
: *•:._: .rn.- »^ m^-r^ -_ns :«!.-:.« «" ftia
nii". :• -_m ;-jer ^-Zria rr* _ss Cx.sjru.s. At lie
- ,r - T v — r-=i-ii^j- >:r liiur vtr lis xai — 'Jtpsd
'. .. .-i-:"" v-.i— _;-■■ Trr*-'gggg c lirr iter-
i.-ij s.:.: iss. -.::.* t— r» p.-v-r=r>&: uda
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:: t^KT-rf ▼« s:
1 _. . — ,. ^
:ht y.: -.5 li-t r'» - ■- :
kii t>.-.£ ::',=. to tie tir".
■±i TrjL • Lu:
Sib".--: Jiz?
d::-r:Tt of K'^di"^ or G--='.--r. zr^ w: a::'..-irii ::t :.i:r
C:r:irs. I^:-f; ty :htc--.s:cftit!:— :;i : r ?!i:-_^.^-.
th* «dcs:ir::= c: :hi =ir:"r;=:c prv.-^cs ci i-.:i !::-i :r.= '.it
river G.z-liicar==ri :o *.it Ch^iti liie *ii r..:**iirJy trsj-j-
fcrrrf frc-r. :ht Frc-:h '.i the BrJt.si. E-*. :i= ^:'.:r .-.:'. -i-.r.
uniir the a'i---^:ri'Jss of the :u=i- ^-i :h* e\:ty.. z ■::"
the Jo^-r; a^d fortress cf 5£uul : pa:^r.. *h!-h *.rff rcvi l-.e-: ly
the Lr.^h Eait Ir.-fu Co=?aiy. In ::'-5 Lcri C-.e o^.iircd
fro= the Mog-j! er.pcror Sksh A!a= a prar.i cf the £ve Cir^irs.
Htrcupoo ihe fort of KoadapiE *as MJ^d ly the fin: jh. i.-.d
on ?he i:ih of November x;66 a treaty cf a.'Lir.cc wis sirred
*i-h Nizam A!i Ly *h. : '-li the Corr.pcr.y, i-n re'.-jm for :he icr2.r.t
of the Circars, ur.'i'rrtook to Ealr.tair. troops for the r.liirr.'s
avi-'ar.ce. Hy a second treaty, signed oa the 1st of ^!2rch
i;W, the ii-^m arkr.owled^.d the validity of Shih Abe's
grar.t ar.d n.-*.igR».d the Circir» to ihe G/fr.;,ar.y. rctcivL-.g as a
mark of friend :hip aa annuity of {si.oco. Cur.lur, as the
personal e*latc of the nlzam's brother lS.'.\aLt Jang, was tx-
ccpted during his lifvtiae under b"ih trea'.ivs. Hr ditd L*i 17S2,
but il was rot till 17?? that Gur.tur ramc ur.dcr British adrr.ini-
strut ion. Finally, in 1823, the cL:'m» of the nizam ov<r the
Northern Circars wtre bought outright by the Company, and
they became a British possesion.
CIRCASSIA, a name formerly given to the north-western
portion of the Caucasus, including the district between the
mountain range and the Black Sea, and extending to the north
of the central range as far as the river Kuban. Its physical
features are described in the article on the Russian province of
K rn \x, with which it approximately coincides. The present
arti'.lc is confined to a consideration of the ethnographical
phtions and characteristics of the people, their history being
trr-iicd under Caucasia.
Th«; Ch« rkessrs or Circassians, who gave their name to this
n-gion, of whi« h thr.y were until lately the v.Ii: inhabitants, are a
peculiar race, differing from the other tribe* of the Caucasus in
: rsve; j
-« ii«^:_3 ;: i^, :_-::< = *kxh tfac
:? i=; *l.- lI-s.--.: tit oily r-hjecj *akft
11 : .-. - *-. n : .--.p: — it.- itJb«:kc. Tk
x si- _:&:•:! c: -.is ;e.;le i^ ur x=i tbeii
.t± :-J.j :'z* i:^_i^-_-i::rs of a poier whkft
-.:.=:. As -i-y iid z: ■rr/.tea ^»s. tk
;_*..:? ■»!= r;-_lit*-i s.:!^;.- ly custcc aad
*.i.*e :r.:a rr:<ii^5 >:^i:zi^^.-.-^«n bj
tie K:.ii. Tie =?st xrti ard respecttd
:e -.-.-:: _5 ziJ; cr v^i--» fre-jez-Jy sat ■
■.L- i^ii::r^ ^er* rc-zi.-.tri wiic-Kt a cunon
? ;ir.:». T-* Cir-i*i^.- ;r^.-ea asd noble
:-.^<-::.. V-b:= = '..fi-i: h-t i= titir tt^cks scrrice
=^r.y cf :he einr^is cf ti-Jr firmer heather, and Christiu
w:-rs. k .:p vere s ■..:.' j: * s .-wi. A gr«: part of tie people fcac
re--:-'.-: fis:h*-I :-j -.'-e wcrsirp t: ti-Jr ar.cicct gods— Shible
tie ?>J cf th-i-.^r-. cf »;r ar.i v f ji«t::e. TIcps. the god of fire
ar.d <i-o5£<res. the s.<J cf v.a:er ari of »:-ds. Although tk
Or-assia.-.* arc siii to have ptiieiacJ rr.L-.ds capable of tk
h:;hcit cultivat'.r.. the an* and sti.r.ors. wi:h the ucepliof
of r^y.« ry a r. d rr.u: :c, wc re cor.p!i t ■:!;. r. c 5 !i-e 1 £■ i . They possessec
r.o wr.tter. !.:r.^i?e. The visdos of thiir «g«s. the knowlcdgi
y had ac---:nd, ar.d the ccmury of their v.^r!ike deals wen
were z.z
^- '.i
lh"y
preserved Li verses. "Rh::h were repeated from mouth to moutl
and d«cer.!cd from father to son.
The cJjcat: in of the young Circassian was confined to riding
fencing, •hooting, hunting, and such exercises a* were calculate*
to strengthen his frame and prepare him for a life of aclm
warfare. The only intellectual duty of the clclilt or instructor
with whom the young men lived until they had complete*
their education, was that of teaching them to express thci
thoughts shortly, quickly and appropriately. One of thci;
marriage ceremonies was ytry strange. The young man wh(
had been approved by the parents, and had paid the stipulate*
price in money, horses, oxen, or sheep for his bride, was expcctc(
to come with his friends fully armed, and to carry her off by foro
from her father's house. Every free Circassian had unlimite*
right over the lives of his wife and children. Although polygamy
was allowed by the laws of the Koran, the custom of the countrj
forbade it, and the Circassians were generally faithful to th«
CIRCE— CIRCEIUS MONS
marriage bond. The respect for superior age was carried to
such an extent that the young brother used to rise from bis seat
when the elder entered an apartment, and was silent when he
moke. Like all the other inhabitants of the Caucasus, the
Circassians were distinguished for two very opposite qualities—
the most generous hospitality and implacable vindictiveness.
Hospitality to the stranger was considered one of the most
sacred duties. Whatever were his rank in life, all the members
of the family rose to receive him on his entrance, and conduct
him to the principal seat in the apartment. The host was con-
sidered responsible with his own life for the security of his guest,
apon whom, even although his deadliest enemy, he would inflict
no injury whJc under the protection of his roof. The chief who
bad received a stranger was also bound to grant him an escort
of horse to conduct him in safety on his journey, and confide
htm to the protection of those nobles with whom he might be on
friendly terms. The law of vengeance was no less binding on
the Circassian. The individual who had slain any member of a
family was pursued with implacable vengeance by the relatives,
until his crime was expiated by death. The murderer might,
indeed, secure his safety by the payment of a certain sum of
money, or by carrying off from the house of his enemy a newly-
born child, bringing it up as his own, and restoring it when its
education was finished. In either case, the family of the slain
individual might discontinue the pursuit of vengeance without
any stain upon its honour. The man closely followed by his
enemy, who, on reaching the dwelling of a woman, had merely
touched hex hand, was safe from all other pursuit so long as he
remained under the protection of her roof. The opinions of the
Circassians regarding theft resembled those of the ancient
Spartans. The commission of the crime was not considered so
disgraceful as its discovery; and the punishment of being
compelled publicly to restore the stolen property to its original
poss es sor, amid the derision of his tribe, was much dreaded by
the Circassian who would glory in a successful theft. The greatest
stain upon the Circassian character was the custom of selling
their children, the Circassian father being always willing to
part with his daughters, many of whom were bought by Turkish
merchants for the harems of Eastern monarch*. But no degrada-
tion was implied in this transaction, and the young women
themselves were generally willing partners in it. Herds of cattle
and sheep constituted the chief riches of the inhabitants. The
princes and nobles, from whom the members of the various tribes
held the land which they cultivated, were the proprietors of the
sou*. The Circassians carried on little or no commerce, and the
state of perpetual warfare in which they lived prevented them
from cultivating an/ of the arts of peace.
CIRCE (Gr. Kl/w?), in Greek legend, a famous sorceress, the
daughter of Helios and the ocean nymph Perse. Having
murdered her husband, the prince of Colchis, she was expelled
by her subjects and placed by her father on the solitary island
of Aeaea on the coast of Italy. She was able by means of drugs
and incantations to change human beings into the forms of
wolves or lions, and with these beings her palace was surrounded.
Here she was found by Odysseus and his companions; the
latter she changed into swine, but the hero, protected by the herb
■**> (f ■»•>! which he had received from Hermes, not only forced her
to restore them to their original shape, but also gained her love.
For a year be relinquished himself to her endearments, and
•when he determined to leave, she instructed him how to sail
to the land of shades which lay on the verge of the ocean stream,
in order to learn his fate from the prophet Teiresias. Upon his
return she also gave him directions for avoiding the dangers of
the journey home (Homer, Odyssey, x.-xii.; Hyginus, Fab.
«$). The Roman poets associated her with the most ancient
traditions of Latium, and assigned her a home on the promontory j
of Circei (Virgil, Aeneid, vii. 10). The metamorphoses of Scylla
and of Picus, king of the Ausonians, by Circe, are narrated in
Ovid {Metamorphoses, xiv.)
381
n§ Myth *f ***• ** R Brown * ,M A ln wh5cn Circe is explained
aaa sncoo-gpddess of Babylonian origin, contains an exhaustive
anmmaiy of facts, although many of the author's speculations may
be proved untenable (review by H. Bradley in Academy, January 19,
» M 4); ..tce.abo I E. Harrison. Myths of the Odyssey (i&afi
C. Seeliger in W. H. Roschcrs Lexikon der Mythologie.
CIRCEIUS MONS (mod. Monte Circeo), an isolated promontory
on the S.W. coast of Italy, about 80 m. S.E. of Rome. It is a
ridge of limestone about 3) m. long by im. wide at the base,
running from E. to W. and surrounded by the sea on all sides
except the N. The land to the N. of it fa 53 ft. above sea-level,
while the summit of the promontory is 1775 ft. The origin of
the name is uncertain: it has naturally been connected with the
legend of Circe, and Victor B*rard (in Let Phinkiens ct VOdyssU,
ii. 261 seq.) maintains in support of the identification that AZofa,
the Greek name for the island of Circe, is a faithful transliteration
of a Semitic name, meaning " island of the hawk/' of which
yquoT Klptip is the translation. The difficulty has been raised,
especially by geologists, that the promontory ceased to be an
island at a period considerably before the time of Homer; but
Procopius very truly remarked that the promontory has all the
appearance of an island until one is actually upon it. Upon the
E. end of the ridge of the promontory are the remains of an
enceinte, forming roughly a rectangle of about 200 by 100 yds.
of very fine polygonal work, on the outside, the blocks being
very carefully cut and jointed and right angles being intention-
ally avoided. The wall stands almost entirely free, as at Arpinum
—polygonal walls in Italy are as a rule embanking walls— and
increases considerably in thickness as it descends. The blocks
of the inner face are much less carefully worked both here and at
Arpinum. It seems to have been an acropolis, and contains no
traces of buildings, except for a subterranean cistern, circular,
with a beehive roof of converging blocks. The modern village
of S. Felice Circeo seems to occupy the site of the ancient town,
the citadel of which stood on the mountain top, for its medieval
walls rest upon ancient walls of Cyclopean work of less careful .
construction than those of the citadel, and enclosing an area of
200 by 150 yds.
Circei was founded as a Roman colony at an early date —
according to some authorities in the time 01 Tarquinius Superbus,
but more probably about 300 B.C. The existence of a previous
population, however, is very likely indicated by the revolt of
Circei in the middle of the 4th century B.C., so that it is doubtful
whether the walls described are to be attributed to the Romans
or the earlier Volsrian inhabitants. At the end of the republic,
however, or at latest at the beginning of the imperial period,
the city of Circei was no longer at the E. end of the promontory,
but on the E. shores of the Lago di Paola (a lagoon— now a
considerable fishery— separated from the sea by a line of
sandhills and connected with it by a channel of Roman date:
Strabo speaks of it as a small harbour) one mile N. of the W.
end of the promontory. Here are the remains of a Roman town,
belonging to the 1st and 2nd centuries, extending over an area
of some 600 by 500 yards, and consisting of fine buildings along
the lagoons, including a large open piscina or basin, surrounded
by a double portico, while farther inland are several very large
and well-preserved water-reservoirs, supplied by an aqueduct
of which traces may still be seen. An inscription speaks of an
amphitheatre, of which no remains are visible. The transference
of the city did not, however, mean the abandonment of the E.
end of the promontory, on which stand the remains of several
Very large villas. An inscription, indeed, cut in the rock near
5. Felice, speaks of this part of the promunturium Veneris (the
only case of the use of this name) as belonging to the city of
Circei. On the S. and N. sides of the promontory there are
comparatively few buildings, while at the W. end there is a
sheer precipice to the sea. The town only acquired municipal
rights after the Social War, and was a place of little importance,
except as a seaside resort. For its villas Cicero compares it
with An tium, and probably both Tiberius and Domitian possessed
residences there. The beetroot and oysters of Circei had a
rertain reputation. The view from the highest summit of the
promontory (which is occupied by ruins of a platform attributed
With great probability to a temple of Venus or Circe) is of re-
markable beauty; the whole mountain is cjros*&-*fttaAxucra&.
»2
CIRCLE
twins'* fee
ak^USFsV
=s*csrs
._ it to» 6» l V *C
U» Company; * r c
«donui*> no! „» to t
lBdW «»dtortt^°|
tbeB«l>*^ l cin pcro.
Irom^WPffortoCK-
Hete»P»° f * e Novcmt
«» ton Finally." 1
•hev became a Britisrj
portion of the Cauc
fountain range and
3^he central range
Matures are desenbe.
Uba*. ^ which
article is confined
rations and chara
treated tinder CaUO
The Chcrkcsses ;o
region, of which thej
peculiar race, differ.
%---i*. Fr*.x any point in tht Pomptine Marshes or on the
"._.- ._-. -■■ Latium the C"ir<« *'■ ;.:omontory dominates the
_: _. -•< :a the most remarks..*. **/.
=*~ 7. Asfcby, " Monte Orv*," :u Milan pi de FicoU fran&ise de
*..-**. xxv. (1905) 157 ***i- l T - As -J
CIRCLE (from the Lat. ciVa.V. the diminutive of circus, a
r.r.g; tbe cognate Or. word j\ *.*.#<r:. jr».n«.rally used in the form
i^tos), a plane curve d'f.i.^ 1 /'. a 1 , the locus of a point which
moves so that ilr> dhfari". U'.r: a bx*A point is constant.
The form of a < ir'k r. f*rr ,i..r »o *II, and we proceed to define
certain linen, point*., ***. t »f. 'L '.♦^..•ajjjly occur in stud>ing
its geometry. *1U Vfl \*..*..\ r* the. preceding definition is
termed tin: " "i.'f. " tf . 11. £jr 1,, tht '.or.-.Unt distance, e.g.
CO, the " isd.ui " 'l)s. ' ;t, 1. j. A\ \\. sometimes termed the
" tin uifif' n »." " A-./ ' ■.». •« V/.jj.»j lU ten ire and terminated
at li'iili i#ifiif..'.i; >// ■•.» •.?■••■, * /. AJJ, is a "diameter";
uny ulur I.i • : ... '..., 1.... i^.-i „,. y 4 y t a "chord." Any
Iim 'U . ni. t#v «■•/■" 4 j/; ■' to « .1 iU «.iff.Ic in two points,
•/ ''** '■ ■ * "■<>• •■'"; il i» tv-' Us the circle, <■«.
I J| * " • • ".■/■•■" /;/ [//r*i' # ii *.f the circumference
• « •»«■■•'■ .■ •• ;^.--. / r M> '(,£ ■■#, i. firmed an " arc ";
• i..j ...* ;;-. ... : , \.„.\ i y/ 4 , Ur .j Jfl .j Arti C-fr ABD. is
B l^rrT.♦.'l a " «.i-gmcnt ";
Miililn «l" If i" *■
linn .I.I....H
il. I I, '-I"'' "«
|||l ||ll-.llillll/ '«l •'• •!■■.■•
" ill l-iiiii " H- .11 r « " j
ninl id ■•!•■•■ 'M'l'.if •■' « »'
l.ili li.l >li ■*•-!• ».' '•■'"' '.■•'
i« tul ttij< in il#i ' »'■ I' . -"'I "i
id Inn ■ In •■■•■•—■■■■ !•-■* «!.* ##*•*»-
il 'U ili«ird be a dia-
iii'itr, the segment
is tirrr.^d a " scmi-
tiflr." The figure
in< lu'lul by two radii
and an arc is a
" M«:tor," r.j. F.CF
(lit*, j). " Concentric
tinlcs" are, as the
name obviously
%h<iws, circles having
1 ht* j.:iini' crntre; the
^ . , liK"i«- i-ni-loscil by the
\ J^"*^ iiniirulirini.es cif t^o
(iiiiM'iiuic c.inlcb is
an " annulus" (fig. 3),
rt und of two non-con-
iIm «li.i dr. I |i..iii.ur, in lig. 4; the
•» mud ii " |i 1,-. ■•
'.d'.iil.i.dly |m, lWI j„. Iai « y .ivilii-ations,
' '"idii,-- il ir. i. 11 oi.jnt for Miuly.
M |i.j *-. u " |.|. lllf - |, K |,„. miluM'cl
di4 ah in vblut h 1 1 (im one point
; "' '" i'Ihi " In iIm- MimrdinK
" ,J «"" J i I l In miiii. ii( lc aic
I"' ''-'• id 1 1.< ..,1111 l,i,.. k ilrili.lluU
■'/ • '..ill |l,| |..,|y ",11,1k. •' a(1 ,l
1 ,■■! 1 I.i 1 11. 1, i,,, ,|„ , .iniduu,
' l'"»l »- in lliniU I .111.I 11.
i.i. ■•!/ I', l|.".|< ,„.. ,,,,1 ihuM,,,^
11 hd iiiii'.li-., -a)ih)i he
1 1.* h.iiiili |.iH,k d.aU
Obviously tbese cauatiMi *• « *
four points, two 01 whirl « * - -
i he other two where the fc» ^
i» V -1) intersect the creaa -* = -
be cither real or imaginary . •? s"^- -^^
The equation x*+>" -o dear^ j- ^
lines: it follows, thcrrfore. -^ -^ ~^
imaginary points at infinity a *? ■"
x^+y 1 occur in the equatiao c ^"
pass ihruugh two Aavo potan *: =-
linci and points constitute* a -~ ^7 *"_
and fn»m their associative ■— -^^
the " circular lines " and ~ r.-n- * ^
circular lines arc "circular* r -^
equation to a circle oi aero r»i~= - "". ,
circular lines, it follows that ti-= -""- ~~\
(ko imaginary lines; con^ery* "- -^
of lines and a circle. A i- ""*? s --
continuity follows by cor-Si >s^af "^^
t ire los. The equat ions t-"» *-^i - : ^_ t " rf
x» + >- = a l .x» + y--^. Thc**^----;
ulicre they intersect the lir.e*!--" 11 ^
double contact at the circular pcr= 2 a
line at infinity.
In various systems of trii^r-^ **
to circles specially related :j '-^ ^
comparatively simple forms; c: ejt^
algebraical demonstrations ci ^.--^-|
ami the circles intimately assoc* r-*
article the equations to the max z&-
scribed, inscribed, escribed. * 5 -^ 3
reference should be made to tte ir-=
side ration of other circles <ou»-:-== r
while in the article Geometry: i*- ci
different systems are discusse I
The equation to the cirrsxr* J
a $-, + fr> a + r «/3 - o. the cent re br.^ r ■* •-
cirtleiico^ JAv'a+cos JB% 3— cr*«- ■"*
a = /* = ■>; while the escribed cir:^ _=^"J«
is cos SAV-a-l-sin IB^^-sCr s- 1 *"-
-a«/J»=7. 1 he *» If -c< mjc ca*f r^eti-J
4 ■>' Mil 2(J =-o,«ir thvequiv^S^nt f .-~ i
the crntre Uin^ sic A, sec B. se:_<-
Thc central equation to the clr^ ^ ^
dr-duccd (r^m th>- f-t«_t tha: t*-- ■:.-:' t
sects the line insinity in the c : .r^/ir "--J
c3; +!na + ca3~ :m-*i —
This rbvi-'ii-'v represents a c."ir "
+<efl»u in r- uMs on the coirc.:* rs."*
+<1r*o. "I hi- lint- /«tm^*«> r» i^f "
+ f-> » o i«. the l.r.c inf.rwy, it is : b«"
a conic j-i-*.".^ t>r'-:u^K the clrc-
eomrurf 1 v. :H the ccnerx! - 7 — ^^^
this equal i-v; :o r-. ^ri*i r.t a cir:i< »t s
- kebe = : . : -*■ :. ir — 2* ': c *= t&i s — s.- 5 -*
The cnrrc<;>- :. r?r en, nations a «"• *™
derived b\ j- - . f :-!.r ; x j. :• .- 1 »*|
the trilir.'jr 1. .i-. r s . Th* c^r--=-"=***
Im.i .
• U
wllh I In • in I* In i'
UmiikI"', i|iiidiil..Hi .1
t.li.ml.l In I h l'» H ,(
ill f it lli il hliliiiii'ii / "I »!•« I
|||II|H 1 1 MM nl Id* • Ii' '•
,1mi/J/< -'/ //1
In I he mllili- tii ..in ik /
|r« in ifll iqii'iU"ii l" " ' '»■ '' '" '" '•"•'"di» * mli •■inn m utilm ite-.
Li 1 1 I r' I «M I */•' I ' " '» I" 'I" P>fHlilll-i|ltilt||in
L*i !*•!•* ,,111, I -I- , Ir in i|||. |iiil 1 „| «• |„ I yt Mtr
(i|iinl «imI ••! •*"»•' Hi' in i.fllii.ili- ill 11*1 1 rill 11
..... ,/i, /A -•■■■ "• •■'''■". I- fj-'ir .!» 'Ihr
I'". •»• In 'III, I- 1 un.| f |M l||||-.a nlifll
md lipid... |,..| V |i.,ii.t Mili-ii-iiif
H11I. «,|i,MI mv / lli/li/iiin, | n| ,|
■ li'li i.i 1 Mil mm 11I .mid 1 lii ( |) inniury
»*'»/ */ lh* i hilr
J>i<tl,lh,il |i |,| «|,i, W |t fhfli 1 he
ft |<
Ml- II. if/-
fl|IIHl|nll>« In Ml*' I iM'ld. I"
by I lii- iinllii.il / tin lip"'-
I limIiIm 1 1.. I—. .Ii-I
• • I ,■• I «r I It I
"(••ill I »>'.in,d n.i .Midily driivid
' I / I
- I •//!•
Ma 2t;
■♦ > ■.
I -Mil
♦ > .r tan ji". ="
cniu^ato <.~C': • .-"•
tJn |1. tan C. «. --.,
vnied bv tS-c « .»•
i'l ihefi-.-rn j"--.r- --
i»»5 thi* e.jLa-..- i
obtain av the c:- . ■
toiipriMr.t 1 c ; -.-
In tancrn'.L-* * ;
rt|iiatii>n\»-j ,»— '
anattrnuii\e::r~ ;i
l he cent iv U«;.j.',
Ihr r-s«iiK\l «:r-'-*-
untie -«ipi»\--..
the Kiiui' K: -c ?
e.Mi.n-.-n !»-» a v.*',",
MU» |! ^ »v ' fc »
lriMiiihe{v..;t<; --
c.r.T.e ii ^ > :
ctr.:re «A«'
A- -.*c:: £-^*«
is"
%-=xw
CIRCLE
383
I
•9) (*-r)-4A" (see Gboiietky: Analytical.
written \af>, bq, cii'-aA 1 , we obtain
A+'«fl+»r)/(/4->fi4*»)l . the accents being
iganlcd as current co-ordinates. This equa-
jmore conveniently written {ap, bq, ct\ %
tusly represents a circle, the centre being
dius 2a *(X +**+»)• H we makeX->i-*-o,
>tain \ap, bq, cr|"- as the equation to the
Systems of Circles.
' Similitude.— -The " centres of similitude "
defined as the intersections of the common
ircles, the direct common tangents giving
I centre," the transverse tangents to the
!t may be readily shown that the external
are the points where the line joining the
cles is divided externally and internally in
i.
ic Joining the internal and external centres
eter is named the " circle of similitude."
be the locus of the vertex of the triangle
» the distance between the centres of the
the remaining sides equal to the ratio of the
three circles it is readily seen that there
attitude, viz. two for each pair of circles,
that these lie three by three on four lines,
iimilitude." The collinear centres are the
nal and two internal centres, and the three
system of circles is coaxal when the locus
angents to the circles are equal is a straight
ase of two circles, and in the first place
sect in two real points A and B. Then by
that the line joining the points A and B is
section of equal tangents, for if P be any
and PD the tangents to the circles, then
md therefore PC-PD. Furthermore it is
endicular to the line joining the centres,
ratio of the squares of the radii. The line
dical axis." A system coaxal with the two
' constructed by describing circles through
m the radical axis and any third point;
►f the system is obviously that which has
f intersection for diameter, the maximum
is the radical axis— considered as
a circle of infinite radius. In the
case of two non-intersecting circles
it may be shown that the radical
axis has the same metrical relations
to the line of centres.
There are several methods of con-
strutting the radical axis in this case.
Oae of the simplest is: Let P and P'
(fig* 5) be the points of contact of
a common tangent; drop perpen-
diculars PL, FL\ from P and P'
to CO\ the line joining the centres,
lects LL' (at X) and is perpendicular to CO'.
AB 1 be the tangents from any point on the
ic. i. 47. AB'-ACy-OB^-AX^+OX^-OP:
»-OP«+PD«-DX t . Therefore AB*-AX«
yAB'"»AX«-DX«+DP«. Since PD-PD',
coaxal with the two given circles, draw the
X, the point where the radical axis intersects
he of the given circles, and with centre X and
rclc. Then circles having the intersections of
and the line of centres Tor centres, and the
as radii, are members of the coaxal system.
n-intersecting circles, it is seen that the
e coaxal system are a pair of points I and I',
circle to the system intersects the line of
ire named the " limiting points." In the
em having real points of intersection the
imaginary. Analytically, the Cartesian
equation to a coaxal system can be written in the form
x i +vM-MJt-*a J —o f where a varies from member to member,
while a is a constant. The radical axis is x-o, and it may be
shown that the length of the tangent from a point (o, h) is
a 4 -**", i.e. it is independent of a, and therefore of any particular
member of the system. The circles intersect in real or imaginary
points according to the lower or upper sign of JP, and the limiting
points are real for the upper sign and imaginary for the lower sign.
The fundamental properties of coaxal systems may be
summarized: —
1. The centres of circles forming a coaxal system are collinear;
a. A coaxal system having real points of intersection has imagin-
ary limiting points;
3. A coaxal system having imaginary points of intersection has
real limiting points;
4. Every circle through the limiting points cuts all circles of the
system orthogonally;
5. The limiting points are inverse points for every circle of the
system.
The theory of centres of similitude and coaxal circles affords
elegant demonstrations of the famous problem: To describe a
circle to touch three given circles. This problem, also termed
the " Apollonian problem," was demonstrated with the aid of
conic sections by Apouonius in his book on Contacts or Tangencics;
geometrical solutions involving the conic sections were also given
by Adrianus Romanus, Vieta, Newton and others. The earliest
analytical solution appears to have been given by the princess
Elizabeth, a pupil of Descartes and daughter of Frederick V.
John Casey, professor of mathematics at the Catholic university
of Dublin, has given elementary demonstrations founded on
the theory of similitude and coaxal circles which are reproduced
in his Sequel to Euclid; an analytical solution by Gcrgonne is
given in Salmon's Conic Sections. Here we may notice that
there are eight circles which solve the problem.
Mensuration of Ike Circle.
All exact relations pertaining to the mensuration of the circle
involve the ratio of the circumference to the diameter. This
ratio, invariably denoted by «*, is constant for all circles, but
it does not admit of exact arithmetical expression, being of the
nature of an incommensurable number. Very early in t he history
of geometry- it was known that the circumference and area of a
circle of radius r could be expressed in the forms nr and vr*.
The exact geometrical evaluation of the second quantity, viz.
*t\ which, in reality, is equivalent to determining a square
equal in area to a circle, engaged the attention of mathematicians
for many centuries. The history of these attempts, together
with modern contributions to our knowledge of the value and
nature of the number w, is given below (Squaring of the Circle).
The following table gives the values of this constant and several
expressions involving it.—
Number.
Lo(srnhiB.
N amber.
LofsrUhn.
m
S-MUOT
0-49714S9
■«
fcVSSNOM
o-sstasi
tw
«-&Bl«U
0-7981 ?W
1
Am
IfSWWS
i-ooseoss
otnsssss
rS75480
l»
1*70*0
019G11M
E
I-0471WS
OTOSSBtt
0*03)286
T-ssoowe
Sm
lirstut
o-ttKno
\:
0-U3SM
oaww
T71MSS4
l-SMom
t.
1M49619
0-1OT1G6
%
O-WlTtM
t-uraos
1'417SBM
0623UM
1
0-3641S96
l-Tsuai
w
m
00114SSS
1-S4U774
t
V »
1-iassne
01*24451
1
w
4.
w
1
QrmKM
i-aesfoi
Wi
trasoMi
14MS8U
rasas*
0HM9I01
«5
11407010
omssn
I?
oinwn
1-wmsoi
otauMB
119BSST1
J2?
tTwms
itsu»
lot,.
1 -14475**
OUBSXJBD
Useful fractional approximations are 22/7 and 455/1 13*
A synopsis of the leading formula connected with the circle will
now be given.
I. Circle.— Data: radius* a. Circumference -2*a. Area-va*.
3. Arc and Sector.— Data: radius -a; •-circular measure of
angle subtended at centre by arc; e -chord of arc; e% ■■chord of
semi-arc; < 4 -chord of quarter-arc
384
CIRCLE
. t. Segment.— Data: a. 9. c. 0. a* in fa); A -height of m
lr. distance of mid-point of arc from chord.
Exact formulae are: —Area 7 Ju»^-sin *)-Jo*-Jc«
-Jo^-JcVCo'-I^)- » * oe given, we can use e'+AV-
-c tan 10 to determine 9.
"Approxima a te'formuIae are:-Arc.,(8c,-c) (Huygen*. formula);
* r t"5«^/?^-Data: 4 a. *. c. o. a* in (2): A -height of Kgment,
i:-."»^^. «r m .'r4-cv>int of arc from chord.
cot |#
«8flA, 2h
ml tan "J# to determine 9.
Approximate formulae are r— Area - fr (6c +8fi)* ; - 1 V (<•+ !**)• A :
- A(7f + to)A, a being the true length of the arc.
From these results the mensuration of any figure bounded by
^^rircular arcs and straight lines can be determined, e.g. the area
_^rA a lune or meniscus is expressible as the difference or sum of two
^^cgments, and the circumference as the sum of two arcs. (C. E.*)
Squaring of the Circle.
The problem of finding a square equal in area to a given circle,
^ Jte all problems, may be increased in difficulty by the imposition
^ £. restrictions; consequently under the designation there may
^ ^ embraced quite a variety of geometrical problems. It has
^^ be noted, however, that, when the " squaring " of the cirde
especially spoken of, it is almost always tacitly assumed that
^^ a restrictions arc those of the Euclidean geometry.
-"^ Since the area of a circle equals that of the rectilineal triangle
the circumference, the required square could be found by
ordinary Euclidean construction; also, it is evident that,
>^ tersely, if a square equal in area to the circle could be obtained
*^S *>uMbc possible to draw a straight line equal to the circumfer-
vr j- . Rectification and quadrature of the circle have thus been,
€^*r the time of Archimedes at least, practically identical
*^ 9 * cm »- Again, since the circumferences of circles are pro-
* i *>nal to iheir diameters-a proposition assumed to be true
"■^T* ■ ! • a,most t of P ractic al geometry— the rectification
<* , «T circle » seen to be transformable into finding the ratio of
* i rvumference to the diameter. This correUtive numerical
I fc -m and t he two purely geometrical problems are inseparably
£ » " . »,ted historically. *^
0. » * fwlily 1 he earliest value for the ratio was 3. It was so
.^- -g the Jew* (1 Kings vii. 23, 26), the Babylonians (Oppert,
w *» uw ; i/ f> w.AuguM,8 7a .ivtober 1874), the Chinese (Biot,
^ r t ;,M/f tf »ir. June ll^O, and probably also the Greeks.
^ . iheamient WPjians, as would appear from a calculation
Hhiml iMpvrus the number (i)\ i.e. yi6o$ was tt one
• "- - « «* ' ]w ! ,rM ■' trm » ,ts to »»ve the purely geometrical
. V. f . JlVMttrt Have t^n made by the Greeks (Anaxagoras,
.* * ..iup ** * hoin ' "'PPOcrates, doubtless raised hopes of a
*r . 1 1 |.v hn quadrature of the so-called menucm or lune*
. • - * c :i^*« ««; ln P*»**c*sion of several relations pertaining
-*- -". v' -^ , l, 1 Mir ,l( ! bc ,u " r ' , 1 ? c Allowing are among the more
».- V,."** !lltl * *' A1K b an iKacclcs triangle right
--- • e
^ «
»>\
5S^ I-
^ C:* * *>• «•*-* V vk-* ribed on AB as diameter,
^ * * ***> 4*«« .Vu tW area* of the lune ADBEAl
ua*** *K *x ««^. U H •. ABC is any triangle!
^JX *** V| ^**^ .«\.4SMsms: AUman.1
right angled at C, semicircles arc described on the three sides,
thus forming two luncs AFCDA and CGBEC. The sum of the
areas of these lunes equals the area of the triangle ABC]
As for Euclid, it is sufficient to recall the facts that the original
author of prop. 8 of book iv. had strict proof of the ratio being
<4, and the author of prop. 15 of the ratio being >3, and to
iircct attention to the importance of book x. on incommensur-
sbles and props. 2 and 16 of book xii., viz. that " circles arc to
one another as the squares on their diameters " and that " in
the greater of two concentric circles a regular an-gon can be
inscribed which shall not meet the circumference of the less,"
however nearly equal the circles may be.
With Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) a notable advance was made.
Taking the circumference as intermediate between the perimeters
of the inscribed and the circumscribed regular n-gons, he showed
that, the radius of the circle being given and the perimeter of
some particular circumscribed regular polygon obtainable, the
perimeter of the circumscribed regular polygon of double the
number of sides could be calculated; that the like was true of
the inscribed polygons; and that consequently a means was
thus afforded of approximating to the
circumference of the circle. As a
matter of fact, he started with a semi-
side AB of a circumscribed regular oU
hexagon meeting the circle in B (see B L
fig. 8), joined A and B with O the _
centre, bisected the angle AOB by Mc. 8.
OD, so that BD became the semi-side of a circumscribed regular
i2-gon; then as AB:BO:OA::i: jy.2 he sought an ap-
proximation to v*J and found that AB: BO > 153:365. Next
he applied his theorem 4 BO+OA:AB: :OB:BD to calculate
BD; from this in turn he calculated the semi-sides of the
circumscribed regular 24-gon, 48-gon and 06-gon, and so finally
established for the circumscribed regular 96-gon that perimeter
: diameter <jj:i. In a quite analogous manner he proved foi
the inscribed regular 96-gon that perimeter: diameter >jH :i -
The conclusion from these thereferc was that the ratio of cir-
cumference to diameter is<3^ and >s\\. This is a most notable
piece of work; the immature condition of arithmetic at the time
.was the only real obstacle preventing the evaluation of the ratk
to any degree of accuracy whatever. 1
No advance of any importance was made upon the achieve
ment of Archimedes until after the revival of learning. He
immediate successors may have used his method to attain 1
greater degree of accuracy, but there is very little evidena
pointing in this direction. Ptolemy (fl. 127-151), in the Grea,
Syntaxis, gives 3*141552 as the ratio*; and the Hindu;
(c. a.d. 500), who were very probably indebted to the Greeks
used 62832/20000, that is, the now familiar 3-1416. 7
1 It was not until the 15th century that attention in Europt
began to be once more directed to the subject, and after tin
resuscitation a considerable length of time elapsed before an]
progress was made. The first advance in accuracy was due to 1
certain Adrian, son of Anthony, a native of Mctz (1527), ant
father of the better-known Adrian Melius of Alkmaar. Ii
refutation of Duchesnc( Van der Eycke), he showed that the ratk
was <3tVb; and >3tW» and thence made the exceedingly luck-
I step of taking a mean between the two by the quite unjustifiable
l process of halving the sum of the two numerators for a net
numerator and halving the sum of the two denominators fo
a new denominator, thus arriving at the now well-known ap
proximation 3**^ or f f|, which, being equal to 3-1415929. . .
is correct to the sixth fractional place. »
1 In modern trigonometrical notation, 1 +sec 9 : tan 9 : : 1 : tan {t
! • Tannery, " Sur la mesure du cercle d'Archimede." in Mint. . .
Bordeaux \i\, iv. pp. 313-339; Mcnge, Des Archimedes Kreismessun
(Coblenz, 1874).
• De Morgan, in Penny Cvdob, xxx. p. 186.
'Kern, AryabkaUtyam (Leiden, 1874), trans, by Rodct (Parii
1879).
* pe Morgan, art. " Quadrature of the Circle/'in English Cyclop.
Glaishcr, Mess, of Math. ii. pp. 119-128, iii. pp. 27-46; de Haar
Swum Arckiefo. Wish. I pp. 70-86, 206-au.
CIRCLE
38S
The next to advance the calculation was Francisco Vieta,
By finding the perimeter of the inscribed and that of the circum-
scribed regular polygon of 393216 (i.e. 6X2 U ) sides, he proved
that the ratio was >3*i4i5926s35 and <3-i4i5926537, so that
its value became known (in 1 579) correctly to 10 fractional places.
The theorem for angle-bisection which Vieta used was not that
of Archimedes, but that which would now appear in the form
1 -cos 0-2 sin'iff. With Vieta, by reason of the advance in
arithmetic, the style of treatment becomes more strictly trigono-
metrical; indeed, the Universale* Inspections, in which the
calculation occurs, would now be called plane and spherical
trigonometry, and the accompanying Canon malhetnaiicus a
table of sines, tangents and secants. 1 Further, in comparing
the labours of Archimedes and Vieta, the effect of increased
power of symbolical expression is very noticeable. Archimedes's
process of unending cycles of arithmetical operations could at
best have been expressed in his time by a "rule" in words; in
the 16th century it could be condensed into a " formula."
Accordingly, we find in Vieta a formula for the ratio of diameter
to circumference, viz. the interminatc product I —
iv».v*+wI.vj+iv»+iv*...
From this point onwards, therefore, no knowledge whatever
of geometry was necessary in any one who aspired to determine
the ratio to any required degree of accuracy; the problem
being reduced to an arithmetical computation. Thus in connexion
with the subject a genus of workers became possible who may
be styled " r-computers or circle-squarers " — a name which, if
k connotes anything uncomplimentary, does so because of the
almost entirely fruitless character of their labours. Passing over
Adriaan van Roomen (Adrianus Romanus) of Louvain, who
published the value of the ratio correct to 15 places in his Idea
ueikematica (1593),' we come to the notable computer Ludolph
van Ceulcn (d. 1610), a native of Germany, long resident in
Holland. His book, Van den Circkel (Delft, 1506), gave the ratio
correct to 20 places, but he continued his calculations as long
as he lived, and his best result was published on his tombstone
in St Peter's church, Leiden. The inscription, which is not
known to be now in existence, 4 is in part as follows: —
.*. . . Qui in vita sua multo la bore circumfercntiae circuli proxi-
nam rationem ad diamctrum invenit scqucntem —
quando diameter est I
turn circuli circumfcrcntia plus est
oiiara 314159265358979323846264338327950288
M««*» IOOOOOOOOC>OOOOCK>CK>XXXXXXX)OOOC<)00000
et minus
auam 3» 4 159265358979323846264338327950289
H"*"* 10C<)OOOCKXXXXX)OOCCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO . . .
This gives the ratio correct to 35 places. Van Ceulen's process
was essentially identical with that of Vieta. Its numerous root
extractions amply justify a stronger expression than " multo
labore," especially in an epitaph. I n Germany the " Ludolphische
Zahl " (Ludolph 's number) is still a common name for the ratio. 1
Up to this point the credit of most that had been done may be
set down to Archimedes. A new departure, however, was made
by Willcbrord Snell of Leiden
in his Cydomelria, published
in 1621. His achievement
was a closely approximate
-D geometrical solution of the
Fig. 9. problem of rectification (sec
fig. 9) : ACB being a semicircle
whose centre is O, and AC the arc to be rectified, he pro-
duced AB to D, making BD equal to the radius, joined DC,
1 Vieta, Opera math. (Leiden, 1646); Marie, Hist, des sciences
math. iii. 37 «eq. (Paris. 1884).
« KlUgcl, Math. Wdrterb. 11. 606, 607.
'Kastner, Gesch. d. Math. i. (Gottingen, 1796-1800).
4 But see Les Dilices de Leide (Leiden, 1712) ; or de Haan, Mess.
tj Math. iii. 24-26.
* For minute and lengthy details regarding the quadrature of the
circle in the Low Countries, see de Haan, Bouarstoffcn voor dc
peschiedenis, &c.," in Versl. en Mededeel. der K. A had. tan Wclensth.
ix., x^xL.xii. (Amsterdam); also his "Notice r»ur quelques quad-
rareurs, Ac," in Bull, di bibliogr. e di slorta delle set. mat. efis. vii.
99-144.
Fie. 10.
and produced it to meet the tangent at A in E ; and then hit
assertion (not established by him) was that AE was nearly equal
to the arc AC, the error being in defect. For the purposes of
the calculator a solution erring in excess was also required, and
this Snell gave by slightly varying the former construction.
Instead of producing AB
(see fig. 10) so that BD was
equal to r, he produced it
only so far that, when the
extremity D' was joined with
C, the part D'F outside the
circle was equal to r; in
other words, by a non-Euclidean construction he trisected the
angle AOC, for it is readily seen that, since FD'-FO-OC, the
angle FOB «= J AOC.* This couplet of constructions is as im-
portant from the calculator's point of view as it is interesting
geometrically. To compare it on this score with the fundamental
proposition of Archimedes, the latter must be put into a form
similar to Snell's. AMC being an arc of a circle (see fig. xx)
whose centre is O, AC its chord, and HK the tangent drawn at
the middle point of the arc and bounded by OA, OC produced,
then, according to Archimedes, AMC<HK, but >AC. In
modern trigonometrical notation the propositions to be compared
stand as follows. —
2 tan \$ >$>2 sin \$ (Archimedes) ;
tan|*+asintf>*>iHS^ (SneU).
It is readily shown that the latter gives the best approxima-
tion to ; but, while the former requires for its application a
knowledge of the trigonometrical ratios of only one angle (in
other words, the ratios of the sides of only one right-angled
triangle), the latter requires the same for two angles, $ and {$.
Fig. 1
Fig. w.
B B.»0
Grienberger, using Snell's method, calculated the ratio correct'
to 39 fractional places. 7 C. Huygcns, in his De Circuli Magni-
tudine Invada, 1654, proved the propositions of Snell, giving
at the same time a number of other interesting theorems, for
example, two inequalities which may be written as follows * —
chd '+ a \hj /ffi n V Hchd J-sin 9) >9 >chd g+|(chd g-sin 0).
As might be expected, a fresh view of the matter was taken;
by Rene Descartes. The problem he set himself was the exactj
converse of that of Archimedes. A given straight line being
viewed as equal in length to the circumference of a circle, he
sought to find the diameter of the circle. His construction is
as follows (see fig. 1 2). Take AB equal to one-fourth of the given
line; on AB describe a square ABCD; join AC; in AC produced
find, by a known process, a point Ci such that, when C1B1 is
drawn perpendicular to AB produced and C1D1 perpendicular
to BC produced, the rectangle BCi will be equal to J ABCD; by
the same process find a point C* such that the rectangle Bid will
be equal to JBd; and so on ad infinitum. The diameter sought
is the straight line from A to the limiting position of the series of
B's, say the straight line ABoo . As in the case of the process of
• It is thus manifest that by his first construction Snell gave an
approximate solution of two great problems of antiquity.
' Eletnenta trigonometrica (Rome, 1630) ; Glaisher, Messenger of
Math. iii. 35 seq.
• See Kiessling's .edition of the De Circ. Magn. Inv. (Flcnsburg,
1869) ; or Pirie's tract on Geometrical Methods of Approx.tolhe Valug
of m (London, 1877).
CIRCLEVILLE— CIRCUIT
3«7
A condensed record compiled by J. W. L. Glaisher {Messenger I ments, and the canning of sweet com and other produce. The
§fUatk. ii. 122) is as follows:— I city occupies the site of prehistoric earth-works, from one of
Date.
Computer.
No. of
fr. digits
calcd.
Naof
fr. digits
correct.
Place of Publication.
1842
1*44
1847
1853
1853
l«53
1853
1853
1854
■J 54
1854
1873
Rutherford .
Dase . . .
Clausen . .
Shanks
Rutherford .
Shanks . .
Shanks
Richtcr . .
Richter . .
Richter . .
Richter . .
Shanks . .
208
205
250
3»8
440
8?
333
400
400
500
707
152
200
'*!
318
440
330
330
400
500
Trams. Roy. See. (London, 1841), p. 283.
Crciie's Jonrm. xxvii. 108.
A strom. Nackr. xxv. col. 207.
Proc. Roy. Soc. (London, 1893), 273.
Ibid.
Ibid.
W. Shanks, Rectification, of the Circle
(London. 1853).
Crumert's Arcktv, xxi. 1 10.
Ibid. xxii. 473.
Ibid, xxiii. 476.'
Ibid. xxv. 4V2.
Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), xxi.
By these computers Machin's identity, or identities analogous
to it, e.g.
»/4- tan-*rHan-» I -fun' 1 1 (Dase. 1844),
»/4«4tan- | J-tan- , A+tan- | A (Rutherford),
and Gregory's series were employed. 1
A much less wise class than the r-computers of modern times
are the pscudo-circle-squarers, or circle-squarcrs technically so
called, that is to say, persons who, having obtained by illegiti-
mate means a Euclidean construction for the quadrature or a
finitely expressible value for x, insist on using faulty reasoning
and defective mathematics to establish their assertions. Such
persons have flourished at all times in the history of mathematics;
but the interest attaching to them is more psychological than
mathematical. 1
It is of recent years that the most important advances in the
theory of circle-quadrature have been made. In 1873 Charles
Hermit c proved that the base « of the Napierian logarithms
cannot be a root of a rational algebraical equation of any degree.'
To prove the same proposition regarding r is to prove that a
Euclidean construction for circle-quadrature is impossible.
For in such a construction every point of the figure is obtained
by the intersection of two straight lines, a straight line and a
circle, or two circles; and as this implies that, when a unit of
length is introduced, numbers employed, and the problem
transformed into one of algebraic geometry, the equations to
be solved can only be of the first or second degree, it follows that
the equation to which we must be finally led is a rational equation
of even degree. Hcrmitc 4 did not succeed in his attempt on *r;
but in 1882 F. Lindcmann, following exactly in Hermite's steps,
accomplished the desired result. 1 (See also Trigonometry.)
Re rEiENTfcs,— Besides the various writings mentioned, tec for
the history of the lubjeci F. Rudio k QtukUhUs da ProMtitti von der
Quadrat ur des Zirltit (iSqj) : M. Cmtor H Cesthuhie dtt Matkematih
(1894-1901 );Mi>nfuch, Hal. dft, math, lb vols,. Paris, 1758, 2nd
«L IT-QO-iSozk MurhardL Biblivtktca Matkcmalica, IL 106- t3j
(Leipzig 179&); Rcuift. Rtpcrttmum Comment, vii. 42-44 (Got*
tingen, ]8oS). For a few approximate geometrical solution*,
tee Ley bourn 1 * Math. Re petitory. vL (51*154 ; Gruntrfs Archi*,
aU, qk\, x\ix. J; Ni*uw Archiefp. With. iv„_ 200*204. For en peri*
rn-rv.il dctrrmi rations of r. dependent on the theory of prob-
ability, sec Mtts. of M&k. ii. Hj, tig: Caiopis pro plsiowtti
main. afyi. x. J72075; Analyst* Ik. 176* (T- Ml 1 .)
CIRCLEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Pickaway
county, Ohio, U.S.A., about 26 m. S. by E. of Columbus, on the
Scioto river and the Ohio Canal. Pop. (1890) 6556; (1000)
6001 (551 negroes); (1010) 6744- It is served by the Cincinnati
It Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania lines) and the Norfolk &
Western railways, and by the Scioto Valley electric line. Circle-
ville is situated in a farming region, and its leading industries
are the manufacture of straw boards and agricultural imple-
1 On the calculations made before Shanks, tee Lchmann, " Beit rag
sur Berechnung der Zahl »," in Crumert's Archie, xxi. 121-174.
* See Montucla. Hist, des reck, sur la quad, du cercle (Paris, 1754,
and ed. 1831); de Morgan. Budget of Paradoxes (London, 1872).
" " Sur la fonction exponent idle, Comptes rendus (Paris), Ixxvii.
18, 74. 326, 285.
*£tCrer- '
'lie's Journal, Ixxvi. 342.
•See M Cberdie 7ahl w," in Math. Ann. xx 213.
which, built in the form of a circle, it derived
its name. Cirdcville, first settled about 1806,
was chosen as the county-seat in 1810. The
court-house was built in the form of an octagon
at the centre of the circle, and circular streets
were laid out around it; but this arrangement
proved to be inconvenient, the court-house was
destroyed by fire in 1841, and at present no
trace of the ancient landmarks remains. Circle-
ville was incorporated as a village in 1814, and
was chartered as a city in 1853.
CIRCUIT (Lat. circuit us, from cirsum, round,
and ire, to go), the act of moving round; so
circumference, or anything encircling or en-
circled. The word is particularly known as a law
term, signifying the periodical progress of a legal tribunal for
the purpose of carrying out the administration of the law in the
several provinces of a country. It has long been applied to the
journey or progress which the judges have been in the habit of
making through the several counties of England, to hold courts
and administer justice, where recourse could not be had to the
king's court at Westminster (see Assize).
In England, by sec. 23 of the Judicature Act 1875, power was
conferred on the crown, by order in council, to make regulations
respecting circuits, including the discontinuance of any circuit,
and the formation of any new circuit, and the appointment of
the place at which assizes arc to be held on any circuit. Under
this power an order of council, dated the 5th of February 1876,
was made, whereby the circuit system was remodelled. A new
circuit, called the North-Eastern circuit, was created, consisting
of Newcastle and Durham taken out of the old Northern circuit,
and York and Leeds taken out of the Midland circuit Oakham,
Leicester and Northampton, which had belonged to the Norfolk
circuit, were added to the Midland. The Norfolk circuit and the
Home circuit were abolished and a new South-Eastern circuit
was created, consisting of Huntingdon, Cambridge, Ipswich,
Norwich, Chelmsford, Hertford and Lewes, taken partly out
of the old Norfolk circuit and partly out of the Home circuit
The counties of Kent and Surrey were left out of the circuit
system, the assizes for these counties being held by the judges
remaining in London. Subsequently Maidstone and Guildford
were united under the revived name of the Home circuit for the
purpose of the summer and winter assizes, and the assizes in
these towns were held by one of the judges of the Western circuit,
who, after disposing of the business there, rejoined his colleague
in Exeter. In 1899 this arrangement was abolished, and Maid-
stone and Guildford were added to the South-Eastern circuit.
Other minor changes in the assize towns were made, which it is
unnecessary to particularize. Birmingham first became a
circuit town in the year 1884, and the work there became,
by arrangement, the joint property of the Midland and Oxford
circuits. There are alternative assize towns in the following
counties, viz.: — On the Western circuit, Salisbury and Devizes
for Wiltshire, and Wells and Taunton for Somerset; on the
South-Eastern, Ipswich and Bury St Edmunds for Suffolk,
on the North Wales circuit, Welshpool and Newtown for Mont-
gomery; and on the South Wales circuit, Cardiff and Swansea
for Glamorgan.
According to the arrangements in force in 1000 there are
four assizes in each year. There arc two principal assizes, via.
the winter assizes, beginning in January, and the summer assizes,
beginning at the end of May. At these two assizes criminal and
civil business is disposed of in all the circuits. There are two
other assizes, viz. the autumn assizes and the Easter assizes.
The autumn assizes are regulated by acts of 1876 and 1877
(Winter Assizes Acts 1876 and 1877), and orders of council made
under the former act. They are held for the whole of England
and Wales, but for the purpose of these assizes the work is to a
large extent " grouped," so that not every county has a separate
assize. For example, on the South-Eastern circuit Huntingdon
CIRCULAR NOTE--CIRCUMCISION
389
ircuits, divided as follows: 1st circuit, Blaine,
New Hampshire, Rhode Island; 2nd circuit,
ew York, Vermont; 3rd circuit, Delaware, New
Ivania; 4th circuit, Maryland, North Carolina,
, Virginia, West Virginia; 5th circuit, Alabama,
ia f Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas; 6tk circuit,
rhigan, Ohio, Tennessee; yth circuit, Illinois,
>nsin; 8tk circuit, Arkansas, Colorado, Okla-
lansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New
Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, Wyoming; 9th
Arizona, California, Idaho, Montana, Nevada,
ngton, and Hawaii. A circuit court of ap-
up of three judges of the circuit court, the
strict courts of the circuit, and the judge of the
allotted to the circuit.
he judges of the supreme criminal court, or high
ary, form also three separate circuit courts,
ro judges each; and the country, with the ex-
x>thians, is divided into corresponding districts,
hern, Western and Southern circuits. On the
t, courts arc held at Inverness, Perth, Dundee
on the Western, at Glasgow, Stirling and
an the Southern, at Dumfries, Jedburgh and Ayr.
dded into the North-East and the North-West
Me of Leinstcr, Connaught and Munster.
OTB, a documentary request by a bank to its
>ndents to pay a specified sum of money to a
The person in whose favour a circular note is
ted with a letter (containing the signature of an
>ank and the person named) called a letter of
eh is usually referred to in the circular note,
reduced on presentation of the note. Circular
•ally issued against a payment of cash to the
notes, but the notes need not necessarily be
Y be returned to the banker in exchange for the
Ji they were originally issued. A forged signature
ite conveys no right, and as it is the duty of the
tat payment is made to the proper person, he
the amount of a forged note from the banker
note. (Sec also Letter of Ckedxt.)
II PROBANDO (Lat. for " circle in proving "),
le used to describe a form of argument in which
kh one seeks to demonstrate is used as a premise,
the evidence on which the conclusion is based.
is one form of the fallacy known as pctitio
Xing the question." It is most common in
nts, the complicated character of which enables
make his hearers forget the data from which he
UXACY.)
)N (Lat. circum, round, and caedert, to cut),
i the foreskin. This surgical operation, which is
cribed for purely medical reasons, is also an
gious ceremony among Jews and Mabommedans,
tpread institution in many Semitic races. It
ews, a necessary preliminary to the admission of
pt in some Reformed communities. The origin
ig the Jews is in Genesis (xvii.) placed in the age
id at all events it must have been very ancient,
. were used in the operation (Exodus iv. 25;
lie narrative in Joshua implies that the custom
by him, not that it had merely been in abeyance
s«. At Gilgal he " rolled away the reproach of
" by circumcising the people. This obviously
ereas the Egyptians practised circumcision the
of the Pharaohs did not, and hence were regarded
It was an old theory (Herodotus ii 36) that
iginated in Egypt; at all events it was practised
in ancient times (Ebers, Egypt** *** die BUckcr
&i), and the same is true at the present day.
generally thought probable that the Hebrews
directly from the Egyptians. As Driver puts it
): " It is possible that, as Dillmann and Nowack
suppose, the peoples of N. Africa and Asia who practised the rite
adopted it from the Egyptians, but it appears in so many parts
of the world that it must at any rate in these cases have originated
independently." In another biblical narrative (Exodus iv. 3$)
Moses is subject to the divine anger because he had not made
himself " a bridegroom of blood," that is, had not been circum*
dsed before his marriage.
The rite of circumcision was practised by all the inhabitants
of Palestine with the exception of the Philistines. It was an
ancient custom among the Arabs, being presupposed in the
Koran. The only important Semitic peoples who most probably
did not follow the rite were the Babylonians and Assyrians
(Sayce, Babyl. and Assyrians, p. 47)* Modern investigations have
brought to light many instances of the prevalence of circumcision
in various parts of the world. These facts are collected by Andree
and Pleas, and go to prove that the rite is not only spread through
the Mabommedan world (Turks, Persians, Arabs, &c), but also is
practised by the Christian Abyssinians and the Copts, as well
as in central Australia and in America, In central Australia
(Spencer and Gillen, pp. 2x2-386) circumcision with a stone knife
must be undergone by every youth before he is reckoned a full
member of the tribe or is permitted to enter on the married state.
In other parts, too (*.g. Loan go), no uncircumcised man may
marry. Circumcision was* known to the Aztecs (Bancroft,
Nati* Races, vol. iii.), and is still practised by the Caribs of
the Orinoco and the Tacunas of the Amazon. The method and
period of the operation vary in important particulars. Among
the Jews it is performed in infancy, when the male child is eight
days old. The child is named at the same time, and the ceremony
is elaborate. The child is carried in to the godfather (sandck,
a hebraized form of the Gr. aUrupcs, " godfather," post-class.),
who places the child on a cushion, which he holds on his knees
throughout the ceremony. The operator (mohd) uses a steel
knife, and pronounces various benedictions' before and after the
rite is performed (see S. Singer, Authorised Daily Prayer Book,
pp. 304-307; an excellent account of the domestic festivities
and spiritual joys associated with the ceremony among medieval
and modern Jews may be read in S. Schechter's Studies in
Judaism, first series, pp. 351 seq.). Some tribes in South America
and elsewhere are said to perform the rite on the eighth day,
like the Jews. The Mazequaa do it between the first and second
months. Among the Bedouins the rite is performed on children
of three years, amid dances and the selection of brides(Doughty,
Arabia Deserta, L 340); among the Somalia the age is seven
(Reinisch, Somalisprackc, p. zio). But for the most part the
tribes who perform the rite carry it out at the age of puberty.
Many facts bearing on this point are given by B. Stade in Zcit-
sckrijtJUr die alttest. Wissensckaft, vi (1886) pp. 13s seq.
The significance of the rite of circumcision has been much
disputed. Some see in it a tribal badge. If this be the true
origin of circumcision, it must go back to the time when men
went about naked. Mutilations (tattooing, removal of teeth
and so forth) were tribal marks, being partly sacrifices and
partly means of recognition (see Mutilation). Such initiatory
rites were often frightful ordeals, in which the neophyte's
courage was severely tested (Robertson Smith, Religion of the
Semites, p. 310). Some regard circumcision as a substitute for
far more serious rites, including even human sacrifice. Utilitarian
explanations have also been suggested. Sir R. Burton (Memoirs
Antkrop. Soc. i. 318) held that it was introduced to promote
fertility, and the claims of cleanliness have been put forward
(following Philo's example, see ed. Mangey, ii. 210). Most
probably, however, circumcision (which in many tribes is per-
formed on both sexes) was connected with marriage, and was a
preparation for connubium. It was in Robertson Smith's words
" originally a preliminary to marriage, and so a ceremony of
introduction to the full prerogative of manhood," the trans-
ference to infancy among the Jews being a later change. On
this view, the decisive Biblical reference would be the Exodus
passage (iv. 25), in which Moses is represented as being in danger
of his life because be had neglected the proper preliminary. t»
marriage. In Genesis, on the other fcuaA, caoYnvrYftHtt. >a> *»■
CIRENCESTER
39 1
low afford (he only instance from which an idea
cirri in Rome can be obtained. It was traced to
the discovery of an inscription in 1825 showed
>rk of Maxentius. Old topographers speak of six
>f these appear to be imaginary, the Circus Florae
t Sallustii.
were held in connexion with the following public
generally on the last day of the festival, if it
r more than one da}: — (1) The Consuolio,
December 15th; (2) Equirria, February 27th,
[3) Ludi Romani, September 4th-X9th; (4) Ludi
mbcr 4th-i;th; (5) Ccrialia, April X2th-I9th;
Minares, July 6th- 13th; (7) Ludi Mcgalcnscs,
I (8) Fl or alia, April aSLh-May 3rd.
Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities (3rd ed., .1890),
Da rem berg and Saglio's Dictwnnaire des antiqutlis,
'a Realcncvclopddic tUr dassischm AUertumswissen-
99), and Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung. iii.
>. P- 5° 4- For existing remains ace works quoted
rckacology.
'trn Circus. — The " circus " in modern times is
Hilar entertainment which has little in common
ution of classical Rome. It is frequently nomadic
he place of the permanent building known to the
e circus being taken by a tent/ which is carried
>lace and set up temporarily on any site procurable
* or in provincial towns, and in which spectacular
ire given by a troupe employed by the proprietor.
the tent forms an arena arranged as a horse-ring,
a or other soft substance, where the performances
seats of the spectators being arranged in ascending
:he central space as in the Roman circus. The
pe of exhibition in the modern travelling circus
ts of horsemanship, such as leaping through hoops
1 of a galloping horse, standing with one foot on
ones galloping side by side, turning somersaults
(board over a number of horses standing dose
complishing acrobatic tricks on horseback. These
by male and female rid?rs, arc varied by the
f horses trained to perform tricks, and by drolleries
the clown, whose place in the circus is as firmly
tradition as in the pantomime,
ity of the circus in England may be traced to that
Astlcy (d. 1814) in London at the end of the 18th
ey was followed by Ducrow, whose feats of horse*
nuch to do with establishing the traditions of the
were perpetuated by Hengler's and Sanger's
ws in a later generation. In America a circus-actor
& is said to have performed before George Washing-
d in the first half of the 19th century the establish-
dy, Welch & Co., and of van Amburgh gave a
:y to the circus in the United States. All former
ors were, however, far surpassed in enterprise and
T. Barnum (<??.), whose claim to be the possessor
est show on earth." was no exaggeration. The
lamum, however, brought about a considerable
character of the modern circus. In arenas too
1 to be easily audible, the traditional comic dialogue
assumed a less prominent place than formerly,
Jy increased wealth of stage properties relegated
round the old-fashioned equestrian feats, which
by more ambitious acrobatic performances, and
s of skill, strength and daring, requiring the
)f immense numbers of performers and often of
nd expensive machinery. These tendencies are,
aost marked in shows given in permanent buildings
such as the London Hippodrome, which was built
ion of the circus, the menagerie and the variety
; wild animals such as lions and elephants from
appeared in the ring, and where convulsions of
1 floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have
I with an extraordinary wealth of realistic display,
drome in Paris— unlike its London namesake, a
circus of the true classical type in which the arena is entirely
surrounded by the seats of the spectators — chariot races after
the Roman model were held in the latter part of the 19th
century, at which prises of considerable value were given by the
management.
CIRENCESTER (traditionally pronounced CiceUr) t a market
town in the O'rencestcr parliamentary division of Gloucestershire,
England, on the river Churn, a tributary of the Thames, 93 m.
W.N.W. of London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7536. It is
served by a branch of the Great Western railway, and there is
also a station on the Midland and South-Western Junction
railway. This is an ancient and prosperous market town of
picturesque old houses clustering round a fine parish church,
with a high embattled tower, and a remarkable south porch with
parvise. The church is mainly Perpendicular, and among its
numerous chapels that of St Catherine has a beautiful roof of
fan-tracery in stone dated 1508. Of the abbey founded in
xi 17 by Henry I. there remain a Norman gateway and a few
capitals. There are two good museums containing mosaics,
inscriptions, carved and sculptured stones, and many smaller
remains, for the town was the Roman Corinium or Dwocomovium
Dobunorum. Little trace of Corinium, however, can be seen
in situ, except the amphitheatre and some indications of the walls.
To the west of the town is- Cirencester House, the seat of Earl
BathursU The first Lord Bathurst (1684-1775) devoted himself
to beautifying the fine demesne of Oakley Park, which he
planted and adorned with remarkable artificial ruins. This
nobleman, who became baron in 1711 and earl in 1772, was a
patron of art and literature no less than a statesman: and Pope,
a frequent visitor here, was allowed to design the building known
as Pope's Scat, in the park, commanding a splendid prospect
of woods and avenues. Swift was another appreciative visitor.
The house contains portraits by Lawrence, Gainsborough,
Romney, Lely, Reynolds, Hoppner, Kncllcr and many others.
A mile west of the town is the Royal Agricultural College,
incorporated by charter in 2845. Its buildings include a chapel,
a dining hall, a library, a lecture theatre, laboratories, class-
rooms, private studies and dormitories for the students, apart-
ments for resident professors, and servants' offices; also a
museum containing a collection of anatomical and pathological
preparations, and mincralogical, botanical and geological speci-
mens. The college (arm comprises 500 acres, 450 of which
are arable; and on it are the well-appointed farm-buildings
and the veterinary hospital. Besides agriculture, the course of
instruction at the college includes chemistry, natural and
mechanical philosophy, natural history, mensuration, surveying
and drawing, and other subjects of practical importance to the
farmer, proficiency in which is tested by means of sessional
examinations. The industries of Cirencester comprise various
branches of agriculture. It has connexion by a branch canal
with the Thames and Severn canal.
Corinium was a flourishing Romano-British town, at first
perhaps a cavalry post, but afterwards, for the greater part of
the Roman period, purely a civilian city. At Chcd worth, 7 m.
N.E., is one of the most noteworthy Roman villas in England.
Cirencester (Cirneccastcr, Cyrencccsicr, Cyringccaskr) is described
in Domcsdny as ancient demesne of the crown. The manor was
granted by William I. to William Fitzosbern; on reverting to
the crown it was given in 1189, with the township, to the Augus-
tinian abbey founded here by Henry I. The struggle of the
townsmen to prove that Cirencester was a borough probably
began in the same year, when they were amerced for a fab:c
presentment. Four inquisitions during the 13th century sup-
ported the abbot's claims, yet in 1343 the townsmen declared
in a chancery bill of complaint that Cirencester was a borough
distinct from the manor, belonging to the king but usurped by
the abbot, who since 1308 had abated their court of provostry.
Accordingly they produced a copy of a forged charter from
Henry I. to the town; the court ignored this and the abbot
obtained a new charter and a writ of supersedeas. For their
success against the earls of Kent and Salisbury Hvkcj VI \».
1403 gave the townsmen a. ^a& xcvw\*axw\, i&fttnw&i vw*
I;
J?
?■■>
f
592
ci?.tt:o — CISSEY
lis ar rs;* stratus
> _ae =a_t i^s iht
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1_I r ^r .1
zs. r.r t-l: :•:— i" I—is: r ■•* ■■ -- ~-f? t ? *.":■«- 'jto;^:
It .r-s J--::.-: :cr.r:.-':c :c" NiZi-s e; "-M rrr.T^.i'nc a
": *.iii t.lt: — 'Jrrt zn p— =-rr-=:i r:r.aer:s; - ":* ms^ 1
rrr-^arr -_■._» :r *-:■; te:c"rf iz.: ie-nsae 1 rf—g :e tie
■■* 1--
-_:■; izzz-: :
Nt-'-a i=-: -hs
:c "_5
Z< 1-T
r-,— ■ -j.
:_lz r_ir.
*i thrz-j-i'vs ex,
1 ij wirt. ^xr:_r?
rrrcgt. a=i CzrZo wis
thr ::-=■ -*7.'- ~ , ~5 Iz thf TsrjriT-rs « iff
K? iiiri L&:y K'- r ::e "rj'e c: the Erics'
't* t.:- h:: £;-:;■:* ;c hj Veiij". b_: Xejcc *7tt
th* ;<::-J:=: - Dc=sci» Cj-::?. w*o b;i b
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: hzve -«=, savec .
: he chose
th* fx! tri
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CtT* rjt • !>£
■s a^iir-i! !ie ipv*-=:e=:
T.S pOOT t2 ~£
.i »>ir.,c ihz: he o;Iy took
Jv>hin: t Navy Records Society. ije:\ He was cczdestzsd
•ft 'J har.jpd on tke ly.fc cf October 175c. CL-C3o. w b«e favourite
*»»j*fy was \*,*xr.'j, and «bo was recogzized as aa eztctzslogbt
J»/ Li'r.njMui. Jrf? rr.ar.y LooIls. in Latir. azi Italian. a".I cf tkss:
f fating #,f mr^iial ar.d K:"er.ti5c s'jbj^cts. ar.d all cf utile va>-e
n'»* hx'rjtiion m*j\t, however, b< n-ade :a favour of tke
Vitlk moral 1 4*W A:ino, z plriiant ph;!osopk:cal parr.pklet
fm:it\h\,\f. \r,i in f!o a jbIe charm of sense end style. He 12-
f r'f'Ju' "1 many m^d-'a! innovations into Naples, partially
iriviUii'/n for -.mallpox.
'"*■ '' <.'\y\\',\\, HapUi in 1700 ^London. 1003) : L. Conforti. S'cpoli
nrt i/w /»,., ,,| l%f f j->xy / : ('.. 1 ivaroni. V Italia durante il domznio
fmnteif, v«,f 11 (,(,. 17^-^04. Also under Naples; Nelson and
J' »» mm a hi, IV. or Naples
CinqUR /'f.tt tinui, rlnj?), a French word used in physical
K"fj/Mjiliy to dih'fff- a •^mi'irujbr crater-like amphitheatre
,.» tin Ii«.i«| /,f n vallij*, or in ihr side of a glaciated mountain.
\ In v.ill*/ fiii|ii' i-. * fi.ir;ir frri.iir of r.alrarcous districts. In
Hi* 1 liilii in llilh i«.|iii Lilly, and gi-nrrally along the chalk
• • ■"!•» ■', • ll.ii iM.Mnfiiril viildy uith an intermittent
•in mi * in. I. lulu Ihr lull mid nvU '.iifldinly in a cirque. There
'" '■•illnii 1 >.uii|ilr 11I IvInj'lifM-, IluikinKhnmshire, where
11 'i|i|>'.ui !•-. it |>|i m, iiioniinii.il.it Imi 1 onifd troop had been
•liii-ni lulu iln I. ill i.ji mill .li.i|-jf.| •miw.iifU to the plain. In
all nun* 11 1 1 (i.uiiiI iliii tin- viill« y Hour ronsltu of hard or
izi a jc acxrpcttt
— ' • " "~ * -^ s=^= z -sa ar- £i.-cei ztr^-r^ ztit a peal
lis. 3 n ■*" s i^-^zcxL t=c i rrTacrtaars la: pxzd abavt
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ras .i bi . C 117 iimupt Li: — *"« gi ■-■-■^ , x p— 3" ■» 7:r~ aaC'ikes
_^ _i^r; in — -.:•; .. ii*M J: lk<
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•■:i=rt "je .rrte-^Mis :ei i i r^i.--j zz.7
_:* r-br.tfr lr is m a r<r.cctr.i-i :.. T- 5L C-ii^r. _; -±; stru
: -T^r^il *zi: tr:«r-':i* sor* r:T"i.- •_:_:."«• #tt — -" ^ :>:— lii
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firnsirz. :-:i-.T»i 1 r:«r"i. f*:«rc .~~ :«irr: ■«-.:h :r; iri b!«ks oJ
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±^'^^=1-^1 az.i i*.oixr-:=^' I-'t-S -"*= — **« l'*rt*
be =:srr-:c£ -^r-s ie-£ -.i—rj-s w:-b c.-:.«s a: i'ztir head iz
::c=fr"y r j rli:-i r?r»:» »Srrs a: :h; '?..lz ^::re 2* a *" rtvtnei
pxi* " ;c k«..ptf. ms i.-e :j ;:«.->•.•:: a: vaUfy-kca-is »ben
sc:*=r s ^:rvisi.": > a: tb* 5. : i» c-:" tV* =.■:■•-- tair. tut sirocpsJ
= 5s" cbs c"-ir?:r *£ii *r?rt lb: ::e s c«7«t. The ©--jx-acBti
:c" I■^^-^^.■*^: ::r. ir^«!ai TKz-^rJJu 'Sit '.cry- :requeat c-cjurrcna
:: f-i»taI .-ir;-» c.irr. >*;::•■'■'•£ s—^l likes sucb ss thai
rri^ Caisr 3 ira L: MV». cr a: lbs b^i of Little Tinsbc
Crsei M :■: tarj . az i = ;r. ^vus txzsr r "rf : r. A ■ 7 iae d iii nets.
CIRTA =»£. l".-*.j.-t. :t. . ,•? . j-. a.-ner.: city of Xucidia
In A:"r?.-a. iz -»b« c: ••=:■>■ c: :bs >[i*«>!:. It was regarded b)
r.^: rosi:.*- :r. X^3--idia, and was n*d<
U their great military road:
r:x-:v« :t was allowed to fal
.-^,a*w: Vv Constacilne, iron
ie S-rrtars as the str;
by ^i«3 ibe wcvery>jS tv :
Is. ibe: ccurtry. Fv :b/«:
[=to decay, but was j::e:»a:
wb?a :t t>:k its r»:ir» ri-
CISSET. ERNEST LOUIS QCTAYI CVVRTOT DE (1810-1S82)
Fre=ck gc-.eral. was K^rs it l v a:-.> k *- :>- .-.:rd of Septembci
xSxo. axd after pa**:r\<; »S:o^:b <t C>7. i-.t-reJ the army ir
1 33 f . becomL-^ captair. • n : ?.«.v II t w-i ; ; ; . ■. . «ty ice in Algeria
acd became chef cexzJr.'n sr. xS^; ±ri i.iwtcnant-colonel ia
iSsa He took part as a crione! :- the Cr"~cir. War. and afto
tke battle of Inkcnnan rccvived the rar.k o: porcral of brigade
In 1863 he was promoted general of division. When the Franco-
German War broke out in i$;o. dc Cissey wa< given a divisional
command in the Army of the Rhir.e. arsd he was included in
the surrender of Bazainc s army at Met*. He was released from
captivity only at the end of the war. and en his return was at
once appointed by the Versailles government to a command
in the army engaged in the suppression of the Commune, a task
in the execution of which he displayed great rigour. From July
187 1 de Cissey sat as a deputy, and he had already becom't
minister of war. He occupied this post several times during the
critical period of the reorganization of the French army. In
1880, whilst holding the command of the XI. corps at Nantes,
he was accused of having relations with a certain Baroness
Kaula, who wax said to be a spy in the pay of Germany and
CISSOID— CISTERCIANS
393
he was in consequence relieved from duty. An inquiry subse-
quently held resulted in de Cissey's favour (1881). He died on
the 1 5th of June 1882 at Paris.
CISSOID (from the Gr. Kioobt, ivy, and «i<3of, form), a
curve invented by the Greek mathematician Diodes about
180 B.C., for the purpose of constructing two mean proportionals
between two given lines, and in order to solve the problem of
duplicating the cube. It was further investigated by John Wall is,
Christiaan Huygens (who determined the length of any arc in
1657), and Pierre de Fcrmaf (who evaluated the area between
the curve and its asymptote in 1661). It is constructed in the
following manner. Let APB be a semicircle, BT the tangent
at B, and APT a line cutting the circle in P and BT at T; take
a point Q on AT so that AQ always equals
; PT; then the locus of Q is the cissoid.
Sir Isaac Newton devised the following
mechanical construction. 'Take a rod LMN
bent at right angles at M, such that
MN-AB; let the leg LM always pass
through a fixed point O on AB produced
such that OA-CA, where C is the middle
point of AB, and cause N to travel along
the line perpendicular to AB at C; then
the midpoint of MN traces the cissoid.
The curve is symmetrical about the axis
of x, and consists of two infinite branches
asymptotic to the line BT and forming a
cusp at the origin. The cartesian equation,
when A is the origin and AB-aa, is
y*{2a—x)-x i ; the polar equation is r-ia sin tan 0. The
cissoid is the first positive pcd.il of the parabola y , +kr«o
for the vertex, and the inverse 1 of the parabola y*-Sax, the
vertex being the centre of inversion, and the scmi-latus rectum
the constant of inversion. The area between the curve and its
asymptote is jra*, i.e. three times the area of the generating
circle.
The term cissoid has been given in modern times to curves
generated in similar manner from other figures than the circle,
and the form described above is di>iinguished as the cissoid of
Diodes.
A cissoid angle is the angle included between the concave sides
of two intersecting curves; the convex sides include the uttroid
anile.
See John Wallis, CcllccUd Works, vol. i. ; T. H. Eagles. Plan*
Cunts (1&05/.
CIS-SUTLEJ STATES, the southern portion of the Punjab,
India. The name, now oLvjk'.e, carse ir.to use in ifcoo, when the
Sikh chiefs south of the Sutlej passed under British protection,
and was generally applied to the country south of the Su'lej
and north of the Dei hi territory, bo'-r.dtd on the E. by the
Himalayas, ar.d on it.'. W. by S.rsa «3:-'rict. Before i'',& the
greater par: cf :hl» ttrri'o.-y as LvieptEder.! . '*«e t\.:+A\ being
subject merely to cor.'..". I i.-isi a polricd off.itr ita'.or.id at
Umbaila, and styled the ajr'.r.t of ri* gvvtrror-ger.erai for tie
Cis-SuUej stales. After the fir*". ":.*a 'A'tr :Le f--li a/:r...'..-..trat.oi
of the territory \*r. tr.e •.■•:■. *. r. '. .-. : \. \ ',.7. ' ».r. I r. : \ : -, y.'.-.rred
the anaexa'.ion c! the P-r.j-.^. --r.tr. tie C.v-*. -'..ej i'-i'.es c«r.-
missioaersh-p vj?yr.v.z.% "r.e g Lv.:.'.:\ of L"~ "m 1. f'.rw//*
La-ih;ara Tiiresax ivi 'r.rrJi. »i.s :z:-*y.ri' ft ».t. tie r*.»
The Ei*^e cv.\-. -t-i "> r/» i:.s. r .i *o *i.i 1. ■.-•#-.
i*.-r \-j T ■ :\ z>.~*. "k :.i.r. m z ■*■»-. '..•». *.: : *rr*"i
; a •■-"-. '.'" T-'i-f-ir '.: '.:-. 'u: -.. r _ .-.'-'. r. .•
-.-» -. "*». "-•- •** "v v.rr.i -_-r ■-».*.
- .i-i. -_ ■ . . '.-- Ps.--s.-u ; - ■: t: ". N1V-1
i.r.-t :*. ■_-•,.. i.-'.v. *. :•/",: i-7'- - —*?
: :.-. y. ■ '- ip." a v. r ,*-A-'-»
prov.nce.
until is/j:. »h»
to the Lav>re
ceased to l* a:-?*.---,.-*
beea i.r.^»r. 11 *.i* V" -.i_i
•ere i?r#-AZ. , '< a s*: i.r.-*
Baha«Lr^.r :v *i.*: ••_■
the other s-.i*.es i—jr- ->►-:
atd De'.ii. t^i • v ; .>r:
CIST Or c--* L."
•era. st^c*-t^*.-. i-- i y
Creea a-V-—^ '|> «. » ■•
•-*."/
in the archaeology of prehistoric man, a coffin formed of rial
stones placed edgeways with another llat atone lor a tovrr.
The word is also used for a sepulchral chamber iut in the rock
(see Coffin).
" Cistern," the common term for a natrrtank, it a derivation
of the same word (hat. liskmn; if. "rave" ami M cavern ").
CISTERCIANS, otherwise Ghky or Willi 1: Monkn (fiom ihr
colour of the habit, over which is worn a Mai k M-apular or itpmn).
In 1008 St Robert, Iwrn of a iMible family in Chimimgnc, n lust
a Benedictine monk, and then abl>ot of irrtuin hermit t M'tiliil ul
Molesme near Chatillon, being ilivatisltnl with the manni-r of
life and observance there, migralrd wilh twenty of the nionka
to a swampy place called (Iteaux in the cliiNtmr of (hahun, not
far from Dijon. Count (Mo of Burgundy hrrr built I hem a
monastery, and they began to live a life of at rid observant r
according to the letter of St Hrm-did'n rule. In the following
year Robert was compelled by pap.il authority to return In
Molesme, and Alheric aurt.erded him ai abbot of ( llraua and
held the ollice till his death in ihhj, when Ihr iMiKli^hinan hi
Stephen Ilanling betame abbot, until 11.14. For Miiur ymra
the new institute seemed little likrly to prm(ier; few novlira
came, and in the first years of Stephen'* abbaty 1 1 arrmril
doomed to failure. In 111 1, however, St Hrrnard and thirty
others offered themselves to I lie monastery, and a i.ipld and
wonderful development at omc set in. The nnt thicr yruu
witnessed the foundation of the four great " daughter liouv-t of
Cltcaux "— La Kert6, Pontigny, ( lairvaui and Moriinund.
At Stephen's death there were over 30 (.'itlrn iun honwn, at
Bernard's (1154) over 7H0; and by the end of l he 1 rniwy <wr
500; and the Listen ian influrnrr in Ihr Chun h more Ihan kej»t
pace wilh thin material exfjannjon, ut 1l1.1t Si Bernard saw one ol
his monks awend the papal 1 hair a* hugrniu* 111.
The keynote of Cistercian life wj* a ft urn to a literal obaerv-
anccof St Benedict's rule— how lit rml rn.iy lie seen from thin on
troversy between St Bernard and I'rti 1 the Venerable, abb<»i ul
Cluny (sec Matt land, Dark Aget, \ ixii ). '1 he ( jiien lanarrje' u d
alike all mitigations and all developrri<*nl% and lnr#| to rrpr'jdu' n
the liie exactly as it had b<eri in St U'-ri<:diri'» rim*-, \w\*n\ in
various points lh<-y went beyond it In auxti-riiy. 'I he mirt
striking feature in the reform was the pturn to rrianual \*\*mr,
and esp" ially torrid-work, whif h l^arnea xp« f ialthara'lf «MI«
of Cistcrdan life. In order to make Mrne for ibis wr/rk lliey <ul
away the a" ret ions to the divine ofli* e whi* h had be« u mmtUiy
growing d-jring three centuri'i, and in <.lut>/ and t» o'lier
Bla/.k Mor.k rr.'-.fta-,»erJ»-s h-vl *'»mr. \*, «;'«»! gr'jil/ in bugth
ihe regular rAnoniral ofij'*-. one only of ih«v n"nU',t,* «!i»|
they retain, the daily relation of •!.»■ hit.'*- of »h«. Ij»ad 'l^lm
Bishop, Or ig in of the Pnmtr, J,*rly hr.gli .h ']'*» Vx **-*/, original
series, iv>, p. x/x ;.
It was as agr."j]»'-rit.'s and horv- arid '»»'!e b/"d«r» thai,
after the f.r!.t blu».h of li/.f \*"i\\ *tA \*\:u\ u "i.* *// r**d
passed, the Cit* truant ».i«-.f'.vd »>**jr *i.i*l u,l\.»i,'r. w ih«
pr'4f:*^S of '.iv..*zv;<>ri in »he J*»*.r n.:*'.'i' *•/>%. *},* / *»r» •!.»
great farmers of »h'/« tUy\. *.:.'! .:.*:./ *,\ '/.• 1 •/. ;»"//• •/-•i.'t »h
tr.e vir.o.s fc.'rr...*ig o;>•-f*^v.^^ *"• .? •?*•: .'"J *»*: i»?'.;«y..» , ''f
i %y *h*rrr. ; 1* is fror.j *f ■. ^*r • *A *.* m ••.*• if.» .f;x.*«r.'« oi
' •rsr.t ';i M *.r.\.;u it* t',i'rs.r:. >..",;/• .* ••■ •*■ •'.' ••*.»•'. 7m
f. : ».r* :i r.s *' ' m **'/, ' v •'. t t* •*, . • • • < ■ . . t/.s"*s. :\ .: • '.•».»
*-.*r.f '".=r. •s-r ,r ."\ v.v. "o.. i " 'J f'l •■■•3 *:«;-«• .'.':•/! tor
**.»■ r .r.- •.*-.» »•'.>./ o*. 'r^: ^c": '!".; C* •' j'^/I t: **&.• t*4
\.;'*— '.:• y .rjf *:•.• . f «"*. p"A.'» 'a'".* *•-'! r**v. *fi
r.'sx: . t •:• -r •..'•?. *; "~* • •*•■?. '■ -■" * '.. ".r;**.\. 'A ' r> •// . •■* f . • •
'. : *e*. •■•: K. w *s.a V • -i •■/ ■-• • ■" - *!'.*• *#! ■*> : i''. */ *■'-'/ "•
ei^**- "»' »*^-* "-/ "^ / ••J5--'. '...'»r'-k*x u". vj"/*s^ « ?•<■ •••■
•. *v» ",rr*r'A */ ■•••. # .v -'.■*/ tw.'f, *j>s'* ''•'* '*• '<**
•ti-k'j; .* i. vi • •-•-■..•: -^v *^ '*.t^< ',,• •./ '-^ ".*.-*x *«v>;
»yr/ -.'//: *-. ■: rr j^v.i T.--«r. , v^« -> a *.-.•- -*'^.f«v> yr *j%
'/. S ' ' tS» IV. Vy '"A "i* ■XJJ.-" '.? ■-• l/V'-'Jt. */ uy
-.**.■■/••". »t". * ">:»vrt v. a -*'jr- t/^j» 7*i*». i«/ ■^fw*
v.-». r***. ■•* '"/". "A I?.*'**.' •; \ m s. •»*• • m !'s* \ m *+.'J*?*A
-•■ *'.'■■,• '.'•• .' ". *V ■'■." ■ '.»•".• 'Jf V." 'I**. ■•"■VmI \VrfV
.* in
.1j
» .'-. .: sr
-. v* v>- i- «.-': '-". jrv-.r." •r--.-_r.-.. .>rs t*t» •_.«
j- •^ixT+rf. ii. ' \f '. . ..:.'+? -J • f ' \ .T- .* ■ *. • V. .V» -• \' m XX
~.*s "..**/ ... r •*•'«■. v.- *--■• ■*. *>-"*.*/. r.-.r.^.f
^ '.t-.-j i r-
. . ^-. »v*. •'.■..•«•/ ; -» / -..-.-: ./ y
'/ >5
CITATION— CITHARA
395
whereof is that of Abbe E. Varandard (1895); •!*> in the Life of I
St Stephen Harding, in the English Saints. See also Henry Collins !
(one ol the Oxford Movement, who became a Cistercian), Spirit and
Mission of the Cistercian Order (1866). The facts are related in
Helypt, lint, des ordres religieux (1792). v. cc. 33*46, vi.ee. I, a. j
Useful sketches, with references to the literature, are supplied in
Herzog. Realencyklopadi* (cd. 3), art. " Cistcrcicnser " ; WeUcr 1
und Wclte, Kirchenlexikon (ed. 2), art. " Cistercicnscrorden " ; I
Max Hcimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1896), i. (| 3$, $4. 1
Prof. Brewer's discriminating, yet on the whole sympathetic,
Preface to vol. iv. of the Works of Giraldus Cambrcnsis (Rolls Scries
of Chronicles and Memorials) is very instructive. Denis Murphy's 1
Triumphalia Monasterii S. Crucis (1891) contains a general sketch, |
with a particular account of the Irish Cistercians. (E. C. B.)
CITATION (Lat. citare, to cite), in law, a summons to appear,
more particularly applied in England to process in the probate
and divorce division of the high court. In the ecclesiastical
courts, citation was a method of commencing a probate suit,
answering to a writ of summons at common law, and it is now
in English probate practice an instrument issuing from the
principal probate registry, chiefly used when a person, having
the superior right to take a grant, delays or declines to do so,
and another having an inferior right desires to obtain a grant;
the party having the prior right is cited to appear and cither to
renounce the grant or show cause why it should not be decreed
to the citator. In divorce practice, when a petitioner has filed his
petition and affidavit, he extracts a citation, i.e. a command
drawn in the name of the sovereign and signed by one of the
registrars of the court, calling upon the alleged offender to appear
and make answer to the petition. In Scots law, citation is used
in the sense of a writ of summons. The word in its more general
literary sense means the act of quoting, or the referring to an
authority in support of an argument.
CtTKAUX, a village of eastern France, in the department of
Cote d'Or, 16 m. S.S.E. of Dijon by road. It is celebrated
for the great abbey founded by Robert, abbot of Molesme,
in 1008, which became the headquarters of the Cistercian
order. The buildings which remain date chiefly from the 18th
century and arc of little interest. The church, destroyed
in 1792, used to contain the tombs of the earlier dukes of
Burgundy.
C1THAER0N, now called from its pine forests Elatea, a famous
mountain range (4626) ft.) in the south of Boeotia, separating
that state from Megaris and Attica. It was famous in Greek
mythology, and is frequently mentioned by the great poets,
especially by Sophocles. It was on Cithacron that Actaeon
was changed into a stag, that Pcntheus was torn to pieces by
the Bacchantes whose orgies he had been watching, and that the
infant Oedipus was exposed. This mountain, too, was the scene
of the mystic rites of Dionysus, and the festival of the Daedala
in honour of Hera. The carriage-road from Athens to Thebes
crosses the range by a picturesque defile (the pass of Dryos-
cephalae, " Oak-heads "). which was at one time guarded on the
Attic side by a strong fortress, the ruins of which are known as
Ghyphto-kastro (" Gipsy Castle "). Pbtaca is situated on the
north slope of the mountain, and the strategy of the battle of
479 B.C. was considerably affected by the fact that it was necessary
for the Greeks to keep their communications open by the passes
(see Plataea). The best known of these is that of Dryos-
cepbalae, which must then, as now, have been the direct route
from Athens to Thebes. Two other passes, farther to the west,
were crossed by the roads from Plataea to Athens and to Mcgara
respectively. (E.Gr.)
CITHARA (Assyrian chctarah; Gr. KiBapa; Lat. cilhara; per-
haps Heb. kinura, kittnor), one of the most ancient stringed
instruments, traced back to 1700 B.C. among the Semitic races,
in Egypt* Assyria, Asia Minor, Greece and the Roman empire,
whence the use of it spread over Europe. The main feature ol
the Greek kitkaro, its shallow sound-chest, being the most
important part of it, is also that in which developments are most
noticeable; its contour varied considerably during the many
1 ages, but the characteristic in respect of which it fore-
1 the precursors of the violin family, and by which they
t distinguished from other contemporary stringed instruments
Of the middle ages, was preserved throughout in all European
descendants bearing derived names. This characterise box
sound-chest (fig. 1) consisted of two resonating tables, either flat
or delicately arched, connected by ribs or sides of equal width.
The cithara may be regarded as an attempt by a more skilful
craftsman or race to improve upon the lyre (9.0.), while retaining
some of its features. The construction of the cithara can fortu-
nately be accurately studied from two actual specimens found in
Egypt and preserved in the
museums of Berlin and
Leiden. The Leiden cithara
(fig. 2), which forms part of
the d'Anastasy Collection in
the Museum of Antiquities,
is in a very good state of
preservation. The sound-
chest, in the form of an
irregular square (17 cm. X 17
cm.) 1 is hollowed out of a
solid block of wood from
the base, which is open;
the little bar, seen through
the open base and measur-
ing 2\ cm. (1 in.), is also of
the same piece of wood.
The arms, one short and
one long, are solid and are
fixed to the body by means
of wooden pins; they are
glued as well for greater
strength. W. Plcyte, through
whose courtesy the sketch *'»£ ; i — NeroCitharaedusfl/irj.
was revised and corrected, &££"<%£& ihowing back ° f a
states that there are no
indications on the instrument of any kind of bridge or attach-
ment for strings except the little half-hoop of iron wire which
passes through the base from back to front. To this the strings
were probably attached, and the little bar performed the double
duty of sound-post and support for strengthening the tail-piece
and enabling it to resist the tension of the strings. The oblique
transverse bar, rendered necessary by the increasing length of
the strings, was characteristic of the
Egyptian cithara, 1 whereas the Asiatic
and Greek instruments were generally
constructed with horizontal bars resting \
on arms of equal length, the pitch of the
strings being varied by thickness and ,
tension, instead of by length. (For the '
Berlin cithara see Lyre.)
The number of strings with which the
cithara was strung varied from 4 to 19
or 20 at different times; they were
added less for the purpose of increasing
the compass in the modern sense than
to enable the performer to play in the
different modes of the Greek musical
system. Tcrpandcr is credited with hav-
ing increased the number of strings
to seven; Euclid, quoting him as his
authority, states that "loving no more Egyptian Cithara
the tctrachordal chant, wc *ill sing aloud from Thebes. Museum
new hymns to a seven-toned phorminx." of Antiquities. Leiden.
What has been said of the scale of the lyre applies also to the
cithara. and need therefore not be repealed here. The strings
were vibrated by means of the fingers or plectrum (xX^«rpoi»,
from *\ipouv, to strike; Lat. plectrum, from plan go, I strike).
Twanging with the fingers for strings of gut, hemp or silk was
undoubtedly the more artistic method, since the player was able
to command various shades of expression which arc impossible
1 A drawing of an Egyptian cithara. similar to the Leiden specimen.
may be seen in Champullion. Monuments de I'EgypU el <UU Mutt**
ii. pi. 175-
CITIUM— CITRIC ACID
397
aust be sought among the unconverted bar-
rn and western Europe, who kept alive the
them by conquerors and colonists, but as
i its infancy with them the instruments sent
•rk&hops must have been crude and primitive.
i the cilhara, also became its foster-mother;
Greeks of Asia Minor that the several steps
rom cithara into guitar 1 (9.9.) took place,
ese steps produced the rotta (q.v.) t by the
ody, arms and transverse bar in one piece,
used the rotta at a very remote period (1700
from a fresco at Beni-Hasan, dating from the
II., which depicts a procession of strangers
imong them is a bearded musician of Semitic
ta which he holds horizontally in front of him
inner, and quite unlike the Greeks, who always
id cithara in an upright position. A unique
■ect angular rotta was found in an Alamannic
6th century at Obcrflacht in the Black Forest.
ras clasped in the arms of an armed knight;
i in the Volker Museum in Berlin. This old
b exact counterpart of instruments pictured in
of the 8th century, and is derived from the
cithara with rect-
angular body, while
from the cithara with
a body having the
curve of the lower
half of the violin was
produced a rotta with
the outline of the
body of the guitar.
Both types were
common in Europe
until the 14th cen-
tury, some played
with a bow, others
twanged by the
fingers, and bearing
indifferently both
names, cithara and
rotta. The addi-
tion of a finger-
like a short neck from body to transverse bar,
le of the finger-board space for the hand to pass
) stop the strings, produced the crwth or crowd
it about the reduction in the number of the
r four. The conversion of the rotta into the
n easy transition effected by the addition of a
y derived from the oval rotta. When the bow
suit was the guitar or troubadour fiddle. At
it called cilhara in the Latin versions of the
d cilran, cilre in Anglo-Saxon, but in the nth
j instrument was rendered hear pan, and in
ish harpc or harp, and our modern versions
s translation. The cittern (q.v.), a later dc-
ithara, although preserving the characteristic
tara, the shallow sound-chest with ribs, adopted
lUtline of the Eastern instruments of the lute
(K.S.)
ition), the principal Phoenician city in Cyprus,
rth end of modern Larnaca, on the bay of the
S.E. coast of the island. Converging currents
eet and pass seawards off Cape Kiti a few miles
f facilitated ancient trade. To S. and W. the
y lagoons, the salt from which was one of the
-perity. The earliest remains near the site go
on of this question see Kathleen Schlesingcr,
the Orchestra, part ii.. and especially chapters on
isition during the middle ages and the question
; Utrecht Psalter, in which the evolution of the
some length.
:ic Fig. 6.— Roman
on Cithara in transi-
a tion, of the Lycian
on Apollo (Rome Mus.
Capit.).
back to the Mycenaean age (c. 1400-1100 B.c.) and seem to mark
an Aegean colony: 1 but in historic times Citium is the chief
centre of Phoenician influence in Cyprus. That this was still a
recent settlement in the 7th century is suggested by an allusion
in a list of the allies of Assur-bani-pal of Assyria in 668 B.C. to a
King Damasu of Kartihadasti (Phoenician for " New-town "),
where Citium would be expected. A Phoenician dedication to
" Baal of Lebanon " found here, and dated also to the 7th
century, suggests that Citium may have belonged to Tyre. The
biblical name Kittim, derived from Citium, is in fact used quite
generally for Cyprus as a whole; 1 later also for Greeks and
Romans in general. 4 The discovery here of an official monument
of Sargon II. suggests that Citium was the administrative centre
of Cyprus during the Assyrian protectorate (709-668 B.c). k
During the Greek revolts of 500, 386 folL and 352 B.C., Citium
led the side loyal to Persia and was besieged by an Athenian
force in 449 B.C.; its extensive necropolis proves that it remained
a considerable city even after the Greek cause triumphed with
Alexander. But like other cities of Cyprus, it suffered repeatedly
from earthquake, and in medieval times when its harbour became
silted the population moved to Larnaca, on the open roadstead,
farther south. Harbour and citadel have now quite disappeared,
the latter having been used to fill up the former shortly after the
British occupation; some gain to health resulted, but an
irreparable loss to science. Traces remain of the circuit wall,
and of a sanctuary with copious terra-cotta offerings; the large
necropolis yields constant loot to illicit excavation.
Bibliography.— W. H. Engel, Kypros (Berlin, 1841), (classical
allusions}; J. L. Myrcs, Jour*. Hellenic Studies, xvii. 147 ff.
(excavations); Cyprus Museum Catalogue (Oxford, 1899), l>* 5-6;
L53-I55; Index (Antiquities); G. F. HU1, Brit. Mus. Cat. Coins of
Cyprus (London, 1904), (Coins). (J- 1- M.)
CITIZEN (a form corrupted In Eng., apparently by analogy
with " denizen/' from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen), etymologic-
ally the inhabitant of a city, citi or civitas (see City), and in
England the term still used primarily of persons possessing
civic rights in a borough; thus used also of a townsman as
opposed to a countryman. The more extended use of the word,
however, corresponding to civitas, gives " citizen " the meaning
of one who is a constituent member of a state in international
relations and as such has full national rights and owes a certain
allegiance (q.v.) as opposed to an "alien "; in republican countries
the term is then commonly employed as the equivalent of
" subject " in monarchies of feudal origin. For the rules govern-
ing the obtaining of citizenship in this latter sense in the United
States and elsewhere see Naturalization.
CITOLB, also spelled Sytole, Cythole, Gytolle, &c. (prob-
ably a Fr. diminutive form of cithara, and not from Lat. cist a,
a box), an obsolete musical instrument of which the exact form
is uncertain. It is frequently mentioned by poetical writers of
the 13th to the 15th centuries, and is found in Wydiffe's Bible
(1360) in 2 Samuel vi. 5, " Harpis and sitols and tympane."
The Authorized Version has " psaltiries," and the Vulgate
" lyrac." It has been supposed to be another name for the
psaltery (9.9.), a box-shaped instrument often seen in the
illuminated missals of the middle ages.
CITRIC ACID, Acidum citric urn, or Oxytbicakballylxc Acid,
CJtLi(OH) (CO-OH),, a tetrahydroxytribasic acid, first obtained
in the solid state by Karl Wilhclm Scheelc.in 1784, from the juice
of lemons. It is present also in oranges, citrons, currants, goose-
berries and many other fruits, and in several bulbs and tubers.
It is made on a large scale from lime or lemon juice, and also by
the fermentation of glucose under the influence of Citromycetes
pfejerianus, C. glaber and other ferments. Lemon juice is
fermented for some time to free it from mucilage, then boiled
• Cf. the name Kathian in a Ramessid list of cities of Cyprus,
Oberhummer, Die Insel Cypern (Munich, 1903), p. 4.
a Gcn. x. 4; Num. xxiv. 24; Is. xxiii. 1, 12; Jer. ii. jo; Eaek.
xxvii. 6.
4 Dan. xi. 30; 1 Mace. i. 1; viti. 5.
* Schradcr, " Die Sarvonstele des Berliner Museums," in Abh.
d. k. Preuss. Akad. Wit$. (1881); Zur Ctogr. d. <uv*i. fcrucV**
CBcrlin. 1890), pp. 337-344.
-o3
CITRON— CJ77A DELLA PIEVE
aiii 11 •"■
. C.'.ri: ■ ■
cry
c .tr-.i.ts.&znc
*(. : ^. C,H t O« a 5:
:-i s C. :::
e---.fr v-
be iy i;
A Krhsr Mrp:rs.ture nt::=p:iw this
:> cari/ca c:.x.:e and :::.::-: i:li. C.H:'?*. *i;h.
agiLi, Ly ths expulsion cf a =:!rcule c: filer, yi^is cJtri.:: nio
a:.hydr:'Je, C.H*Oj, Citric it:d tLzestea a: a t:r.perat-re
bclo-v 40" C. with comer.!:*:* i" *—:h"-r;c ic:I r- v « «- cl:: ;.-.
mor.',xidc as J forms acton-', i-iirlyixjllc aril With fuKi
potash it forms potasses* cxi!ate ani acttite. I: :s a strong
acid, and dissolved in "aater decomposes uiLc=^.tes and at'.acxs
iron and zinc.
The citrates are a numerous class cf salts, the most sc!--"c
of which are those of the alkaL'r.e metals; the citrates cf the
alkaline earth metals are insoluble. Citric acid, being tribasic.
forms either acid monometallic, acid dimct-l^c or neutral
tiuaetallic salts; thus, mono-, di- and tri-potasiium and senium
citrates are known. On wanning citric acid with an excess of
Use-water a precipitate of calcium citrate is obtained which is
rediss&tod as the liquid cools. • , -. . -j
Tr* impurities occasionally present in commercial citric acid
... -»"•« c-' aoussiuni and sodium, traces of iron, lead and copper
5££7«~- the vessels used for its evaporation and crystailita-
-^-"£lr- , -*ur> tartaric and even oxalic acid. Tartaric
'-^ <±± is sc-'Aiaes present in Urge quantities as an adulter-
■— - „Jv --.-c acd may be detected in the presence
*f Z "-Tt^^cuoaof a precipitate of acid potassium
c -t rr^'-cuL:^ acetate is added to a cold solution.
-— It vt^tlgihe two acids is to convert them
■— —r-J^S^Tthea treated with a perfectly
=^- = — — "— : ZZ-T. ;i>Jj soluble cupric citrate and
2*=- sa^i^i -* "^T-X^'whSe cupric tartrate remains
aJ= ^^I^-T-TTIso cis-iif-Jshed from tartaric
=»» — 1^ 1" Li^Soa of silver tartrate
~ ~J* ^s-T" -^"sSeTwm baled, whereas silver
--s, . ? 2T == ' ~Z!5 1^^ xlso ln~lhe preparation
-^ ~ 1 ZZZZ^ IS--*-— a=-i sulegogue, and
= ="*= 7** ■- r"g^T ? a r*i :«=cn juice.
*= a ^r/~ i^^ mot* » « ast U l 5 f0f
: !-.;« tihs zr^: jr.r^nnz-. :<zzs the scale preparations of iron. Of
i^-tr: ->?>: rrt iir ^r tt.z. .= - tnie is much used as a haematink,
. :-t?i _ri ii . n_j ru-r:.- 1^7 tsssenrv to cause gastric irritation or
l rrr- r:-=5 .r. itc .: n^ :* -if*T when the ordinary forms of iron are
:^" ess J^r.ii!ii 1::t l:-; quinine d :rate is used as a bitter
-7:^5 *.•-.- — :■-'-■: izii ~~-<z. In ^e blood ciirates are oxidized into
. ^L.-r rirrr-ni^s irf? '.zicrtlzc* art as remok cl kalis, increasing the
_:vl: ; ;.- ".r.:? x m ~ri : Im:>: t:.i iheseby the general rate of chemical
7i-r: zr±.z.^i -T.2JZ -3r :ori s« Anne Acid).
:>: m CTiiML z swrfs :■: >~--w C Ktdu'i>. belonging to the tribe
Lrf iiv».-..* ;i ira :•; ilt. rL nit^al order Rutaceae; the same
w ".:.; rrr -l« r^n^*is» i-a: -3* :-rmcs lizie and shaddock. The citron
.-r«:? ~- : sr^-l rv^-r-f*i r^: :r iir-'r proving to a height of about
:r -_ : hn? _-r*c-— ~ f_-igrLrj sy.iry branches, large pale-green
L I :r.-^i7 rrj.^.r slrri^ semrt Jjtves and generally unisexual
: T-.r :.t*-« pi.-7.lAr w-.:^:-l: L?i ▼h.:e within. The large fruit is
: - ':•: ; - :r :r :■: . ? t r-;.^.":«rLnt 1: tr-c tip and from 5 to 6 in. long,
t ■ : i._*::m:. : _rr. » -.vi z. : strt r t - n i the inner portion of which
;r.-.r- ^ :r..it »:.:.• ir i :j*ry. tbs o-:fr iin. gTcenish-yellow and
r I-.,- ^;r» f-^rrr: 7*r« pJ? » s-:-toi iT>i edible, and the seeds
cl :y — -s r : .?: T>in :n r-iry 1 :_: j-_*« ;■:" the fruit, some of them
: : : r f ; : c~: i: *T-r>: nr i -^-r 7?s Ms i~i* citron has the form of an
}ii z .-':j.:t sr.r.rr; l?z - isi ir.pfri-i r.trc-a " of China the lobes
:r.rr ir* s&zzriis-z. :::: ir.r.r-Lvs — ^..rs formed by separation
: E7 : c : it r; r: n* - : js r t c* -7% ^ n* >rr-r» s: r e : .zr.es in the orange.
:r;. t Trs n:r:r:-t-sf th:..;# .:. t>r ::<- ^1: :a China, Persia, the
yi^.r 1\"»tlri.» 3c;fj_-i. 5....> v~:r>..-: ir.i the wanner parts of
5rnlr. ir; Zti* : xr; :n c.--rAK> i : : • .v it is often to be seen
" :rS rrp.:n5. >-r \^rr Hacker {Flora cf British
>^:z. i ;Zi* rxcisit .1 &£ a r.zt.f ci the valleys at the
:>c : c: *->; H — >ya £=i .-:' tbe Kris^i hills and the Western
Gh&.ts. Tt r:nA"."Ji Iv-jiTfr. c.iiJiirs :t to have originated
.n C-i..*.n Cr_JT-i -rr Cr..r^ n.-i t: hj.ve been introduced into
I::i * *f:."e it sprr-ii :.- X^e. i rri Frriia. It was described
by 7>i\-rr.ri5:-.^ ij fr. ---r.c :r M.*;.j. three centuries before
Chrljt. z-i vz* ei:> i.r;*7. :.* : v r ir:^r.*.s. and the fruit was
hfli in frTfit r*:«=r. b> :>;rr. >l: :*■-.> s«m to have been ac-
qui'.n:e>i "r::h =■• ^-t>;: =-r~b<: :: :>* A -• - r:.f ze. the introduction
cf cringes zr.i "-rrr:r* :::.* :h; »v-n:r.s* of the Mediterranean
b:>.g due to the AtaVs. Sit^^n t>e tc:h and 15th centuries.
Jc se^h'-s tells *^s that " the law c: the Jevs required that at the
•cijt c: :^b<m;c!» evcr>- cr.e «>:uli hive 1> ranches of palm-
troe and citr^r.-trre" K Ar:.,' x-.: :.:. 5'; and the Hebrew
word .'j.'/i-.-*. ncr. j*red - *rr'« " i=- " apple-tree " in Cant. ii.
&o . prohaMy scr.iri-s the citron-tree and
,i.± in J tri in ntrre nrr
c rrcv. xxv.
its fr^it- Orib.^ij in the j:h ^v.^-
accurately dIs::r^rJ*h : .-g :he t^:<^f p.:*:> o
ccnturj- the tree was intrcsSuceJ :r.:j l\tL\ .
forms us, it was rr.u.-h gro^n at Sa!erro i
In China citrons are pL;ct\! in apartcrsen
,*i scribes the fruit,
it- About the 3rd
-T-. as Gallesio in-
: '.>? nth century,
them fragTanL
The rind of the citron >i<IJs two per'unvs. .•:.* .-• ctJra and oil
cf cil'cn, isomeric with oil of turpentine: zri nhen candied it
is much esteemed as a dessert and in cer.tc t-eserv. The lemon
(q.z.) is now generally regarded as a suSpecies" Limcnum of
C-.'.rus tKfdira.
Cri'tu"" S..r- ,: ini. CrZfcte**m JWiiw/jw LX'i XVII I 64
(De c::y< : C.y.r -rJ du f:;r M u$u x : Par* in. Animals
and Ft**ts niK.r . ■■:..':t«:: ; m 1. 134.3 ;?> m*6$): Brandis,
Fcrat Fiora of .\crth-\leit cd Cent**) Ir.JU, p. 5 i (iSm*; E
Bona\ia. Tke CuitoiaUd O'angts and Lev.cns, t'c, cf India and
Ceylon (1890). ' w
CITTADELLA. a town of Venetia, Italy, in the pwince of
Padua, 20 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Padua; 160 ft.
above sea-leveL Pop. (1001) town, 3616; commune, 06S6. The
town was founded in 1220 by the Paduans to counterbalance
the fortification of Castelfranco, 8 m. to the E., in 1218 by the
Trevisans, and retains its well-preserved medieval walls, sur-
rounded by a wet ditch. It was always a fortress of importance,
and in modern times is a centre for the agricultural produce of
the district , being the junction of the lines from Padua to Bassano
and from Vicenza to Trcviso.
CITTA DELLA PIEVE, a town- and episcopal sec of Umbria,
Italy, in the province of Perugia, situated 1666 ft. above the sea,
CITTA DI CASTELLO— CITTERN
399
5 m. K.E. of ha station on the railway between Chiusi and
Orvieto. Pop. (1001) 8381. Etruscan tombs have been found
in the neighbourhood, but it is not certain that the present town
stands on an ancient site. It was the birthplace of the painter
Pietro Vannucci (Perugino), and possesses several of his works,
but none of the first rank.
CITrA DI CASTEIXO, a town and episcopal see of Umbria,
Italy, in the province of Perugia, 38 m. £. of Arezzo by rail
(18 m. direct), situated on the left bank of the Tiber, 045 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1001) of town, 6096; of commune,
16,885. It occupies, as inscriptions show, the site of the ancient
Tifemum Tiberinum, near which Pliny had a villa (Epist. v. 6;
cf. H. Winncfeld in Jahrbuch des deutschen arch&ologischen
Institute, vi. Berlin, 1891, 203), but no remains exist above
ground. The town was devastated by Totila, but seems to have
recovered. We find it under the name of Castrum Fdicitatis
at the end of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from the
7th century. The town went through various political vicissi-
tudes in the middle ages, being subject now to the emperor,
now to the Church, until in 1468 it came under the Vitelli:
but when they died out it returned to the allegiance of the
Church. It is built in the form of a rectangle and surrounded
by walb of 1518. It contains fine buildings of the Renaissance,
especially the palaces of the Vitelli, and the cathedral, originally
Romanesque. The 12th-century altar front of the latter in
silver is fine. The Palazzo Comunale is of the 14th century.
Some of Raphael's earliest works were painted for churches in
this town, but none of them remains there. There is, however,
a small collection of pictures.
See Magherini Graziani, L'Arte a Cittd. di CasteUo (1897).
CITTl VECCHIA, or CittA Notabile, a fortified dty of
Malta, 7 m. W. of Valletta, with which it is connected by railway.
Pop. (1001) 7515. It lies on high, sharply rising ground which
affords a view of a large part of the island. It is the seat of a
bishop, and contains an omate cathedral, overthrown by an
earthquake in 1693, but rebuilt, which is said by an acceptable
tradition to occupy the site of the house of the governor Publius,
who welcomed the apostle Paul. It contains some rich stalls
of the 15th century and other objects of interest. In the rock
beneath the city there are some remarkable catacombs in part
of pre-Christian origin, but containing evidence of early Christian
burial; and a grotto, reputed to have given shelter to the apostle,
is pointed out below the church of San Paolo. Remains of
Roman buildings have been excavated in the town. About
a m. E. of the town is the residence of the English governor,
known as the palace of S. Antonio; and at a like distance to
the sooth is the ancient palace of the grand masters of the order
of St John, with an extensive public garden called II Boschetto.
Citta Vecchia was called Civitas Melita by the Romans and
oldest writers, Medina (i.e. the city) by the Saracens, Notabile
(locale notabile, et insigne coronae regiae, as it is called
in a charter by Alphonso, 1428) under the Sicilian rule,
and Citta Vecchia (old city) by the knights. It was the
capital of the island till its supersession by Valletta in 1570.
(Seeabo Malta.)
CITTIRJI (also Cithern*, Citrko.v, Cytttxe.v, Cttharen, &c;
Fr. dire, cistrt, cithre. guiiare aUcmande or anglaiu; Ger. Cither,
Zither (mii Halt, with neck); Ital. cetera, cetra), a medieval
stringed instrument with a neck terminating in a grotesque and
twanged by fingers or plea rum. The popularity of the cittern
was at its height in England and Germany during the i6th and
. 17th centuries. The cittern con-
: sisted of a pear-shaped body
sixilar to that of the lute but
with a flat back and sound-board
joined by ribs. The neck was provided with a fretted finger-
board; the head was curved and surmounted by a grotesque
head of a woman or of an animal. 1 The strings were of wire in
1 See Shakespeare. Loot's Labour's L. :l. act v. «c 2. where Boyet
compare* the coa3icsa*xr of H-^.a r-n to a c 'ten he&d: J 'An
Force. Lovers' MeUv.k.%) iCiy.. act u. tc. 1, " Earners shaL »«ax
thee o» their catena."
pairs of unisons, known as courses, usually four in number In
England. A peculiarity of the cittcru lay in the tuning of tho
courses, the third course known aa baas being lower than tht
fourth styled tenor.
According to Vincentio Galilei (the father of the great astro*
nomer) England was the birthplace of the cittern.* Several
lesson books for this popular instrument were published during
the 17th century in England. A very rare book (of which tho
British Museum does not possess a copy), The Ciltharn School*,
written by Anthony Holborne in 1597, is mentioned in Sir
P. Leycester's manuscript commonplace book 1 dated 1656,
" For the little Instrument called a Psiliyme Anthony Holborno
and Tho. Robinson were most famous of any before them and
have both of them set out a booke of Lessons for this Instrument.
Holborne has composed a Basae-parte for the Viole to play unto
the Psittyrne with those Lessons set out in his booke. These
lived about Anno Domini 1600." Thomas Robinson's New
Citharen Lessons with perfect tunings for the same from Fours courm
of strings to Fourteen* course, &c. (printed London, 1609, by
William Barley), contains illustrations of both kinds of instru-
ments. The fourteen-course cittern was also known in England
as B%juga\ the seven courses in pairs were stretched over tht
From Tbomu Robbioo't Ntw CUhvrn Lt$$tmi. 1609.
Four-cour*c Cittern.
finger-board, and the seven single strings, fastened to the grot*
esque head, were stretched as in the lyre a vide alongside tho
neck; all the strings rested on the one flat bridge near the tail-
piece. Robinson gives instructions for learning to play tho
cittern and for reading the tablature. John Playford't Af mirk's
Delight on the Cithren (London, 1666) aI»o contains illustrations
of the instrument as well as of the viol da Gamba and Pochette;
he claims to have revived the instrument and restored it to what
it was in the reign of Queen Mary.
The cittern probably owed its popularity at this time to tho
ease with which it might be mastered and used to accompany
the voice; it was one of four instruments generally found In
barbers' shops, the others being the git tern, the lute and tho
virginals. The customers while waiting took down the instru-
ment from its peg and played a merry tune to pax the time. 1
We read that when Konstantijn Huygem came over to England
and was received by Jarnes I. at Bagvhot, he played to tho
king on the cittern ('.ithara), and that his performance was
duly appreciated and applauded. He tells us that, although he
learnt to play the barbiton in a few weeks with skill, he bad
lessons from a master for two years on the cittern.* On the
occasion of a third visit he witnessed the performance of some
fine musicians and was aUonithed to hear a lady, mother of
twelve, singing in divine fashion, accompanying htruli on the
cittern; one of these artists he calls Laniviut, the British
Orpheus, whose performance was really enchanting.
Michael Praetorius* gives various tunings for the cittern as
* Dialogo d'lla mutica f Florence. \&\).\>- '47-
» The miJtK.«l tur*/.i\ from t).»- r//mmof«#U<* Ux4r were prepared
by Dr RimSault for the Early tr>fc!;%h Text Society. lfo!borfM-'a
work is ment i'/fK'J in hi* Bttftoihtec Madrtgaliana. tht! de* riptjve
iitt of the rau-.ioJ instrument* in uir. in LngUnd (faring l/y^t^i
: >«int 'a^ojt 1050; \u\ i*+n •m.T4t**A *tA put/lit Kff I// \)t f . I-
r jrnivaM. in Ccfiotm Cox. kti Ballads and Books, or sXbUrt Lonekom §
Letur 'IS75/. (London. 1*7 1 ;. pp. 05-6*.
• S* Kmrht'» London, i. 142.
* vs* De V\li prvprvs iTnvmw* inUt Uherot itbri duo f Ifaarleai,
1*17- tryj E. van drr Straeten, Ijs iiuiipu aux Pays Bat, '%.
34>-iv>
• *«f?f«M Xfv.vcum t\*,\%). *++ i!*> M. *A*r*run+. JU'Mimi*
nnr.<ryc-e f**x», \(j'Jjj. tivtt £. y.<+; a v., *.v, gists difercflt
accorcaxcea.
4-oo
CITY
well «s «n illustration (sounded an octave higher than the
notaiiun).
trrutli lt*I*a 4 iuun» tulUa A coune
li r i" r r e * r r r - bt-j? e t f rfh
I>uting the iS(h trutury the cittern, citra or English guitar,
had twelve mite string* in sis pairs ol unisons tuned thus:
# j J J c p '- c --.
The introduction of the Spanish guitar, which at once leapt
Into lavour. gradually displaced the Knglish variety. The
S|Nim*h guitar had gut strings twanged by the fingers. The
hit development of the cittern before its disappearance was the
iddihon ,i| Wcv» The keyed cithara 1 was first made by Claus
* *'»» «t I ^mlon in 178.1. The keys, six in number, were
pl.ued on the Irlt ol the sound hoard, snd on being depressed
they aiirtl on hammers nwde the sound chest, which rising
lhiough the uw sound hole >tiu*k the strings. Sometimes
the kevs weie phurd in a little boi light over the strings, the
hAiiuuri* Muling tiom nho\e M. J. H. Vuillaume of raris
1H»-M-VHS| an I1.1l1.1n irteia inot kevrd) by Ant oine Stradivari us,'
• :«n» mow in ihc Muvruni ot the Conservatoire. Paris), with
•«tl\». Miing« tuivtt in \wr.y o| unions to F. l>, G, B, C, A,
Hln,h **, exhibited in london in iS;i.
I he tuieiu ol the 10th icntmv *a» the result of certain
iiaiiMtion* whuh t«s«V place dunng the evolution of the violin
Iiimm the Luck luh.ua vkv I'iiiiirO.
A««\ii.in Ki
INkiiii tii ( t \i.i|>i,
Ktiti.11.1
M>s«n.|i * .,1.1, .|
I lima m \.i.ii A iia
thai ah Persian
i.itvk kithaia Arab Y
1
K.*m.iii i'ith.11.1 r.uropcai
01 \ «•'■•« lila
l .»s «< 1 1:1 ti mvtion i»r Kotta
•
Rebab
tebab
> Rebec
1
* ii-ii' t«ii, 1.1. .»,..,»
»'» t • -i 11
•mm i.-S\... .„
1 V \\\ \% \-\ S\» 1,
\.. ..in \ I Ki.'Ji C'li
0. \ -V»:.i \U* Maiw*
1
\.Vu.in
t-n vd irv l-"ow i*g iharacter\tici
1
\Urn
ol the
an nl
IlKl,-. I
vi x Wv xl.ixi'.'vi ol iV im:w. whuh alter the
i ol »tv tv« w.i» 1 %*nI 10 «Yr..iitcr..*c vanou* iiisttu-
111. »■.. «».,., ,.-., .^, H% .„. im i-i S , % l I»\ t.:ig\-iN 01 p!c\tiuni. such
»- i's imp i.i.i !»,,- lojn v :.o!Mi!o«'.iax...*.".:\thecUolaand
,; *' ■*'. 1 |.\ .»■» n',.V.in..u latin and Xnfc'o Saxon vci>ion
»•' i 1 '. 1\i'.,, Jn.,1 n« 00 vImiI Mil*. Nop A l\.i.«J'd
'■ »» v ■•liu.l . . - i.x-.-i «»• ,h it ix not di'.Kult to trace the
1 '•'■•N . ■.■«.,! .'vol llv i%Mh «c;itui\. v-^ The
»''■■ •■•«i.» 1 ,»n ol l\- *orn.l iNn! wuh l\i; Uuk and \ound board
»o-.v, i, .1 \*y |.;,s 1 hi- is .11 *Ki, yd outline «as |\w>lbly
boiion«,t hoiii 1 lu* 1'aHtiiu m«tii;i'i«-nt» a Ivth Ivw^l a> the
1%1-ab and lv«.mKid .iv the lute. >o lommon all over Kurope
dining 1 ho nudille sgc*. or mote ptoKiMy deii\cd Horn the
A •.'•;. :'.i ol the (■uvl> of A>ia Minor, which had the corners
rounded. Tlusc early steps in the transition from the iHkau
may be seen in the miniatures of the I'trecht Psalter. 1 a unique
and much copied Carolingian MS. executed at Reims (gth
century), the illustrations of which were undoubtedly adapted
from an earlier psalter from the Christian East. The instruments
which remained true to the prototype in outline as well as in
. ' Sec Carl Engcl, Catalogue of the Exhibition of Ancient Musical
Instruments (London. 187a). Nos. aflg and ?qo.
Sec note above. Illustration in A. J. Hipkins. Musical Instru-
■"wi; Historic, Rare a>td Unique (Edinburgh, i8h8).
1 '" o e a r&unWS of the quchtion of the origin of this f.imous
P" -™*r, and an inquiry into its Inuring on the history of mii«kal in-
«'uin. nt* with illustrations and far-.imi!rrr -product ionv. stx'Kdihlecn
^ "•' -i:i^i-r. The In%t*umr-r,t< nf the Orrhnfa, pirt ii " T?ir IVe-
eurs., r , t ,f thl . \ iltVn f am il>, " pp. U7-I0G (Lnnilon. i^S-i*^)-
construction and in the derivation of the name were the ghiiiem
and the guitar, so often confused with the cittern. It iscvidot
that the kinship of cittern and guitar was formerly ncognued,
for during the iSth century, as stated above, the cittern was
known as the English guitar to distinguish it from the Spanish
guitar. The grotesque head, popularly considered the character'
istic feature of the cittern, was probably added in the t:ih
century at a time when this style of decoration was very notice-
able in other musical instruments, such as the cornet or Zstuk, the
Platcrspicl, the chaunter off the bagpipe, &c. The cittern of the
middle ages was also to be found in oval shape. From the 13th
century representations of the pear-shaped instrument abound in
miniatures and carvings.'
A very clearly drawn cittern of the 14th century occurs ia a MS.
treatise on astronomy (Sloane MS. 3083, Brit. Mus.) translated froa
the Persian of Albumazar into Latin by Georgius Zothari Zopari
Fenduli, priest and philosopher, with a prologue and numeral
illustrations by his own hand; the cittern u here called fsfi is u
inscription at the side of the drawing.
References to the cittern are plentiful in the literature of the
1 6th and 17th centuries. Robert Fludd • describe* it thui:
" Cistrona quae quatuor tantum chordas duplkatas habet eaique
cupreas et ferreas de quibus aliqutd dicemui quo loco.*' Others are
Riven in the New English Dictionary, " Cittern," and in Godefroyi
Vict, de lane, langue franc, du IX' au X V' sOcU. (K. S.)
CITY (through Fr. ciU, from Lat. cnitas). In the United
Kingdom, strictly speaking, " city " is an honorary title, offici-
ally applied to those towns which, in virtue of some pre-eiBioroa
(e.g. as episcopal sees, or great industrial centres), have by
traditional usage or royal charter acquired the right to the
designation. In the United Kingdom the official style of M city "
does not necessarily involve the possession of municipal power
greater than those of the ordinary boroughs, nor indeed the
possession of a corporation at all (e.g. Ely). In the United
Slates and the British colonies, on the other hand, the official
application of the term " city " depends on the kind and ateat
of the municipal privileges possessed by the corporations, tod
charters are given raising towns to the rank of cities. Bothii
France and England the word is used to distinguish the older
and central nucleus of some of the large towns, e.g. the CO* »
Paris, and the " square mile " under the jurisdiction of the lord
mayor which is the " City of London."
In common usage, however, the word implies no more thto a
somewhat vague idea of size and dignity, and is loosely applied
to any large centre of population. Thus while, technically,
the City of London is quite small, London is yet properly de*
sv ribed as the largest city in the world. In the United State*
this use of the word is still more loose, and any town, whether
technically a city or not, is usually so designated, with little
regard to its actual size or importance.
It is clear from the above that the word " city " is incapable
of any very clear and inclusive definition, and the attempt to
show 1 hat historically it possesses a meaning that clearly difitf*
cntiatc* it irorn " town " or " borough " has led to some contro-
versy. As the translation of the Greek toXu or Latin cmMJ
it involves the ancient conception of the state or " city-state,"
1 1 of the state as not too large to prevent its government
through the body of the citizens assembled in the agora, and '*
applied not to the place but to the whole body politic. FroiP
this conception both the word and its dignified connotation are
without doubt historically derived. On the occupation of Gaul
the Gallic states and tribes were called cirilota by the Romans,
• An oval cittern and a (-bittern, side by side, occur in the bcadtiful
i.Uh-centurv Spanish MS. known as Cauttgas de Santa liana in the
K^orial. Kor a fine facsimile in colours s« marquis de Valmar.
/era/. Amd. E, v ., publ. bv L. Agiudo Madrid. 1M9) Repro-
duction, in hUtVand »hite in Juan F. Rufio. Cn tualand Bititog.
AV/« on Earh Spanish M**u (London. »&»7)- See also K.
SchlesinKerTor; al fie 1*7. P- »«. **"> W^^i citterns.
"«*. 155 and ?& ?1ot ' Ciiirrn with wonian's head. 15th century,
on one of six lu^lufs on thr under P» rt »^ h ^!?* , i * l ho ! r
of the Pri^rv -church Crrtl -- K , fa,wrn - reproduced in J. Carter s
A «. tern A-^pimwic. vol. "■ pi. following p. 1 J. Another without
a hr.ui. iSJ. pi. joilowlfit P- >6 > from a brass monumental plate
in Si M.u ( jmV. Kin#*« Lynn.
•/florid h<i>v H ij«* Cosmt (Uppenlicim.ed I61-) L22G
CIUDAD BOLIVAR— CIUDAD REAL
401
and subsequently the name wis confined to the chief towns of
the various administrative districts. These were also the seats
of the bishops. It is thus affirmed that in France from the 5th
to the 15th century the name civitas or citi was confined to such
towns as were episcopal sees, and Du Cange (Gloss. s.v. civitas)
defines that word as urbs episcopalis, and states that other
towns were termed castra or oppida. How far any such distinc-
tion can be sharply drawn may be doubted. With regard to
England no definite line can be drawn between those towns
to which the name civitas or citi is given in medieval documents
and those called burp or boroughs (see J. H. Round, Feudal
England, p. 338; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and After,
p. 183). It was, however, maintained by Coke and Blackstone
that a city is a town incorporate which is or has been the see
of a bishop. It is true, indeed, that the actual sees in England
all have a formal right to the title; the boroughs erected into
episcopal sees by Henry VIII. thereby became " cities "*, but
towns such as The t ford, Sherborne and Dorchester are never
to designated, though they arc regularly incorporated and were
once episcopal sees. On the other hand, it has only been since
the latter part of the 19th century that the official style of "city"
has, in the United Kingdom, been conferred by royal authority
on certain important towns which were not episcopal sees,
Birmingham in 1889 being the first to be so distinguished. It
b interesting to note that London, besides 27 boroughs, now
contains two cities, one (the City of London) outside, the other
(the City of Westminster) included in the administrative county.
For the history of the origin and development of modern city
government see Borough and Commune: Medieval.
CIUDAD BOLfVAR, an inland city and river port of Venezuela,
capital of the state of Bolivar, on the right bank of the Orinoco
river, 240 m. above its mouth. Pop. (1891)11,686. It stands
upon a small hill about 187 ft. alwvc sea-level, and faces the
liver where it narrows to a width of less than half a mile. The
city is largely built upon the hillside. It is the scat of the
bishopric of Guaynna (founded in 1700), and is the commercial
centre of the great Orinoco basin. Among its noteworthy edifices
axe the cathedral, federal college, theatre, masonic temple,
market, custom-house, and hospital. The mean temperature
is 83*. The city has a public water-supply, a tramway line,
telephone service, subfluvial cable communication with Solcdad
near the mouth of the Orinoco, where connexion is made with the
national land lines, and regular. steamship communication with
the lower and upper Orinoco. Previous to the revolution of
1001-3 Ciudad Bolfvar ranked fourth among the Venezuelan
custom-houses, but the restrictions placed upon transit trade
through West Indian ports have made her a dependency of the
La Cuaira custom-house to a large extent. The principal exports
from this region include cattle, horses, mules, tobacco, cacao,
rubber, tonka beans, bitters, hides, timber and many valuable
forest products. The town was founded by Mendoza in 1764 as
San Tomas de la Nueva Guayana, but its location at this particu-
lar point on the river gave to it the popular name of Angostura,
the Spanish term for " narrows." This name was used until
1849, when that of the Venezuelan liberator was bestowed upon
It Ciudad Bolivar played an important part in the struggle for
independence and was for a time the headquarters of the revolu-
tion. The town suffered severely in the struggle for its possession,
and the political disorders which followed greatly retarded its
growth.
CIUDAD DB CTJRA, an inland town of the state of Aragua,
Venezuela, 55. m. S.W. of Caracas, near the Lago de Valencia.
Pop. (1801) 12,198. The town stands in a broad, fertile valley,
between the sources of streams running southward to the Gu&rico
river and northward to the lake, with an elevation above sea-level
of 1508 ft. Traffic between Puerto Cabello and the Gu&rico
plains has passed through this town since early colonial times,
and has made it an important commercial centre, from which
hides, cheese, coffee, cacao and beans are sent down to the coast
for export ; it bears a high reputation in Venezuela for commercial
enterprise. Ciudad de Cura was founded in 1730, and suffered
severely in the war of independence.
VI 7-
C1UDAD JUAREZ, formerly El Paso del Norte, a northern
frontier town of Mexico, in the state of Chihuahua, 1223 m. by
rail N.N. W. of Mexico City. Pop. ( 1 895) 69 1 7. Ciudad Juarez
stands 3S00 ft. above sea-level on the right bank of the Rio
Grande del Norte, opposite the city of El Paso, Texas, with which
it is connected by two bridges. It is the northern terminus of
the Mexican Central railway, and lias a large and increasing
transit trade with the United Stales, having a custom-house
and a United States consulate. It is also a military post with a
small garrison. The town has a straggling picturesque appear-
ance, a considerable part of the habitations being small adobe
or brick cabins. In the fertile neighbouring district cattle are
raised, and wheat, Indian corn, fruit and grapes are grown, wine
and brandy being made. The town was founded in 16S1-16S2;
its present importance is due entirely to the railway. It was the
headquarters of President Juarez in 1865, and was renamed
in 1885 because of its devotion to his cause.
CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ, formerly Piedras Necras, a
northern frontier town of Mexico in the state of Coahuila, 1008 m.
N. by W. from Mexico City, on the Rio Grande del Norte, 720 fL
above sea-level, opposite the town of Eagle Pass, Texas. Pop.
(1900, estimate) 5000. An international bridge connects the two
towns, and the Mexican International railway has its northern
terminus in Mexico at this point. The town has an important
transfer trade with the United States, and is the centre of a
fertile district devoted to agriculture and stock-raising. Coal is
found in the vicinity. The Mexican government maintains a
custom-house and military post here. The town was founded
in 1849.
CIUDAD REAL, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833
of districts taken from New Castile, and bounded on the N.
by Toledo, E. by Albaccte, S. by Jacn and Cordova and W. by
Badajoz. Pop. (1900) 321,580; area, 7620 sq. m. The surface
of Ciudad Real consists chiefly of a level or slightly undulating
plain, with low hills in the north-east and south-west; but along
the south-western frontier the Sierra de Alcudia rises in two
parallel ridges on cither side of the river Alcudia, and is continued
in the Sierra Madrona on the cast. The river Guadiana drains
almost the entire province, which it traverses from cast to west;
only the southernmost districts being watered by tributaries of
the Guadalquivir. Numerous smaller streams flow into the
Guadiana, which itself divides near Hcrcncia into two branches, —
the northern known as the Gigucla, the southern as the Zancara.
The eastern division of Ciudad Real forms part of the region
known as La Mancha, a flat, thinly-peopled plain, clothed with
meagre vegetation which is often ravaged by locusts. La Mancha
(q.v.) a sometimes regarded as coextensive with the whole pro-
vince. Severe drought is common here, although some of the
rivers, such as the Jahalon and Azucr, issue fully formed from
the chalky soil, and from their very sources give an abundant
supply of water to the numerous mills. Towards the west, where
the land is higher, there are considerable tracts of forest.
The climate is oppressively hot in summer, and in winter the
plains are exposed to violent and bitterly cold winds; while the
cultivation of grain, the vine and the olive is further impeded
by the want of proper irrigation, and the general barrenness of
the soil. Large flocks of sheep and goats And pasture in the
plains; and the swine which arc kept in the oak and beech
forests furnish bacon and hams of excellent quality. Coal is
mined chiefly at Puerto! bno, lead in various districts, mercury
at Almaden. There are no great manufacturing towns. The
roads arc insufficient and ill-kept, especially in the north-east
where they form the sole means of communication; and neither
the Guadiana nor its tributaries arc navigable. The main railway
from Madrid to Lisbon passes through the capital, Ciudad Real,
and through Puenollano; farther east, the Madrid-Linircs line
passes through Man/Snares and Valdepcuas. Branch railways
also connect the capital with Manzanarcs, and Valdepcuas with
the neighbouring town of La Calzada.
The principal towns, Alcazar de San Juan (11,409), Almaden
(7J7.0. Almrxlovar del Campo (12.525), Ciudad Real (15,155).
Manzanarcs (11,429) and Valdepcuas (22,015), are d£Sjacvttt*L>&
4/,*
r *~
?^AL^ci\TLI8
\ i
uhuh is extracted in the ^ a "***£=^
N'wir*. i- hiclily valuer] ant?" 10 *V ** = - ^
i^"Kh Ihi* animal i> ,-dJ ?* """A "*d :- « » >
'^■'!^ hoi* m the- irr.n?^, *** ^ «^. -- M
\'\ t»ll» HtVUU-A
. • ,. v , s-x tV M.vndi jvwii. lis v|vurs. is highly valued ..rJr * a >' &* = --
' . -.^ u-t - ' -V- !■» L'h«i , i^:iKh Urn animal i* Sa / d , ft] , Uch «*d :- « ;
\\ > n.m .'■. ;.-:m' w.i* . i:»luM> hol.-s in the pruund T • 3n c *^ cr - —
>. % . X' . , \ iS.\v | in ihc l\«>t. ami bwom es' *„. " /rc <»«cu- ^
. <■ - ' * •*••■ ivou'ur , %iiV:» .m- found in the Mi«r™T Fossil tt —
v : ., , ,, . ... ■: . « ! CIVIDALB DEL FR1ULI ^ £ llmU of E ™
ovri;.:u\ vvoi. It is >ituated ^ W Po P- ■■*= -■*
" % X »* ^ \\ % \* A\ %*
%.* »t
.'.V J.-V C..\r.
. \ :: :* *.w
.*: "f'\ •
fc-".»w: ."» % .-..■; > ; V , .-„v :;,•::: : *v
\. : . , ;
:..:. I"> > :.:::> .«_:•.%:.;•■..• : » j. ; .- >:
■■■"■■"*-"' : » j.*»;::t.** :V.« »v.-.s.>:c- 1 .\
»*•" A;.. .'
■*.*r. I: >..'.* j #::v:*.£ r:::>*y »x?»»^r.
to .*.-..■■
'.»
":.•<<■ •-: \:»vi:>:.»-:<\i :o ::. !-.: •■ w .V.-:
;:cvl vi:h o:hcr **v.-::s i: proves
5>e>5cs a nr-vh nvre flor.-.! fra«Mfl.<y. '
Civ:J a : ..
"■■" "••■"'vcsra-ltfvvil i, ' " m "
i • ov-ru.:* wvM. It is .ituatcd on »K °^ l=£
an .' ■".» a pu-iuivhiuc ravine here j f nvt: ^
, - :v o V «S- Art oi the S(h rentuiy tS" 1 *^ "» * *
v ,v.. * kV.«.ii:i* an ivt^onal mVri i e catneeu- «■**»
V -^ %•?. • :->. i Mil U!ow it U.|onr;I C C4n ^' ,r ^- li »
• . , * ,:^ H* h«h altar li a&J° lhe «» -*
,v a^^n "^v:, :» xarious Roman, « V? ^^ ^ *
*•■■•* ^ r=o : 5 :hvcntj^ S" 1 ** L 51 *
. - ■...•":;•: A «« the dec*- «
ir^rV.'.-V^* 101 !: ™*Painn*
:.V*;:.':.'^ r0ld;ntf - Thisl»
;' .: - y i ^«»M lft j i>.. thtitsat .
. V
^:..'v \.
. ,' K
CIVII I7ATION
I 1
Ec.-:-:.':' -.i*: 1 ::-, ■ ;■; r .-?.»r.>^'r:--.\ ■> :.;' >: ■«>• •■-
jM-rt..-it ir.ccMives ii.i rev.»It. The Kita\;.in.s were
Idy joined by several neighbouring German tribes,
L important of whom were the Frisians. The Roman
. near the Rhine were driven out, and twenty-four ships
Two legions under Mummius Lupercus were defeated
t-» Vetera (near the modern Xanten) and surrounded,
cohorts of Batavian veterans joined their countrymen,
droops sent by Vespasian to the relief of Vetera threw in
*vith t hem. The result of t hese accessions to t he forces of
r as a rising in Gaul. Hordconius Haccus was murdered
*J" * x-oops (70), and the whole of the Roman forces were in-
* ^_ ^>y two commanders of the Gallic auxiliaries— Julius
S^ia and Julius Tutor— to revolt from Rome and join
***- The whole of Gaul thus practically declared itself
* »■*- ffcdcnt, and the foundation of a new kingdom of Gaul
L*^^**tcmplated. The prophetess Velleda preilicted the com-
^~ *"*acccss of Civilis and the fall of the Roman Empire. Hut
y^^-Ca broke out amongst the different trilics and rendered
^ ^^«"ation impossible; Vespasian, having successfully ended
^ ^* vil war, called upon Civilis to lay down his arms, and on
I vT*^ 11 * 1 ! resolved to take strong measures for the suppression
j^J"**J revolt. The arrival of Pctillius Ceri.ilis with a strong force
laii" the Gauls arul mutinous troops into submission ; Civilis was
^^**ted at Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Treves) and Vetera,
^J?~ forced to withdraw to the island of the Hal avians. He
li^y iy came to an agreement with Ceriatis whereby his count ry-
aS* 1 obtained certain advantages, and resumed amirahle
^^*tions with Rome. From this time Civilis disap{>ears from
^^TW chief authority for the history of the insurnv tinn is Ta« iius,
m^*Uma4,W.. v.,»ho* ai;« ount l»rcjkj.ofTaf tlwlxKJnninKof (mils'*
^tochto Cerialis; k-c a\-> bn«|irius. Bell urn Judauum, \ii. 4.
^lere is a monograph by K. Sl-\i-r. Per hrnlwit tnr% drr Jint/nrr
JNrr Chilis (1H50): m* ; a1-> Mi-rivalr. Hnt. of Ihr Fnm<tni under
sm Empire, eh. 5M: H. S.hilkr, CtukichU der rumnfhen Kaitrnnl,
^LiLch.J, | 54 U 0^3 J-
CIVILIZATION. The word " civilization " is an obvious
^krivative of the Lat. cr.is, a cirizt-n. ai.d a'\iln, pi-ruining to
tltitisen. Etymologically speakirg, thtn. it imjuM \* puiiii.g no
i strain upon the *.iord to interpret it as having fo do ^iih
entire period of human progn.is >.i:.'.e rrnnLnd an.iiMd
. intelligence and v^cial ui.i'.y to develop a system of
_ But in pra-.ti'.c " civi.'.'z.ttion " is usually i:ii*-r-
' preted in a som»:wr.it narrower v.t.-c, as r.avir.g appli'aiion
anftely to the most recent a.vl corr.pa.'rivly brivf |»cri'yf of time
that has elapsed sir.ie the most h.rhiy favv\'*\*.'\ rirts of n.«n
feve nsed systems of * rl'.i.-.g. 7?..-, r-.vr."' '-.'I usap/; is probably
explicable, ia part at least, by ^.1 f.ft 'hit th<; *',r ■». fhvjgh
distinctly inod'.Ri in orijrlr.. ii r.'.v:th- !■•.-> ol'lr tKir. •}.*. '.:." r-
pretation of social evjJu'.ior. th-.t no*, fir-'is 'x:.\\-^.i\ a/";. , *r."-.
Only very recently hi* i: c .-•: to be ..-. It?"// \:.w ;.-...•;.«■
sock ties va*:iy ar.:e-Ja •.:.-:;
relatively hi*h s:4;rs of :
politically. Now :hi» tr!.- .
an arbitrary *r.i tisr.'.y
can prtvt-t -^s :'.-.- *;- .-.
socitlirs ls tx\.r.z :*.a.r.«. :
be cot vezk :. : 1 ■ -. _ . \r. r . . .
progress h«rt •.> .- :. .ct . -. .
t»a '" ihc*e V.: t -.*.-..-. • %*. :. .
as »el as tlse r.ore r •.-■ ;•-
ti 1 * »tri " c: —ii- - .- 1
A secure f*>^ "i*. '■■■
result -4 a V.--M s. . *■ ;:.■:*.
i:-4f i -r v.- r
.-.•o-.'.^I
."I-; f - r
ha
:A
S.:' .\ i: *■:
a -!y^t ;■" :r
I!-: -.-.*■ .-
SU{** ■::' i-=.
^:.-v \ : --. t!v A^ M l\.h.!v.l Si.m-.. . :»■ \.-.- .m |;,..., ,.
aiul (he A^o ol lion. Hum* Itinu .ii.jun.vl .)!nn<.i uiuvtit.il
recognition, ami they retain popularity aa a {Km ding a vriy brtmd
outline of the story of human progress. It U ohvhmsly di^imble,
ho^Tver, to fill in the outlines of the story more (u detail.
To some extent it has been possible to do so, laigrty ihioiigh
the efforts of ethnologies who have studied the mhUI cotull
lions of existing races of savage*. A let ognitUm of the print Iplo
that, bnudly s|H'akiug. ptogiess has rveiyHlierr lucu a«liio«d
along the same linen and though the Mine triple m e of 1 Ii.uikv*,
ma4ies it possible to interpret the \\\s\ hMmy id the u\ih;rd
races of to day in the light of the ptcM-nt day mnditloii'. nf other
races that are still existing utnlrr so«ial ami |tailnii,d toudiiUnu
of a mon* primitive ty|ie. Sin h lairn an the Mamii ami llm
American Indians have furnished invaluable lufoiiualiini In
the student of sm ial evolution; nml the Lnnulnbtt' linn i;.iiiud
has Intii extendrd ami forlihi il by the evei e»|i.iudHig n-ii ,n« hvs
of the palaeontologist, and un harolu^jst.
Thus it han iNtonie pos-.iblr to piesrul nllh wuur « onfi<li m n
a pkture shuwing the siiiiev.ive '.l.»j:rs u| hum.ih drvi 1»|iiimiiI
during the long d.nk pi-iind when our pnhiitmii 11m i-.lni mi
advaming along I In- l.»il <>tnr nnd Imluoiii but mi the whole
always ii|trising path ln»ni lowi-.i '..iv.ij;»iy lo I In- -.Ligi-nf nl.itivr
enliglitrnmi-nl at wlu'ih we find hurt at tin- to mldd "il.i^nlh^H
of history." 'lhat lir wan foi long ugi-i n fwva|;i lufnii- |u<
attaiiu-d '.niTu ient nillurr to br Irnnnl, in i?h«i|iiii phi.i .mtupy,
a barbarian, a«lmilsof no r|ui--itinii. Ivpially lillli in ilmilit h II
that oiIht long agf*n of li.nbari-ini pre<i<lid f ti«- lm.il wvml
to (ivili/alion. 'Ihr \nrii:r \»r\>><\ of time nivt-r>i| l,y ||um«
stirtfi'iivr " Ag<*i " in of founr only 1 nrij« tiir.d, but MiuwiliMig
like our liundnd lhoU'.nn<l yiaii may pirhapi be lutm m 11
safe miuimnl eMim.ttr. At I In- In it'ii'iing of llni Utun |rtii»i»l,
the mo'.t advamed r.nr of m< 11 noiil br thou^hl of 111 » pm
millions 1 oiupatiy of prr trnghiftylif mamriiali, nf h.r.l p.uinlly
arlK»rral in habil, living #mi uii«»^4id fnuliaii'l v« j>i l.d.li -., ,ind
j^/.-.'-v.ed of no arts .iimI naff 1 wh.iN-vir not 1 vi n of lit* Vw,n
li-dg'- of the rudc.t iinpliniriil. At ihr < n<l of lli« p'U'id, fli'ie
«-ni» tv* . iiilo t\n- mori" or I'-.-. /•!■ nr lij'lit of In.ioiy u 1 1 r|"
l#r i:.» ■ 'I \i> iriK, livu.ij in hou .» . of 1 lil<i«r.iri roi.-.ipn lioii, r-ipp!/
U:V w hi!r.-.<ff v.jtlr di.ifi luxuii«'. f|.roo|'h l|i«- ai<l of u t1,>i\til-i'\r
ol •M.-.r.iir h.-irii].' r ifi-., h-.-jh rid «| .-. ■ f I • hii MI«»ai nii«}i i lli*
:•/.-.-/ of highly owar.i/fd govt rnrn' ri<i. arid viir.f/liig »#-.rfi« h«
!.•"!■. through fbf pm'tiff of pi'ion.il nnd Iji'i-uy .ifi; «,f 4
b:gb uvlit. Jfow *a. rfii; arn.i/.i;ig lur, .foriinrj.,!, ),ronjrlif
If -.ii .■*?. vt-r '.in l»« fo'ir.d to *} i» r\>i* ry, *« tbitl h.i/i a thu
to 4.1 }. ;;:.:in pr-,;'r«-... i.v oj.Iy •*..-. rr. ''■' r-r« ?-■ '^ri* l fJ i *\v,
d-.rir.g *!.« hi. for.' p'rivJi, for *.* r.-»/ *.«ll l«« J.* /.
lbs* :■»*•.• \.t;vr> . ».., . r.».« '\>;.:V"\ f. •'.•/. •»,. -# I., im- <£"*?
- j i - -■ : * • i.—v^.nr.g.f,, z::z
».■■■-,
•<V. •'.
• * n. if art
• *g'.
'. /:•'..
r-,/ V
;.»'/ ■.«
'It.' /
i«ra
•v -- .yy.r
.. .. t . '. ,^s ,;>■/■.
••••••■"-• •/'.-■ •/ ,.'
fy r '. ff V'.-/.. . -. •' ,/> «
:• ■ ■ ' •• ■■ , -'^>.--.
**>•■■ ' / '■''
tsit r-.-p: -.-^ >v v.-.-.
•<"/
*'A
CIVILIZATION
405
ikt had earlier conquered space. He could now transmit
e record of his deeds and bis thoughts to remote posterity.
bus he stood at the portals of what later generations would term
aire history. He had graduated out of barbarism, and become
the narrower sense of the word a civilized being. Henceforth,
s knowledge, his poetical dreamings, his moral aspirations
ight be recorded in such form as to be read not merely by his
^temporaries but by successive generations of remote posterity,
he inspiring character of such a message is obvious. The validity
' making this great culminating intellectual achievement the
at of " civilized " existence need not be denied. But we should
. comprehend the character of the message which the earlier
mentions of civilized beings transmit to us from the period
Men we term the " dawning of history " did we not bear
autantly in mind the long series of progressive stages of
savagery " and " barbarism " that of necessity preceded the
lal stage of " civilization " proper. The achievements of
lose earlier stages afTordcd the secure foundation for the pro-
tm of the future. A multitude of minor arts, in addition
1 the important ones just outlined, had been developed; and
r a long time civilized man was to make no other epochal
Idition to the list of accomplishments that came to him as a
silage from his barbaric progenitor. Indeed, even to this
ty the list of such additions is not a long one, nor, judged in
c relative scale, so important as might at first thought be
pposed. Whoever considers the subject carefully must admit
c force of Morgan's suggestion that man's achievements as a
irbarian, considered in their relation to the sum of human
ogress, " transcend, in relative importance, all his subsequent
arms."
Without insisting on this comparison, however, let us ask
bat discoveries and inventions man has made within the
storical period that may fairly be ranked with the half-dozen
cat epochal achievements that have been put forward as
rnishing the keys to all the progress of the prehistoric periods.
1 other words, Id us sketch the history of progress during the ten
ousand years or so that have elapsed since man learned the
t of writing, adapting our sketch to the same scale which we
eve already applied to the unnumbered millenniums of the pre-
sume period. The view of world-history thus outlined will be
very different one from what might be expected by the student
' national history; but it will present the essentials of the
rogress of civilization in a suggestive light.
Without pretending to fix an exact date,— which the historical
soords do not at present permit,— we may assume that the
. _ most advanced race of men elaborated a system of
JJ*** writing not less than six thousand years before the
^^ beginning of the Christian era. Holding to the
terminology already suggested for the earlier periods,
e may speak of man's position during the ensuing generations
t that of the First or Lowest Status of civilization. If we review
le history of this period wc shall find that it extends unbroken
ver a stretch of at least four or five thousand years. During
le early part of this period such localized civilizations as those
f the Egyptians, the Sumcrians, the Babylonians and the Hittitcs
Me, grew strong and passed beyond their meridian. This sug-
ests that wc must now admit the word " civilization " to yet
Bother definition, within its larger meaning: we must speak
f " a civilization," as that of Egypt, of Babylonia, of Assyria,
ad we must understand thereby a localized phase of society bear-
ig the same relation to civilization as a whole that a wave bears
> the ocean or a tree to the forest. Such other localized civiliza :
ions as those of Phoenicia, Carthage, Greece, Rome, Byzantium,
k Sassanids, in due course waxed and waned, leaving a tre-
icndous imprint on national history, but creating only minor
od transitory ripples in the great ocean of civilization. Progress
1 the elaboration of the details of earlier methods and inventions
x>k place as a matter of course. Some nation, probably the
boenicians, gave a new impetus to the art of writing by develop-
ig a phonetic alphabet; but this achievement, remarkable as
. was in itself, added nothing fundamental to human capacity,
itcraturcs had previously flourished through the use of hiero-
glyphic and syllabic symbols; and the Babylonian syllabic*
continued in vogue throughout western Asia for a long time
after the Phoenician alphabet had demonstrated its intrinsic
superiority.
Similarly the art of Egyptian and Assyrian and Creek was but
the elaboration and perfection of methods that barbaric man.
had practised away back in the days when he was a cave-dweller.
The weapons of warfare of Creek and Roman were the spear
and the bow and arrow that their ancestors had used in the period
of savagery, aided by sword and helmet dating from the upper
period of barbarism. Creek and Roman government at their
best were founded upon the system of genUs that barbaric man
had profoundly studied,— as witness, for example, the federal
system of the barbaric Iroquois Indians existing in America
before the coming of Columbus. And if the Greeks had better
literature, the Romans better roads and larger cities, than their
predecessors, these are but matters of detailed development,
the like of which had marked the progress of the more important
arts and the introduction of less important ancillary ones in
each antecedent period. The axe of steel is no new implement,
but a mere perfecting of the axe of chipped flint. The Iliad
represents the perfecting of an art that unnumbered generations
of barbarians practised before their camp-fires.
Thus for six or seven thousand years after man achieved
civilization there was rhythmic progress in many lines, but there
came no great epochal invention to usher in a new anmt
ethnic period. Then, towards the close of what lava*—*
historians of to-day are accustomed to call the middle •''*•
ages, there appeared in rapid sequence three or four JJJJ/
inventions and a great scientific discovery that, taken
together, were destined to change the entire aspect of European
civilization. The inventions were gunpowder, the mariner's
compass, paper and the printing-press, three of which appear to
have been brought into Europe by the Moors, whether or not
they originated in the remote East. The scientific discovery
which must be coupled with these inventions was the Cbpcrnican
demonstration that the sun and not the earth is the centre of our
planetary system. The generations of men that found them-
selves (1) confronted with the revolutionary conception of the
universe given by the Cppcrnican theory; (a) supplied with the
new means of warfare provided by gunpowder; (3) equipped
with an undreamed-of guide across the waters of the earth; and
(4) enabled to promulgate knowledge with unexampled speed and
cheapness through the aid of paper and printing-press— such
generations of men might well be said to have entered upon a new
ethnic period. The transition in their mode of thought and in
their methods of practical life was as great as can be supposed
to have resulted, in an early generation, from the introduction
of iron, or in a yet earlier from the invention of the bow and
arrow. So the Europeans of about the 15th century of the
Christian era may be said to have entered upon the Second or
Middle Status of civilization.
The new period was destined to be a brief one. It had com-
passed only about four hundred years when, towards the close
of the x8th century, James Watt gave to the world 4
the perfected steam-engine. Almost contemporanc- _
ously Ark wright and Hargreaves developed revolu-"
tionary processes of spinning and weaving by machinery.
Meantime James Hutton and William Smith and their successors
on the one hand, and Erasmus Darwin, Francois Lamarck, and
(a half-century later) Charles Darwin on the other, turned men's
ideas topsy-turvy by demonstrating that the world as the
abiding-place of animals and man is enormously old, and that
man himself instead of deteriorating from a single perfect pair
six thousand years removed, has ascended from bestiality through
a slow process of evolution extending over hundreds of centuries.
The revolution in practical life and in the mental life of our race
that followed these inventions and this new presentation of
truth probably exceeded in suddenness and in its far-reaching
effects the metamorphosis effected at any previous transition
from one ethnic period to another. The men of the 19th century,
living now in the period that may be termed the U$^.t £.v&&*&
CIVILIZATION
h
t
ispl
cstii
« dot
he iti
tar s± ?*»f « effected in the practical affairs
r >a » sai cot been wrought before during the
Tzeii fathers had travelled in vehicles
-. -^zz u —■-"• remoter ancestors had done since
— «- -»i«i«-sg»- It may be doubted whether
. .3 ^ca a *je >-ear 1800 a postal service that
_z wi nai eSckncy with the express service
~ x — ■ m if Caesar; far less was there a telc-
~ ^> ciopare with that of the ancient
-a_ -— - x £xc saving the seas that a Phoenician
. ^ are jr^iuled. But now within the
r — -»- -,ac ni! was covered with a network
. - ~-r jc=»jct3 drew gigantic vehicles, laden
si- arirry speed almost equalling Caesar's
~ - rr -w ^ land and under the seas were
- -»» ra ssessages coursed from continent
.j^ -r^ » ^iwd cf lightning; and the waters
-— - -=-i * ~eeat *:sh gigantic craft propelled
_ _-- yp.> -i-ii the Phoenician captain of
_ "LS .& zzi x E=^Iish captain of the 18th
' „ . w* z r^ r 5.o3s here of the industrial
. " ~-^. -e— ■«-* ■**■»* a this newest period of
_\_J ^s- r -*■> brooder outlines at least
_ ~~-_-~- 2 -t-7 cat Nor need we dwell
"- ^Ls 2 ixsi: whereby man has for
7 -T — t-= r^3 a Jcar inkJing as to his
"" * " ^— T jne* cut that such periods
7 - -t-a s^bu haw probably always
l*^ ^ ^ aaa rf creative genius that
=r ~" 1 _ _ „ _ ;a jiidtes upon which human
"^ ^_ ^^. *Va3gx:::iude of receptivity
"~"_3Z^- , K tts ei discovery as to the
__ "'"TLj. s= stag fcna of idea become
'_ ^r^.^-. es.-?p: in proportion as a
" ^^".J...j; r* ^rpatcd to receive it.
" 3. " ~~-rar -jed with fire, in a literal
jl " s U'a ~~ ^" 5=e ** a P 13 * 1 * 011 aid
■ a practice. And—
t « tie scale— we know
of Use* believed in the
im ^ d nan two thousand
Y*fev* but partly solved
tben, when we have '
^ ^: =-***; ^~ To p to the iroot
f^icaaieibouUhata
~~ ««iarr« farther into the
» »« ^zI^--» say nothing nf
«■ - r ar ^ZT-te£alHts«ssofmind— 1
►-^tei»«*=f rrSoo to the
^^ ^w^^^-^jjfcjYt evolved
.Z—Tteftafcs, s»d thus
^?^!ffl tsces, each with
J **!fJ3s* environ-
-■ -eK" «
3a ehn* environ-
^tfthepriwlpk
; remained for a considerable number of generations in its localize*
environment, and had practically ceased to receive accretion:
from distant races at approximately the same stage of develop
ment. There is a suggestive lesson for present-day civiliza
lion in that thought-compelling fact. Further evidence of th<
application of the principle of environmental stimulus, operating
through changed habitat and racial intermixture, is furnishec
by the virility of the colonial peoples of our own day. Th<
receptiveness to new ideas and the rapidity of material progress
of Americans, South Africans and Australians are proverbial
No one doubts, probably, that one or another of these countries
will give a new stimulus to the progress of civilization, througr
the promulgation of some great epochal discovery, in the not
distant future. Again, the value of racial intermingling is
shown yet nearer home in the long-continued vitality of the
British nation, which is explicable, in some measure at least, b>
the fact that the Celtic element held aloof from the Anglo-Saxon
clement century after century sufficiently to maintain racial
integrity, yet mingled sufficiently to give and receive the fresh
stimulus of " new blood." It is interesting in this connexion
to examine the map of Great Britain with reference to the
birthplaces of the men named above as being the originators
of the inventions and discoveries that made the close of the xSth
century memorable as ushering in a new ethnic era. It may be
added that these names suggest yet another element in the
causation of progress: the fact, namely, that, however necessary
racial receptivity may be to the dynamitic upheaval of a new
ethnic era, it is after all individual genius that applies its
detonating spark.
Without further elaboration of this aspect of the subject
it may be useful to recapitulate the analysis of the evolution
of civilization above given, prior to characterizing
it from another standpoint It appears that the entire Ntm0
period of human progress up to the present may be
divided into nine periods which, if of necessity more
or less arbitrary, yet are not without certain warrant of logic
They may be defined as follows: (1) The Lower Period of
Savagery, terminating with the discovery and application of the
uses of fire. (2) The Middle Period of Savagery, terminating
with the invention of the bow and arrow. (3) The Upper Period
of Savagery, terminating with the invention of pottery. (4) The
Lower Period of Barbarism, terminating with the domestication
of animals. (5) The Middle Period of Barbarism, terminating
-with the discovery of the process of smelting iron ore. (6) The
Upper Period of Barbarism, terminating with the development
of a system of writing meeting the requirements of literary
composition. (7) The First Period of Civilization (proper)
terminating with the introduction of gunpowder. (8) The Second
[Period of Civilization, terminating with the invention of a
practical steam-engine. (9) The Upper Period of Civilization,
which is still in progress, but which, as will be suggested in a
moment, is probably ncaring its termination.
It requires but a glance at the characteristics of these successive
epochs to show the ever-increasing complexity of the inventions
that delimit them and of the conditions of life that they
connote. Were we to attempt to characterize in a few phrases the
entire story of achievement thus outlined, we might say that
during the three stages of Savagery man was attempting to make
himself master of the geographical climates. His unconscious
Ideal was, to gain a foothold and the means of subsistence in
every zone. During the three periods of Barbarism the ideal
pf conquest was extended to the beasts of the field, the vegetable
World, and the mineral contents of the earth's crust. During the
three periods of Civilization proper the ideal of conquest has
become still more intellectual and subtle, being now extended
Lo such abstractions as an analysis of speech-sounds, and to such
Intangibles as expanding gases and still more elusive electric
currents: in other words, to the forces of nature, no less than
to tangible substances. Hand in hand with this growing
complexity of man's relations with the external world has
gone a like increase of complexity in the social and political
organizations that characterize man's relations with his fellow-
CIVILIZATION
407
Ben. In savagery the family expanded into the tribe; in
barbarism the tribe developed into the nation. The epoch of
civilization proper is aptly named, because it has been a time in
which citizenship, in the narrower national significance, has
probably been developed to its apogee. Throughout this period,
in every land, the highest virtue has been considered to be
patriotism, — by which must be understood an instinctive
willingness on the part of every individual to defend even with
his life the interests of the nation into which he chances to be
bom, regardless of whether the national cause in whichhc struggles
be in any given case good or bad, right or wrong. The communal
judgment of this epoch pronounces any man a traitor who will
not uphold his own nation even in a wrong muse — and the word
"traitor" marks the utmost brand of ignominy.
Bat while the idea of nationality has thus been accentuated,
there has been a never-ending struggle within the bounds of the
fflf)M nation itself to adjust the relations of one citizen to
gmymmi another. The ideas that might makes right, that the
to*—- strong man must dominate the weak, that leadership
r Jl?~ r ~ in the community properly belongs to the man who is
physically most competent to lead — these ideas were
a perfectly natural, and indeed an inevitable, outgrowth of the
conditions under which man fought his way up through savagery
and barbarism. Man in the first period of civilization inherited
these ideas, along with the conditions of society that were their
concomitants. So throughout the periods when the oriental
civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia and Assyria and Persia
were dominant, a despotic form of government was accepted
is the natural order of things. It does not appear that any other
form was even considered as a practicality. A despot might
indeed be overthrown, but only to make way for the corona lion
of another despot. A little later the Greeks and Romans modified
the conception of a heaven -sent individual monarch; but they
went no further than to substitute a heaven-favoured community,
with specially favoured groups (Ptitricii) within the community.
With this, rational egoism reached its climax; for ea« h people
regarded its own citizens as the only exemplars of civilization,
openly brandir.g all the rest of the w^rld as "bartariar.s," fit
subjects for the exaction of tribute or fur the irr.^vAilou of the
hozdi of actual slavery. During the middle ages thrre »a a
reaction towards ir.civid-al^rr. as opposed V* r-a'.ior.alJ.r.:
but the en^re system of fe- Jal^m, w/.r. i'.s c!«.ar!/ r*-^;:.!ztd
cor.ditiois of over-lordship aid of vassal 'Jo nr.. gv.-t ex;.r«.::i'/n.
09 less clearly than oriir.'.al d&po'.lim ar.d ciii'./.a! o-.o
cracy" had cor.e. to the idea of L-.div.-i-i! ;.v. r-s-'y. '*'
diverg*r.:e of oor-J a.-.d >gsl s:aV-i Luc-i or. :.!'. -n! .:.:.' :rirar. ' +
Th-a ibis idea, a r* =:...-_■'.*::« of Lar"-i:/-r-., iri":.uir.'.*i ;'-s
das:"'a-ce thrc-^hv-t the trs: p*r>,d of c....^a::.r..
But g"^r.^fcier. mark^g :he tr-rjiiAi :o t:.t 5*- or. ■! ;«*:>.--
of C -.-.'■ auc-a, ca=* as 1 frra: >v».„:.g L-.:!-tr.'.e. V..:>. .-s \ i
th» %eak at peas&zt rJijr.: ;:v.e .- ,:• 'ii.-. a r.v.-i f ,r '..-* ro ■■ ■
po» ;rf -. iL.--ci:. Before \r± t:>c ~\s : it cij *. ! ■_ . ■" •':.-.. : r : - o» ■+ :
to b e . ai :=i;r^=ii:* for.:*:.!. A.-. -J ..-...* ?■.•;...-.•: \- .
Ir.'fe.'.i do*- *_i; pc**r<:f •„-.* r.'rv.
fc - 1/. H k.l ■_-= * v-.e r_i.r_-. * r s ;-.
torts b*y -_- i \±t :-*u ai i ..-. - _* : .
**•-. ?: i*.:*-i :-, »a.::i:: ;.; • *.-•_
l"«i :-r i_ox; x irtii _-. -;..z *i: '
tie ::.:z-i- :t=T.:>rt2 •.-.*r _«►..*_•: t
cr -eii *.i *_is sat*, y.rli i-.i ~. y.-
b&v.- -ii". *jm i - tr«su .: *... r*.
a ti* Ils*. tiju..ij r _"-^ :.„,: :
7ir>.£ v*rr..j -.uir-.^ -jfr -
tiu^i :*' -_-^. s.iii-t :»«r...; .--_.__=*
!•— • li*.» r*_--.« *.-. : —.-1. * -
iir. -si z* .::■?.- r-'.t ■ ■ ... ■• i. .
c -jr* _- :- . ■ • ...... ■• _■ •
■:*
if all its members, without exception, are given moral equality
before the law. This idea of equal lights nnd privileges lor all
members of the community— for caeh individual "the great val
amount of liberty consistent with a like libnty of every other
individual "—first found expression mb phikiNupliHul doitiiuo
towards the close of the 18th century; at whiih time «1m» tenta-
tive efforts were made to put it into practice. It may be mUI
therefore to represent the culminating Nuciulogiml doidlnr of
the middle period of civilization, -the ideul towards whiih all
the influences of the period had tended to impel the ruir.
It will be oljserved, however, that this ideal of individual
equality within the body |x>litic in no direct wise In Jim nun dm
status of the body politic itself as the centre of a lonili/ifl
civilization that may be regarded as in a neiise aiilngoiiintii to
all other similarly localized tivilizalioni. If their wire any Midi
influence, it would rather operate in the direct ion of a<iriitimtiiig
the patriotism of the member of a demo<nili<al (oimiiunily, as
against that of the subject of a dr»|x>t, Ihiough the tnu.< «»f
personal re^wntibility dtvelorx-d in the former. 'Ihr di vrlop-
ments of the middle piriod of civilizatifm lannot be toiihidirrd,
therefore, to have tended to decrease ihr spirit of nationality,
with its concomitant penalty of what is tomf-tinies lallul pro-
vincialism. The history of this entire period, a% <<imrnonly
presented, is largely made up of the rrmrdi of inter national
rivalries and jealousies, [xr<nni;dly fulminating in billirly
contc.>tcl wars. It was only towardi the rlov. of the t\*ti h (hut
the desirability of free commercial intirtoune among notions
began to find cxprev.ion an a pliiIov>phii .ii cre'd ihron^h ihn
efforts of fjueuiay and his follower.; and the doctrine Ihut \x*\U
parties to an intern atonal comncr' ial trarr-artion an g.iir.irs
th'.r'by found its fir*t char exprcv.ion in the yiar \y,U in llie
pag?» of Condiilac and of Adam Srniih.
I5ut the di>'ovi.ri'\ tliat uthercd in the third |K:rio«I of < ivdixa
tion vi ere declined to work {*/werf-JJy from tin: outvi iut ihr
breaking dovn of international barri«n, tho'/gh, of "sunt,
th-.ir cfl'r'.'.i would r.'>l b«. at or.' «: n^ir.j/» \i. T h-is ll.i tul^iiiu
tion of s'r^ni \*wt for *al«-r pov-rr, l/t-.jd»-. K'"'''-g * i»'ii.< i.d»#ui
i.T.;/ttu^ to n-.r.'-fj* • .r.j.g \u v: r.«r;.l, itA\>\*-\ o-.t r.« h m>W >imI
cfrr.tres in rcgi^r.^ tr.it i.\* *:t l.ad i*;.pJi«.d '-. f h "i-.l bi»l no|
al*)>s »i'h o'J.-r ri* u.*\:xh.\\. \*§ r.M*: a '-,: yU t* ull,
Lr.g!'.r.d U<arr.«. •>.»■ ra: J&* *t.ly. :nM+u\ •I." ».ori':.«.'r;."'.ii.g
\\\ nff rr-Vrir.-'t '.r,r. +.t/ *:ju*.x of t).T g!'#b< , b*l in u»
«I ■*.'-. g \\ r.wA to \,i ''.\-\.\^iV.x.7, t» \+7;i'\\ »}.• \.v*W\».n
of ivA-y-.;-i/..*^. V»:.-. r :;."./. : ?. \u hn'.',:.*i *«-iJ\ 1 ., ..1. a f-.lt
of :Ke ?.f* :."..':.">.". \.i.y t „;.'.' h*^ tJ.'r^for* Jv.' .:: n »:, .t.tA/
• : .*« r.a'io.'-al y .'-.-.'■*. . '/ i.'.'i '*:.■!• I*::.''.*?'*., \....r. I." •.#»«■
Ir. krj': r.'i-.re '.'';*'.: -.':.• '-.v.*. o'.vr "/.: 't,*\ is.'r. U.t *t+
:;■■ rri**;"i!i •*.•:*..'■ *.'..''•. }.-r .: •'...'?'.* \ v.. • p*/j.f. a.vi fo»
tr.t f'»>i; *•* .~a«-.'*..-. ':». -•.-/ •■"'*- of 1.' r p*'v>
V, \\\ l\ % 'S. of »;; .:•: .:. "• . r»^-.."J .'. *A "/.rv */•.» t u
Fr'-i.'rr *,' !■ .1 .-•**'..?*: of k '. o'lv.r '.o.:«r^i >'.#•#/ */■•*»,
• - - 1.: *.o • : ' r * - r." : : : ...'.* 1 '..v: • . v .••ay. .-.•i *i'?.ai • i" ' ^ v /,
•- .-* r.:» o-v.r. ar. ..-'.••.: ..:.ar "r .'•?.•/ V/ i/'un/i'/,:., *;>j
. • ■* •** r -.' .' ." ,r»: rr . ■ o.'"'.*. f..- *; .'.'■. ;•» r. , i , «r.«J; .•. or*
.... ./ ..„ i m * ; ir ■* » . ri'<»-t ;.-. a.-v.'.'f, '.- -. .;';...'*
i* »..»:■. "••■. • £ ..*.•.' •". *r .v ..* ■,i/,'. i.*."l ..•••.•■•>».•*.■*.••#
v. '-r-. ".* .•.■■•■- "."".-. :; • ■ .■. \\ .-v. ./ .'v.* *?•■■; '•./ '/>•
: * r • :..*.: '. ' ' r* • . v — .■..:. '.. .s *..»• o* .«.r^ i'** sr. ;;. ;. *.*/!
1 .■ •■►*-'.-•*: v - -■ . - .-.-.: ■ ■ t ■ »- « ■, «.• \v* Jy.- -iv/.*!. f»i»
*.iir:/ "v "f.-i • •-..■■.'. * .'-'i" "/or* or j. 7'«/# *.'.'•
1-- */ s- • ..- : :■ *.. t— . -'.■ ;.."- r.»r/ or,* t -. V/,*/. *>
■ >■: l. i -..-• .* l ■ t .--. * *.•••• iss-.-rj. *.:' •>> *-.■ *• »ofv:
T"' 1 • 1 : " . ■ ■ r. • ■ - - r 1 ■ •• . ■ » s. • \ ■y#l* , /x. /* ;e* t.t %?*
;• .... •: g...-'.* •*. '.j :.-■. v*vv\ 1 »..«■. * *. \ ■•/.-. .:•:. -<f
:-i 1 .'* -\ m * .-.. ..^". s-i r .-v-* ts/l (jr.-,:*-* »•;•»,
f >. . .- r i v-*-v^ i - .' r^.'.i-'/ v. . #v.r. of •*■ •. o*v» :*»*
•.**i :-■..*!•■. ir* - ." " . 'jw. '.•.%•.". '.r :■ . u. :'. -o»" /.- ****
:■•■ ■— m- * 7":«». "*. *i. •— r ■" t.ui +\"j>*. » • 1 t*4W- »
-.^l :^ a-".-.r«- r ■: r»»*i «V*.-p-i: -.' *v '..• /.»-.' «-i: u? ,••/!
l F-n" ■ ^« *'•- "■* ■ ■*? '**■"« ■■ " ~ : */ »».«; -'■•.» <. , *»f««*
CIVILIZATION
^ xr«rb:ng the essential practicalities of Western
Z-,^-=> * single generation. Some of the most
-- -;^— « of world-civilization of the immediate
~~w^z. -je =utual relations of these two long-severed
"^--aaciid at some early stage of progress to
U the globe, but now brought by the new
/ isd even hourly communication,
aiiucas of the industrial world have thus
rv sational outlook, there has come about,
u ie scientific discoveries already referred
ess s^aiacant broadening of the mental and
WLX2*. Here also the trend is away from
c- i=4 towards the cosmopolitan view.
a -jb xglh century Dr Pritchard declared
r~i \-i whether it might not be permissible
rn z> shoot the natives as food for their
3Cso3» arguing that savages were without
^ sotxraood. To-day the thesis that all
Ecanxd needs no defence. The most
^m -sin e s are regarded merely as brethren
r*' ir os&ci of opportunity, have lagged
irrj^y tie defective and criminal classes
pjcans a part of the population of even
,-sr jr.Sr.nr ions, arc no longer regarded
who are suffering just punish-
tat are considered as pitiful
intal influences that they
Insanity is no longer thought
Afi'ic most lamentable of diseases.
savage races and defective
of a fundamental transforma-
rrpresents the most import-
* xt scientific knowledge in the
rr9m i » a transformation that is only
-s. « x awe; bat it b rapidly making
^ 33****. * will represent, probably,
d cental view that has taken
fesasbcal period. The essence
the universality and the
otherwise, to understand
a contradiction of
Whoever has grasped the
r _ t» sweep mental horizons
-vise vkw of any thinker of an
pajnasf. at the sure heritage
ibb tar bat ghosj of supersti-
shail at last find
the fearsome
taunted Kim thus
i s»vaxrry t barhar-
4 thinker even in
that so
but children
■eh is the case
it km even to
icier te lild
of
of the
bfltettBfble
4 tt* bom another,
^tottrvtniionof
im epmte about
mta
Fth
ewinflu-
Ion
tern
out i
w Inv
natter I
:ncrati- ■
>nor tlil
pursuit I
»f comrJ
1m of c
tele, II
1 meni
csof
to new
iging his hal
1 in thjs fact,
vagcry had he r |
cd. But suect
>een suggested,
less Inv. -lujit^n
gressive impulse
ulted h the de\ t
opacities und acq<
lere wasopjvrL! .
onmenta! stimdua I
• and physical in [err:,
the gr< ii local Lied < |
owed if^ pro minever
•to such iriiennjngling
avtiizal ^ began to t
years than in two thousand years before. This of course is not
entirely due to the influence of physical and biological science
no effect has a unique cause, in the complex sociological scheme
Archaeology, comparative philology and textual criticism have
also contributed their share; and the comparative study ol
religions has further tended to broaden the outlook and to make
for universality, as opposed to insularity, of view. It is coming
to be more and more widely recognized that all theologies an
but the reflex of the more or less faulty knowledge. of the tim«
in which they originate, that the true and abiding purpose ol
religion should be the practical betterment of humanity— th<
advancement of civilization in the best sense of the word; anc
that this end may perhaps be best subserved by different systems
of theology, adapted to the varied genius of different times anc
divers races. Wherefore there is not the same enthusiastic
desire to-day that found expression a generation ago, to impose
upon the cultured millions of the East a religion that seems tc
them alien to their manner of thought, unsuitcd to their needs
and less distinctly ethical in teaching than their own religions.
Such arc but a few of the illustrations that might be cited from
many fields to suggest that the mind of our generation is becom-
ing receptive to a changed point of view that augurs the coming
of a new ethnic era. If one may be permitted to enter very
tentatively the field of prophecy, it seems not unlikely that the
great revolutionary invention which will dose the third period
of civilization and usher in a new era is already being evolved.
It seems not over-hazardous to predict that the air-ship, in one
form or another, is destined to be the mechanism that will give
the new impetus to human civilization; that the next era will
have as one of its practical ideals the conquest of the air; and
that this conquest will become a factor in the final emergence ol
humanity from the insularity of nationalism to the broad view
of cosmopolitanism, towards which, as we have seen, the tend-
encies of the present era are verging. That the gap to be
covered is a vastly wide one no one need be reminded who recalls
that the civilized nations of Europe, together with America and
Japan, arc at present accustomed to spend more than three
hundred million pounds each year merely that they may keep
armaments in readiness to fly at one another's throats should
occasion arise. Formidable as these armaments now seem,
however, the developments of the not very distant future will
probably make them quite obsolete; and sooner or later, as
science develops yet more deadly implements of destruction,
the time must come when communal intelligence will rebel at
the suicidal folly of the international attitude that characterized,
for example, the opening decade of the 20th century. At some
lime, after the first period of cosmopolitanism shall be ushered
in as a tenth ethnic period, it will come to be recognized that
there is a word fraught with fuller meanings even than the word
patriotism. That word is humanitarianisra. The enlightened
generation that realizes the full implications of that word will
doubtless marvel that their ancestors of the third period ol
civilization should have risen up as nations and slaughtered on<
another by thousands to settle a dispute about a geographical
boundary. Such a procedure will appear to have been quite a<
barbarous as the cannibalistic practices of their yet more remote
ancestors, and distinctly less rational, since cannibalism might
sometimes save its practiser from starvation, whereas warfare
of the civilized type was a purely destructive agency.
Equally obvious must it appear to the cosmopolite of some
generation of the future that quality rather than mere numben
must determine the efficiency of any given community. Rac<
ftiidde will then cease to be a bugbear; and it will no longer tx
considered rational to keep up the census at the cost of pro-
pagating low orders of intelligence, to feed the ranks of paupers
defectives and criminals. On the contrary it will be thought
fitting that man should become the conscious arbiter of his owr
ratial destiny to the extent of applying whatever laws of heredit)
he knows or may acquire in the interests of his own species, ai
he has long applied them in the case of domesticated animals
The survival and procreation of the unfit will then cease to tx
a menace to the progress of civilization. It docs not follow thai
CIVILIZATION
409
all men will he brought to a dead level of equality of body and
mind, nor that individual competition will cease; but the average
physical mental status of the race will be raised immeasurably
through the virtual elimination of that vast company of defectives
which to-day constitutes so threatening an obstacle to racial
progress. There are millions of men in Europe and America
to-day whose whole mental equipment — despite the fact that they
have been taught to read and write — is far more closely akin to
the average of the Upper Period of Barbarism than to the highest
standards of their own time; and these undeveloped or atavistic
persons have on the average more offspring than are produced
by the more highly cultured and intelligent among their con-
temporaries. " Race suicide " is thereby prevented, but the pro-
gress of civilization is no less surely handicapped. We may well
believe that the cosmopolite of the future, aided by science,
will find rational means to remedy this strange illogicality. In so
doing he will exercise a more consciously purposeful function,
and perhaps a more directly potent influence, in determining
the line of human progress than he has hitherto attempted to
assume, notwithstanding the almost infinitely varied character
of the experiments through which he has worked his way from
savagery to civilization.
All these considerations tend to define yet more clearly the
ultimate goal towards which the progressive civilization of past
and present appears to be trending. The contempla-
tion of this goal brings into view the outlines of a vastly
suggestive evolutionary cycle. For it appears that
the social condition of cosmopolite man, so far as the present-day
view can predict it, will represent a state of things, magnified
to world-dimensions, that was curiously adumbrated by the social
system of the earliest savage. At the very beginning of the
journey through savagery, mankind, we may well believe, con-
sisted of a limited tribe, representing no great range or variety
of capacity, and an almost absolute identity of interests. Thanks
to this community of interests,— which was fortified by the
recognition of blood-relationship among all members of the tribe,
— * principle which we now define as " the greatest ultimate
good to the greatest number " found practical, even if unwitting,
recognition; and therein lay the germs of all the moral develop-
ment of the future. But obvious identity of interests could be
recognized only so long as the tribe remained very small. So
soon as its numbers became large, patent diversities of interest,
based on individual selfishness, must appear, to obscure the
larger harmony. And as savage man migrated hither and thither,
occupying new regions and thus developing new tribes and
ultimately a diversity of " races," all idea of community of
interests, as between race and race, must have been absolutely
banished. It was the obvious and patent fact that each race was
more or less at rivalry, in disharmony, with all the others. In
the hard struggle for subsistence, the expansion of one race meant
the downfall of another. So far as any principle of " greatest
good " remained in evidence, it applied solely to the members of
one's own community, or even to one's particular phratry or
gens.
Barbaric man, thanks to his conquest of animal and vegetable
nature, was able to extend the size of the unified community,
and hence to develop through diverse and intricate channels
the application of the principle of " greatest good " out of which
the idea of right and wrong was elaborated. But quite as little
as the savage did he this It of extending the application of the
principle beyond the bounds of his own race. The laws with
which he gave expression to his ethical conceptions applied,
of necessity, to his own people alone. The gods with which bis
imagination peopled the world were local in habitat, devoted
to the interests of his race orJy. ar.d at cr;mity with the gods of
rival peoples. As bet wren nation ar.d nation, the only principle
of ethics that ever v:cjrr*d to him was that might makes right.
Civilized man for a lorg *.i=-e advir.ctd fcr-t slowly upon this view
of international Bora'j'.y. No Egyptian or Bahvlor.ian or
Hebrew or Creek or P-or-ar. ever re-v-ated to attack a weaker
nation on the gro-H tr-it it -Ko.-d Le wror.g to do so. And
few indeed are the uaiauts is. "»L-± even a cvodera cauot has
judged an international question on any other basis than that
of self-interest. It was not till towards the close of the loth
century that an International Peace Conference gave tangible
witness that the idea of fellowship of nations was finding trcognl-
tion; and in the same recent period history has recorded the nut
instance of a powerful nation vanquishing a weaker one without
attempting to exact at least an " indemnifying " tribute.
But the citizen of the future, if the auguries of the present
prove true, will be able to apply principles of right and wrung
without reference to national boundaries. He will understand
that the interests of the entire human family are, in the U*t
analysis, common interests. The census through which he
attempts to estimate " the greatest good of the greatest number "
must include, not his own nation merely, but the remotest
member of the human race. On this universal ha»ia must he-
founded that absolute standard of ethics which will determine
the relations of cosmopolite man with his fellows. When this
ideal is attained, mankind will again represent a single family,
as it did in the day when our primeval ancestors first entered
on the pathway of progress; but it will be a family whose hahitnl
has been extended from the narrow glade of some tropical forest
to the utmost habitable confines of (he globe. Each member of
this family will be permitted to enjoy the greatest amount of
liberty consistent with the like liberty of cwvry other mcmlier;
but the interests of the few will everywhere be recognized at
subservient to the interests of the many, and such recognition
of mutual interests will establish the practical criterion for the
interpretation of international affairs.
But such an extension of the altruistic principle by no means
presupposes the elimination of egoistic Impulses- -of individual*
ism. On the contrary, we must suppose tliat man at ___
the highest stages of culture will be, even as was the Jy **
savage, a seeker after the greatest attainable degree of 9 nta»mcy.
comfort for the least necessary expenditure of energy.
The pursuit of this ideal has been from first to last the ultimate
impelling force in nature urging man forward. The only change
has been a change in the interpretation of the idral, an altered
estimate as to what manner of things are most worth the purchase-
price of toil and self-denial. That the things most worth the
having cannot, generally speaking, be secured without audi toil
and self-denial, is a lesson that began to be inculcated while man
was a savage, and that has never ceased to be reiterated g< m-ra-
tion after generation. It is the final test of progreuivc civiliza-
tion that a given effort shall produce a larger and larger modi' um
of average individual comfort. That is why the great inventions
that have increased man's efficiency as a worker have been the
necessary prerequisites to racial progress. Stated otherwise, that
is why the industrial factor Is everywhere the mofrt powerful
factor in civilization; and why the economic interpretation fs
the most searching interpretation of history at its every stage.
It is the basal fact that progress implies increased average
working efficiency— a growing ratio between average effort and
average achievement— that gives sure warrant for »u< h a prog-
nostication as has just been attempted concerning the future
industrial unification of our rate. The efforts of twilized man
provide him, on the average, with a marv< llou\ range of <omfort»,
as contrasted with those that rewarded the rr.ost strenuous
efforts of savage or barbarian, to whom pr^-vrnt day nMrv*rirs
would have been undreamed -of luxuries. But the id* a I ratio
between effort and result has by no means been afhitw-d;
nor will it have been until the inventive brain of man ta*. pro-
vided a civilization in which a far higher percentage of nu/AXt\
will find the L'e- vocations to which they are best sda;/"d by
nature, and in wfcj'.h, therefore, the efforts of the average *or»*r
may be directed w:th iwb vigour, er.thuiiawn and ir.'err.t at ' a it ■
alone cake for true eff.cieacy; a civilization v\yi\<r<\ to vv.b
an ecoaocr.ic balance that the average man may live in reauor.ibSe
comfort without heart- breaki rig t'.raio, and yet a/yum J* te a
su£c>ct t'jrplut to ensure ease and serenity for his dec]:r.ir.g
days. SwC h, seesizgly, should be the normal goal of progressive
civilization. Doubtless matks&d in advar.'.;:^ towards that
goal will institute &axy ciaxges \ha\ 'jniA \t\ v* v**^**-*!^
CIVIL LAW— CIVIL LIST
re the views just presented) it seems a
lay conditions and tendencies that the
a will include (i) the organic beltcr-
■ise application of the laws of heredity;
ational jealousies and the consequent
p»on communal resources that attends
an ever-increasing movement towards
c unification of the world. (H.S.W1.)
r work* dealing with the savage and
i development will be found appended
,y. Special reference may here be made
ry of Mankind (1865), PrimUue Culture
SSi); Lord Avebury'* Prekisloric Times
i/Ci'» of Civilization (new edition. looa);
I Present (1S00): and Lewis H. Morgan's
te earliest attempt at writing a history
ny value for the 20th<enlury reader
IMO, a handy Engli>h translation by
d«l in Bonn's Standard Library under
Cni!i:jtion. The earlier lecture*, de-
ne, deal with the general progress ol
st the greater part of the work is an
\ iliration in France Guizot's attitude
this book still ha* usefulness as a store-
e'# famous work. The It tstsry of Ori.'.rj-
I). thoueh only a gigantic unfinished
proposed enterprise, nolds an important
• on account of the new method which
en birth to a considerable number of
ies. such as Lcvkv's History #f Eursfran
iJ iKiuewe of fcuontlism in Eu*of*
!rf.«7 of tkt Imtc-e<tu*l Peteicpment of
fiom the American stand-point. " the
lenoe oslered by the intellectual history
*i(h ph\ *:• 'logical principles, so as to
« of ci\ iliration." Its objective treat-
r Mill fcive it sreat value to the student,
he loth century it may be said that all
or le-> a history of ci\ iliration
»evi\ morv *
■4 and agt-*. and a bibliography ol the
\-t would be corvten*i\e with the cata-
l-.i1 library. Special mention, however,
or taut and fugitive works as C. H.
tj i^.i'j.r.-r ^gji; Benjamin Kidd's
nd /'»i'.M>Vr of Western CailiMtion
t a » l\:tytt .»f Lirili^ilion (IQOO; C.
m.'i.'.i.'i.-i viSS;^; C. Faulmann's ///«-
iO: li. IWou.l ray's Ilistoire de la
11 HclU.iM's Ku'U'fiesihuhle (18961;
.• Jsr Stei*,hheit n$j»M: O. Henne-am-
i«cra(i'i;, CetrmxtMTt n«J Zukunft U&90);
u.'iyitfi."* *it\terne li89o>, &c. The vast,
k on wviology, from Herbert Spencer
kMi»ul(e\l: wv bibliography attached to
ie hi>toiic.il niethi-nl on which practically
it edition of the Fury. Brit, are planned,
II in e;*cntiais the most comprehensive
>tci\oe.
*huh. with its Latin equivalent jus
ri e.i t \ a 1 iet y of meant ngs. J us c ivilc
i»tinguith that portion of the Roman
or <iiuienl law of the city or slate of
•, 01 the law common to all the nations
not Id, which was incorporated with
igviu v of the praetorian edicts. This
ued a« a pvi ma unit principle of division
. law. One of the liitt propositions of
1 i« the tallowing:-— " Jus autcm civile
Onme* populi qui legihu* et moribus
10. |mi tun tviiiuniiii omnium hominum
pmqiie popuUit ip^i *ibi jus constituit,
III cnI. \o»,\tiiu\ue jus civile quasi jus
t*u,»d n civ uaturaU* rati** inter omnes
•nd «Muiii'« |viaeipie custoditur, voca-
quo {in,- oniuem Rente* utuntur." The
»« eUew he 1 e it lent i tied withjM* ntturale,
•mvi in Iv one Iviwecn civil law and
he muniupil or private law of a state
* vixil law in distinction to public or
1. the 11mukip.il law of a state may be
I criminal law. The phrase, however,
is applied par excellence to the system of law created by the
genius of the Roman people, and handed down by them to the
nations of the modern world (sec Roman Law). The civil law
in this sense would be distinguished from the local or national
law of modern states. The civil law in this sense is further to
be distinguished from that adaptation of its principles to ecclesi-
astical purposes which is known as the canon law (q.v.).
CIVIL LIST, the English term for the account in which are
contained all the expenses immediately applicable to the sup-
port of the British sovereign's household and the honour and
dignity of the crown. An annual sum is settled by the British
parliament at the beginning of the reign on the sovereign, and is
charged on the consolidated fund. But it is only from the reign
of William IV. that the sum thus voted has been restricted solely
to the personal expenses of the crown. Before his accession
many charges properly belonging to the ordinary expenses of
government had been placed on the civil list. The history
of the civil list dates from the reign of William and ttistorr
Mary. Before the Revolution no distinction had
been made between the expenses of government in time of
peace and the expenses relating to the personal dignity and
support of the sovereign. The ordinary revenues derived from
the hereditary revenues of the crown, and from certain taxes
voted for life to the king at the beginning of each reign, were
supposed to provide for the support of the sovereign's dignity
and the civil government, as well as for the public defence in
time of peace. Any saving made by the king in the expenditure
touching the government of the country or its defence would go to
swell his privy purse. But with the Revolution a step forward
was made towards the establishment of the principle that the
expenses relating to the support of the crown should be separated
from the ordinary expenses of the state. The evils of the old
system under which no appropriation was made of the ordinary
revenue granted to the crown for life had been made manifest
in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.; it was their control
of these large revenues that made them so independent of
parliament. Moreover, while the civil government and the de-
fences suffered, the king could use these revenues as he liked. The
parliament of William and Mary fixed the revenue of the crown
in time of peace at £1,: 00,000 per annum; of this sum about
£700.000 was appropriated towards the " civil list." But from
this the sovereign was to defray the expenses of the civil service
and the payment of pensions, as well as the cost of the support
of the royal household and his own personal expenses. It was
from this that the terra " civil list " arose, to distinguish it from
the statement of military and naval charges. The revenue voted
to meet the civil list consisted of the hereditary revenues of the
crown and a part of the excise duties. Certain changes and addi-
tions were made in the sources of revenue thus appropriated
between the reign of William and Mary and the accession of
George III., when a different system was adopted. Generally
speaking, however, the sources of revenue remained as settled
at the Revolution.
Anne had the same civil list, estimated to produce an annual
income of £700,000. During her reign a debt of £1,200,000 was
incurred. This debt was paid by parliament and Aaa9f
charged on the civil list itself. George I. enjoyed the a«Mi»j.
same revenue by parliamentary grant, in addition to ••*
an annual sum of £120,000 on the aggregate fund. ° ro ^»l*.
A debt of £1,000,000 was incurred, and discharged by parliament
in the same manner as Anne's debt had been. To George II.
a civil list of £800,000 as a minimum was granted, parliament
undertaking to make up any deficiency if the sources of income
appropriated to its service fell short of that sura. Thus in 1746
a debt of £456,000 was paid by parliament on the civil list.
On the accession of George III a change was made in the system
of the civil list. Hitherto the sources of revenue appropriated
to the service of the civil list had been settled on Qt1 ^ i „
the crown. If these revenues exceeded the sum they """*•
were computed to produce annually, the surplus went to the king.
George III., however, surrendered the life-interest in the heredi-
tary revenues and the excise duties hitherto voted to defray
CIVIL LIST
4«i
the civil list expenditure, and any claim to a surplus for a fiied
amount. The king still retained other large sources of revenue
which were not included in the civil list, and were free from the
control of parliament. The revenues from which the civil list
had been defrayed were henceforward to be carried into, aud
made part of, the aggregate fund. In their place a fixed civil
list was granted— at first of £723,000 per annum, to be iuireascd
to £800,000 on the falling in of certain annuities to members
of the royal family. From this £800,000 the king's household
and the honour and dignity of the crown were to be supported,
as well as the civil service offices, pensions and other charges
still laid on the list.
During the reign of George III. the civil list played an import-
ant part in the history of the struggle on the part of the king
to establish the royal ascendancy. From the revenue appropri-
ated to its service came a large portion of the money employed
by the king in creating places and pensions for his supporters
in parliament, and, under the colour of the royal bounty, bribery
was practised on a large scale. No limit was set 10 the amount
applicable to the pensions charged on the civil lint, so long at the
sum granted could meet the demand; and there was no prinr iple.
oa which the grant was regulated. Secret pen-Jens at the lring'%
pleasure were paid out of it, and in c\cry way the iiid'-pe.-idenre
of parliament was menaced; and though the more I'-gitimate
expenses of the royal household were diminished by the king'*
penurious style of livir.z. and though many '.barge* not dire' My
connected with the kir.g's pergonal expenditure w.-re r*:mo-v»d,
the amount was cor.star.tly exfttded, ar.d appi.'-atioM were
made from Lr->e to t.rr.e to r.arl;ar*i».:.t to ;>»/ ofx *M»*\ iz.fjrtfl.
and thus ojpor. jr.::y *is givtn for 1
r.\ ■:*-.. j
of £5x5 -2i vis jA.i '.'. :-. arrears; a:
.<; .:-. *.;«■«: '.
for arxo'-r:'-* a-'i f -r ar. ..v, -iry iz.'.o *
1:.»; '.* . /:
m n-iij'.ry *;: f .».tc»': .r. 1*-.
-r;.^ t r ..i
n^ r pii— z s^- i ::.. : '.rr-fe'.^r..
A.. 1 v*.-;/
■MAoi lb* civ.. _«•. **-» t-:*.*vr.'-.
../ .'*r...'.-:
Criiii- »*.-_•. y. far a- ';
C- '-:-••: .-..*:
tii.: lie :'-=.;£ **?* ti-^rir: .-. ••.--
.y:Z''-'
avrt .KfXJL .1 :— tr. t; - -.*.-.. ::
. * v* ".».:?
U ;*y "jz ±\:\ ;*-. -.: -.•-.■; l\i --.
. .*-» v ■*,
CZ—'tZ.' iX'l .*IT".^. " '. .'. "%*'! -ft* ".*<
, * . • .•.'. : t.
»l sf.-.e :•: u-.-j -.r.-^-..-.. -..-.- L -..- ;-~ -
a=*r--: -.:•-.*:*: *. .-. i._y. t :".--..•- r [
s. v/. *.•*■'
.ia:' --&• u ■ - -.-. v. li. *•.: - _i *.-
- \/-"- "-*>•.
'.-, a d' '*•
t *i«-rr.»r.'J
o'«. V. it*-
t ».■,'*.•
.??. !•,-•:
'/.■....-••/:
! */** .♦■
reform, rami* Into power, and I he Civil |.|sl Ait lyHi *«•
introduced and ttiuled wllh the i<«pir«« iilijei l nr Until Inn ltn>
pulrnnngr and inllueiite nl iiiiii(ilri«, m, In nlliei utM
words, the aniendmu v o| the iiimn iiwi tMillaiiii'iil A*\lt»t
Not only dlil the ml rllei I llii* ulmlllliiii ul «
number of umlrm iilliirs, bul II nIwi Iiii|miqh| imlnilnU mi lln>
ivtiie of smel sriviie tnuney, nml iiiinli> pMivUInu Im 11 iimm
cfTn tunlRii|ieivi»iuiuil tlir ioy«li'i|M'iiihlMii A« In llic pi imIhm
list, the annual amount wn« In In Ihnih d In /ip,.i»»i ( im \» n*lnit
to any one |ierkoii was to ruml / 1 i<*i, and till pi mlmi* «\i|i> In
be paid at the rulmjini, llum pulling n -ilnp in flu- •unl
peiiftiom pay utile duiilig plnmnii'. Mminvu, |h ii«|imi« mui-
only to \k be«liiwed in llir way ••! inynl bmiiiiy Im \ ■ In
dUtreu or as a rewind lot mrill Aiinilni vny Iiii|h.iIiiiiI
ihaiige wnt mm 1 ' by llii« nil. tin* ■ Ivil li.l wmi dl'/hlid lulu
fl;n*un, mid a fiseil ntii'iiml wu« lo In n|r|n<<|.ilii|M| In imb
(kiM. 'Ilir f'lll'/wiug wi|i Mm- tlimr-.iQ
l. I'rii»ii»n« iiii'l ■II'iWjihh* iff 1 In 1 « . ;■ il f-iiml,
7. t'aywnt ul fciliirk* *A l<#f«l ilmn«i Mm, t\.i.,Vn ««••! )i\A\,< ,
\. 'mldtfniA linnialt l« l'# I'MilKH i 'rM»>« f>i-i<l< ul 4l »!•» •..»■
\ A(>|H'>vk| ImIU til tt*iU*un n, lit lift" I* iimI I'iU'mu* |i.« -,h/
•ifli'b vi|'|«Jiid -iii'l wu|> •I'ffn Im Hid Mn^«l/ * ••! 'i»i
•J M'niil wrvrfii'a >>f t !•# Ii'iuw Ij-«I«I
/# |Vn«i'rn luf
7 '«iLri<« »/l 4II #/ili#-r |«|j<i« fM/.iKb lint «tl id*- « ; 'il li*t ikiri «••!*•
H. 'm4\-*tf% *ii'l i^ttw'ii* '•! li't-if'f '.1 "Jif.im .i',n«-lk »if Oi*
lr» ii'*»y iiii'l '#f fli*- « li^f." U«.» ».l il,« » " I.", h»
Y«-| i}il,i w4» thll lb' "in'M.or. ol »).» >i/.| ;, 1 <!»,«/, I., U...
rtid «d >V f ij*ri, in tpit* »/f 1 1.> itt;tti>< • ».»-!, !.••! I./ 1I1*
f'/'Iri'.Zl'im iii'ii'iy, *rd *.*#■ #»i* I, *-f.«fifj» »!.• nu'.t.l fi»##»»
I?.*: Ka'. of ir.^/./ 'liAi^»» 'jf./'.'.:."«"J #..'1. •!.» },„p . j,« . ^# ,|
♦./ja.'.vi 'lirf d*b>» dfvk -r/'d '#/ ;/.n **"t.\ I,. ».••# !/■•»,
':.•: <■.•* of 'J^ 'rt^.f!* of 'm '..,! I. 1 /..,.; 1. « «,..; >,l
f **'.-4,+ Ul x t'.t-', »''-•,..••• 'J ■■. /# ',•*.***. \* ." '■ • ■ If
jJ»v /•■*•./.! :^//.ivf*
"A'.'f. * ; ^ /'/••'/ ■*> '
.-«?••• f- :>■*: ♦'> i- ..' .-^. • .. , ««: , /
••■• -' ' < «■. ■•■-•« v' ■/ * jf #■,«
V /,-.
/.•>-
• /;/■
: * ^
1 '/
■;■■ / x ■• •• -■•-•
- ■• ■•■< '
j •. ^ 1 :-
4Z.*. W2T. -
*■ * »■-* *" » J
Lj- 1 ^.-
412
CIVIL SERVICE
Priv. ,„
S*-:f-:-i ;: :
Ei>.-*rt
r:.s£-:':
{Scyx.
i;: ::•:
: * - .o
-? : :■ j -_r :: i*.:."c r«er z^z.— j: i::::~Li:t t.ii &
:y :*..- ^r»c-:J scrv.:es t^ tie :t:t=. by tie peri:rr>
r arj
pu.\
li.-.r
a:
i::i :
:-•.> :- --.eraf-re i=.i ir.. ia-.e nerited the
c: 12* severe
ft 7 *-
Tie scr. Irs cf tiese peri.:r.s lz:r*
■ri i.* supper: tie i-*n-ty - ".ie cr :»-.
. . .. -«i.*".i t.> a be -' •"*&: :oc- Tie Lit : :* p*
«■■•>: b< ::.i i<:cre svarllatr.
T:
*tr>
rr.err
i-.:is thirty days cf :=:h Jur.e.
r:. aid relieved frc-m :ie
chirr
II V -*• PV.-i
Vcs ua.:i fi
• c: E::„U"y and
■ th* supper: o: :
.a^e as d-5*-r.j
I*:l amen.: ^
T* death
:i.il wl-arge*. I: r.:w real.y cruy dealt
- i.grdty ar.d i:u:ur cf the crc*r. ird
Tie irr5.r5*-.<z: wis rr:s: »u::ess:V..
:.: lis: three rc^m* :h;re was :s a;;!*.^:!:" :o
: :-e djciarge o: debts incurred 01 :ce c.vtl Lit.
cf Queen Vict; :1a rer.ijre-i :: r.e:es>ary that
■\.*:;r. shculd be mad: ::r the cM! ..,:: and K.rg
Ad noj. -r.rcik rv^i.% a: the e..»rv*al c: pa-jar^r : i.s hercd.-
tary -i-.-f--.* A scle:t ;cr.r.:::i cf the K:-« cf
Commons was appointed -> cc.-.s:i:r '.he pre* I*::-* c: :>:: ::"•-
I >• 'or :hc «.■:."»■*••.. ar.i :o :tpc:i also os :he s-o". :r. .:" grar.a
'or :hc !\v 7 ^:;. v.- s.^jv:: i"i =a:-:;rjr.ce c: K-.r Mi;»:y :ic
C -va :-..\ :\. --r.SrT* .•:' :he ro*al -a^ily. The ;:~^:::« :a
t%
. a-: * :
vrta/i rooo
o a c-.T.j.Jcrai't c\::r.: Sy
: : .?.£ :>c :as: :cn >;ir* si :he U*
::or.» ■«
• \» .
tow.-.:
► v o.r.J a* Iv:»«tf
ar^r-.c:-.:5. icr.i»J
:hc *'-rpor: cf ;he
: !v;v::
.«:.! a::a :ho horcui ......
^ Ns^n! the C:\'- Li>: Act :oo:. »iich e>:ab-|
Vhc ** >:cra that t Vc icrco! .tar> rtwr.uc*
>e c\c><\v-ir
K- iui,l i:.:o :>f c\c><\;--ct ar.v*. Iv par:
»v: ■*o , ..\i: l . 1 i u\;\A was :va-.Sa.-a,-J. W arvur.: j>a>ab:c for |
llv y.\t\ Ust w A * iiwu-a^. !:o:n *.^5 »>x» to t4*o.cco. Ir. the
aiV" : »-» , ,.»«i ot jh-.s. >vi-:\ the ruv\: o: *'.a>se4 ot ctjvr, ; ..:ur^
lo n hi* h vjv.s.i!,- aivo.m!« « .':%■ to Ix- aj»',vop:ia:c\! *a> ■.:urea«e\l
l.o-.'i n\o to m\. Vho v'.lowr.'S W -» N the »w» ariar^e'.rcr.t of 1
%:.i^.x - lx| ,1,^ j ».,.., Mr.-o.'.rt' p:i\> purw. t««:xo;
.•:t.l /.a^. %ilji: W «ot \\ * Majo* , .\'* hoi:who!.i a:«M r*t;:e»i *"o«-|
«"»»*. (i *>.S*x». .;M *;a*». i-\jx*si>e*ot Hi* Ma ; .e*!>"# houwhoM.
(■-■! .sv, ^th v J Ax x. «o a .k» \th»* inteiiot iqviir and Jixvratioa
t»i UiuVi«s?iaai l^'.a.e aiul \\ r.:.Noi ^.i>t'cV i.vw; 5'- h c!a**.|
i\'\ it tsniniv, al:v.s aa.l *petial m'imiO, {i.i.:oo; o:h c'a<*.
» •■••P'.o.m uie.l. | Sow l"hc >^ *!on» ietat:;-.f to , :\ -.1 list pensions.
»■*; »Mi^\,>i by the ^i\il 1 iNt \ci iS.i-. continued to apply, but 1
«V,- |vvawk» ^.-u- not njMi.Kd ^ cluigcaMe on the sum pa:«1
lo: iV , ,x ,', i,x, Vhe * omiiutec a'.v* .it!* i#»M that the mastership I
•M i 1 '.!- liiuVhomitU »houU not !v continue!; and the kin^. on|
• hf ..h ,c ot hi» mintarn. *Si«^l »o accept their rrconir.enda-
• o> I So vumlenaivo 01 the royal hunt thu» ceascM to be a,
• b-*e on tS, ltt ,l IM Vhe annuities of £.-c.ooo to the pnncc
01 W «\v o: tll , lXV to the pii.ue**of w ^ l a ^> l *^ w l S
U.. M*v»u\ thiw dau«hten. were not included in tht cml
I1-1 M ,*„ WW ,o,scrred bv the same act. ^^S
tv»,i.. b, , |Vil| | j,.,, .tt |v.ih.m>ent to members ofthe ro>*l
t !* .«i ^ e,-V.J l.o« * ^V^.^nLess
p« ^- v n,.*,,».i ot s,M^rj HolMein. {6ooo to the pnncess
— e v . ,.;',, LVm* « :, .xv to the duke of Connaught
.— u. C Lh •! o, VlK*«v. texvo to the V™£^™
^ ;■•> 01 ISjmcK,^ a,nU>wtotheduche«o( Mecklenburg ,
M ltM.,x » V111 .,. . i i...>-m.,iivmiihil*BiiiWjd«"J!?^
•"^ivau-V «ii.w « tl« "^»«*» Ihcc arc o. Ml**
Lre s:i:e- sr-:_:
\*ir
•b- fr--^ >■'-? ■>>«. ".t cwt-sjrace. 01 1905. Spain. /2S0.000.
e\-_i^.* :. ^ ■-!-.«■: --:r::<r* :c ;h* royal family; Portugal.
.":• •■'■-• .z 2.11 -.-:: i: m .\i 1: :.-* ;^«z-cc.-.*ort — total r „ n . ,.
j-i -":":: :-: r: i :i-. r -" ."::r-.v Italy. £602.000. 2J7^
:V:- * r •:? *u ^-: j--i-z : :r xc :":r ti-» children of the cmmmirkt.
zjr.ii&z . : 7^i.-» \-*i-:ir: :-«j .-»• A •■?!*. £1^000 to Prince
.z—r^fC :-%.i :: It::* iz ; ^a: :co to C'ueep Marghcriti:
h<'z; .- i _ i" "■?: *ii:j-f-.i-r». ^«: :»:c »ith, in addition.
tVo: ::r :*-i -.: rv-^rrs .c :r- r^a. :clirw: Germany. £77o.5"0
».-^i.ii- —-■ 7'--' :>• fcrv£r«-.p «-v. pcs«essins Urge prixaie
fr:>—% j." -.— /^ »*.»••...-■ *« j.'-^i.X".--^"). the revenue from
»r.»:- c:r.:r :..:;■; :: :-* tiKTi:_rs ;.' :ie ccurt and the mcmUrf
« :r* r:.. il :a - .:- Z"*. --irt ^55 *x 12 addition to {6toiio
:ie bei^-arrirrr:. Nmi>. ^» mv >*vi<n. £72.700; Crewe,
^5; :>:•■. *-j:r .-^ .:>; iix«: ci:i tr.-'n Great Britain. France
a=d jt.»ii: Awi^-^-H-~iir>. jia: wt. r_adc up cf £387.5004*
e.T.perzc U A.fzra r_: :: u* r.-.;aM :* A.suia. and £554.166 as
k.r.g :<H.;.fL- :-.t ;i :^ rt'.tT jc* .:i K---:jarj': Japan. odo.W'
R-T-a.r.ia -i" .w •.-. a-Ji.:. :r : : rt-.er .•=> :r:m certain crown bnds;
Ser*-la. tar.ico: E-V-"v:- t's- ■»■" -*»--:•» Ooooo for maintenance
c< pL*zt*. a: : y:".saefr;. -?3X*. R-§jvi Kid no ci%il list, the
cTi.£- rax..-.; a.. :>< rt.er-* :r..-a :he cTc*n domains (actual
»-*-?■»:".. t»: s.r>:«s<«: :: 1—:--: to o\xr £4,000,000);
:-ir.t cf :h* Fre^Ji K:r_: .r had a salary of £»4.ooo a
:* a f-_r:-<r *-i >» ■"-*■ eapenct: acd the president of the
•u:«f hai a saur>- ci 5f:.xo :tjc l<K*}. $75,000).
CIVIL SERVICE. *.ie ger.cric ra=e pves to the aggregate of
al tie public ser\-asu. cr fc:i ci\ J ac=-ir.^:rators and clerks,
cf a iu:e. I: ss tie S2chi£ei>- by which *ie executive, through
tie various ai=uris*.ratic=s. carries ca the central govcrnmeBt
o: the c:--=*r>*.
5--:.« fTpt-e.—The appol^trr.cr.ls to the civil service until
tie year 1*55 were xriie by r:r.:r.-:i:r.. with an examination
r.r: s-j^cicst to form an intellectual cr e\-en a ph>*sical test
It *as or-y after p.uch ccr.sideraLc-= a=d almost >-ears of dis-
cuf?lcn :i-t the ncrrination system *as abar.dom.tl. Various
ccr-.r.:»s:cr.s reported on the civil serv".;e. ar.d orders in council
»err issued. F;r.-lly in 1S55 a quil.fyir.j: examination of 1
s:rir.jcut character »is instituted. ar.J in xS;o the principle
of open co-petition was adopted as a pc serai rule. On the
report of the Fla>-:a:r Corr. mission i:5:5\ an order in council
was issued d:\idir.g the civil service iu:o an upper and lower
division. Tie order in council directed that a lower division
should be constituted, ar.d men ar.d boy clerks holding per-
irar.er.1 positions replaced the temporary assistants and writers.
The " teatporan* " assistant was cot found to be advantageous
to the service. In December i?S6 a new class of assistant
clerks was formed to replace the men copyists. In 1SS7 the
Ridley Oomxission reported on the civil service establishment.
In t5co t»o orders in council were issued based on the reports
of the Ridley Con-r::s*:on. which sat from tS56 to 18.30. The
r.rst order constituted what is now known as the secoi.d division
of the ci\ i'. ser* ice The second order in council concerned the
officers ot the 1st class, and provision was made for the possible
promotion of the second division clerks to the first division after
eight years' sen-ice.
The whole system is under the administration of the civil
service commissioners, and power is given to them, with the
approval of the treasury* l0 prescribe the subjects of examina-
tion. lin-i:s of ape. &c. The pge is fixed for compulsory retire-
ment at sixty-five. In exceptional cases a prolongation of five
years is within the powers of the civil service commissioners.
The examination for 1st class clerkships is held concurrently
with that of the civil service of India and Eastern cadetships
in the colonial service. Candidates can compete for all three
or for two. In addition to the intellectual test the candidate
must fulfil the conditions of age (22 to 24). must present re-
commendations as to character, and pass a medical examination.
This examination approximates closely to the university type
of education. Indeed, there is little chance of success except
for candidates who have had a successful university career,
and frequently, in addition, special preparation by a private
teacher. The subjects include the language and literature of
England, France, Germany. Italy, ancient Greece and Rome,
Sanskrit and Arabic, mathematics (pure and applied), natural
science (chemistry, physics, zoology, &c.\ history (English.
Creek, Roman and general modern), political economy and
CIVIL SERVICE
+ '.
economic history. mrnt.il and "moral philosophy. Roman .ind
English law and political science. The candidate is obliged to
retch a certain itandard of knowledge in each subject before
my marks at all are allowed him. This rule was made to prevent
ncceai by mere cramming, and to ensure competent knowledge
on the basis of real study.
The maximum scale of the salaries of clerks of Class I. is as
follows: — 3rd class, £200 a year, increasing by £20 a year to
{300; and class, £600, increasing by £35 a year to £800; 1st
class, £850, increasing by £50 a year to £1000 Their pensions
arc fixed by the Superannuation Act 1859, 22 Vict. c. 26: —
" To any person who shall have served ten year* and upwards,
and under eleven years, an annual allowance of ten-sixtieths of
the annual salary and emoluments of his office.
" For eleven year* and under twelve years, an annual allowance
of eleven-sixtieths of such salary and emoluments.
" And in like manner a further addition to the annual allow-
ance of one-sixtieth in respect of each additional year of such service,
until the completion of a period of service of forty years, when the
annual allowance of forty-sixtieths may be granted; and no ad-
ditions shall be made in respect of any service oeyond forty years."
The "ordinary annual holidays allowed to officers" (ist class)
"shall not exceed thirty-six week-days during each of their first
tenyears of service and forty-eight week-days thereafter." Order
ia Council, 15th August 1890.
'* Within that maximum heads of departments have now, an
they have hitherto had, an absolute discretion in fixing the annual
leave."
Sick leave can be granted on full salary for not more than six
months, on half-salary for another six months.
The scale of salary for 2nd division clerks begins at £70 a year,
increasing by £s to £100; then £100 a year, increasing by £7, 10s.
to £100; and then £190 a year, increasing by £10 to £250. The
highest ia £300 to £500. Advancement in the 2nd division to the
higher ranks depends on merit, not seniority. The ordinary
annual holiday of the 2nd division clerks is 14 working days for
the first five years, and 21 working days afterwards. They can
be allowed sick leave for six months on full pay and six months
on half-pay. The subjects of their examination are: (1) hand-
writing and orthography, including copying MS.; (2) arithmetic;
(3) English composition; (4) precis, including indexing and digest
of returns; (5) book-keeping and shorthand writing; (6) geo-
graphy and English history; (7) Latin; (8) French; (o) Ger-
man; (10) elementary mathematics, (11) inorganic chemistry
with elements of physics. Not more than four of the subjects
(4) to (n) can be taken. The candidate must be between the
ages of 17 and 20. A certain number of the places in the 2nd
division were reserved for the candidates from the boy clerks
appointed under the old system. The competition is severe, only
about one out of every ten candidates being successful. Candi-
dates are allowed a choice of departments subject to the exigencies
of the services.
There b also a class of boy copyists who are almost entirely
employed in London, a few in Dublin ami Edinburgh, and. very
seldom, in some provincial towns. The subjects of their examination
are. a Obligatory— handwriting and orthography, arithmetic and
English composition. Optional — (any two of the following), fi)
copying MS.; (2) geography; (j) English history, fa) translation
from one of the following languages — Latin, French or German;
(5) Euclid, bk. i. and ii., and algebra, up to and including simple
equations; (6) rudiments of chemistry and physics. Candidates
must be between the ages of 15 and 18. They have no claims to
superannuation or compensation allowance. Boy copyists are not
retained after the age of 30.
Candidates for the civil service of India take the same ex-
amination as for 1 st class clerkships. Candidates successful in
the examination must subsequently spend one year in England.
They receive for that year £1 30 if they elect to live at one of the
universities or colleges approved by the secretary of state for
India. They are submitted to a final examination in the following
subjects — Indian Penal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure,
the principal vernacular language of the province to which they
are assigned, the Indian Evidence Act 'these three subjects are
compulsory), either Hindu and Mahommedan Law. or Sanskrit.
Arabic or Persian, Burmese -for Burma only). A candidate may
not lake Arabic or Sanskrit both in the first examination and in
the final. They must &i*> pass a thorough examination in riding.
'>n ri.av.hinK India their salary l>oj;i:is .it 4»k> ru|>ec> .1 mouth.
They may take, as leave, one fourth of the lime on aiti\e
service in periods strictly limited by regulation. After 15 years'
service (of which si must be active service) they can retire on a
pension of £1000 a year. The unit of administration is the district.
At the head of the district is an executive officer called either
collector-magistrate or deputy-commissioner. In most provinces
he is responsible to the commissioner, who corresponds directly
with the provincial government. The Indian civilian after (our
years' probation in both branches of the service is called upon
to elect whether he will enter the revenue or judicial department!
and this choice as a rule b> held to be final for his future work.
Candidates for the Indian Forest Service have to pas* a com-
petitive examination, one of the compulsory subjects bring German
or French. They have also to pass a severe met lie a I examination,
especially in their powers of vision and hearing. They must he
between the ages of 18 and 22. Successful candidate* are required
to pass a three years' course, with a final examination, seven
terms of the course at an amiroved school of forestry, the rest of
the time receiving practical instruction in continental I-'iimjiean
forests. On reaching India they start as assistant rnt134rv.1t ors at
380 rupees a month. The h^hest salary, that of inspect or -general
of forests, in the Indian Forest ServUe is 2030 rupees u month.
The Indian Police Service is entered by a competitive examination
of very much the same kind as for the forest H-rviie, extent that
special subjects such as German and l>ot.iny are not in< ludrd. The
candidates arc limited in age to 19 and 21. They must pass a
riding examination. A free passage out \n given them. They are
allotted as probationers, their wishes being consulted as far as
possible as to their province. A |>roba<ionrr meivei joo ru|ieea
a month. A district superintendent can rise to i:<k) r 11 per* a
month, while then- arc a few pmts with a salary of yum rupees a
month in the police «*rvire. The leave nnd pension in both these
departments follow the general rules for Indian services.
The civil service also includes student interpretcrships for
China, Japan and Siam, and for the Ottoman dominions, Persia,
Greece and Morocco. Both these classes of student interpreters
arc selected by open competition. Their object is to supply the
consular service in the a)>ovc-namcd countries with [arsons
having a thorough knowledge of the language of the country
in which they serve.
In the first case, China. Japan. &c, they learn their language in
the country itself, receiving £200 as protu tinners. Then they lie-
come assistants in a consulate. The highest pmt is that of ion»ul<
general. In the case of student interpreter* for the Ottoman do-
minions, Persia, Greece and Morocco, tnc sw ie**ful candidate* learn
their languages at Oxford. Turkish is taught gratuitously, but
they pay the usual fees for other languages. At Oxford they receive
£200 a year for two years. On leaving Oxford t hey berome assistants
under the embassy at Constant iiuiple, the legations at Teheran,
Athens or Morocco, or at one of II.it.M. consulate*. As a-.biM.-inl*
they receive £jOO a year. The. <on\uls, the highest po«.t to whHh
they can reach, receive in the Levant from £$00 to / 1000 a year.
The civil service* of Ceylon, lionst-Kong. the Strait* Settlements,
and the Malay Peninsula are supplied by the Kasfefn tadetships.
The limit* of age for the examination .ire 18 and 24. The cadet*
are required to learn the native language of the colony or
dependenry to whirh I hey are aligned. In t lie case of the Straits
Settlements and Maby ca'lets they may have to learn Chine** «r
Tamil, as well an the native language. The talarie* are: pjueil
cadets, 3500 rupees per annum, gradually increasing mini fmt # fast
officers receive, from 12.000 to 18.000 rupee* jut annum. 1 hey ire.
allowed three months' var.it ion on full pay in two years, and leave
of absence on half-pay after six years' server, or I *-(.** tli.it if
urgently necled. 1 hey can retire f«if ill- health after ten year* with
fifteen- sixtieths of their annual vilary. Otherwise they un add
one-sixtieth of their * nnn.il Hilary to their pension for every
additional year's service i;y, to thirty-five years' service.
In spite of the gentrd rule of open competition, there are still
a few departments where the i>y:i*m of nomination obtains,
accompanied by a severe test of knowledge, either active or
implied. Such are the foreign office, British Museum, and board
of education.
The employment of women in the civil scrvi'.e has Keen
principally developed in the post office. Women are employed
in the post office as female clerks, counter 'Jerks, telegraphi'.ts,
returners, sortri a.vl poit-rr.ii'.re'^s all over the !;r,i»ed King-
dom. The board of agriculture, the cjitorr.-; a.id the India office
employ worr.en. The dcpir.T.'.r.: of a jj r> ■-'*■- r* , the board of
education gtrjerauy, tht iocaJ go . t:z.R.tu\ Uir'l, all to a certain
+ '4
CIVIL SERVICE
t.i
i .-.I .ui.l
; employ women, whilst in the home office there are an
iiir number of women inspectors of workshops and
or general took a decided step in favour of
1 uith ihcci>iiM.'nt of the treasury* instituted
iV «'u-jk% il-> not cmic in contact with the
pm« U «. "u n. .il. and entirely in the account-
: ,»{ i!-.- »»,%i.t,> h.n-.k. Their leave is one
i i»-». •:! i« .«n the ordinary civil service
.» ». ■■.•.x'litixe: the Miivects are hand-
.'■•%;• I" -«l .*h o.-wrxv-itKin, geography.
.• * » • ■. •. k":... ! .o*io must be between
U * . .' . . . ■ -.-:t..\ j . i* «idows they must
.■ . .*» .* * ;".vk* take the same subjects
. ;-.»■■.< !x* tx :»evn the ages of
. • .N- n;» i> Kar.k department. If
. .- » ».»»'■'. ,•*>• The st.il.uies
. . % !•"'.-■ . x' : » :*o*» »n lnc hichcr
... - " * * .*..:'%.> are paid from
n-. .... • .-. >. - * *■** l v ***>
^ , *.- ,*•>».■: jroa: adrair.is-
v . .-. .. :;: *^:i o: :Nr wth
, fc v .,, ■•■.-: ».:>. ill •>..■«■
H ,. ..s . ■ ,. • M-.»v..* Orv-: Sr:an
.. . i x •.» ,-.v o.' the c'.rv.J**.
; >*>:.— »■-
,:/.:.-*-.t. c' ;V . -■-• *-\'\ -■*.." N
l>'v..'. .L.;.c^ o: :\ » ". .r - » . " • •' ■**" ' « v • - *
i;*r:»'**. a:vL p.:i-\ o.h.:> •» > "*• ■ '• ■
ArpV'-* it ;r. iV tw-pr-*: ;. ■ -^ > . .
■■ s;v."> >><!;t, " «.;* -c: h."»." % ." ■"*'
c : •«■ \iv.rx ;>.c pr:u:\.«: o: "••'-'■' v " "» ■ "■ •"'
. . ■ *.. --<■■•.'■*
• •> '.Taciiwi. > i.r.-.\trs:.- »- ■ .*
y} ;*■.„■ aa vf t»:c Lt.: th* *'~*' : V . \ "° : *
x • ; .. - r.-,. I: "P^S^ n ot so much for the
" *'" xV \:' **- " C ' "^ "> from being used for political
^-- -v . .-;r>: .c ^ - 5 : '-,.:,, fraud. wrrrpraMiMrd
-. • . T^:^-" : *;/J:.; MiMa 'I1,c forr-ipt-
■■■* N " - :< . 5 .::-iyrnal P- 454 »l «^"
ing influences permeated the whole body politic. Political re-
tainers were selected for appointment not on account of their
ability to do certain work but because they were followers cf
certain politicians; these " public servants " acknoak^d
no obligation except to those politicians, and thuir public 0-t:is,
if not entirely disregarded, were negligently and intir.viiniiy
performed. Thus grew a saturnalia of spoils and currupLuO
which culminated in thc assassination of a president.
Acute conditions, not theories, give rise to reforms, la
the congressional election of November 1S&2, following the
assassination of President Garfield as an incident in the opera-
tion of the spoils system, the voice of the people comnun-Jing
reform was unmistakable. Congress assembled in December 1 .v.*.
and during thc same month a bill looking to the improvcitrc!
of thc civil service, which had been pending in thc Senate :';■:
nearly two years, was finally taken up and considered by iLl
body. In the debate upon this bill its advocates declared that
it would " vastly improve thc whole civil service of the countr).
whuh they characterized as being at that time "ine£oe::.
expensive and extravagant, and in many instances corrupt.' :
Th*> till passed thc Senate on the 27th of December Uwtl
\<<:. .::•..! the House on thc 4th of January 1SS3, and ^n
»-< .o^T'id by the president on the 16th of January
: »,:. <o^:r.g into full operation on thc xMh of July iSij-
'.: .« :v« the national civil ser\ice law. Thc fundamcnlalpTa-
*■;" .** 0: this law are. — (1) selection by compctitiw examira-
; .• • ■.*: zM ..p;v;ntments to the "classified service," with*
.v- »vl of prclutionarj* scr\ice before absolute appointment,
: A.-.vri.or.r.uT.t among thc stales and territories, accwdicf
:,» .v *..'.;:..»n. o: .\!1 appointments in the departmental scrrw
a; \»-*\ -#:or. ^; % irtedom of all the employees of the gounv
■■; ■: 'v.-! a - *v necessity to contribute to political campaign
■ ^ .- : j rcr ■ * r :x '.:ti»:al ser\iccs. For putting these principle*
• :.* . *\\ : : *..* ^ % '* :. ivrvicc Commission was created, and peiulwi
• »■-.■ ■ - xv-. A :»t the Siilicil.it ion or collection from governniect
. ■• . .\^ .:" i»r.;ribuiion* for political purposes, and for the
"^ .. % . -«. •' •x«l:ioas in coercing political action. The coin-
• v< - 1 .".:".•. » " t* 1 ' !$ regular duties of aiding in the prepm*
. ^ -\ .a* \u\a. of n gulating and holding examinations,
-i ;V.o ^,iu':s thereof for use in making appointments
k .\ *-: rvv.vJs ol all changes in the service, was givtf»
,*.[ # . '. v> ; i'.-.e and ri|wrl upon any violations of lk
• ' >.:•.• v'a**ine»l " service to which the act appltf*
, ' . ■ . :^.- i.i.on 01 succcssi\x presidents in progressively
' , " vN » s-i^.hes of the service within it, from 13,0:4
yC; 1%> ^-.r.e So.coo lin round numbers) in iqoo,
t ^ . . 4 .-» »"; of the entire civil service of the govern-
." " $ V-ac'.VJ'y all positions above the grade ol
■. *.'":%---.n t<J *hich appointment is not rnatk
. *. \ ■-.-..->. ■..-. ».:h the consent of the Senate.* A
.. V\.h th? act is expressly applicable, ar.i
!. . » » \ -^. , 1*. -;:'.■ within its provisions by executive
. . t •. s i,. iV i {vstrnastcrs, of whom there a&
^ is ' . w *; v... N V.;.S'Ut^- OMcbMificdinX0X, 9)-
' i . . i ^-. ■* o: i! ; .c;Wcs for the various grades
.. *. v '. . -. '. .\ .0 «:\:Jc. the Cnited States CivU
V : , ^ v - * . v . . v ," A -«u.-."y throughout the country
*. - c ; '" ;v " v . . ^ . : % o: ct a nLr.Jtior.s. In the work of
". . !' *c .".-." .\ •■ »..*■* ■'' • *t marking thc papers of
'..-.."... .'".J * ." .*. ... ,v!\-. -/ft'or. is authorized by law
:.> o*»:i ».vrps of trained men, of
.I-J o:h-*r exports in the various
V wo:k o: holding thc cxamina*
c'iox-al boards of examiners, which
tVvi.chout the country and are
r 1 *"— h*x-*. i <: sc*fion; also U.S.
1 V * •:. «' !'• .t **hj.. Tenth Rtfml,
".\ .; t!:c T\. .-..:; ve civil service.
"' a\a.. ■:-.. .:. ;■• j..-. .: .♦:: :.
the *%-r\;.e> oj :!■..• >»..:■;::.
e\eou::\.- do:vi::-vc -:* 1-;
, tii-p.j it is a:ded hv a*.v;;: * ;o
are its Ural rvpr,>. :■:.».:%. -
i » See 5rt^v Rrf< •: v.- . -.*
Cm/.^fiwi'-'^i'-.'i', ;*•■■
PP- *3^. «37. and rf'i.v*.» K. f
•Tlie pr>'Hiv»:\i > »:..-Miu.ir
I liv c
sho-Ain;: iliv g
the f'S. On/ .*•
..f i
.. iih:i! iw'.v, i< i'.-. .. ■■■ ' *-ih «:ati»tics.
<\"n-.:'.n.-ji .^:.i;..'.:b .-v.. -:, pp. 129-137.
A' revi .!*■•! ih tin* iliicu&iion, with iai|xvrtaiit aU-iiiicns, appears in
the baxnUcntk Report.
CIVIL SERVICE
+15
located at the principal post offices, custom houses and other
government offices, being composed of three or more Federal
employees in those offices. About 50,000 persons annually
compete in these examinations, and about 10,000 of those who
are successful receive appointments through regular certification.
Persons thus appointed, however, must serve six months " on
probation " before their appointment can be made absolute.
At the end of this probation, if his service has not been satis-
factory, the appointee is simply dropped; and the fact that less
than x % of those appointed prove thus deficient on trial is high
testimony to the practical nature of the examinations held by
the commission, and to their aptness for securing persons qualified
for all classes of positions.
The effects of the Civil Service Act within the scope of its
actual operation have amply justified the hopes and promises of
its advocates. After its passage, absentee holders of lucrative
appointments were required to report for duty or to sever their
connexion with the service. Improved methods were adopted
in the departments, and superfluous and useless work was no
longer devised in order to provide a show of employment and a
locus standi for the parasites upon the public service. Individual
derics were required, and by reason of the new conditions were
enabled, to do more and better work; and this, coupled with
the increase in efficiency in the service on account of new blood
coining in through the examinations, made possible an actual
decrease in the force required in many offices, notwithstanding
the natural growth in the amount of work to be done. 1 Ex-
perience proves that the desire to create new and unnecessary
positions was in direct projiortion to the power to control them,
for where the act has taken away this power of control the desire
bad disappeared naturally. There is no longer any desire on
the part of heads of departments to increase the number or
salaries of classified positions which would fall by law within the
dvil service rules and be subject to competitive examinations.
Thus the promises of improvement and economy in the service
have been fulfilled.
Hie chief drawback to the full success of the act within its
{■tended scope of operation has been the withholding of
certain positions in the service from the application of the
vital principle of competition. The Civil Service Act contem-
plated no exceptions, within the limits to which it was made
applicable, to the general principle of competition upon merit
be entrance to the service. In framing the first civil service
tales, however, in 1S83, the president, yielding to the pressure
of the heads of some of the departments, and against the
vgtnt protest of the Civil Service Commission, excepted from
the requirement of examination large numbers of positions in the
higher grades of the service, clu'efly fiduciary and administrative
positions such as cashiers, chief clerks and chiefs of division.
These positions being thus continued under the absolute control
«f the appointing officer, the effect of their exception from
elimination was to retain just that much of the old or " spoils "
n/stem within the nominal jurisdiction of the new or " merit "
system. Even more: under the old system, while appointments
from the outside had been made regardless of fitness, still those
appointments had been made in the lower grades, the higher
positions being filled by promotion within the service, usually of
the most competent, but under the new system with its exceptions,
while appointments to the lower grades were filled on the basis of
■erit, the pressure for spoils at each change of administration
forced inexperienced, political or pergonal favourites in at the top.
This blocked promotions and demoralized the service. Thus, while
&e general effect of the act was to limit very greatly the number
ol vicious appointments, at the same time the effect of these
exceptions was to confine them to the upper grades, where the
demoralizing effect of each upon the service would be a maximum.
By constant efforts the Civil Service Commission succeeded in
hiving position after position withdrawn from this excepted
class, until by the action of the president, on the 6th of May 1806,
h was finally reduced almost to a minimum. By subsequent
■For details justifying the*? statements, see U.S. Civil Service
Commission's Fourteenth Report, pp. 12-14.
presidential action, however, on the 29th of May 1899, the
excepted class was again greatly extended."
A further obstacle to the complete success of the merit system,
and one which prevents the carrying forward of the reform to
the extent to which it has been carried in Great Britain, is
inherent in the Civil Service Act itself. All postmasters who
receive compensation of $1000 or more per annum, and all
collectors of customs and collectors of internal revenue, are
appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, and
are therefore, by express provision of the act, not " required
to be classified." The universal practice of treating these
offices as political agencies instead of as administrative business
offices is therefore not limited by the act. Such officers are
active in political work throughout the country, and their
official position adds greatly to their power to affect the political
prospects of the leaders in their districts. Accordingly the
Senate, from being, as originally intended, merely a confirming
body as to these officers, has become in a large measure, actually
if not formally, a nominating body, and holds with tenacity
to the power thus acquired by the individual senators. Thorough
civil service reform requires that these positions also, and all
those of fourth-class postmasters (partly classified by order of
1st Dec. 1008), be made subject to the merit system, for in
them is the real remaining stronghold of the spoils system. Even
though all their subordinates be appointed through examination,
it will be impossible to carry the reform to ultimate and complete
success so long as the officers in charge are appointed mainly
for political reasons and are changed with every change of
administration.
The purpose of the act to protect the individual employees
in the service from the rapacity of the " political barons " has
been measurably, if not completely, successful. The power
given the Civil Service Commission, to investigate and report
upon violations of the law, has been used to bring to light such
abuses as the levying of political contributions, and to set the
machinery of the law in motion against them. While compara-
tively few actual prosecutions have been brought about, and
although the penalties imposed by the act for this offence have
been but seldom inflicted, still the publicity given to all such
cases by the commission's investigations has had a wholesome
deterrent effect. Before the passage of the act, positions were
as a general rule held upon a well-understood lease-tenure, the
political contributions for them being as securely and as certainly
collected as' any rent. Now, however, it can be said that these
forced contributions have almost entirely disappeared. The
efforts which arc still made to collect political funds from govern-
ment employees in evasion of the law arc limited in the main
to persuasion to make " voluntary " contributions, and it has
been possible so to limit and obstruct these efforts that their
practical effect upon the character of the service is now very
small.
The same evils that the Federal Civil Service Act was designed
to remedy exist to a large degree in many of the state govern-
ments, and are especially aggravated in the administra-
tion of the local governments of some of the larger **■*»
cities. The chief, if not the only, test of fitness for gj* 1 ***
office in many cases has been partly loyalty, honesty
and capacity being seldom more than secondary, considerations.
The result has been the fostering of dishonesty and extravagance,
which have brought weakness and gross corruption into the
administration of the local governments. In consequence of
this there has been a constantly growing tendency, among the
more intelligent class of citizens, to demand that honest business
methods be applied to local public service, and that appointments
be made on the basis of intelligence and capacity, rather than
of party allegiance. The movement for the reform of the civil
service of cities is going hand in hand with the movement for
general municipal reform, those reformers regarding the merit
• For the scope of these exceptions, see Civil Service Rule VI.,
at p. 57 of the U.S. Civil Service Commission's Fifteenth and Sixteenth
Reports. A statement of the number of positions actually affccVtd.
by this action of the president appears in, tta Seo«*Vtt*\V K*v™>-
CLACKMANNAN— CLACKMANNANSHIRE
4»7
(which must have stood over one of the city gates) recording
its foundation has been discovered. It continued to exist under
the name Cencclle as a feudal castle until the 15th century.
In the meantime, however, the inhabitants returned to the old
town by the shore in 889 and rebuilt it, giving it the name
Ci vitas Vet us, the modern Civita Vecchia (see O. Marucchi in
Nuovo BuUcilino di archeologui cristiana, vi., iooo, p. 195 seq.).
In 1508 Pope Julius II. began the construction of the castle
from the designs of Bramante, Michelangelo being responsible
for the addition of the central tower. It is considered by Burck-
hardt the finest building of its kind. Pius IV added a convict
prison. The arsenal was built by Alexander VII. and designed
by Bernini. Civita Vecchia was the chief port of the Papal
State and has still a considerable trade. There are cement
factories in the town, and calcium carbide is an important article
of export. The principal imports are coal, cattle for the home
markets, and fire-bricks from the United Kingdom. Three
milts N.E. were the Aquae Tauri, warm springs, now known
u Bagni dtlla Ferrata: considerable remains of the Roman
baths are still preserved. About 1 m. W. of these are other
hot springs, those of the Ficoncdla, also known in Roman times.
CLACKMANNAN, the county town of Clackmannanshire,
Scotland. Pop. 1505. It lies near the north bank of the Forth,
l n. £. of Alloa, with two stations on the North British railway.
Among the public buildings are the parish church, the tower of
which, standing on a commanding eminence, is a conspicuous
landmark. Clackmannan Tower is now a picturesque ruin,
but at one time played an important part in Scottish history,
and was the seat of a lineal descendant of the Bruce family
after the failure of the male line. The old market cross still
exists, and close to it stands the stone that gives the town its
name (Gaelic, clock, stone; Manann, the name of the district).
A large spinning-mill and coalpits lend a modern touch in
angular contrast with the quaint, old-world aspect of the place.
About 1 m. to the S.E. is Kcnnct House, the seat of Lord Balfour
of Burleigh, another member of the Bruce family.
CLACKMANNANSHIRE, the smallest county in Scotland,
bounded S.W. by the Forth, W. by Stirlingshire, N.N.E. and
N.W. by Perthshire, and E. by Fifeshirc. It has an area of
35,160 acres, or about 55 sq. m. An elevated ridge starting on
the west, runs through the middle of the county, widening
gradually till it reaches the eastern boundary, and skirting
the alluvial or carse lands in the valleys of the Forth and Devon.
Still farther to the N. the Ochil hills form a picturesque feature
in the landscape, having their generally verdant surface broken
by bold projecting rocks and deeply indented ravines. The
principal summits are within the limits of the shire, among
them Ben Clcuch (2363 ft.), King's Seat (21 11 ft.), Whitcwisp
(21 10 ft.), the Law (above Tillicoultry, 2094 ft.) and Blairdcnon
(207a ft.), on the northern slope, in which the river Devon takes
its rise. The rivers of importance arc the Devon and the Black
or South Devon. The former, noted in the upper parts for its
romantic scenery and its excellent trout-fishing, runs through the
county near the base of the Ochils, and falls into the Forth at
the village of Cambus, after a winding course of a m., although
as the crow flics its source is only si m. distant. The Black
Devon, rising in the Cleish Hills, flows westwards in a direction
nearly parallel to that of the Devon, and falls into the Forth
near Clackmannan. It supplies motive power to numbers of
mills and collieries; and its whole course is over coal strata.
The Forth is navigable as far as it forms the boundary of the
county, and ships of 500 tons burden run up as far as Alloa.
The only lake is Gartmorn, 1 m. long by about J of a mile broad,
which has been dammed in order to furnish water to Alloa and
power to mills. The Ochils are noted for the number of their
glens. Though these arc mostly small, they are well wooded
and picturesque, and those at Menstrie, Alva, Tillicoultry and
Dollar are particularly beautiful.
GtoUtJ- — This county is divided geologically into two areas, the
boundary line skirting the «outlu-rn margin of the Ochils and running
westwards from a point north of Dollar by Alva in the direction of
Airthrey in Stirlingshire. The northern portion forms part of the.
volcanic range of the Ochils which belongs to the Old Red Sandstone
period, and consists of a great succession of lavas— basalts and
andesites— with intercalations of tuff and agglomerate. As the
rocks dip gently towards the north and form the highest ground
in the county they must reach a great thickness. They are pierced
by small intrusive masses of diorite, north of Tillicoultry House.
The well-marked feature running E. and W alone the southern
base of the Ochils indicates a line of fault or dislocation which
abruptly truncates the Lower* Old Red volcanic rocks and brings
down an important development of Carboniferous strata occupying
the southern part of the county. These belong mainly to the Coal-
measures and comprise a number of valuable coal-scams which
have been extensively worked. The Clackmannan field is the
northern continuation of the great Lanarkshire basin which extends
northwards by Slamannan, Falkirk and the Carron Ironworks to
Alloa. Along the eastern margin between Cairnmuir and Bruce-
field the underlying Millstone Grit, consisting mainly of false-
bedded sandstones, comes to the surface. Close to the nver Devon
south of Dollar the Vicars Bridge Limestone, which there marks the
top of the Carboniferous Limestone series, rises from beneath the
M illstone Grit. The structure of the Clackmannan field is interesting.
The strata are arranged in synclinal form, the highest seams being
found near the Devon ironworks, and they arc traversed by a series
of parallel east and west faults each with a downthrow to the south,
whereby the coals are repeated and the field extended. During
mining operations evidence has been obtained of the existence 01
a buried river-channel, filled with boulder clay and stratified de»
posits along the course of the Devon, which extends below the
present sea-level and points to greater elevation of the land in
pre-glacial time. An excellent example of a dolerite dyke trending
slightly north of west occurs in the north part of the county where
it traverses the volcanic rocks of Lower Old Red Sandstone age.
Industries.— The soil is generally productive and well culti-
vated, though the greater part of the elevated range which is
interposed between the carse lands on the Forth and the vale
of Devon at the base of the Ochils on the north consists of inferior
soils, often lying upon an impervious clay. Oats are the chief
crop, but wheat and barley are profitably grown. Sheep-
farming is successfully pursued, the Ochils affording excellent
pasturage, and cattle, pigs and horses are also raised. There is
a small tract of moorland in the east, called the Forest, bounded
on its northern margin by the Black Devon. Iron-ore (haema-
tite), copper, silver, lead, cobalt and arsenic have all been
discovered in small quantity in the Ochils, between Alva and
Dollar. Ironstone-— found either in beds, or in oblate balls
embedded in slaty clay, and yielded from 25 to 30 % of iron-
is mined for the Devon iron-works, near Clackmannan. Coal
has been mined for a long period. The strata which compose the
field are varieties of sandstone, shale, fire-clay and argillaceous
ironstone. There is a heavy continuous output of coal at the
mines at Sauchie, Fishcross, Coalsnaughton, Devonside, Clack-
mannan and other pits. The spinning-mills at Alloa, Tillicoultry
and Alva arc always busy, Alloa yarns and fingering being widely
famous. The distilleries at Glenochil and Carscbridge and the
breweries in Alloa and Cambus do a large export business.
The minor trades include glass-blowing, pottery, coopering,
tanning, iron-founding, electrical apparatus making, ship-
building and paper-making.
The north British railway serves the whole county, while the
Caledonian has access to Alloa.
Population and Government. — The population was 33,140
in i8qz and 32,029 in 1901, when 170 persons spoke Gaelic and
English and one person Gaelic only. The county unites with
Kinross-shire in returning one member to parliament. Clack-
mannan (pop. 1505) is the county town, but Alloa (14,458),
Alva (4624), and Tillicoultry (3338) take precedence in popula-
tion and trade. Menstrie (pop. 898) near Alloa has a large
furniture factory and the great distillery of Glenochil. To the
north-east of Alloa is the thriving mining village of Sauchie.
Clackmannan forms a sheriffdom with Stirling and Dumbarton
shires, and a sheriff-substitute sits at Alloa. Most of the schools
in the shire are under school-board control, but there are a
few voluntary schools, besides an exceptionally well-equipped
technical school in Alloa and a well-known academy at Dollar.
See Tames Wallace, The Sheriffdom of Clackmannan: a Sketch
of its History (Edinburgh, 1890); D. Beveridgc, Between the Ochils
and the Forth (Edinburgh. 1888); John Crawford, Memorials o(
Alloa (1885); William Gibson, Reminiscence*, 0$ Ddu>u tTtiXxmratar**
CLAMECY— CLAN
+19
naming twelve cards out of sixty-eight. But no precautions were
taken against hyperesthesia further than enclosing the card in a
second envelope. There is a power possessed by a certain number
of people, of naming a card drawn by them or held in the hand
face downwards, so that there is no normal knowledge of its suit
and number. Few thorough trials have been made; but it seems
to point to some kind of hyperesthesia rather than to clair-
voyance; in the Richct experiments even if the envelopes
excluded hyperesthesia of touch on the part of the medium,
there may have been subliminal knowledge on Prof. Richet's
part of the card which he put in the envelope. The experience
known as the dija vu has sometimes been explained as due to
clairvoyance.
Telepathic Clairvoyance. — For a discussion of this see Tele-
pathy and Crystal-gazing. It may be noted here that some
curious relation seems to exist between apparently telepathic
acquisition of knowledge and the arrival of a letter, newspaper,
&C., from which the same knowledge could be directly gained.
We are confronted with a similar problem in attempting an
explanation of the power of mediums to state correctly facts
relating to objects placed in their hands. Of a somewhat
different character is rctrocognition (q.v.), where the knowledge in
many cases, if telepathic, must be derived from a discarnate mind.
Clairvoyance, as a term of spiritualism, with its correlative
dairaudience, is the name given to the power of seeing and hearing
discarnate spirits of dead relatives and others, with whom the
living are said to be surrounded More vaguely it includes the
power of gaining knowledge, either through the spirit world or by
means of psychometry (i.e. the supernormal acquisition of
knowledge about owners of objects, writers of letters, &c).
Some evidence for these latter powers has been accumulated by
the Society for Psychical Research, but in many cases the
piecing together of normally acquired knowledge, together with
shrewd guessing, suffices to explain the facts, especially where the
investigator has had no special training for his task.
vl 66.
See Rkhet, Experimented Studien (1891); also in Proc. S.P.R.
For a criticism bte N. W. Thomas, Ikoutht Transference,
|8. For Clairvoyainv in general sec F. W. 1 f Myers, Human
_ Tscnality, and in Proc. S.P.R. xi. 334 et seq. For a criticism of the
evidence tee Mrs Sidgwick in Proc. S.P.R. vii. 30, 356. (N. W. T.)
CLAMECY, a town of central France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Nievre, at the confluence of the Yonne
And Beuvron and on the Canal du Nivernais, 46 m. N.N.E. of
Nevers on the Paris-Lyon railway. Top. (1006) 4455. Its
principal building is the church of St Martin, which dates chiefly
from the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. The tower and facade
are of the 16th century. The chevet, which is surrounded by an
aisle, is rectangular— a feature found in few French churches.
Of the old castle of the counts of Ncvcrs, vaulted cellars alone
remain. A church in the suburb of Bethlehem, dating from the
13th and 13th centuries, now serves as part of an hotel. The
public institutions include the sub-prefecture, tribunals of first
instance and of commerce anil a communal college. Among the
industrial establishments are saw-mills, fulling-mills and flour-
mills, tanneries and manufactories of boots and shoes and
chemicals, and there is considerable trade in wine and cattle and
in wood and charcoal, which is conveyed principally to Pari:*, by
way of the Yonne.
In the early middle ages Clamecy belonged to the abbey of St
Julian at Auxcrrc, in the 1 ith century it passed to the counts of
Nevers, one of whom, Hervc, enfranchised the inhabitants in
1113. After the capture of Jerusalem by Salad in in 11 88,
Clamecy became the seal of the bishops of Bethlehem, who till the
Revolution resided in the hospital of Panthenor, bequeathed by
William IV., count of Nevers. On the coup d'itat of 1851 an
Insurrection broke out in the town, and was repressed by the new
authorities with great severity
CLAJf (Gaelic clann, O. Ir eland, connected with Lat. planta,
•boot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidclic substituting k for p),
a group of people united by common blood, and usually settled in
a common habitat. The clan system existed in Ireland and the
Highlands of Scotland from early times. In its strictest sense the
system was peculiar to those countries, but, in its wider meaning
of a group of kinsmen. forming a self-governing community, the
system as represented by the village community has been shown
by Sir H. Maine and others to have existed at one time or
another in all lands.
Before the use of surnames and elaborate written genealogies,
a tribe in its definite sense was called in Celtic a tuath, a word
of wide affinities, from a root tu, to grow, to multiply, existing
in all European languages. When the tribal system began to
be broken up by conquest and by the rise of towns and of terri-
torial government, the use of a common surname furnished a
new bond for keeping up a connexion between kindred. The
head of a tribe or smaller group of kindred selected some ancestor
and called himself his Ua, grandson, or as it has been anglicized
0\ e.g. UaCouchobair (O* Conor), Ua Suilleabhain (O'Sullivan).
All his kindred adopted the same name, the chief using no
fore-name however. The usual mode of distinguishing a person
before the introduction of surnames was to name his father and
grandfather, e.g. Owen, son of Donal, son of Dermot. This
naturally led some to form their surnames wjth Mac, son, instead
of Ua, grandson, e.g. MacCarthaigh, son of Carthach (Mac Car thy),
Mac Ruaidhri, son of Kory (Macrory). Both methods have been
followed in Ireland, but in Scotland Mac came to be exclusively
used. The adoption of such genealogical surnames fostered the
notion that all who bore the same surname were kinsmen, and
hence the genealogical term clann, which properly means the
descendants of some progenitor, gradually became synonymous
with tualh, tribe. Like all purely genealogical terms, clann may
be used in the limited sense of a particular tribe governed by a
chief, or in that of many tribes claiming descent from a common
ancestor. In the latter-sense it was synonymous with stl, siol,
seed e.g. Siol Alpine, a gTcat clan which included the smaller
clans of the Macgregors, Grants,Mackinnons l Macnabs,Macpbies,
Macquarrics and Macaulays.
The clan system in the most archaic form of which we have
any definite information can be best studied in the Irish lualh,
or tribe. 1 This consisted of two classes: (1) tribesmen, and
(2) a miscellaneous class of slaves, criminals, strangers and their
descendants. The firsLclass included tribesmen by blood in the
male line, including all illegitimate children acknowledged by
their fathers, and tribesmen by adoption or sons of tribeswomen
by strangers, foster-sons, men who had done some signal service
to the tribe, and lastly the descendants of the second class after
a certain number of generations. Each lualh had a chief called
a rig, king, a word cognate with the Gaulish rtg-s or rix, the
Latin rcg-s or rex, and the Old Norse nk-ir. The tribesmen
formed a number of communities, each of which, like the tribe
itself, consisted of a head, ceann fine, his kinsmen, slaves and
other retainers. This was the fine, or sept. Each of these
occupied a certain part of the tribe-land, the arable part being
cultivated under a system of co-tillage, the pasture land co-
grazed according to certain customs, and the wood, bog and
mountains forming the marchland of the sept being the un-
restricted common land of the sept. The sept was in fact a
village community
What the sept was to the tribe, the homestead was to the sept
The head of a homestead was an aire, a representative freeman
capable of acting as a witness, compurgator and bail. These
were very important functions, especially uhen it is borne in
mind that the tribal homestead was the home of many of the
kinsfolk of the head of the family as well as of his own children-
The descent of property being according to a gavel -kind custom,
it constantly happened that when an aire died the share of his
property which each member of his immediate family was en-
titled to receive was not sufficient to qualify him to be an aire.
In this case the family did not divide the inheritance, but
remained together as " a joint and undivided family," one of the
members being elected chief of the family or household, and in
' The following acrount of the Irish clan-system differs in some
respects from thai in the article on Brkiion Laws (or.), but it is
retained here in view of the authority of the writer and the admitted
obscurity of the whole subject. V^ca^ "E^tt^
420
CLAN
this capacity enjoyed the rights and privileges of an aire. Sir
H. S. Maine directed attention to this kind of family as an
important feature of the early institutions of all Indo-European
nations. Beside the " joint and undivided family/' there was
another kind of family which we might call " the joint family."
This was a partnership composed of three or four members of a
sept whose individual wealth was not sufficient to qualify each !
of them to be an aire, but whose joint wealth qualified one of the
co-partners as head of the joint family to be one.
So long as there was abundance of land each family grazed
its cattle upon the tribe-land without restriction; unequal
increase of wealth and growth of population naturally led to its
limitation, each head of a homestead being entitled to graze
an amount of stock in proportion to bis wealth, the size of his
homestead, and bis -acquired position. The arable land was no
doubt applotted annually at first; gradually, however, some
of the richer families of the tribe succeeded in evading this
exchange of allotments and converting part of the common land
into an estate in sevralty. Septs were at first colonies of the
tribe which settled on the march-land; afterwards the conversion
of part of the common land into an estate in sevralty enabled
the family that acquired it to become the parent of a new sept.
The same process might, however, take place within a sept
without dividing it; in other words, several members of the
sept might hold part of the land of the sept as separate estate.
The possession of land in sevralty introduced an important
distinction into the tribal system— it created an aristocracy.
An aire whose family held the same land for three generations
was called a fiaith, or lord, of which rank there were several
grades according to their wealth in land and chattels. The aires
whose wealth consisted in cattle only were called b6-aires, or
covr -aires, 6f whom there were also several grades, depending
on their wealth in stock. When a b6~aire had twice the wealth
of the lowest class of fiailk he might enclose part of the land
adjoining his house as a lawn; this was the first step towards
his becoming a faith. The relations which subsisted between
the fiaiths and the bd-aires formed the most curious part of the
Celtic tribal system, and throw a flood of light on the origin
of the feudal system. Every tribesman without exception owed
ceilsinne to the rig, or chief, that is, he was bound to become
his ceile, or vassal. This consisted in paying the rig a tribute
in kind, for which the ceile was entitled to receive a proportionate
amount of stock without having to give any bond for their
return, giving him service, e.g. in building his dun, or stronghold,
reaping his harvest, keeping his roads clean and in repair, killing
wolves, and especially service in the field, and doing him homage
three times while seated every time he made his return of tribute.
Paying the "calpe" to the Highland chiefs represented this
kind of vassalage, a colpdach or heifer being in many cases the
amount of food-rent paid by a free or saer ceile. A tribesman
might, however, if he pleased, pay a higher rent on receiving
more stock together with certain other chattels for which no
rent was chargeable. In this case he entered into a contract,
and was therefore a bond or doer ceile. No one need have
accepted stock on these terms, nor could he do so without the
consent of his sept, and he might free himself at any time from
his obligation by returning what he had received, and the rent
due thereon.
What every one was bound to do to his rig. or chief, he might
do voluntarily to the fiaith of his sept, to any flailh of the tribe,
or even to one of another tribe. He might also become a bond
ceile. In cither case he might renounce his ccilcship by returning
a greater or lesser amount of stock than what he had received
according to the circumstances under which he terminated his
vassalage. In cases of disputed succession to the chiefship of a
tribe the rival claimants were always anxious to get as many
as possible to become their vassals. Hence the anxiety of minor
chieftains, in later times in the Highlands of Scotland, to induce
the clansmen to pay the " calpe " where there happened to be a
doubt as to who was entitled to be chief
The effect of the custom of gavel-kind was to equalize the
wealth of each and leave no one wealthy enough to be chief.
The " joint and undivided family " and the formation of " joint
families," or gilds, was one way of obviating this result; another
way was the custom of tanistry. The headship of the tribe was
practically confined to the members of one family; this was
also the case with the headship of a sept. Sometimes a son
succeeded his father, but the rule was that the eldest and most
capable member of the geilfine, that is, the relatives of the actual
chief to the fifth degree, 1 was selected during his lifetime to be
his successor— generally the eldest surviving brother or son ol
the preceding chief. The man selected as successor to a chid
of a tribe, or chieftain of a sept, was called the tanist, and
should be " the most experienced, the most noble, the most
wealthy, the wisest, the most learned, the most truly popular,
the most powerful to oppose, the most steadfast to sue foi
profits and (be sued) for losses." In addition to these qualitiei
he should be free from personal blemishes and deformities and
of fit age to lead his tribe or sept, as the case may be, to battle. 1
So far as selecting the man of the geilfine who was supposed to
possess all those qualities, the office of chief of a tribe or chieftain
of a sept was elective, but as the geilfine was represented by four
persons, together with the chief or chieftain, the election was
practically confined to one of the four. In order to support
the dignity of the chief or chieftain a certain portion of the tribe
or sept land was attached as an apanage to the office; this land,
with the duns or fortified residences upon it, went to the suc-
cessor, but a chief's own property might be gavellcd. This
custom of tanistry applied at first probably to the selection ol
the successors of a rig t but was gradually so extended that ever
a bd-aire had a tanist.
A sept might have only one fiaith, or lord, connected witl
it, or might have several. It sometimes happened, however,
that a sept might be so broken and reduced as not to have ever
one man qualified to rank as a fiaith. The rank of a fiaitl
depended upon the number of his ceiles, that is, upon bis wealth
The fiaith of a sept, and the highest when there was more thai
one, was ceann fine, or head of the sept, or as he was usuall)
called in Scotland, the chieftain. He was also called the fiaitl
geilfine, or head of the geilfine, that is, the kinsmen to the fiftl
degree from among whom should be chosen the tanist, and who
according to the custom of gavel-kind, were the immediate heir:
who received the personal property and were answerable for th<
liabilities of the sept. The fiaiths of the different septs were th<
vassals of the rig, or chief of the tribe, and performed certaii
functions which were no doubt at first individual, but in tim<
became the hereditary right of the sept. One of those was th<
office of maer, or steward of the chief's rents, &c.;' and anotbei
that of aire tttisi, leading aire, or taoisech, a word cognate witl
the Latin dues or dux, and Anglo-Saxon hen-tog, leader of th<
" here," or army. The taoisech was leader of the tribe in battle
in later times the term seems to have been extended to severs
offices of rank. The cadet of a Highland clan was always callec
the taoisech, which has been translated captain; after lh<
conquest of Wales the same term, tyarysaug, was used for a rulinf
prince. Slavery was very common in Ireland and Scotland
1 The explanation here given of geilfine is different from that givei
in the introduction to the third volume of the Ancient Laws a
Ireland, which was followed by Sir H. S. Maine in his account of r
in his Early History of Institutions, and which the present write
believes to be erroneous.
* 1 1 -should also be mentioned that illegitimacy was not a bar
The issue of " handfatt" marriages in Scotland were eligible to h
chief * F and even sometimes claimed under feudal law.
1 This office u ol considerable importance in connexion with earfy
Scot t ish history. In (he irith annjla the r If, or chief of a great tribt
(mor Judjfc), such it of Ross. Moray, Mbtt, Buchan, &c, is called I
mor matr, or gTtJt maer. Sometime* the iame person is called kin)
almoin the*e annals Thin Findiatt, or PEnlay, son of Ruadhri, tin
father of 5hata.pcare'« Macbeth, ii called king of Moray In tin
Annait of Ulster, and mer maer in the A*nat* of Tighernach. Tin
term H never found jn Scottish charters, hut it occurs in the Bool
of the A obey of Dtir in Uuchan, now in th<r library of the univcrsit]
of Carnhfidge. The SrotFc ting!! and their successors obvious!;
regarded the chief* of the great tribes in question merely as thet
■urn, while their tribesmen only It new them a-s kings. From then
" mor-macnhipV* which corresponded with the ancient sior | - ■- «* ■ -
came most, if not nil, the ancient Scottish earldoms.
CLANRICARDE
421
in the former slaves constituted a common element in the
stipends or gifts which the higher kings gave their vassal sub-
reguH. Female slaves, who were employed in the houses of
chiefs and Jfai/Ar in grinding meal with the hand-mill or quern,
and in other domestic work, must have been very common, for
the unit or standard for estimating the wealth of a bd-aire, blood-
fines, &c, was called a cumhal, the value of which was three
cows, but which literally meant a female slave. The descendants
of those slaves, prisoners of war, forfeited hostages, refugees
from other tribes, broken tribesmen, &c., gathered round the
residence of the rig and fiailhs, or squatted upon their march-
lands, forming a motley band of retainers which made a consider-
able element in the population, and one of the chief sources of
the wealth of chiefs and fiailhs. The other principal source of
their income was the food-rent paid by ceUes, and especially
by the doer or bond ceiles, who were hence called biat hacks,
from biad, food, kfiaitk, but not a rig, might, if he liked, go to
the house of his ccile and consume his food-rent in the house of
the latter.
Under the influence of feudal ideas and the growth of the
modern views as to ownership of land, the chiefs and other
lords of clans claimed in modern times the right of best owing
the tribe-land as turcrcc, instead of stock, and receiving rent not
for cattle and other chattels as in former times, but proportionate
to the extent of land given to them. The /ware-land seems to
have been at first given upon the same terms as turcrecsiock,
but gradually a system of short leases grew up; sometimes,
too, it was given on mortgage. In the Highlands of Scotland
etiles who received lurcrcc-lznd were called " taksmen." On the
death of the chief or lord, his successor cither bestowed the
land upon the same person or gave it to some other relative.
In this way in each generation new families came into possession
of land, and others sank into the mass of mere tribesmen. Some-
times a " taksman " succeeded in acquiring his land in perpetuity,
by gift, marriage or purchase, or even by the " strong hand."
The universal prevalence of exchangeable allotments, or the
rundale system, shows that down to even comparatively modern
times some of the land was still recognized as the property of
the tribe, and was cultivated in village communities.
The chief governed the clan by the aid of a council called
the sabaid (sab, a prop), but the chief exercised much power,
especially over the miscellaneous body of non- tribesmen who
lived on his own estate. This power seems to have extended
to life and death. Several of the fiailhs, perhaps, all heads of
lepts, also possessed somewhat extensive powers of the same
kind.
The Celtic dress, at least in the middle ages, consisted of a
kind of shirt reaching to a little below the knees called a lenn,
a jacket called an inar, and a garment called a brat, consisting
of a single piece of cloth. This was apparently the garb of the
aires, who appear to have been further distinguished by the
■amber of colours in their dress, for we are told that while a
slave had clothes of one colour, a rig tuatha, or chief of a tribe,
had five, and an ollamh and a superior king six. The breeches
was also known, and cloaks with a cowl or hood, which buttoned
up tight in front. Hie Unn is the modern kilt, and the brat the
plaid, so that the dress of the Irish and Welsh in former times
was the same as that of the Scottish Highlander.
By the abolition of the heritable jurisdiction of the Highland
chiefs, and the general disarmament of the clans by the acts
passed fn 1747 after the rebellion of 1745. the clan system was
practically broken up, though its influence still lingers in the
more remote districts. An act was also passed in 1747 for-
bidding the use of the Highland garb; but the injustice and
impolicy of such a law being generally felt it was afterwards
repealed. (W. K. S.)
CLAXRICAHDB, UUCK DE BURGH (Bourke or Burke),
nt Eakl or (<L 1544), styled MacWilliam, and Nc-gan or Na-
gCcann (sVf. ** of the Heads," " having made a mount of the
Wads of men slain in battle which he covered up with earth "),
was the son of Richard or Richard dc Burgh, lord of Clanricarde,
byadanghterofBladdcnofFortamMpanrtgnnfr^ofUlickcW
Burgh, lord of Clanricarde (1467-1487), the collateral heir male of
the earls of Ulster. On the death of the last earl in 1333, his only
child Elizabeth had married Lionel, duke of Clarence, and the
earldom became merged in the crown, in consequence of which
the de Burghs abjured English laws and sovereignty, and chose
for their chiefs the sons of Sir William, the " Red " earl of
Ulster's brother, the elder William taking the title of MacWilliam
Eighter (Uachtar, i.e. Upper), and becoming the ancestor of the
earls of Clanricarde, and his brother Sir Edmond that of Mac-
William Oughter (Ochtar, i.e. Lower), and founding the family
of the earls of Mayo. In 1361 the duke of Clarence was sent over
as lord-lieutenant to Ireland to enforce his claims as husband of
the heir general, but failed, and the chiefs of the de Burghs
maintained their independence of English sovereignty for several
generations. Ulick de Burgh succeeded to the headship of his
clan, exercised a quasi-royal authority and held vast estates in
county Gal way, in Connaught, including Loughry, Dunkellin, Kil-
tartan (Hilltaraght) and Athenry, as well as Clare and Leitrim.
In March 1541, however, he wrote to Henry VIII., lamenting the
degeneracy of his family, " which have been brought to Irish and
disobedient rule by reason of marriage and nurseing with those
Irish, sometime rebels, near adjoining to me," and placing
himself and his estates in the king's hands. The same year he was
present at Dublin, when the act was passed making Henry VIII.
king of Ireland. In 1543, in company with other Irish chiefs, he
visited the king at Greenwich, made full submission, undertook to
introduce English manners and abandon Irish names, received a
regrant of the greater part of his estates with the addition of
other lands, was confirmed in the captainship and rule of Clanri-
carde, and was created on the 1st of July 1543 earl of Clanricarde
and baron of Dunkellin in the peerage of Ireland, with unusual
ceremony. "The making of McWilliam earl of Clanricarde
made all the country during his time quiet and obedient," states
Lord Chancellor Cusake in his review of the state of Ireland in
1 553* He did not live long, however, to enjoy his new English
dignities, but died shortly after returning to Ireland about March
1544. He is called by the annalist of Loch Ce " a haughty and
proud lord," who reduced many under his yoke, and by the Four
Masters " the most illustrious of the English in Connaught."
Clanricarde married (1) Grany or Grace, daughter of Mulrone
O'Carroll, " prince of Ely,'/ by whom he had Richard or Rickard
44 the Saxon," who succeeded him as 2nd earl of Clanricarde
(grandfather of the 4th earl, whose son became marquess of
Clanricarde), this alliance being the only one declared valid.
After parting with bis first wife he married (2) Honors, sister
of Ulick de Burgh, from whom he also parted. He married
(3) Mary Lynch, by whom he had John, who claimed the
earldom in 1568. Other sons, according to Burke's Peerage,
were Thomas " the Athlete," shot in 1545, Redmond "of the
Broom " (d. 1595), and Edmund (d. 1597).
See also A nnals of Inland by the Four If asters (ed. by O. Connellan,
1846), p. 132 note, and reign of Henry VIII.; Annals of Lock Ce
{Return Brit. Med it Aevi Striplores) (54) (1871); Hist. Mem. of the
O'Briens, by J. O. Donoghuc (1860), pp 159. 519; Ireland under the
Tudor s, by R. Bagwell, vol. i.: State Papers, Ireland, Carew MSS.
and Gairdner't Utter i and Papers of Henry VIII.', Cotton MSS.
Brit. Mils., Titus B xi. f. 388. (P. C. Y.)
CLANRICARDE, UUCK DE BURGH (Bourke or Burke),
Marquess of (1604-1657 or 1658), son of Richard, 4th carl of
Clanricarde, created in 1628 earl of St Albans, and of Frances,
daughter and heir of Sir Francis Walsingham, and widow of Sir
Philip Sidney and of Robert Dcvercux, earl of Essex, was born in
1604. He was summoned to the House of Lords as Lord Burgh in
1628, and succeeded his father as 5th earl in 1635. He sat in the
Short Parliament of 1640 and attended Charles I. in the Scottish
expedition. On the outbreak of the Irish rebellion Clanricarde
had powerful inducements for joining the Irish — the ancient
greatness and independence of his family, his devotion to the
Roman Catholic Church, and strongest of all, the ungrateful
treatment meted out by Charles I. and Wcntworth to his father,
one of Elixabeth*s most stanch adherents in Ireland, whose lands
were appropriated by the crown and whose death, it was popularly
1 Col. of State Pap., Carev USS. \%\*s-\**l\* ^ *4*
422
CLANVOWE— CLAPAREDE
asserted, was hastened by the harshness of the lord-lieutenant.
Nevertheless at the crisis his loyalty never wavered. Alone of the
Irish Roman Catholic nobility to declare for the king, he returned
to Ireland, took up his residence at Portumna, kept Galway, of
which he was governor, neutral, and took measures for the
defence of the county and for the relief of the Protestants,
making " his house and towns a refuge, nay, even a hospital for
the distressed English." 1 In 1643 he was one of the com-
missioners appointed by the king to confer with the Irish con-
federates, and urged the wisdom of a cessation of hostilities in a
document which he publicly distributed. He was appointed
commander of the English forces in Connaught in 1644, and in
1646 was created a marquess and a privy councillor. He sup-
ported the same year the treaty between Charles I. and the
confederates, and endeavoured after its failure to persuade
Preston, the general of the Irish, to agree to a peace; but the
latter, being advised by Rinuccini, the papal nuncio, refused in
December. Together with Ormonde, Clanricarde opposed the
nuncio's policy; and the royalist inhabitants of Galway
having through the hitter's influence rejected the cessation of
hostilities, arranged with Lord Inchiquin in 1648, he besieged the
town and compelled its acquiescence. In 1649 he reduced Sligo.
On Ormonde's departure in December 1650 Clanricarde was
appointed deputy lord-lieutenant, but he was not trusted by the
Roman Catholics, and was unable to stem the tide of the parlia-
mentary successes. In 165 x he opposed the oiler of Charles, duke
of Lorraine, to supply money and aid on condition of being
acknowledged "Protector" of the kingdom. In May 1652
Galway surrendered to the parliament, and in June Clanricarde
signed articles with the parliamentary commissioners which
allowed bis departure from Ireland. In August he was excepted
from pardon for life and estate, but by permits, renewed from
time to time by the council, he was enabled to remain in England
for the rest of his life, and in 1653 £500 a year was settled upon
him by the council of state in consideration of the protection
which he bad given to the Protestants in Ireland at the time of
the rebellion. He died at Somerhill in Kent in 1657 or 1658 and
was buried at Tunbridgc.
The " great carl," as he was called, supported Ormonde in his
desire to unite the English royalists with the more moderate
Roman Catholics on the basis of religious toleration under the
authority of the sovereign, against the papal scheme advocated by
Rinuccini, and in opposition to the parliamentary and Puritan
policy. By the author of the Aphotismical Discovery, who
represents the opinion of the native Irish, he is denounced as the
44 masterpiece of the treasonable faction," " a foe to his king,
nation and religion," and by the duke of Lorraine as " a traitor
and a base fellow "; but there is no reason to doubt Clarendon's
opinion of him as " a person of unquestionable fidelity . . . and
of the most eminent constancy to the Roman Catholic religion of
any man in the three kingdoms," or the verdict of Hallam, who
describes him " as perhaps the most unsullied character in the
annals of Ireland."
He married Lady Anne Compton, daughter of William ,
Compton, xst earl of Northampton, but had issue only one
daughter. On his death, accordingly, the marquessate and the
English peerages became extinct, the Irish titles reverting to his
cousin Richard, 6th earl, grandson of the 3rd earl of Clanricarde.
Henry, the 12th earl (1742-1797), was again created a marquess in I
1789, but the marquessate expired at his death without issue, the
earldom going to his brother. In 1825 the 14th earl (1802-1874)
was created a marquess; he was ambassador at St Petersburg,
and later postmaster-general and lord privy seal, and married
George Canning's daughter. His son (b. 1832), who achieved
notoriety in the Irish land agitation, succeeded him as 2nd
marquess.
Bibliography.— Sec the article " Burgh, Ulick de," in the Diet,
of Nat. Biography, and authorities there given; Hist of the Irish
Confederation, by R. Bellinw, cd. by I. T. Gilbert (1882); Aphoris-
mical Discovery (Irish Archaeological Society, 1870) ; Memoirs of
the Marquis of Clanricarde (1722, repr. 1744); Memoirs of Ulick,
Marquis of Clanricarde, by John, nth earl (1757); Life of Ormonde
•>y f. Cane (1851); S._R. r ■■ ■ ~ - ' - *•. A ... — 1
>f t' "
» Hist, MSS. Comm.: MSS. of Earl of Bgnumi, I m 3 .
by T. Cane (1851); S. ft." Gardiner's Hist, of the tad War ano!
of the Commonwealth; Thomason Tracts (Brit. Mus.) E 371 (il),
i56 (io); Cat. of State Papers, Irish, esp. Introd. 1633-1647 and
domestic; HisL MSS. Comm.. MSS. of Mara, of Ormonde and Earl
ofEgmonU (P. C. Y.)
CLANVOWE, SIR THOMAS, the name of an English poet first
mentioned in the history of English literature by F. S. Ellis in
1806, when, in editing the text of The Book of Cupid, God of Love,
or The Cuckoo and the Nightingale, for the Kelmscott Press, he
stated that Professor Skeat had discovered that at the end of the
best of the MSS. the author was called Clanvowe. In 1897 this
information was confirmed and expanded by Professor Skeat in
the supplementary volume of his Clarendon Press Chaucer (1894-
1897). The beautiful romance of The Cuckoo and the Nightingale
was published by Thynnc in 1 53 2, and was attributed by him, and
by successive editors down to the days of Henry Bradshaw, to
Chaucer. It was due to this error that for three centuries
Chaucer was supposed to be identified with the manor of Wood-
stock, and even painted, in fanciful pictures, as lying
"Under a maple that is fair and green,
Before the chamber-window of the Queen
At Wodestock, upon the grecne lea."
But this queen could only be Joan of Navarre, who arrived
in 1403, three years after Chaucer's death, and it is to the
spring of that year that Professor Skeat attributes the composi-
tion of the poem. Sir Thomas Clanvowe was of a Herefordshire
family, settled near Wigmore. He was a prominent figure in the
courts of Richard II. and Henry IV., and is said to have been a
friend of Prince Hal. He was one of those who " had begun to
mell of Lollardy, and drink the gall of heresy." He was one of the
twenty-five knights who accompanied John Beaufort (son of
John of Gaunt) to Barbary in 1390.
The date of his birth is unknown, and his name is last mentioned
in 1404. The historic and literary importance of The Cuckoo and
the Nightingale is great. It is the work of a poet who had studied
the prosody of Chaucer with more intelligent care than either
Ocdcve or Lydgate, and who therefore forms an important link
between the 14th and 15th centuries in English poetry. Clanvowe
writes with a surprising delicacy and sweetness, in a five-line
measure almost peculiar to himself. Professor Skeat points out a
unique characteristic of Clanvowc's versification, namely, the
unprecedented freedom with which he employs the suffix of the
final -e, and rather avoids than seeks elision. The Cuckoo and the
Nightingale was imitated by Milton in his sonnet to the Nightin-
gale, and was rewritten in modern English by Wordsworth. It is
a poem of so much individual beauty, that we must regret the
apparent loss of everything else written by a poet of such unusual
talent.
Sec also a critical edition of the Boke of Cupide by Dr Erich
Vollmcr (Berlin. 1898). (E. G.)
CLAPAR&DR, JEAN LOUIS REfflS ANTOINE fDOUARD
(1832-1870), Swiss naturalist, was born at Geneva on the 24th of
April 1832. He belonged to a French family, some members of
which had taken refuge in that city after the revocation of the
Edict of Nantes. In 1852 he began to study medicine and natural
science at Berlin, where he was greatly influenced by J. Muller
and C. G. Ehrenbcrg, the former being at that period engaged in
his important researches on the Echinodcrms. In 1855 he
accompanied Muiler to Norway, and there spent two months on a
desolate reef that he might obtain satisfactory observations.
The latter part of bis stay at Berlin he devoted, along with J.
Lachmann, to the study of the Infusoria and Rhizopods. In 1857
he obtained the degree of doctor, and in 1862 he was chosen
professor of comparative anatomy at Geneva. In 1859 he
visited England, and in company with W. B. Carpenter made a
voyage to the Hebrides; and in 1863 he spent some months in the
Bay of Biscay. On the appearance of Darwin's work on the
Origin of Species, he adopted his theories and published a
valuable series of articles on the subject in the Revue Germamam
(1861). During 1 86$ and 1866 ill-health rendered him incapable
of work, and he determined to pass the winter of 1866-2867 &»
CLAPPERTON— CLARE
423
Naples. The change of climate produced some amelioration, and
bis energy was attested by two elaborate volumes on the
Annelidae of the gulf. He again visited Naples with advantage
in 1868; but in 1870, instead of recovering as before, he grew
worse, and on the 31st of May he died at Siena on his way home.
Hit Recherches sur la structure deS anntiides sidentaires were
published posthumously in 1873.
CLAPPERTON, HUGH (1788-1827), Scottish traveller in West-
Central Africa, was born in 1788 at Annan, Dumfriesshire, where
his father was a surgeon. He gained some knowledge of practical
mathematics and navigation, and at thirteen was apprenticed on
board a vessel which traded between Liverpool and North
America. After having made several voyages across the Atlantic
he was impressed for the navy, in which he soon rose to the rank
of midshipman. During the Napoleonic wars he saw a good deal
of active service, and at the storming of Port Louis, Mauritius, in
November 1810, he was first in the breach and hauled down the
French flag. In 1814 he went to Canada, was promoted to the
rank of lieutenant, and to the command of a schooner on the
Canadian lakes. In 1817, when the flotilla on the lakes was
dismantled, he returned home on half-pay.
In 1820 Gapperton removed to Edinburgh, where he made
the acquaintance of Walter Oudney, M.D., who aroused in him an
interest in African travel. Lieut. G. F. Lyon, R.N., having
returned from an unsuccessful attempt to reach Bornu from
Tripoli, the British government determined on a second expedi-
tion to that country. Dr Oudney was appointed by Lord
Bathurst, then colonial secretary, to proceed to Bornu as consul
with the object of promoting trade, and Gapperton and Major
Dixon Denham (q.v.) were added to the party. From Tripoli,
early in 2822, they set out southward to Murzuk, and from this
point Clapperton and Oudney visited the Ghat oasis. Kuka, the
capital of Bornu, was reached in February 1823, and Lake Chad
teen for the first time by Europeans. At Bornu the travellers
were well received by the sultan; and after remaining in the
country till the 14th of December they again set out for the
purpose of exploring the course of the Niger. At Murmur, on the
road to Kano, Oudney died (January 1824). Clapperton con-
tinued his journey alone through Kano to Sokoto, the capital of
the Fula empire, where by order of Sultan Bcllo he was obliged to
stop, though the Niger was only five days' journey to the west.
Worn out with his travel he returned by way of Zaria and
Katsena to Kuka, where he again met Denham. The two
travellers then set out for Tripoli, reached on the 26th of January
1825. An account of the travels was published in 1826 under the
title of Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and
Central Africa in the years 1822-1824.
Immediately after his return Clapperton was raised to the rank
of commander, and sent out with another expedition to Africa,
the sultan Bello of Sokoto having professed his eagerness to open
«p trade with the west coast. Clapperton landed at Badagry in
the Bight of Benin, and started overland for the Niger on the 7th
of December 1825, having with him his servant Richard Lander
(s/.t .), Captain Pearcc, R.N., and Dr Morrison, navy surgeon and
naturalist. Before the month was out Pearcc and Morrison were
dead of fever. Clapperton continued his journey, and, passing
through the Yoruba country, in January 18:6 he crossed the
Niger at Bussa, the spot where Mungo Park had died twenty years
before. In July he arrived at Kano. Thence he went to Sokoto,
intending afterwards to go to Bornu. The sultan, however,
detained him, and being seized with dysentery he died near
Sokoto on the 13th of April 1827.
Clapperton was the first European to make known from
personal observation the semi-civilized Hausa countries, which he
visited soon after the establishment of the Sokoto empire by the
Fula. In 1829 appeared the Journal of a Second Expedition into
the Interior of Africa, &c, by the late Commander Clapperton,
to which was prefaced a biographical sketch of the explorer by his
ancle, Lieut. -colonel S. Clapperton. Lander, who had brought
back the journal of his master, also published Records of Captain
ClappcrUm's Last Expedition to Africa . . . with Urn jatofsxnl
Am\*mt*Tf4oflAfAuth<*(2v6hL,Xjuadon,& J * ^
CLAQUE (Fr. claquer, to clap the hands), an organized body
of professional applaudcrs in the French theatres. The hiring
of persons to applaud dramatic performances was common in
classical times, and the emperor Nero, when he acted, had his
performance greeted by an encomium chanted by five thousand
of his soldiers, who were called Angustals. The recollection of
this gave the 16th-century French poet, Jean Daurat, an idea
which has developed into the modern claque. Buying up a
number of tickets for a performance of one of his plays, he dis-
tributed them gratuitously to those who promised publicly to
express their approbation. It was not, however, till 1820 that
a M. Sauton seriously undertook the systcmatization of the
claque, and opened an office in Paris for the supply of claqueurs.
By 1830 the claque had become a regular institution. The
manager of a theatre sends an order for any number of claqueurs.
These people are usually under a chef de claque, whose duty it is
to judge where their efforts arc needed and to start the demonstra-
tion of approval. This takes several forms. Thus there are
commissaires, those who learn (he piece by heart, and call the
attention of their neighbours to its good points between the
acts. The rieurs arc those who laugh loudly at the jokes. The
pleureurs, generally women, feign tears, by holding their hand-
kerchiefs to their eyes. The chatouilleurs keep the audience in a
good humour, while the bisseurs simply clap their hands and cry
bis! bis I to secure encores.
CLARA, SAINT (1 194-1253), foundress of the Franciscan
nuns, was born of a knightly family in Assisi in 1194. At
eighteen she was so impressed by a sermon of St Francis that
she was filled with the desire to devote herself to the kind of life
he was leading. She obtained an interview with him, and to
test her resolution he told her to dress in penitential sackcloth
and bog alms for the poor in the streets of Assisi. Clara readily
did this, and Francis, satisfied as to her vocation, told her to
come to the Portiuncula arrayed as a bride. The friars met her
with lighted candles, and at the foot of the altar Francis shore
off her hair, received her vows of poverty, chastity and obedience,
and invested her with the Franciscan habit, 1212. He placed
her for a couple of years in a Benedictine convent in Assisi,
until the convent at St Damian's, close to the town, was ready.
Her two younger sisters, and, after her father's death, her
mother and many others joined her, and the Franciscan nuns
spread widely and rapidly (see Clares, Toor). The relations
of friendship and sympathy between St Clara and St Francis
were very close, and there can be no doubt that she was one of
the truest heirs of Francis's inmost spirit. After his death
Clara threw herself wholly on the side of those who opposed
mitigations in the rule and manner of life, and she was one of
the chief upholders of St Francis's primitive idea of poverty
(see Franciscans). She was the close friend of Brother Leo
and the other " Companions of St Francis," and they assisted
at her death. For forty years she was abbess at St Damian's,
and the great endeavour of her life was that the rule of the nuns
should be purged of the foreign elements that had been intro-
duced, and should become wholly conformable to St Francis's
spirit. She lived just long enough to witness the fulfilment of
her great wish, a rule such as she desired being approved by the
pope two days before her death on the nth of August 1253.
The sources for her life arc to be found in the Bollandist Acta
Sanctorum on the mh of August, and sketches in such Lives of ike
Saints as Alban Butler's. Sec also Wctzer und Wclte, Kitchen-
lexicon (2nd ed.), ant. " Clara." (E. C. B.)
CLARE, the name of a famous English family. The ancestor
of this historic house, " which played," in Freeman's words,
u so great a part alike in England, Wales and Ireland," was
Count Godfrey, eldest of the illegitimate sons of Richard the
Fearless, duke of Normandy. His son, Count Gilbert of Brionnc,
had two sons, Richard, lord of Bicnfaite and Orbcc, and Baldwin,
lord of Lc Sap and Meullcs, both of whom accompanied the
Conqueror to England. Baldwin, known as " Dc Mculles " or
" of Exeter," received the hereditary shrievalty of Devon with
great estates in the West Country, and left three sons x William
Robert and Richard, of whom vYa: fex. *eA\»s»\. ^«« vo> vassv
CLARE, LORD
4*5
I the Life of John Clan, by Frederick Martin (1865) : and Life
Remains of John Clare, by J. L. Cherry (1873). which, though
3 complete, contains some 01 the poet's asylum verses and prose
ARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON, xst Eakl or (1 749-1802), lord
cellor of Ireland, was the second son of John Fitzgibbon,
had abandoned the Roman Catholic faith in order to
le a legal career. He was educated at Trinity College,
tin, where he was highly distinguished as a classical scholar,
it Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 177a In
he was called to the Irish bar, and quickly acquired a very
thre practice; he also inherited his father's large fortune
he death of his elder brother. In 1778 he entered the Irish
K of Commons as member for Dublin University, and at
gave a general support to the popular party led by Henry
tan (7.?.). He was, however, from the first hostile to that
of Grattan's policy which aimed at removing the disabilities
te Roman Catholics; he endeavoured to impede the Relief
rf 1778 by raising difficulties about its effect on the Act of
ement. He especially distrusted the priests, and many
t later explained that his life-long resistance to all concession
te Catholics was based on his " unalterable opinion " that
xmscientious Popish ecclesiastic never will become a well-
4ed subject to a Protestant state, and that the Popish
y must always have a commanding influence on every
ber of that communion." As early as 1780 Fitzgibbon
n to separate himself from the popular or national party,
ipposing Grattan's declaration of the Irish parliament's
. to independence. There is no reason to suppose that in
change of view he was influenced by corrupt or personal
vet. His cast of mind naturally inclined to authority
» than to democratic liberty; his hostility to the Catholic
M, and his distrust of parliamentary reform as likely to
ng<r the connexion of Ireland with Great Britain, made him
icerc opponent of the aims which Grattan had in view.
eply, however, to a remonstrance from his constituents
gibbon promised to support Grattan's policy in the future,
{escribed the claim of Great Britain to make laws for, Ireland
a daring usurpation of the rights of a free people."
r some time longer there was no actual breach between him
Srattan. Grattan supported the appointment of Fitzgibbon
torney-general in 1783, and in 1785 the latter highly eulo-
I Grattan's character and services to the country in a speech
Uch he condemned Flood's volunteer movement. He also
ted Flood's Reform Bill of 1784; and from this time
trd he was in fact the leading spirit in the Irish government,
the stiffest opponent of all concession to popular demands.
p84 the permanent committee of revolutionary reformers in
tin, of whom Napper Tandy was the most conspicuous,
ed the sheriffs of counties to call meetings for the election of
gates to attend a convention for the discussion of reform; and
1 the sheriff of the county of Dublin summoned a meeting for
purpose Fitzgibbon procured his imprisonment for contempt
art, and justified this procedure in parliament, though Lord
ine declared it grossly illegal. In the course of the debates
*ftt's commercial propositions in 1785, which Fitzgibbon
orted in masterly speeches, he referred to Curran in terms
h led to a duel between the two lawyer*, when Fitzgibbon
iccused of a deliberation in aiming at his opponent that was
ivy to etiquette. His antagonism to Curran was life-long
bitter, and after he became chancellor his hostility to the
nss advocate was said to have driven the latter out of
dee. In January 1787 Fitzgibbon introduced a stringent
or repressing the Whitcboy outrages. It was supported by
tan, who, however, procured the omission of a clause
dag that any Roman Catholic chapel near which an illegal
had been tendered should be immediately demolished. His
one with the majority in the Irish parliament defeated
• pto pos e d reform of the tithe system in Ireland, Fitzgibbon
falg even to grant a committee to investigate the subject,
ha regency question in 1780 Fitzgibbon, in opposition to
tan, supported the doctrine of Pitt in a series of powerful
speeches which proved him a great constitutional lawyer; he
intimated that the choice for Ireland might in certain eventu-
alities rest between complete separation from England and
legislative union; and, while he exclaimed as to the latter
alternative, " God forbid that I should ever see that day!" he
admitted that separation would be the worse evil of the two.
In the same year Lord Lifford resigned the chancellorship, and
Fitzgibbon was appointed in his place, being raised to the peerage
as Baron Fitzgibbon. His removal to the House of Lords
greatly increased his power. In the Commons, though he had
exercised great influence as attorney-general, his position had
been secondary; in the House of Lords and in the privy council
he was little less than despotic. " He was," says Lecky, " by far
the ablest Irishman who had adopted without restriction the
doctrine that the Irish legislature must be maintained in a
condition of permanent and unvarying subjection to the English
executive." But the English ministry were now embarking on a
policy of conciliation in Ireland. The Catholic Relief Bill of 1 793
was forced on the Irish executive by the cabinet in London, but
it passed rapidly and easily through the Irish parliament.
Lord Fitzgibbon, while accepting the bill as inevitable under the
circumstances that had arisen, made a most violent though
exceedingly able speech against the principle of concession,
which did much to destroy the conciliatory effect of the measure;
and as a consequence of this act he began persistently to urge the
necessity for a legislative union. From this date until the union
was carried, the career of Fitzgibbon is practically the history of
Ireland. True to his inveterate hostility to the popular claims,
he was opposed to the appointment of Lord Fitzwilliam (q.v.) as
viceroy in 1795, and was probably the chief influence in procuring
his recall; and it was Fitzgibbon who first put it into the bead of
George III. that the king would violate his coronation oath if he
consented to the admission of Catholics to parliament When
Lord Camden, Fitzwilliam 's successor in the viceroyalty, arrived
in Dublin on the 31st of March 1795, Fitzgibbon's carriage was
violently assaulted by the mob, and he himself was wounded;
and in the riots that ensued his house was also attacked. But as
if to impress upon the Catholics the hopelessness of their case, the
government who had made Fitzgibbon a viscount immediately
after his attack on the Catholics in 1793 now bestowed on him a
further mark of honour. In June 1795 he was created earl of
Clare. On the eve of the rebellion lie warned the government
that while emancipation and reform might be the objects aimed
at by the better classes, the mass of the disaffected had in view
" the separation of the country from her connexion with Great
Britain, and a fraternal alliance with the French Republic."
Clare advocated stringent measures to prevent an outbreak; but
he was neither cruel nor immoderate, and was inclined to mercy
in dealing with individuals. He attempted to save Lord Edward
Fitzgerald (q.w.) from his fate by giving a friendly warning to his
friends, and promising to facilitate his escape from the country;
and Lord Edward's aunt, Lady Louisa Conolly, who was con-
ducted to his death-bed in prison by the chancellor in person,
declared that " nothing could exceed Lord Clare's kindness."
His moderation and humanity after the rebellion was extolled by
Cornwallis. He threw his great influence on the side of clemency,
and it was through his intervention that Oliver Bond, when
sentenced to death, was reprieved; and that an arrangement was
made by which Arthur O'Connor, Thomas Emmet and other
state prisoners were allowed to leave the country.
In October 1798 Lord Clare, who since 1793 had been con-
vinced of the necessity for a legislative union if the connexion
between Great Britain and Ireland was to be maintained, and
who was equally determined that the union must be unaccom-
panied by Catholic emancipation, crossed to England and
successfully pressed his views on Pitt. In 1799 he induced the
Irish House of Lords to throw out a bill for providing a permanent
endowment of Maynooth. On the 10th of February 1800 Clare in
the House of Lords moved the resolution approving the union in
a long and powerful speech, in which he reviewed the history of
Ireland since the Revolution, attributing the evils of recent years
to the independent constitution of 1782, »j\d vj*^£^Ol<^c*x\a»>
426
CLARE
in language of deep personal hatred, He was nut aware of the
assurance which Cornwallis had been authorized to convey to the
Catholics that the union was to pave the way for emancipation,
and when he heard of it after the passing of the act he bitterly
complained that Pitt and Castlcrcagb bad deceived him, After
the union Clare became more violent than ever in his opposition
to any policy of concession in Ireland. He died on the 28th of
January i<Soj; his funeral in Dublin was the occasion of a riot
organized" by a gang of about fourteen persons under orders of
a leader.' 1 His wife, in compliance with his deathbed request,
destroyed all his papers, Hrs two sons, John (1705-1851) and
Richard Hobart (170.5- 1864), succeeded in turn to the earldom,
which became extinct on the death of the latter, whose only
son, John Charles Henry, Viscount Fitzgibhon (iS jo- 1854), was
kitted in the charge of the Light Brigade at BalakJava,
Lord Clare was in private life an estimable and even an amiable*
man ; many acts of generosity arc related of him; the determina-
tion of his character swayed cither wills to his purpose, and Us
courage was such as no danger, no obloquy, no public hatred or
violence could disturb. Though not a great orator like Flood or
Grattan, he was a skilful and ready debater, and he was by far
the ablest Irish supporter of the onion, He was, however,
arrogant, overbearing and intolerant to the last degree. He was
the first Irishman since the Revolution to hold the office of lord
chancellor of Ireland. *' Except where his furious persona! anti-
pathies and his ungovernable arrogance were called into action,
he appears to have been/' says Lecky, £ * an able, upright and
energetic judge "; but as a politician there can be little question
that Lord Clare's bitter and unceasing resistance to reasonable
measures of reform did infinite mischief in the history of Ireland,
by inflaming the passions of bis countrymen, driving them into
rebellion, and perpetuating their political and religious divisions.
Sec W. E. ft Lecky, History of Trtland in the Et^hieentk Century
(5 vdli., London. 1892): L R. OTLinagan, The Live* of ihe Lard
Chancellors atvt Keepers of ihe Great Seal in Inland [2 vol*., London,
1870J ; Cornwallis Ci*rr£spQnden& t ed. by. C R039 (j vols., London,
1 8 50.) ; Charles Phillips, Recollections of Curran and saint of hit
Content par aries (London. t8?2); Henry Grattan, Memoir* of ihe
Life and Times of the Right Honbie* Henry GratUin {5 vols,, London,
18^0-1846)1 Lord Auckland. Jtnmwt and Correspondent* (4 vols,,
London, tBOJj; Charles Cooie, History of the Union of Great Britain
iind Inland (London, i£oa). (It. J. M.J
CLARE, a county in the province of Munster, Ireland, bounded
N. by Gal way Bay and Co. Gal way, E. by Lough Derg, the river
Shannon, and counties Tippcrary and Limerick, S. by the estuary
of the Shannon, and W, by the Atlantic Ocean. The area is
85 s ,380 acres, or nearly 1 332 sq. m. Although the surface of t he
county is hilly, and in some parts even mountainous, it nowhere
rises to a great elevation, Much of the western baronies of
Moyarta and Ibrickan is composed of bog land. Bogs are
frequent also In the mountainous districts elsewhere, except in
the limestone barony of Gunvn. the inhabitants of some parts of
which supply themselves with turf from the opposite shores of
Connetnara, Generally speaking, the eastern parts of the county
are mountainous, with tracts of rich pasture-land interspersed;
the west abounds wilh bog; and the north is rocky and best
adapted for gracing sheep. In the southern part, along the banks
of the Fergus and Shannon, are the bands of rich low grounds
tailed corcasses, of various breadth, indenting the land In a great
variety of shapes. They arc composed of deep rich loam, and are
distinguished as the black corraases, adapted for tillage, and the
blue, used more advantageously as meadow land. The coast i»
in general rocky, and occasionally bold and precipitous in the
extreme, as may be observed at the picturesque cliffs of Moher
within a few miles of Ennistimon and Llsdoouvarna, which rise
perpendicularly at O'Brien's Tower to an elevation of 580 ft.
The coast of Clare is indented with several bays, the chief of
which arc Ballyvaghan, Liscannor and Malbay; but from
Black Head to Loop Head, that is. along the entire western
boundary of the county formed by the Allantic, there Is no safe
harbour except Liscannor Bay + Malbay takes its name from its
dangers to n a vf gators, and the whole coast has been the scene of
mj/rr Jala J disasters. The county possesses only one large river.
the Fergus; but nearly 100 m. of its boundary-line are washed by
the river Shannon, which enters the Atlantic Ocean between this
county and Kerry. The numerous bays and creeks on both sides
of this great river render its navigation safe in every wind; but
the passage to and from Limerick is often tedious, and the port of
Kilrush has from that cause gained in importance. The river
Fergus is navigable from the Shannon to the town of Clare, which
is the terminating point of its natural navigation, and the port of
all the central districts of the county.
There are a great number of lakes and tarns in the county, of
which the largest are Loughs Muckanagh, Graney, Atcdaun and
Dromore; but they are more remarkable for beauty than for
size or utility, with the exception of the extensive and navigable
Lough Derg, formed by the river Shannon between this county
and Tipperary. The salmon fishery of the Shannon, both as a
sport and as an industry, is famous; the Fergus also holds
salmon, and there is much good trout-fishing in the lakes for
which Ennis is a centre, and in the streams of the Atlantic sea-
board. Clare is a county which, like all the western counties of
Ireland, repays visitors in search of the pleasures of seaside
resorts, sport, scenery or antiquarian interest. Yet, again like
other western counties, it was long before it was rendered
accessible. Communications, however, are now satisfactory.
Geology. — Upper Carboniferous strata cover the county west of
mis, the coast-sections in them being particularly fine. Shales
and sandstones alternate, now horizontal, as in the Cliffs of Moher,
ami bauuhuiics Annulate, uvjiw uwi«*/niai, as n» nit v. mo wi ivtuiivi,
now thrown into striking folds. The Carboniferous Limestone forms
a barren terraced country, often devoid of soil, through the Burrcn
in the north, and extends to the estuary of the Fergus and the
{Shannon. On the cast, the folding has brought up two bold masses
of Old Red Sandstone^ with Silurian cores. Siieve Rernagh, the more
[southerly of these, rises to 1746 ft. above Killaloc, and the hilly
.country here traversed by the Shannon is in marked contrast with
'the upper course of the river through the great limestone plain.
1 Minerals. — Although metals and minerals have been found in
many places throughout the county, they do not often show
themselves in sufficient abundance to induce the application of
I capital for their extraction. The principal metals- are lead, iron
and manganese. The Milltown lead mine in the barony of Tulla
is probably one of the oldest mines in Ireland, and formerly, if the
extent of the ancient excavations may be taken as a guide, there
1 must have been a very rich deposit. Copper pyrites occurs in
[several parts of Burren, but in small quantity. Coal exists at
Labasheeda on the right bank of the Shannon, but the few and
thin seams are not productive. The nodules of day-ironstone in
the strata that overlie the limestone were mined and smelted
1 down to x 7 50. Within half a mile of the Milltown lead mine are
immense natural vaulted passages of limestone, through which
the river Ardsullas winds a singular course. The lower limestone
of the eastern portion of the county has been found to contain
several very large deposits of argentiferous galena. Flags, easily
quarried, are procured near Kilrush, and thinner flags near
Ennistimon. Slates are quarried in several places, the best being
those of Broadford and Killaloc, which are nearly equal to the
•finest procured in Wales. A species of very fine black marble is
obtained near Ennis; it takes a high polish, and is free from the
white spots with which the black Kilkenny marble is marked.
The mineral springs, which are found in many places, are
chiefly chalybeate. That of Lisdoonvarna, a sulphur spa, about
8 m. from Ennistimon, has been celebrated since the 18th century
■for its medicinal qualities, and now attracts a large number of
visitors annually. It lies 9 m. by road N. of Ennistimon. There
are chalybeate springs of less note at Kilkishen* Burren, Broad-
foot, Lehinch, Kilkee, Kilrush, Killadysart, and near Milltown
Malbay. Springs called by the people " holy " or " blessed "
wells, generally mineral waters, are common; but the belief in
their power of performing cures in inveterate maladies is nearly
extinct.
WoJering-plac$s.— The Atlantic Ocean and the estuary of the
Shannon afford many situations admirably adapted for summer
bathing-places. Among the most frequented of these localities
are Milltown Malbay, with one of the best beaches on the western
coast; and the neighbouring Spanish Point (named from the
scene of the wreck of two ships of the Armada) ; Lehinch, about
CLAREMONT— CLARENCE
427
t ■.ten EanJstimon on Liseaimor Bay, and near the interesting
din of Moher, hat a magnificent beach. KilLee is the most
fnhionshlff watering-place on the western coast of Ireland; and
£flruah on the Shannon estuary is also favoured.
Industries.— The soil and surface of the county are in general
better adapted for grazing than for tillage, and the acreage
devoted to the former consequently exceeds three times that of
the latter. Agriculture is in a backward state, and not a fifth of
the total area is under cultivation, while the acreage shows a
decrease even in the principal crops of oats and potatoes. Cattle,
sheep, poultry and pigs, however, all receive considerable
attention. Owing to the mountainous nature of the county nearly
one-seventh of the total area is quite barren.
There are no extensive manufactures, although flannels and
friezes are made for home use, and hosiery of various kinds,
chiefly coarse and strong, is made around Ennistimon and other
places. There are several fishing stations on the coast, and cod,
haddock, ling, sole, turbot, ray, mackerel and other fish abound,
but the rugged nature of the coast and the tempestuous sea
greatly hinder the operations of the fishermen. Near Pookloody
b the great Burren oyster bed called the Red Bank, where a
large establishment is maintained, from which a constant supply
of the excellent Red Bank oysters is furnished to the Dublin
and other large markets. Crabs and lobsters are caught on the
shores of the Bay of Galway in every creek from Black Head to
Ardfry. In addition to the Shannon salmon fishery mentioned
above, eels abound in every rivulet, and form an important
article of consumption.
The Great Southern & Western railway line from Limerick to
Sligo intersects the centre of the county from north to south.
From Ennis on this line the West Clare railway runs to Ennis-
timon on the coast, where it turns south and follows the coast by
Milltown Malbay to Kilkee and Kilrush. Kiilaloe in the east of
the county is the terminus of a branch of the Great Southern
& Western railway.
Population and Administration.— -The population (126,244
In 1891; xi2,354 in 1001; almost wholly Roman Catholic and
rural) shows a decrease among the most serious of the Irish
counties, and the emigration returns are proportionately heavy.
The principal towns, all of insignificant size, are Ennis (pop.
5003, the county town), Kilrush (4x79), Kilkee (1661) and
Kiilaloe (885); but several of the smaller settlements, as resorts,
are of more than local importance. The county, which is divided
into 11 baronies, contains 79 parishes, and includes the Protest-
ant diocese of Kilfenora, the greater part of Kiilaloe, and a
very small portion of the diocese of Limerick. It is within the
Soman Catholic dioceses of Kiilaloe and Limerick. The assizes
ere held at Ennis, and quarter sessions here and at Ennistimon,
Kiilaloe, Kilrush and Tulla. The county is divided into the
East and West parliamentary divisions, each returning one
member.
History.— This county, together with part of the neighbouring
district, was anciently called Thomond, that is, North Munstcr,
and formed part of the monarchy of the celebrated Brian
Boroihmc, who held his court at Kincora near Kiilaloe, where
his palace was situated on the banks of the Shannon. The site
is still distinguished by extensive earthen ramparts. Settle-
ments were effected by the Danes, and in the 13th century by
the Anglo-Normans, but without permanently affecting the
possession of the district by its native proprietors. In 1543
Murrogh O'Brien, after dispossessing his nephew and vainly
attempting a rebellion against the English rule, proceeded
to England and submitted to Henry VUL, resigning his name
and possessions. He soon received them back by an English
tenure, together with the title of carl of Thomond, on condition
of adopting the English dress, manners and customs. In 1565
this part of Thomond (sometimes called O'Brien's country)
was added to Connaught, and made one of the six new counties
into which that province was divided by Sir Henry Sidney.
It was named Clare, the name being traceable either to Richard
de Clare (Strongbow), carl of Pembroke, or to his younger
brother, Thomas de Clare, who obtained a grant of Thomond
from Edward I. in 1276, and whose family for tome time main-
tained a precarious position in the district. Towards the close
of the reign of Elizabeth, Clare was detached from the govern-
ment of Connaught and given a separate administration; but
at the Restoration it was reunited to Munster.
Antiquities.— The county abounds with remains of antiquities,
both military and ecclesiastical, especially in the north-western
part. There still exist above a hundred fortified castles, several
of which are inhabited. They are mostly of small extent, a
large portion being fortified dwellings. The chief of them is
Bunratty Castle, built in 1277, once inhabited by the earls of
Thomond, 10 m. W. of Limerick, on the Shannon. Those of
Ballykinvarga, Ballynalackan and Lemaneagh, all in the north-
west, should also be mentioned. Raths or encampments am
to be found in every part. They are generally circular, com-
posed either of large stones without mortar or of earth thrown
up and surrounded by one or more ditches. The list of abbeys
and other religious houses formerly flourishing here (some now
only known by name, but many of them surviving in ruins)
comprehends upwards of twenty. The most remarkable are-*
Quin, considered one of the finest and most perfect specimens
of ancient monastic architecture in Ireland; Corcomroe; Ennis,
in which is a very fine window of uncommonly elegant workman-
ship; and those on Inniscattcry or Scattcry Island, in the
Shannon, said to have been founded by St Senan (see Kilkush).
Kilfenora, 5 m. N.E. of Ennistimon, was until 1752 a separate
diocese, and its small cathedral is of interest, with several
neighbouring crosses and a holy well. The ruined churches
of Kilnaboy, Nouhaval and Teampul Cronan are the most
noteworthy of many in the north-west Five round towers are
to be found in various stages of preservation — at Scattcry
Island, Drumdiffe, Dysert O'Dea, Kilnaboy and Inniscaltra
(Lough Derg). The cathedral of the diocese of Kiilaloe is at
the town of that name. Cromlechs are found, chiefly in the
rocky limestone district of Burren in the N.W., though there
arc some in other baronies. That at Ballygannor is formed of a
stone 40 ft. long and 10 broad.
Sec papers by T. J. Westropp in Proceedings of the Royal Irish
Academy--" Distribution of Cromlechs in County Clare (1897)-!
and " Churches of County Clare, and Origin of Ecclesiastical
Divisions " (1900).
CLAREMONT, a city of Sullivan county, New Hampshire,
U.S.A., situated in the W. part of the state, bordering on the
Connecticut river. Pop. (1800) 5565; (1000) 6408 (1442 for-
eign-born); (1010) 7529. Area, 6 sq. m. It is served by two
branches of the Boston & Maine railway. In Clarcmont is the
Fiske free library (1873), housed in a Carnegie building (1004).
The Stevens high school is richly endowed by the gift of Paran
Stevens, a native of Clarcmont. The city contains several
villages, the principal being Clarcmont, Claremont Junction
and West Clarcmont. Sugar river, flowing through the city
into the Connecticut and falling 223 ft. within the city limits,
furnishes good water-power.. Among the manufactures are
woollen and cotton goods, paper, mining and quarrying
machinery, rubber goods, linens, shoes, wood trim and pearl
buttons. The first settlement here was made in 1762, and a
township was organized in 1764; in 1908 Claremont was
chartered as a city. It was named from Claremont, Lord
Clive's country place.
CLARENCE, DUKES OP. The early history of this English
title is identical with that of the family of Clare (q.v.) t earls of
Gloucester, who are sometimes called carls of Clare, of which
word Clarence is a later form. The first duke of Clarence was
Lionel of Antwerp (see below), third son of Edward HI., who
was created duke in 1362, and whose wife Elizabeth was a
direct descendant of the Clares, the " Honour of Clare " being
among the lands which she brought to her husband. When
Lionel died without sons in 1368 the title became extinct; but
in 1412 it was revived in favour of Thomas (see below), the
second son of Henry IV. The third creation of a duke of Clarence
took place in 1461, and was in favour of George (see below),
brother of the King Edward IV. When this duke, accused by
+28
CLARENDON, ist EARL OF
the king, was attainted and killed in 1478, his titles and estates
were forfeited. There appears to have been no other creation
of a duke of Clarence until 1789, when William, third son of
George III., was made a peer under this title. Having merged
in the crown when William became king of Great Britain and
Ireland in 1830, the title of duke of Clarence was again revived
in 1800 in favour of Albert Victor (1864-1802), the elder son of
King Edward VII., then prince of Wales, only to become extinct
for the fifth time on his death in 1892.
Lionel or Antwerp, duke of Clarence (1338-2368), third
son of Edward IIL.was born at Antwerp on the 29th of November
1338. Betrothed when a child to Elizabeth (d. 1363), daughter
and heiress of William de Burgh, 3rd earl of Ulster (d. 1332),
he was married to her in 1352; but before this date he had
entered nominally into possession of her great Irish inheritance.
Having been named as his father's representative in England
in 1345 and again in 1346, Lionel was created earl of Ulster, and
joined an expedition into France in 1355, but his chief energies
were reserved for the affairs of Ireland. Appointed governor
of that country, he landed at Dublin in 1361, and in November
of the following year was created duke of Clarence, while his
father made an abortive attempt to secure for him the crown
of Scotland. His efforts to secure an effective authority over
his Irish lands were only moderately successful; and after
holding a parliament at Kilkenny, which passed the celebrated
statute of Kilkenny in 1367, he threw up his task in disgust
and returned to England. About this time a marriage was
arranged between Clarence and Violante, daughter of Galcazzo
Visconti, lord of Pavia (d. 1378); the enormous dowry which
Galeazzo promised with his daughter being exaggerated by the
rumour of the time. Journeying to fetch his bride, the duke
was received in great state both in France and Italy, and was
married to Violante at Milan in June 1368. Some months were
then spent in festivities, during which Lionel was taken ill at
Alba, where he died on the 7th of October 1368. His only child
Philippa, a daughter by his first wife, married in 1368 Edmund
Mortimer, 3rd earl of March (1351-1381), and through this
onion Clarence became the ancestor of Edward IV. The poet
Chaucer was at one time a page in Lionel's household.
Thomas, duke of Clarence (c. 13S8-1421), who was nominally
lieutenant of Ireland from 1401 to 1413, and was in command of
the English fleet in 1405, acted in opposition to his elder brother,
afterwards King Henry V., and the Beauforts during the later
part of the reign of Henry IV.; and was for a short time at the
head of the government, leading an unsuccessful expedition
into France in 141 2. When Henry V., however, became king
in 1413 no serious dissensions took place between the brothers,
and as a member of the royal council Clarence took part in the
preparations for the French war. He was with the English king
at Harflcur, but not at Agincourt, and shared in the expedition
of 1417 into Normandy, during which he led the assault on Caen,
and distinguished himself as a soldier in other similar undertak-
ings. When Henry V. returned to England in 1421, the duke
remained in France as his lieutenant, and was killed at Beauge"
whilst rashly attacking the French and their Scottish allies on
the 22nd of March 1421. He left no legitimate issue, and the
title again became extinct.
George, dukeof Clarence (1449-1478), younger son of Richard,
duke of York, by his wife Cicely, daughter of Ralph Neville,
ist earl of Westmorland, was born in Dublin on the 21st of
October X449. Soon after his elder brother became king as
Edward IV. in March 1461, he was created duke of Clarence,
and his youth was no bar to his appointment as lord-lieutenant
of Ireland in the following year. Having been mentioned as a
possible husband for Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, after-
wards duke of Burgundy, Clarence came under the influence of
Richard Neville, earl of Warwick, and in July 1469 was married
at Calais to the earl's elder daughter Isabella. With his father-
in-law he then acted in a disloyal manner towards the king.
Both supported the rebels in the north of England, and when
their treachery was discovered Clarence was deprived of his
office as lord-lieutenant and fled to Fiance. Returning to
England with Warwick in September 1470, he witnessed the
restoration of Henry VI., when the crown was settled upon
himself in case the male line of Henry's family became extinct
The good understanding, however, between Warwick and his
son-in-law was not lasting, and Clarence was soon secretly re-
conciled with Edward. The public reconciliation between
the brothers took place when the king was besieging Warwick
in Coventry, and Clarence then fought for the Yorkists at
Barnet and Tewkesbury. After Warwick's death in April 1471
Clarence appears to have seized the whole of the vast estates of
the earl, and in March 1472 was created by right of his wife carl
of Warwick and Salisbury. He was consequently greatly dis-
turbed when he heard that his younger brother Richard, duke of
Gloucester, was seeking to marry Warwick's younger daughter
Anne, and was claiming some part of Warwick's lands. A violent
quarrel between the brothers ensued, but Clarence was unable
to prevent Gloucester from marrying, and in 1474 the king
interfered to settle the dispute, dividing the estates between
his brothers. In 2477 Clarence was again a suitor for the hand
of Mary, who had just become duchess of Burgundy. Edward
objected to the match, and Clarence, jealous of Gloucester's
influence, left the court. At length Edward was convinced
that Clarence was aiming at his throne. The duke was thrown
into prison, and in January 1478 the king unfolded the charges
against his brother to the parliament. He had slandered the
king; had received oaths of allegiance to himself and his heirs;
had prepared for a new rebellion; and was in short incorrigible.
Both Houses of Parliament passed the bill of attainder, and the
sentence of death which followed was carried out on the 17th
or x8th of February 1478. It is uncertain what share Gloucester
had in his brother's death; but soon after the event the rumour
gained ground that Clarence had been drowned in a butt of
malmsey wine. Two of the duke's children survived their
father: Margaret, countess of Salisbury (1473-1541), and
Edward, carl of Warwick (1475^1499), who passed the greater
part of his life in prison and was beheaded in November 1499.
On the last-named see W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. iiL
(Oxford, 1805); Sir J. H. Ramsay. Lancaster and York (Oxford,
1892); C. W. C. Oman, Warwick the Kingmaker (London, 1891).
On the title generally see G. E. C(okaync), Complete Peerage (1887-
1898).
CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, ist Eakl op (1609- 1674),
English historian and statesman, son of Henry Hyde of Dinton,
Wiltshire, a member of a family for some time established at I
Norbury, Cheshire, was born on the 18th of February 1609.
He entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford, in 1622 (having been refused
a demyship at Magdalen College), and graduated B.A. in 16*6.
Intended originally for holy orders, the death of two elder
brothers made htm his father's heir, and in 1625 he entered the
Middle Temple. At the university his abilities were more
conspicuous than his industry, and at the bar his time was
devoted more to general reading and to the society of eminent
scholars and writers than to the study of law treatises. This
wandering from the beaten track, however, was not without its
advantages. In later years Clarendon declared " next the
immediate blessing and providence of God Almighty " that he
" owed all the little he knew and the little good that was in him
to the friendships and conversation ... of the most excellent
men in their several kinds that lived in that age." * These in-
cluded Ben Jonson, Selden, Waller, Hales, and especially Lord
Falkland; and from their influence and the wide reading in
which he indulged, he doubtless drew the solid learning and
literary talent which afterwards distinguished him.
In 1629 he married his first wife, Anne, daughter of Sir George
Ayliffe, who died six months afterwards; and secondly, in 1634,
Frances, daughter of Sir Thomas Aylesbury, Master of Requests.
In 1633 he was called to the bar, and obtained quickly a good
position and practice. His marriages had gained for him in-
fluential friends, and in December 1634 he was made keeper of
the writs and rolls of the common pleas; while his able conduct
of the petition of the London merchants against Portland earned
Laud's approval. He was returned to the Short Parliament
* Life, I 25.
CLARENDON, ist EARL OF
429
li 1640 as member lor Wootton Baasett Respect and venera-
tion lor the law and constitution of England were already
funaV mental principles with Hyde, and the flagrant violations
aad perversions of the law which characterized the twelve
I years of absolute rule drove him into the ranks of the
• party. He served on numerous and important com-
j and his parliamentary action was directed chiefly to-
wards the support and restoration of the law. He assailed the
jurisdiction of the earl marshal's court, and in the Long Parlia-
ment, in which he sat for Saltash, renewed his attacks and
practically effected its suppression. In 1641 he served on the
committees for inquiring into the status of the councils of Wales
and of the North* distinguished himself by a speech against the
latter, and took an important part in the proceedings against
the Judges. He supported Strafford's impeachment, and did
not vote against the attainder, subsequently making an un-
successful attempt through Essex to avert the capital penalty. 1 *
Hyde's allegiance, however, to the church of England was as
Haunch as his support of the law, and was soon to separate
aim from the popular faction. In February 1641 he opposed
the reception of the London petition against episcopacy, and in
May the project for unity of religion with the Scots, and the bill
lor the exclusion of the clergy from secular office. He showed
special energy in his opposition to the Root and Branch Bill,
and, though made chairman of the committee on the bill on the
nth of July in order to silence his opposition, he caused by his
snoceasf ul obstruction the failure of the measure. In consequence
he was summoned to the king's presence, and encouraged in his
attitude, and at the beginning of the second session was regarded
aa one of the king's ablest supporters in the Commons. He
considered the claims put forward at this time by parliament
as a violation and not as a guarantee of the law and constitution.
He opposed the demand by the parliament to choose the king's
■misters, and also the Grand Remonstrance, to which he wrote
a reply published by the king.
He now definitely though not openly joined the royal cause,
tad refused office in January 1642 with Colepcper and Falkland
m order to serve the king's interests more effectually. Charles
sndertook to do nothing in the Commons without their advice.
Nevertheless a few days afterwards, without their knowledge and
by the advice of Lord Digby, he attempted the arrest of the five
members, a resort to force which reduced Hyde to despair, and
which indeed seemed to show that things had gone too far for an
appeal to the law. He persevered, nevertheless, in his legal policy,
to which Charles after the failure of his project again returned,
joined the king openly in June, and continued to compose the
king's answers and declarations in which he appealed to the
"known Laws of the land " against the arbitrary and illegal
acts of a seditious majority in the parliament, his advice to the
king being " to shelter himself wholly under the law, . . . pre-
suming that the king and the law together would have been
strong enough for any encounter." Hyde's appeal had great
faftifWf, and gained for the king's cause half the nation. It by no
means, however, met with universal support among the royalists,
Hobbes jeering at Hyde's love for " mixed monarchy," and the
courtiers expressing their disapproval of the " spirit of accommo-
dation " which " wounded the regality." It was destined to
failure owing principally to the invincible distrust of Charles
created in the parliament leaders, and to the fact that Charles was
simultaneously carrying on another and an inconsistent policy,
listening to very different advisers, such as the queen and Digby,
and resolving on measures (such as the attempt on Hull) without
Hyde's knowledge or approval.
War, accordingly, in spite of his efforts, broke out He was
expelled the House of Commons on the nth of August 1643, and
was one of those excepted later from pardon. He showed great
activity in collecting loans, was present at Edgehill, though not as
a combatant, and followed the king to Oxford, residing at All
Souls College from October 164s till March 1645. On the 22nd of
l Hist. of the Rebellion, Hi. 164. the account being substantially
accepted by Qardiner. in »pitc of inaccuracies in detail* {Hist. ix.
)4i. note).
February be was made a privy councillor and knighted, and on
the 3rd of March appointed chancellor of the exchequer. He
was an influential member of the " Junto " which met every
week to discuss business before it was laid before the council.
His aim was to gain over some of the leading Parliamentarians
by personal influence and personal considerations, and at the
Uxbridge negotiations in January 1645, where he acted as
principal manager on the king's side, while remaining firm on the
great political questions such as the church and the militia, he
tried to win individuals by promises of places and honours. He
promoted the assembly of the Oxford parliament in December
1643 *s a counterpoise to the influence and status of the Long
Parliament. Hyde's policy and measures, however, all failed.
They had been weakly and irregularly supported by the king, and
were fiercely opposed by the military party, who were jealous of
the civil influence, and were urging Charles to trust to force and
arms alone and eschew all compromise and concessions. Charles
fell now under the influence of persons devoid of all legal and
constitutional scruples, sending to Glamorgan in Ireland " those
strange powers and instructions inexcusable to justice, piety and
prudence."*
Hyde's influence was much diminished, and on the 4th of March
1645 he left the king for Bristol as one of the guardians of the
prince of Wales and governors of the west Here the disputes
between the council and the army paralysed the proceedings, and
lost, according to Hyde, the finest opportunity since the outbreak
of the war of raising a strong force and gaining substantial
victories in that part of the country. After Hopton's defeat on
the 16th of February 1646, at Torrington, Hyde accompanied the
prince, on the 4 th of March, to Scilly, and on the 1 7 th of April, for
greater security, to Jersey. He strongly disapproved of the
prince's removal to France by the queen's order and of the
schemes of assistance from abroad, refused to accompany him,
and signed a bond to prevent the sale of Jersey to the French
supported by Jermyn. He opposed the projected sacrifice of the
church to the Scots and the grant by the king of any but personal
or temporary concessions, declaring that peace was only possible
" upon the old foundations of government in church and state."
He was especially averse to Charles's tampering with the Irish
Romanists. " Oh, Mr Secretary," he wrote to Nicholas, " those
stratagems have given me more sad hours than all the mis-
fortunes in war which have befallen the king and look like the
effects of God's anger towartis us." • He refused to compound for
his own estate. While in Jersey he resided first at St Helier and
afterwards at Elizabeth Castle with Sir George Carteret. He
composed the first portion of his History and kept in touch with
events by means of an enormous correspondence. In 1648 he
published A Full answer to an infamous and traitorous Pamphlet
. . ., a reply to the resolution of the parliament to present no
more addresses to the king and a vindication of Charles.
On the outbreak of the second Civil War Hyde left Jersey
(26th of June 1648) to join the queen and prince at Paris. He
landed at Dieppe, sailed from that port to Dunkirk, and thence
followed the prince to the Thames, where Charles had met the
fleet, but was captured and robbed by a privateer, and only joined
the prince in September after the latter's return to the Hague.
He strongly disapproved of the king's concessions at Newport
When the army broke off the treaty and brought Charles to trial
he endeavoured to save his life, and after the execution drew up a
letter to the several European sovereigns invoking their assistance
to avenge it Hyde strongly opposed Charles II. 's ignominious
surrender to the Covenanters, the alliance with the Scots, and
the Scottish expedition, desiring to accomplish whatever was
possible there through Montrose and the royalists, and inclined
rather to an attempt in Ireland. His advice was not followed, and
he gladly accepted a mission with Cottington to Spain to obtain
money from the Roman Catholic powers, and to arrange an
alliance between Owen O'Neill and Ormonde for the recovery of
Ireland, arriving at Madrid on the 26th of November 1640. The
defeat, however, of Charles at Dunbar, and the confirmation of
Cromwell's ascendancy, influenced the Spanish government
• Clarendon St. Pap. ii. 337. • Ibid,
CLARENDON, ist EARL OF
t&-.r
i:: "Jt* **r» '.-i-zr*.'* "-. leiv? Sr. D~:e=:bcr if jr.
?~ u. i- ^ i: .«..-. V.- .-. ;.-.•:-.- ";: ar.i in r<r:e=-.er
r*.i-i«»- "'"-£■"" ". '-' - : * "- r *'" " "■« - 1 "■'•" '* *■ ■"■»?*! :r '~ ^ :r:e-:*r.
rf.« a.-* -.■■ -Td -.-t -/ ~.\ :.:>* ifvj^r? a:.:.#c:p4-v:r^ h.'-n :r.
2 .; •'i*." /? '.:" .*■-.■■ i-t ".-* •■* r.\'t jr.*. ir. Octovr 1^54 ar.i to
£-.4:-. ■.' ."I-", i- : "» i"i i-^-.-'ci >-ri :har.:eL'or or. the i_:th
if 1-' ..-/ :'■'/■ i- ■* .'.' .*r. m t tij .V;r.-.ef~rrh rr.a:r.*.a:r.ei in
ip.v* '.." ■ -.: ..-".- r- 1 '. '.: '.>■.*'* P -.T-i- :.:.-. s i.-.d Presbytcriars. as
»•.. *; -* ■-. .. -."- :-. J . -i^r.:/ IpUyti h^-'ility cf the c^r..
4 -J ■»!-. *-■;.. # 1 .rr-r. •:."--!/ L" the cr.-ioavy-r to keep
C- «.-.■-. .-..•.-' .. '■ , :■* •:- ;.-.h a.-.-i cr.r.:-i:--:."--ri. a.-. -1 ;.-. the rrs-
v -.' ■.-. *.f „- > -* -'„-.- . ■•" ,-■- ir. i ;..-'..t.;-. ■? *.vh.":h rrirht estrange
t*- ^r'M, '•*>."/ ',:" :ho r> i^-.s H? \ J . : .:t to C harlcs »as t3
*»•.•-;•..-. •:-.*' , ,.T. of r.trM, " tr.it lii h:".i i.:'.:v:"y ».is to
tr.- .'..' ;-. 'A.- ■:.'.'./ av--,." -*.'.-;*, •*> do -r.y'hirg that rr.i'ht <!•:■ birr.
r. ..-. »:. ! ' *# *xp*'.» wrze L\; yd r-v J-r. :'. -re." » Ir. it- >';. during
tK a»; r, .'.*•;*:. Er;!.i- 1 a.vl *:: iir.. Charles rco :v..i o tiers or"
k- > fr.m '.I*; h.V.r ,'//.«■-■.- ;r/..:'. ! ;.e co-Id fain a port in
Er^V.!. h.t H}!e d.V'.^-i?.: --ill i.vilatcd attempts. Ho
tt'S' 9 *A rr. i'.h ?;' rr. f >'/.v. %-."'\ 'I v.h. The &:rr.c ycjr he rr..iii»
ar ;■ ;."i'.'-. v.i'h \'t.-. \s \* .I'.:-, i-.I *a\ ir..'vrr.:c! of their p!o!> to
a* .:'. !:...*': t;.'; \.z'. '.*■/.* '.r -A/h '"Jt ipp.iror/Jy exprcssir.g ar.y
*!! 1 ;»;■."#■ •:!.* if-: »a. v.cll s-.rpi.V'i v.ith fr.forrnation from
fc:. ::!.ir. 'J. 1 ar.'! ^."'J«d the ac::"..r. of th; r-yal-its with g-ei:
ah.: •/ ar.'J v-i '!',m 'I'.r.V.g the .T.'..;r..il b':f.\cen Crorr.v :I.*s
d'-i'h ar.'i ll.< P. ? .".ration, ur^'-i r -i'i' .:rc. ar.d a-!vo:a'."d the
oL.!n:c:><n of a Hrl'.I'.-rr/.:.! fi'.f.n/ri tho k'tior.* cur.tcr.i.'r.^ for
priAcr ar.'l the fynicr-tati-jn of their j'-aluuiics, rather thaa
pr'rmfurc risings.
lh« R». .(orat:>in was a rorr.pl-.tc triumph for Hyde's policy.
IK- !*iys no sfr<-» on hi> 07/n gn-at part in it, but it was ov.i.-.g
to him that the Ri.^t'ir.i'i'Mi wa.? a national one, by the constr.t
and invi'ation of parli ,R.<..it nprestritirsR the whole p^-ple
a:.'l not through the irn-.Ji-j^i of one ^wirful faction enforcing
iti -a ill ii|»on a minority, and that it was not only a restoration
of fharlrt hut a rf.toration of the monarchy. By Hyde's
aiivi'c ronfC'.M'on* to the inconvenient drmands of spatial
f.i'Moni had hern avoid' d by referring the dechion to a " frve
irtrl.ji.'nr-.t," ar.d I he d''l.:ra?>.n 'A brtdi rr^r.ed for parlia-
n.'.-it tii-: vitl- r.-.rr.f t,{ the «"":'.-.tior.s of amnesty, religious
I..! •.-'.-.i, *r.'l ih- \,x>.\,'\- v.r !.';',-..' f..rf. i?'d !ind,.
My 1 .* M,i»ri «| [yir.do.-i vith \\ •• V:w.\. all ain rrptsar '•fTcrting
hi f 'II h.i/ir.|/ f:,i:.r|, a-.d ii.'..'Md:-.t.|y ohiir.<d »h': «.!.i. f p!aT C
it* ihf p.'.:-' rnri.'i.t, r« •.Jr.ir.c th^f hit.ii !!-rl, ; ,'n» thr e.\-|.».^jcr
till th«- 1 jtfi of M.iy i",i, v.hf.n h»- -.'irr* r.d< red it to Lord A-.J.I^y.
!••■ t#n,fc hi; «.fat ,-s.-. :\i>;iV.*:T of the Hou.v; of Lords and in the
n .rt of fhinnry on the ist of June 1C60. On the 3rd of
r ••»•.« tf.hT 1600 hi* wa-. made Uiron Hyde of fli.-idon, and on
thr ,/ofh of April 16O1 Viscount Comhury and earl of CI irer.don,
n « » i vim: ■» gr.'int fr«.m the king of £20.000 and at dillV-rent limes
of virtus small cslatch anil IrKh rents. The marri.ige of his
iLii.tthlrr Anne to James, rlukc of Vurk, tvlehrarcd in seen t in
& pi'- ruber io'jo, at first alarmed Clartiidnn on afiount of the
puhlii: hostility In* i-Kpcctrd thereby ir» mrur, but firi'li.'jg hia
frir-. unconfirmed he acquiesced in its public recognition in
lh i nnlicr, and thus became relatal in a spcrial manner to the
My.il family and th-- grand fnthcr «d two Kngli>h sovereign ..'
( lan-nduii's ji'i-iiion wa.« one of preat diiruullirs, but at the
■aim* time of !p!rn«I. I op]Kirtunitirs. In particular a r.ire
»« 1 .inn now o!fi n«d iis.lf of settling the religious question on a
hr-i.-'l print iplc of ri'nipr:-ltcn«H>n or toleration; for the monarchy
hid hf-i-n n-.tiirril ml by the supporters of the church alone
but largely by the inlhn-nrr and aid of the nonconformists and
«1mi of tin- Kom.in f'aihiilif's who were all united at that happy
' //11I. of Ike AV/W//HH, niii. 1^0.
■ C/ufcwi/.'H .V.i/r I'.i/vr i, tii .^i6. 325. 341. 343-
■ lh\l. A/.SV. CoH-m . Af\* m of I\ W. L-yborne-Popham. 317.
* Aiim- ll\i|e (ir (l/ ir.71;, el.|,.r,| rJaiiglitcr of the chancellor, wa*
the nifiiher by J imri of ^Hiei-n Mary and (Juecn Anne, be^ides cix
othtr (hil.li. ii. m> ln-'iti,; funr «-»ns who all tliid in infancy. She
bn.iiiu' .1 U- in 111 « .itNilie in 1070 t,lu .ft I v In lure hir death, and
V .""'J " , "" % ,,,!, " f ^ ,ar >. l l u <-xn of Scots, in Iknry VII.'s
cliapcl 111 \V '-1111.11 .in AbU-y.
EMTer.t by 1 cox r.on loyalty to the throne. Clarendon appears
to h.!v- irry-vfi of comprehension but not of toleration. He
hai i.'r*j, :y Iz .*?rl xtoo sent to discuss terms with the Itadi.^
Presb>-.s:r:arj Li Eschnd, and after the Restoration offered
bi*horr::s to se\en!. including Richard Baxter. He drew up
the r-.vjil d -XL ration of October, promising limited episcop&cy
ar.-: a rev-L*e-i pnyor-hook and rituaJ, which was subseqwr.tly
thrown out by pi:::arr.ent. and he appears to have anticip-tni
*.?T.e Lir.i ■::" sct:.'<mer.t from the Savoy Conference which sit
ir. Apr.: i?r"»:. The fiilure of the Litter proved perhaps that the
' •ii:T.r«.r.c*js w«.:e tix> great for compromise, and widenvd the
breach. The pir!:i:.-.czt immediately proceeded to pass the
>cr:.-s of r.arr-*w ar.i tyrannical measures against the disser.tirs
kr ■»■• r. zi the Oarer. i«:-c C>Je. The Corporations Act, oblipn:
m^r.bers of corpora # .:or.s to denounce the Covenant and tike
( the sarrastcr.t -ccor.iir.g to the Anglican usage, became law
J on the :c:h of Dccirrber 1661, the Act of Uniformity eoforcir;
; th » u.«c of the pra;.er-cot>k on ministers, as well as a declaration
J ihit it * as unlawful to bear arcs against the sovereign, on tic
I 1 ;/.h of -'.tay 166 :. ar.d three were followed by the Conventicle Act
in •■■•■■'14 *u;'pr«5irgcoriver.:i-:Ies z.rA by the Five-Mile Act in jW:
fort: !d:r.j mir.Iswrs uho had refused subscription to the Acto:
l*r.:fo-!r.::y to tcich or n--: !c vi ithin 5 m. of a borough. CUrcr.d-ri
app-.ars to have HuC^ntiy acquiesced in those civil meafun's
rath.r t!:ar ; t.-» have originated them, and to have endeavour^
to mi- irate their inju.-tive and severity. He supported the cca-
t:r.":-»r.»e of t!.e li:'.ure by pre=byteri.in ministers of livings not
h?'.i ly Ang!:car.H a-^d an amendment in the Lords allowing a
per.*:M.i to th?se dtprived, earning the gratitude of Baxter and
the noricor.forrr.:.*'*. On the 17th of March 1662 he introduced
ir.to parlianor.t a declaration enabling the king to difper.se
with the Act of Uniform: ly in the care of ministers of merit.'
But 01: *e commit fed to the narrow policy of intolerance, Oaren-
don was inevitably inwlved in all its cor.«ciiuences. Hii char-
acttristic rc.ipcct for the law and constitution rendered him
ho.-lilc to the general policy of indulgence, which, though tfcc
i favourite project of the king, he strongly opposed in the Lords,
and in l!;-.- end c.iu«ed its u ithdrawal. He declared that he could
have wi.-hed the law otherwise, "but when it was passed, kc
thought it ab.-"luuly necessar>' to see obedience paid to it
without any conr.ivance."* Charles was greatly angered. It
was believed in M;-y 1663 that the intrigues of Bennet and
B'-'-.kir.gham. who seized the opportunity of ingratiating thee*
j-clves with the king by zealously supportirg the indulgence,
rnd secured Clarendon's dismissal, and in Jjly Bristol ventured
to arr.':,c him of high treajon in the parliament; but the attack,
wh-rh did not receive the king's support, failed entirely and only
ended in the banishment from court of its promoter. Clarer<Ion's
oppo iii-m to the court policy in this way acquired a persool
cl.'ir.i'.ter, and he was compelled to identify himself more com-
pltti.iy v.iih the intolerant measures of the House of Commons.
Tho'sidi r^l the originator of the Conventicle Act or of the Five-
Mile Act, he has recorded his approval, 7 and he ended by taking
a! irm at plots and rumours and by regarding the great party
of nonconform:'- 1 ■., through whose co-operation the monarchy
lr«.d be-n r«. tored, as a danger to the state whose " faction ***
thi ir r'.ligion."'
Meat. while Clarendon's influence and direction had been
predominant in nearly all departments of slate. He supported
the ex'i-ptiun of the actual regicides from the Indemnity, but
only ten out of the twenty-six condemned were executed, a p .d
Clarendon, with ihc king's support, prevented the passing of a
bill in 1061 for the execution of thirteen more. He upheld the
Act of Indemnity ngninst nil the attempts of the royalists to
■p«.ft it. 'Ilircoiiflir ling claims to estates were left to be decided
by I he law. Th*r< on fiscal ions of the usurping government accord-
ingly were cancelled, while the properly executed transactions
•Src m..t. Af.'.S. Comm.: Various Collections, ii. 118. and AfSS.
Of Ihtkr nf \,.„ !tr /. , y| .
* (f-nti.. u it i.». ■ ■, » Ih. r 1 1, 776.
' Li«r.-r.s l.-.'r ,.f aarerdon, ii. 295: Wit. MSS. Ccmm.: Vvrini
Coilecliotu, 11. 377.
CLARENDON, ist EARL OF
43«
between individuals were necessarily upheld. There can be
little doubt that the principle followed was the only sale
cac in the prevailing confusion. Great injustice was indeed
•offered by individuals, but the proper remedy of such injustice
was the benevolence of the king, which there is too much reason
to believe proved inadequate and partial. The settlement of
the church lands which was directed by Clarendon presented
equal difficulties and involved equal hardships. In settlixg
Scotland Clarendon's aim was to make that kingdom dependei t
upon England and to uphold the Cromwellian union. He
proposed to establish a council at Whitehall to govern Scottish
affairs, and showed great zeal in endeavouring to restore episco-
pacy through the medium of Archbishop Sharp. His influence,
Bowever, ended with the ascendancy of Lauderdale in 1663.
He was, to some extent at least, responsible for the settlement
is Ireland, but, while anxious for an establishment upon a
■olid Protestant basis, urged " temper and moderation and
Justice " in securing it. He supported Ormonde's wise and
enlightened Irish administration, and in particular opposed
persistently the prohibition of the import of Irish cattle into
England, incurring thereby great unpopularity. He showed
great activity in the advancement of the colonies, to whom he
allowed full freedom of religion. He was a member of the council
for foreign plantations, and one of the eight lords proprietors
of Carolina in 1663; and in 1664 sent a commission to settle
disputes in New England. In the department of foreign
affairs he had less influence. His policy was limited to the
maintenance of peace " necessary for the reducing [the king's]
own dominions into that temper of subjection and obedience
as they ought to be in." 1 In 1664 he demanded, on behalf
of Charles, French support, and a loan of £50,000 against dis-
turbance at home, and thus initiated that ignominious system
of pensions and dependence -upon France which proved so
injurious to English interests later. But he was the promoter
neither of the sale of Dunkirk on the 27th of October 1662, the
author of which seems to have been the earl of Sandwich, 1 nor
of the Dutch War. He attached considerable value to the
possession of the former, but when its sale was decided he con-
ducted the negotiations and effected the bargain. He had
aealously laboured for peace with Holland, and had concluded
a treaty for the settlement of disputes on the 4th of September
1662. Commercial and naval jealousies, however, soon involved
the two states in hostilities. Cape Corso and other Dutch
possessions on the cost of Africa, and New Amsterdam in
America, were seized by squadrons from the royal navy in 1664,
and hostilities were declared on the 22nd of February 1665.
Clarendon now gave his support to the war, asserted the extreme
claims of the English crown over the British seas, and contem-
plated fresh cessions from the Dutch and an alliance with Sweden
and Spain. According to his own account he initiated the policy
of the Triple Alliance,' but it seems clear that his inclination
towards France continued in spite of the intervention of the
latter state in favour of Holland; and he took part in the
negotiations for ending the war by an undertaking with Louis
XIV. Implying a neutrality, while the latter seized Flanders.
The crisis in this feeble foreign policy and in the general official
mismanagement was reached in June 1667, when the Dutch
burnt several ships at Chatham and when " the roar of foreign
guns were heard for the first and last time by the citizens of
London." 4
The whole responsibility for the national calamity and disgrace,
and for the ignominious peace which followed it, was unjustly
thrown on the shoulders of Clarendon, though it must be admitted
that the disjointed state of the administration and want of
control over foreign policy were largely the causes of the disaster,
and for these Clarendon's influence and obstruction of official
reforms were to some extent answerable. According to Sir
William Coventry, whose opinion has weight and who acknow-
ledges the chancellor's fidelity to the king, while Clarendon " was
■ Continuation, 1170.
*Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. at P. W. Leyborne-Popham, 250.
1 Continuation, 1066. * Macaulay's Hist, of England, i. 193.
so great at the council board and in the administration of matters,
there was no room for anybody to propose any remedy to what
s remiss . . . he managing all things with that greatness which
will now be removed." * He disapproved of the system of boards
and committees instituted during the Commonwealth, as giving
too much power to the parliament, and regarded the administra-
tion by the great officers of state, to the exclusion of pure men of
business, as the only method compatible with the dignity and
security of the monarchy. The lowering of the prestige of the
privy council, and its subordination first to the parliament and
afterwards to the military faction, he considered as one of the
chief causes of the fall of Charles I. He aroused a strong feeling of
hostility in the Commons by his opposition to the appropriation of
supplies in 1665, and to the audit of the war accounts in 1666, as
" an introduction to a commonwealth " and as " a new encroach-
ment," and by his high tone of prerogative and authority, while
by his advice to Charles to prorogue parliament he incurred their
resentment and gave colour to the accusation that he had advised
the king to govern without parliaments. He was unpopular
among all classes, among the royalists on account of the Act
of Indemnity, among the Presbyterians because of the Act of
Uniformity. It was said that he had invented the maxim " that
the king should buy and reward his enemies and do little for his
friends, because they are his already " • Every kind of mal-
administration was currently ascribed to him, of designs to govern
by a standing array, and of corruption. He was credited with
having married Charles purposely to a barren queen in order to
raise his own grandchildren to the throne, with having sold
Dunkirk to France, and his magnificent house in St James's was
nicknamed " Dunkirk House," while on the day of the Dutch
attack on Chatham the mob set up a gibbet at his gate and broke
his windows. He had always been exceedingly unpopular at
court, and kept severely aloof from the revels and licence which
reigned there. Evelyn names " the buffoons and the misses to
whom he was an eyesore." ' He was intensely disliked by the
royal mistresses, whose favour he did not condescend to seek, and
whose presence and influence were often the subject of his
reproaches.* A party of younger men of the king's own age,
more congenial to his temperament, and eager to drive the old
chancellor from power and to succeed him in office, had for some
time been endeavouring to undermine his influence by ridicule and
intrigue. Surrounded by such general and violent animosity,
Clarendon's only hope could be in the support of the king. But
the chancellor had early and accurately gauged the nature and
extent of the king's attachment to him, which proceeded neither
from affection nor gratitude but " from his aversion to be
troubled with the intricacies of his affairs," and In 1661 he had
resisted the importunities of Ormonde to resign the great seal for
the lord trcasurership with the rank of " first minister," " a title
newly translated out of French into English," on account of the
obloquy this position would incur and the further dependence
which it entailed upon the inconstant king.* Charles, long weary
of the old chancellor's rebukes, was especially incensed at this
time owing to his failure in securing Frances Stuart (la Belle
Stuart) for his seraglio, a disappointment which he attributed to
Clarendon, and was now alarmed by the hostility which his
administration had excited. He did not scruple to sacrifice at
once the old adherent of his house and fortunes. " The truth is,"
he wrote Ormonde, " his behaviour and humour was grown so
insupportable to myself and all the world else that I could no
longer endure it, and it was impossible for me to live with it and
do these things with the Parliament that must be done, or the
government will be lost." 1 * By the direction of Charles, James
advised Clarendon to resign before the meeting of parliament, but
in an interview with the king on the 26th of August Clarendon
refused to deliver up the seal unless dismissed, and urged him not
to take a step ruinous to the interests both of the chancellor
1 Pcpys's Diary, Sept. 2. 1667.
• Hist. MSS. Comm., 7th Rep. 162. 7 Diary, ait. 95, 96.
• Lives from the Clarendon Gallery, by Lady Th. Lewis, f. 391
Burnet's Ilist. of his own Times, i. 209.
• Continuation, 88. » Lister's Life of Clarendon* <L \vf*
432
CLARENDON, ist EARL OF
himself ind of the crown. 1 He could not believe hwdhirimal was
redly intended, but on the 30th of August he was deprived of the
great seal, for which the king received the thanks of the parlia-
ment on the s6th of October. On the 12th of November his im-
peachment, consisting of various charges of arbitrary government,
corruption and maladministration, was brought up to the Lords,
but the latter refused to order his committal, on the ground that
the Commons had only accused him of treason in general without
specifying any particular charge. Clarendon wrote humbly to
the king asking for pardon, and that the prosecution might be
prevented, but Charles had openly taken part against him, and,
though desiring his escape, would not order or assist his departure
for fear of the Commons. Through the bishop of Hereford,
however, on the 20th of November he pressed Clarendon to fly,
promising that he should not during his absence suffer in his
honour or fortune. Clarendon embarked the same night for
Calais, where he arrived on the 2nd of December. The Lords
immediately passed an act for his banishment and ordered the
petition forwarded by him to parliament to be burnt.
The rest of Clarendon's life was passed in exile. He left
Calais for Rouen on the 25th of December, returning: on the
2 ist of January 1668, visiting the baths of Bourbon in April,
thence to Avignon in June, residing from July 1668 tul June
167 1 at MontpeUier, whence he proceeded to Mouhns and to
Rouen again in May 1674. His sudden banishment entailed
great personal hardships. His health at the time of his flight
was much impaired, and on arriving at Calais he fell dangerously
ill; and Louis XIV., anxious at this time to gain popularity
in England, sent him peremptory and repeated orders to quit
France. He suffered severely from gout, and during the greater
part of his exile could not walk without the aid of two men.
At Evreux, on the 23rd of April x668, he was the victim of a
murderous assault by English sailors, who attributed to him the
non-payment of their wages, and who were on the point of
despatching him when he was rescued by the guard. For some
time he was not allowed to see any of his children; even corre-
spondence with him was rendered treasonable by the Act of
Banishment; and it was not apparently till 1671, 1673 and 1674
that he received visits from his sons, the younger, Lawrence
Hyde, being present with him at his death.
Clarendon bore his troubles with great dignity and fortitude.
He found consolation in religious duties, and devoted a portion
of every day to the composition of his Contemplation* on the
Psalms, and of his moral essays. Removed effectually from
the public scene, and from all share in present politics, he turned
his attention once more to the past and finished his History and
his Autobiography. Soon after reaching Calais he had written,
on the 17th of December 1667, to the university of Oxford,
desiring as his last request that the university should believe
in his innocence and remember him, though there could be no
further mention of him in their public devotions, in their private
prayers.* In 1668 he wrote to the duke and duchess of York to
remonstrate on the report that they had turned Roman Catholic,
to the former urging "You cannot be without zeal for the
Church to which your blessed father made himself a sacrifice,"
adding that such a change would bring a great storm against
the Romanists. He entertained to the last hopes of obtaining
leave to return to England. He asked for permission in June
167 1 and in August 1674. In the dedication of his Brief View
of Mr Hobbes*s Book Leoiathan he repeats " the hope which
sustains my weak, decayed spirits that your Majesty will at
some time call to your remembrance my long and incorrupted
fidelity to your person and your service "; but his petitions
were not even answered or noticed. He died at Rouen on the
9th of December 1674. He was buried in Westminster Abbey
at the foot of the steps at the entrance to Henry VU.'i chapel.
He left two sons, Henry, 2nd earl of Clarendon, and Lawrence,
earl of Rochester, his daughter Anne, duchess of York, and a
third son, Edward, having predeceased him. His male descend-
ants became extinct on the death of the 4th earl of Clarendon
and and earl of Rochester in 1753, the tide of Clarendon being
1 Continuation, 1137. » Oarondon $L Pap. fii. SuppL xxxvS.
revived in 1776 in the person of Thomas VHHers, who had
married the granddaughter and heir of the last earl.
As a statesman Clarendon had obvious limitations and failings.
He brought to the consideration of political questions an essenti-
ally legal but also a narrow mind, conceiving the law, " that
great and admirable mystery,"* and the constitution as fixed,
unchangeable and «<firf— t for all time, in contrast to Pym,
who regarded them as hving ormnmnw capable of continual
development and evolution; and he was in ca p abl e of compre-
hending and governing the new conditions and forces created
by the civil wars. His character, however, and therefore to
some extent his career, bear the mdetibte marks of greatness.
He left the popular cause at the moment of its triumph and
showed in so doing a strict consistency. In a court degraded
by licence and self-indulgence, he maintamrd his self-respect
and personal dignity regardless of co nse quence s , and in an age
of almost universal corruption and setf-seeking be preserved a
noble integrity and patriotism. At the Restoration he showed
great moderation in accepting rewards. He refused a grant
of 10,000 acres in the Fens from the king on the ground that
it would create an evil precedent, and amused Charles and James
by his indignation at the offer of a present of £10,000 from the
French minister Fouquct, the only present he accepted from
Louis XIV. being a set of books printed at the Louvre. His
income, however, as lord chancellor was very large, and Clarendon
maintained considerable state, considering it due to the dignity
of the monarchy that the high officers should carry the external
marks of greatness. The bouse built by him in St James's
was one of the most magnificent ever seen in England, and was
filled with a collection of portraits, chiefly those of contemporary
statesmen and men of letters. It cost Clarendon £50,000, in-
volved him deeply in debt and was considered one of the chief
causes of the "gust of envy" that caused his fall 1 He is
described as "a fair, ruddy, fat, nuddle-statured, handsome
man," and his appearance was stately and dignified. He
expected deference from his inferiors, and one of the chief
charges which he brought against the party of the young poli-
ticians was the want of respect with which they treated himself
and the lord treasurer. His industry and devotion to public
business, of which proofs still remain in the enormous mass of his
state papers and correspondence, were exemplary, and were
rendered all the more conspicuous by the negligence, inferiority
in business, and frivolity of his successors. As lord chancellor
Clarendon made no great impression in the court of chancery.
His early legal training had long been interrupted, and his
political preoccupations probably rendered necessary the
delegation of many of his judicial duties toothers. According
to Speaker Onslow his decrees were always made with the aid
of two judges. Burnet praises him, however, as " a very good
chancellor, only a little too rough but very impartial in the
administration of justice," and Pcpys, who saw him presiding
in his court, perceived him to be " a most able and ready man." *
According to Evelyn, " though no considerable lawyer " be was
"one who kept up the fame and substance of things in the
nation with . . . solemnity." He made good appointments
to the bench and issued some important orders for the reform
of abuses in his court.' As chancellor of Oxford University,
to which office he was elected on the 27th of October 1660,
Clarendon promoted the restoration of order and various educa-
tional reforms. In 1753 his manuscripts were left to the univer-
sity by his great-grandson Lord Cornbury, and in 1868 the
money gained by publication was spent in erecting the Clarendon
Laboratory, the profits of the History having provided in 17 13
a building for the university press adjoining the Sheldonian
theatre, known since the removal of the press to its present
quarters as the Clarendon Building.
Clarendon had risen to high office largely through his literary
and oratorical gifts. His eloquence was greatly admired by
•Evelyn witnessed its demolition in 1683— Diary, May 10th.
Sept. 18th; Lives from the Clarendon Gallery, by. Lady Th. Lewis,
* Diary, July 14th, 1664.
• Lister, IL&K
CLARENDON, ist EARL OF
433
Evelyn and Pepys, though Burnet criticises it as too copious.
He was a great lover of books and collected a large library, was
well read in the Roman and in the contemporary histories both
foreign and English, and could appreciate Carew, Ben Jonson and
Cowley. As a writer and historian Clarendon occupies a high
place in English literature. His great work, the History of the
Rebellion, a composed in the grand style. A characteristic
feature is the wonderful series of well-known portraits, drawn
with great skill and liveliness and especially praised by Evelyn
and by Macaulay. The long digressions, the lengthy sentences,
and the numerous parentheses do not accord with modern taste
and usage, but it may be observed that these often follow more
closely the natural involutions of the thought, and express the
argument more clearly, than the short disconnected sentences,
now generally employed, while in rhythm and dignity Clarendon's
style is immeasurably superior. The composition, however, of
the work as a whole is totally wanting in proportion, and the
book is overloaded with state papers, misplaced and tedious in the
narrative. In considering the accuracy of the history it is
important to remember the dates and circumstances of the
composition of its various portions. The published Hisiory is
mainly a compilation of two separate original manuscripts, the
first being the history proper, written between 1646 and 1648,
with the advantage of a fresh memory and the help of various
documents and authorities, and ending in March 1644, and the
second being the Life, extending from 1609 to 1660, but composed
long afterwards in exile and without the aid of papers between
1668 and 1670. The value of any statement, therefore, in the
published History depends chiefly on whether it is taken from the
History proper or the Life. In 167 1 these two manuscripts were
united by Clarendon with certain alterations and modifications
making Books i.-vii.of the published History, while Books viii.-xv.
were written subsequently, and, being composed for the most
part without materials, are generally inaccurate, with the notable
exception of Book ix., made up from two narratives written at
Jersey in 1646, and containing very little from the Life. Sincerity
and honest conviction are present on every page, and the in-
accuracies are due not to wilful misrepresentation, but to failure
of memory and to the disadvantages under which the author
laboured in exile. But they lessen considerably the value of his
work, and detract from his reputation as chronicler of con-
temporary events, for which he was specially fitted by his
practical experience in public business, a qualification declared
by himself to be the " genius, spirit and soul of an historian."
In general, Clarendon, like many of his contemporaries, failed
signally to comprehend the real issues and principles at stake in
the great struggle, laying far too much stress on personalities
and never understanding the real aims and motives of the
Presbyterian party. The work was first published in 1 702-1 704
from a copy of a transcript made by Clarendon's secretary, with
a few unimportant alterations, and was the object of a violent
attack by John Oldmixon for supposed changes and omissions
in Clarendon and Whitelocke compered (1727) and again in a
preface to his History of England (1730), repelled and refuted by
John Burton in the Genuineness of Lord Clarendon's History
Vindicated (1744)- The history was first published from the
original in 1826; the best edition being that of 1888 edited by
W. D. Macray and issued by the Clarendon Press. The Lord
Clarendon's History . . . Complected, a supplement containing
portraits and illustrative papers, was published in 17 17, and An
Appendix to the History, containing a life, speeches and various
pieces, in 1724. The Sutherland Clarendon in the Bodleian
Ebrary at Oxford contains several thousand portraits and
illustrations of the History. The Life of Edward, earl of Clarendon
• . .[and the] Continuation of the History . . ., the first consisting
of that portion of the Life not included in the History, and the
second of the account of Clarendon's administration and exile in
France, begun in 1672, was published in 1750, the History of the
Reign of King Charles II. from the Restoration . . ., published
about 1755, being a surreptitious edition of this work, of which
the latest and best edition is that of the Clarendon Press of 1857.
Clarendon was also the author of The Difference and Disparity
between the Estate and Condition of George, duke of Buckingham
and Robert, earl of Essex, a youthful production vindicating
Buckingham, printed in Reliquiae Wottonianae (1672), i. 184;
Animadversions on a Book entitled Fanaticism (1673), A Brief
Vtew . . . of the dangerous . . . errors in . . . Mr Hobbes's
book entitled " Leviathan" (1676); The History of the Rebellion
and Civil War in Ireland (1719); A Collection of Several Pieces of
Edward, earl of Clarendon, containing reprints of speeches from
the journals of the House of Lords and of the History of the
Rebellion in Ireland (1727); A Collection of Several Tracts
containing his Vindication in answer to his impeachment,
Reflections upon several Christian Duties, Two Dialogues on
Education and on the want of Respect due to age, and Contempla-
tions on the Psalms (1727); Religion and Policy (181 1); Essays
moral and entertaining on the various faculties and passions of the
human mind (1815, and in British Prose Writers, 1819, vol. i.)i
Speeches in Rushwortk's Collections (1692), pt. iii. vol. i. 230,
333; Declarations and Manifestos (Clarendon being the author of
nearly all on the king's side between March 1642 and March 1645,
the first being the answer to the Grand Remonstrance in January
1642, but not of the answer to the XIX. Propositions or the
apology for the King's attack upon Brentford) in the published
History, Rushworth's Collections, E. Husband's Collections of
Ordinances and Declarations (1646), Old Parliamentary History
(1751-1762), Somers Tracts, State Tracts, Harleian Miscellany,
Thomasson Tracts (Brit. Mus.), E. 157 (14) ; and a large number of
anonymous pamphlets aimed against the parliament, including
Transcendent and Multiplied Rebellion and Treason (1645), A
Letter from a True and Lawful Member of Parliament . . . toons
of the Lords of his Highnesses Council (1656), and Two Speeches
made in the House of Peers on Monday 19/A Dec. [1642] . . .
(Somers Tracts, Scott, vi. 576); Second Thoughts (nJ., in favour
of a limited toleration) is ascribed to him in the Catalogue in the
British Museum; A Letter . . . to one of the Chief Ministers of
the Nonconforming Party . . . (Saumur, 7th May 1674) has been
attributed to him on insufficient evidence.
Clarendon's correspondence, amounting to over 100 volumes,
is in the Bodleian library at Oxford, and other letters are to be
found in Additional MSS. in the British Museum. Selections
have been published under the title of State Papers Collected by
Edward, earl of Clarendon (Clarendon State Papers) between 1767
and 1786, and the collection has been calendared up to 1657 in
1869, 1872, 1876. Other letters of Clarendon are to be found in
Lister's Life of Clarendon, Hi.; Nicholas Papers (Camden Soc.,
1886); Diary of J. Evelyn, appendix; Sir R. Fanshaw's Original
Letters (1724); Warburton's Life of Prince Rupert (1849);
Barwick's Life of Berwick (1724); Hist. MSS. Comm. xoth Rep.
pK vL pp. 103-116, and in the Ilnrleinn Miscellany.
BtBLioo r a PHV.—damnd^ri'a autobiographical work* and Letters
enumerated above, and the MS, Collection in the Bodleian library.
Tlse Lives of Clarendon by T. IT. Lister (I8j8), und by C. H. Firth
tn the Diet, ef NaL Biography (wil'h authorities there collect ed) #
completely supersede all earlier accounts including, that in iiwi
of All Ihi Lord ChanctUon (IjoBl, in Macdiarmid's Lhes of Stunk
Statesmt* (1807), and in the different Lives by Wood in A {karat
OiflKirnsfi (Bliss), tii, 10 JS; while those in J. R Browne's Lives
of the Prim* Minister? of England (le-jo), in Lodge's Portraits, in
Lord Campbell'* iiwj cf the Chancellors. Lit. no (1845). and in
fem V Judges, so pply no fun her inf ormation, J n Histirricai Ixqun its
rtiptitinc, tk* Character of Edu&rd Hyde, cart of Cionndon, v.irioui
charges again?! Clarendon were collected by C A- Olis {1B77) and
answered by Lister. voL ii. 5*9, and by Lady Th. Lewi* in Lites of
the Contemporaries ef Lord Oarenda* U%J*l), L preface pt. i, Fotf
criticism* of the History «e Gardiner'* Cfcit Wars (T803K iii, ijr j
Ranke'fi HitL of England, vl j-jq; Die Politik Korh dtt Erstert
- . . un'i Lord Clarendon's Uarstetlttngi by A- Buff (t86S): article
in the Did. of NaL Biog. by C. H. Firth P and especially a series of
admirable articles by the iame author in the Eng. ft ist. Hevitio
( 1 004). For description of the MS. , Macray t edition of the History
[tflqlj, Lady Th. Lewi* 1 * Lives ft am the Clarendon Gallery, \. in trod
Ct. ii-; for list ol earlier editions, Afh, Oxen. {Bliss) iii- mtj. Lord
anndowne defends Sir R. Granville against Clarendon's stricture*
in the V indication (Genuine, Works of G. Grantilie, Lard Lattsdwene,
5°1 1 173*1)* and Lord Aihbumham defends John Ashburnham
Clarendon '{Koxburghe Club. 1896) ■ GenmtL Odtti c\ \Ya Wvfl*
in A narrative by John Aihburmftom (i8jt>). See alw Notes ot
Meetings ef the Privy Ceuneit between Chart ei If. and the Ear} e[
Court of Chanter? , by J„ fttira** l\fa\$„ \fri»'.^-^<™ il
+34
CLARENDON, 4 th EARL OF
Hist, of England, of the Chit War and of the Commonwealth; Lord
Clarendon, by A. Chas&ant (account of the assault at Evreux) (1891);
Annals of the Bodleian Library, by W. D. Ma cray £l868); Masson's
, Pap. Dom., csp. 1667-1668,58, v .
Series. MSS. of J. M. Heathcote and Various Collections, vol. ii
Life of Milton; Life of Sir G. Savile, by H. C Foxcroft (1898);
Cat. of St. Pap. Dom., csp. 1667-1668, 58, 354. 370; Hist. MSS. Comm.
Add. MSS. in the British Museum; Notes and Queries, 6 ser. v. 283,
9 ser. xi. 182. 1 ser. ix. 7; Pepys's Diary, I. Evelyn's Diary and
Correspondence', Gen. Catalogue in British Museum; Edward Hyde,
earl of Clarendon (1009), a lecture delivered at Oxford during the
Clarendon centenary by C. H. Firth. (P. C. Y.)
CLARENDON, GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK VILLIERS,
4TH Earl or (in the Villiersline) (1800-1870), English diplomatist
and statesman, was born in London on the 12th of January 1800.
He was the eldest son of Hon. George Villiers (1750-1827,
youngest son of the 1st earl of Clarendon (second creation), by
Theresa, only daughter of the first Lord Boringdon, and grand-
daughter of the -first Lord Grantham. The earldom of the lord
chancellor Clarendon became extinct in the Hyde line by the
death of the 4th earl, his last male descendant. Jane Hyde,
countess of Essex, the sister of that nobleman (she died in 1724),
left two daughters; of these the eldest, Lady Charlotte, became
heiress of the Hyde family. She married Thomas Villiers (1 709-
1786), second son of the and earl of Jersey, who served with
distinction as English minister in Germany, and in 1776 the
earldom of Clarendon was revived in his favour. The connexion
with the Hyde family was therefore in the female line and
somewhat remote. But a portion of the pictures and plate of the
great chancellor was preserved to this branch of the family, and
remains at The Grove, their family scat at Hertfordshire. The
2nd and 3rd earls were sons of the 1st, and, neither of them
having sons, the title passed, on the death of the 3rd earl (John
Charles) in 1838, to their younger brother's son.
Young George Villiers entered upon life in circumstances
which gave small promise of the brilliancy of his future career.
He was well born; he was heir presumptive to an earldom;
and his mother was a woman of great energy, admirable good
sense, and high feeling. But the means of his family were
contracted; his education was desultory and incomplete; he
had not the advantages of a training cither at a public school or
in the House of Commons. He went up to Cambridge at the
early age of sixteen, and entered St John's College on the 29th
of June 1816. In 1820, as the eldest son of an carl's brother
with royal descent, he was enabled to take his M.A. degree
under the statutes of the university then in force. In the same
year he was appointed attache* to the British embassy at St
Petersburg, where he remained three years, and gained that
practical knowledge of diplomacy which was of so much use to
him in after-life. He had received from nature a singularly
handsome person, a polished and engaging address, a ready
command of languages, and a remarkable power of composition.
Upon his return to England in 1823 he was appointed to a
commissioncrchip of customs, an office which he retained for
about ten years. In 1831 he was despatched to France to
negotiate a commercial treaty, which, however, led to no result.
On the 16th of August 1833 he was appointed minister at the
court of Spain. Ferdinand VII. died within a month of his
arrival at Madrid, and the infant queen Isabella, then in the
third year of her age, was placed by the old Spanish law of female
inheritance on her contested throne. Don Carlos, the late
king's brother, claimed the crown by virtue of the Salic law of
the House of Bourbon which Ferdinand had renounced before
the birth of his daughter. Isabella II. and her mother Christina,
the queen regent, became the representatives of constitutional
monarchy, Don Carlos of Catholic absolutism. The conflict
which had divided the despotic and the constitutional powers
of Europe since the French Revolution of 1830 broke out into
civil war in Spain, and by the Quadruple Treaty, signed on the
tnid of April 1834, France and England pledged themselves to
the defence of the constitutional thrones of Spain and Portugal.
JW ahr years Villiers continued to give the most active and
■j^jiiit support to the Liberal government of Spain. He
•"••fnanil, though uajustly, of having favoured the revolution I
of La Granja, which drove Christina, the queen mother, out o»
the kingdom, and raised Espartero to the regency. He un-
doubtedly supported the chiefs of the Liberal party, such as
Espartero, against the intrigues of the French court; but the
object of the British government was to establish the throne
of Isabella on a truly national and liberal basis and to avert
those complications, dictated by foreign influence, which eventu-
ally proved so fatal to that princess. Villiers received the
grand cross of the Bath in 1838 in acknowledgment of his services,
and succeeded, on the death of his uncle, to the title of earl of
Clarendon, in the following year, having left Madrid, he married
Katharine, eldest daughter of James Walter, first earl of Verulam.
In January 1840 he entered Lord Melbourne's administration
as lord privy seal, and from the death of Lord Holland in the
autumn of that year Lord Clarendon also held the office of
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster until the dissolution of the
ministry in 1841. Deeply convinced that the maintenance of a
cordial understanding with France was the most essential
condition of peace and of a liberal policy in Europe, he reluctantly
concurred in the measures proposed by Lord Palmcrston for
the expulsion of the pasha of Egypt from Syria; he strenuously
advocated, with Lord Holland, a more conciliatory policy
towards France; and he was only restrained from sending in
his resignation by the dislike he felt, to break up a cabinet he
had so recently joined.
The interval of Sir Robert Peel's great administration (1841-
1846) was to the leaders of the Whig party a period of repose;
but Lord Clarendon took the warmest interest in the triumph
of the principles of free trade and in the repeal of the corn-laws,
of which his brother, Charles Pelham Villiers (q.v.), had been
one of the earliest champions. For this reason, upon the forma-
tion of Lord John Russell's first administration, Lord Clarendon
accepted the office of president of the Board of Trade. Twice
in his career the governor-generalship of India was offered him,
and once the governor-generalship of Canada; — these he refused
from reluctance to withdraw from the politics of Europe. But
in 1 847 a sense of duty compelled him to take a far more laborious
and uncongenial appointment. The desire of the cabinet was
to abolish the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, and Lord Clarendon
was prevailed upon to accept that office, with a view to transform
it ere long into an Irish secretaryship of state. But he had not
been many months in Dublin before he acknowledged that the
difficulties then existing in Ireland could only be met by the
most vigilant and energetic authority, exercised on the spot.
The crisis was one of extraordinary peril. Agrarian crimes of
horrible atrocity had increased threefold. The Catholic clergy
were openly disaffected. This was the second year of the Irish
famine, and extraordinary measures were required to regulate
the bounty of the government and the nation. In 1848 the
revolution in France let loose fresh elements of discord, which
culminated in an abortive insurrection, and for a lengthened
period Ireland was a prey to more than her wonted symptoms
of disaffection and disorder. Lord Clarendon remained viceroy
of Ireland till 1852, and left behind him permanent marks of
improvement. His services were expressly acknowledged in the
queen's speech to both Houses of Parliament on the 5th of
September 1848 — this being the first time that any civil services
obtained that honour; and he was made a knight of the Garter
(retaining also the grand cross of the Bath by special order) on
the 23rd of March 1849.
Upon the formation of the coalition ministry between the
Whigs and the Peelites, in 1853, under Lord Aberdeen, Lord
Clarendon became foreign minister. The country was already
"drifting" into the Crimean War, an expression of his own
which was never forgotten. Clarendon was not responsible for
the policy which brought war about; but when it occurred he
employed tvery means in his power to stimulate and assist the
war departments, and above all he maintained the closest
relations with the French. The tsar Nicholas had speculated
on the impossibility of the sustained joint action of France and
England in council and in the field. It was mainly by Lord
Clarendon at Whitehall and by Lord Railan before "
CLARENDON, 2nd EARL OP
435
that toch a combination was rendered practicable and did
eventually triumph over the enemy. The diplomatic conduct
of such an alliance for three years between two great nations
jealous of their military honour and fighting for no separate
political advantage, tried by excessive hardships and at moments
on the verge of defeat, was certainly one of the most arduous
duties ever performed by a minister. The result was due in the
main to the confidence with which Lord Clarendon had inspired
the emperor of the French, and to the affection and regard of
the empress, whom he had known in Spain from her childhood.
In 1856 Lord Clarendon took his seat at the congress of Paris
convoked for the restoration of peace, as first British pleni-
potentiary. It was the first time since the appearance of Lord
Castlereagh at Vienna that a secretary of state for foreign
affairs had been present in person at a congress on the continent.
Lord Clarendon's first care was to obtain the admission of
Italy to the council chamber as a belligerent power, and to
raise the barrier which still excluded Prussia as a neutral one.
But in the general anxiety of all the powers to terminate the war
there was no small danger that the objects for which it had
been undertaken would be abandoned or forgotten. It is due
entirely to the firmness of Lord Clarendon that the principle
of the neutralization of the Black Sea was preserved, that the
Russian attempt to trick the allies out of the cession in Bessarabia
was defeated, and that the results of the war were for a time
secured. The congress was eager to turn to other subjects,
and perhaps the most important result of its deliberations was
the celebrated Declaration of the Maritime Powers, which
abolished privateering, defined the right of blockade, and
limited the right of capture to enemy's property in enemy's
ships. Lord Clarendon has been accused of an abandonment
of what arc termed the belligerent rights of Great Britain, which
were undoubtedly based on the old maritime laws of Europe.
But he acted in strict conformity with the views of the British
cabinet, and the British cabinet adopted those views because it
was satisfied that it was not for the benefit of the country to
adhere to practices which exposed the vast mercantile interests
of Britain to depredation, even by the cruisers of a secondary
maritime power, and which, if vigorously enforced against
neutrals, could not fail to embroil her with every maritime
state in the world.
Upon the reconstitution of the Whig administration in 1859,
Lord John Russell made it a condition of his acceptance of office
ander Lord Palmerston that the foreign department should be
placed in his own hands, which implied that Lord Clarendon
should be excluded from office, as it would have been inconsistent
alike with his dignity and his tastes to fill any other post in the
government. The consequence was that from 1859 till 1864
Lord Clarendon remained out of office, and the critical relations
arising out of the Civil War in the United Slates were left to the
guidance of Earl Russell. But he re-entered the cabinet in May
1864 as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster; and upon the
death of Lord Palmerston in 1865, Lord Russell again became
prime minister, when Lord Garcndon returned to the foreign
office, which was again confided to him for the third time upon
the formation of Mr Gladstone's administration in 1868. To
the last moment of his existence, Lord Clarendon continued to
devote every faculty of his mind and every instant of his life
to the public service; and he expired surrounded by the boxes
and papers of his office on the 27th of June 1870. No man owed
more to the influence of a generous, unselfish and liberal dis-
position. If he had rivals he never ceased to treat them with the
consideration and confidence of friends, and he cared but little
lor the ordinary prizes of ambition in comparison with the
advancement of the cause of peace and progress.
He was succeeded as 5th earl by his eldest son. Edward Hyde
VlLUERS (b. 1846), who became lord chamberlain in 1900.
See also the article (by Henry Reeve) in Fraser s Magazine. August
I87aw
CLAftUTDON, HENRY HYDE. 2nd Earl or (1638-1700).
1 statesman, eldest son of the first earl, was born on the
I at Jane 1638, He accompanied his parents into exile and
assisted his father as secretary, returning with them hi 1600.
In 1 66 1 he was returned to parliament for Wiltshire as Lord
Cornbury. He became secretary in 1662 and lord chamberlain
to the queen in 1665. He took no part in the b'fe of the court,
and on the dismissal of his father became a vehement opponent
of the administration, defended his father in the impeachment]
and subsequently made effective attacks upon Buckingham
and Arlington. In 1674 he became earl of Clarendon by his
father's death, and in 1679 was made a privy councillor. He
was not included in Sir W. Temple's council of that year, but
was reappointed in 1680. In 1682 he supported Halifax's
proposal of declaring war on France. On the accession of James
in 1685 he was appointed lord privy seal, but shortly afterwards,
in September, was removed from this office to that of lord-
lieutenant of Ireland. Clarendon was embarrassed in his
estate, and James required a willing agent to carry out his
design by upsetting the Protestant government and the Act of
Settlement. Clarendon arrived in Dublin on the 9th of January
1686. He found himself completely in the power of Tyrconnel,
the commander-in-chief; and though, like his father, a staunch
Protestant, elected this year high steward of Oxford University,
and detesting the king's policy, he obeyed his orders to introduce
Roman Catholics into the government and the army and upon the
bench, and clung to office till after the dismissal of his brother,
the carl of Rochester, in January 1687, when he was recalled
and succeeded by Tyrconnel. He now supported the church
in its struggle with James, opposed the Declaration of Indulgence,
wrote to Mary an account of the resistance of the bishops, 1 and
visited and advised the latter in the Tower. He had no snare
however, in inviting William to England. He assured James
in September that the Church would be loyal, advised the
calling of the parliament, and on the desertion of his son, Lord
Cornbury, to William on the 14th of November, expressed to
the king and queen the most poignant grief. In the council
held on the 27th, however, he made a violent and unseasonable
attack upon James's conduct, and on the 1st of December set
out to meet William, joined him on the 3rd at Berwick near
Salisbury, and was present at the conference at Hungerford
on the 8th, and again at Windsor on the 16th. His wish was
apparently to effect some compromise, saving the crown for
James. According to Burnet, he advised sending James to
Breda, and according to the duchess of Marlborough to the
Tower, but he himself denies these statements.* He opposed
vehemently the settlement of the crown upon William and Mary,
voted for the regency, and refused to take the oaths of the new
sovereigns, remaining a non-juror for the rest of his life. He
subsequently retired to the country, engaged in cabals against
the government, associated himself with Richard Graham, Lord
Preston, and organizing a plot against William, was arrested on
the 24th of June 1690 by order of his niece, Queen Mary, and
placed in the Tower. Liberated on the 15th of August, he im-
mediately recommenced his intrigues. On Preston's arrest on
the 31st of December, a compromising letter from Clarendon
was found upon him, and he was named by Preston as one of his
accomplices. He was examined before the privy council and
again imprisoned in the Tower on the 4th of January 1691,
remaining in confinement till the 3rd of July. This closed his
public career. In 1 702, on Queen Anne's accession, he presented
himself at court, " to talk to his niece," but the queen refused to
see him till he had taken the oaths. He died on the 31st of
October 1709, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
His public career had been neither distinguished nor useful, but
it seems natural to ascribe its failure to small abilities and to the
conflict between personal ties and political convictions which
drew him in opposite directions, rather than, following Mncaulay,
to motives of self-interest He was a man of some literary taste,
a fellow of the Royal Society (1684), theauthorof The History and
Antiquities of the Cathedral Church of Winchester . . . continued
by S Gale (1715). and he collaborated with his brother Rochester
in the publication of his father's History (1 702-1704) He
1 Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of the Duke of Bucdeuch, u. JI.
' Correspondence and Diary (1828), ii. 286.
43&
CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF— CLARI
married (i) in 1660, Theodosia, daughter of Lord Capel, and (2)
in 1670, Flower, daughter of William Backhouse of Swallowfield
in Berkshire, and widow of William Bishopp and of Sir William
Backhouse, Bart. He was. succeeded by his only son, Edward
{1661-1724), as 3rd earl of Clarendon; and, the latter having no
surviving son, the title passed to Henry, 2nd earl of Rochester
(2672-1753), at whose death without male heirs it became extinct
in the Hyde line.
CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OP, a body of English laws
issued at Clarendon in 1164, by which Henry II. endeavoured to
settle the relations between Church and State. Though they
purported to declare the usages on the subject which prevailed in
the reign of Henry I. they were never accepted by the clergy, and
were formally renounced by the king at Avranches in September
1172. Some of them, hewever, were in part at least, as they all
purported to be, declaratory of ancient usage and remained in
force after the royal renunciation. Of the sixteen provisions the
one which provoked the greatest opposition was that which
declared in effect that criminous clerks were to be summoned to
the king's court, and from there, after formal accusation and
defence, sent to the proper ecclesiastical court for trial. If found
guilty they were to be degraded and sent back to the king's court
for punishment. Another provision, which in spite of all opposi-
tion obtained a permanent place in English law, declared that all
suits even between clerk and clerk concerning advowsons and
presentations should be tried in the king's court. By other
provisions appeals to Rome without the licence of the king were
forbidden. None of the clergy were to leave the realm, nor were
the king's tenants-in-chicf and ministers to be excommunicated or
their lands interdicted without the royal permission. Fleas of
debt, whether involving a question of good faith or not, were to
be in the jurisdiction of the king's courts. Two most interesting
provisions, to which the clergy offered no opposition, were: (1) if
a dispute arose between a clerk and a layman concerning a
tenement which the clerk claimed as free-alms (frankalmoign)
and the layman as a lay-fee, it should be determined by the
recognition of twelve lawful men before the king's justice whether
it belonged to free-alms or lay-fee, and if it were found to belong
to free-alms then the plea was to be held in the ecclesiastical
court, but if to lay-fee, in the court of the king or of one of his
magnates; (2) a declaration of the procedure for election to
bishoprics and royal abbeys, generally considered to state the
terms of the settlement made between Henry I. and Ansclm in
X107.
Authorities.— J. C. Robertson, Materials for History of Thomas
Becket, Rolls Series (1875-1885) ; Sir F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland,
History of English Law before the Time of Ed. I. (Cambridge,
1898), and F. W. Maitland, Roman Canon Lav in the Church of
England (1898); the text of the Constitutions is printed by W.
Stubbs in Select Charters (Oxford, 1895). (G. J. T.)
CLARES, POOR, otherwise Clarisses, Franciscan nuns, so
called from their foundress, St Clara (q.v.). She was professed by
St Francis in the Portiuncula in 1212, and two years later she
and her first companions were established in the convent of St
Damian's at Assisi. The nuns formed the " Second Order of St
Francis," the friars being the " First Order," and the Tertiarics
(q.v.) the u Third." Before Clara's death in 1253, the Second
Order had spread all over Italy and into Spain, France and
Germany; in England they were introduced c. 1293 and estab-
lished in London, outside Aldgate, where their name of Minoresses
survives in the Minories; there were only two other English
houses before the Dissolution. St Francis gave the nuns no rule,
but only a " Form of Life " and a " Last Will," each only five
lines long, and coming to no more than an inculcation of his idea
of evangelical poverty. Something more than this became
necessary as soon as the institute began to spread, and during
Francis's absence in the East, 1219, his supporter Cardinal
Hugolino composed a rule which made the Franciscan nuns
practically a species of unduly strict Benedictines, St Francis's
special characteristics being eliminated. St Clara made it her
life work to have this rule altered, and to get the Franciscan
character of the Second Order restored; in 1247 a "Second
Rule " was approved which went a long way towards satisfying
her desires, and finally in 1253 a " Third," which practically gave
what she wanted. This rule has come to be known as the " Rule
of the Clares "; it is one of great poverty, seclusion and austerity
of life. Most of the convents adopted it, but several clung to
that of 1 247. To bring about conformity, St Bonaventura, while
general (1264), obtained papal permission to modify the rule of
1253, somewhat mitigating its austerities and allowing the
convents to have fixed incomes, — thus assimilating them to the
Conventual Franciscans as opposed to the Spirituals. This rule
was adopted in many convents, but many more adhered to the
strict rule of 1 253. Indeed a counter-tendency towards a greater
strictness set in, and a number of reforms were initiated, intn>
ducing an appalling austerity of life. The most important of
these reforms were the Cole tines (St Colette, c. 1400) and the
Capucines (c. 1540; see Capuchins). The half-dozen forms of
the Franciscan rule for women here mentioned are still in use in
different convents, and there are also a great number of religious
institutes for women based on the rule of the Tcrtiaries. By the
term " Poor Clares " the Cole tine nuns are now commonly
understood; there are various convents of these nuns, as of other
Franciscans, in England and Ireland. Franciscan nuns have
always been very numerous; there arc now about 150 convents of
the various observances of the Second Order, in every part of the
world, besides innumerable institutions of Tcrtiaries.
See Hclyot, Hist, des ordres retigieux (1792), vii. cc. 25-28 and
38-42; Wetzer and Weke, Kirchenlexikon (2nd cd.), art. " Clara ";
Max Heimbuchcr, Orden und Kongregalioncn (1896), t. §| 47, 48,
who gives references to all the literature. For a scientific study
of the beginnings see Lempp, " Die Anfangc des Klarisscnordena
in Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte. xiii. (1892), 181 ff. (E. C. B.)
CLARET (from the Fr. vin claret, mod. clairct, wine of a light
clear colour, from Lat. clarus, clear), the English name for the red
Bordeaux wines. The term was originally used in France for
light-yellow or light-red wines, as distinguished from the tins
rouges and the tins blancs; later it was applied to red wines
generally, but is rarely used in French, and never with the
particular English meaning (see Wine).
CLARETIB, JULES ARSftNE ARNAUD (1840- ), French
man of letters and director of the Theatre Francais, was born at
Limoges on the 3rd of December 1840. After studying at the
lycee Bonaparte in Paris, he became an active journalist, achiev-
ing great success as dramatic critic to the Figaro and to the
Opinion nationals He was a newspaper correspondent during
the Franco-German War, and during the Commune acted as staff-
officer in the National Guard. In 1885 he became director of the
Th6atrc Francais, and from that lime devoted his time chiefly to
its administration. He was elected a member of the Academy in
1888, and took his scat in Feburary 1889, being received by
Ernest Re nan. The long list of his works includes Histoire de la
revolution de 1870-1871 (new ed., 5 vols., 187S-1876); Cinq ans
aprts; I* Alsace et la Lorraine depuis V annexion (1876); some
annual volumes of reprints of his articles in the weekly press,
entitled La Vie a Paris; La Vie moderne au thidtre (1868-1869);
Moliere, sa vie et son autre (1871), Histoire de la littirature
franchise, 900-1900 (2nd ed. 1905); Candidall (1887), a novel of
contemporary life; Brichanteau, comidien francais (1806);
several plays, some of which are based on novels of his own — Lis
lfuseadins(i874),Le RigimentdeChampagnc{iBj7), Lcs Mirabeou
(1879), Monsieur le minislre (1883), and others; and the opera,
La Navarraise, based on his novel La Cigarette, and written with
Henri Cain to the music of Massenet. La Navarraise was first
produced at Covent Garden (June 1894) with Mme Calve" in the
part of Anita. His (Euvres completes were published in 1897-
1904.
CLARI. GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA, Italian musical com-
poser, chapel-master at Pistoia, was born at Pisa about the year
1669. The time of his death is unknown. He was the most
celebrated pupil of Colonna, chapel-master of S. Petronio, at
Bologna. He became maestro di cappella at Pistoia about 1712, at
Bologna in 1720, and at Pisa in 1736. He is supposed to have
died about 1745- The works by which Clari distinguished
himself pre-eminently are his vocal duets and trios, with a basso
continuo, published between 1740 and 1747. These compositions,
CLARINA— CLARINET
437
which combine graceful melody with contrapuntal learning, were
much admired by Cherubini. They appear to have been admired
by Handel also, since he did not hesitate to make appropriations
from them. Clari composed one opera, // Savio ddirante,
produced at Bologna in 1695, and a large quantity of church
music, several specimens of which were printed in Novello's
Fitmilliam Music
CLARINA, a comparatively new instrument of the wood-wind
class (although actually made of metal), a hybrid possessing
characteristics of both oboe and clarinet. The clarina was
invented by W. Heckcl of Biebrich-am-Rhcin, and has been used
since 1801 at the Festspielhaus, Bayreuth, in Tristan und Isolde,
as a substitute for the Hohlrompete made according to Wagner's
instructions. The clarina has been found more practical and more
effective in producing the desired tone-colour. The clarina is a
metal instrument with the conical bore and fingering of the oboe
and the clarinet single-reed mouthpiece. The compass of the
instrument is as shown, and it stands in the key of Bb. Like the
clarinet, the clarina is a transposing instrument, for which the
musk must be written in a key a tone higher than that of the
composition. The timbre resulting from the combination of
conical bore and single-recd mouthpiece has in the lowest
register affinities with the cor anglais, in the middle wilh the
saxophone, and in the highest with the clarinet. Olher
German orchestras have followed the example of Bayreuth.
The clarina has also been found very effective as a solo
instrument. (K. S.)
CLARINET, or Clarionet (Fr. darineltc, Ger. Clarinctle,
Klarinett, Ital. darineito, ckiarinctlo), a wood-wind instrument
having a cylindrical bore and played by means of a single-reed
mouthpiece. The word " clarinet " is said to be derived from
darineito, a diminutive of clarino, the Italian for (1) the soprano
trumpet, (2) the highest register of the instrument, (3) the
trumpet played musically without the blare of the martial
instrument. The word " clarionet " is similarly derived from
" clarion," the English equivalent of clarino. It is suggested that
the name clarinet or darineito was bestowed on account of the
resemblance in timbre between the high registers of the clarino
and clarinet. By adding the speaker-hole to the old chalumeau,
J. C. Denner gave it an additional compass based on the over-
blowing of the harmonic twelfth, and consisting of an octave and
a half of harmonics, which received the name of clarino, while
the tower register retained the name of chalumeau. There is
something to be said also in favour of another suggested deriva-
tion from the Italian chiarina, the name for reed instruments and
the equivalent for tibia and aulos. At the beginning of the 18th
century in Italy darineito, the diminutive of darino, would be
masculine, whereas chiarinetta or clarinetla would be feminine, 1 as
in Doppelmayr's account of the invention written in 173a The
word " clarinet " is sometimes used in a generic sense to denote
the whole family, which consists of the clarinet, or discant
corresponding to the violin, oboe, &c; the alto clarinet in E;
the basset horn in F (q.v.)\ the bass clarinet (q.v.), and the
pedal clarinet (q.v.).
The modern clarinet consists of five (or four) separate pieces:
(1) the mouthpiece; (2) the bulb; (3) the upper middle joint, or
left-hand joint; (4) the lower middle joint, or right-hand joint* ;
(s) the bell; which (the bell excepted) when joined together, form
a tube with a continuous cylindrical bore, a ft. or more in length,
according to the pitch of the instrument. The mouthpiece,
including the beating or single-recd common to the whole
clarinet family, has the appearance of a beak with the point
bevelled off and thinned at the edge to correspond with the end of
1 Set Gottfried Weber's objection to this derivation in " Ober
Chriaeue und Basset-horn," Caecilia (Mainz. 1839), vol. xi. pp. 36
and 17. note
1 turn. J and 4 are sometimes made in one, as for instance in
> KudaU, Carte & Company's modification, the Klussmann
the reed shaped like a spatula. The under part of the mouthpiece
(fig. a) is flattened in order to form a table for the support of the
reed which is adjusted thereon with great nicety, allowing just
the amount of play requisite to set in vibration
the column of air within the tube.
The mouthpiece, which is subject to con-
tinual fluctuations of dampness and dryness,
and to changes of temperature, requires to be
made of a material having great powers of
resistance, such as cocus wood, ivory or
vulcanite, which are mostly used for the
purpose in England. A longitudinal aperture
x in. long and } in. wide, communicating wilh
the bore, is cut in the table and covered by
the reed. The aperture is thus closed except
towards the point, where, for the distance of
i to i in., the reed b thinned and the table
curves backwards towards the point, leaving
a gap between the ends of the mouthpiece and
of the reed of x mm. or about the thickness of
a sixpence for the B flat clarinet. The curve
of the table and the size of the gap are there-
fore of considerable importance. The reed is
cut from a joint of the Amnio donax or saliva,
which grows wild in the regions bordering on
the Mediterranean. A flat slip of the reed is
cut, flattened on one side and thinned to a
very delicate edge on the other. At first the
reed was fastened to the table by means of
many turns of a fine waxed cord. The metal
band adjusted by means of two screws, known
as the " ligature," was introduced about 181 7
by Ivan Mailer. The reed is set in vibration
by the breath of the performer, and being
flexible it beats against the table, opening
and closing the gap at a rate depending on
the rate of the vibrations it sets up in the
air column, this rate varying according to the
length of the column as determined by opening
the lateral holes and keys. A cylindrical tube
played by means of a reed has the acoustic
properties of a stopped pipe, i.e. the funda-
mental tone produced by the tube is an Fig. 1.— Clarinet
octave lower than the corresponding tone of (Albert Model),
an open pipe of the same length, and over-
blows a twelfth; whereas tubes having a conical bore like the
oboe, and played by means of a reed, speak as open pipes and
overblow an octave. This forms the fundamental difference
between the instruments of the oboe and
clarinet families. Wind instruments de-
pending upon lateral holes for the produc-
tion of their scale must either have as
many holes pierced in the bore as they
require notes, or make use of the property
possessed by the air-column of dividing
into harmonics or partials of the funda-
mental tones. Twenty to twenty-two
holes is the number generally accepted as
the practical limit for the clarinet; beyond
that number the fingering and mechanism
become too complicated. The compass of
the clarinet is therefore extended through
the medium of the harmonic overtones.
In stopped pipes a node is formed near
the mouthpiece, and they are therefore only
able to produce the uneven harmonics, such
as the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, &c, correspond-
ing to the fundamental, and the diatonic intervals of the 5th
one octave above, and of the 3rd and 7th two octaves above the
fundamental. By pressing the reed with the lip near the base
where it is thicker and sliffer, and increasing the pressure oKKe
breath, the air-column is forced to <i\N\Afe *a& \» vs*sA ^s*.
Fie 2.— Clarinet
Mouthpiece, a, the
mouthpiece showing
the position of the
bore inside; b, the
or beating
reed.
438
CLARINET
harmonica, a principle well understood by the ancient Greeks
and Romans in playing upon the aulos and tibia. 1 This is
easier to accomplish with the double reed than with the beating
reed; in fact with a tube of wide diameter, such as that of the
modern clarinet, it would not be possible by this means alone
to do justice to the tone of the instrument or to the music now
written for it. The bore of the aulos was very much narrower
than that of the clarinet.
In order to facilitate the production of the harmonic notes
on the clarinet, a small hole, closed by means of a key and called
the "speaker," is bored near the mouthpiece. By means of
this small hole the air-column is placed in communication with
the external atmosphere, a ventral segment is formed, and the
air-column divides into three equal parts, producing a triple
number of vibrations resulting in the third note of the harmonic
series, at an interval of a twelfth above the fundamental* In a
wind instrument- with lateral holes the fundamental note corre-
sponding to any particular hole is produced when all the holes
below that hole are open and it itself and all above it are closed,
the effective length of the resonating tube being shortened as
each of the dosed holes is successively uncovered. In order to
obtain a complete chromatic scale on the clarinet at least eighteen
holes are required. This series produces with the bell-note a
succession of nineteen semitones, giving the range of a twelfth
and known as the fundamental scale or chalumeou register, so
called, no doubt, because it was the compass (without chromatic
semitones) of the more primitive predecessor of the clarinet,
known as the chalumeau, which must not be confounded with
the shawm or schalmey of the middle ages.
The fundamental scale of the modern clarinet in C extends from
rf ==ri«dJ=
The next octave and a half is obtained by opening
the speaker key, whereby each of the fundamental notes is repro-
duced a twelfth higher; the bell-note thus jumps from E to B#.
the first key gives instead of F its twelfth Cg, and so on, extending
the compass to
= , which ends the natural compass of the
instrument, although a skilful performer may obtain another octave
by cross- finger in£. The names of the hole* and keys on the
clarinet are derived not: from the note* of the fundamental
scale, hut from the name of the twelfth produced by overblowing
with the speaker key open; for instance, the first key near
the bell ii knojvn not As the E try but as the &S. The use of
the speaker key form* the greatest technical difficulty in learning
to play the clarinet, on account of the thumb having to do double
duty, closing one hole and raising the lever of the speaker key
simultaneously* In a clarinet designed by Richard Carte this
difficulty was ingeniously overcome by placing the left thumb-hole
towards the fmrsi, and closing it by a thumb-lever or with a ring
action by the first or second finger of the left band* thus leaving the
thumb free to work the speaker key alone.
There is good tea ton to think that the ancient Creeks understood
the advantage of a speaker-hole, which they called Synnx, far
facilitating the production ol harmonica on the aulo& The credit
of the discovery of this interesting fact ia due m A. A, Howard, 1
of Harvard University : it explains many pa.H&ages in the classics
which before were obscure fsce Aulok). Plutarch relates 1 that
Tdephanes of Megara was so incensed with the syrinn that be never
allowed his instrument -makers to place one on any of his atjldi; he
even went bo far as to absent himself* principally on account of the
syrinx, from the Pythian games. Telenhanei was a great virtuoso
who scorned the use of a epea Iter- hole, being able to obtain his bar"
monies on the aulos by the mere control of Tips and teeth,
The modern clarinet has frum thirteen to nineteen keya H some being
normally open jnd others closed- In order to understand why,
when once the idea of adding keys to the chalumeau had been
conceived, the number rose so slowly, keys being added one or two
at a time by makers of various nationalities at long intervals, it is
1 Aristotle (de Audib. 802 b 18. and 804 a) and Porphyry (ed.
Wallis. pp. 249 and 252) mention that if the performer presses the
tuge (mouthpiece) or the glottai (reeds) of the pipes, a sharper tone
b produced.
, * Cf. V. C Mahillon, Eltments d'acoustiaue musical* et instru-
mental (Brussels, 1874), p. 161 ; and Fr. Zamminer, Die Musik
mnd die musikaliscken Instrument* in Hirer Betiehung zu den CeseUen
der Akustik . . . (Giessen, 1855), pp. 297 and 208.
• M The Aulos or Tibia," Harvard Studies, iv. (Boston, 1893).
*D§ Mutka, 1138.
necessary to consider the effect of boring holes in the side of a
cylindrical tube. If it were possible to proceed from an absolute
theoretical basis, there would be but little difficulty; there are, how-
ever, practical reasons which make this a matter of great difficulty.
According to V. Mahillon,* the theoretical length of a Bb clarinet
(French pitch diapason normal A =435 vibrations), is 59 cm. when
the internal diameter of the bore measures exactly 1-4 cm. Any
increase in the diameter of the cylindrical bore for a given length
of tube raises the pitch proportionally and in the same way a decrease
lowers it. A bore narrow in proportion to the length facilitates the
production of the harmonics, which is no doubt the reason why the
aulos was made with a very narrow diameter, and produced such
deep notes in proportion to its length. In determining the position
of the holes along the tube, the thickness of the wood to be pierced
must be taken into consideration, for the length of the passage from
the main bore to the outer air adds to the length of the resonating
column; as, however, the clarinet tube is reckoned as a closed one,
only half the extra length must be taken into account. When placed
in its correct theoretical position, a hole should have its diameter
equal to the diameter of the main bore, which is the ideal condition
for obtaining a full, rich tone; it is, however, feasible to give the
hole a smaller diameter, altering its position by placing it nearer
the mouthpiece. These laws, which were likewise known to the
Greeks and Romans, 4 had to be rediscovered by experience in the
18th and 19th centuries, during which the mechanism of the key
system was repeatedly improved. Due consideration having been
given to these points, it will also be necessary to remember that
the stopping of the seven open holes leaves only the two little fingers
(the thumb of the right hand being in the ordinary clarinet engaged
the orchestra, for it differs in all four octaves of its compass. Once
mastered, however, it is the same for all clarinets, the music being
always written in the key of C.
The actual tonality ol the clarinet is determined by the diatonic
scale produced when, starting with keys untouched and finger and
thumb-holes closed, the fingers are raised one by one from the holes.
In the Bit clarinet, the real sounds thus produced are
being part of the scale of Bb major. By the closing of two open
keys, the lower Eb and D are added.
The following are the various sizes of clarinets with the key proper
to each:
Eb, a minor third above the C clarinet.
Bb, a tone below „ „
The high F, 4 tones above „ „
The D, 1 tone above ,, „
The low G, a fourth below „ „
The A, a minor third below „
The Bif 1 semitone below ,. „
The alto clarinet in Eb, a fifth below the Bb clarinet.
The tenor or basset horn, in F, a fifth below the C clarinet.
The bass clarinet in Bb, an 8™ below that in Bb.
The pedal clarinet in Bb, an 8™ below the bass clarinet.
The clarinets in Bb and A are used in the orchestra; those in
C and Eb in military bands.
History. — Although the single beating-reed associated with
the instruments of the clarinet family has been traced in ancient
Egypt, the double reed, characteristic of the oboe family, being
of simpler construction, was probably of still greater antiquity.
I An ancient Egyptian pipe found in a mummy-case and now
preserved in the museum at Turin was found to contain a beating-
reed sunk 3 in. below the end of the pipe, which is the principle
of the drone. It would appear that the double chalumeau,
called arghoul (?.«.) by the modern Egyptians, was known in
ancient Egypt, although it was not perhaps in common use.
The Musee Guimet possesses a copy of a fresco from the tombs at
Saqqarah (executed under the direction of Mariette Bey) as-
signed to the 4th or 5th dynasty, on which is shown a concert
with dancing; the instruments used are two harps, the long
oblique flute " nay," blown from the end without any mouthpiece
or embouchure, and an instrument identified as an arghoul *
% Ob.ciL pp. 160 et acq.; and Wilhelm Altenburg, Die KlarinetU
(Heilbronn, 1904), p. 9, who refers to Mahillon.
* See Macrobius, Comm. in somnium Scipionis, ii. 4. 5 " nee
secus probamus in tibiis de quarum foraminibus vicinis inflantis
ori sonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino proximis,
gravior: item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per angusta.
7 See Victor Loret, L'Egypte au temps des Pharuons—4a wie, la
science, et Part (Paris, 1889), illustration p. 139 and p. 143. The
author gives no information about this fresco except that it is m the
CLARINET
439
from its resemblance to the modern instrument of the same
name. This is believed to be the only illustration of the ancient
double chalumcau yet found in Egypt, with the single exception
of a hieroglyph occurring also once only, i.e. the sign read As*it,
consisting of a cylindrical pipe with a beak mouthpiece bound
round with a cord tied in a bow. The bow is taken to indicate
the double parallel pipes bound together; the same sign without
the bow occurs frequently and is read Ma-it, 1 and is considered
to be the generic name for reed wind instruments. The beating-
reed was probably introduced into classic Greece from Egypt or
Asia Minor. A few ancient Greek instruments arc extant, five
of which are in the British Museum. They arc as nearly cylindri-
cal as would be the natural growing reed itself. The probability
is that both single and double reeds were at times used with the
Greek aulos and the Roman tibia. V. Mahillon and A. A.
Howard of Harvard have both obtained facsimiles of actual
instruments, some found at Pompeii and now deposited in the
museum at Naples, and others in the British Museum. Experi-
ments made with these instruments, whose original mouthpieces
have perished, show that with pipes of such narrow diameter
the fundamental scale and pitch are the same whether sounded
by means of a single or of a double reed, but the modern combina-
tion of single reed and cylindrical tube alone gives the full
pure tone quality. The subject is more fully discussed in the
article Aulos.* The Roman tibia, if monuments can be trusted,
sometimes had a beak-shaped mouthpiece, as for instance that
attached to a pipe discovered at Pompeii, or that shown in a
scene on Trajan's column.' It is probable that when, at the
decline of the Roman empire, instrumental music was placed
by the church under a ban— and the tibia more especially from
its association with every form of licence and moral depravity —
this instrument, sharing the common fate, survived chiefly among
itinerant musicians who carried it into western Europe, where
it was preserved from complete extinction. An instrument
of difficult technique requiring an advanced knowledge of
acoustics was not, however, likely to flourish or even to be
understood among nations whose culture was as yet in its
infancy.
The tide of culture from the Byzantine empire filtered through
to the south and west, leaving many traces; a fresh impetus
was received from the east through the Arabs; and later, as a
result of the Crusades, the prototype of the clarinet, together
with the practical knowledge necessary for making the instru-
ment and playing upon it, may have been re-introduced through
any one or all of these sources. However this may be, the
instrument was during the Carolingian period identified with
the tibia of the Romans until such time as the new western
civilization ceased to be content to go back to classical Rome for
its models, and began to express itself, at first naively and
awkwardly, as the nth century dawned. The name then
changed to the derivatives of the Greek kalamos, assuming an
almost bewildering variety of forms, of which the commonest
are chalemic, chalumcau, schalmey, scalmcye, shawm, cakmel,
kalemele. 4 The derivation of the name seems to point to a
Byzantine rather than an Arab source for the revival of the
instruments which formed the prototype of both oboe and
clarinet, but it must not be forgotten that the instruments with
a conical bore — more especially those played by a reed— are
primarily of Asiatic origin. At the beginning of the 1 3th cent ury
Ifusee Guimet. It is probably identical with the second of the
mural paintings described on p. 190 of Petit guide Ulustrt au Musi*
Guimet, par L. de Milloue
* See Victor Loret. " I-es fldt^s cjryptiennes antiques," Journal
asiatique (Paris, 1889), [ft], xiv. pp. 129, ijo. 132.
• See also A. A. Howard, " Study on the Aul«» or Tibia." Harvard
Studies, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893); F. C. Cicvacrt, Musique de I'anli-
fvtJf ; Carl von Jan, article " Flocte " in August Ha u moist er's
Denkmfiler des klassiscken AUertkums (l^ipzig, 1884-1888), vol. i.;
Dr Hugo Riemann, Handbuch der Musikgesck. vol. i. p. 90, &c.
"" " ' v ' neconcfui'
;, 1904); all of whom have not come to the same
tlm Froehner. La Colonne trajane (Paris, 1872), t. u. pi-. 76.
" Avcuc aus ert veMus Guis
Ki leur cantc et Kalemele,
En la mux au grant bourdon."
J. A. 0. Schelers Trowthts beiges.
in France, where the instrument remained a special favourite
until it was displaced by the clarinet, the chalumeau is mentioned
in some of the early romances: — " Tabars et chalemiauz et
estruroens sonner" (Aye d' Avignon, v. 4137); " Grelles et
chelimiaus et buisines bruians " (Cut de Bourgogne, v. 1374),
&c. By the end of the 13th century, the German equivalent
Schalmey appears in the literature of that country, — " Pusunen
und Schalmeyen schal moht niemen da gehoeren wal " (Frauen-
dienst, 492, fol. 5, Ulrich von Lichtcnstein). The schalmey or
shawm is frequently represented in miniatures from the 13th
century, but it must have been known long before, since it was
at that period in use as the chaunter of the bag-pipe (q.v.) t
a fully-developed complex instrument which presupposes a
separate previous existence for its component parts.
We have no reason to suppose that any distinction was drawn,
between the single and double reed instruments during the
early middle ages— if indeed the single reed was then known at
all — for the derivatives of kalamos were applied to a variety of
pipes. The first clear and unmistakable drawing yet found of
the single reed occurs in Mersenne's Harmonie universale (p. 282),
where the primitive reed pipe is shown with the beating-reed
detached from the tube of the instrument itself, by making a
lateral slit and then splitting back a little tongue of reed towards
a knot. Mcrsenne calls this the simplest form of chalumeau or
wheat-stalk (tuyau de bit). It is evident that no significance
was then attached to the form of the vibrating reed, whether
single or double, for Mcrsenne and other writers of his time
call the c haunters of the musette and cornemuse chalumeaux
whether they arc of cylindrical or of conical bore. The difference
in timbre produced by the two kinds of reeds was, however,
understood, for Mcrsenne states that a special kind of cornemuse
was used in concert with the hautbois de Poitou (an oboe whose
double reed was enclosed in an air chamber) and was distinguished
from the shepherd's cornemuse by having double reeds through-
out, whereas the drones of the latter instrument were furnished
with beating reeds. It is therefore evident that as late as 1636
(the date at which Mcrsenne wrote) in France the word " chalu-
mcau " was not applied to the instrument transformed some
sixty years later into the clarinet, nor was it applied exclusively
to any one kind of pipe except when acting as the chaunter of
the bagpipe, and that independently of any structural charac-
teristics. The chaunter was still called chalumeau in 1737.*
Of the instrument which has been looked upon as the chalumeau,
there is but little trace in Germany or in France a^the beginning
of the 17th century. A chalumeau with beak mouthpiece and
characteristic short cylindrical tube pierced with six holes
figures among the musical instruments used for the triumphal
procession of the emperor Maximilian I., commemorated by a
fine series of plates,* engraved on wood by Hans Burgkmair,
the friend and colleague of A. Durer. On the same plate (No.
70) arc five schalmcys with double reeds and five chalumeaux
with single-reed beak mouthpieces: the latter instruments were
in all probability made in the Netherlands, which excelled from
the 1 2th century in the manufacture of all musical instruments.
No single-reed instrument, with the exception of the regal (q.t.),
is figured by S. Virdung, 7 M. Agricola* or M. Practorius.*
A good idea of the primitive chalumeau may be gained from a
reproduction of one of the few specimens from the 16th or 17th
century still extant, which belonged to Ccsare Snoeck and was
exhibited at the Royal Military Exhibition in London in i8oo. M
The tube is stopped at the mouthpiece end by a natural joint of
•See Ernest Thoinan, Let TloNelerre et les CkJdeville, cftebres
facteurs de ftiltes. hautbois, batons et musettes (Paris, 1894), p. 15
ct seq, and Mitkode pour la musette, &c, par Hotteterre le Romain
(Paris. 1737)-
• The whole scries of 135 .
Samml. des Allerk. Kaiserhausrs (Vienna. 1883-1884).
lole scries of 135 platen has been reproduced in Jakrb. d,
Allerk. Kaiserhausrs (Vienna. 1883- 1884'
Musica gttutsckt und auszgezogen (Basel, 151 1).
* Musita lustrumentalis Deudsch (Nuremberg, 1528 and 1545).
• Syntagma Musicum (Wolfenbuttel. 161 8) This work and those
mentioned in the two previous notes have been reprinted by the Ges.
f. Muaikforachung in vols, xi., xx. and xiii. of Publikationen (Berlin).
■ See Dtseripttm Catalogue, by Capt. C. R. Day (London. 1891),
pL iv. A and p. no, No. »i.
++o
CLARINET
<«>
w
the reed, and a tongue has been detached just under the joint;
there are six finger-holes and one for the thumb. An instrument
almost identical with the above, but with a rudimentary bell,
and showing plainly the detached tongue, is
& figured by Jost Amman in 1580. 1 A plate in
Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopedic* shows a
less primitive instrument, outwardly cylindrical
and having a separate mouthpiece joint and a
clarinet reed but no keys. A chalumeau without
keys, but consisting apparently of three joints-
mouthpiece, main tube and bell,— is figured on
the title-page of a musical work' dated 1690;
it is very similar to the one represented in fig. 3,
except that only six holes are visible.
In his biographical notice of J. Christian
Denner (1655-1707), J. G. Doppelmayr 4 states
that at the beginning of the 18th century
" Denner invented a new kind of pipe, the so-
called clarinet, which greatly delighted lovers of
« music; he also made great improvements in the
stock or rackett-fagottos, known in the olden
time and finally also in the chalumeaux." It
is probable that the improvements in the
chalumeau to which Doppelmayr alludes with-
out understanding them consisted (a) in giving
the mouthpiece the shape of a beak and adding
a separate reed tongue as in that of the modern
clarinet, unless this change had already taken
place in the Netherlands, the country which the
unremitting labours of E. van der Straetcn*
have revealed as taking the lead in Europe from
the 14th to the 16th century in the construc-
tion of musical instruments of all kinds; (b) in
JS'^AjSSSi the boring of two additional holes for A and B
near the mouthpiece and covering them with
two keys; (c) in replacing the long cylindrical
mouthpiece joint by a bulb, thus restoring one
of the characteristic features of the tibia,* known
[bi Back view, as the SXpot . There are a few of these improved
chalumeaux in existence, two being in the
Bavarian national museum at Munich, the one in high A, in a bad
state of preservation, the second in C, marked J. C. Denner, of
which V. Mahillon has made a facsimile 7 for the museum of the
Brussels Conservatoire. There are two keys and eight holes;
the first consists of two small holes on the same level giving a
semitone if only one be closed. If the thumb-key be left open,
the sounds of the fundamental scale (shown in the black notes
below) rise a twelfth to form the second register (the white notes)
~ ~ &
This early clarinet or improved chalumeau has a clarinet mouth-
piece, but no bulb; it measures 50 cm. (20 in.), whereas the one in
A mentioned above is only 28 cm. in length, the long cylindrical
tube between mouthpiece and key-joint, afterwards turned into
the bulb, being absent. Mahillon was probably the first to point
out that the so-called invention of the clarinet by J. C. Denner
consisted in providing a device — the speaker-key— to facilitate
the production of the harmonics of the fundamental. Can we be
sure that the same result was not obtained on the old chalumeau
> Wappcnbuch. p. 111, "M
•Par- ■-'- — '
»Dr
«
Emcy*fUU.)
Fig. 3.
Chalumeau,
1767.
Front,
• Pans, 1767. vol. v. " Planches." pi. ix. 20, 2f . 22.
* Dr Theofilo Muffat, " Componimenti musicali per il cembalo,"
ia Denkmdler d. Tonkunst in OsUrreuh, Bd. iii.
*Historixh* Nachrickt von den Number (iulun Malkematicis u.
KUnstlem, &c. (Nuremberg, mo), p. 305.
* Histoin de la musiqut aux Pays Bas avant U XIX' %ibcU.
• For a facsimile of one of the Pompeii tibiae, see Capt. C. R.
Day, op. cit. pi. iv. C. and p. 109.
1 Catalog** descriptif (Ghent, 1896). vol. ii. p. 211, No. 911. wh
an illustration is given. See also Capt. C R. Day, op. cit. pi.
B and Errata where the description is printed.
t added, by partially uncovering the hole for the
before keys 1
thumb ?
The Berlin museum possesses an early clarinet with two keys,
marked J. B. Oberlender, derived from the Snoeck collection.
Paul de Wit's collection has a similar specimen by Enkelmer.
The Brussels Conservatoire possesses clarinets with two keys by
Flemish makers, G. A. Rottenburgh and J. B. Willems*; the
latter, with a small bulb and bell, is in G a fifth above the C
clarinet. The next improvements in the clarinet, made in 1720,
are due to J. Denner, probably a son of J. C. Denner. They
consisted in the addition of a bell and in the removal of the
speaker-hole and key nearer the mouthpiece, involving the
reduction of the diameter of the hole. The effect of this change of
position was to turn the B^ into Bb, for J. Denner introduced into
the hole, nearly as far as the axis of the bore, a small metal
drainage tube* for the moisture of the breath. In the modern
clarinet, the same result is attained by raising this little tube
slightly above the surface of the main tube, placing a key on the
top of it, and bending the lever. In order to produce the missing
Bo;, J. Denner lengthened the tube and pierced another hole, the
low E, covered by an open key with a long lever which, when
closed, gives the desired B as its twelfth, thus forming a connexion
between the two registers. A clarinet with three keys, of similar
construction (about 1750), marked J. W. Kenigsperger, is pre-
served in the Bavarian national museum, at Munich. Another
in Bb marked Lindner" belongs to the collection at Brussels.
About the middle of the 18th century, the number of keys was
raised to five, some say" by Barthold Fritz of Brunswick
(1697-1766), who added keys for Cfl and D#.
According to Altenburg" the Eb or D# key is due to the virtuoso
Joseph Beer (1 744-181 1). The sixth key was added about 1 790
by the celebrated French virtuoso Xavier Lefebure (or Lcfevre),
and produced G#.
Anton Stadler and his brother,
both clarinettists in the Vienna court orchestra and instrument-
makers, are said to have lengthened the tube of the Bb clarinet,
extending the compass down to C (real sound Bb). It was for
the Stadler brothers that Mozart wrote his quintet for strings,
with a fine obbligato for the clarinet in A (1789), and the clarinet
concerto with orchestra in 179 1.
This, then, was the state of the clarinet in 18 10 when Ivan
Mailer, then living in Paris, carried the number of keys up to
thirteen, and made several structural improvements already
mentioned, which gave us the modern instrument and in-
augurated a new era in the construction and technique of the
clarinet. MUller's system is still adopted in principle by most
clarinet makers. The instrument was successively improved
during the 19th century by the Belgian makers Bachmann, the
elder Sax, Albert and C. Mahillon, whose invention in 1862 of the
Cft key with double action is now generally adopted. In Paris the
labours of Leftbure, Buffet-Crampon, and Goumas are pre-
eminent. In 1842 H. E. KI096 conceived the idea of adapting to
the clarinet the ingenious mechanism of movable rings, invented
by Boehm for the flute, and he entrusted the execution of this
innovation to Buffet-Crampon; this is the type of clarinet
generally adopted in French orchestras. From this adaptation
has sprung the erroneous notion that Klosl's clarinet was
constructed according to the Bochm system; Kkwe's lateral
divisions of the tube do not follow those applied by Boehm to
the flute.
In England the clarinet bas also passed through several
progressive stages since its introduction about 1770, and first of
• For a description with illustration see V. Mahfflon's Catalog**
descriptif (Ghent. 1896). vol. ii. p. 215. No. 916.
• See Wiihelm Altenburg. op. cit. p. 6.
••See V. Mahillon. Catal. aescript. (1896), p . ,,3, No. 913.
U H. Welcker von Gpntershausen. Die musikalischen ft
ttu& (Frankfort-on-Main, 1855), p. 141.
• Op. ciL p. 6.
CLARK, SIR A.— CLARK, F. E.
til at the hands of Cornelius Ward. The principal improvements
were due to Richard Carle, who took out a patent in 1858 for an
improved Boehm clarinet which possessed some claim to the
name, since Boehm's principle of boring the holes at theoretically
correct intervals and of venting the holes
by means of open holes below was carried
out. Carte made several modifications of
his original patent, his chief endeavour
being to so dispose the key-work as to
reduce the difficulties in fingering. By the
extension of the principle of the ring
action, the work of the third and little
fingers of the left hand was simplified and
the fingering of certain difficult notes and
shakes greatly facilitated. Messrs Rudall,
Carte & Company have made further
improvements in the clarinet, which arc
embodied in Klussmann's patent (fig. 4);
these consist in the introduction of the
duplicate C$ key, a note which has
hitherto formed a serious obstacle to
perfect execution. The duplicate key,
operated by the third or second finger of
the right hand, releases the fourth finger
of the left hand. The old G$ is still re-
tained and may be used in the usual way
if desired. The body of the instrument
is now made in one joint, and the position
of the G# hole is mathematically correct,
whereby perfect intonation for C$, G# and
Flj is secured. Other improvements were
made in Paris by Messrs Evette & Schacftcr
and by M. Paradis, 1 a clarinet-player in
the band of the Garde Republicainc, and
very great improvements in boring and in
key mechanism were effected by Albert
of Brussels (sec fig. 1).
The clarinet appears to have received
ft appreciation in the Netherlands earlier
jf than in its own native land. According
// y to W. Altenburg (op. cit. p. n),» a MS. is
J V preserved in the cathedral at Antwerp of
^mns^^ a mass written by A. J. Fabcr in 1720,
which is scored for a clarinet. Johann
Matthcson,' Kapellmeister at Hamburg,
mentions clarinet music in 1713, although
Handel, whose rival he was, does not appear to have known the
instrument. Job. Christ. Bach scored for the clarinet in 1763 in
his opera Orione performed in London, and Rameau had already
employed the instrument in 17 51 in a theatre for his pastoral
entitled Acante et Ciphise* The clarinet was formally int roduccd
into the orchestra in Vienna in 1767,* Gluck having contented
himself with the use of the chalumeau in Or/to (1762) and in
Alceste (1767).* The clarinet had already been adopted in
military bands in France in 1755, where it very speedily com-
pletely replaced the oboe. One of Napoleon Bonaparte's bands
if said to have had no less than twenty clarinets.
For further information on the clarinet at the beginning of the
19th century, consult the Methods by Ivan MulUr and Xavier
Lcflbure, and Joseph Frochlich's admirable work on the instruments
of the orchestra; and Gottfried Wclx-r's articles in I'rsch and
Gruber's Encyclopaedia. See also Basset Horn; Bass Clarinet
and Pedal Clarinet. (K. S.)
CLARK, SIR ANDREW, Bart. (18*6-1803), British physician,
was born at Aberdeen on the 28th of October 1826. His father,
who abo was a medical man, died when he was only a few years
1 See Cant. C. R. Day, op. (it. p. 106.
1 V. Mahillon, Catal. dtsc. (1880), p. 182, refers his statement to
the Chevalier L. de Burbure.
* Das neu-er6fftule OnkesUr (Hamburg. 17 13).
« Mahillon. Catal. desc. (1880). vul. i. p. 182.
•See Chevalier Ludwig von Kocchcl, Die kaiserliche Hofmusik-
kafdU *» Win, 1543-1867 (Vienna. 1869).
• la the Italian edition of 1769 the part is scored for clarinet.
Fig. 4. — Clarinet
(Boehm model. Kluss-
i's patent).
441
old. After attending school in Aberdeen, be was sent by bit
guardians to Dundee and apprenticed to a druggist; then
returning to Aberdeen he began his medical studies in the uni-
versity of that city. Soon, however, he went to Edinburgh,
where in the extra-academical school he had a student's career of
the most brilliant description, ultimately becoming assistant to
J. Hughes Bennett in the pathological department of the Royal
Infirmary, and assistant demonstrator of anatomy to Robert
Knox. But symptoms of pulmonary phthisis brought his
academic life to a close, and in the hope that the sea might
benefit his health he joined the medical department of the navy in
1848. Next year he became pathologist to the Haslar hospital,
where T. H. Huxley was one of his colleagues, and in 1853 he was
the successful candidate for the newly-instituted post of curator
to the museum of the London hospital. Here he intended to
devote all his energies to pathology, but circumstances brought
him into active medical practice. In 1854, the year in which ho
took his doctor's degree at Aberdeen, the post of assistant-
physician to the hospital became vacant and he was prevailed
upon to apply for it. He was fond of telling how his phthisical
tendencies gained him the appointment. "He is only a poor
Scotch doctor," it was said, " with but a few months to live; let
him have it." He had it, and two years before his death publicly
declared that of those who were on the staff of the hospital at the
time of his selection he was the only one remaining alive. In
1 8 54 he became a member of the College of Physicians, and in
1858 a fellow, and then went in succession through all the offices
of honour the college has to oiler, ending in 1888 with the
presidency, which he continued to hold till his death. From the
time of his selection as assistant physician to the London
hospital, his fame rapidly grew until he became a fashionable
doctor with one of the largest practices in London, counting
among his patients some of the most distinguished men of the
day. The great number of persons who passed through his
consulting-room every morning rendered it inevitable that to
a large extent his advice should become stereotyped and his
prescriptions often reduced to mere stock formulae, but in really
serious cases he was not to be surpassed in the skill and careful-
ness of his diagnosis and in his attention to detail. In spite
of the claims of his practice he found time to produce a good
many books, all written in the precise and polished style on
which he used to pride himself. Doubtless owing largely to
personal reasons, lung diseases and especially fibroid phthisis
formed his favourite theme, but he also discussed other subjects,
such as renal inadequacy, anaemia, constipation, &c. He died
in London on the 6th of November 1893, after a paralytic stroke
which was probably the result of persistent overwork.
CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD (1851- ), American clergy-
man, was born of New England ancestry at Aylmer, Province of
Quebec, Canada, on the 1 2th of September 185 1. He was the son
of Charles C. Symmes, but took the name of an uncle, the Rev.
E. W. Clark, by whom he was adopted after his father's death in
1853. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1873 and at
Andover Theological Seminary in 1876, was ordained in the
Congregational ministry, and was pastor of the Willislon Congre-
gational church at Portland. Maine, from 1876 to 1883, and of
the Phillips Congregational church, South Boston, Mass., from
1883 to 1887. On the 2nd of February 188 1 he founded at
Portland the Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor,
which, beginning as a small society in a single New England
church, developed into a great interdenominational organiza-
tion, which in 1008 had 70.761 societies and more than 3,500,000
members scattered throughout the United States, Canada, Great
Britain, Australia, South Africa, India, Japan and China.
After 1887 he devoted his time entirely to the extension of this
work, and was president of the United Societies of Christian
Endeavor and of the World's Christian Endeavor Union, and
editor of the Christian Endeatcr WmU {
Rule) . Among his numerous pub
Church (1882) ; Looking Out on £*/« (li
Meetings (1884); Some Christian T
Wide Endeavor (i^sY> A Nw««]
CLARK, G. R.— CLARK, J. L.
443
See his The Young People's Christian Endeavor, where it began,
&c. (Boston, 1895); Christian Endeavor Manual (Boston, 1003);
and Christian Endeavor in All Lands: Record of Twenty-five Years
of Progress (Philadelphia, 1907).
CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS (1752-1818), American frontier
military leader, was born near Charlottesville, in Albemarle
county, Virginia, on the 19th of November 1752. Early in life
he became a land-surveyor; he took part in Lord Dunmore's
War (1 774), and in 1 775 went as a surveyor for the Ohio Company
to Kentucky (then a district of Virginia), whither he removed
early in 1776. His iron will, strong passions, audacious courage
and magnificent physique soon made him a leader among his
frontier neighbours, by whom in 1776 he was sent as a delegate
to the Virginia legislature. In this capacity he was instrumental
in bringing about the organization of Kentucky as a county of
Virginia, and also obtained from Governor Patrick Henry a
supply of powder for the Kentucky settlers. Convinced that
the Indians were instigated and supported in their raids against
the American settlers by British officers stationed in the* forts
north of the Ohio river, and that the conquest of those forts
would put an end to the evil, he went on foot to Virginia late
in 1777 and submitted to Governor Henry and his council a
plan for offensive operations. On the 2nd of January 1778 he
was commissioned lieutenant-colonel, received £1200 in de-
preciated currency, and was authorized to enlist troops; and
by the end of May he was at the falls of the Ohio (the site of
Louisville) with about 175 men. The expedition proceeded
to Fort Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, in what is now Illinois.
This place and Cahokia, also on the Mississippi, near St Louis,
were defended by small British garrisons, which depended upon
the support of the French habitants. The French being willing
to accept the authority of Virginia, both forts were easily taken.
Clark gained the friendship of Father Pierre Gibault, the priest
at Kaskaskia, and through his influence the French at Vincennes
on the Wabash were induced (late in July) to change their
allegiance. On the 17th of December Lieut. -Governor Henry
Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, recovered Vincennes
and went into winter quarters. Late in February 1779 he was
surprised by Clark and compelled to give up Vincennes and its
fort, Fort Sackville, and to surrender himself and his garrison
of about 80 men, as prisoners of war. With the exception of
Detroit and several other posts on the Canadian frontier the
whole of the North-West was thus brought under American
influence; many of the Indians, previously hostile, became
friendly, and the United States was put in a position to demand
the cession of the North-West in the treaty of 1783. For this
valuable service, in which Clark had freely used his own private
funds, he received practically no recompense cither from Virginia
or from the United States, and for many years before his death
he lived in poverty. To him and his men, however, the Virginia
legislature granted 150,000 acres of land in 1781, which was
subsequently located in what are now Clark, Floyd and Scott
counties, Indiana; Clark's individual share was 8049 acres, but
from this he realized little. Gark built Fort Jefferson on the
Mississippi, 4 or 5 m. below the mouth of the Ohio, in 1780,
destroyed the Indian towns Chillicothe and Piqua in the same
Sar, and in November 1782 destroyed the Indian towns on the
iami river. With this last expedition his active military
service virtually ended, and in July 1783 he was relieved of his
command by Virginia. Thereafter he lived on part of the land
granted to him by Virginia or in Louisville for the rest of his
life. In 1793 he accepted from Citizen Genet a commission as
" major-general in the armies of France, and commander-in-chief
of the French Revolutionary Legion in the Mississippi Valley/'
and tried to raise a force for an attack upon the Spanish
possessions in the valley of the Mississippi. The scheme,
however, was abandoned after Genet's recall. Disappointed
at what he regarded as his country's ingratitude, and broken
down by excessive drinking and paralysis, he lost his once
powerful influence and lived in comparative isolation until his
death, .near Louisville, Kentucky, on the 13th of February
*Ss&. J
See W. H. English, Conquest of the Country north-west of the
River Ohio, 1778-1783, and Life of George Rogers Clark (2 vols.,
Indianapolis and Kansas City, 1896), an accurate and detailed work,
which represents an immense amount of research among both
printed and manuscript sources. Clark's own accounts of his
expeditions, and other interesting documents, are given in the
appendix to this work.
Clark, William (1 770-1838), the well-known explorer, was
the youngest brother of the foregoing. He was born in Caroline
county, Virginia, on the 1st of August 1770. At the age of
fourteen he removed with bis parents to Kentucky, settling
at the falls of the Ohio (Louisville). He entered the United
States army as a lieutenant of infantry in March 1792, and
served under General Anthony Wayne against the Indians in
1794. In July 1796 he resigned his commission on account of
ill-health. In 1803- 1806, with Meriwether Lewis (q.v.), he
commanded the famous exploring expedition across the continent
to the mouth of the Columbia river, and was commissioned
second lieutenant in March 1804 and first lieutenant in January
1806. In February he again resigned from the army. He then
served for a few years as brigadier-general of the Louisiana
territorial militia, as Indian agent for " Upper Louisiana," as
territorial governor of Missouri in 1813-1820, and as superin-
tendent of Indian affairs at St Louis from 1822 until his death
there on the 1st of September 1838.
CLARK, SIR JAMES (1788-1870), English physician, was born
at Cullen, Banffshire, and was educated at the grammar school
of Fordyce and at the universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh.
He served for six years as a surgeon in the army; then spent
some time in travelling on the continent, in order to investigate
the mineral waters and the climate of various health resorts;
and for seven years he lived in Rome. In 1826 he began to
practise in London. In 1835 he was appointed physician to the
duchess of Kent, becoming physician in ordinary to Queen
Victoria in 1837. In 1838 he Was created a baronet. He pub-
lished The Influence of Climate in Chronic Diseases, containing
valuable meteorological tables (1829), and a Treatise on Pul-
monary Consumption (1835).
CLARK, JOHN BATES (1847- ), American economist,
was born at Providence, Rhode Island, on the 26th of January
1847. Educated at Brown University, Amherst College, Heidel-
berg and Zurich, he was appointed professor of political economy
at Carleton College, Minnesota, in 1877. In 1881 he became
professor of history and political science in Smith College,
Massachusetts; in 1892 professor of political economy in
Amherst College. He was appointed professor of political
economy at Columbia University in 1895. Among his works arc:
The Philosophy of Wealth (1885); Wages (1889); Capital and its
Earnings (1898); The Control of Trusts (1901); The Problem
of Monopoly (1904); and Essentials of Economic Theory (1907).
CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER (1822-1808), English engineer and
electrician, was born on the xoth of March 1822 at Great Marlow,
Bucks. His first interest was in chemical manufacturing, but in
1848 he became assistant engineer at the Menai Straits bridge
under his elder brother Edwin (1814-1894), the inventor of the
Clark hydraulic lift graving dock. Two years later, when his
brother was appointed engineer to the Electric Telegraph
Company, he again acted as his assistant, and subsequently
succeeded him as chief engineer. In 1854 he took out a patent
" for conveying letters or parcels between places by the pressure
of air and vacuum," and later was concerned in the construction
of a large pneumatic despatch tube between the general post
office and Euston station, London. About the same period he
was engaged in experimental researches on the propagation of
the electric current in submarine cables, on which he published a
pamphlet in 1855, and in 1859 he was a member of the com-
mittee which was appointed by the government to consider the
numerous failures of submarine cable enterprises. Latimer
Clark paid much attention to the subject of electrical measure-
ment, and besides designing various improvements in method and
apparatus and inventing the Clark standard cell, he took a
leading part in the movement for the systcmatization of electrical
standards, which was inaugurated by the paper which be and Sir
CLARK, T.— CLARKE, C. C.
4+J
C T. Bright read on the question before the British Association in
1861. With Bright also he devised improvements in the insula-
tion of submarine cables. In the later part of his life he was a
member of several firms engaged in laying submarine cables, in
manufacturing electrical appliances, and in hydraulic engineering.
He died in London on the 30th of October 1808. Besides pro-
fessional papers, he published an Elementary Treatise on Electrical
Measurement (1868), together with two books on astronomical
subjects, and a memoir of Sir W. F. Cooke,
CLARK, THOMAS (1801-1867), Scottish chemist, was born at
Ayr on the 31st of March 1801. In iS:6 he was appointed
lecturer on chemistry at the Glasgow mechanics' institute, and in
1831 he took the degree of M.D. at the university of that city.
Two years later he became professor of chemistry in Marischal
College, Aberdeen, but was obliged to give up the duties of that
position in 1844 through ill-health, though nominally he remained
professor till 1 860. His name is chiefly known in connexion with
his process for softening hard waters, and his water tests,
patented in 1841. The last twenty years before his death at
Glasgow on the 27th of November 1S67 were occupied with the
study of the historical origin of the Gospels.
CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE (1821-1878), English classical
and Shakespearian scholar, was born at Barford Hall, Darlington,
in March 182 1. He was educated at Sedbergh and Shrewsbury
schools and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected
fellow after a brilliant university career. In 2857 he was
appointed public orator. He travelled much during the long
vacations, visiting Spain, Greece, Italy and Poland. His
Peloponnesus (1858) was an important contribution to the
knowledge of the country at that time. In 1853 Clark had taken
orders, but left the Church in 1870 after the passing of the
Clerical Disabilities Act, of which he was one of the promoters.
He also resigned the public oratorship in the same year, and in
consequence of illness left Cambridge in 1873. He died at York
on the 6th of November 1878. He bequeathed a sum of money to
hit old college for the foundation of a lectureship in English
literature. Although Clark was before all a classical scholar, he
published little in that branch of learning. A contemplated
edition of the works of Aristophanes, a task for which he was
singularly fitted, was never published. He visited Italy in 1868
for the express purpose of examining the Ravenna and other MSS.,
and on his return began the notes to the Acharnians, but they
were left in too incomplete a state to admit of publication in book
form even after his death (see Journal of Philology, viii., 1879).
He established the Cambridge Journal of Philology, and co-
operated with B. H. Kennedy and James Riddcll in the pro-
duction of the well-known Sabrinae Corolla. The work by which
he is best known is the Cambridge Shakespeare (1863- 1866),
containing a collation of early editions and selected emendations,
edited by him at first with John Glover and afterwards with
W. Aldis Wright. Gazpucho (1853) gives an account of his tour in
Spain; his visits to Italy at the time of Garibaldi's insurrection,
and to Poland during the insurrection of 1863, arc described in
Vacation Tourists, cd. F. Gallon, i. and iii.
H. A. J. Munro in Journal of Philology (viii. 1879) describes Clark
as "the most accomplished and versatile man he ever met "; sec
also notices by W. AKlis Wright in Academy (Nov. 23, 1878);
R. Burn m Athenaeum (Nov. 16, 1878); The Times (Nov. 8, 1878);
Notes and Queries, 5th series, x. (1878), p. 400.
CLARKE, ADAM (i762?-i830, British Nonconformist
divine, was born at Moybcg, Co. Londonderry, Ireland, in 1760
or 1762. After receiving a very limited education he was
apprenticed to a linen manufacturer, but, finding the employ-
ment* uncongenial, he resumed school-life at the institution
founded by Wesley at Kingswood, near Bristol. In 1782 he
entered on the duties of the ministry, being appointed by Wesley
to the Bradford (Wiltshire)circuit. His popularity as a preacher
was very great, and his influence in the denomination is indicated
by the fact that he was three times (1806, 181 4, 1822) chosen to
be president of the conference. He served twice on the London
circuit, the second period being extended considerably longer
than the rule allowed, at the special request of the British and
Foreign Bible Society, who had employed him in the preparation
of their Arabic Bible. Though ardent In his pastoral work, he
found time for diligent study of Hebrew and other Oriental
languages, undertaken chiefly with the view of qualifying himself
for the great work of his life, his Commentary on the Holy
Scriptures (8 vols., 1810-1826). In 1802 he published a Biblio- t
graphical Dictionary in six volumes, to which he afterwards
added a supplement. He was selected by the Records Commis-
sion to re-edit Rymer's Foedtra, a task which after ten years'"
labour (1 808-1 81 8) he had to resign. He also wrote Memoirs of
the Wesley Family (1823), and edited a large number of religious
works. Honours were showered upon him (he was M.A., LL.D.
of Aberdeen), and many distinguished men in church and state
were his personal friends. He died in London on the x6th of
August 1832.
His Miscellaneous Works were published in 13 vols. (1836), and a
Life (3 vols.) by his son, J. B. B. Clarke, appeared in 1833.
CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1002), British soldier and
administrator, son of Colonel Andrew Clarke, of Co. Donegal,
Ireland, governor of West Australia, was born at Southsea,
England, on the 27th of July 1824, and educated at King's
school, Canterbury. He entered the Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich, and obtained his commission in the army in 1844
as second lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. He was appointed
to his father's staff in West Australia, but was transferred to be
A.D.C. and military secretary to the governor of Tasmania;
and in 1847 he went to New Zealand to take part in the Maori
War, and for some years served on Sir George Grey's staff.
He was then made surveyor-general in Victoria, took a prominent
part in framing its new constitution, and held the office of
minister of public lands during the first administration (1855-
1857). He returned to England in 1857, and in 1863 was sent
on a special mission to the West Coast of Africa. In 1864 he
was appointed director of works for the navy, and held this
post for nine years, being responsible for great improvements
in the naval arsenals at Chatham, Portsmouth and Plymouth,
and for fortifications at Malta, Cork, Bermuda and elsewhere.
In 1873 he was made K.C.M.G., and became governor of the
Straits Settlements, where he did most valuable work in con-
solidating British rule and ameliorating the condition of the ,
people. From 1875 to 1880 he was minister of public works in
India; and on his return to England in x88i, holding then the
rank of lieutenant-colonel in the army, he was first appointed
commandant at Chatham and then inspector-general of fortifica-
tions (1882-1886). Having attained the rank of lieutenant-
general and been created G.C.M.G., he retired from official life,
and in 1886 and 1893 unsuccessfully stood for parliament as *
supporter of Mr Gladstone. During his last years he was agent-
general for Victoria. He died on the 29th of March 1002. Both
as a technical and strategical engineer and as an Imperial
administrator Sir Andrew Clarke was one of the ablest and most
useful public servants of his time; and his contributions to
periodical literature, as well as his official memoranda, contained
valuable suggestions on the subjects of imperial defence and
imperial consolidation which received too little consideration
at a period when the home governments were not properly alive
to their importance. He is entitled to remembrance as one of
those who first inculcated, from a wide practical experience,
the views of imperial administration and its responsibilities,
which in his last years he saw accepted by the bulk of his country-
men.
CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877). English author
and Shakespearian scholar, was born at Enfield, Middlesex,
on the 15th of December 1787. His father, John Clarke, was a
schoolmaster, among whose pupils was John Keats. Charles
Clarke taught Keats his letters, and encouraged his love of
poetry. He knew Charles and Mary Lamb, and afterwards
became acquainted with Shelley, Leigh Hunt, Coleridge and
Hazlitt. Clarke became a music publisher in partnership with
Alfred Novello, and married in 1828 his partner's ritter, Mary
Victoria ( 1 800-1808), the eldest daughter of T~
In the year after her marriage Mrs Cowden t
I valuable Shakespeare concordance, which ■
CLARKE, E. D.— CLARKE, J. F.
{sued in eighteen monthly parts (1844-1845), and in volume
form in 1845 as The Complete Concordance to Shakespeare, being
a Verbal Index to all the Passages in the Dramatic Works 0/ the
Poet. This work superseded the Copious Index-to . . . Shake-
speare (1790) of Samuel Ayscough, and the Complete Verbal
Index . . . (1805-1807) of Francis Twiss. Charles Cowdcn
Clarke published many useful books, and edited the text for
John Nichol's edition of the British poets; but his most import-
ant work consisted of lectures delivered between 1834 and 1856
on Shakespeare and other literary subjects. Some of the more
notable series were published, among them being Shakespeare's
Characters, chiefly those subordinate (1863), and Moliere's Char-
acters (1865). In 1859 he published a volume of original poems,
Carmine Minima. For some years after their marriage the
Cowdcn Clarkes lived with the Novellos in London. In 1849
Vincent Novello with his wife removed to Nice, where he was
joined by the Clarkes in 1856. After his death they lived at
Genoa at the "Villa Novello." They collaborated in The
Shakespeare Key .unlocking the Treasures of his Style . . .(1879),
and in an edition of Shakespeare for Messrs Casscll, which was
issued in weekly parts, and completed in 1868. It was reissued
in 1886 as CasseU's Illustrated Shakespeare. Charles. Clarke died
on the 13th of March 1877 at Genoa, and his wife survived him
until the x 2th of January 1898. Among Mrs Cowdcn Clarke's
other works may be mentioned The Girlhood of Shakespeare's
Heroines (3 vols., 1850-1852), and a translation of Berlioz's
Treatise upon Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration (1856).
See Recollections of Writers (1898), a joint work by the Clarkes
containing letters and reminiscences of their many literary friends ;
and Mary Cowden Clarke's autobiography, My Long Life (1896).
A charming series of letters (1850-1861), addressed by her to an
American admirer of her work, Robert Balmanno. was edited by
Anne Upton Ncttleton as Letters to an Enthusiast (Chicago, 1902).
CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769-1822), English mineral-
ogist and traveller, was born at Willingdon, Sussex, on the 5th
of June 1769, and educated first at Tonbridge. In 1786 he ob-
tained the office of chapel clerk at Jesus College, Cambridge,
but the loss of his father at this time involved him in difficulties.
In 1700 he took his degree, and soon after became private tutor
to Henry Tufton, nephew of the duke of Dorset In 1792 he
' obtained an engagement to travel with Lord Berwick through
Germany, Switzerland and Italy. After crossing the Alps, and
visiting a few of the principal cities of Italy, including Rome,
he went to Naples, where he remained nearly two years. Having
returned to England in the summer of 1794, he became tutor
in several distinguished families. In 1799 he set out with a
Mr Cripps on a tour through the continent of Europe, beginning
with Norway and Sweden, whence they proceeded through
Russia and the Crimea to Constantinople, Rhodes, and afterwards
to Egypt and Palestine. After the capitulation of Alexandria,
Clarke was of considerable use in securing for England the
statues, sarcophagi, maps, manuscripts, &c, which had been
collected by the French savants. Greece was the country next
visited. From Athens the travellers proceeded by land to
Constantinople, and after a short stay in that city directed
their course homewards through Rumelia, Austria, Germany
and France. Clarke, who had now obtained considerable repu-
tation, took up his residence at Cambridge. He received the
degree of- LL.D. shortly after his return in 1803, on account
of the valuable donations, including a colossal statue of the
Eleusinian Ceres, which he had made to the university. He
was also presented to the college living of Harlton, near Cam-
bridge, in 1805, to which, four years later, his father-in-law
added that of Yeldham. Towards the end of 1808 Dr Clarke
was appointed to the professorship of mineralogy in Cambridge,
then first instituted. Nor was his perseverance as a traveller
otherwise unrewarded. The MSS. which he had collected in the
course of his travels were sold to the Bodleian library for £1000;
and by the publication of his travels he realized altogether
a clear profit of £6595. Besides lecturing on mineralogy and
discharging his clerical duties, Dr Clarke eagerly prosecuted
the study of chemistry, and made several discoveries, principally
by means of the gas blow-pipe, which he had brought to a high
degree of perfection. He was also appointed university librarian
in 1 81 7, and was one of the founders of the Cambridge Philo-
sophical Society in 1819. He died in London on the 9th of
March 1822. The following is a list of his principal works: —
Testimony of Authors respecting the Colossal Statue of Ceres in
the Public Library, Cambridge (8vo, 1801-1803); The Tomb of
Alexander, a Dissertation on the Sarcophagus brought from Alex-
andria, and now in the British Museum (4 to, 1805); A Methodical
Distribution of the Mineral Kingdom (fol., Lewes, 1807); A
Description of the Creek Marbles brought from the Shores of the
Euxine, Archipelago and Mediterranean, and deposited in the
University Library, Cambridge (8vo, 1809); Travels in various
Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa Uto, 18x0-1819; and ed.,
1811-1823).
See Life and Remains, by Rev. W. Otter (1824).
CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841- ), English
lawyer and politician, son of J. G. Clarke of Moorgate Street,
London, was born on the 15th of February 1841. In 1859 he
became a writer in the India office, but resigned in the next year,
and became a law reporter. He obtained a Tancred law scholar-
ship in 1861, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1864.
He joined the home circuit, became Q.C. in 1880, and a bencher of
Lincoln's Inn in 1882. In November 1877 he was successful in
securing the acquittal of Chief-Inspector Clarke from the charge
brought against certain Scotland Yard officials of conspiracy to
defeat justice, and his reputation was assured by his defence of
Patrick Staunton in the Penge murder case (1877), and of Mrs
Bartlett against the charge of poisoning her husband (1886).
Among other notable cases he was counsel for the plaintiff in the
libel action brought by Sir William Gordon-Cumming (1800)
against Mr and Mrs Lycett Green and others for slander, charging
him with cheating in the game of baccarat (in this case the prince
of Wales, afterwards Edward VII., gave evidence), and be
appeared for Dr Jameson, Sir John Willoughby and others when
they were tried ( 1806) under the Foreign Enlistment Act. He was
knighted in 1886. He was returned as Conservative member for
Southwark at a by-election early in 1880, but failed to retain his
seat at the general election which followed a month or two later;
he found a seat at Plymouth, however, which he retained until
1000. He was solicitor-general in the Conservative administra-
tion of 1 886-1892, but declined office under the Unionist govern-
ment of 1895 when the law officers of the crown were debarred
from private practice. The most remarkable, perhaps, of his
speeches in the House of Commons was his reply to Mr Gladstone
on the second reading of the Home Rule Bill in 1893. In 1899
differences which arose between Sir Edward Clarke and his party
on the subject of the government's South African policy led to
his resigning his scat. At the general election of 1906 he was
returned at the head of the poll for the city of London, but he
offended a large section of his constituents by a speech against
tariff reform in the House of Commons on the 1 2th of March, and
shortly afterwards he resigned his seat on grounds of health.
He published a Treatise on the Law of Extradition (4th ed., 1003),
and also three volumes of his political and forensic speeches.
CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810-1888), American preacher
and author, was born in Hanover, New Hampshire, on the 4th of
April 18x0. He was prepared for college at the public Latin
schoc! of Boston, and graduated at Harvard College in 1829, and
at the Harvard Divinity School in 1833. He was then ordained
as minister of a Unitarian congregation at Louisville, Kentucky,
which was then a slave state. Clarke soon threw himself heart
and soul into the national movement for the abolition of slavery,
though he was never what was then called in America a " radical
abolitionist." In 1839 he returned to Boston, where he and his
friends established (1841) the " Church of the Disciples." It
brought together a body of men and women active and eager in
applying the Christian religion to the social problems of the day,
and he would have said that the feature which distinguished it
from any other church was that they also were ministers of the
highest religious life. Ordination could make no distinction
between him and them. Of this church he was the minister from
1841 until 1850 and from 1854 until his death. He was also
CLARKE, J. S.— CLARKE, SAMUEL
secretary of the Unitarian Association and, in 1867-187 1
pro f esso r of natural religion and Christian doctrine at Harvard.
From the beginning of his active life he wrote freely for the press.
From 1836 until 1839 he was editor of the Western Messenger, a
magazine intended to carry to readers in the Mississippi Valley
simple statements of " liberal religion/' involving what were then
the most radical appeals as to national duty, especially the
abolition of slavery. The magazine is now of value to collectors
because it contains the earliest printed poems of Ralph Waldo
Emerson, who was Clarke's personal friend. Most of Clarke's
earlier published writings were addressed to the immediate need
of establishing a larger theory of religion than that espoused
by people who were, still trying to be Calvinists, people who
maintained what a good American phrase calls " hard-shelled
churches." But it would be wrong to call his work controversial.
He was always declaring that the business of the Church is
Eirenic and not Polemic. Such books as Orthodoxy: Its Truths
and Errors (1866) have been read more largely by members of
orthodox churches than by Unitarians. In the great moral
questions of his time Clarke was a fearless and practical advocate
of the broadest statement of human rights. Without caring
much what company he served in, he could always be seen and
heard, a leader of unflinching courage, in the front rank of the
battle. He published but few verses, but at the bottom he was a
poet. He was a diligent and accurate scholar, and among the
books by which he is best known is one called Ten Great Religions
(9 vols., 1871-1883). Few Americans have done more than
Clarke to give breadth to the published discussion of the subjects
of literature, ethics and religious philosophy. Among his later
books are Every- Day Religion (1886) and Sermons on the Lord's
Prayer (1888). He died at Jamaica Plain, Mass., on the 8th of
June 1888.
His Autobiography, Diary and Correspondence, edited by Edward
Everett Hale, was published in Boston in 1891. (E. E. H.)
CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833-1899), American actor, was
bom in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 3rd of September 1833, and
was educated for the law. He made his first appearance in
Boston as Frank Hardy in Paul Pry in 1851. In 1859 he married
Asia Booth, daughter of Junius Brutus Booth, and he was
associated with his brother-in-law Edwin Booth in the manage-
ment of the Winter Garden theatre in New York, the Walnut
Street theatre in Philadelphia and the Boston theatre. In 1867
he went to London, where he made his first appearance at the St
James's as Major Wellington de Boots in Stirling Coynes's
Everybody's Friend, rewritten for him and called The Widow's
Hunt. His success was so great that he remained in England for
the rest of his life, except for four visits to America. Among his
favourite parts were Toodles, which ran for aoo nights at the
Strand, Dr Pangloss in The Heir-aUaw, and Dr OUapod in The
Poor Gentleman. He managed several London theatres, includ-
ing the Haymarket, where he preceded the Bancrofts. He
retired in 1889, and died on the 24th of September 1899. His two
sons also were actors.
CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846-1881),
Australian author, was born in London on the 24th of April 1846.
He was the only son of William Hislop Clarke, a barrister of the
Middle Temple who died in 1863. He emigrated forthwith to
Australia, where his uncle, James Langton Clarke, was a county
court judge. He was at first a clerk in the bank of Australasia,
but showed no business ability, and soon proceeded to learn
fanning at a station on the Wimmera river, Victoria. He was
already writing stories for the Australian Magazine, when in 1867
he joined the staff of the Melbourne Argus through the introduc-
tion of Dr Robert Lewins. He also became secretary (1872) to
the trustees of the Melbourne public library and later (1876)
assistant librarian. He founded in 1868 the Yorick Club, which
soon numbered among its members the chief Australian men of
letters. The most famous of his books is For the Term of his
Natural Life (Melbourne, 1874), a powerful tale of an Australian
penal settlement, which originally appeared in serial form in a
Melbourne paper. He also wrote The Peripatetic Philosopher
(1869), a series of amusing papers reprinted from The. Austral-
445
asian; Long Odds (London, 1870), a novel; and numerous
comedies and pantomimes, the best of which was TvrinkU,
Tminhle, Little Star (Theatre Royal, Melbourne; Christmas.
1873). He married an actress, Marian Dunn. In spite of bis
popular success Clarke was constantly involved in pecuniary
difficulties, which are said to have hastened his death at
Melbourne on the 2nd of August 1881.
See The Marcus Clarke Memorial Volume (Melbourne, 1884),
containing selections from his writing* with a biography and list
of works, edited by Hamilton Mackinnon.
CLARKE. MARY ANNE (c. 1776-1852), mistress of Frederick
duke of York, second son of George III., was born either in
London or at Oxford. Her father, whose name was Thompson,
seems to have been a tradesman in rather humble circumstances.
She married before she was eighteen, but Mr Clarke, the pro-
prietor of a stonemasonry business, became bankrupt, and she
left him. After other liaisons, she became in 1803 the mistress of
the duke o( York, then commander-in-chief, maintaining a large
and expensive establishment in a fashionable district The
duke's promised allowance was not regularly paid, and to escape
her financial difficulties Mrs Clarke trafficked in her protector's
position, receiving money from various promotion-seekers,
military, civil and even clerical, in return for her promise to secure
them the good services of the duke. Her procedure became a
public scandal, and in 1809 Colonel Wardlc, M.P., brought eight
charges of abuse of military patronage against the duke in the
House of Commons, and a committee of inquiry was appointed,
before which Mrs Clarke herself gave evidence. 'The result of the
inquiry clearly established the charges as far as she was con-
cerned, and the duke of York was shown to have been aware of
what was being done, but to have derived no pecuniary benefit
himself. He resigned his appointment as commander-in-chief,
and terminated his connexion with Mrs Clarke, who subsequently
obtained from him a considerable sum in cash and a pension, as
the price for withholding the publication of his numerous letters
to her. Mrs Clarke died at Boulogne on the 21st of June 1852.
See Taylor. Authentic Memoirs of Mrs Clarke; Clarke (? pseud.),
Life of Mrs M. A. Clarke', Annual Register, vol. li.
CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675-1729), English philosopher anil
divine, son of Edward Clarke, an alderman, who for several years
was parliamentary representative of the city of Norwich, was
born on the 1 tth of October 1675, and educated at the free school
of Norwich and at Caius College, Cambridge. The philosophy of
Descartes was the reigning system at the university; Clarke,
however, mastered the new system of Newton, and contributed
greatly to its extension by publishing an excellent Latin version
of the Traiti de physique of Jacques Rohault (1620-1675) with
valuable notes, which be finished before he was- twenty-two years
of age. The system of Rohault was founded entirely upon
Cartesian principles, and was previously known only through the
medium of a rude Latin version. Clarke's translation (1697)
continued to be used as a text-book in the university till sup-
planted by the treatises of Newton, which it had been designed to
introduce. Four editions were issued, the last and best being
that of 1 7 18. It was translated into English in 1723 by his
brother Dr John Clarke (1682- 17 57), dean of Sarum.
Clarke afterwards devoted himself to the study of Scripture in
the original, and of the primitive Christian writers. Having taken
holy orders, he became chaplain to John Moore (1646-1714),
bishop of Norwich, who was ever afterwards his friend and patron.
In 1699 be published two treatises,— one entitled Three Practical
Essays on Baptism, Confirmation and Repentance, and the other,
Some Reflections on that part of a book called Amyntor, or a
Defence of Milton's Life, which relates to the Writings of the
Primitive Fathers, and the Canon of the New Testament. In 1 701
he published A Paraphrase upon the Gospel of St Matthew, which
was followed, in 1702, by the Paraphrases upon the Gospels of St
Mark and St Luke, and soon afterwards by a third volume upon
St John. They were subsequently printed together in two
volumes and have since passed through several editions. He
intended to treat in the same manner the remaining books of the
New Testament, but his design *** u&ta&!ta&.
+4-6
CLARKE, SAMUEL
Meanwhile he had been presented by Bishop Moore to the
rectory of Drayton, near Norwich. As Boyle lecturer, he dealt in
1704 with the Being and Attributes of Cod, and in 170s with the
Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion. These lectures, first
printed separately, were afterwards published together under the
title of A Discourse concerning the Being and Attributes of Cod, the
Obligations of Natural Religion, and the Truth and Certainty of the
Christian Revelation, in opposition to Hoboes, Spinoza, the author
of the Oracles of Reason, and other Deniers of Natural and Revealed
Religion.
In 1706 he wrote a refutation of Dr Henry Dodwcll's views on
the immortality of the soul, and this drew him into controversy
with Anthony Collins. He also wrote at this time a translation of
Newton's Optics, for which the author presented him with £500.
In the same year through the influence of Bishop Moore, he
obtained the rectory of St Bcnct's, Paul's Wharf, London.
Soon afterwards Queen Anne appointed him one of her chaplains
in ordinary, and in 1709 presented him to the rectory of St
James's, Westminster. He then took the degree of doctor in
divinity, defending as his thesis the two propositions: Nullum
fidei Christianae dogma, in Sacris Scripturis traditum, est rcctat
rations dissentaneum, and Sine actionum humanarum libertate
nulla potest esse religio. During the same year, at the request of
the author, he revised Whiston's English translation of the
Apostolical Constitutions.
In 171a he published a carefully punctuated and annotated
edition (folio 1712, octavo 1720) of Caesar's Commentaries, with
elegant engravings, dedicated to the duke of Marlborough.
During the same year he published his celebrated treatise on The
Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity. It is divided into three parts.
The first contains a collection and exegesis of all the texts in the
New Testament relating to the doctrine of the Trinity; in the
second the doctrine is set forth at large, and explained in
particular and distinct propositions; and in the third the
principal passages in the liturgy of the Church of England
relating to the doctrine of the Trinity are considered. Whiston
informs us that, some time before the publication of this book,
a message was sent to him from Lord Godolphin "that the
affairs of the public were with difficulty then kept in the hands of
those that were for liberty; that it was therefore an unseasonable
time for the publication of a book that would make a great noise
and disturbance; and that therefore they desired him to forbear
till a fitter opportunity should offer itself," — a message that
Clarke of course entirely disregarded. The ministers were right
in their conjectures; and the work not only provoked a great
number of replies, but occasioned a formal complaint from the
Lower House of Convocation. Clarke, in reply, drew up an
apologetic preface, and afterwards gave several explanations,
which satisfied the Upper House; and, on his pledging himself that
his future conduct would occasion no trouble, the matter dropped.
In 1 71 5 and 1716 he had a discussion with Leibnitz relative
to the principles of natural philosophy and religion, which was
at length cut short by the death of his antagonist. A collection
of the papers which passed between them was published in 17 17
(cf . G. v. Leroy, Die philos. Probleme in dem BrUfwechsel Leibnis
und Clarke, Giesscn, 1893). In 17 19 he was presented by Nicholas
1st Baron Lechmere, to the mastership of Wigs ton's hospital
in Leicester. In 1724 he published seventeen sermons, eleven.
of which had not before been printed. In 1727, on the death
of Sir Isaac Newton, he was offered by the court the place of
master of the mint, worth on an average from £1200 to £1500
a year. This secular preferment, however, he absolutely refused.
In 1728 was published " A Letter from Dr Clarke to Benjamin
Hoadly, F.R.S., occasioned by the controversy relating to
the Proportion of Velocity and Force in Bodies in Motion,"
printed in the Philosophical Transactions. In 1 7 29 he published
the first twelve books of Homer's Iliad. This edition, dedicated
to William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was highly praised
by Bishop Hoadly. On Sunday, the nth of May 1729, when
going out to preach before the judges at Serjeants' Inn, he was
seized with a sudden illness, which caused his death on the
Stturdsy following (May 17, 1799).
Soon after his death his brother Dr John Clarke, dean of
Sarum, published, from his original manuscripts, An Exposition
of the Church Catechism, and ten volumes of sermons. The
Exposition is composed of the lectures which he read every
Thursday morning, for some months in the year, at St James's
church. In the latter part of his life he revised them with great
care, and left them completely prepared for the press. Three
years after his death appeared also the last twelve books of the
Iliad, published by his son Samuel Clarke, the first three of these
books and part of the fourth having, as he states, been revised
and annotated by his father.
In disposition Clarke was cheerful and even playful. An
intimate friend relates that he once found him swimming
upon a table. At another time Clarke on looking out at the
window saw a grave blockhead approaching the house; upon
which he cried out, " Boys, boys, be wise; here comes a fool."
Dr Warton, in his observations upon Pope's line,
" Unthought-of frailties cheat us in the wise,"
says, " Who could imagine that Locke was fond of romances;
that Newton once studied astrology; that Dr Clarke valued
himself on his agility, and frequently amused himself in a
private room of his house in leaping over the tables and chairs ? "
Philosophy. — Clarke, though in no way an original thinker, was
eminent in theology, mathematics, metaphysics and philology, but
his chief strength lay in his logical power. The materialism of
Hobbes, the pantheism of Spinoza, the empiricism of Locke, the
determinism of Leibnitz. Collins' necessitarianism, Dod well's denial
of the natural immortality of the soul, rationalistic attacks on
Christianity, and the morality of the sensationalists — all these he
opposed with a thorough conviction of the truth of the principles
which he advocated. His fame as theologian and philosopher rests
to a large extent on his demonstration ofthe existence of Cod and
hia theory of the foundation of rectitude. The former is not a purely
a priori argument, nor is it presented as such by its author, ft
*U'ts from a fact and it often explicitly appeals to facts. The
intelligence, for example, of the self-existence and original cause of
all thtngs is* he says, "not easily proved a priori," but H demon*
strably proved 3 posteriori from the variety and degrees of perfection
in things and 1 the? order of cause* and eflects, from the intelligence
that created being a arc confc-Medfy endowed wiih, and from the
beauty, order, and final purpose of things." The propositions
maintained in the argument are—' 4 (0 That something has existed
from eternity; (j) that there ha* existed from eternity some one
immutable and independent being; (3) thai that immutable and
independent beinf, which has existed from eternity, without any
external cause of its existence, must be self -existent, that is, neces-
sarily existing 1 (4) what the substance or eswnce of that being is,
which is self-existent or necessarily existing, we have no idea,
neither is it at all possible for us to comprehend it; (5) that though
the substance or essence of the self-existent being is itself absolutely
incomprehensible to us, yet many of the essential attributes of his
nature are strictly demonstrable as well as his existence, and, in
the first place, that he must be of necessity eternal; (6) that the
self-existent being must of necessity be infinite and omnipresent:
(7) must be but one; (8) must be an intelligent being; (9) must be
not a necessary agent, but a being endued with liberty and choice;
(10) must of necessity have infinite power; (11) must be infinitely
wise, and (12) must of necessity be a being of infinite goodness,
justice, and truth, and all other moral perfections, such as become the
supreme governor and judge of the world."
In order to establish his sixth proposition, Clarke contends that
time and space, eternity and immensity, arc not substances; but
attributes — the attributes of a self-existent being. Edmund Law,
Dugald Stewart, Lord Brougham, and many other writers, have,
in consequence, represented Clarke as arguing from the existence
of time and space to the existence of Deity. This is a serious mistake.
The existence of an immutable, independent,, and necessary being
is supposed! to be proved before any reference is made to the nature
of time and space. Clarke has been generally supposed to have
derived the opinion that time and space are attributes of an infinite
immaterial and spiritual being from the Senium Generate, first
published in the second edition of Newton's Printipia (17 14). The
truth is that hts work on the Being and Attributes of God appeared
nine years before thai St&otiftm, The view propounded by Clarke
may bav* been derived from the MidraaJi, the Kabbalah, Philo,
Henry More, or Cud worth, but not from Nevnon. It is a view
difficult to prove, and probably few will acknowledge that Clarke
has conclusively proved it.
His ethical theory of " fitness " (we Ethics) Is formulated on the
analogy of ma 1 1 hematics. He held that in relation to the will things
posset* an objective fit new similar to the mutual consistency of
things la the physical universe. This fitness God has given to
actions, as he ha* given laws to Nature: and the fitness is as im-
mutable as *te law*, The theory has been unfairly criticized by
CLARKE, T. S.— CLARKSON
447
Joeffroy, Amedee jitqu**, Sir James Mackintosh. Thomas Brown
and others. J t u said, for rumple, thai Cbrkc made virtue consist
in conformity to the relation* of thins* universally, although the
whole tenor of hit nnrurnem -.hows him lo have had in view con-
formity to such relaiwni only as belong to the sphere of moral
agency. It u trur that he rni^ht have emphasized the relation of
moral fit nest to the wjll, and in this respect J. F. Hcrbart (o.s.)
improved on Ctarke'i statement of the ca<*. To say, however, that
Clarke simply confused mathematics and morals by justifying the
moral criterion on a mathematical batii is a mistake. He compared
the two subject? for the sake of the analogy.
Though Clarke can thus be defended against this and similar
criticism. his work as a whole can be regarded only as an attempt
to present the doctrines of the Cartesian school in a form which
would not shock the conscience of his time. His work contained
a measure of ra t i on a 1 ism iu Hie ient t o arouse t he suspicion of orthodox
theologians, without making any valuable addition to, or modi-
fication of. the underlying doctrine.
Authorities. — See W, Whin on i Historical Memoirs^ and the
preface by Benjamin HoadLy to Clarke's Wet hi I4 vgli. h London*
1738-174*).. See further on his general fthilofophical poiitian
j. Hunt'* Ritigicui Thauehi i'h England, ^fljjrin. hut particularly in
vol- il 447*457. and vol. ifi. Jo-JO anri 109-115, &c , Rob. Zimmc-r-
mann in the Dtnbsckriften d. k. Akadeimr der Wiumiihajtm, Pitit.*
If tit. Oaise Bd. nix. (Vienna, J 870), H. Sidgwick's Method* of
Eihict (6th cd , toot), p. JH4; A, Bain's Moral Sctente (|H7*h
p, 561 foil* and Menial Sennas [t&jj\, p. 4 to; Sir L. Stephen's
Enetish Thautht in the Eighlttnih Cetlnry {3rd <• rJ , iqoj), c iii-:
J . E» le Rosiiji nol> Ethical philosophy of S. dark* (Leipzig. tSna).
CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (i860- ), American artist,
was born in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 25th of April i860,
and graduated at Princeton in 1882. He was a pupil of the Art
Students' League, New York, and of the £cole des Beaux Arts,
Paris, under J. L. Gerome; later he entered the atelier of
Dagnan-Bouveret, and, becoming interested in sculpture, worked
for a while under Henri M. Chapu. As a sculptor, he received
a medal of honour in Madrid for his " The Cider Press,"
now in the Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California, and
he made four caryatides of " The Seasons " for the Appellate
Court House, New York. He designed an "Alma Mater"
for Princeton University, and a model is in the library. Among
his paintings are his " Night Market in Morocco " (Philadelphia
Art Club), for which he received a medal at the International
Exposition in Berlin in 189 1, and his " A Fool's Fool," exhibited
at the Salon in 1887 and now in the collection of the Pennsyl-
vania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia.
CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITB (1798-1878), British
geologist, was born at East Bcrgholt, in Suffolk, on the 2nd of
June 1 70S. He received his early education at Dedham grammar
school, and in 1817 entered Jesus College, Cambridge; he took
his B.A. in 1821, was ordained and became M.A. in 1824. In
1821 he was appointed curate of Ramsholt in Suffolk, and he
acted in his clerical capacity in other places until 1839. Having
become interested in geology through the teachings of Sedgwick,
he utilized his opportunities and gathered many interesting
facts on the geology of East Anglia which were embodied in a
paper " On the Geological Structure and Phenomena of Suffolk "
{Trans. Ceol. Soc. 1837). He also communicated a scries of
papers on the geology of S.E. Dorsetshire to the Magazine of
Sat. Hist. (1837-1838). In 1830, after a severe illness, he left
England for New South Wales, mainly with the object of benefit-
ing by the sea voyage. He remained, however, in that country,
and came to be regarded as the " Father of Australian Geology."
From the date of his arrival in New South Wales until 1870 he
was in clerical charge first of the country from Paramatta to
the Hawkesbury river, then of Campbell town, and finally of
Willoughby He zealously devoted attention to the geology
of the country, with results that have been of paramount import-
ance. In 1841 he discovered gold, being the first explorer
who had obtained it tit stlu in the country, finding it both in the
detrital deposits and in the quartzites of the Blue Mountains,
and he then declared his belief in its abundance. In 1849 he
made the first actual discovery of tin in Australia and in 1859
he made known the occurrence of the diamond. He was also
the first to indicate the presence of Silurian rocks, and to deter-
mine the age of the coal-bearing rocks in New South Wales.
In 1869 he announced the discovery of remains of Dinornis in
Queensland. He was a trustee of the Australian museum at
Sydney, and an active member of the Royal Society of New
South Wales. In i860 he published Researches in the Southern
Gold-fields of New South Wales. He was elected F.R.S. in 1876,
and in the following year was awarded the Murchison medal
by the Geological Society of London. His contributions to
Australian scientific journals were numerous. He died near
Sydney, on the 17th of June 1878.
CLARKSON, THOMAS (1760-1846), English anti-slavery
agitator, was born on the 28th of March 1760, at Wisbeach, in
Cambridgeshire, where his father was headmaster of the free
grammar schooL He was educated at St Paul's school and at
St John's College, Cambridge. Having taken the first place
among the middle bachelors as Latin essayist, he succeeded
in 1785 in gaining a similar honour among the senior bachelors.
The subject appointed by the vice-chancellor, Dr Peckhard, waa
one in which he was himself deeply interested — Anne liceai
invilos in servitutem dare? (Is it right to make men slaves
against their will?). In preparing for this essay Clarkson
consulted a number of works on African slavery, of which the
chief was Benezct's Historical Survey of New Guinea; and the
atrocities of which he read affected him so deeply that he de-
termined to devote all his energies to effect the abolition of the
slave trade, and gave up his intention of entering the church.
His first measure was to publish, with additions, an English
translation of his prize essay (June 1786). He then commenced
to search in all quarters for information concerning slavery. Re
soon discovered that the cause had already been taken up to
some extent by others, most of whom belonged to the Society of
Friends, and among the chief of whom were William Dillwyn,
Joseph Wood and Granville Sharp. With the aid of these
gentlemen, a committee of twelve was formed in May 2787 to do
all that was possible to effect the abolition of the slave trade.
Meanwhile Clarkson had also gained the sympathy of Wilberforce,
Whitbread, Sturge and several other men of influence. Travel-
ling from port to port, he now commenced to collect a large man
of evidence; and much of it was embodied in his Summary. Vim
of the Slave Trade, and the Probable Consequences of its Abolition,
which, with a number of other anti-slavery tracts, was published
by the committee. Pitt, Grenville, Fox and Burke looked
favourably on the movement; in May 1788 Pitt introduced a
parliamentary discussion on the subject, and Sir W. Dolben
brought forward a bill providing that the number of slaves
carried in a vessel should be proportional to its tonnage. A
number of Liverpool and Bristol merchants obtained permission
from the House to be heard by council against the bill, but on
the 1 8th of June it passed the Commons. Soon after Clarkson
published an Essay on the Impolicy of the Slave Trade; and for
two months he was continuously engaged in travelling that he
might meet men who were personally acquainted with the facta
of the trade. From their lips he collected a considerable amount
of evidence; but only nine could be prevailed upon to promise to
appear before the privy council. Meanwhile other witnesses had
been obtained by Wilberforce and the committee, and on the
1 2th of May 2789 the former led a debate on the subject in the
House of Commons, in which he was seconded by Burke and
supported by Pitt and Fox.
It was now the beginning of the French Revolution, and in the
hope that he might arouse the French to sweep away slavery with
other abuses, Clarkson crossed to Paris, where he remained sis
months. He found Necker head of the government, and obtained
from him some sympathy but little help. Mirabeau, however,
with his assistance, prepared a speech against slavery, to be
delivered before the National Assembly, and the Marquis de la
Fayette entered enthusiastically into his views. During this
visit Clarkson met a deputation of negroes from Santo Domingo,
who had come to France to present a petition to the National
Assembly, desiring to be placed on an equal footing with the
whites; but the storm of the Revolution permitted no sub-
stantial success to be achieved. Soon after his return home he
engaged in a search, the apparent hopelessness of which finely
displays his unshrinking laboriousness end ^Sa> \m &w><^
448
CLARKSVILLE— CLASSICS
enthusiasm. He desired to find some one who had himself
witnessed the capture of the negroes in Africa; and a friend
having met by chance a man-of-warVman who had done so,
Clarkson, though ignorant of the name and address of the sailor,
set out in search of him, and actually discovered him. His last
tour was undertaken in order to form anti-slavery committees
in all the principal towns. At length, in the autumn of 1794,
his health gave way. and he was obliged to cease active work.
He now occupied his time in writing a History of the Abolition
of the Slave Trade, which appeared in 1808. The bill for the
abolition of the trade became law in 1807; but it was still
necessary to secure the assent of the other powers to its principle.
To obtain this was, under pressure of the public opinion created
by Clarkson and his friends, one of the main objects of British
diplomacy at the Congress of Vienna, and in February 2815 the
trade was condemned by the powers. The question of concerting
practical measures for its abolition was raised at the Congress of
Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but without result On this occasion
Clarkson personally presented an address to the emperor
Alexander I., who communicated it to the sovereigns of Austria
and Prussia. In 1823 the Anti-Slavery Society was formed,
and Clarkson was one of its vice-presidents. He was for some
time blind from cataract; but several years before his death
on the 26th of September 1846, his sight was restored.
Besides the works already mentioned, ne published the Portraiture
of Quakerism (1806), Memoirs of William Penn (1813), Researches,
Antediluvian, Patriarchal and Historical (1836), intended asa history
of the interference of Providence for man's spiritual good, and
Strictures on several of the remarks concerning himself made in the
Life of Wilberforce t in which his claim as originator of the anti-
sbvery movement is denied.
See the lives by Thomas Elmes (1876) and Thomas Taylor (1839).
CLARKSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery
county, Tennessee, U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state,
about 50 m. N.W. of Nashville, on the Cumberland river, at the
mouth of the Red river. Pop. (1800) 7924; (1000) 94311 of whom
5094 were negroes; (19x0 census) 8548. It is served by the
Louisville & Nashville, and the Illinois Central railways, and by
passenger and freight steamboat lines on, the Cumberland river.
The city hall and the public library are among the principal
public buildings, and the dty is the seat of the Tennessee Odd
Fellows' home, andof the South- Western Presbyterian University,
founded in 1875. Clarksville lies in the centre of the dark
tobacco belt — commonly known as the " Black Patch "—and is
an important tobacco market, with an annual trade in that
staple of about $4,000,000, most of the product being exported
to France, Italy, Austria and Spain. The dty is situated in a
region well adapted for the growing of wheat, Indian corn, and
vegetables, and for the raising of live-stock; and Clarksville is a
shipping point for the lumber— chiefly oak, poplar and birch—
and the iron-ore of the surrounding country, a branch of the
Louisville & Nashville railway extending into the iron district
The city's principal manufactures are flour and grist mill products,
chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff, furniture, lumber, iron,
and pearl buttons. The value of the factory product in 2905 was
$2,210,112, being 32% greater than in 1900. The municipality
owns its water-works. Clarksville was first settled as early as
1780, was named in honour of General George Rogers Clark, and
was chartered as a dty in 1850.
CLASSICS. The term " dassic " is derived from the Latin
epithet classkus, found in a passage of Aulus Gellius (xix. 8. 15),
where a " scriptor ' classkus * " is contrasted with a " scriptor
prolelarius." The metaphor is taken from the division of the
Roman people into classes by Servius Tullius, those in the first
class being called classics, all the rest infra classem, and those
in the last proletarii. 1 The epithet " classic " is accordingly
applied (1) generally to an author of the first rank, and (2) more
•The above derivation is in accordance with English usage. In
the New English Dictionary the earliest example of the word
" classical " is the phrase " classical and canonical/' found in the
Europae Speculum of Sir Edwin Sandys (1599), and, as applied to
• writer, it is explained as meaning " of the first rank or authority."
This exactly corresponds with the meaning of dassicus in the above
passage of Gdlius. On the other hand, the French word classique
ib Unit's view) primarily means M used in class."
particularly to a Greek or Roman author of that character.
Similarly, " the classics" is a synonym for the choicest products
of the literature of ancient Greece and Rome. It is to this
sense of the word that the following artide is devoted in two
main divisions: (A) the • general history of classical {i.e. G..-ek
and Latin) scholarship, and (D) its place in higher education.
(A) General History of the Study op the Classics
We may consider this subject in four principal periods: —
(i.) the Alexandrian, c. 300-1 B.C.; (ii.) the Roman, a.d. c. 1-530;
(iii.) the Middle Ages, c. 530-1350; and (iv.) the Modern Age,
c. 1350 to the present day.
(i.) The Alexandrian Age.— The study of the Greek classics
begins with the school of Alexandria. Under the rule of Ptolemy
Philaddphus (285-247 B.C.). learning found a home in the
Alexandrian Museum and in the great Alexandrian Library.
The first four librarians were Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Aristo-
phanes of Byzantium, and Aristarchus. Zenodotus produced
before 274 the first sdenlific edition of the Iliad and Odyssey,
an edition in which spurious lines were marked, at the beginning,
with a short horizontal dash called an obelus (— ). He also drew
up select lists of epic and lyric poets. Soon afterwards a dassified
catalogue of dramatists, epic and lyric poets, legislators, philo-
sophers, historians, orators and rhetoricians, and miscellaneous
writers, with a brief biography of each, was produced by the
scholar and poet Callimacbus {fi. 260). Among the pupils of
Callimachus was Eratosthenes who, in 234, succeeded Zenodotus
as librarian. Apart from his special interest in the history of the
Old Attic comedy, he was a man of vast and varied learning;
the founder of astronomical geography and of scientific chrono-
logy; and the first to assume the name of 41X6X0701. The
greatest philologist of antiquity was, however, his successor,
Aristophanes of Byzantium (195), who reduced accentuation
and punctuation to a definite system, and used a variety of
critical symbols in his recension of the Iliad and Odyssey. He
also edited Hesiod and Pindar, Euripides and Aristophanes,
besides composing brief introductions to the several plays, parts
of which are still extant. Lastly, he established a sdentific
system of lexicography and drew up lists of the " best authors."
Two critical editions of the Iliad and Odyssey were produced by
his successor, Aristarchus, who was librarian until 146 B.C. and
was the founder of sdentific scholarship. His distinguished
pupil, Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166 B.C.), drew up ft Greek
grammar which continued in use for more than thirteen centuries.
The most industrious of the successors of Aristarchus was
Didymus (c. 65 b.c.-a.d. xo), who, in his work on the Homeric
poems, aimed at restoring the lost recensions of Aristarchus.
He also composed commentaries on the lyric and comic poets
and on Thucydides and Demosthenes; part of his commentary
on this last author was first published in 1904. He was a teacher
in Alexandria (and perhaps also in Rome); and his* death,
about a.d. xo, marks the dose of the Alexandrian age. He
is the industrious compiler who gathered up the remnants of
the learning of his predecessors and transmitted them to post erity.
The poets of that age, induding Callimachus and Theocritus,
were subsequently expounded by Theon, who flourished under
Tiberius, and has been well described as " the Didymus of the
Alexandrian poets."
The Alexandrian canon of the Greek dassics, which probably
had its origin in the lists drawn up by Callimachus, Aristophanes
of Byzantium and Aristarchus, included the following authors:—
Kpu porii (5) : Tlomer, Kesiodj l^ei^nder. Panynsiit. Anrimaclius.
Limine pacts ii): 5imonEde& of Amorgtn, Architochus, Htpponax.
Trtgic potts ($*■ Aeschylus. Sophotlcs, Euripides, Ion, Ackieu*.
Comic ports, Old (7}: Epieharmu*, Craiinus, Eupotis, Aristo-
phanes, Pherec rates. Crafts, Ftata. Middle ti) : AntijjhaTirs, Alexis.
New Qy ; Me/fiander H Philippidcs r Diphitus, Philemon, Apollodoni*.
EUtiaf poets (4) : Callings, Minniermus, Phi Ida*. Cnllimachti*.
Lyric potts fo): Ateman, Alcatirv Soppho, StwichcruB, Pindar,
Bacchylidcs. ibycus, Anauron. Sim on ides of Ceo*. _
Or. iter 1 (io>: Demosthenes, Lysiji, Hypcrcidcs. Itotralcf*
Acne Nines* Lycurpn. l*ae,u«, Antinhon, Andoekks, Deinarthu*-
Ifiiioriini (rob Thucydides, Herodotus. Xcnophon, Plijliitfct,
Theopoinpus* Ephotus, Aiuximcaei, CalUsthenw, Hdlanku*
PulybiLl*.
CLASSICS
449
The latest name in the above list is tnat of Polybius, who
died about 123 B.C. Apollonius Rhodius, Aratus and Theocritus
were subsequently added to the " epic " poets. Philosophers,
such as Plato and Aristotle, were possibly classed in a separate
-canon."
While the scholars of Alexandria were mainly interested in
the verbal criticism of the Greek poets, a wider variety of studies
was the characteristic of the school of Pergamum, the literary
rival of Alexandria. Pergamum was a home of learning for a
Urge part of the 150 years of the Attalid dynasty, 283-133 B.C.
The grammar of the Stoics, gradually elaborated by Zcno,
Cleanthes and Chrysippus, supplied a terminology which, in
words such as " genitive," " accusative " and " aorist," has
become a permanent part of the grammarian's vocabulary;
and the study of this grammar found its earliest home in Per-
gamum.
From about 168 B.C. the head of the Pergamcne school was
Crates of Mall us, who (like the Stoics) was an adherent of the
principle of " anomaly " in grammar, and was thus opposed
to Aristarchus of Alexandria, the champion of " analogy."
He also opposed Aristarchus, and supported the Stoics, by
insisting on an allegorical interpretation of Homer. He is
credited with having drawn up the classified lists of the best
authors for the Pergamcne library. His mission as an envoy
to the Roman senate, " shortly after the death of Ennius " in
169 B.C., had a remarkable influence on literary studies in Rome.
Meeting with an accident while he was wandering on the Palatine,
and being detained in Rome, he passed part of his enforced
leisure in giving lectures (possibly on Homer, his favourite
author), and thus succeeded in arousing among the Romans a
taste for the scholarly study of literature. The example set by
Crates led to the production of a new edition of the epic poem
of Naevius, and to the public recitation of the Annals of Ennius,
and (two generations later) the Satires of Lucilius.
( ii.) The Roman Age. — (a) Latin Studies.— In the 1st century
B.C. the foremost scholar in Rome was L. Aelius Stilo (c. 154-
c. 74), who is described by Cicero as profoundly learned in Greek
and Latin literature, and as an accomplished critic of Roman
antiquities and of ancient authors. Of the plays then passing
under the name of Plautus, he recognized twenty-five as genuine.
His most famous pupil was Varro (116-27), the six surviving
books of whose great work on the Latin language are mainly
concerned with the great grammatical controversy on analogy
and anomaly— a controversy which also engaged the attention
of Cicero and Caesar, and of the elder Pliny and Quintilian.
The twenty-one plays of Plautus accepted by Varro are doubtless
the twenty now extant, together with the lost Vidularia. The
influence of Varro 's last work on the nine discipline, or branches
of study, long survived in the seven " liberal arts " recognized
by St Augustine and Marlianus Capclla, and in the tritium and
quadrinum of the middle ages.
Part of Varro 's treatise on Latin was dedicated to Cicero (106-
43), who as an interpreter of Greek philosophy to his fellow-
countrymen enlarged the vocabulary of Latin by his admirable
renderings of Greek philosophical terms, and thus ultimately
gave us such indispensable words as " species," "quality " and
" quantity."
The earliest of Latin lexicons was produced about 10 B.C. by
Verrius Flaccus in a work, De Verborum Significalu, which
survived in the abridgment by Fcstus (2nd century a.d.) and in
the further abridgment dedicated by Paul us Diaconus to Charles
the Great
Greek models were diligently studied by Virgil and Horace.
Their own poems soon became the theme of criticism and of
comment; and, by the time of Quintilian and Juvenal, they
shared the fate (which Horace had feared) of becoming text-
books for use in schools.
Recensions of Terence, Lucretius and Pcrsius, as well as
Horace and Virgil, were produced by Probus (d. a.d. 88), with
critical symbols resembling those invented by the Alexandrian
scholars. His contemporary Asconius is best known as the
author of an extant historical commentary on five of the speeches
of Cicero. In a.d. 88 Quintilian was placed at the head of the first
state -supported school in Rome. His comprehensive work on
the training of the future orator includes an outline of general
education, which had an important influence on the humanistic
schools of the Italian Renaissance. It also presents us with a
critical survey of the Greek and Latin classics arranged under the
heads of poets, historians, orators and philosophers (book z.
chap. i.). The lives of Roman poets and scholars were among the
many subjects that exercised the literary skill of Hadrian's
private secretary, Suetonius. One of his lost works is the
principal source of the erudition of Isidore of Seville (d. a.d. 636),
whose comprehensive encyclopaedia was a favourite text-book in
the middle ages. About the time of the death of Suetonius (a.d.
160) a work entitled the Nodes Atlicae was begun by Aulus
Gellius. The author is an industrious student and a typical
scholar, who frequents libraries and is interested in the MSS.
of old Latin authors. Early in the 4th century the study of
grammar was represented in northern Africa by the Numidian
tiro, Nonius Marcellus (fl. 333), the author of an encyclopaedic
work in three parts, lexicographical, grammatical and antiquarian,
the main value of which lies in its quotations from early Latin
literature. About the middle of the same century grammar had a
far abler exponent at Rome in the person of Aelius Donatus, the
preceptor of St Jerome, as well as the author of a text-book that
remained in use throughout the middle ages. The general state
of learning in this century is illustrated by Ausonius (c. 310-393),
the grammarian and rhetorician of Bordeaux, the author of the
Mo sell a, and the probable inspirer of the memorable decree of
Gratian (376), providing for the appointment and the payment of
teachers of rhetoric and of Greek and Latin literature in the
principal cities of Gaul. His distinguished friend, Q. Aurelius
Symmachus, the consul of a.d. 391, aroused in his own immediate
circle an interest in Livy, the whole of whose history was still
extant. Early in the 5th century other aristocratic Romans
interested themselves in the textual criticism of Persius and
Martial. Among the contemporaries of Symmachus, the devoted
adherent of the old Roman religion, was St Jerome (d. 420), the
most scholarly representative of Christianity in the 4th century,
the student of Plautus and Terence, of Virgil and Cicero, the
translator of the Chronology of Eusebius, and the author of the
Latin version of the Bible now known as the Vulgate. St
Augustine (d. 430) confesses to his early fondness for Virgil, and
also tells us that he received his first serious impre&ions from the
Uortensius of Cicero, an eloquent exhortation to the study of
philosophy, of which only a few fragments survive. In his
survey of the " liberal arts " St Augustine imitates (as we have
seen) the Disciplinae of Varro, and in the greatest of his works,
the De Civiiate Dei (426), he has preserved large portions of the
A ntiquilates of Varro and the De Republica of Cicero. About the
same date, and in the same province of northern Africa, Martianus
Capclla produced his allegorical work on the " liberal arts," the
principal, and, indeed, often the only, text-book of the medieval
schools.
In the second half of the 5th century the foremost representa-
tive of Latin studies in Gaul was Apollinaris Sidonius (fl. 470),
whose Letters were modelled on those of the younger Pliny, while
his poems give proof of a wide though superficial acquaintance
with classical literature. He laments the increasing decline in
the classical purity of the Latin language.
An interest in Latin literature lived longest in Gaul, where
schools of learning flourished as early as the 1st century
at Autun, Lyons, Toulouse, Nlmcs, Vienne, Narbonne and
Marseilles; and, from the 3rd century onwards, at Trier, Poitiers,
Besancon and Bordeaux.
About ten years after the death of Sidonius we find Asterius,
the consul of 404, critically revising the text of Virgil in Rome.
Boethius, who early in life formed the ambitious plan of expound-
ing and reconciling the opinions of Plato and Aristotle, continued
in the year of his sole consulship (510) to instruct his fellow-
countrymen in the wisdom of Greece. He is a link between the
ancient world and the middle ages, having been the la&t <&t \fcfe
learned Romans who undeTCV^\^\as^«^«xA^X>&&fc&t^*
+5©
CLASSICS
literature of Greece, and the first to interpret to the middle ages
the logical treatises of Aristotle. He thereby gave the signal for
the age-long conflict between Nominalism and Realism, which
exercised the keenest intellects among the Schoolmen, while the
crowning work of his life, the Consolatio Philosophiae (524), was
repeatedly expounded and imitated, and reproduced in renderings
that were among the earliest literary products of the vernacular
languages of modern Europe. His contemporary, Cassiodorus
(c. 480-c. 575), after spending thirty years in the service of the
Ostrogothic dynasty at Ravenna, passed the last thirty-three
years of his long life on the shores of the Bay of Squillace, where
he founded two monasteries and diligently trained their inmates to
become careful copyists. In his latest work he made extracts for
their benefit from the pages of Priscian (fl. 512), a transcript of
whose great work on Latin grammar was completed at Constanti-
nople by one of that grammarian's pupils in 527, to be re-
produced in a thousand MSS. in the middle ages. More than ten
years before Cassiodorus founded his monasteries in the south of
Italy, Benedict of Nursia (480-543) had rendered a more
permanent service to the cause of scholarship by building,
amid the ruins of the temple of Apollo on the crest of Monte
Cassino, the earliest of those homes of learning that have
lent an undying distinction to the Benedictine order. The
learned labours of the Benedictines were no part of the original
requirements of the rule of St Benedict; but before the founder's
death his favourite disciple had planted a monastery in France,
and the name of that disciple is permanently associated with the
learned labours of the Benedictines of the Congregation of St
Maur (see Maukists).
(b) Greek Studies.— Meanwhile, the study of the Creek classics
was ably represented at Rome in the Augustan age by Dionysius
of Halicarnassus (fl. 30-8 B.C.), the intelligent critic of the
ancient Attic orators, while the 1st century of our era is the
probable date of the masterpiece of literary criticism known as
the treatise On the Sublime by Longinus (q.v.).
The 2nd century is the age of the two great grammarians,
Apollonius Dyscolus (the founder of scientific grammar and
the creator of the study of Greek syntax) and his son Herodian,
the larger part of whose principal work dealt with the subject
of Greek accentuation. It is also the age of the lexicographers
of Attic Greek, the most important of whom are Phrynichus,
Pollux (fl. a.d. 180) and Harpocration.
In the 4th century Demosthenes was expounded and imitated
by the widely influential teacher, Libanius of Antioch (c. 314-
*• 393)i the pagan preceptor of St Chrysostom. To the same
century we may assign the grammarian Theodosius of Alexandria,
who, instead of confining himself (like Dionysius Thrax) to the
tenses of Hnrrta in actual use, was the first to set forth all the
Imaginary aorists and futures of that verb, which have thence
descended through the Byzantine age to the grammars of the
Renaissance and of modern Europe.
In the 5th century we may place Hesychius of Alexandria,
the compiler of the most extensive of our ancient Greek lexicons,
tad Proclus, the author of a chrcstomathy, to the extracts
from which (as preserved by Photius) we owe almost all our
knowledge of the contents of the lost epics of early Greece.
In the same century the study of Plato was represented by
Synesius of Cyrene (c. 370-t. 413) and by the Neopktonisls of
Alexandria and of Athens. The lower limit of the Roman age
of classical studies may be conveniently placed in the year 529.
In that year the monastery of Monte Cassino was founded in
the West, while the school of Athens was closed in the East.
lie Roman age thus ends in the West with BoeUius, Cassio-
St Benedict, and in the East with Priscian and
GB.) Tim Middle Aces.— (a) In the East, commonly called
the Byaa ntitut Age, c. 530-1 350. In this age, grammatical
■arafa fwia represented by Choeroboscus, and lexicography by
•***» W. *9»>, the patriarch of Constantinople, who is also
■J* 22™JJ ^ * NUmlkcea reviewing and criticizing the contents
Qt rt o M3S^ and bddentally preserving important extracts
fiMCtotataftlterians.
In the time of Photius the poets usually studied at school were
Homer, Hcsiod, Pindar; certain select plays of Aeschylus
(Prometheus, Septan and Per sac), Sophocles (Ajax, Elcclra
and Oedipus Tyrannus), and Euripides (Hecuba, Orestes, Phot-
nissae, and, next to these, A I cut is, Andromache, Hippolyius,
Medea, Rhesus, Troades,) also Aristophanes (beginning with the
Plutus), Theocritus, Lycophron, and Dionysius Pcricgetes.
The principal prose authors were Thucydides, parts of Plato
and Demosthenes, with Aristotle, Plutarch's Lives, and, above all,
Lucian, who is often imitated in the Byzantine age.
One of the distinguished pupils of Photius, Arcthas, bishop of
Caesarca in Cappadocia (c. 007-932), devoted himself with
remarkable energy to collecting and expounding the Greek
classics. Among the important MSS. still extant that were
copied at his expense are the Bodleian Euclid (888) and the
Bodleian Plato (895). To the third quarter of the 10th century
we may assign the Greek lexicon of Suldas, a combination of a
lexicon and an encyclopaedia, the best articles being those on
the history of literature.
Meanwhile, during the " dark age " of secular learning at
Constantinople (641-850), the light of Greek learning had spread
eastwards to Syria and Arabia. At Bagdad, in the reign of
Mamun (813-833), the son of Harun al-Rashid, philosophical
works were translated by Syrian Christians from Greek into
Syriac and from Syriac into Arabic. It was in his reign that
Aristotle was first translated into Arabic, and, shortly afterwards,
we have Syriac and Arabic renderings of commentators on
Aristotle, and of portions of Plato, Hippocrates and Galen;
while in the xoth century new translations of Aristotle and his
commentators were produced by the Nestorian Christians.
The Arabic translations of Aristotle passed from the East
to the West by being transmitted through the Arab dominions
in northern Africa to Spain, which had been conquered by the
Arabs in the 8th century. In the xsth century Toledo was the
centre of the study of Aristotle in the West, and it was from
Toledo that the knowledge of Aristotle spread to Paris and to
other scats of learning in western Europe.
The i2lh century in Constantinople is marked by the name
of Tzctzes (c. xixo-c. 1180), the author of a mythological,
literary and historical mis^gjlany called the Chiliadis, in the
course of which he quotes more than four hundred authors.
The prolegomena to his scholia on Aristophanes supply us with
valuable information on the Alexandrian libraries. The most
memorable name, however, among the scholars of this century
is that of Eustathius, whose philological studies at Constantinople
preceded his tenure of the archbishopric of Thessalonica (1x75-
1 192). The opening pages of his commentaries on the Iliad and
the Odyssey dwell with enthusiasm on the abiding influence of
Homer on the literature of Greece.
While the Byzantine MSS. of the xith century (such as the
Laurcntian MSS. of Aeschylus and Sophocles, and the Ravenna
MS. of Aristophanes) maintain the sound traditions of the
Alexandrian and Roman ages, those of the times of the Palaeologi
give proof of a frequent tampering with the metres of the ancient
poets in order to bring them into conformity with theories
recently invented by Moschopulus and Triclinius. The scholars
of these times are the natural precursors of the earliest repre-
sentatives of the Revival of Learning in the West. Of these
later Byzantines the first in order of date is the monk Planudes
(d. 1330), who devoted his knowledge of Latin to producing
excellent translations of Caesar's Gallic War as well as Ovid's
Metamorphoses and Ueroidcs, and the classic work of Boethius;
he also compiled (in 1302) the only Greek anthology known to
scholars before the recovery in 1607 of the earlier and fuller
anthology of Ccphalas (fl. 917).
The scholars of the Byzantine age cannot bo compared with
the great Alexandrians, but they served to maintain the con-
tinuity of tradition by which the Greek classics selected by the
critics of Alexandria were transmitted to modern Europe.
(b) In the ]Vest (c. 530-f. 1350).— At the portal of the middle
ages stands Gregory the Great (e. 540-604), who had little (if any)
knowledge of Greek and had no sympathy with the secular
CLASSICS
4S»
ride of the study of Latin. A decline in grammatical learning
is exemplified in the three Latin historians of the 6th century,
Jordanes, Gildas and Gregqry of Tours (d. 504), who begins
his history of the Franks by lamenting the decay of Latin
literature in Gaul. The historian of Tours befriended the Latin
poet, Venantius Fortunatus (d. c. 600), who is still remembered
as the writer of the three well-known hymns beginning Solve
fesia dies, VexUla regis prodeunt, and Pange lingua gloriosi
frodium cerlaminis. The decadence of Latin early in the 7 th
century is exemplified by the fantastic grammarian Virgilius
Maro, who also illustrates the transition from Latin to Provencal,
and from quantitivc to accentual forms of verse.
While Latin was declining in Gaul, even Greek was not
unknown in Ireland, and the Irish passion for travel led to the
spread of Greek learning in the west of Europe. The Irish monk
Columban, shortly before his death in 615, founded in the
neighbourhood of Pavia the monastery of Bobbio, to be the
repository of many Latin MSS. which were ultimately dispersed
among the libraries of Rome, Milan and Turin. About the same
date his fellow-traveller, Callus, founded above the Lake of
Constance the monastery of St Gallen, where Latin MSS. were
preserved until their recovery in the age of the Renaissance.
During the next twenty-five years Isidore of Seville (d. 636)
produced in his Origines an encyclopaedic work which gathered
up for the middle ages much of the learning of the ancient world.
In Italy a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the 5th and 6th
centuries led to an estrangement between the Greek and Latin
Churches. The year 690 is regarded as the date of the temporary
extinction of Greek in Italy, but, in the first quarters of the 8th
and the 9th centuries, the iconoclastic decrees of the Byzantine
emperors drove many of the Greek monks and their lay adherents
to the south of Italy, and even to Rome itself.
In Ireland we find Greek characters used in the Book of
Armagh (c. 807); and, in the same century, a Greek psalter was
copied by an Irish monk of Liege, named Sedulius (fl. 850), who
had a wide knowledge of Latin literature In England, some
sixty years after the death of Augustine, the Greek archbishop
of Canterbury, Theodore of Tarsus (d. 600) founded a school for
the study of Greek, and with the help of an African monk named
Hadrian made many of the English monasteries schools of Greek
and Latin learning, so that, in the time of Bcde (d. 735), some of
the scholars who still survived were "as familiar with Greek and
Latin as with their mother-tongue." Among those who had
learned their Greek at Canterbury was Aldhelm (d. 709), "the
first Englishman who cultivated classical learning with any
success." While Aldhelm is known as "the father of Anglo-
Latin verse," Latin prose was the literary medium used by Bede
in his celebrated Ecclesiastical History of England (731). Nine
years after the death of Bcde (735), Boniface, "the apostle of
Germany," sanctioned the founding of Fulda (744)1 which soon
rivalled St Gallon as a school of learning. Alcuin (d. 804), who
was probably born in the year of Bcdc's death, tells us of the
wealth of Latin literature preserved in the library at York.
Through the invitation of Charles the Great, he became associated
with the revival of learning which marks the reign of that
monarch, by presiding over the School of the Palace (782-790),
and by exercising a healthy influence as abbot of St Martin's at
Tours (706-804). Among the friends of Alcuin and the advisers
of Charles was Theodulfus, bishop of Orleans and abbot of
Fleury (d. 821), who is memorable as an accomplished Latin
poet, and as the initiator of free education. Einhard (d. 840), In
his classic life of Charles the Great, models his style on that of
Suetonius, and shdws his familiarity with Caesar and Livy and
Cicero, while Rabanus Maurus (d. 856), who long presided over
Einhard's school of Fulda, was the first to introduce Priscian Into
the schools of Germany. His pupil, Walafrid Strabo, the abbot of
Rekhcnau (d. 849), had a genuine gilt for Latin poetry, a gift
agreeably exemplified in his poem on the plants in the monastic
garden. In the same century an eager interest in the Latin
classics is displayed by Scrvatus Lupus, who was educated at
Fulda, and was abbot of Tenures for the last twenty years of his
life (d. 862). In his literary spirit he is a precursor ol the
humanists of the Renaissance. Under Charles the Bald (d. 87 7)
there was a certain revival of interest in literature, when John
the Scot (Erigcna) became, for some thirty years (c. 845-875),
the head of the Palace School He was familiar with the Greek
Fathers, and was chosen to execute a Latin rendering of the
writings of "Dionysius the Areopagite," the patron saint of
France. In the preface the translator praises the king for
prompting him not to rest satisfied with the literature of the West,
but to have recourse to the "most pure and copious waters of the
Greeks." In the next generation Remi of Auxerre was the first to
open a school in Paris (900). Virgil is the main authority quoted
in Remi's Commentary on Donatus, which remained in use until
the Renaissance. During the two centuries after John the Scot,
the study of Greek declined in France. In England the 9th
century closes with Alfred, who, with the aid of the Welsh monk,
Asscr, produced a series of free translations from Latin texts,
including Bofcthiusand Orosius and Bede, and the Cura Pastoralis
of Gregory the Great.
In the roth century learning flourished at Aachen under Bruno,
brother of Otto I. and archbishop of Cologne (953-965), who had
himself learned Greek from certain Eastern monks at the imperial
court, and who called an Irish bishop from Trier to teach Greek at
the imperial capital. He also encouraged the transcription of
Latin MSS., which became models of style to Widukind of
Corvey, the imitator of Sallust and Livy. In the same century
the monastery of Gandcrshcim, south of Hanover, was the
retreat of the learned nun Hroswitha, who celebrated the
exploits of Otho in leonine hexameters, and composed in prose
six moral and religious plays in imitation of Terence. One of the
most prominent personages of the century was Gerbert of
Aurillac, who, after teaching at Tours and Fleury, became abbot
of Bobbio, archbishop of Reims, and ultimately pope under the
name of Silvester II. (d. 1003). He frequently quotes from the
speeches of Cicero, and it has been surmised that the survival of
those speeches may have been due to the influence of Gerbert.
The most original hellcnist of this age is Luitprand, bishop of
Cremona (d. 972), who acquired some knowledge of Greek during
his repeated missions to Constantinople. About the same time
in England Oswald of York, who had himself been educated at
Fleury, invited Abbo (d. 1004) to instruct the monks of the abbey
recently founded at Ramsey, near Huntingdon. At Ramsey he
wrote for his pupils a scholarly work dealing with points of
prosody and pronunciation, and exhibiting an accurate know-
ledge of Virgil and Horace. During the same half-century,
jElfric, the abbot of Eynsham (d. c 1030), aided Bishop
iEthclwold in making Winchester famous as a place of education.
It was there that he began his Latin Grammar, his Glossary (the
earliest Latin-English dictionary in existence), and his Collo-
quium, in which Latin is taught in a conversational manner.
In France, the most notable teacher in the first quarter of the
1 tth century was Fulbert, bishop of Chartres (d. 1029). In and
after the middle of that century the Norman monastery of Bee
flourished under the rule of Lanfranc and Anselm, both of whom
had begun their career in northern Italy, and closed it at Canter-
bury. Meanwhile, in Germany, the styles of Sallust and Livy
were being happily imitated in the A nnals of Lambert of Hersfeld
(d. 1077). In Italy, where the study of Latin literature seems
never to have entirely died out, young nobles and students
preparing for the priesthood were not infrequently learning
Latin together, in private grammar schools under liberal clerics,
such as Anselm of Bisate (fl. 1050), who describes himself as
divided in his allegiance between the saints and the muses.
Learning flourished at Monte Cassino under the rule of the Abbot
Desiderius (afterwards Pope Victor III.). In this century that
famous monastery had its classical chronicler in Leo Marsicanus,
and its Latin poet in Alfanus, the future archbishop of Salerno.
The Schoolmen devoted most of their attention to Aristotle,
and we may here briefly note the successive stages in their
gradually increasing knowledge of his works. Until 11 28 only
the first two of the five parts of the Organon were known, and
those solely in Latin translations from the original. After that
date two more became known; the whole was. fas&fax \a"V^
452
CLASSICS
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k! i -U* a?« Li ? . .- ;. -oyr r. *.v c : iV. o-t. I : ii : h* r.o rsii! rt r.^ -t 2;*
of!
TfrTll
Ir. E-
.'. *rs ar.
hl-.toriasi, it* Ui* i:r.o-*r. of -*toT. ire WE.-isr. of Ma.'r-t*---.-/
M. 1142, ar.'i Mtithtw Paris M. ia£>.. It Ii*.y La::^ \er»e
ha4 Uer. ft:;'.:io--- 4 .'y a;,;.:i*d to K^'.or.'c tterr.ts Ly W^iin of
Ap-!la 'S. i:y., ar.-i oih'.r Lt'.;.-. poets ':c*'-x2i:,. I2 ts»
1 2th eer.r-ry Lr.gwA c'.z.n at ^a*». s«v*r. La::.-. »<*•.*. or.* of
these b*."r.g her or.Iy Lit!-. t;*> ;x,«ir. Jov.-ph of f.xr.iz '*. is:--. .
whose poen on the T^jia * ■ v Is s :.'- e^*-i r.t The LivIl vt.-.: * er ,
John of GarUr.dla. an Er.g:."ihn;tr. «ho Lv»4 r^i.-Jy it. Frir-re
^fl. 1:04-11521, prvJ-cti MversJ Latin vocit.Xr. : e& ^.hi'.t Ttre
still in use in the lo\ i.o-vi of Era-in-.i. Tre Latii poeU of Fresoh
birh ir.clj-ie Gi-ti- \:.i A^ir. 'ie Lllic ' i. «. isc; , the forrer
being the a-ttor of t:.e AUx-r.irt.:, tr.i \'..t Jitter that of i~t
Anti-Cliudiin-uz, a p'/e.r* firr.iii^r to C:.-. . ■.• r.
During the L.r.'fred a:d '.:... ty y.-.r-j itn f.'.iy.i '•.<•.? een
the early trar.ii-.'.'or^ of Ar.'.v.*:*. e»ev-:e«i at T'i'.-io avoji
1 1 ;o ar.4 the «itath i.T 1 : : 1 of W'.'/'.in of llv/* ;'«:*, iht :ra:..!Ltor "
of the PJiitwic ar.d the P<.lAU:, the lLr.v*.\ti%t of Ar.i'A'.k h*«J
been gr'^atly cxtcr.'-tl ir* E'-ropc by ir.-iar-s of irar^atiov:.
first from the Arioi*:, ani, r.-.xt, from the origi.-.a! Gre^.ie. Arls- (
totle had been stj'iicd in Cr^Jar.d by Gr/£ae'.«*.te M. 12;>.. ■
and eipo.L'.dcd abroad by the great Domir.^an, A'Urt'-i j
Magnus fd. 12V0;, a:.d his famous p'jpil, Thomas Arj-.ir.as '
(d. 1274). Ar.or.5 1}* k'.«,r.t:t critics of the Schoolmen ar.'i of |
the recent tjar.iiiiior.s of Aristotle v. as Rogvr bacon 'd. 1204. 1 .
whose O^u; m-j;i<: his U-.-r. recognized a.s the EtuyAopHui ar.d
the Offlmm of the 13th c.r.t-ry. IIi> kr.ov.ltd^e of Greek, as
shown in his Gf'«A (jr^Knur ff\nt p^bli.hvd in 1752), was
clearly derived from the Gro-.ic> of hi* own o*c:y. The medieval
dependence on the a-tWity of Ariitotic gradually diminished.
Tha was partly due to the recovery of some of the lo*t works
oi ancient literature, and the tnr.sition from the middle ages
to the revival of lunr,.r.g '.%&-> attended by a general widening
of the range of cla&jical studies and by a renewed interest in
Plato.
The classical learning of the middle ages was largely second-
hand. It was often derived from glossaries, from books of
elegant extracts, or from torr.prcheri.M* vc encyclopaedias. Among
the compQen of these last *Acrc hidore and Hrabanus, William
of Coaches and Hooorius of Autun, Bartholomacus Anglicus
(ft. U50), Viocent of Beau va is M. 1264;, and, lastly, Brunctto
Latiai (d. iaoo), the earlier coritcrr.^^jry of Dante. For
Aristotle, as interpreted by Albert u> Magnus and Thomas
b Daatc hit the highest regard. To the Latin transla-
t.-=s ;: .Kr-a'.'.iA ai: *.: :_i i-.i—.-z -.- za rti-rs _z zzzrt than
t±ree :«i::*: ^L--*rts •■ - -i : m t :.-:•!.- :. i-i r;:';:;-:^ to
lie Li- - . 1 Tti—iL-i ::" :ia r.-*;.^. :>. J : _ : j -^» tLan
•jtz. :i-a it r-*z: ;irii ;■"■:-: ir
z.j '•--aji-i Fii*z £...;--?. K_= :"_
-mt are C. -.=.-.. L..-. r_i> 7r :
LZ'.s.tiit 'A C-f.L-r ii ; n;"L:i__. t.. !_: l^ ■• Li :rt .i^r.ijfe
of r_s Zf—-~JL. t.-ei'^: £; J/:-:.:-. t._- :.-; s-iz -^: :: his
'if'tr.z.i 0: lie -r^zir ■.■.:*.• I r » i.;;*: £. .-*^.- Hi li. in a
_r.:e-: «r_» a ;:*-:. n.r ;: ii* ?.-.u-^ ; >-::! : .: *^ ^ :ir nicre
ir-*/ t: i*e re*;ir:;i as lie cr: _ -z^x r.:rs«i^.-i - r cf the
j£.t.i oc the n. .:.« «£«.
;•■ 7«< Ifttrri A(f. — : O-r ::^-_i re-.i .= --ihsred
- by tie axe if tie F k *. :■.->! :f Ltin>r.r ^ I-_i. ■ . ijfa-rf:;).
Petra.vh ':;ti-:--i iis bs*r w-._ cj*:-::; u >^.
' th* Lt. cf zz-slwl rztz. ' Iz rzi.rii: - ■: -.■*
S<:i >".!=«- cf tie -:: -* ir?« h; hi* r: :_r r: :: Arist-lle.
He »ts ."-lere**:-: ..-. Gr-iiic. ar : a f ;.f-- :«.:rr tie fall
of Cor.i"ar.t.r.i-.» i* -.2.5 :- >:■=?«£. :i :: ?155 - H:.-:r i-d
F.ito. tit-r- ':j. i.z'.-* '.'. :zt c: lie iarr-ir; ■■ i5 _=.:;: 1: tie
hLr«i r-iir-tr.i* f ir v-.si i.- -— isirs sc^r:> i_- .1 *i* ie *as
: .zi;\\*i to Ltor. ■_"■-:■ j--it_= "»::i *i^c i_i I::.m."-.: :;:3-
z.^'y-.-yt i.rir.j the lire* y*irs tiit L*--r : _s *z«r: is i_s r-*st
..- f.'.rer.'.e 'r^'/s-r^:; It tis ils-: it 7 :ri-:s lin Greek
wts ii , ;i t ir. • - • - *x t :-.:.»ri ti . z ty Cir- :■: . : ns - :.:.:-: 4 =c >.
Ar.otr.er g'.r.'irit.'.n r.i::*d ar. J tie f '• - •"< ::" t": Ziii ar.d
"iV'.-i-. r.tt *■ tie t : .r. *..i '/ f i : «er. :i : ; * : Cn :: :~ r tr.\ ^\^i
of tie C:-tv Gerri.-.i Ii -.ii:- :z.~r. -jt -*■: J:, - .-> dii
,t o
of P^to 7i* &'..-_■: .--».> -.tj
P>.to a-.'f K.-:..« v.re
Fi-.i-o'd. 14- l:.tAr
ar.d G-.Tiiz:
I'.'a-
a--
ririiief'-r":: LltYiy Mirs:l:o
:/> ar_; C':.r ii* Jt:ii' . r e-^»»r
' as sj-e^ie* :: r-f"z:'5"i£=es a*d
Awthir.e*. ■»."*!•: the Oe*r -.csrrr. L.h.:; izi F:.- .:: •:: .Vrjt,
had
t. reidv >i*;r.
£A*.':*:c hy F--i:
':sr.>- A-.rr;.
Greei: prvse a-'h
fo-r.derof«r.er.a
tr...f»d by L*:-i:i:
;*■•:.. ar.d FJit:*s Jiri
■0L1
e.
i :iii . the
v reo-r.irio
-e ::r inr-siit r? tie rri^irJ
?25 czrr.\ri :.t it K:=i; b> tie
: -:-or.pt co!ic:ti".rj cf ti; \ it.rdr. N:jh:las V.
':i::-:j;; , who hvi U.'or.jid ii tie Lieriry :lr:le :f Cciiso
it f.-orer.-.e. lie trir.:!it>.n cf Ar!*t::'s ~^s erirjjtef to
■iroe of the .'eirr.'.d Gn-cks who hid i!::.i:y arri.ii i= Itiiy,
'Iri;xz-.".i-.». Giza ar.d Eeiiaricr.. T.i.- ether i-tbcrs *ore
■-:.d^.-.w.-r. by I'.-iiiar. siio^n «-:h ^ G-irir.?. \ z'li. Vmzr'. r.o
t.'.d I'ero":. Arr.or.5 the scholars cf Itii.ir; ::::i. ir.ij:!;. tie
or..'/ o:.e ir; "h's are who rivilli-d the Gr:i'»^ is 1 rub'. : exp-.^:i:r
of tJ'.ir ov..o li-'rature 7.as Pclitiir. ':4;4-iu;i . "^h^ i.-ct-r^d
or. Hor.'ir ir.d Ari.t'.tle in Florence, trar^itc-d Kerc^ii^r.. ;rd
wa* *.;*e'.:'.'.'y ir.tero^f.d in the Litin authrrs c: the 5:ivjr Age
ar.d in tho tett of the Pir.Ject: of Justir.ii^. It wil: ie cb«er\ed
that the ->*j':y of <,::k\. h-d been resumed :z Fkrc=:e half a
cer.lury before *he fii! of Constantinople, ar.d tha: the pr"-c'fil
writers of Greek proic had been translated into Litis t<:\:re
that event.
Mear.v.-hile, the quest of MSS. cf the Latin class:;* Vai t-etn
actively pursued. Petrarch had discovered Cicero's Speech fro
Archil at Liege f J$a) and the LclUrs to A::icu: a=i Quirlus at
Verona ( 1345)- Boccaccio had discovered Martial and A-_*cr.ius,
and had been the first of the human sts to be familiar with Varro
and Tacitus, while Salutati had recovered Cicero's letters Ad
Fa m Marcs (1380). During the council of Constance. Poggfo, the
papal secretary, spent in the quest of MSS. the interval between
May 14x5 and November 141 7, during which he was left at
leisure by the vacancy in the apostolic see.
Thirteen of Cicro's speeches were found by him at Cluny and
Langres, and elsewhere in France or Germany; the commentary
of Asconius, a complete Quintilian, and a large part of Valerius
J-'Iaccus were discovered at St Gailen. A second expedition to
that monastery and to others in the neighbourhood led to the
recovery of Lucretius, Manilius, Silius,Iulicus and j
CLASSICS
453
Marcellinus, while the Silvae of Statius were recovered shortly
afterwards. A complete MS. of Cicero, Dt Oralorc, Brutus and
Orator, was found by Bishop Landriani at Lodi (1421). Cornelius
Ncpos was discovered by Traversa ri in Padua (1434)- The
Agricota, Ctrmania and Dialogue of Tacitus reached Italy from
Germany in 1455, and the early books of the Annals in 1508.
Pliny's Panegyric was discovered by Aurispa at Mainz (1433)*
and his correspondence with Trajan by Fra Giocondo in Paris
about 1500.
Greek MSS. were brought from the East by Aurispa, who in
1423 returned with no less than two hundred and thirty-eight,
including the celebrated Laurent ian MS. of Aeschylus, Sophocles
and Apollonius Rhodius. A smaller number was brought from
Constantinople by Filclfo (1437), while Quintus Smyrnaeus was
discovered in south Italy by Bessarion, who presented his own
collection of MSS. to the republic of Venice and thus led to the
foundation of the library of St Mark's ( 1468). As the emissary of
Lorenzo, Janus Lascaris paid two visits to the East, returning
from his second visit in 1492 with two hundred MSS. from
Mount Athos.
The Renaissance theory of a humanistic education is illus-
trated by several treatises still extant. In 1392 Vcrgcrio
addressed to a prince of Padua the first treatise which methodi-
cally maintains the claims of Latin as an essential part of a
liberal education. Eight years later, he was learning Greek from
Chrysoloras. Among the most distinguished pupils of the latter
was Leonardo Bruni, who, about 140s, wrote "the earliest
humanistic tract on education expressly addressed to a lady."
He here urges that the foundation of all true learning is a " sound
and thorough knowledge of Latin," and draws up a course of
reading, in which history is represented by Livy, Sallust, Curtius,
and Caesar; oratory by Cicero; and poetry by VirgiL The same
year saw the birth of Maffco Vcgio, whose early reverence for the
muse of Virgil and whose later devotion to the memory of
Monica have left their mark on the educational treatise which he
wrote a few years before his death in 1458. The authors he
recommends include "Aesop" and Sallust, the tragedies of
Seneca and the epic poets, especially Virgil, whom he interprets in
an allegorical sense. He is in favour of an early simultaneous
study of a wide variety of subjects, to be followed later by the
special study of one or two. Eight years before the death of
Vegio, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomim (Pius II.) had composed a
brief treatise on education in the form of a letter to Ladislaus, the
young king of Bohemia and Hungary. The Latin poets to be
studied include Virgil, Lucan, Statius, Ovid's Metamorphoses, and
(with certain limitations) Horace, Juvenal and Pcrsius, as well as
Plautus, Terence and the tragedies of Seneca; the prose authors
recommended are Cicero, Livy and Sallust. The first great
school of the Renaissance was that established by Vittorino da
Fcltre at Mantua, where he resided for the last twenty-two years
of his life (1424-1446). Among the Latin authors studied were
Virgil and Lucan, with selections from Horace, Ovid and Juvenal,
besides Cicero and Quint ilia n, Sallust and Curtius, Caesar and
Livy. The Greek authors were Homer, Hcsiod, Pindar and the
dramatists, with Herodotus, Xenophon and Plato, Isocratcs and
Demosthenes, Plutarch and Arrian.
Meanwhile, Guarino had been devoting five years to the training
of the eldest son of the marquis of Ferrara. At Fcrrara he spent
the last thirty years of his long life (1 370-1460), producing text-
books of Greek and Latin grammar, and translations from
Strabo and Plutarch. His method may be gathered from his
son's treatise, De Ordine Doccndi ct Studendi. In that treatise
the essential marks of an educated person arc, not only ability to
write Latin verse, but also, a point of " at least equal import-
ance," " familiarity with the language and literature of Greece."
M Without a knowledge of Greek, Latin scholarship itself is, in
any real tense, impossible " (1459).
By the fall of Constantinople in 1453. " Italy (in the eloquent
phrase of Carducd) became sole heir and guardian of the ancient
civilization,** but its fall was in no way necessary for the revival
of learning, which had begun a century before. Bessarion,
Theodoras Gaza, Gcorgius Trtpczui*Jat> Anvnankav ...Chair
condyles, all had reached Italy before 1453. A few more Greeks
fled to Italy after that date, and among these were Janus
Lascaris, Musurus and Callierges. All three were of signal service
in devoting their knowledge of Greek to perpetuating and
popularizing the Greek classics with the aid of the newly-
invented art of printing. That art had been introduced into
Italy by the German printers, Swcynheym and Pannartz, who
had worked under Fust at Mainz. At Subiaco and at Rome they
had produced in 1465-1471 the earliest editions of Cicero, Dt
Oralorc and the Letters, and eight other Latin authors.
The printing of Greek began at Milan with the Greek grammar
of Cons tan tine Lascaris (1476). At Florence the earliest editions
of Homer (1488) and Isocrates (1493) bad been produced by
Demetrius Chalcondyles, while Janus Lascaris was the first to
edit the Greek anthology, Apollonius Rhodius, and parts of
Euripides, Callimachus and Lucian (1404-1406). In 1404-1515
Aldus Manutius published at Venice no less than twenty-seven
cditionts principles of Greek authors and of Greek works of
reference, the authors including Aristotle, Theophrastus,
Theocritus, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Sophocles, Herodotus,
Euripides, Demosthenes (and the minor. Attic orators), Pindar,
Plato and Athenaeus. In producing Plato, Athenaeus and
Aristophanes, the scholar-printer was largely aided by Musurus,
who also edited the Aldinc Pausanias (15x6) and the Etymo-
logic um printed in Venice by another Greek immigrant,
Callierges (1400).
The Revival of Learning in Italy ends with the sack of Rome
(1527). Before 1535 the study of Greek had begun to decline in
Italy, but meanwhile an interest in that language had been
transmitted to the lands beyond the Alps.
In the study of Latin the principal aim of the Italian humanists
was the imitation of the style of their classical models. In the
case of poetry, this imitative spirit is apparent in Petrarch's
Africa, and in the Latin poems of Politian, Pontano, Sannazaro,
Vida and many others. Petrarch was not only the imitatot
of Virgil, who had been the leading name in Latin letters through-
out the middle ages; it was the influence of Petrarch that gave
a new prominence to Cicero. The imitation of Cicero was carried
on with varying degrees of success by humanists such a* Gas-
pa ri no da Barzizza (d. 143 1), who introduced a new style of
epistolary Latin; by Paolo Cortesi, who discovered the impor-
tance of a rhythmical structure in the composition of Ciceronian
prose (1400); and by the accomplished secretaries of Leo X.,
Bcmbo and Sadolcto. Both of these papal secretaries were
mentioned in complimentary terms by Erasmus in his celebrated
dialogue, the Ciceronianus (152S), in which no less than one
hundred and six Ciceronian scholars of all nations are briefly
and brilliantly reviewed, the slavish imitation of Cicero de-
nounced, and the law hid down that " to speak with propriety
we must adapt ourselves to the age in which we live — an age
that" differs entirely from that of Cicero." One of the younger
Ciceronians criticized by Erasmus was Longolius, who had
died at Padua in 1522. The cause of the Ciceronians was de-
fended by the elder Scaliger in 1531 and 1536, and by £ticnne
Dolct in 1535, and the controversy was continued by other
scholars down to the year 16 10. Meanwhile, in Italy, a strict
type of Ciccronianism was represented by Paulus Manutius
(d. 1574)* and a freer and more original form of Latinity by
Muretus(d. 15S5).
Before touching on the salient points in the subsequent
centuries, in connexion with the leading nations of Europe,
we may briefly note the cosmopolitan position of Erasmus
(1466-1536), who, although he was a native of the Netherlands,
was far more closely connected with France, England, Italy,
Germany and Switzerland, than with the land of his birth.
He was still a school-boy at Deventer when his high promise
was recognized by Rudolf Agricola, " the first (says Erasmus)
who brought from Italy some breath of a better culture." Late
in 1499 Erasmus spent some two months at Oxford, where he
met Colet; it was in London that he met More and Linacre and
Grocyn, who had already ceased to lecture at Oxfoxd. k\^ , **e*,
. in 1500, he was fully couacAous v\\a\" ^\>^>^^w^ > &!*. , wsc$* 9 &'
+5+
CLASSICS
knowledge of Latin was imperfect"; and, during his three
years in Italy (1506-1509), he worked quietly at Greek in Bologna
and attended the lectures of Musurus in Padua. In October
151 1 he was teaching Greek to a little band of students in Cam-
bridge; at Basel in 15x6 he produced his edition of the Greek
Testament, the first that was actually published; and during
the next few years he was helping to organize the college lately
founded at Louvain for the study of Greek and Hebrew, as well
as Latin. Seven years at Basel were followed by five at Freiburg,
and by two more at Basel, where he died. The names of all
these places are suggestive of the wide range of his influence.
By his published works, his Colloquies, his Adages and his
Apophthegms, he was the educator of the nations of Europe.
An educational aim is also apparent in his editions of Terence
and of Seneca, while his Latin translations made his contem-
poraries more familiar with Greek poetry and prose, and his
Paraphrase promoted a better understanding of the Greek
Testament. He was not so much a scientific scholar as a keen
and brilliant man of letters and a widely influential apostle of
humanism.
In France the most effective of the early teachers of Greek
was Janus Lascaris (1495-1503). Among his occasional pupils
ftmae ^ was Budaeus (d. 1540), who prompted Francis I.
to found in 1530 the corporation of the Royal Readers
in Greek, as well as Latin and Hebrew, afterwards famous
under the name of the College de France. In the study of
Greek one of the earliest links between Italy and Germany
trmuyk was Rudolf Agricola, who had learned Greek under
Gaza atFerrara. It was in Paris that his younger con-
temporary Reuchlin acquired part of that proficiency in Greek
which attracted the notice of Argyropulus, whose admiration
of Reuchlin is twice recorded by Melanchthon, who soon after-
wards was pre-eminent as the "praeceptor" of Germany.
In the age of the revival the first Englishman who studied
Greek was a Benedictine monk, William of Selling (d. 1494),
fifigf wn0 P*"* two v ^ ts to Italy. At Canterbury he
inspired with his own love of learning his nephew,
Linacre, who joined him on one of those visits, studied Greek
at Florence under Politian and Chalcondyles, and apparently
stayed in Italy from 1485 to 1499. His translation of a treatise
of Galen was printed at Cambridge in 1521 by Siberch, who,
in the same year and place, was the first to use Greek type in
England. Greek bad been first taught to some purpose at
Oxford by Grocyn on his return from Italy in 1491. One of the
younger scholars of the day was William Lilye, who picked up
his Greek at Rhodes on his way to Palestine and became the
first high-master of the school founded by Colet at St Paul's
(1510).
(b) That part of the Modern Period of classical studies which
succeeds the age of the Revival in Italy may be subdivided
into three periods distinguished by the names of the nations
most prominent in each.
1. The first may be designated the French period. It begins
with the foundation of the Royal Readers by Francis I. in 1530,
and it may perhaps be regarded as extending to 1700.
This period is marked by a many-sided erudition
rather than by any special cult of the form of the
classical languages. It is the period of the great polyhistors of
France. It includes Budaeus and the elder Scaliger (who
settled in France in 1529), with Turncbus and Lambinus, and
the learned printers Robertas and Ucnricus Slephanus, while
among its foremost names are those of the younger (and greater)
Sanger, Casaubon and Salmasius. Of these, Casaubon ended
bk days in England (1614); Scaliger, by leaving France for the
Netherlands in 1593, for a time at least transferred the supremacy
msdolardripfrom the land of his birth to that of his adoption.
The test aaflceaycarsof his life (1 593-1609) were spent at Leiden,
wfckh vat aha for more than twenty years (1631-1653) the
fcootof Sahaaan*,and for thirteen (1570-1592) that of Lipsius
(£.ifiaU, la the 17th century the erudition of France is best
ujmmiui ty Ttarinis Valcsius," Du Cange and Mabillon.
A Jfer mam mdm holy was represented by Muretus, who
Ta#Awflca «■
Uttnty
had left France in 1563, and by her own sons, Nizolius, Victorius,
Robortelli and Sigonius, followed in the 17th century by R.
Fabretti. The Netherlands, in the i6lh, claim W. Canter as
well as Lipsius, and, in the 17th, G. J. Vossius, Johannes Meur-
sius, the elder and younger Hcinsius, Hugo Grotius, J. F.
Gronovius, J. G. Graevius and J. Pcrizonius. Scotland, in the
16th, is represented by George Buchanan; England by Sir John
Cheke, Roger Ascham, and Sir Henry Savile, and, in the 17th,
by Thomas Gataker, Thomas Stanley, Henry Dodwell, and
Joshua Barnes; Germany by Janus Gruter, Ezcchiel Spanhcim
and Chr. Cellarius, the first two of whom were also connected
with other countries.
We have already seen that a strict imitation of Cicero was
one of the characteristics of the Italian humanists. In and
after the middle of the 16th century a correct and
pure Latinity was promoted by the educational
system of the Jesuits; but with the growth of the
vernacular literatures Latin became more and more exclusively
the language of the learned. Among the most conspicuous
Latin writers of the 17th century are G. J. Vossius and the
Hcinsii, with Salmasius and his great adversary, Milton. Latin
was also used in works on science and philosophy, such as Sir
Isaac Newton's Principia (1687), and many of the works of
Leibnitz (1646- 1705). In botany the custom followed by John
Ray (1627-1705) in his Historic Plantarum and in other works
was continued in 1760 by Linnaeus in his Syslcma Naturae.
The last important work in English theology written in Latin
was George Bull's Dejensio Fidei Nicenae (1685). The use of
Latin in diplomacy died out towards the end of the 17th century;
but, long after that date negotiations with the German empire
were conducted in Latin, and Latin was the language of the
debates in the Hungarian diet down to 1825.
2. During the x8th century the classical scholarship of the
Netherlands was under the healthy and stimulating influence
of Bentley (1662-1742), who marks the beginning TA#
of the English and Dutch period, mainly represented
in Holland by Bcntlcy's younger contemporary and
correspondent, Tiberius Hcmstcrhuys (1685-1766),
and the latter scholar's great pupil David Ruhnken (1723-1798).
It is the age of historical and literary, as well as verbal, criticism.
Both of these were ably represented in the first half of the
century by Bentley himself, while, in the twenty years between
1782 and 1803, the verbal criticism of the tragic poets of Athens
was the peculiar province of Richard Porson (1 750-1808), who
was born in the same year as F. A. Wolf. Among other repre-
sentatives of England were Jeremiah Markland and Jonathan
Toup, Thomas Tyrwhitt and Thomas Twining, Samuel Parr
and Sir William Jones; and of the Netherlands, the two Bur-
manns and L. Kustcr, Arnold Drakcnborch and Wcsseling,
Lodcwyk Valckcnaer and Daniel Wyttcnbach (1746-1829).
Germany is represented by Fabricius and J. M. Gesncr, J. A.
Ernesti and J. J. Rciske, J. J. Winckelmann and Chr. G. Hcync;
France by B. de Montfaucon and J. B. G. D. Villoison; Alsace
by French subjects of German origin, R. F. P. Brunck and J.
Schweighauser; and Italy by E. Forcellini and Ed. Corsini.
3. The German period begins with F. A. Wolf (1759-1824),
whose Prolegomena to Homer appeared in 1795. He is the
founder of the systematic and encyclopaedic type
of scholarship embodied in the comprehensive term ^**
Altertumswixsensehaft, or "a scientific knowledge ^JJU*
of the old classical world." The tradition of Wolf
was ably continued by August Bockh (d. 1867), one of the
leaders of the historical and antiquarian school, brilliantly
represented in the previous generation by B. G. Nicbuhr (d.
1831).
In contrast with this school we have the critical and gram-
matical school of Gottfried Hermann (d. 1848). During this
period, while Germany remains the most productive of the
nations, scholarship has been more and more international
and cosmopolitan in its character.
iQth Century.— We must here be content with simply recording
the names of a few of the more prominent representatives of
CLASSICS
+55
the 19th century in some of the most obvious departments of
learning. Among natives of Germany the leading
scholars have been, in Greek, C. F. W. Jacobs, C. A.
Lobeck, L. Disscn, I. Bekkcr, A. Mcineke, C. Lchrs,
W. Dindorf , T. Bcrgk, F. W. Schneidcwin, H. Kochly, A. Nauck,
H. Usener, G. Kaibel, F. Blass and W. Christ; in Latin, C.
Lachmann, F. Ritschl, M. Haupt, C. Halm, M. Hertz, A. Fleck-
eisen, E. Bihrens, L. Miillcr and O. Ribbcck. Grammar and
kindred subjects have been represented by P. Buttmann, A.
Matthiae. F. W. Thiersch, C. G. Zumpt, G. Bernhardy, C. W.
Kriiger, R. Ktthncr and H. L. Ahrens; and lexicography by I
F. Passow and C. £. Georges. Among editors of Thucydides j
we have had E. F. Poppo and J. Classen; among editors of
Demosthenes or other orators, G. H. Schafer, J. T. Vfimel, G. E. j
Benseler, A. Westermann, G. F. SchSmann, H. Sauppe, and C '
RehdanU (besides Blass, already mentioned). The Platonists
include F. Schlcicrmacher, G. A. F. Ast, G. Stallbaum and the
many-sided C. F. Hermann; the Aristotelians, C. A. Brandis, I
A. Trendelenburg, L. Spcngcl, H. Bonitz, C. Prantl, J. Bcrnays 1
and F. SusemihL The history of Greek philosophy was written 1
by F. Ucbcrweg, and, more fully, by E. Zcllcr. Greek history
was the domain of G. Droyscn, Max Dunckcr, Ernst Curtius,
Arnold Sch&fer and Adolf Holm; Greek antiquities that of
M. H. Meier and G. F. Schdraann and of G. Gilbert; Greek !
epigraphy that of J. Franz, A. KirchhofT, W. von Hartel, U.
Kohlcr, G. Hirschfeld and W. Dittcnbcrgcr; Roman history
end constitutional antiquities that of Thcodor Mommsen (181 7-
1003), who was associated in Latin epigraphy with E. Hiibner
and W. Henzen. Classical art and archaeology were represented
by F. G. Welckcr, E. Gerhard, C. O. Mullcr, F. Wiesclcr, O.
Jahn, C. L. Urlichs, H. Brunn, C. B. Stark, J. Overbeck, W.
Hclbig, O. Bcnndorf and A. Furtwanglcr; mythology (with
cognate subjects) by G. F. Crcuzcr, P. W. Forchhammer, L.
Prcllcr, A. Kuhn, J. W. Mannhargt and E. Rohdc; and com-
parative philology by F. Bopp, A. F. Pott, T. Benfey, W. Corssen,
Georg Curtius, A. Schleicher and II. Steinthal. The history of
classical philology in Germany was written by Conrad Bursian
(1830-1883).
In France we have J. F. Boissonade, J. A. Letronne, L. M.
Quichcrat, M P. Littrf, B. Saint-Hilaire, J. V. Duruy, B. E.
^^^ Miller, £. Eggcr, C. V. Darembcrg, C Thurot, L. E.
Benoist, O. Riemann and C. Graux; (in archaeology)
A. C. Quatrcmto de Quincy, P. le Bas, C. F. M. Tcxicr, the due
de Luyncs, the Lcnormants (C. and F.), W. H. Waddington
and O. Rayet; and (in comparative philology) Victor
Henry. Greece was ably represented in France by
A. Koraes. In Belgium we have P. Willcms and
the Baron De Wittc (long resident in France); in Holland,
C. G. Cobet; in Denmark, J. N. Madvig. Among the scholars
mmmtmm ^ of Great Britain and Ireland may be mentioned:
**"■* p. Elmslcy, S. Butler, T. Gaisford, P. P. Dobree,
J. H. Monk, C J. Blomficld, W. Veitch. T. H. Key, B. H.
Kennedy, W. Ramsay, T. W. Pcile, R. Shillcto, W. H.Thompson,
J. W. Donaldson, Robert Scott, H. G. Liddcll, C. Badham, G.
Rawlinson, F. A. Palcy, B. Jowctt. T. S. Evans, E. M. Cope,
H. A. J. Munro.W. G. Clark, Churchill Babington, H. A. Holden,
J. Riddcll, J. Conington, W. Y. Sellar, A. Grant, W. D. Gcddes,
D.B. Monro, H. Ncttlcship, A. Palmer, R. C. Jcbb, A. S. Wilkins,
W. G. Rutherford and James Adam; among historians and
archaeologists, W. M. Leake, H. Fynes-Clinton, G. Grotc and
C. Thirl wall, T. Arnold, G. Long and Charles Merivalc, Sir
Henry Maine, Sir Charles Newton and A. S. Murray, Robert
Burn and H. F. Pclham. Among comparative philologists
Max Miillcr belonged to Germany by birth and to England by
adoption, while, in the United States, his ablest counterpart
was W.D. Whitney. B. L. Gildcrslecve, W W. Goodwin, Henry
Drisler, J. B. Grccnough and G. M. Lane were prominent
American classical scholars.
The 19th century in Germany was marked by the organization
of the great series of Greek and Latin inscriptions, and by!
the foundation of the Archaeological Institute in Rome (1820),
which was at first international in its character. The Athenian
Institute was founded in 1874. Schools at Athens and Rome
were founded by France in 1846 and 1873, by the United States
of America in 1882 and 1895, and by England in 1883 and 1901;
and periodicals are published by the schools of all these
four nations. An interest in Grcekstudies(and especially Jj**"* 1 ^
in art and archaeology) has been maintained '^jSHmiu
England by the Hellenic Society, founded in 1879, with
its organ the Journal of Hellenic Studies. A further interest in
Greek archaeology has been awakened in all civilized lands by
the excavations of Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, Epidaurus, Sparta,
Olyrapia, Dodona, Delphi, Delos and of important sites in Crete.
The extensive discoveries of papyri in Egypt have greatly
extended our knowledge of the administration of that country in
the times of the Ptolemies, and have materially added to the
existing remains of Greek literature. Scholars have been
enabled to realize in their own experience some of the enthusiasm
that attended the recovery of lost classics during the Revival of
Learning. They have found themselves living in a new age of
edit tones principes, and have eagerly welcomed the first publica-
tion of Aristotle's Constitution of Athens (1891), Herondas (1891)
and Bacchylides (1897), as well as the Persae of Timolheus of
Miletus (1003), with some of the Paeans of Pindar (1007I and
large portions of the plays of Menander (1898-1899 and 1907).
The first four of these were first edited by F. G. Kenyon,
Timotheus by von Wilamowitz-MollendorrT, Menander partly by
J. Nicole and G. Lefcbrc and partly by B. P. Grenfcll and A. S.
Hunt, who have also produced fragments of the Paeans of
Pindar and many other classic texts (including a Greek con-
tinuation of Thucydidcs and a Latin epitome of part of Livy) in
the successive volumes of the Oxyrhynchus papyri and other
kindred publications.
Authorities.— For a full bibliography of the history of classical
philology, tee E. Hubner, Grundriss su VorUsungen uber die Geschichte
und EncyklopHdie der klassischen Philologie (and ed., 1889) ; and for
a brief outline, C. L Urlichs in I wan von M tiller's Handbych, vol. i.
(2nd ed.
(and
ed., 1891). 33-145; S. Rcinach, Manuel de philologie classiquo
_ ed.. 1883-1884; nouvcau tirage 1907), 1-22; and A. Gude-
mann. Grundris ^Leipzig, 1907), pp. 22a acq. For the Alexandrian
period, F. Susemihl, Gesch. der gricchischen Litteratur in der Alexan-
drinerzeit (2 vols., 1891-1892): cf. F. A. Eckstein, Nomenclator
PhilologoTum (187J), and W. Pokel, PhUologisches SchriflsteUer-
Lexikon (1882). For the period ending a.d. 400, see A. Grafcnhan,
Gesch. der klass. Philologie (4 vols., 1843-1850); for the Byzantine
period, C. Krumbachcr in Iwan von Miillcr, vol. ix. (1) (2nd ed.,
1897) : for the Renaissance, G. Voigt. Die Wiedcrbelebung des class.
Altertums (3rd ed., 1894, *»th bibliography); L. Gcigcr, Renais-
Humanism ' . ~ . .. .
sane* und Humanism tts in Italien und D'eutschland (1882, with
d'helUnisme en France (1869); Mark Pattison. Essays, I, and Life
of CtiSAuburt; in Germany, C. liurslan. Gesch. der class. Philologie
in Dcuiichiund (1683); in Holland. L. MuIUt, Gesch. der class.
PhUolotir in den Nieatdnnden (1869] : in Belgium, L. C. Rocrsch in
E. P. van DcTnnu-r* Patria Bdgka. vol. iii. (1875). 497-43* J *nd
in England , R. C. Jcbb. " Erasmus " (i&oo) and " Bentley (1882),
and * Corson " {la Did. NtiL Bu\%„), On the subject as a whole
act? J* E. Sandp, Ilisicry of Classical S(holarship(vi\t\i chronological
tables, portraits and facsimiles), vol. i.; From the Sixth Century
&C, to the end of the Aliddts A^cs (1903, 2nd ed., 1906); vols. ii.
and iiL. From the Feriwl of Learning to the Present m Day (1908),
including the histoid o\ scholarship in all the countries of Europe
and in the United States of America. Sec also the separate bio-
graphical articles in this Encyclopaedia.
(B) The Study or the Classics in Secondary Education
After the Revival of Learning the study of the classics owed
much to the influence and example of Vittorino da Fcltre,
Budacus, Erasmus and Mclanchthon, who were among the
leading representatives of that revival in Italy, France, England
and Germany.
1. In England, the two great schools of Winchester (1382) and
Eton (1440) had been founded during the life of Vittorino, but
before the revival had reached Britain. The first
school 1 which came into being under the immediate
of humanism was that founded at St Paul's by Beast
1 Sat also lb* %t\\0^ V:\tfwvA*
456
CLASSICS
Colct (1510), the friend of Erasmus, whose treatise De pueris
institueudis (1529) has its English counterpart in the Governor of
Sir Thomas Elyot (1 53 1). The highmaster of St Paul's was to be
" learned in good and clean Latin, and also in Greek, if such may
be gotten." The master and the second master of Shrewsbury
(founded 1551) were to be " well able to make a Latin verse, and
learned in the Greek tongue." The influence of the revival
extended to many other schools, such as Christ's Hospital (1552),
Westminster (1560), and Merchant Taylors 1 (1561); Rcpton
(iS57). Rugby (1567) and Harrow (1571).
At the grammar school of Stratford-on-Avon, about 1571-
*577» Shakespeare presumably studied Terence, Horace, Ovid
,. and the Bucolics of Baptista Mantuanus (1502). In
• mm* the early plays he quotes Ovid and Seneca. Similarly,
in Titus Andronicus (iv. 2) he says, of Integer vitae:
" Tis a verse in Horace; I know it well: I read it in
the grammar long ago." In Henry VI. part ii. sc 7,
when Jack Cade charges Lord Say with having "most
traitorously corrupted the youth of the realm in erecting a
grammar-school," Lord Say replies that " ignorance is the curse
of God, knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to heaven." In
the Taming of the Shrew (I. i. 157) a line is quoted as from
Terence (Andria, 74) : " redime te captum quam queas minimo."
This is taken verbatim from Lilye's contribution to the Brevis
InstituUo, originally composed by Colct, Erasmus and Lilye for
• St Paul's School (1527), and ultimately adopted as the
JJUf* Eton Latin Grammar. The Westminster Greek Grammar
of Grant (1575) was succeeded by that of Camden
(i595)» founded mainly on a Paduan text-book, and apparently
adopted in 1506 by Sir Henry Savile at Eton, where it long
remained in use as the Eton Greek Grammar, while at West-
minster itself it was superseded by that of Busby (1663). The
text-books to be used at Harrow in 1590 included Hesiod and
tome of the Greek orators and historians.
In one of the Paston Letters (i. 301) , an Eton boy of 1458 quotes
two Latin verses of his own composition. Nearly a century later,
1frtM . on New Year's Day, 1 560, forty-four boys of the school
presented Latin verses to Queen Elizabeth. The queen's
former tutor, Roger Ascham, in his Scholemaster (1570), agrees
with his Strassburg friend, J. Sturm, in making the imitation of
the Latin classics the main aim of instruction. He is more
original when he insists on the value of translation and retransla-
tion for acquiring a mastery over Latin prose composition, and
when he protests against compelling boys to converse in Latin
too soon. Ascham's influence is apparent in the Positions of
Mulcaster, who in 158 1 insists on instruction in English before
admission to a grammar-school, while he is distinctly in advance
of his age in urging the foundation of a special college for the
training of teachers.
Cleland's Institution of a Young Nobleman (1607) owes much to
the Italian humanists. The author follows Ascham in protesting
fhltmf against compulsory Latin conversation, and only
slightly modifies his predecessor's method of teaching
Latin prose. When Latin grammar has been mastered, he
bids the teacher lead his pupil " into the sweet fountain and
spring of all Arts and Science," that is, Greek learning which is
" as profitable for the understanding as the Latin tongue for
speaking." In the study of ancient history, " deeds and not
words " are the prime interest. " In Plutarch pleasure is so
mixed and confounded with profit, that I esteem the reading of
him as a paradise for a curious spirit to walk in at all time."
Bacon in his Advancement of Learning (1605) notesitas " the first
distemper of learning when men study words and not matter "
(Liv. 3); he also observes that the Jesuits "have much
quickened and strengthened the state of learning "
(I. vi. 15). He is on the side of reform in education;
ha waves the humanist aside with the words: vetustas
crsril, ratio vicit. Milton, in his Tractate on Education
idvaaccs further on Bacon's lines, protesting against the
feagtfc cf time spent oh instruction in language, denouncing
1 knowledge, and recommending the study of a
r of classical authors for the sake of their subject-
matter, and with a view to their bearing on practical life. His
ideal place of education is an institution combining a school and
a university. Sir William Petty, the economist (1623- 1687),
urged the establishment of ergastula literaria for instruction of a
purely practical kind. Locke, who had been educated £«**
at Winchester and had lectured on Greek at Oxford
(1660), nevertheless almost completely eliminated Greek from
the scheme which he unfolded in his Thoughts on Education
(1693). With Locke, the moral and practical qualities of virtue
and prudence are of the first consideration. Instruction, he
declares, is but the least part of education; his aim is to train,
not men of letters or men of science, but practical men armed for
the battle of life. Latin was, above all, to be learned through use,
with as little grammar as possible, but with the reading of easy
Latin texts, and with no repetition, no composition. Greek he
absolutely proscribes, reserving a knowledge of that language to
the learned and the lettered, and to professional scholars.
Throughout the z8th century and the early part of the 19th,
the old routine went on in England with little variety, and with
no sign of expansion. The range of studies was Arnold,
widened, however, at Rugby in 1828-1842 by Thomas
Arnold, whose interest in ancient history and geography, as a
necessary part of classical learning, is attested by his edition of
Thucydides; while his influence was still further extended when
those who had been trained in his traditions became head masters
of other schools.
During the rest of the century the leading landmarks are the
three royal commissions known by the names of their chairmen:
(1) Lord Clarendon's on nine public schools, Eton, Winchester,
Westminster, Charterhouse, Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, St
Paul's and Merchant Taylors' (1861-1864), resulting in the
Public Schools Act of 1868; (2) Lord Taunton's on 782 endowed
schools (1864-1867), followed by the act of 1869; and (3) Mr
Bryce's on secondary education (1804-1895).
A certain discontent with the current traditions of classical
training found expression in the Essays on a Liberal Education
(1867). The author of the first essay, C. S. Parker,
closed his review of the reforms instituted in Germany
and France by adding that in England there had
been but little change. The same volume included a
critical examination of the " Theory of Classical Education " by
Henry Sidgwick, and an attack on compulsory Greek and Latin
verse composition by F. W. Farrar. The claims of verse com-
position have since been judiciously defended by the Hon.
Edward Lyttelton (1897), while a temperate and effective
restatement of the case for the classics may be found in Sir
Richard Jcbb's Romanes Lecture on " Humanism in Education "
(1809).
The question of the position of Greek in secondary education
has from time to time attracted attention in connexion with the
requirement of Greek in Responsions at Oxford, and in the
Previous Examination at Cambridge.
In the Cambridge University Reporter for November 9, 1870, it
was stated that, " in order to provide adequate encouragement
for the study of Modern Languages and Natural UCbmm
Science," the commissioners for endowed schools had 'pSaZr
determined on the establishment of modern schools of armk."
the first grade in which Greek would be excluded. The
commissioners feared that, so long as Greek was a sine qua non
at the universities, these schools would be cut off from direct
connexion with the universities, while the universities would in
some degree lose their control over a portion of the higher
culture of the nation. On the 9th of March 1871 a syndicate
recommended that, in the Previous Examination, French and
German (taken together) should be allowed in place of Greek;
on the 27th of April this recommendation (which only affected
candidates for honours or for medical degrees) was rejected by
51 votes to 48.
All the other proposals and votes relating to Greek in the
Previous Examination in 1870-1873, 1 878-1880, and 1891-1892
are set forth in the Cambridge University Reporter for November
11, 1904, pp. 202-205. In November 1903 a syndicate was
CLASSICS
457
appointed to consider the studies and examinations of the uni-
versity, their report of November 1904 on the Previous Examina-
tion was fully discussed, and the speeches published in the
Reporter for December 17, 1904. In the course of the discussion
Sir Richard Jebb drew attention to the statistics collected by the
master of Emmanuel, Mr W. Chawner, showing that, out of 86
head masters belonging to the Head Masters' Conference whose
replies had been published, " about 56 held the opinion that the
exemption from Greek for all candidates for a degree would
endanger or altogether extinguish the study of Greek in the vast
majority of schools, while about 21 head masters held a different
opinion." On the 3rd of March 1005 a proposal for accepting
either French or German as an alternative for either Latin or
Greek in the Previous Examination was rejected by 1559 to 105a
votes, and on the. 26th of May 1906 proposals distinguishing
between students in letters and students in science, and (inter
alia) requiring the latter to take cither French or German for
either Latin or Greek in the Previous Examination, were rejected
by 746 to 241.
Meanwhile, at Oxford a proposal practically making Greek
optional with all undergraduates was rejected, in November 1902,
by 189 votes to 166; a preliminary proposal permitting students
of mathematics or natural science to oiler one or more modern
languages in lieu of Greek was passed by 164 to 162 in February
1904, but on the 29th of November the draft of a statute to this
effect was thrown out by 200 to 164. In the course of the
controversy three presidents of the Royal Society, Lord Kelvin,
Lord Lister and Sir W. Huggins, expressed the opinion that the
proposed exemption was not beneficial to science students.
Incidentally, the question of " compulsory Greek " has
stimulated a desire for greater efficiency in classical teaching. In
Yue December 1003, a year before the most important of
C mmejc at the public discussions at Cambridge, the Classical
£0"*^ Association was founded in London. The aim of that
association is " to promote the development, and
maintain the well-being, of classical studies, and in particular (a)
to impress upon public opinion the claim of such studies to an
eminent place in the national scheme of education; (b) to
improve the practice of classical teaching by free discussion of its
scope and methods; (c) to encourage investigation and call
attention to new discoveries; (</) to create opportunities of
friendly intercourse and co-operation between all lovers of
classical learning in this country."
The question of the curriculum and the time-table in secondary
education has occupied the attention of the Classical Association,
the British Association and the Education Department
mmMm of Scotland. The general effect of the recommenda-
tions already made would be to begin the study of
foreign languages with French, and to postpone the study of
Latin to the age of twelve and that of Greek to the age of thirteen.
At the Head Masters' Conference of December 1007 a proposal to
lower the standard of Greek in the entrance scholarship examina-
tions of public schools was lost by 10 votes to 16, and the " British
Association report" was adopted with reservations in 1908.
In the case of secondary schools in receipt of grants of public
money (about 700 in England and 100 in Wales in 1907-1008),
" the curriculum and time-table must be approved by the Board
of Education." The Board has also a certain control over the
curriculum of schools under the Endowed Schools Acts and the
Charitable Trusts Acts, and also over that of schools voluntarily
applying for inspection with a view to being recognized as
efficient.
Further efficiency in classical education has been the aim of the
movement in favour of the reform of Latin pronunciation. In
jftfcjm 1871 this movement resulted in Munro and Palmer's
tmLsttm Syllabus of Latin Pronunciation. The reform was
^y c * > ' carried forward at University College, London, by
Professor Key and by Professor Robinson Ellis in 1873,
and was accepted at Shrewsbury, Marlborough, Liverpool I
College, Christ's Hospital, Dulwich, and the City of London
school. It was taken up anew by the Cambridge Philological
Society In 1886, by the Modern Languages Association in 1 901, by
the Classical Association in 1904-1005, and the Philological
Societies of Oxford and Cambridge in 1006. The reform was
accepted by the various bodies of head masters and assistant
masters in December 1906-January 1907, and the proposed
scheme was formally approved by the Board of Education in
February 1907.
See W. H. Woodward, Studies in Education during the Age of
the Renaissance (1906). chap, xiii.; Acland and Llewdlin Smith,
reprinted with other lectures oh cognate subjects in Essays and
Addresses (1907); Foster Watson, The Curriculum and Practice
of the English Grammar Schools up to 1660 (1908); "Greek at
Oxford," by a Resident, in The Times (December 27, 1004);
Cambridge University Reporter (November 11 and December 17,
1904); British Association Report on Curricula of Secondary Schools
Teaching ol Classics "
Year's Wot
T«rt-
: paper by Professor Armstrong c
). (December 1907); W. H. D. Rouse in The
'orh in Classical Studies (1907 and 1908), chap, i.; J. P.
Post gate, Hew to pronounce Latin (Appendix B, on " Recent Pro-
gress "). (1907). For further bibliographical details see pp. 875-890
of Dr Karl OrcuFs " Grossbritannien in Baumcister's Hondbuch,
I. u. 737-892 (Munich, 1897).
2. In France il was mainly with a view to promoting the
study of Greek that the corporation of Royal Readers was
founded by Francis I. in 1530 at the prompting of Frwerr
Budacus. In the university of Paris, which was
originally opposed to this innovation, the statutes of 1598
prescribed the study of Homer, Hcsiod, Pindar, Theocritus,
I Plato, Demosthenes and Isocratcs (as well as the principal Latin
classics), and required the production of three exercises in Greek
or Latin in each week.
From the middle of the 16th century the elements of Latin
were generally learned from unattractive abridgments of the
grammar of the Flemish scholar, van Pauteren or
Despautere (d. 1520), which, in its original folio
editions of 1537-1538, was an excellent work. The
unhappy lot of those who were compelled to learn their Latin
from the current abridgments was lamented by a Port-Royalist
in a striking passage describing the gloomy forest of It pays ds
Despautere (Guyot, quoted in Sainte-Bcuve's Port-Royal, iii. 429).
The first Latin grammar written in French was that of Pere de
Condrcn of the Oratoire (c. 1642), which was followed by the
Port-Royal Mllhode, latine of Claude Lancelot (1644), and by
the grammar composed by Bossuet for the dauphin, and also
used by Fenelon for the instruction of the due de Bourgogne.
In the second half of the 17th century the rules of grammar
and rhetoric were simplified, and the time withdrawn from the
practice of composition (especially verse composition) trans-
ferred to the explanation and the study of authors.
Richelieu, in 1640, formed a scheme for a college in which
Latin was to have a subordinate place, while room was to be
found for the study of history and science, Greek, and
French and modern languages. Bossuet, in educating
the dauphin, added to the ordinary classical routine
represented by the extensive series of the " Dclphin
Classics " the study of history and of science. A greater origin-
ality in the method of teaching the ancient languages was
exemplified by Fenelon, whose views were partially reflected
by the Abbe Flcury, who also desired the simplification of
grammar, the diminution of composition, and even the sup-
pression of Latin verse. Of the ordinary teaching of Greek in
his day, Fleury wittily observed that most boys " learned just
enough of that language to have a pretext for saying for the rest
of their lives that Greek was a subject easily forgotten."
In the 1 8th century Rollin, in his Traill des itudes (1726),
agreed with the Port - Royalists in demanding that Latin
grammars should be written in French, that the rules n^fe,
should be simplified and explained by a sufficient
number of examples, and that a more important place should
be assigned to translation than to composition. The supremacy
of Latin was the subject of a long series of attacks in the same
century. Even, at tbi ckn of the previous century the htvttb&aL
45«
CLASSICS
to declare in Des ouvrages de Vesprit (about 1680), " We have at
fast thrown off the yoke of Latinism "; and, in the same year,
Jacques Spon claimed in his correspondence the right to use the
French language in discussing points of archaeology.
Meanwhile, in 1563, notwithstanding the opposition of the
university of Paris, the Jesuits had succeeded in founding the
Collegium Claromontanum. After the acce^ion of
Henry IV. they were expelled from Paris and other
important towns in 1594, and not allowed to return
until rooo, when they found themselves confronted once more
by their rival, the university of Paris. They opened the doors of
their schools to the Greek and Latin classics, but they represented
the ancient masterpieces dissevered from their original historic
environment, as impersonal models of taste, as isolated standards
of style. They did much, however, for the cultivation of original
composition modelled on Cicero and Virgil. They have been
charged with paying an exaggerated attention to form, and
with neglecting the subject-matter of the classics. This neglect
is attributed to their anxiety to avoid the " pagan " element in
the ancient literature. Intensely conservative in their methods,
they kept up the system of using Latin in their grammars
{and in their oral instruction) long after it had been aban-
doned by others.
The use of French- for these purposes was a characteristic of
the" Little Schools "of the Jansenistsof Port-Royal(i643-i66o).
The tex t-books prepared for them by Lancelot included
IJJJ^ not only the above-mentioned Latin grammar (1644)
but also the Mllhode grecque of 1655 and the J or din
des ratines grecques (1657), which remained in use for two cen-
turies and largely superseded the grammar of Clenardus (1636)
and the Tirocinium of Pere Labbc (1648). Greek began to decline
in the university about 1650, at the very time when the Port-
Royalists were aiming at its revival. During the brief existence
of their schools their most celebrated pupils were Tillemont
and Racine.
The Jesuits, on the other hand, claimed CorneiQe and Moliere,
as well as Descartes and Bossuet, Fontcnelle, Montesquieu and
Voltaire. Of their Latin poets the best-known were Denis Petau
(d. 1652), Rent Rapin (d. 1687) and N. E. Sanadon (d. 1733).
In 1762 the Jesuits were suppressed, and more than one hundred
schools were thus deprived of their teachers. The university
of Paris, which had prompted their suppression, and the parlia-
ment, which had carried it into effect, made every endeavour
to replace them. The university took possession of the Collegium
Claromontanum, then known as the College Louis -le Grand,
and transformed it into an icole normale. Many of the Jesuit
schools were transferred to the congregations of the Oraloirt
and the Benedictines, and to the secular clergy. On the eve of
the Revolution, out of a grand total of 562 classical schools,
384 were in the hands of the clergy and 178 in those of the
congregations.
The expulsion of the Jesuits gave a new impulse to the attacks
directed against all schemes of education in which Latin held
a prominent position. At the moment when the
university of Paris was, by the absence of its rivals,
placed in complete control of the education of France,
she found herself driven to defend the principles of
classical education against a crowd of assailants. All kinds of
devices were suggested for expediting the acquisition of Latin;
grammar was to be set aside; Latin was to be learned as a
"living language"; much attention was to be devoted to
acquiring an extensive vocabulary; and, "to save time,"
composition was to be abolished. To facilitate the reading of
Latin texts, the favourite method was the use of interlinear
translations, originally proposed by Locke, first popularized in
France by Dumarsais (1722), and in constant vogue down to the
time of the Revolution.
Early in the 18th century RoUin pleaded for the " utility
of Greek," while he described that language as the heritage of
the university of Paris. In 1753 Bcrthicr feared that in thirty
years no one would be able to read Greek. In 1768 Rolland
declared that the university, which held Greek in high honour,
nevertheless had reason to lament that her students learnt little
of the language, and he traced this decline to the fact that attend-
ance at lectures had ceased to be compulsory. Greek, however,
was still recognized as part of the examination held for the
appointment of schoolmasters.
During the iSth century, in Greek as well as in Latin, the
general aim was to reach the goal as rapidly as possible, even at
the risk of missing it altogether. On the eve of the
Revolution, France was enjoying the study of the Jjjjjl**
institutions of Greece in the attractive pages of the ^m.
Voyage du jeune Anacharsis (1780), but the study of
Greek was menaced even more than that of Latin. For fifty
years before the Revolution there was a distinct dissatisfaction
with the routine of the schools. To meet that dissatisfaction,
the teachers had accepted new subjects of study, had improved
their methods, and had simplified the learning of the dead
languages. But even this was not enough. In the study of the
classics, as in other spheres, it was revolution rather than
evolution that was loudly demanded.
The Revolution was soon followed by the long-continued
battle of the " Programmes." Under the First Republic the
schemes of Condorcet (April 1702) and J. Lakanal Fk ^ t
(February 1795) were superseded by that of P. C. F. Republic
Daunou (October 1795), which divided the pupils of
the " central schools " into three groups, according to age, with
corresponding subjects of study: (x) twelve to fourteen, — draw-
ing, natural history, Greek and Latin, and a choice of modern
languages; (2) fourteen to sixteen, — mathematics, physics,
chemistry; (3) over sixteen, — general grammar, literature,
history and constitutional law.
In July 1801, under the consulate, there were two courses, (1)
nine to twelve,— elementary knowledge, including elements of
Latin; (2) above twelve, — a higher course, with two coasmlate.
alternatives, " humanistic " studies for the " civil,"
and purely practical studies for the " military " section. The law
of the 1st of May 1802 brought the lycies into existence, the
subjects being, in Napoleon's own phrase, " mainly Latin and
mathematics."
At the Restoration (1814) the military discipline of the lycies
was replaced by the ecclesiastical discipline of the " Royal
Colleges." The reaction of 181 5-182 1 in favour of
classics was followed by the more liberal programme of JJJI!
Vatimesnil (1829), including, for those who had no
taste for a classical education, certain " special courses " (1830),
which were the germ of the enseignemeut special and the enscigne-
ment moderne.
Under Louis Philippe (1830-1848), amid all varieties of
administration there was a consistent desire to hold the balance
fairly between all the conflicting subjects of study. After the
revolution of 1848 the difficulties raised by the excessive num-
ber of subjects were solved by H. N. H. Fortoul's expedient of
" bifurcation," the alternatives being letters and science. In
1863, under Napoleon III., Victor Duruy encouraged the study of
history, and also did much for classical learning by founding the
£colc des Hautes Etudes. In 1872, under the Third Republic,
Jules Simon found time for hygiene, geography and modern
languages by abolishing Latin verse composition and
reducing the number of exercises in Latin prose, while SJl^
he insisted on the importance of studying the inner
meaning of the ancient classics. The same principles were
carried out by Jules Ferry (1880) and Paul Bert (1881-1882). In
the scheme of 1890 the Latin course of six years began with ten
hours a week and ended with four; Greek was begun a year later
with two hours, increasing to six and ending with four.
The commission of 1899, under the able chairmanship of M.
Alexandre Ribot. published an important report, which was
followed in 1902 by the scheme of M. Georges Leygucs. The
preamble includes a striking tribute to the advantages that
France had derived from the study of the classics:—
" L'ctude del'antiquite grecque ctlatine a donnl au genie francais
unc mesurc, une clarte et unc elegance incomparable*. C'cst par
die que notre philosophic, nos lettres et not artt ont brflle d'un ti
CLASSICS
459
vlf eclat; c'eet par eUe cue notre influence morale s'est exercee en
aooveraiae dans le monde. Les humanites doivent €tre protegees
centre toute atteinte et fortifiees. Elks font partie du patrimoine
* L'eaprit clasaique n'est pas . . . incompatible avec ('esprit
modcrne. II est de tou? les temps, parte qu'il est le culte de la raison
daire et librc. la recherche de la beaute harmonieuse et simple dans
toutes les manifestations de la peiuee."
By the scheme introduced in these memorable terms the
course of seven years is divided into two cycles, the first cycle (of
four years) having two parallel courses: (i) without Greek or
Latin, and (2) with Latin, and with optional Greek at the
beginning of the third year. In the second cycle (of three years)
those who have been learning both Greek and Latin, and those
who have been learning neither, continue on the same lines as
before; while those who have been learning Latin only may
cither (1) discontinue it in. favour of modern languages and
science, or (2) continue it with either. As an alternative to the
second cycle, which normally ends in the examination for the
baccalauriat, there is a shorter course, mainly founded on
modern languages or applied science and ending in a public
examination without the baccalaurial. The baccalaurial, how-
ever, has been condemned by the next minister, M. Briand, who
prefers to crown the course with the award of a school diploma
(1007).
See H. Lantotne, Histoire de Venseitnement secondaire en France
•a XVII* siide (1874); A. Sicard. Let Etudes dat liquet avant la
Revolution (1887); Saintc-Bcuve, Port-Royal, vols. i.-v. (1840-
1859), especially iii. 383-588; O. Greard, Education et instruction,
4 vols., especially " Enst-ignemcnt secondaire." vol. ii. pp. 1-00, with
conspectus of programmes in the appendix (1889); A. Ribot. La
JUforma de Censettnement secondaire (1000); G. Leygucs, Plan
aVHudes, Sec. (1902); H. H. Johnson. " Present State of Classical
Studies in France." in Classical Review (December 1907). Sec also
the English Education Department's Special Reports on Education
in France (1809). The earlier literature is best represented in
England by lvfatthew Arnold's Schools and Universities in France
(1868; new edition, 1892) and A French Eton (1864).
3. The history of education in Germany since 1500 falls into
three periods: (a) the age of the Revival of Learning and the
Reformation (1500- 1650), (b) the age of French in-
fluence ( 1 650-1 800), and (c) the 19th century.
(«) During the first twenty years of the i6lh century the
reform of Latin instruction was carried out by setting aside the
old medieval grammars, by introducing new manuals of classical
literature, mod by prescribing the study of classical authors and
the imitation of classical models. In all these points the lead was
first taken by south Germany, and by the towns along the Rhine
down to the Netherlands. The old schools and universities were
being quietly interpenetrated by the new spirit of humanism,
when the sky was suddenly darkened by the clouds of religious
conflict. In 1525-1535 there was a marked depression in the
classical studies of Germany. Erasmus, writing to W. Pirck-
heiraer in 1528, exclaims: " Wherever the spirit of Luther
prevails, learning goes to the ground. " Such a fate was, however,
averted by the intervention of Mclanchthon (d. 1560), the
praeceptor Germaniae, who was the embodiment of the
jjjj^ - spirit of the new Protestant type of education, with its
union of evangelical doctrine and humanistic culture.
Under his influence, new schools rapidly rose into being at
Magdeburg, Eislcben and Nuremberg (1521-1526). During
more than forty years of academic activity he not only provided
manuals of Latin and Greek grammar and many other text-books
that long remained in use, but he also formed for Germany a well-
trained class of learned teachers, who extended his influence
throughout the land. His principal ally as an educator and as a
writer of text-books was Camcrarius (d. 1574)- Precepts of style,
and models taken from the best Latin authors, were the means
whereby a remarkable skill in the imitation of Cicero was attained
•t Strassburg during the forty-four years of the headmastcrship of
Johannes von Sturm (d. 1589), who had himself been influenced
by the Dedisciplinis of J. L. Vives (1531), and in all his teaching
aimed at the formation of a sapiens atque doauens pietas. Latin
continued to be the living language of learning and of literature,
and a correct and elegant Latiastyle was regarded as the mark of
Tk»
an educated person. Greek was taught in all the great schools,
but became more and more confined to the study of the Greek
Testament. In 1550 it was proposed in Brunswick to
banish all " profane " authors from the schools, and in JJj^J***
1589 a competent scholar was instructed to write a m ^£ m
sacred epic on the kings of Israel as a substitute for the
works of the "pagan " poets. In 1637, when the doubts of Scaliger
and Heinsius as to the purity of the Greek of the New Testament
prompted the rector of Hamburg to introduce the study of
classical authors, any reflection on the style of the Greek Testa-
ment was bitterly resented.
The Society of Jesus was founded in 1540, and by 1600 moat
of the teachers in the Catholic schools and universities of
Germany were Jesuits. The society was " dissolved "
in 1773, but survived its dissolution. In accordance
with the Ratio Studiorum of Aqua viva (1599), which,
long remained unaltered and was only partially revised by
J. Roothaan (1832), the main subjects of instruction were the
HlUrac kumaniores diver sarum I in guar um. The chief place among
these was naturally assigned to Latin, the language of the society
and of the Roman Church. The Latin grammar in use was that
of the Jesuit rector of the school at Lisbon, Alvarez (1572).
As in the Protestant schools, the principal aim was the attainment
of doquentia. A comparatively subordinate place was assigned
to Greek, especially as the importance attributed to the Vulgate
weakened the motive for studying the original text. It was
recognized, however, that Latin itself (as Vives had said) was
" in no small need of Greek," and that, " unless Greek was
learnt in boyhood, it would hardly ever be learnt at all." The
text-book used was the Instituliones linguae Graecae of the
German Jesuit, Jacob Gretser, of Ingolstadt (c. 1590), and the
reading in the highest class included portions of Demosthenes,
Isooates, Plato, Thucydides, Homer, Hcsiod, Pindar, Gregory
of Nazianzus, Basil and Chrysostom. The Catholic and Pro-
testant schools of the 16th century succeeded, as a rule, in giving
a command over a correct Latin style and a taste for literary
form and for culture. Latin was still the language of the law-
courts and of a large part of general literature. Between
Luther and Leasing there was no great writer of German prose.
(6) In the early part of the period 1650-1800, while Latin
continued to hold the foremost place, it was ceasing to be Latin
of the strictly classical type. Greek fell still further
into the background; and Homer and Demosthenes I*?.?*
gradually gave way to the Greek Testament Between "*"
1600 and 1775 there was a great gap in the production
of new editions of the principal Greek classics. The spell was
only partially broken by J. A. Ernesti's Homer (1759 f.) and
Chr. G. Heyne's Pindar (1773 f).
The peace of Westphalia (1648) marks a distinct epoch In
the history of education in Germany. Thenceforth, education
became more modern and more secular. The long
wars of religion in Germany, as in France and England, ,
were followed by a certain indifference as to disputed
points of theology. But the modern and secular type
of education that now supervened was opposed by the pietism
of the second half of the 17th century, represented at the newly-
founded university of Halle (1694) by A. H. Francke, the pro-
fessor of Greek (d. 1727), whose influence was far greater than
that of Chr. Cellarius (d- 1 707), the founder of the first philological
Seminar (1697). Francke's contemporary, Chr. Thomasius
(d. 1728), was never weary of attacking scholarship of the old
humanistic type and everything that savoured of antiquarian
pedantry, and it was mainly his influence that made German the
language of university lectures and of scientific and learned
literature. A modern education is also the aim of the general
introduction to the nova mdhodus of Leibnitz, where the study
of Greek is recommended solely for the sake of the Greek
Testament (1666). Meanwhile, Ralichius (d. 163s) had in vain
pretended to teach Hebrew, Greek and Latin in the space of.
six months (1612), but he had the merit of maintaining that
the study of a language should begin with the study of an author.
Comcnius (d. 1671) bad proposed to teach Latin by dxti&uiAa*
Fnmcm
460
CLASSICS
JIM**
pupils in a thousand graduated phrases distributed over a
hundred instructive chapters, while the Latin authors were
banished because of their difficulty and their "paganism"
(1631). One of the catchwords of the day was to insist on a
knowledge of things instead of a knowledge of words, on " real-
ism " instead of " verbalism."
Under the influence of France the perfect courtier became
the ideal in the German education of the upper classes of
the 17th and 18th centuries. A large number of
u aristocratic schools (Ritler-Akademien) were founded,
beginning with the Collegium Illustre of Tubingen
(1589) and ending with theHohe Karlschule of Stuttgart (1775)-
In these schools, the subjects of study included mathematics
and natural sciences, geography and history, and modern
languages (especially French), with riding, fencing and dancing;
Latin assumed a subordinate place, and classical composition
in prose or verse was not considered a sufficiently courtly accom-
plishment. The youthful aristocracy were thus withdrawn
from the old Latin schools of Germany, but the aristocratic
schools vanished with the dawn of the 19th century, and the
ordinary public schools were once more frequented by the
young nobility.
(c) The Modern Period.— In the last third of the 18th century
two important movements came into play, the " naturalism "
of Rousseau and the "new humanism." While
Jummm?" R° usscau sought his ideal in a form of education and
Mm." of culture that was in close accord with nature, the
German apostles of the new humanism were convinced
that they had found that ideal completely realized in the old
Greek world. Hence the aim of education was to make young
people thoroughly " Greek," to fill them with the " Greek "
spirit, with courage and keenness in the quest of truth, and
with a devotion to all that was beautiful. The link between the
naturalism of Rousseau and the new humanism is
to be found in J.G. Herder, whose passion for all that
li Greek inspires him with almost a hatred of Latin. The new
humanism was a kind of revival of the Renaissance, which had
been retarded by the Reformation in Germany and by the
Counter-Reformation in Italy, or had at least been degraded
to the dull classicism of the schools. The new humanism
agreed with the Renaissance in its unreserved recognition of
the old classical world as a perfect pattern of culture. But,
while the Renaissance aimed at reproducing the Augustan age
of Rome, the new humanism found its golden age in Athens.
The Latin Renaissance in Italy aimed at recovering and verbally
imitating the ancient literature; the Greek Renaissance in
Germany sought inspiration from the creative originality of
Greek literature with a view to producing an original literature
m the German language. The movement had its effect on the
schools by discouraging the old classical routine of verbal
imitation, and giving a new prominence to Greek and to German.
The new humanism found a home in Gottingcn (1783) in the days
of J. M. Cesser and C. G. Heyne. It was represented at Leipzig
br Cesser's successor, Eracsti (d. 1781); and at Halle by F. A.
YoH, who in 1783 was appointed professor of education by
ZedZiu, the minister of Frederick the Great. In literature, its
safiaf names were Winckelmann, Lessing and Voss, and Herder,
fir*M and Schiller. The tide of the new movement had
I its height about 1800. Goethe and Schiller were con-
t tfcat the old Greek world was the highest revelation of
mtr. mad the universities and schools of Germany were
■M si this spirit by F. A. Wolf and his illustrious pupil,
■*"** Humboldt. In 1800-18x0 Humboldt was at the
m tattf the educational section of the Prussian Home
MsWJ'w.saA, in the brief interval of a year and a half,
■* ^^*fc th general system of education the direction
•— n , **** fcaowed (with slight exceptions) throughout
^*"^*» «- 1S10 the exomen pro JacultaU docendi
1 of a schoolmaster independent of that
_ __ The new scheme drawn up by J. W.
L W principal co-ordinated branches of
^LConun. mathematics. All four wot
studied throughout the school, Greek being begun in the fourth
of the nine classes, that corresponding to the English " third
form." The old Latin school had only one main subject, the
study of Latin style (combined with a modicum of Greek). The
new gymnasium aimed at a wider education, in which literature
was represented by Latin, Greek and German, by the side of
mathematics and natural science, history and religion. The
uniform employment of the term Gymnasium for the highest type
of a Prussian school dates from 181 2. The leaving examination
(Abgangspru/ung), instituted in that year, required Greek transla-
tion at sight, with Greek prose composition, and ability to speak
and to write Latin. In 1818-1840 the leading spirit on the
board of education was Johannes Schulzc, and a complete and
comprehensive system of education continued to be the ideal
kept in view. Such an education, however, was found in practice
to involve a prolongation of the years spent at school and a
correspondingly Liter start in life. It was also attacked on the
ground that it led to "overwork." This attack was partially
met by the scheme of 1S37. Schulze's period of prominence in
Berlin closely corresponded to that of Herbart at Kdnigsberg
(1800-1833) and Gttttingcn (1833-1841), who insisted that for
boys of eight to twelve there was no better text-book than the
Greek Odyssey, and this principle was brought into practice at
Hanover by his distinguished pupil, Ahrens.
The Prussian policy of the next period, beginning with (he
accession of Friedrich Wilhclm IV. in 1840, was to lay a new
stress on religious teaching, and to obviate the risk of overwork
resulting from the simultaneous study of all subjects by the
encouragement of specialization in a few. Ludwig Wiese's
scheme of 1856 insisted on the retention of Latin verse as well as
Latin prose, and showed less favour to natural science, but it
awakened little enthusiasm, while the attempt to revive the old
humanistic Gymnasium led to a demand for schools of a more
modern type, which issued in the recognition of the Real-
gymnasium (1859).
In the age of Bismarck, school policy in Prussia had for its aim
an increasing recognition of modern requirements. In 1875
Wicse was succeeded by Bonitz, the eminent Aristotelian
scholar, who in 1849 had introduced mathematics and natural
science into the schools of Austria, and had substituted the wide
reading of classical authors for the prevalent practice of speaking
and writing Latin. By his scheme of 1882 natural science
recovered its former position in Prussia, and the hours assignee] in
each week to Latin were diminished from 86 to 77. But neither
of the two great parties in the educational world was satisfied ;
and great expectations were aroused when the question of reform
was taken up by the German emperor, William II., in 1890.
The result of the conference of December 1800 was a compromise
between the conservatism of a majority of its members and the
forward policy of the emperor. The scheme of 1892 reduced the
number of hours assigned to Latin from 77 to 62, and laid
special stress on the German essay; but the modern training
given by the Real gymnasium was still unrecognized as an avenue
to a university education. A conference held in June 1900, in
which the speakers included Mommsen and von Wilamowitz,
Harnack and Diels, was followed by the " Kiel Decree " of the
26th of Nuvembcr. In that decree the emperor urged the equal
recognition of the classical and the modem Gymnasium, and
emphasized the importance of giving more time to Latin and to
English in both. In the teaching of Greek, " useless details "
were to be set aside, and special care devoted to the connexion
between ancient and modern culture, while, in all subjects,
attention was to be paid to the classic precept: nullum, non
mulla.
By the scheme of rooi the pupils of the Real gymnasium, the
Oberrealsehtde and the Gymnasium were admitted to the uni-
versity on equal terms in virtue of their leaving-ccrtificates, but
Greek and Latin were still required for students of classics or
divinity.
For the Gymnasium the aim of the new scheme is, In Latin,
M to supply boys with a sound basis of grammatical training,
with a view to theb understanding the more important classical
CLASSIFICATION
461
writers of Rome, and being thus Introduced to the intellectual
life and culture of the ancient world "; and, in Creek, " to give
them a sufficient knowledge of the language with a view to their
obtaining an acquaintance with some of the Greek classical
works which are distinguished both in matter and in style, and
thus gaining an insight into the intellectual life and culture of
Andent Greece." In consequence of these changes Greek is now
studied by a smaller number of boys, but with better results, and
a new lease of life has been won for the classical Gymnasium.
Lastly, by the side of the classical Gymnasium, we now have
the " German Reform Schools " of two different types, that of
Altona (dating from 1878) and that of Frankfort-on-the-Main
(1893). The leading principle in both is the postponement of the
time for learning Latin. Schools of the Frankfort type take
French as their only foreign language in the first three years of
the course, and aim at achieving in six years as much as has been
achieved by the Gymnasia in nine; and it is maintained that,
in six years, they succeed in mastering a larger amount of Latin
literature than was attempted a generation ago, even in the best
Gymnasia of the old style. It may be added that in all the
German Gymnasia, whether reformed or not, more time is given
to classic* than in the cot responding schools in England*
See F. Paulsen, Geichickt* drt itlehrten Vnterrhhii ran Austanr
des MiUtteiitri bti avj die Gegenwari mil besonderer Rucksicht ait)
den ktassiaktn Vnterii'cht (2 vols,, 2nd rd. l&tybk Das Rrairym-
naiin^t aid die hvmanistische Bitduni (18S9): D\e haheten Sihtdtn
nnd das Unrperiitotsstudium im 20. Jakrhundert (1001); '* Das
modems Bildunfpweren " in Die Kutture det ijftc avatt, voL i. f 1904} :
Das deuifthe Stidungrwesen in seiner [eschithsJichfit EntLmbrlunr
(1906] (with the literature there quoted, pp. 190-19?}, translated
by Dt T, Lortnz. German Education* Past and Present (joofl);
T. Zie^lrr, Nottrtndiikeil . . . des Reateymnasitims (Stuttgart,
1&94); r. A, Eckstein* Latei niifher una ttite ft taker Untctrukt
(iSs?); O. Kohl. " Griethitcher Unterrichl (Lm^i-imlu, 1^96)
in W. Rcin'i H&ndbuch; A, Bj u mei iter's Handotuh (Jfctoj), e&peci*
ally vol. i\ 1 (FliHory) and i. 2 (Educational Syttcmt); P. Stuljtncf,
Doj ofientfithe Unterntkirturien Dtutscktandt in dtr Gtgnvatt (too 1 1 ;
F. Seitcr, Gtrtkuhte des deutsthem Unterricktswesens (* vols^ 1906} ;
Verhandiungen of June 1900 {^nd cd., 1902)- Lehr plane, &t+ (1901);
Die Reform del noheren Schulwciens, ed. W. Lexis {1903) ; A,
Karruck'* Vvrt*&.% and W. Throw's Enaiderung (1905); H« M Cliff,
Da* hoKert Schamtsen Ventsrhlanda am Anfang dei ?o- Jahrhttndrrti
(Stuttgart, 1904); O, Sietnbart, Dufthfubtur.g des ptettisiuhen
Sxknlrefvr d* in tan* Dcutscftland (Duisburu, (904); J. Si Kippwr,
Alie Btldttne und modern* Ctdfur (Vienna, 1901); Paper* by M< £.
Sadler: (1) ' Problems in Pruwian Secondary Education" (Special
Report* of Education Dcpt.> 1809); {2) M The Unrtat in Secondary
Education in Germany and El le where " (Special Reports of Board
of Education, vol. cj, 1903); J. L. Paton, Tke Teaching of Qsssfsi
in Prussian Secondary Schools (on "German Rtfurm Schools")
(1907, Wymari. London): J. E. Russell, German Hither Schpau
(New York, 1099); and (among earlier English publication*)
Matthew Arnold's Hither School* and Universities in Germany (1874,
reprinted from Schools and Universities on Ike Continent, l&fij),
(4) In the United States of America the highest degree of
educational development has been subsequent to the Civil War.
The study of Latin begins in the " high schools," the
average age of admission being fifteen and the normal
course extending over four years. Among classical
teachers an increasing number would prefer a longer course
extending over six years for Latin, and at least three for Greek,
and some of these would assign to the elementary school the first
two of the proposed six years of Latin study. Others are content
with the late learning of Latin and prefer that it should be
preceded by a thorough study of modern languages (see Prof. B.
L Wheeler, in Baumeister's Handbuch, 1897, ii. 2, pp. 584-586).
It was mainly owing to a pamphlet issued in 187 1 by Prof.
G. M. Lane, of Harvard, that a reformed pronunciation of Latin
was adopted in all the colleges and schools of the
*j*j** United States. Some misgivings on this reform found
52^™* expression in a work on the Teaching of Latin, pub-
lished by Prof. C. E. Bennett of Cornell in 1901, a year
in which it was estimated that this pronunciation was in use by
mora than 06% of the Latin pupils in the secondary schools.
Some important statistics as to the number studying Latin
and Greek in the secondary schools were collected in 1000 by a
committee of twelve educational experts representing all parts of
the Union, with a view to a uniform course of instruction being
pursued in all classical schools. They had the advantage of the
co-operation of Dr W. T. Harris, the U.S. commissioner of
education, and they were able to report that, in all the five
groups into which they had divided the states, the number of
pupils pursuing the study of Latin and Greek showed a remark*
able advance, especially in the most progressive states of the
middle west The number learning Latin had increased from
100,144 in 1800 to 314,856 in 1899-1900, and those learning
Greek from 1 2,869 to 34,869. Thus the number learning Latin at
the later date was three times, and the number learning Greek
twice, as many as those learning Latin or Greek ten yearm
previously. But the total number in 1900 was 630,048; so that,
notwithstanding this proof of progress, the number learning
Greek in 1900 was only about one twenty-filth of the total
number, while the number learning Latin was as high as half.
The position of Greek as an " elective " or " optional " subject
(notably at Harvard), an arrangement regarded with approval by
some eminent educational authorities and with regret by others,
probably has some effect on the high schools in the small number
of those who learn Greek, and in their lower rate of increase, aa
compared with those who learn Latin. Some evidence as to the
quality of the study of those languages in the schools is supplied
by English commissioners in the Reports of the Mostly Com-
mission. Thus Mr Papillon considered that, while the teaching of
English literature was admirable, the average standard of Latin
and Greek teaching and attainment in the upper classes waa
"below that of an English public school"; he felt, however,
that the secondary schools of the United States had a " greater
variety of the curriculum to suit the practical needs of life," and
that they existed, not " for the select few," but " for the whole
people " (pp. 250 f.).
For full information see the " Two volumes of Monographs
prepared for the United States Educational Exhibit at the Paris
Exposition of 1900," edited by Dr N. Murray Butler; the Annual
Reports of the U.S. commissioner of education (Washington);
and the Reports of the Mostly Commission to tke United Stales of
America (London, 1904). Cf. statistics quoted in G. G. Ramsay's
" Address on Efficiency in Education " (Glasgow, 190a, 17-20), from
the Transactions of tke Amer. Pkilol. Association, xxx. (1899),
pp. Ixxvii-cxxii; also Bennett and Bristol, The Teaching of Latin
and Creek in tke Secondary School (New York, 1901). (J- E. S.*)
CLASSIFICATION (Lat. das sis, a class, probably from the
root col', da-, as in Gr. koXcw, clamor), a logical process, common
to all the special sciences and to knowledge in general, consisting
in the collection under a common name of a number of objects
which are alike in one or more respects. The process consists
in observing the objects and abstracting from their various
qualities that characteristic which they have in common. This
characteristic constitutes the definition of the " class " to which
they are regarded as belonging . It is this process by which we'
arrive first at "species "and then at" genus," ».«. at all scientific
generalization. Individual things, regarded as such, constitute
a mere aggregate, unconnected with one another, and so far
unexplained; scientific knowledge consists in systems tic classi-
fication. Thus if we observe the heavenly bodies individually
we can state merely that they have been observed to have certain
motions through the sky, that they are luminous, and the like.
If, however, we compare them one with another, we discover
that, whereas all partake in the general movement of the heavens,
some have a movement of their own. Thus we arrive at a system
of classification according to motion, by which fixed stars are
differentiated from planets. A further classification according
to other criteria gives us stars of the first magnitude and stars
of the second magnitude, and so forth. We thus arrive at a
systematic understanding expressed in laws by the application
of which accurate forecasts of celestial phenomena can be made.
Classification in the strict logical sense consists in discovering
the casual interrelation of natural objects; it thus differs from
what is often called "artificial" classification, which is the
preparation, e.g. of statistics for particular purposes, adminis-
trative and the like.
Of the systems of classification adopted in physical science^
only one requires treatment bete* cutiaaVit^Qfc 3^vSy* S*» »«h
462
CLASTIDIUM— CLAUDE, J.
the sciences as a whole, a problem which has from the time of
Aristotle attracted considerable attention. Its object is to
delimit the spheres of influence of the positive sciences and show
how they are mutually related. Of such attempts three are
specially noteworthy, those of Francis Bacon, Auguste Comte
and Herbert Spencer.
Bacon's classification is based on the subjective criterion of
the various faculties which are specially concerned. He thus
distinguished History (natural, civil, literary, ecclesiastical) as
the province of memory, Philosophy (including Theology) as
that of reason, and Poetry, Fables and the like, as that of
imagination. This classification was made the basis of the
EncycUpidie. Comte adopted an entirely different system based
on an objective criterion. Having first enunciated the theory
that all science passes through three stages, theological, meta-
physical and positive, he neglects the two first, and divides the
last according to the " things to be classified," in view of their
real affinity anc\ natural connexions, into six, in order of decreas-
ing generality and increasing complexity—mathematics, astro-
nomy, physics, chemistry, physiology and biology (including
psychology), and sociology. This he conceives to be not only
the logical, but also the historical, order of development, from
the abstract and purely deductive to the concrete and inductive).
Sociology is thus the highest, most complex, and most positive
of the sciences. Herbert Spencer, condemning this division as
both incomplete and theoretically unsound, adopted a three-fold
division into ( 1) abstract science (including logic and mathematics)
dealing with the universal forms under which all knowledge of
phenomena is possible, (2) abstract-concrete science (including
mechanics, chemistry, physics), dealing with the elements of
phenomena themselves, i.e. laws of forces as deducible from
the persistence of forces, and (3) concrete science {e.g. astronomy,
biology, sociology), dealing with "phenomena themselves in
their totalities," the universal laws of the continuous redistribu-
tion of Matter and Motion, Evolution and Dissolution.
Beside the above three systems several others deserve brief
mention. In Greece at the dawn of systematic thought the
physical sciences were few in number; none the less philosophers
were not agreed as to their true relation. The Platonic school
adopted a triple classification, physics, ethics and dialectics;
Aristotle's system was more complicated, nor do we know
precisely how he subdivided his three main classes, theoretical,
practical and poetical (i.e. technical, having to do with irobpts,
creative). The second class covered ethics and politics, the
latter of which was often regarded by Aristotle as including
ethics; the third includes the useful and the imitative sciences;
the first includes metaphysics and physics. As regards pure
logic Aristotle sometimes seems to include it with metaphysics
and physics, sometimes to regard it as ancillary to all the sciences.
Thomas Hobbes (Leviathan) drew up an elaborate paradigm
of the sciences, the first stage of which was a dichotomy into
" Naturall Philosophy " (" consequences from the accidents
of bodies naturall ") and " Politique* and Civill Philosophy "
("consequences from accidents of Politique bodies"). The
former by successive subdivisions is reduced to eighteen special
sciences; the latter is subdivided into the rights and duties of
sovereign powers, and those of the subject
Jeremy Bentham and A. M. Amptre both drew up elaborate
systems based on the principle of dichotomy, and beginning
from the distinction of mind and body. Bentham invented
an artificial terminology which is rather curious than valuable.
The science of the body was Somatology, that of the mind Pnetf-
matology. The former include Posology (science of quantity,
mathematics) and Poiology (science of quality); Posology
includes Morphoscopic(geometry)and Alegomorphic(arithrnetic).
See further Bentham 'a Ckrestomathia and works quoted under
Bentham, Jemmy.
Carl Wundt criticised most of these systems as taking too little
account of the real facts, and preferred a classification based on
the standpoint of the various sciences towards their subject-
matter. His system may, therefore, be described as conceptional.
Jt dht ingx iis hst philosophy, which deals with tacts in their widest
universal relations, from the special sciences, which consider
facts in the light of a particular relation or set of relations.
All these systems have a certain value, and are interesting
as throwing light on the views of those who invented them. It
will be seen, however, that none can lay claim to unique- validity.
The fundamenta divisionis, though in themselves more or less
logical, are quite arbitrarily chosen, generally as being germane
to a preconceived philosophical or scientific theory.
CLASTIDIUM (mod. Casteggio), a village of the Anamares,
in Gallia Cispadana, on the Via Posturaia, 5 m. £. of Iria
(mod. Voghera) and 31 m. W. of Placcntia. Here in 222 B.C.
M. Claudius Marcellus defeated the Gauls and won the spolia
opt ma; in 318 Hannibal took it and its stores of corn by
treachery. It never had an independent government, and not
later than xoo B.C. was made part of the colony of Placentia
(founded 2x9). In the Augustan division of Italy, however,
Placentia belonged to the 8th region, Aemilia, whereas Iria
certainly, and Clastidium possibly, belonged to the oth,Liguria
(see Th. Mommsen in Corp. Insert p. Lot. vol. v. Berlin, 1877,
p. 828). The remains visible at Clastidium are scanty; there
is a fountain (the Fontana d'Annibale), and a Roman bridge,
which seems .to have been constructed of tiles, not of stone,
was discovered in 1857, but destroyed.
See C. Giulietti, Casteggio, notizie storiche II. Avanti di antichta
(Voghera. 1893).
CLAUBERG, JOHANN (1622-1665), German philosopher,
was born at Solingen, in Westphalia, on the 24th of February
1622. After travelling in France and England, he studied the
Cartesian philosophy under John Racy at Leiden. He became
(1649) professor of philosophy and theology at Herborn, but
subsequently (1651), in consequence of the jealousy of his
colleagues, accepted an invitation to a similar post at Duisburg,
where he died on the 31st of January 1665. Clauberg was one
of the earliest teachers of the new doctrines in Germany and an
exact and methodical commentator on his master's writings.
His theory of the connexion between the soul and the body is
in some respects analogous to that of Malebranche; but he is
not therefore to be regarded as a true forerunner of Occasionalism,
as he uses " Occasion " for the stimulus which directly produces
a mental phenomenon, without postulating the intervention
of God (H. Mflller, /. Clauberg und seine Stellung im Cartes ia-
nismus). His view of the relation of God to his creatures is held
to foreshadow the pantheism of Spinoza. All creatures exist
only through the continuous creative energy of the Divine
Being, and are no more independent of his will than are our
thoughts independent of us,— or rather less, for there are thoughts
which force themselves upon us whether we will or not. For
metaphysics Clauberg suggested the names ontosophy or ontology,
the latter being afterwards adopted by Wolff. He also devoted
considerable attention to the German languages, and his re-
searches in this direction attracted the favourable notice of
Leibnitz. His chief works are: De conjunctione aninute et
corporis kumani; Bxercitationes centum de cognhione Dei et
nostri; Logic* vetus et nova; Iniiiotio pkilosophi, sen Dubitatio
Cartesiana; a commentary on Descartes' Meditations} and
Ars etymologica Teutonum.
A collected edition of his philosophical works was published at
Amsterdam (1691), with life by H. C. Hennin; see also £. Zellcr.
GesckickU der deutsdum Philosophic soil Ltibniit (1873).
CLAUDS, JEAN (16x0-1687). French Protestant divine, was
born at La Sauvetat-du-Dropt near Agen. After studying at
Montauban, he entered the ministry in 1645. He was for eight
years professor of theology in the Protestant college of Ntmes;
but in 1661, having successfully opposed a scheme for re-uniting
Catholics and Protestants, he was forbidden to preach in Lower
Languedoc. In 166* he obtained a post at Montauban similar
to that which be had lost; but after four years be was removed
from this also. He next became pastor at Charenton near Paris,
where he engaged in controversies with Pierre Nicole (Riponse
aux deux traiUs intitules la perpituiti de la foi. 1665), Antoine
Arnauld (Riponse au livre de M. Arnauld, 1670), and J. B.
Bossuet (Riponse an Ime 4a Af. VMque 4a Jfaossc, 1683).
CLAUDE OF LORRAINE -CLAUDIANUS
^
Un the evocation of th«_ c]m t of .Varies ho n\d to HulUnd, and
received a pension from William of Orange, who commissioned
him to write an account o! the persecuted Huguenots (Plotutes
des protestants cruelUment opprimis dans le royaunu dt France,
1686). The book was translated into English, but by order of
James II. both the translation and the original were publicly
burnt by the common hangman on the 5th of May 1686, as
containing " expressions scandalous to His Majesty the king of
France." Other works by him were Rtponse au litre de P. Nouel
far Peucharislie (1668); CEuircs posthumes (Amsterdam, 1688),
containing the Traitt de la composition d'un sermon, translated
into English in 1778.
See biographies by J. P. Niceron and Abel Rot ho! f dc la Devrze;
E. Haag, La France proleslante, vol. iv. (1884, new edition).
CLAUDE OF LORRAINE, or Claude Gelee (1600-1682),
French landscape-painter, was born of very poor parents at the
village of Chamagnc in Lorraine. When it was discovered that
he made no progress at school, he was apprenticed, it is commonly
said, to a pastry-cook, but this is extremely dubious. At the
age of twelve, being left an orphan, he went to live at Freiburg
on the Rhine with an elder brother, Jean Gelee, a wood-carver
of moderate merit, and under him he designed arabesques and
foliage. He afterwards rambled to Rome to seek a livelihood ,
but from his clownish ncss and ignorance of the language, he
failed to obtain permanent employment. He next went to
Naples, to study landscape painting under Godfrey Waals, a
painter of much repute. With him he remained two years;
then he returned to Rome, and was domesticated until April
1615 with another landscape-painter, Augustin Tassi, who hired
him to grind his colours and to do all the household drudgery.
His master, hoping to make Claude serviceable in some of his
greatest works, advanced him in the rules of perspective and the
elements of design. Under his tuition the mind of Claude began
to expand, and he devoted himself to artistic study with great
eagerness. He exerted his utmost industry to explore the true
principles of painting by an incessant examination of nature;
and for this purpose he made his studies in the open fields, where
he very frequently remained from sunrise till sunset, watching
the effect of the shifting light upon the landscape. He generally
sketched whatever he thought beautiful or striking, marking
every tinge of light with a similar colour; from these sketches
he perfected his landscapes. Leaving Tassi, he made a tour in
Italy, France and a part of Germany, including his native
Lorraine, suffering numerous misadventures by the way. Karl
Dervent, painter to the duke of Lorraine, kept him as assistant
for a year; and he painted at Nancy the architectural subjects
on the ceiling of the Carmelite church. He did not, however,
relish this employment, and in 1627 returned to Rome. Here,
painting two landscapes for Cardinal Bcntivoglio, he earned
the protection of Pope Urban VIII. and from about 1637 he
rapidly rose into celebrity. Claude was acquainted not only
with the facts, but also with the laws of nature; and the German
painter Joachim von Sandrart relates that he used to explain,
as they walked together through the fields, the causes of the
different appearances of the same landscape at different hours of
the day, from the reflections or refractions of light, or from the
morning and evening dews or vapours, with all the precision of
a natural philosopher. He elaborated his pictures with great
care; and if any performance fell short of his ideal, he altered,
erased and repainted it several times over.
His skies are aerial and full of lustre, and every object har-
moniously illumined. His distances and colouring arc delicate,
and his tints have a sweetness and variety till then unexampled.
He frequently gave an uncommon tenderness to his finished trees
by glazing. His figures, however, are very indifferent; but he
was so conscious of his deficiency in this respect, that he usually
engaged other artists to paint them for him, among whom wcie
Courtoisand Filippo Lauri. Indeed, he was wont to say that he
told his landscapes and gave away his figures. In order to avoid
a repetition of the same subject, and also to detect the very
numerous spurious copies of Jus works, he made tinted outline
drawings (in six paper books prepared for this purpose) of all
thuse pklures which were transmitted to different counlri
and on the back of each drawing he wrote the name of 1
purchaser. These books he named Libri diver it*. Thisvalua
work (now belonging to the duke of Devonshire)ha» been engrai
and published, and has always been highly esteemed by slude
of the art of landscape. Claude, who had suffered much fn
gout, died in Rome at the age of eighty-two, on the 21st
perhaps the 23rd) of November 1682, leaving his wealth, wh
was considerable, between his only surviving relatives, a nepfa
and an adopted daughter (? niece).
Many choice specimens of his genius may be seen in 1
National Gallery and in the Louvre; the landscapes in l
Altieri and Colonna palaces in Rome are also of especial celebri
A list has been printed showing no less than 92 examples in 1
various public galleries of Europe. He himself regarded a laj
scape which he painted in the Villa Madama, being a cento
various views with great abundance and variety of leafage, a
a composition of Esther arid Ahasuerus, as his finest works; I
former he refused to sell, although Clement IX. offered to op
its surface with gold pieces. He etched a series of twenty-eij
Jandscapes, fine impressions of which are greatly prized. F
of amenity, and deeply sensitive to the graces of nature, Clai
was long deemed the prince of landscape painters, and be mi
always be accounted a prime leader in that form of art, a
in his day a great enlarger and refiner of its province.
Claude was a man of amiable and simple character, very Id
to his pupils, a patient and unwearied worker; in his own sph
of study, his mind was stored (as wc have seen) with obscrvali
and knowledge, but he continued an unlettered man till
death. Famous and highly patronized though he was in all
later years, he seems to have been very little known to his broil
artists, with the single exception of Sandrart. This paintei
the chief direct authority for the facts of Claude'.* life (Acaden
Arlis Picloriae, 1683); Baldinucci, who obtained informatj
from some of Claude's immediate survivors, relates varic
incidents to a different effect {Notizie dci projessori del disctno
Sec also Victor Cousin. Sur Claude Gtlte (1853); M. F. SwceU
Claude Lor rain (1878); Lady Dilke, Claude Lor rain (1884).
(W. M. R.]
CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANCOIS JEAN (1 797-1867), Frcr
photographer, was born at Lyons on the 12th of August 17*
Having acquired a share in L. J. M. Daguerre's invention, he «
one of the first to practise daguerreotype portraiture in Englai
ami he improved the sensitizing process by using chlorine
addition to iodine, thus gaining greater rapidity of action.
1848 he produced the photographometcr, an instrument design
to measure the intensity of photogenic rays; and in 1849
brought out the focimeter, for securing a perfect focus in phol
graphic portraiture. He was elected a fellow of the Roj
Society in 1853, and in 1858 he produced the stereomonosco]
in reply to a challenge from Sir David Brewster. He died
London on the 27th of December 1867.
CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS, Latin epic poet and panegyri
flourished during the reign of Arcadius and Honorius. He «
an Egyptian by birth, probably an Alexandrian, but it may
conjectured from his name and his mastery of Latin that he' v
of Roman extraction. His own authority has been assumed!
the assertion that his first poetical compositions were in Grei
and that he had written nothing in Latin before ad. 395; fa
this seems improbable, and the passage (Carm. Min. xli. 1
which is taken to prove it does not necessarily bear this meanir
In that year he appears to have come to Rome, and made I
debut as a Latin pool by a panegyric on the consulship of 01>bri
and Probinus, the first brothers not belonging to the imper
family who had ever simultaneously filled the office of consi
This piece proved the precursor of the series of panegyrical poet
which compose the bulk of his writings. In Birt's edition
complete chronological list of Claudian's poems is given, ai
also in J. B. Bury's edition of Gibbon (iii. app. i. p. 485), whe
the dates given differ slightly from those in the present article.
In 396 appeared the encomium on the third consulship of t
emperor Honorius, and the egvcoaNSat *&i«^ta& sK^m&q&nrv,
4^4
CLAUDIUS
unworthy minister of Arcadius at Constantinople. This revolu-
tion was principally effected by the contrivance of Stilicho, the
great general and minister of Honorius. Claudian's poem appears
to have obtained his patronage, or rather perhaps that of his wife
Serena, by whose interposition the poet was within a year or two
enabled to contract a wealthy marriage in Africa (Epist. 2).
Previously to this event he had produced (308) his panegyric on
the fourth consulship of Honorius, his epithalaraium. on the
marriage of Honorius to Stilicho's daughter, Maria, and his poem
on the Cildonic war, celebrating the repression of a revolt in
Africa. To these succeeded his piece on the consulship of
Manlius Theodorus (309), the unfinished or mutilated invective
against the Byzantine prime minister Eutropiusinthesame year,
the epics on Stilicho's first consulship and on his repulse of Alaric
(400 and 403), and the panegyric on the sixth consulship of
• Honorius (404). From this time all trace of Claudian is lost, and
he is generally supposed to have perished with his patron Stilicho
in 408. It may be conjectured that he must have died in 404, as
he could hardly otherwise have omitted to celebrate the greatest
of Stilicho's achievements, the destruction of the barbarian host
led by Radagaisus in the following year. On the other hand, he
may have survived Stilicho, as in the dedication to the second
book of his epic on the Rape of Proserpine (which Birt, however,
assigns to 395-397) > he speaks of his disuse of poetry in terms
hardly reconcilable with the fertility which he displayed during
his patron's lifetime. From the manner in which Augustine
alludes to him in his De civilate Dei, it may be inferred that he
was no longer living at the date of the composition of that work,
between 415 and 4*8.
Besides Claudian's chief poems, his lively Fescennines on the
emperor's marriage, his panegyric on Serena, and the Giganto-
machia, a fragment of an unfinished Greek epic, may also be
mentioned. Several poems expressing Christian sentiments are
undoubtedly spurious. Claudian's paganism, however, neither
prevented his celebrating Christian rulers and magistrates nor his
enjoying the distinction of a court laureate. It is probable tha t he
was nominally a Christian, like his patron Stilicho and Alison i us,
although at heart attached to the old religion. The very decided
statements of Orosius and Augustine as to his heathenism may be
explained by the pagan style of Claudian's political poems. Wc
have his own authority for his having been honoured by a bronze
statue in the forum, and Pomponius Laetus discovered in the
15th century an inscription (C./.L. vi. 17 10) on the pedestal,
which, formerly considered spurious, is now generally regarded as
genuine.
The position of Claudian— the last of the Roman poets—is
unique in literature. It is sufficiently remarkable that, after
nearly three centuries of torpor, the Latin muse should have
experienced any revival in the age of Honorius, nothing less than
amazing that this revival should have been the work of a foreigner,
most surprising of all that a just and enduring celebrity should
have been gained by official panegyrics on the generally un-
interesting transactions of an inglorious epoch. The first of these
particulars bespeaks Claudian's taste, rising superior to the
prevailing barbarism, the second his command of language, the
third his rhetorical skill. As remarked by Gibbon, " he was
endowed with the rare and precious talent of raising the meanest,
of adorning the most barren, and of diversifying the most
similar topics." This gift is especially displayed in his poem on
the downfall of Rufinus, where the punishment of a public male-
factor is exalted to the dignity of an epical subject by the
magnificence of diction and the ostentation of supernatural
machinery. The noble exordium, in which the fate of Rufinus is
propounded as the vindication of divine justice, places the subject
at once on a dignified level; and the council of the infernal
powers has afforded a hint to Tasso, and through him to Milton.
The inevitable monotony of the panegyrics on Honorius is
relieved by just and brilliant expatiation on the duties of a
sovereign. In his celebration of Stilicho's victories Claudian
found a subject more worthy of his powers, and some passages,
such as the description of the flight of Alaric, and of Stilicho's
•Rival at Rome, and the felicitous parallel between his triumphs J
and those of Marius, rank among the brightest ornaments of
Latin poetry. Claudian's panegyric, however lavish and
regardless of veracity, is in general far less offensive than usual in
his age, a circumstance attributable partly to his more refined
taste and partly to the genuine merit of his patron Stilicho.
He is a valuable authority for the history of his times, and is
rarely to be convicted of serious inaccuracy in his facts, whatever
may be thought of the colouring he chooses to impart to them.
He was animated by true patriotic feeling, in the shape of a
reverence for Rome as the source and symbol of law, order and
civilization. Outside the sphere of actual life he is less successful;
his Rape of Proserpine, though the beauties of detail are ai
great as usual, betrays his deficiency in the creative power
requisite for dealing with a purely ideal subject. This denotes
the rhetorician rather than the poet, and in general it may be said
that his especial gifts of vivid natural description, and of copious
illustration, derived from extensive but not cumbrous erudition,
are fully as appropriate to eloquence as to poetry. In the
general cast of his mind and character of his writings, and
especially, in his faculty for bestowing enduring interest upon
occasional themes, we may fitly compare him with Dryden,
remembering that while Dryden exulted in the energy of a
vigorous and fast-developing language, Claudian was cramped
by an artificial diction, confined to the literary class.
The editio princeps of Claudian was printed at Vicenza in 1482;
me editions of J. M. Gesncr (1759) and P. Burmann (1760) are still
valuable for their notes. The first critical edition was that of L
eep (1876-1879), now superseded by the exhaustive work of T.
liirt, with bibliography* in Nonumrnto Cermaniae HiitQrica (t t
1892; smaller ed. founded an this by J. Koch. Ten brier serie*, 180J)*
There is a separate edit ion wich commentary arid verse translation of
// Ratio di Prosperpina, by L Garees de Dicz f 1889)- the satire /a
EulroPium is discussed by T. Dirt in Zmi poliiixk* Saiirtn da a'ttn
Rom (1888). There is a complete Engtith verse translation ot little
merit by A. Hawkins (1817), Sec the ankle* by Ramtay in Smith 1
Classical Dictionary and Vo timer in Pauly-Wisfowa's RcalfHcyd^
pddie der dastischen Aturlumsviisensclmff, iiu 2 (1849); also
J. H. E. Crecs, Claudian as an Historian ( 1908). the " h Cambridge
Historical Essay" for 1906 (Na 17); T. Hodglcin. Claudian, the hit
of the Roman Poets (1875).
CLAUDIUS [Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Geruanicus],
Roman emperor a.d. 41-54. son of Drusus and Antonia, nephew
of the emperor Tiberius, and grandson of Li via, the wife of
Augustus, was born at Lugdunum (Lyons) on the 1st of August
zo B.C. During his boyhood he was treated with contempt,
owing to his weak and timid character and his natural infirmities;
the fact that he was regarded as little better than an imbecile
saved him from death at the hands of Caligula. He chiefly devoted
himself to literature, especially history, and until his accession
he took no real part in public affairs, though Caligula honoured
him with the dignity of consul. He was four times married:
to Plautia Urgulanilla, whom he divorced because he suspected
her of designs against his life; to Aelia Petina, also divorced;
to the infamous Valeria Messallina (q.v.); and to his niece
Agrippina.
In a.d. 41, on the murder of Caligula, Claudius was seized
by the praetorians, and declared emperor. The senate, which
had entertained the idea of restoring the republic, was obliged
to acquiesce. One of Claudius's first acts was to proclaim an
amnesty for all except Cassius Chaerca, the assassin of his pre-
decessor, and one or two others. After the discovery of a
conspiracy against his life in 42, he fell completely under the
influence of Messallina and his favourite freed men Pallas and
Narcissus, who must be held responsible for acts of cruelty
which have brought undeserved odium upon the emperor.
There is no doubt that Claudius was a liberal-minded man of
kindly nature, anxious for the welfare of his people. Humane
regulations were made in regard to frcedmen, slaves, widows
and orphans; the police system was admirably organized ;
commerce was put on a sound footing; the provinces were
governed in a spirit of liberality; the rights of citizens and
admission to the senate were extended to communities outside
Italy. The speech of Claudius delivered (in the year 48) in the
senate in support of the petition of the Aeduans that their
teuton should have the jus petendorum konorum (claim of
CLAUDIUS
465
admission to the senate and magistracies) at Rome has been
partly preserved on ihe fragment of a bronze tablet found at
Lyons in 1524; an imperial edict concerning the citizenship of
the Anaunians ( 1 5th of March 46) was found in the southern
Tirol in 1S69 (CJ.L. v. 5050). Claudius was especially fond
of building. He completed the great aqueduct (Aqua Claudia)
begun by Caligula, drained the Locus Fucinus, and built the
harbour of Ostia. Nor were his military operations unsuccessful.
Mauretania was made a Roman province; the conquest of
Britain was begun; his distinguished general Doinitius Corbulo
(?.».) gained considerable successes in Germany and the East.
The intrigues of Narcissus caused Messallina to be put to death
by order of Claudius, who took as his fourth wife his niece
Agrippina, a woman as criminal as any of her predecessors.
She prevailed upon him to set aside his own son Britannicus in
favour of Nero, her son by a former marriage; and in 54, to
make Nero's position secure, she put the emperor to death by
poison. The apotheosis of Claudius was the subject of a lampoon
by Seneca called apokdokyntosis, the " pumpkiniiication " of
Claudius.
Claudius was a prolific writer, chiefly on history, but his
works are lost. He wrote (in Greek ) a history of Carthage and
t history of Etruria: (in Latin) a history of Rome from the
death of Caesar, an autobiography, and an essay in defence of
Cicero against the attacks of Asinius Gall us. He also introduced
three new letters into the Latin alphabet: J for the consonantal
V, ) for BS and PS, \ for the intermediate sound between I
andU.
Authorities.— Ancient : the Annals of Tacitus, Suetonius and
Dio Cassius. Modern: H. Lchmann, Claudius und seine Zeit, with
introductory chapter on the ancient authorities (185A); Lucien
Double. L'Empereur Claude (1876); A. Ziecler, Die politiseke Seite
dtr RegUruntits Kaisers Claudius (1885) ; H. F. Pel ham in Quarterly
Amino (April 1905), where certain administrative and political
changes introduced by Claudius, for which he was attacked by his
contemporaries, arc discussed and defended: Mcrivale, Hi it. of
the Romans under the Empire, chs. 40, 50; II. Schiller. Cesehichte
ier tomtiscken Kaiserseit, i., pt. 1 ; H. Furneaux's ed. of the Annals
of Tacitus (introduction).
CLAUDIUS, the name of a famous Roman gens. The by-form
Cisdius, in its origin a mere orthographical variant, was regularly
used for certain Claudii in late republican times, but otherwise
the two forms were used indifferently. The gens contained a
patrician and a plebeian family; the chief representatives of
the former were the Pulchri, of the latter the Marcelli (see
Maicellus). The following members of the gens deserve
particular mention.
1. Appius Sabinus Inrecilleksis, or Regillensis, Claudius,
to called from Rcgillum (or Regilli) in Sabine territory, founder
of the Claudian gens. His original name was Attus or Atlius
Qausus. About 504 B.C. he settled in Rome, where he and his
followers formed a tribe. In 49s he was consul, and his cruel
enforcement of the laws of debtor and creditor, in opposition to
his milder colleague, P. Scrvilius Priscus, was one of the chief
causes of the " secession " of the plebs to the Sacred Mount. On
several occasions he displayed his hatred of the people, although
it is stated that he subsequently played the part of mediator.
Suetonius, Tiberius, !.; Livy ii. 16-39; Dion. Halic. v. 40, vi.
•3.24-
a. Claudius, Appius, surnamed Crassus, a Roman patrician,
Consul in 471 and 451 B.C., and in the same and following year
one of the decemvirs. At first he was conspicuous for his
aristocratic pride and bitter hatred of the plebeians. Twice
thty refused to fight under him, and fled before their enemies.
He retaliated by decimating the army. He was banished, but
■000 returned, and again became consul. In the same year
(451) he was made one of the decemviri who had been appointed
to draw up a code of written laws. When it was decided to elect
decemvirs for another year, he who had formerly been looked
upon as the champion of the aristocracy, suddenly came forward
as the friend of the people, and was himself re-elected together
with several plebeians. But no sooner was the new body in
e, than it treated both patricians and plebeians with equal
, and refused to resign at the end of the year. Matters
VI. 8*
were brought to a crisis by the affair of Virginia. Enamoured
of the beautiful daughter of the plebeian centurion Virginius,
Claudius attempted to seize her by an abuse of justice. One
of his clients, Marcus Claudius, swore that she was the child of
a slave belonging to him, and had been stolen by the childless
wife of the centurion. Virginius was summoned from the army,
and on the day of trial was present to expose the conspiracy.
Nevertheless, judgment was given 'according to the evidence
of Marcus, and Claudius commanded Virginia to be given up to
him. In despair, her father seized a knife from a neighbouring
stall and plunged it in her side. A general insurrection was the
result; and the people seceded to the Sacred Mount. The
decemvirs were finally compelled to resign and Appius Claudius
died in prison, either by his own hand or by that of the execu-
tioner. For a discussion of the character of Appius Claudius,
see Mommsen's appendix to vol. i. of his History of Rome. He •
holds that Claudius was never the leader of the patrician party,
but a patrician demagogue who ended by becoming a tyrant
to patricians as well as plebeians. The decemvirate, one of
the triumphs of the plebs, could hardly have been abolished by
that body, but would naturally have been overthrown by the
patricians. The revolution which ruined Claudius was a return to
the rule of the patricians represented by the Horatii and Valcrii.
Livy UL 32-58; Dion. Halic. x. 59. xi. 3.
3. Claudius, Appius, surnamed Caecus, Roman patrician and
author. In 3 1 1 B.C. he was elected censor without having passed
through the office of consul. His censorship — which he retained
for five years, in spite of the lex Acmilia which limited the
tenure of that office to eighteen months — was remarkable for the
actual or attempted achievement of several great constitutional
changes. He filled vacancies in the senate with men of low birth,
in some cases even the sons of freed men (Diod. Sic. xx. 36;
Livy ix. 30; Suetonius, Claudius, 24). His most important
political innovation was the abolition of the old free birth,
freehold basis of suffrage. He enrolled the freedmen and
landless citizens both in the centuries and in the tribes,
and, instead of assigning them to the four urban tribes,
he distributed them through all the tribes and thus gave
them practical control of the elections. In 304, however,
Q. Fabius Rullianus limited the landless and poorer freedmen to
the four urban tribes, thus annulling the effect of Claudius's
arrangement. Appius Claudius transferred the charge of the
public worship of Hercules in the Forum Boarium from the
Potitian gens to a number of public slaves. He further invaded
the exclusive rights of the patricians by directing his secretary
Gnaeus Flavius (whom, though a freed man, he made a senator)
to publish the legis actiones (methods of legal practice) and the
list of dies fasti (or days on which legal business could be trans-
acted). Lastly, he gained enduring fame by the construction of a
road and an aqueduct, which — a thing unheard of before — he
called by his own name (Livy ix. 29; Frontinus, De Aquis,
115; Diod. Sic. xx. 36). In 307 he was elected consul for the
first time. In 298 he was interrex; in 296, as consul, he led the
army in Samnium, and although, with his colleague, he gained a
victory over the Etruscans and Samnitcs, he does not seem to
have specially distinguished himself as a soldier (Livy x. 19).
Next year he was praetor, and he was once dictator. His
character, like his namesake the decemvir's is not easy to define.
In spite of his political reforms, he opposed the admission of the
plebeians to the consulship and priestly offices; and, although
these reforms might appear to be democratic in character and
calculated to give preponderance to the lowest class of the people,
his probable aim was to strengthen the power of the magistrates
(and lessen that of the senate) by founding it on the popular will,
which would find its expression in the urban inhabitants and
could be most easily influenced by the magistrate. He was
already blind and too feeble to walk, when Cincas, the minister of
Pyrrhus, visited him, but so vigorously did he oppose every
concession that all the eloquence of Cincas was in vain, and the
Romans forgot past misfortunes in the inspiration of Claudius's
patriotism (Livy x. 13; Justin xviii. 2; Plutarch, P^rtKw*, -v«$\-
The story of his bundn*^tow*Ngt»m^\*xa.wN^ uTOfc^a^^
4 66
CLAUDIUS, M. A.— CLAUSEL
ft"
accounting for his cognomen. Tradition regarded it as the
punishment of his transference of the cult of Hercules from the
Potitii.
Appius Claudius Caccus is also remarkable as the first writer
mentioned in Roman literature. His speech against peace with
Fyrrhus was the first that was transmitted to writing, and thereby
laid the foundation of prose composition. He was the author of a
collection of aphorisms in verse mentioned by Cicero (of which a
few fragments remain), and of a legal work entitled De Usurpa-
tionibus. It is very likely also that he was concerned in the
drawing up of the Legis Actiones published by Flavius. The
famous dictum " Every man is the architect of his own fortune "
is attributed to him. He also interested himself in grammatical
questions, distinguished the two sounds R and S in writing, and
did away with the letter Z„
See Mommsen's appendix to his Roman History (vol. i.) ; treatises
by W. Siebert (1863) and F. D. Gcrlach (1872), dealing especially
with the censorship of Claudius.
4. Claudius, Publxus, sumamed Pulcbxr, son of (3). He
was the first of the gens who bore this surname. In 249 he was
consul and appointed to the command of the fleet in the first
Punic War. Instead of continuing the siege of Lilybacum, he
decided to attack the Carthaginians in the harbour of Drcpanum,
and was completely defeated. The disaster was commonly
attributed to Claudius's treatment of the sacred chickens, which
refused to eat before the battle. " Let them drink then," said
the consul, and ordered them to be thrown into the sea. Having
been recalled and ordered to appoint a dictator, he gave another
instance of his high-handedness by nominating a subordinate
official, M. Claudius Glicia, but the nomination was at once over-
ruled. Claudius himself was accused of high treason and heavily
fined. He must have died before 246, in which year his sister
Claudia was fined for publicly expressing a wish that her brother
Publius could rise from the grave to lose a second fleet and
thereby diminish the number of the people. It is supposed that
he committed suicide.
Livy, Epit., 19; Polybius i. 49; Cicero, De Divination*, 1. 16,
ii. 8; Valerius Maximus i. 4, viii. 1.
5. Claudius, Appius, sumamed Pdlcher, Roman statesman
and author. He served under his brother-in-law Lucullus in Asia
(72 B.C.) and was commissioned to deliver the ultimatum to
Tigranes, which gave him the choice of war with Rome or the
surrender of Mithradates. In 57 he was praetor, in 56 pro-
praetor in Sardinia, and in 54 consul with L. Domitius Ahcno-
barbus. Through the intervention of Pompey, he became
reconciled to Cicero, who had been greatly offended because
Claudius had indirectly opposed his return from exile. In this
and certain other transactions Claudius seems to have acted from
avaricious motives, — a result of his early poverty. In 53 he
entered upon the governorship of Cilicia, in which capacity
he seems to have been rapacious and tyrannical. During thb
period he carried on a correspondence with Cicero, whose letters
to him form the third book of the Epistolae ad Familiares.
Claudius resented the appointment of Cicero as his successor,
avoided meeting him, and even issued orders after his arrival
in the province. On his return to Rome Claudius was impeached
by P. Cornelius Dolabella on the ground of having violated the
sovereign righ ts of the people. This led him to make advances to
Cicero, since it was necessary to obtain witnesses in his favour
from his old province. He was acquitted, and a charge of
bribery against him also proved unsuccessful. In 50 he was
censor, and expelled many of the members of the senate, amongst
them the historian Sallust on the ground of immorality. His
connexioa with Pompey brought upon him the enmity of Caesar,
at whose march on Rome he fled from Italy. Having been
appointed by Pompey to the command in Greece, in obedience to
an ambiguous oracle he crossed over to Euboea, where he died
about 48, before the battle of Pharsalus. Claudius was of a
distinctly religious turn of mind, as is shown by the interest he
look in sacred bondings (the temple at Eleusis, the sanctuary of
Amphiaraus at Orapss). He wrote a work on augury, the first
book of whfcb be de&ated to Cicero. He was also extremely
superstitious, and believed in invocations of the dead. Ci
a high opinion of his intellectual powers, and consider*
great orator (see Orelli, Onomasticow TuUianum).
A full account of all the Claudii will be found in Pauly-V
Realtncydopadie der dassischtn AlUriumsunssenschaJt, iii. 2
CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AUREUUS, sumamed G<
Roman emperor aj>. 268-270, belonged to an obscure
family. On account of his military ability he was p
command of an army by Decius; and Valerian appoir
general on the Illyrian frontier, and ruler of the pro vine
lower Danube. During the reign of Gallienus, he was <
Italy in order to crush Aureolus; and on the death
emperor (268) he was chosen as his successor, in ace
it was said, with his express desire. Shortly after his a
he routed the Alamanni on the Lacus Benacus (some
thrown upon this); in 269 a great victory over the (
Nalssus in Moesia gained him the title of Gothicus.
following year he died of the plague at Sirmium, in I
sixth year. He enjoyed great popularity, and appears
been a man of ability and character.
His life was written by Trcbellius Poltio, one of the 5
Historiae Auguslae; see also Zosimus i. 40-43, the historic
Bernhardt and H. Schiller, and special dissertations by A.
on the life of Claudius (1868) and the defeat of the Alamanni (
des Vereins fur nassauische Alter tumskunde, 1879); He
Claudio Gothico (i960); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopt
3458 ff. (1 Icruc).
CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (1740-1815), German poet
wise known by the nom de plume of Asm us, was born on 1
of August 1740 at Reinfcld, near Lilbcck, and studied t
He spent the greater part of his life in the little town of
beck, near Hamburg, where he earned his first literary rej
by editing from 1 77 1 to 1 775, a newspaper called the Wan
Bote (Wandsbcck Messenger), in which he published
number of prose essays and poems. They were written
and simple German, and appealed to the popular taste; i
there was a vein of extravagant humour or even bu
while others were full of quiet meditation and solemn see
In his later days, perhaps through the influence of Klc
with whom he had formed an intimate acquaintance, C
became strongly pictistic, and the graver side of his
showed itself. In 18x4 he removed to Hamburg, to Lh
of his son-in-law, the publisher Friedrich Christoph ]
where he died on the 21st of January 1815.
Claudius's collected works were published under the
Asmus omnia sua secum portans, odcr Samlliche Werhe des
becker Boten (8 vols., 1775-1812; 13th edition, by C. Redich,
1902). His biography has been written by Wilhelm Hcrbst (
1878). See also M. Schneidcrcit, M. Claudius, seine Weltanst
und Lebensweiskeit (1898).
CLAUSEL (more correctly Clauzel), BERTRAND,
(1772-1842), marshal of France, was born at Mircpoix (
on the 1 2th of December 1772, and served in the first ca
of the French Revolutionary Wars as one of the volun
1 791. In June 1795, having distinguished himself rep
in the war on the northern frontier (1792-1793) and the 1
in the eastern Pyrenees (1793-1704), Clause! was made a
of brigade. In thb rank be served in Italy in 1798 am
and in the disastrous campaign of the latter year he wo
distinction at the battles of the Trebbia and of Novi. ]
he served in the expedition to S. Domingo. He became a
of division in December 1802, and after his return to Fr
was in almost continuous military employment there 1
1806 he was sent to the army of Naples. Soon after this N;
made him a grand officer of the Legion of Honour. In 1 8c
he was with Marmont in Dalmatia, and at the close of :
was appointed to a command in the army of Portugal
Masslna.
Clauscl took part in the Peninsular campaigns of 1810 an
including the Torres Vcdras campaign, and under Mam
did excellent service in re-establishing the discipline, eC
and mobility of the army, which had suffered severely
retreat from Torres Vedras. In the Salamanca campaign
the result of CUuseTi work was shows in the marching
CLAUSEN— CLAUSEWITZ
4.67
of the French, and at the battle of Salamanca, Clause], who had
su cc ee ded to the command on Marmont-being wounded, and had
himself received a severe wound, drew off his army with the
greatest skill, the retreat on Burgos being conducted by him in
such a way that the pursuers failed to make the slightest impres-
sion, and had themselves in the end to retire from the siege of
Burgos (181 2). Early in 1813 ClauscI was made commander
of the Army of the North in Spain, but he was unable to avert
the great disaster of Vittoria. Under the supreme command of
Soult he served through the rest of the Peninsular War with
unvarying distinction. On the first restoration in 1814 he
submitted unwillingly to the Bourbons, and when Napoleon
returned to France, he hastened to join him. During, the
Hundred Days he was in command of an army defending the
Fyrcncan frontier. Even after Waterloo he long refused to
recognise the restored government, and he escaped to America,
being condemned to death in absence. lie took the first oppor-
tunity of returning to aid the Liberals in France (1820), sat in
the chamber of deputies from 1827 to 1830, and after the revolu-
tion of 1830 was at once given a military command. At the head
of the army of Algiers, Clausel made a successful campaign,
bat he was soon recalled by the home government, which desired
to avoid complications in Algeria. At the same time he was
made a marshal of France (February 1831). For some four
years thereafter he urged his Algerian policy upon the chamber
of deputies, and finally in 1835 was reappointed commander-in-
chief. But after several victories, including the taking of
Mascara in 1835, the marshal met with a severe repulse at
Constantino in 1836. A change of government in France was
primarily responsible for the failure, but public opinion attributed
it to Clausel, who was recalled in February 1837. lie thereupon
retired from active service, and, after vigorously defending his
conduct before the deputies, he ceased to take part in public
affairs. He lived in complete retirement up to his death at
Secourrieu (Garonne) on the axstof April 1842.
CLAUSEN, GEORGE (1852- ), English painter, was born
b London, the son of a decorative artist. He attended the design
dasses at the South Kensington schools from 1867-1873 with
great success. He then worked in the studio of Edwin Long,
ILA., and subsequently in Paris under Bougucreau and Robert-
Fleury. He became one of the foremost modern painters of
landscape and of peasant life, influenced to a certain extent
by the impressionists with whom he shared the view that light
b the real subject of landscape art. His pictures excel in render-
ing the appearance of things under flecking outdoor sunlight,
or in the shady shelter of a barn or stable. His " Girl at the
Gate " was acquired for the nation by the Chantrey Trustees and
is now at the National Gallery of British Art (Tate Gallery).
He was elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1895, and as
professor of painting gave a memorable scries of lectures to the
students of the schools,— published as Six Lectures on Painting
(1004) a nd Aim s and J deals in Art (1906).
CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON (1 780-1831), Prussian general and
military writer, was born at Burg, near Magdeburg, on the 1st of
June 178a His family, originally Polish, had settled in Germany
at the end of the previous century. Entering the army in 1792,
he first saw service in the Rhine campaigns of 1793-1794.
receiving his commission at the siege of Mainz. On his return to
garrison duty he set to work so zealously to remedy the defects
in his education caused by his father's poverty, that in 1801 he
was admitted to the Berlin Academy for young officers, then
directed by Scharnhorst. Scharnhorst, attracted by his pupil's
industry and force of character, paid special attention to his
training, and profoundly influenced the development of his mind.
In 1803, on Scharnhorst's recommendation, Clausewitz was made
"adjutant " (aide-de-camp) to Prince August, and he served in
tms capacity in the campaign of Jena (1806), being captured
along with the prince by the French at Prenzlau. A prisoner in
France and Switzerland for the next two years, he returned
to Prussia in 2809; and for the next three years, as a depart-
Dtal chief in the ministry of war, as a teacher in the
r school, and as military instructor to the crown prince,
he assisted Scharnhorst In the famous reorganization of the
Prussian army. In x8xo he married the countess Marie von
BrUhl.
On the outbreak of the Russian war in 1812, Clausewitz, like
many other Prussian officers, took service with his country's
nominal enemy. This step he justified in a memorial, published
for the first time in the Leben Cneisenaus by Pertz (Berlin, 1869).
At first adjutant to General Phull, who had himself been a
Prussian officer, he served later under Pahlcn at Witepsk and
Smolensk, and from the final Russian position at Kaluga he
was sent to the army of Wittgenstein. It was Clausewitz who
negotiated the convention of Tauroggen, which separated the
cause of Yorck's Prussians from that of the French, and began
the War of Liberation (see Yorck von Waxtenburg; also
Blumcnthal's Die Konvcntion von Tcuroggcn, Berlin, iooi). As a
Russian officer he superintended the formation of the Landwehroi
cast Prussia (see Stein, Baron vom), and in the campaign of
1 8 1 3 served as chief of staff to Count Wallmoden. He conduc ted
the fight at Gohrde, and after the armistice, with Gneisenau's
permission, published an account of the campaign (DerFcldzug ton
18x3 bis turn IVaJenstUlstand, Leipzig, 18 13). This work was
long attributed to Gncisenau himself. After the peace of 18 14
Clausewitz re-entered the Prussian service, and in the Waterloo
campaign was present at Ligny and Wavre as General Thiclmann'a
chief of staff. This post he retained till 1818, when he was pro-
moted major-general and appointed director of the Allgemeine
Kriegssckulc. Here he remained till in 1830 he was made chief of
the 3rd Artillery Inspection at Breslau. Next year he became
chief of staff to Field-marshal Gneisenau, who commanded an
army of observation on the Polish frontier. After the dissolution
of this army Clausewitz returned to his artillery duties; but on
the 1 8th of November 183 1 he died at Breslau of cholera, which
had proved fatal to his chief also, and a little previously, to his
old Russian commander Dicbitsch on the other side of the
frontier.
His collected works were edited and published by his widow,
who was aided by some officers, personal friends of the general, in
her task. Of the ten volumes of Hinterlassene Werk§ iibcr Krieg
und Kriegfu/irung (Berlin, 1832-1837, later edition called
Clauscuritz's Gesammte Wcrbc, Berlin, 1874) the first three
contain Clausewitz 's masterpiece, Vom Kriege, an exposition
of the philosophy of war which is absolutely unrivalled. He
produced no " system " of strategy, and his critics styled his
work " negative " and asked " Qu'a-tril fondi f " What he had
" founded " was that modern strategy which, by its hold on the
Prussian mind, carried the Prussian arms to victory in 1806 and
1870 over the " systematic " strategists Krism&nic and Bazaine,
and his philosophy of war became, not only in Germany but in
many other countries, the essential basis of all serious study of
the art of war. The English and French translations (Graham,
On War, London, 1S73; Neucns, La Guerre, Paris, 1840-1852; or
Vatry, Thiorie de la grande guerre, Paris, 1899), with the German
original, place the work at the disposal of students of most
nationalities. The remaining volumes deal with military
history: vol. 4, the Italian campaign of 1796-97; vols. 5 and 6,
the campaign of 1799 in Switzerland and Italy; vol. 7, the wars
of 1812, 1813 to the armistice, and 1814; vol. 8, the Waterloo
Campaign; vols. 9 and 10, papers on the campaigns of Gustavus
Adolphus, Turcnnc, Luxemburg, Miinnich, John Sobicski,
Frederick the Great, Ferdinand of Brunswick, &c He also wrote
Vbcr das Leben und den Charakter ton Scharnhorst (printed in
Ranke's Historisch-politischcr Zcitsckrijt, 1832). A manuscript
on the catastrophe of 1806 long remained unpublished. It was
used by v. Hdpfncr in his history of that war, and eventually
published by the Great General Staff in 1888 (French translation,
1903). Letters from Clausewitz to his wife were published in
Zeitschrijl/ur preussische Landeskunde (1876). His name is borne
by the 28th Field Artillery regiment of the German army.
See Schwartz, Leben des General von ClausewitM und der Frau
Marie ton Clausewitz (2 .vol*., Berlin. 1 877); von Mcerhetmb. Karl
von Clausewitx (Berlin. 187O, also Memoir in AUgemein* deutsche
BiograpkU: Bernhardt. Leben des Generals von uamawfti <>**!*
Supplement, Miliidr. WocknUail* vWV
4 68
CLAUSIUS— CLAVICYTHERIUM
CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF JULIUS EMMANUEL (1822-1888),
German physicist, was bora on the 2nd of January 1822 at
Koslin, in Pomcrania. After attending the Gymnasium at
Stettin, he studied at Berlin University from 1840 to 1844. In
1848 he took his degree at Halle, and in 1850 was appointed
professor of physics in the royal artillery and engineering school at
Berlin. Late in the same year he delivered his inaugural lecture
as Privatdocent in the university. In 1855 he became an ordinary
professor at Zurich Polytechnic, accepting at the same time
a professorship in the university of Zurich. In 1867 he moved
to WUrzburg as professor of physics, and two years later was
appointed to the same chair at Bonn, where he died on the 24th of
August 1888. During the Franco-German War he was at the
head of an ambulance corps composed of Bonn students, and
received the Iron Cross for the services he rendered at Vionville
and Gravelotte. The work of Clausius, who was a mathematical
rather than an experimental physicist, was concerned with many
of the most abstruse problems of molecular physics. By his
restatement of Carnot's principle he put the theory of heat on a
truer and sounder basis, and he deserves the credit of having
made thermodynamics a science; he enunciated the second law,
in a paper contributed to the Berlin Academy in 1850, in the well-
known form, " Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter
body." His results he applied to an exhaustive development of
the theory of the steam-engine, laying stress in particular on the
conception of entropy. The kinetic theory of gases owes much to
his labours, Clerk Maxwell calling him its principal founder. It
was he who raised it, on the basis of the dynamical theory of heat,
to the level of a theory, and he carried out many numerical
determinations in connexion with it, e.g. of the mean free path of
a molecule. To Clausius also was due an important advance in
the theory of electrolysis, and he put forward the idea that
molecules in electrolytes are continually interchanging atoms, the
electric force not causing, but merely directing, the interchange.
This view found little favour until 18S7, when it was taken up by
S.A. Arrhenius, who made it the basis of the theory of electrolytic
dissociation. In addition to many scientific papers he wrote
Die Pdentialfunktion unddas Potential, 1864, and Abhandlungen
iiber die nuchanische Wdrwtetkeorie t 1864- 1867.
CLAUSTHAL, or Klaustiial, a town of Germany, in the
Prussian Harz, lying on a bleak plateau, i860 ft. above sea -level,
50 m. by rail W.S.W. of Halbcrstadt. Pop. (1005) 8565.
Clausthal is the chief mining town of the Upper Harz Mountains,
and practically forms one town with Zcllerfcld, which is separated
from it by a small stream, the Zellbach. The streets are broad,
opportunity for improvement having been given by fires in 2844
and 1854; the houses are mostly of wood. There are an
Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and a gymnasium.
Clausthal has a famous mining college with a raincralogical
museum, and a disused mint. Its chief mines arc silver and lead,
but it also smelts copper and a little gold. Four or five sanatoria
are in the neighbourhood. The museum of the Upper Harz is at
Zcllerfcld.
Clausthal was founded about the middle of the 12th century
in consequence probably of the erection of a Benedictine monas-
tery (closed in 1431), remains of which still exist in Zellcrfeld.
At the beginning of the 16th century the dukes of Brunswick
made a new settlement here, and under their directions the
mining, which had been begun by the monks, was carried on
more energetically. The first church was built at Clausthal in
! 570. In 2864 the control of the mines passed into the hands of
the state.
CLAVECIN, the French for davisymbal or harpsichord
(Get. ClatUymbel or Dockcnklavicr), an abbreviation of the
Flemish dnixinbal and Ital. clavicimbalo, a keyboard musical
wjjinimeni in which the strings were plucked by means of a
P**2"£» consisting of a quill mounted upon a jack.
»» riAKO»om-ii ; Harpsichord.
'k** 1 '****!*. or Gravicembalo (from Lat. clatis, key,
T?~. c ? l, J™ ,, *»«yinbai; Eng. clavicymbal, clavisymbal; Flemish,
m^-m!' ^ *"»«*«««), • keyboard musical instru-
ment w»th sirup picked by means of small quill or leather
plectra. "Cymbal" (Gr. cMfeXor, from riifai, a boDow
vessel) was the old European term for the dulcimer, and hence
its place in the formation of the word
See Pianoforte; Smnet; Virginal.
CLAVICHORD, or Clasichord (Fr. mankorde; Ger. Clavi-
chord; Ital. manicordo; Span, manicordio 1 ), a medieval stringed
keyboard instrument, a forerunner of the pianoforte (?-»•), its
strings being set in vibration by a blow from a brass tangent
instead of a hammer as in the modern instrument. The clavi-
chord, derived from the dulcimer by the addition of a keyboard,
consisted of a rectangular case, with or without legs, often very
elaborately ornamented with paintings and gilding. The earliest
instruments were small and portable, being placed upon a table
or stand. The strings, of finely drawn brass, steel or iron wire,
were stretched almost parallel with the keyboard over the
narrow belly or soundboard resting on the soundboard bridges,
often three in number, and wound as in the piano round wrest
or tuning pins set in a block at the right-hand side of the sound-
board and attached at the other end to hitch pins. The bridges
served to direct the course of the strings and to conduct the
sound waves to the soundboard. The scaling, or division of
the strings determining their vibrating length, was effected by the
position of the tangents. These tangents, small wedge-shaped
blades of brass, beaten out at the top, were inserted in the end
of the arm of the keys. As the latter were depressed by the
fingers the tangents rose to strike the strings and stop them
at the proper length from the belly-bridge. Thus the string was
set in vibration between the point of impact and the belly-bridge
just as long as the key was pressed down. The key being
released, the vibrations were instantly stopped by a list of doth
acting as damper and interwoven among the strings behind the
line of the tangents.
There were two kinds of clavichords— the fretted or gebunitn
and the fret-free or bund-jrei. The term " fretted " was applied
to those clavichords which, instead of being provided with a
siring or set of strings in unison for each note, had one set of
strings acting for three or four notes, the arms of the keys being
twisted in order to bring the contact of the tangent into the
acoustically correct position under the string. The " fret-free "
were chromatically-scaled instruments. The first bund-frei
clavichord is attributed to Daniel Faber of Crailsheim in Saxony
about 1720. This important change in construction increased
the size of the instrument, each pair of unison strings requiring
a key and tangent of its own, and led to the introduction of the
system of tuning by equal temperament upheld by J. S. Bach.
Clavichords were made with pedals. 1
The tone of the clavichord, extremely sweet and delicate,
was characterized by a tremulous hesitancy, which formed ita
great charm while rendering it suitable only for the private
music room or study. Between 1883 and 1893 renewed attention
was drawn to the instrument by A. J. Hipkins's lectures and
recitals on keyboard instruments in London, Oxford and Cam-
bridge; and Arnold Dolmetsch reintroduced the art of making
clavichords in 1894. (K. S.)
CLAVICYTHERIUM, a name usually applied to an upright
spinet (q.v.), the soundboard and strings of which were vertical
instead of horizontal, being thus perpendicular to the keyboard
but it would seem that the davicytherium proper is distinct
from the upright spinet in that its strings are placed horizontally
In the early davicytherium there was, as in the spinet, only one
string (of gut) to each key, set in vibration by means of a small
quill or leather plectrum mounted on a jack which acted as if
the spinet and harpsichord (q.v.). The davicytherium or keyed
■The words davicorde, daoicordo and daxicordio, respective!)
French, Italian and Spanish, were applied to a different type a
instrument, the spinet (q.v.).
• See Sebastian Virdung, Musica tetutsckt und auntetoten (Basel
ISM) (facsimile reprint Berlin. 188?, edited by K. £itner); J
verechuere Reynvaan, Uusijkaal Kunst-Woordenboek (Amsterdam
1795) (a very scarce book, of which the British Museum does no
possess a copy); Jacob Adlung, Musica Mechamca Oraanotd
(Berlin. 1768), vol. 11. pp. 158-9; A. J. Hipkint, Tht History of Ik
PionoJfU (London, 1896), pp. 61 and 62.
CLAVIE— CLAVIJO, R. G. DE
469
cythera or cetra, names which in the 14th and 15th centuries
had been applied somewhat indiscriminately to instruments
having strings stretched over a soundboard and plucked by
fingers or plectrum, was probably of Italian * or possibly of south
German origin. Sebastian Virdung,* writing early in the 16th
century, describes the clavicy therium as a new invention, having
gut strings, and gives an illustration of it. (See Pianotokte.) A
certain amount of uncertainty exists as to its exact construction,
due to the extreme rarity of unrestored specimens extant, and to
the almost total absence of trustworthy practical information.
In a unique specimen with two keyboards dating from the 1 6th
or 17 th century, which is in the collection of Baron Alexandre j
Kraus,* what appear to be vibrating strings stretched over a I
soundboard perpendicular to the keyboard are in reality the
wires forming part of the mechanism of the action. The arrange-
ment of this mechanism is the distinctive feature of the clavi-
cytherium, for the wires, unlike the strings of the upright spinet,
increase in length from left to right, so that the upright harp-
shaped back has its higher side over the treble of the keyboard
instead of over the bass. The vibrating strings of the clavi-
cytherium in the Kraus Museum are stretched horizontally over
two kinds of psalteries fixed one over the other. The first,
serving for the lower register, is of the well-known trapezoid
shape and lies over the keyboards; it has 30 wire strings in |
pairs of unisons corresponding to the 15 lowest keys. The
second psaltery resembles the kanoun of the Arabs, and has
36 strings in courses of 3 unisons corresponding to the next 12 1
keys, and 88 very thin strings in courses of 4, completing the
49 keys-, the compass thus has a range of four octaves from
C to C. The quills of the jacks belonging to the two keyboards
are of different length and thickness. The jacks, which work
as in the spinet, are attached to the perpendicular wires, disposed
in two parallel rows, one for each keyboard.
There is a very fine specimen of the so-called clavicythcrium
(upright spinet) in the Donaldson museum of the Royal College
of Music, London, acquired from the Correr collection at Venice
in 1885.* The instrument is undated, but A.J. Hipkins * placed
it early in the 16th or even at the end of the 1 5th century. There
is German writing on the inside of the back, referring to some
agreement at Ulm. The case is of pine-wood, and the natural
keys of box-wood. The jacks have the early steel springs, and in
1885 traces were found in the instrument of original brass
plectra, all of which point to a very early date.
A learned Italian, Nicolo Viccntino,* living in the 16th century,
describes an archiccmbalo of his own invention, at which the per-
former had to stand, having four rows of keys designed to obtain
a complete mesotonic pure third tuning. This was an attempt to
reintroduce the ancient Greek musical system. This instrument
was probably an upright harpsichord or clavicembalo.
For the history of the clavicythcrium considered as a forerunner 1
of the pianoforte see Pianoforte. (K. S.)
CLAVIE, BURNING THE, an ancient Scottish custom still
observed at Burghcad, a fishing village on the Moray Firth,
near Forres. The " clavie " is a bonfire of casks split in two,
lighted on the 12th of January, corresponding to the New Year
of the old calendar. One of these casks is joined together again
by a huge nail (Lat. claviis; hence the term). It is then filled
with tar, lighted and carried flaming round the village and
finally up to a headland upon which stands the ruins of a Roman
altar, locally called " the Douro." It here forms the nucleus
of the bonfire, which is built up of split casks. When the burning
tar-barrel falls in pieces, the people scramble to get a lighted
* Mereenne, Harmonic universelle (Paris, 1636), p. 113, calls the
clavicythcrium "unc nouvelle forme d'epinette aont on use en
Italic. ' and states that the action of the jacks and lever* is parallel
from back to front.
' Musica eetutseht und auszgetogen (Basel. 1511).
•See "unc Piece unique du Muste Kraus de Florence" in
Annate it I' alliance scienttfique universclle (Paris. 1907).
'See illustration by William Gibb in A. J. Hipkins's Musical
Instruments. Historic. Rare and Unique (1888).
* History of the Pianoforte, Novcllo s Music Primers, No. 52 (1896),
Vft
Musica ridotta wtoderna praitica (Rome, 1555).
piece with which to kindle the New Year's fire on their cottage
hearth. The charcoal of the clavie is collected and is put in
pieces up the cottage chimneys, to keep spirits and witches from
coming down.
CLAVI&RB, ftnENNB (1735-1703), French financier and poli-
tician, was a native of Geneva. As one of the democratic leaders
there he was obliged in 1782 to take refuge in England, upon
the armed interference of France, Sardinia and Berne in favour
of the aristocratic party. There he met other Swiss, among
them Marat and Etienne Dumont, but their schemes for a new
Geneva in Ireland — which the government favoured — were
given up when Neckcr came to power in France, and Claviere,
with most of his comrades, went to Paris. There in 1789 he and
Dumont allied themselves with Mirabeau, secretly collaborating
for him on the Courtier de Provence and also in preparing
the speeches which Mirabeau delivered as his own. It was
mainly by his use of Clavidrc that Mirabeau sustained his
reputation as a financier. But Clavttrc also published some
pamphlets under his own name, and through these and his
friendship with J. P. Brissot, whom he had met in London, he
became minister of finance in the Girondist ministry, from
March to the 12th of June 1792. After the 10th of August he
was again given charge of the finances in the provisional executive
council, though with but indifferent success. He shared in the
fall of the Girondists, was arrested on the 2nd of June 1793,
•but somehow was left in prison until the 8th of December, when,
on receiving notice that he was to appear on the next day before
the Revolutionary Tribunal, he committed suicide.
CLAVIJO. BUY GONZALEZ DE (d. 1412), Spanish traveller
of the 15th century, whose narrative is the first important one
of its kind contributed to Spanish literature, was a native of
Madrid, and belonged to a family of some antiquity and position.
On the return of the ambassadors Pelayo de Sotomayor and
Hcrnan Sanchez de Palazuelos from the court of Timur, Henry
III. of Castillc determined to send another embassy to the new
lord of Western Asia, and for this purpose he selected Clavijo,
Gomez de Salazar (who died on the outward journey), and a
master of theology named Fray Alonzo Pacz de Santa Maria.
They sailed from St Mary Port near Cadiz on the 22nd of May
1403, touched at the Balearic Isles, Gacta and Rhodes, spent
some time at Constantinople, sailed along the southern coast of
the Black Sea to Trcbizond, and proceeded inland by Erzcrum,
the Ararat region, Tabriz, Sullanieh, Teheran and Meshed,
to Samarkand, where they were well received by the conqueror.
Their return was at last accomplished, in part after Timur's
death, and with countless difficulties and dangers, and they
landed in Spain on the 1st of March 1406. Clavijo proceeded
at once to the court, at that time in Alcala de Henares, and
served as chamberlain till the king's death (in the spring of
1 406- 1 4 07); he then returned to Madrid, and lived there in
opulence till his own death on the 2nd of April 1412. He was
buried in the chapel of the monastery of St Francis, which he
had rebuilt at great expense.
There are two leading MSS. of Clavijo's narrative — (a) London,
British Museum, Additional MSS., 16,613 fol*. «• rL-125. v.; (6)
Madrid, National Library, 92 18; and two old editions of the original
Spanish — (1) by Goncato Argoie de Molina (Seville^ 1582), (2) by
Antonio de Sancha (Madrid, 1782), both having the misleading titles,
apparently invented by Molina, of Hisloria del gran Tatnorlan. and
Vida y hasadas del gran Tamorlan (the latter at the beginning of the
text itself) ; a better sub-title is added, viz. Jtinerario y enarracion
del viage y relation de la embaxada que Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo
le hizo. Both editors, and especially Sancha, supply general ex-
planatory dissertations. The Spanish text has also been published,
with a Russian translation, in vol. xxviji. (pp. 1-455) of the Publi-
cations of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences (Section of
Russian Language, &c), edited by 1. I. Sreznevski (1881). An
English version .In- Sir Clements Markham.was issued by the Hakluyt
Society in 1850 (S'arralive of the Embassy of R G . . . de Clavtjo
to the Court of Timour). The identification of a great number of
the places mentioned by Clavijo is a matter of considerable difficulty,
and has given rise to some discussion (see Khanikof's list in Geo-
graphical Magazine (1874), and Srezncvski's Annotated Index in
the Russian edition of 1881). A short account of Clavijo's life is
given by Alvarez y Baena in the Hijos de Afadrid*Nv>\. v*. ^*ft.-£an
C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Gwv^>^W^
CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO— CLAY, HENRY
470
CLAVIJO T FAJARDO, JOS* (1730-1806), Spanish publicist,
was born at Lanzarote (Canary Islands) in 1730. He settled
in Madrid, became editor of El Pensador, and by his campaign
against the public performance of autos sacramentales secured
their prohibition in 1765. In 1770 he was appointed director
of the royal theatres, a post which he resigned in order to take
up the editorship of the Mercurio hisMrico y politico de Madrid:
at the time of his death in 1806 he was secretary to the Cabinet
of Natural History. He had in abundance the courage, per-
severance and gift of pungent expression which form the equip*
ment of the aggressive journalist, but his work would long since
have been forgotten were it not that it put an end to a peculiarly
national form of dramatic exposition, and that his love affair
with one of Bcaumarchais' sisters suggested the theme of Goethe's
first publication, Clavigo.
CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1003), American poli-
tician, was born in Madison county, Kentucky, on the 19th of
October 1810. He was the son of Green Clay (1757-1826), a
Kentucky soldier of the war of 1812 and a relative of Henry
Clay. He was educated at Centre College, Danville, Kentucky,
and at Yale, where he graduated in 1832. Influenced to some
extent by William Lloyd Garrison, he became an advocate of the
abolition of slavery, and on his return to his native state, at the
risk of social and political ostracism, he gave utterance to his
belief. He studied law, but instead of practising devoted
himself to a political career. In 1835, 1837 and 1840 he was
elected as a Whig to the Kentucky legislature, where he advocated
a system of gradual emancipation, and secured the establishment
of a public school system, and a much-needed reform in the jury
system. In 1841 he was defeated on account of his abolition
views. In 1844 he delivered campaign speeches for Henry Clay
throughout the North. In 1845 he established, at Lexington,
Kentucky, an anti-slavery publication known as The True
A merican, but in the same year his office and press were wrecked
by a mob, and he removed the publication office to Cincinnati,
Ohio. During this and the earlier period of his career his zeal and
hot temper involved him in numerous personal encounters and
several duels, in all of which he bore himself with a reckless
bravery. In the Mexican War he served as a captain of a
Kentucky company of militia, and was taken prisoner, while
reconnoitring, during General Scott's advance on the City of
Mexico. He left the Whig party in 1850, and as an anti-slavery
candidate for governor of Kentucky polled 5000 votes. In 1856
he joined the Republican party, and wielded considerable
influence as a Southern representative in its councils. In i860
he was a leading candidate for the vice-presidential nomination.
In 1 861 he was sent by President Lincoln as minister to Russia;
in 1862 he returned to America to accept a commission as major-
general of volunteers, but in March 1863 was reappointed to his
former post at St Petersburg, where he remained until 1869.
Disapproving of the Republican policy of reconstruction, he left
the party, and in 1872 was one of the organizers of the Liberal-
Republican revolt, and was largely instrumental in securing the
nomination of Horace Greeley for the presidency. In the
political campaigns of 1876 and 1880 he supported the Democratic
candidate, but rejoined the Republican party in the campaign of
1884. He died at Whitehall, Kentucky, on the 22nd of July
1903.
See his autobiography, The Life, Memoirs. Writing, and Speeches
•f Cassius MaruUus Clay (Cincinnati, 1896): and The Writings of
Cassias MarceUus Clay (edited with a " Memoir" by Horace Greeley.
New York, 1848).
CLAY, CHARLES (1801-1893), English surgeon, was born at
Bredbury, near Stockport, on the 2jth of December 1801. He
began hit medical education as a pupil of Kinder Wood in
Manchester (where he used to attend John Dalton's lectures on
chemistry), and in 1821 went to Edinburgh to conlinue his
studies there. Qualifying in 1823, he began a general practice in
Ashton-under-Lyne, but in 1839 removed to Manchester to
Pf""* ** ** operative and consulting surgeon. It was there
—\» m ****• ** fint performed the operation of ovariotomy
with which feb mm is associated. On this occasion it was
perfectly successful, and when in 1865 he published
of 1 zi cases he was able to show a mortality only ali
30%. Although his merits in this matter have som
denied, his claim to the title " Father of Ovariotoi
generally conceded, and it is admittted that he d
credit not only of having shown how that operatic
made a success, but also of having played an impor
the advance of abdominal surgery for which the 19th 1
conspicuous. In spite of the claims of a heavy pr«
found time for the pursuit of geology and archaeolo
the books of which he was the author were a volume <
Sketches of Manchester (1839) and a History of the Cu
Isle of Man (1849), and his collections included over
editions of the Old and New Testaments and a
complete series of the silver and copper coins of
States. He died at Poulton-lc-Fylde, near Preston,
of September 1893.
CLAY, FREDERIC (1838-1889), English musici
the son of James Clay, M.P., who was celebrated as
whist and a writer on that subject, was born in Paris <
August 1838. He studied music under W. B. Molic
and Moritz Hauptmann at Leipzig. With the excepl
songs and two cantatas, The Knights of the Cross
Lpila Rookh (1877), — the latter of which con taint
known song " I'll sing thee songs of Araby," — his a
were all written for the stage. Clay's first public app
made with an opera entitled Court and Cottage, the
which was written by Tom Taylor. This was p
Covcnt Garden in 1862, and was followed by ConsU
Ages Ago (1869), and Princess Toto (1875), to name o
many works which have long since been forgotten. T
wluch were written to libretti by W. S. Gilbert, arc ai
most tuneful and most attractive works. He wrote
music for Babil and Bijou (1872) and The Black Ci
both of which were produced at the Alhambra. He ah
incidental music for a revival of Twelfth Night a
production of James Albery's Oriana. His last '
Merry Duchess (1883) and The Golden Ring (1883)
written for the reopening of the Alhambra, which had 1
to the ground the year before, showed an advanc
previous work, and rendered all the more regrettable \
paralysis which crippled his physical and mental cnei
the last few years of his life. lie died at Great Ma.
24th of November 1889.
CLAY, HENRY (17 77-1852), American statesman
was born in Hanover county, Virginia, en the 1 2th of
and died in Washington on the 29th of June 1S52.
characters in the United States have been the subj
heated controversy. His enemies denounced him as a
a selfish intriguer, and an abandoned profligate; his
placed him among the sages and sometimes even
saints. He was an arranger of measures and leader
forces, not an originator of ideas and systems. His
covered nearly half a century, and his name and
entirely upon his own merits. He achieved his succ
serious obstacles. He was tall, rawboned and awl
early instruction was scant; but he " read books," 1
and so, after his admission to the bar at Richmom
in 1797, and his removal next year to Lexington, K<
quickly acquired a reputation and a lucrative incon
law practice.
Thereafter, until the end of life, and in a field wh
as either friend or foe, John Quincy Adams, Gallatir
Monroe, Webster, Jackson, Calhoun, Randolph ai
his political activity was wcllnigh ceaseless. At
twenty-two (1709), he was elected to a constitutional
in Kentucky; at twenty-six, to the Kentucky
at twenty-nine, while yet under the age limit of
States constitution, he was appointed to an unex
(1806-1807) in the United States Senate, where, <
custom, he at once plunged into business, as though \
there all his life. He again served in the Kentucky
CLAY, HENRY
47»
(1S03-1809), was chosen spcal.er of its lower house, and achieved
distinction by preventing an intense and widespread anti-British
feeling from excluding the common law from the Kentucky code.
A year later be was elected to another unexpired term in the
United States Senate, serving in 1810-1811. At thirty-four
(iSix) he was elected to the United States House of Representa-
tives and chosen speaker on the first day of the session. One of
the chief sources of his popularity was his activity in Congress
in promoting the war with Great Britain in 1812, while as one
of the peace commissioners he reluctantly signed the treaty of
Ghent on the 94th of December 1814. During the fourteen years
following his first election, he was re-elected five times to the
House and to the speakership; retiring for one term (1821-1823)
to resume his law practice and retrieve his fortunes. He thus
served as speaker in 1811-1814, in 1815-1820 and in 1823-1825.
Once he was unanimously elected by his constituents, and once
nearly defeated for having at the previous session voted to increase
congressional salaries. He was a warm friend of the Spanish-
American revolutionists (1818) and of the- Greek insurgents
(z8>4)* From 1825 to 1829 he served as secretary of state in
President John Quincy Adams's cabinet, and in 183 1 he was
elected to the United States Senate, where he served until 1842,
and again from 1849 until his death.
From the beginning of his career he was in favour of internal
improvements as a means of opening up the fertile but inaccess-
ible West, and was opposed to the abuse of official patronage
known as " the spoils system." The most important of the
national questions with which Clay was associated, however,
were the various phases of slavery politics and protection to
home industries. The most prominent characteristics of his
public life were his predisposition to " compromises " and
" pacifications " which generally failed of their object, and his
passionate patriotic devotion to the Union.
His earliest championslup of protection was a resolution
introduced by him in the Kentucky legislature (1808) which
favoured the wearing by its members of home-made
tthfOZ!* c l otnes ; and one in the United States Senate (April
fciimmtu. x8io), on .behalf of home-grown and home-made
. supplies for the United States navy, but only to the
point of making the nation independent of foreign supply. In
1816 he advocated the Dallas tariff, in which the duties ranged
up to 35% on articles of home production, the supply of which
could satisfy the home demand; the avowed purpose being to
build up certain industries for safety in time of war. In 1824
he advocated high duties to relieve the prevailing distress, which
he pictured in a brilliant and effective speech. Although the
distress was caused by the reactionary effect of a disordered
currency and the inflated prices of the war of 1S12, he ascribed
it to the country's dependence on foreign supply and foreign
markets. Great Britain, he said, was a shining example of the
wisdom of a high tariff. No nation ever flourished without one.
He dosed his principal speech on the subject in the House of
Representatives with a glowing appeal in behalf of what he
called " The American System." In spite of the opposition of
Webster and other prominent statesmen, Clay succeeded in
enacting a tariff which the people of the Southern states de-
nounced as a " tariff of abominations." As it ovcrswcllcd the
revenue, in 1832 he vigorously favoured reducing tariff rates
on all articles not competing with American products. His speech
in behalf of the measure was for years a protection text- book;
but the measure itself reduced the revenue so Utile and provoked
such serious threats of nullification and secession in South
Carolina, that, to prevent bloodshed and to forestall a free trade
measure from the next Congress, Clay brought forward in 1833
a compromise gradually reducing the tariff rates to an average
of ao%. To the Protectionists this was " like a crash of thunder
in winter "; but it was received with such favour by the country
generally, that its author was hailed as " The Great Pacificator,"
•1 be had been thirteen years before at the time of the Missouri
Compromise (sec below). As, however, the discontent with
the tariff in the South was only a symptom of the real
trouble there— the sensitiveness of the slave-power,— Clay
subsequently confessed his scriuus doubts oi the policy of Lis
interference.
He was only twenty-two, when, as an opponent of slavery,
he vainly urged an emancipation clause for the new constitution
of Kentucky, and he never ceased regretting that its failure put
his state, in improvements and progress, behind its free neigh-
bours. In 1820 he congratulated the new South American
republics on having abolished slavery, but the same year the
threats of the Southern states to destroy the Union led him to
advocate the "Missouri Compromise," which, while keeping
slavery out of all the rest of the territory acquired by the
" Louisiana Purchase " north of Missouri's southern boundary
line, permitted it in that state. Then, greeted with the title
of " The Great Pacificator " as a reward for his success, he
retired temporarily to private life, with a larger stock of popu-
larity than he had ever had before. Although at various times
he bad helped to strengthen the law for the recovery of fugitive
slaves, declining as secretary of state to aid Great Britain in the
further suppression of the slave trade, and demanding the
return of fugitives from Canada, yet he heartily supported
the colonizing of the slaves in Africa, because slavery was the
" deepest stain upon the character of the country," opposition
to which could not be repressed except by " blowing out the moral
lights around/' and " eradicating from the human soul the light
of reason and the law of liberty." When the slave power
became more aggressive, in and after the year 183 1, Clay defended
the right of petition for the abolition of slavery in the District of
Columbia, and opposed Calhoun's bill forbidding the use of the
mails to " abolition " newspapers and documents. He was luke-
warm toward recognizing the independence of Texas, lest it should
aid the increase of slave territory, and generally favoured the
freedom of speech and press as regards the question of slavery;
yet his various concessions and compromises resulted, as he him-
self declared, in the abolitionists denouncing him as a slave-
holder, and the slaveholders as an abolitionist. In 1839, only
twelve months after opposing the pro-slavery demands, he pre*
pared an elaborate speech, in order " to set himself right with the
South," which, before its delivery, received pro-slavery approval.
While affirming that he was " no friend of slavery " he held
abolition and the abolitionists responsible for the hatred, strife,
disruption and carnage that menaced the nation. In response,
Calhoun extended to him a most hearty welcome, and assigned
him to a place on the bench of the penitents. Being a candidate
for the presidency Clay had to take the insult without wincing.
It was in reference to this speech that he made the oft-quoted
remark that he "would rather be right than be president."
While a candidate for president in 1844, he opposed in the
" Raleigh letter " the annexation of Texas on many grounds
except that of its increasing the slave power, thus displeasing
both the men of anti-slavery and those of pro-slavery sentiments.
In 1S47, after the conquest of Mexico, he made a speech against
the annexation of that country or the acquiring of any foreign
territory for the spread of slavery. Although in 1849 he again
vainly proposed emancipation in Kentucky, he was unanimously
elected to the United States Senate, where in 1S50 he temporarily
pacified both sections of the country by successfully offering,
for the sake of the "peace, concord and harmony of these
states," a measure or scries of measures that became known at
the " Compromise of 1 850." It admit tcdCalifomiaasaf rce state,
organized Utah and New Mexico as Territories without reference
to slavery, and enacted a more efficient fugitive slave law. In
spite of great physical weakness he made several earnest speeches
in behalf of these measures to save the Union.
Another conspicuous feature of Clay's public career was his
absorbing and rightful, but constantly ungratified, ambition to
be president of the United States. His name in connexion
therewith was mentioned comparatively early, and in 1824,
with W. II. Crawford, Andrew Jackson, and John Quincy
Adams, he was a candidate for that office. There being no choice
by the people, and the House of Representatives having elected
Adams, Clay was accused by Jackson and his friends of making
a corrupt bargain whereby, in payment of bi&w&v&vu^vB&amK*
47*
CLAY
for Adams, he was appointed secretary of state. This made
Jackson Clay's lifelong enemy, and ever after kept Clay busy
explaining and denying the allegation. In 1832 Clay was unani-
mously nominated for the presidency by the National Republicans;
Jackson, by the Democrats. The main issue was the policy
of continuing the United States Bank, which in x8ix Clay had
opposed, but in 1816 and always subsequently warmly favoured.
A majority of the voters approved of Jackson's fight against
what Clay had once denounced as a dangerous and unconstitu-
tional monopoly. Clay made the mistake of supposing that he
could arouse popular enthusiasm for a moneyed corporation in
its contest with the great military "hero of New Orleans.' 1
In 1839 he was a candidate for the Whig nomination, but by a
secret ballot his enemies defeated him in the party convention,
held in December of that year, and nominated William Henry
Harrison. The result threw Clay into paroxysms of rage, and
he violently complained that his friends always used him as
their candidate when he was sure to be defeated, and betrayed
him when he or any one could have been elected. In 1844 he
was nominated by the Whigs against James K. Polk, the Demo-
cratic candidate. By an audacious fraud that represented him
as an enemy, and Polk as a friend of protection, Clay lost the
vote of Pennsylvania; and he lost the vote of New York by
his own letter abating the force of his previous opposition to
the annexation of Texas. Even his enemies felt that his defeat
by Polk was almost a national calamity. In 1848, Zachary
Taylor, a Mexican War hero, and hardly even a convert to the
Whig party, defeated Clay for the nomination, Kentucky
herself deserting her " favourite son."
Clay's quick intelligence and sympathy, and his irreproachable
conduct in youth, explain his precocious prominence in public
affairs. In his persuasiveness as an orator and his charming
personality lay the secret of his power. He had early trained
himself in the art of speech-making, in the forest, the field and
even the bam, with horse and ox for audience. By contempor-
aries his voice was declared to be the finest musical instrument
that they ever heard. His eloquence was in turn majestic,
fierce, playful, insinuating; his gesticulation, natural, vivid,
large, powerful. In public he was of magnificent bearing,
possessing the true oratorical temperament, the nervous exalta-
tion that makes the orator feel and appear a superior being,
transfusing his thought, passion and will into the mind and
heart of the listener; but his imagination frequently ran away
with his understanding, while his imperious temper and ardent
combativeness hurried him and his party into disadvantageous
positions. The ease, too, with which he outshone men of vastly
greater learning lured him from the task of intense and arduous
study. His speeches were characterized by skill of statement,
ingenious grouping of facts, fervent diction, and ardent patriot-
ism; sometimes by biting sarcasm, but also by superficial
research, half -knowledge and an unwillingness to reason a
proposition to its logical results. In private, his never-failing
courtesy, his agreeable manners and a noble and generous
heart for all who needed protection against the powerful or the
lawless, endeared him to hosts of friends. His popularity was
as great and as inexhaustible among his neighbours as among
his fellow-citizens generally. He pronounced upon himself a
just judgment when he wrote: " If any one desires to know the
leading and paramount object of my public life, the preservation
of this Union will furnish him the key."
See Calvin Colton, The Works of Henry Clay (6 vols., New York,
1857; new ed., 7 vols., New York, 1898), the_ first three volumes
* ich are an account of Clay's " Life 1
> Clay (2 vols., Boston, 1887), tn th<
; and the life by T. Hart Clay (1910). (C. S.)
Clay's " Lite and Times"; Carl Schurz,
Henry Clay (2 vols,, Boston, 1887). m the "American Statesmen M
CLAY (from O. Eng. clacg, a word common in various forms
to Teutonic languages, cf. Gcr. Klri), commonly defined as a
fine-grained, almost impalpable substance, very soft, more or
less coherent when dry, plastic and retentive of water when wet;
it has an " earthy " odour when breathed upon or moistened,
and consists essentially of hydrous aluminium silicate with
various impurities. Of clay are formed a great number of rocks,
which collectively are known as " day-rocks " ox " pelitic rocks "
(from Gr. T77X&, day), e.g. mudstone, shale, slate: these exhibit
in greater or less perfection the properties above described
according to their freedom from impurities. In nature, clays are
rarely free from foreign ingredients, many of which can be
detected with the unaided eye, while others may be observed
by means of the microscope. The commonest impurities are."
(1) organic matter, humus, &c. (exemplified by clay-soils with
an admixture of peat, oil shales, carbonaceous shales); (2)
fossils (such as plants in the shales of the Lias and Coal Measures,
shells in clays of all geological periods and in fresh water marls);
(3) carbonate of lime (rarely altogether absent, but abundant
in marls, cement-stones and argillaceous limestones); (4)
sulphide of iron, as pyrite or marcasite (when finely diffused,
giving the clay a dark grey-blue colour, which weathers to
brown — e.g. London Clay; also as nodules and concretions,
e.g. Gault); (5) oxides of iron (staining the clay bright red when
ferric oxide, red ochre; yellow when hydrous, e.g. yellow
ochre); (6) sand or detrital silica (forming loams, arenaceous
days, argillaceous sandstones, &c). Less frequently present
are the following: — rock salt (Triassic days, and marls of
Cheshire, &c); gypsum (London Clay, Triassic clays) ; dolomite,
phosphate of lime, vivianite (phosphate of iron), oxides of
manganese, copper ores (e.g. Kupferschiefer), wavellite and
amber. As the impurities increase in amount the clay rocks
pass gradually into argillaceous sands and sandstones, argil-
laceous limestones and dolomites, shaly coals and clay
ironstones.
Natural days, even when most pure, show a considerable
range of composition, and hence cannot be regarded as consisting
of a single mineral; clay is a rock, and has that variability which
characterizes all rocks. Of the essential properties of clay some
are merely physical, and depend on the minute size of the
particles. If any rock be taken (even a piece of pure quartz) and
crushed to a very fine powder, it will show some of the peculi-
arities of clays; for example, it will be plastic, retentive of
moisture, impermeable to water, and will shrink to some extent if
the moist mass be kneaded, and then allowed to dry. It happens,
however, that many rocks are not disintegrated to this extreme
degree by natural processes, and weathering invariably accom-
panies disintegration. Quartz, for example, has little or no
deavage, and is not attacked by the atmosphere. It breaks up
into fragments, which become rounded by attrition, but after
they reach a certain minuteness arc borne along by currents of
water or air in a state of suspension, and arc not further reduced
in size. Hence sands are more coarse grained than clays. A
great number of rock-forming minerals, however, possess a good
cleavage, so that when bruised they split into thin fragments;
many of these minerals decompose somewhat readily, yielding
secondary minerals, which are comparatively soft and have a
scaly character, with eminently perfect cleavages, which facilitate
splitting into exceedingly thin plates. The principal substances
of this description arc kaolin, muscovitc and chlorite. Kaolin
and muscovite arc formed principally after felspar (and the
felspars are the commonest minerals of all crystalline rocks);
also from ncphelinc, leucite, scapolite and a variety of other
rock-forming minerals. Chlorite arises from biotitc, augite and
hornblende. Serpentine, which may be fibrous or scaly, is a
secondary product of olivine and certain pyroxenes. Clays
consist essentially of the above ingredients (although serpentine
is not known to take part in them to any extent, it is dosely
allied to chlorite). At the same time other substances are-
produced as decomposition goes on. They are principally finely
divided quartz, epidote, zoisite, rutile, limonitc, coldte, pyrites,
and very small particles of these are rarely absent from
natural clays. These fine-grained materials are at first mixed
with broken and more or less weathered rock fragments
and coarser mineral particles in the soil and subsoil, but by
the action of wind and rain they are swept away and deposited
in distant situations. "Loess" is a fine calcareous day,
which has been wind-borne, and subsequently laid down on the
margins of dry steppes and deserts. Most days are water-
borne, having been carried from the surface of the land by
CLAY
473
nin and transported by the brooks and riven into lakes or
the sea. In this state the fine particles are known as " mud."
They are deposited where the currents are checked and the water
becomes very still. If temporarily laid down in other situations
they are ultimately lifted again and removed. A little day,
stirred up with water in a glass vessel, takes hours to settle, and
even after two or three days some remains in suspension; in fact,
it has been suggested that in such cases the clay forms a sort of
"colloidal solution" in the water. Traces of dissolved salts,
such as common salt, gypsum or alum, greatly accelerate
deposition. For these reasons the principal gathering places of
fine pure days are deep, still lakes, and the sea bottom at con-
siderable distances from the shore. The coarser materials settle
nearer the land, and the shallower portions of the sea floor are
strewn with gravel and sand, except in occasional depressions
and near the mouths of rivers where mud may gather. Farther
out the great mud deposits begin, extending from 50 to 200 ra.
from the land, according to the amount of sediment brought in,
and the rate at which the water deepens. A girdle of mud
accumulations encircles all the continents. These sediments arc
fine and tenacious; their principal components, in addition to
clay, being small grains of quartz, zircon, tourmaline, hornblende,
felspar and iron compounds. Their typical colour is blackish-
blue, owing to the abundance of sulphuretted hydrogen; when
fresh they have a sulphurous odour, when weathered they arc
brown, as their iron is present as hydrous oxides (limonite, &c).
These deposits are tenanted by numerous forms of marine life,
and the sulphur they contain is derived from decomposing
organic matter. Occasionally water-logged plant debris is
mingled with the mud. In a few places a red colour prevails, the
iron being mostly oxidized; elsewhere the muds arc green
owing to abundant glauconite. Traced landwards the muds
become more sandy, while on their outer margins they grade into
the abysmal deposits, such as the globigerina ooze (see Ocean
amd Oceanography). Near volcanoes they contain many
volcanic minerals, and around coral islands they are often in
large part calcareous.
Microscopic sections of some of the more coherent clays and
shales may be prepared by saturating them with Canada balsam
by long boiling, and slicing the resultant mass in the same
manner as one of the harder rocks. They show that clay rocks
contain abundant very small grains of quartz (about 001 to
0-05 mm. in diameter), with often felspar, tourmaline, zircon,
eptdole, rutile and more or less calcite. These may form more
than one-third of an ordinary shale; the greater part, however,
consists of still smaller scales of other minerals (001 mm. in
diameter and less than this). Some of these are recognizable as
pale yellowish and white mica; others seem to be chlorite, the
remainder is perhaps kaolin, but, owing to the minute size of the
flakes, they yield very indistinct reactions to polarized light.
They are also often stained with iron oxide and organic substances,
and in consequence their true nature is almost impossible to
determine. It is certain, however, that the finer-grained rocks are
richest in alumina, and in combined water; hence the inference
is dear that kaolin or some other hydrous aluminium silicate is
the dominating constituent. These results are confirmed by the
fj^JMiiiral analysis of clays. This process consists in finely
pulverizing the soil or rock, and levigating it in vessels of water.
A series of powders is obtained progressively finer according to the
time required to settle to the bottom of the vessel. The clay is
held to include those particles which have less than 0-005 mm.
diameter, and contains a higher percentage of alumina than any
of the other ingredients.
As might be inferred from the differences they exhibit in other
respects, clay rocks vary greatly in their chemical composition.
Some of them contain much iron (yellow, blue and red clays) ;
others contain abundant calcium carbonate (calcareous clays
and maris). Pure clays, however, may be found almost quite
tree from these substances. Their silica ranges from about 60 to
45%, varying in accordance with the amount of quartz and
alkali-felspar present. It is almost always more than would be
the case. If the rock consisted of kaolin mixed with muscovite.
Alumina is high in the finer clays (18 to 30%), and they are the
most aluminous of all sediments, except bauxite. Magnesia if
never absent, though its amount may be less than 1 %; it U
usually contained in minerals of the chlorite group, but partl>
also in dolomite. The alkalis are very interesting; often they
form 5 or 10% of the whole rock; they indicate abundance of
white micas or of undecomposed particles of felspar. Some clays,
however, such as fireclays, contain very little potash or soda,
while they are rich in alumina; and it is a fair inference that
hydrated aluminous silicates, such as kaolin, are well represented
in these rocks. There arc, in fact, a few clays which contain
about 45% of alumina, that is to say, more than in pure kaolin.
It is probable that these are related to bauxite and certain kinds
of laterite.
A few of the most important clay rocks, such as china-day,
brick-clay, red-day and shale, may be briefly described here.
China-day is white, friable and earthy. It occurs in regions
of granite, porphyry and syenite, and usually occupies funnel-
shaped cavities of no great superficial area, but of considerable
depth. It consists of very fine scaly kaolin, larger, shining plates
of white mica, grains of quartz and particles of semi-decomposed
felspar, tourmaline, zircon and other minerals, which originally
formed part of the granite. These clays are produced by the
decomposition of the granite by add vapours, which are dis-
charged after the igneous rock has solidified ("fumarole or
pneumatolytic action "). Fluorine and its compounds arc often
supposed to have been among the agencies which produce this
change, but more probably carbonic acid played the principal
r6le. The felspar decomposes into kaolin and quartz; its
alkalis are for the most part set free and removed in solution,
but are partly retained in the white mica which is constantly
found in crude china-clays. Semi-decomposed varieties of the
granite are known as china-stone. The kaolin may be washed
away from its original site, and deposited in hollows or lakes to
form beds of white clay, such as pipe-day; in this case it is
always more or less impure. Yellow and pinkish varieties of
china-clay and pipe-day contain a small quantity of oxide of
iron. The best known localities for china-clay are Cornwall,
Limoges (France), Saxony, Bohemia and China; it is found also
in Pennsylvania, N. Carolina and elsewhere in the United States.
Fire-clays include all those varieties of clay which are very
refractory to heat. They must contain little alkalis, lime,
magnesia and iron, but some of them are comparatively rich
in silica. Many of the clays which pass under this designation
belong to the Carboniferous period, and arc found underlying
seams of coal. Either by rapid growth of vegetation, or by
subsequent percolation of organic solutions, most of the alkalis
and the lime have been carried away.
Any argillaceous material, which can be used for the manu-
facture of bricks, may be called a brick-cloy. In England,
Kimmcridge Clay, Lias clays, London Clay and pulverized
shale and slate are all employed for this purpose. Each variety
needs special treatment according to its properties. The true
brick-clays, however, are superficial deposits of Pleistocene or
Quaternary age, and occur in hollows, fillcd-up lakes and
deserted stream channels. Many of them arc derived from the
glacial boulder-clays, or from the washing away of the finer
materials contained in older clay formations. They are always
very impure.
The red-clay is an abysmal formation, occurring in the sea
bottom in the deepest part of the oceans. It is estimated to
cover over fifty millions of square miles, and is probably the most
extensive deposit which is in course of accumulation at the
present day. In addition to the reddish or brownish argillaceous
matrix it contains fresh or decomposed crystals of volcanic
minerals, such as felspar, augite, hornblende, olivine and
pumiceous or palagonitic rocks. These must either have been
ejected by submarine volcanoes or drifted by the wind from
active vents, as the fine ash discharged by Krakatoa was wafted
over the whole globe. Larger rounded lumps of pumice, found
in the day, have probably floated to their present situatiaa&„
and sank when decomposed, %AV \Jwitt canVCi** \kka\s&o*i NSfcafc.
+74
CLAY CROSS— CLAYTON
with sea water. Crystals of zeolites (phfllipsite) form in the
red -clay as radiate, nodular groups. Lumps of manganese oxide,
with a black, shining outer surface, are also characteristic of
this deposit, and frequently encrust pieces of pumice or animal
remains. The only fossils of the day are rodiolaria, sharks'
teeth and the ear-bones of whales, precisely those parts of the
skeleton of marine creatures which are hardest and can longest
survive exposure to sea-water. Their comparative abundance
shows how slowly the clay gathers. Small rounded spherules
of iron, believed by some to be meteoric dust, have also been
obtained in some numbers. Among the rocks of the continents
nothing exactly the same as this remarkable deposit is known
to occur, though fine dark clays, with manganese nodules, are
found in many localities, accompanied by other rocks which
indicate deep-water conditions of deposit.
Another type s>\ red-clay is found in caves, and is known as
cave-earth or red-earth {terra rossa). It is fine, tenacious and
bright red, and represents the insoluble and thoroughly weathered
Impurities which are left behind when the calcareous matter is
removed in solution by carbonated waters. Similar residual
clays sometimes occur on the surface of areas of limestone in
hollows and fissures formed by weathering.
Boulder-day is a coarse unstratificd deposit of fine clay, with
more or less sand, and boulders of various sizes, the latter usually
marked with glacial striations.
Some clay rocks which have been laid down by water are
very uniform through their whole thickness, and are called
mud-stones. Others split readily into fine leaflets or laminae
parallel to their bedding, and this structure is accentuated by
the presence of films of other materials, such as sand or vegetable
debris. Laminated clays of this sort are generally known as
shales; they occur in many formations but are very common
In the Carboniferous. .Some of them contain much organic
debris, and when distilled yield paraffin oil, wax, compounds
of ammonia, &c. In these oil-shales there are clear, globular,
yellow bodies which seem to be resinous. It has been suggested
that the admixture of large quantities of decomposed fresh-
water algae among the original mud is the origin of the paraffins.
In New South Wales, Scotland and several parts of America
such oil-shales are worked on a commercial scale. Many shales
contain great numbers of ovoid or rounded septarian nodules
of clay ironstone. Others are rich in pyrites, which, on oxidation,
produces sulphuric- acid; this attacks the aluminous silicates
of the clay and forms aluminium sulphate (alum shales). The
lias shales of Whitby contain blocks of semi-mineralized wood,
or jet, which is black with a resinous lustre, and a fibrous
structure. The laminated structure of shales, though partly
due to successive very thin sheets of deposit, is certainly de-
pendent also on the vertical pressure exerted by masses of super-
incumbent rock; it indicates a transition to the fissile character
of clay slates. 0- S. F.)
CLAY CROSS, an urban district in the Chesterfield parlia-
mentary division of Derbyshire, England, near the river Amber,
on the Midland railway, 5 m. S. of Chesterfield. Pop. (1001)
8358. The Clay Cross Colliery and Ironworks Company, whose
mines were for a time leased by George Stephenson, employ a
great number of hands.
CLAYMORE (from the Gaelic elaidheamh mdr, " great sword "),
the old two-edged broadsword with cross hilt, of which the
guards were usually turned down, used by the Highlanders of
Scotland. The name is also wrongly applied to the single-edged
basket-hilted sword adopted in the 16th century and still worn
as the full-dress sword in the Highland regiments of the British
army.
CLAYI, PAUL JEAN (1810-1900), Belgian artist, was born
at Bruges in 1819, and died at Brussels in 1900. He was one of
the most esteemed marine painters of his time, and early m his
career be «ub«iltu ted a sincere study of nature for the extravagant
hehS 60 * 1 conventionality of most of his predecessors. When
as worth ^JJ^' tiM "* was con8idcred b y continental artists
^^^^« «2«senting only under its most tempestuous aspects.
*— «uwi onty for the stirring drama of storm and wreck, I
and they clung still to the old-world tradition of the romantic
school. Clays was the first to appreciate the beauty of calm
waters reflecting the slow procession of douds, the glories of
sunset illuminating the sails of ships or gilding the tarred sides
of heavy fishing-boats. He painted the peaceful life of rivers,
the poetry of wide estuaries, the regulated stir of roadsteads and
ports. And while he thus broke away from old traditions he
also threw off the trammels imposed on him by his master,
the marine painter Theodore Gudin (1802-1880). Endeavouring
only to give truthful expression to the nature that delighted his
eyes, he sought to render the limpid salt atmosphere, the weight
of waters, the transparence of moist horizons, the gem-like
sparkle of the sky. A Fleming in his feeling for colour, he set his
palette with clean strong hues, and their powerful harmonies
were in striking contrast with the rusty, smoky tones then in
favour. If he was not a " luminist " in the modern use of the
word, he deserves at any rate to be classed with the founders of
the modern naturalistic school This conscientious and healthy
interpretation, to which the artist remained faithful, without any
important change, to the end of an unusually long and laborious
career, attracted those minds which aspired to be bold, and won
over those which were moderate. Clays soon took his place
among the most famous Belgian painters of his generation, and
his pictures, sold at high prices, are to be seen in most public and
private galleries. We may mention, among others, " The Beach
at Ault," " Boats in a Dutch Port," and " Dutch Boats in the
Flushing Roads," the last in the National Gallery, London.
In the Brussels gallery are " The Port of Antwerp," " Coast near
Ostcnd," and a " Calm on the Scheldt "; in the Antwerp
museum, " The Meuse at Dordrecht "; in the Pinakothek at
Munich, " The Open North Sea "; in the Metropolitan Museum
of Fine Arts, New York, " The Festival of the Freedom of the
Scheldt at Antwerp in 1863 "; in the palace of the king of the
Belgians, " Arrival of Queen Victoria at Ostend in 1857 "; in
the Bruges academy, " Port of Feirugudo, Portugal." Clays
was a member of several Academies, Belgian and foreign, and
of the Order of Leopold, the Legion of Honour, &c.
See Camille Lemonnier, Histoire des Beaux-Arts (Brussels, 1887).
(O.M.*)
CLAYTON, JOHN MIDDLETON (1 706-1856), American
politician, was born in Dagsbo rough, Sussex county, Delaware, on
the 34th of July 1706. He came of an old Quaker family long
prominent in the political history of Delaware. He graduated
at Yale in 1815, and in 18x0 began to practise law at Dover,
Delaware, where for a time he was associated with his cousin,
Thomas Clayton (1778-1854), subsequently a United States
senator and chief- justice of the state. He soon gained a large
practice. He became a member of the state House of Repre-
sentatives in 1824, and from December 1826 to October 1828 was
secretary of state of Delaware. In 1829, by a combination of
anti-Jackson forces in the state legislature, he was elected to the
United States Senate. Here his great oratorical gifts gave him
a high place as one of the ablest and most eloquent opponents
of the administration. In 1831 he was a member of the Delaware
constitutional convention, and in 1835 he was returned to the
Senate as a Whig, but resigned in the following year. In 1837-
1839 he was chief justice of Delaware. In 1845 he again entered
the Senate, where he opposed the annexation of Texas and the
Mexican War, but advocated the active prosecution of the latter
once it was begun. In March 1849 be became secretary of state
in the cabinet of President Zachary Taylor, to whose nomination
and election his influence had contributed. His brief tenure
of the state portfolio, which terminated on the 22nd of July-
1850, soon after Taylor's death, was notable chiefly for the
negotiation with the British minister, Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer,
of the Gayton-Bulwer Treaty (?.».). He was once more a member
of the Senate from March 1853 until his death at Dover, Delaware,
on the 9th of November 1856. By his contemporaries Clayton
was considered one of the ablest debaters and onUon Id the
Senate.
See the memoir by Joseph P. Comeeys lo the
torical Society of Dtfawan, No, 4 (Wbfi*Mr
CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY— CLAY-WITH-FLINTS 475
CLATTON-BULWBR TREATY, a famous treaty between the
United States and Great Britain, negotiated in 1850 by John M.
Clayton and Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer (Lord Dalling), in con-
fluence of the situation created by the project of an inter-
oceaaic canal across Nicaragua, each signatory being jealous of
the activities of the other in Central America. Great Britain
bad large and indefinite territorial claims in three regions —
Belize or British Honduras, the Mosquito Coast and the Bay
Islands. 1 On the other hand, the United States, without terri-
torial claims, held in reserve, ready for ratification, treaties with
Nicaragua and Honduras, which gave her a certain diplomatic
vantage with which to balance the de facto dominion of Great
Britain. Agreement on these points being impossible and
agreement on the canal question possible, the latter was put in I
the foreground. The resulting treaty had four essential points.
It bound both parties not to " obtain or maintain " any ex-
clusive control of the proposed canal, or unequal advantage in
its use. It guaranteed the neutralization of such canal. It 1
declared that, the intention of the signatories being not only the
accomplishment of " a particular object " — i.e. that the canal,
then supposedly near realization, should be neutral and equally
free to the two contracting powers — " but also to establish a
general principle," they agreed " to extend their protection by
treaty stipulation to any other practicable communications,
whether by canal or railway, across the isthmus which connects
North and South America." Finally, it stipulated that neither
signatory would ever " occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or assume
or exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mos-
quito Coast or any part of Central America," nor make use of
any protectorate or alliance, present or future, to such ends.
The treaty was signed on the 19th of April, and was ratified
by both governments; but before the exchange of ratifications
Lord Palmcrston, on the 8th of June, directed Sir II. Bulwer
to make a " declaration " that the British government did not
understand the treaty " as applying to Her Majesty's settlement
at Honduras, or its dependencies." Mr Clay ton made a counter-
declaration, which recited that the United States did not regard
the treaty as applying to " the British settlement in Honduras
commonly called British-Honduras . . . nor the small islands
in the neighbourhood of that settlement which may be known
as its dependencies"; that the treaty's engagements did apply
to all the Central American states, " with their just limits and
proper dependencies "; and that these declarations, not being
submitted to the United Stales Senate, could of course not affect
the legal import of the treaty. The interpretation of the declara-
tions soon became a matter of contention. The phraseology
reflects the effort made by the United States to render impossible
a physical control of the canal by Great Britain through the
territory held by her at its mouth— the United States losing
the above-mentioned treaty advantages,— just as the explicit
abnegations of the treaty rendered impossible such control
politically by either power. But great Britain claimed that the
excepted " settlement " at Honduras was the " Belize " covered
by the extreme British claim; that the Bay Islands were a
dependency of Belize; and that, as for the Mosquito Coast, the
abnegatory clauses being wholly prospective in intent, she was
not required to abandon her protectorate. The United Slates
contended that the Bay Is-lands were not the " dependencies "
of Belize, these being the small neighbouring islands mentioned
in the same treaties; that the excepted " settlement " was the
British -Honduras of definite extent and narrow purpose recog-
nized in British treaties with Spain; that she had not con-
finned by recognition the large, indefinite and offensive claims
whose dangers the treaty was primarily designed to lessen; and
that, as to the Mosquito Coast, the treaty was retrospective, and
mutual in the rigour of its requirements, and as the United States
had no dt facto possessions, while Great Britain had, the clause
1 The daima to a part of the first two were very old in origin, bui
afl were heavily clouded by interruptions of position, contested
Sj H r p re ta tions of Spanish- British treaties, and active controversy
•*■% the Central American States. The claim to some of the tern
f Wm mm and still more contestable. See particularly on thesi
binding both not to "occupy" any part of Central America
>r the Mosquito Coast necessitated the abandonment of such
territory as Great Britain was already actually occupying or
exercising dominion over; and the United States demanded the
complete abandonment of the British protectorate over the
Mosquito Indians. It seems to be a just conclusion that when
in 185a the Bay Islands were erected into a British " colony "
this was a flagrant infraction of the treaty; that as regards
Belize the American arguments were decidedly stronger, and
more correct historically; and that as regards the Mosquito
question, inasmuch as a protectorate seems certainly to have
been recognized by the treaty, to demand its absolute abandon-
ment was unwarranted, although to satisfy the treaty Great
Britain was bound materially to weaken it.
In 1S59-1860, by British treaties with Central American
states, the Bay Islands and Mosquito questions were settled
nearly in accord with the American contentions. 1 But by the
same treaties Belize was accorded limits much greater than
those contended for by the United States. This settlement
ihc latter power accepted without cavil for many years.
Until 1866 the policy of the United- States was consistently
for inter-oceanic canals open equally to all nations, and un-
equivocally neutralized; indeed, until 1880 there was practically
no official divergence from this policy. But in 1880-1884 a
variety of reasons were advanced why the United States might
justly repudiate at will the Clayton-Bulwcr Trcaty.» The new
policy was based on national self-interest. The arguments
idv anced on its behalf were quite indefensible in law and history,
and although the position of the United States in 1850- 1860
was in general the stronger in history, law and political ethics,
that of Great Britain was even more conspicuously the stronger
in the years 1880-1884. In 1885 the former government re-
verted to its traditional policy, and the Hay-Paunccfote Treaty
of 1902, which replaced the Clayton-Bulwcr Treaty, adopted
the rule of neutralization for the Panama Canal.
See the collected diplomatic correspondence in I. D. Travis,
History of the Clay ton- Bul-xcr Treaty (Ann Arbor. Mich.. 1890);
J. H. Lalanc. Diplomatic Relations of the United Statu and Spamik
America (Baltimore, 1900); T. J. Lawrcnre, Disputed Questions
pf Modern International Lav (2nd cd., Cambridge. England. 1885);
Sir E. L. Bulwer in 90 QuarUrly Rev. 235-286. and Sir II. Bulwer in
104 Edinburgh Rev. 280-298.
j CLAY-WITH-FLINTS, in geology, the name given by W.
Whitakcr in 1861 to a peculiar deposit of stiff red, brown or
yellow clay containing unworn whole flints as well as angular
shattered fragments, also with a variable admixture of rounded
flint, quartz, quartzitc and other pebbles. It occurs" in sheets or
patches of various sizes over a large area in the south of England,
from Hertfordshire on the north to Sussex on the south, and
from Kent on the east to Devon on the west. It almost always
lies on the surface of the Upper Chalk, but in Dorset it passes
on to the Middle and Lower Chalk, and in Devon it is found on
the Chert-Beds of the Sclbornian group " (A. J. Jukes-Browne,
" The Clay-with-Flints, its Origin and Distribution," Q.J.G.S.,
vol. lxii., 1906, p. 132). Many geologists have supposed, and
some still hold, that the Clay-with-Flints is the residue left by
the slow solution ami disintegration of the Chalk by the processes
of weathering; on the other hand, it has long been known that
the deposit very frequently contains materials foreign to the
Chalk, derived either from the Tertiary rocks or from overlying
drift. In the paper quoted above, Jukes-Browne ably summarizes
• The islands were ceded to Honduras. The Mosquito Coast was
recognized as under Nicaragua n rule limited by an attenuated
British protectorate over the Indians, who were given a reservation
and certain peculiar rights. They were left free to accept full
Nicaraguan rule at will. This they did in 1894.
1 Ic was argued, e.g., that the " general principle of that engage-
ment was contingent on the prior realization of its "particular
object." which had failed, and the treaty had determined as a special
contract ; moreover, none of the additional treaties to embody the
" general principle " had been negotiated, and Great Britain had
not even offered co-operation in the protection and neutrality-
guarantee of the Panama railway built in 1850-1855, so that her
rights had lapsed; certain engagements of the treaty she had vio-
lated, and therefore the whole treaty was yoUUMa,&k»
476
CLAZOMENAE— CLEARING-HOUSE
the evidence against the view that the deposit is mainly n
Chalk residue, and brings forward a good deal of evidence to
show that many patches of the Clay-with-Flints lie upon the
same plane and may be directly associated with Reading Beds.
He concludes "that the material of the Clay-with-Flints has been
chiefly and almost entirely derived from Eocene clay, with
addition of some flints from the Chalk; that its presence is an
indication of the previous existence of Lower Eocene Beds on
the same site and nearly at the same relative level, and, conse-
quently, that comparatively little Chalk has been removed
from beneath it Finally, I think that the tracts of Clay-with-
Flints have been much more extensive than they are now"
(loc.cii.p. 159).
It is noteworthy that the Clay-with-Flints is developed over
an area which is just beyond the limits of the ice sheets of the
Glacial epoch, and the peculiar conditions of late Pliocene and
Pleistocene times, involving heavy rains, snow and frost, may
have had much to do with the mingling of the Tertiary and
Chalky material. Besides the occurrence in surface patches,
Clay-with-Flints is very commonly to be observed descending
in "pipes" often to a considerable depth into the Chalk; here,
if anywhere, the residual chalk portion of the deposit should
be found, and it is surmised that a thin byer of very dark clay
with darkly stained flints, which appears in contact with
the sides and bottom of the pipe, may represent all there is of
insoluble residue.
A somewhat similar deposit, a " conglomirat de s&ex* 1 or
" argile d siiex,'* occurs at the base of the Eocene on the southern
and western borders of the Paris basin, in the neighbourhood
of Chart res, Thimerais and Sancerrois. (J. A. H.)
CLAZOMENAE (mod. Kclismcn), an ancient town of Ionia
and a member of the Ionian Dodecapolis (Confederation of
Twelve Cities), on the Gulf of Smyrna, about 20 m. W. of that
city. Though not in existence before the arrival of the Ionians
in Asia, its original founders were largely settlers from Phlius
and Cleonae. It stood originally on the isthmus connecting
the mainland with the peninsula on which Erythrae stood;
but the inhabitants, alarmed by the encroachments of the
Persians, removed to one of the small islands of the bay, and
there established their city. This island was connected with
the mainland by Alexander the Great by means of a pier, the
remains of which are still visible. During the 5U1 century it
was for some time subject to the Athenians, but about the
middle of the Pcloponncsian war (4x2 B.C.) it revolted. After
a brief resistance, however, it again acknowledged the Athenian
supremacy, and repelled a Lacedaemonian attack. Under the
Romans Clazomenae was included in the province of Asia, and
enjoyed an immunity from taxation. The site can still be made
out, in the neighbourhood of Vourla, but nearly every portion
of its ruins has been removed. It was the birthplace of the
philosopher Anaxagoras. It is famous for its painted terra -co tu
sarcophagi, which are the finest monuments of Ionian painting
In the 6th century B.C. (E. Ga.)
CLEANTUES (c 301-232 or 252 B.C.), Stoic philosopher,
born at Assos in the Troad, was originally a boxer. With but
four drachmae in his possession he came to Athens, where he
listened first to the lectures of Crates the Cynic, and then to
those of Zeno, the Stoic, supporting himself meanwhile by
working all night as water-carrier to a gardener (hence his
nickname tyH&rrXrjt). His power of patient endurance, or
perhaps his slowness, earned him the title of " the Ass "; but
such was the esteem awakened by his high moral qualities that
on the death of Zeno in 263, he became the leader of the school
He continued, however, to support himself by the labour of his
own hands. Among his pupils were his successor, Chrysippus,
and Antifonus, king of Maccdon, from whom he accepted
joso minae. The manner of his death was characteristic. A
l i ifn uker had compelled him to fast for a time. Subse-
«acsury he continued his abstinence, saying that, as he was
afrsa^r half-way on the road to death, he would not trouble
at accaaias steps.
1 very little that was original, though he
wrote some fifty works, of which fragments have come down
to us. The principal is the large portion of the Hymn to Zau
which has been preserved in Stobaeus. He regarded the sua
as the abode of God, the intelligent providence, or (in accordance
with Stoical materialism) the vivifying fire or aether of the
universe. Virtue, he taught, is life according to nature; bat
pleasure is not according to nature. He originated a new theory
as to the individual existence of the human soul; he held that
the degree of its vitality after death depends upon the degree
of its vitality in this life. The principal f ragmen ts of Clean thes'i
works are contained in Diogenes Laertius and Stobaeus; some
may be found in Cicero and Seneca.
See G. C. Mohinke, Kleanthesder Striker (Grafswald, 1814); C
WachMiuth, Commentation*; de Zenotu Citienri et OanJke Assie
(Gouingea, 1874-1875): A. C. Pearson, Fragments of Zeno nd
Cleantkes (Camb., 1891); article by E. Wellmann in Ench and
Gruber't AUgemeine EncvHopadie; R. Hirzel. Untersuchungc* sm
Ciceros pkilosopkiscken Sckriften, ii. (1882), containing a vindication
of the originality of Ckanthes; A B. Krischc, Forsekungen o*f
dem GebieU der alien Pkilosopkie (1840); also works quoted nodes'
Stoics.
CLEARCHUS, the son of Rhamphias, a Spartan general and
condottiere. Born about the middle of the 5th century B.C.,
Clearchus was sent with a fleet to the Hellespont in 411 and
became governor (ipfiocrfp) of Byzantium, of which town he was
proxenus. His severity, however, made him unpopular, and in
his absence the gates were opened to the Athenian besieging army
under Alcibiades (409). Subsequently appointed by the ephors
to settle the political dissensions then rife at Byzantium and to
protect the city and the neighbouring Greek colonies from
Thracian attacks, he made himself tyrant of Byzantium, and,
when declared an outlaw and driven thence by a Spartan force,
he fled to Cyrus. In the " expedition of the ten thousand "
undertaken by Cyrus to dethrone his brother Artaxerxes
Mnemon, Clearchus led the Peloponncsians, who formed the
right wing of Cyrus's army at the battle of Cunaxa (401). On
Cyrus's death Clearchus assumed the chief command and
conducted the retreat, until, being treacherously seized with his
fellow-generals by Tissaphemes, he was handed over to Artaxerxes
and executed (Thuc. viii. 8. 39, 80; Xen. Helienica, L 3. 15-19;
A nabosis, L ii. ; Diodorus xiv. 1 2. 10-26). In character he was a
typical product of the Spartan educational system. He was a
warrior to the finger-tips (toX«/iuco» kcU ^cXoroXc/nf l«rxar«f.
Xen. Anab.'n. 6. 1), and his tireless energy, unfaltering courage
and strategic ability made him an officer of no mean order. But
he seems to have had no redeeming touch of refinement or
humanity.
CLEARFIELD, a borough and the county-seat of Clearfield
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the W. branch of the Susque-
hanna river, in the W. central part of the state. Pop. (1800)
2248; (1000) 5081 (310 foreign-born); (1910) 6851. It is served
by the New York Central & Hudson River, the Pennsylvania,
and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pi t tsburg railways. The borough is
about 1 105 ft. above sca-lcvel, in a rather limited space between
the hills, which command picturesque views of the narrow valley.
The river runs through the borough. Coal and fireclay abound in
the vicinity, and these, with leather, iron, timber and the pro-
ducts of the fertile soil, are the bases of its leading industries.
Before the arrival of the whites the place had been cleared of
timber (whence its name), and in 1805 it was chosen as a site for
the county-seat of the newly erected county and laid out as a
town; in 1840 it was incorporated as a borough.
CLEARING-HOUSE, the general term for a central institution
employed in connexion with large and interrelated businesses for
the purpose of facilitating the settlement of accounts.
Banking.— The London Clearing-House was established
between 1 750 and 1 770 as a place where the clerks of the bankers
of the city of London could assemble daily to exchange with one
another the cheques drawn upon and bills payable at their
respective houses. Before the clearing-house existed, each
banker had to send a clerk to the places of business of all
the other bankers in London to collect the sums pay&Ne by
them in respect of cheques and bills; and it is obvious that 1
CLEARING-HOUSE
477
time was consumed by this process, v. } 1 1 < li involved ti.t u.=c of an
unnecessary quantity of money and corresponding risks of safe
carriage. In 1775 a room in Change Alley was settled upon as a
common centre of exchange; this was afterwards removed to
tat Office Court, Lombard Street. This clearing centre was at
first confined to the bankers— at that time and long afterwards
exclusively private bankers — doing business within the city, and
the bankers in the west end of the metropolis used some one or
other of the city banks as their agent in clearing. When the
joint-stock banks were first established, the jealousy of the
existing banks was powerful enough to exclude them altogether
from the use of the Clearing- House; and it was not until 1854
that this feeling was removed so as to allow them to be admitted.
At first the Clearing- House was simply a place of meeting, but
it came to be perceived that the sorting and distribution of
cheques, bills, &c, could be more expeditiously conducted by the
appointment of two or three common clerks to whom each
banker's clerk could give all the instruments of exchange he
wished to collect, and from whom he could receive all those
payable at his own house. The payment of the balance settled
the transaction, but the arrangements were a/tcrwards so
perfected that the balance is now settled by means of transfers
made at the Bank of England between the Clearing- House
account and those of the various banks, the Clearing- House, as
well as each banker using it, having an account at the Bank of
England. The use of the Clearing- House was still further
extended in 1858, so as to include the settlement of exchanges
between the country bankers of England. Before that time each
country banker receiving cheques on other country bankers sent
them to those other bankers by post (supposing they were not
carrying on business in the same place), and requested that the
amount should be paid by the London agent of the banker on
whom the cheques were drawn to the London agent of the banker
remitting them. Cheques were thus collected by correspondence,
and each remittance involved a separate payment in London.
Since 1858, accordingly, a country banker sends cheques on other
country banks to his London correspondent, who exchanges them
at the Clearing- House with the correspondents of the bankers on
whom they are drawn.
The Clearing- House consists of one long room, lighted from the
roof. Around the walls and down the centre are placed desks,
allotted to the various banks, according to the amount of their
business. The desks arc arranged alphabetically, so that the
clerks may lose no time in passing round the room and delivering
their " charges " or batches of cheques to the representatives of
the various banks. There are three clearings in London each day.
The first is at 10.30 a.m., the second at noon, and the third at
2.30 p.m. It is the busiest of all, and continues until five minutes
past four, when the last delivery must be made. The three
clearings were, in 1007, divided into town, metropolitan and
country clearings, each with a definite area. All the clearing
banks have their cheques marked with the letters " T," " M " and
"C," according to the district in which the issuing bank is
situated. Every cheque issued by the clearing banks, even
though drawn in the head office of a bank, goes through the
Clearing- House.
The amount of business transacted at the Clearing-House
varies very much with the seasons of the year, the busiest time
being when dividends arc paid and slock exchange .settlements
are made, but the volume of transactions averages roughly from
200 to 300 millions sterling a week, and the yearly clearances
amount to something like £1 2 ,000,000,000. There arc provincial
clearing-houses at Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, New-
caslle-on-Tyne, Leeds, Sheffield, Leicester and Bristol. There arc
also clearing-houses in most of the large towns of Scotland and
Ireland. In New York and the other large cities of the United
States there are clearing-houses providing accommodation for
the various banking institutions (see Banks and Bankinc).
The progress of banking on the continent of Europe has been
slow in comparison with that of the United Kingdom, and the
use of cheques is not so general, consequently the need for
deariog-houses is not so great. In France, too, the greater
proportion of the banking husiness is carried on through three
banks only, the Banque dc France, the Societe Gtncrale and the
Credit Lyonnais, and a great part of their transactions are settled
at their own head offices. But at the same time large sums
pass through the Paris Chambrc de Compensation (the clearing-
house), established in 187a.
There are clearing-houses also in Berlin, Hamburg and many
other European cities.
Railways. — The British Railway Clearing-House was estab-
lished in 1842, its purpose, as defined by the Railway Clearing-
House Act of 1850, being " to settle and adjust the receipts
arising from railway traffic within, or partly within, the United
Kingdom, and passing over more than one railway within the
United Kingdom, booked or invoiced at throughout rates or
fares." It is an independent body, governed by a committee
which is composed of delegates (usually the chairman or one of
the directors) from each of the railways that belong to it. Any
railway company may be admitted a party to the clearing-system
with the assent of the committee, may cease to be a member at a
month's notice, and may be expelled if such expulsion be voted
for by two-thirds of the delegates present at a specially convened
meeting. The cost of maintaining it is defrayed by contributions
from the companies proportional to the volume of business passed
through it by each. It has two main functions. (1) When
passengers or goods are booked through between stations
belonging to different railway companies at an inclusive charge
for the whole journey, it distributes the money received in due
proportions between the companies concerned in rendering the
service. To t his end it receives, in the case of passenger traffic, a
monthly return of the tickets issued at each station to stations on
other lines, and, in the case of goods traffic, it is supplied by both
the sending and receiving stations (when these arc on different
companies' systems) with abstracts showing the character, weight,
&c, of the goods that have travelled between them. By the aid
of these particulars it allocates the proper share of the receipts
to each company, having due regard to the distance over which
the traffic has been carried on each line, to the terminal services
rendered by each company, to any incidental expenses to which
it may have been put, and to the existence of any special agree-
ments for the division of traffic. (2) To avoid the inconvenience
of a change of train at points where the lines of different com-
panies meet, passengers are often, and goods and minerals
gen ci ally, carried in through vehicles from their starting-point
to their destination. In consequence, vehicles belonging to one
company are constantly forming part of trains that belong to,
and run over the lines of, other companies, which thus have the
temporary use of rolling stock that docs not belong to them.
By the aid of a large staff of " number takers '' who arc stationed
at junctions all over the country, and whose business is to
record particulars of the vehicles which pass through those
junctions, the Clearing-House follows the movements of vehicles
which have left their owners' line, ascertains how far they have
run on the lines of other companies, and debits each of the latter
with the amount it has to pay for their use. This charge is
known as " mileage "; another charge which is also determined
by the Clearing-House is "demurrage," that is, the amount
exacted from the detaining company if a vehicle is not returned
to its owners within a prescribed time. By the exercise of these
functions the Clearing-House accumulates a long scries of credits
to, and debits against, each company; these are periodically
added up and set against each other, with the result that the
accounts between it and the companies arc finally settled by the
transfer of comparatively small balances. It also distributes the
money paid by the post-office to the railways on account of the
conveyance of parcel-post traffic, and through its lost luggage
department many thousands of articles left in railway carriages
are every year returned to their owners. Its situation in London
further renders it a convenient meeting-place for several " Clear-
ing-House Conferences " of railway officials, as of the general
managers, the goods managers, and the superintendents of the
line, held four times a year for the consideration of quc*tian&
in which all the companies axs. vo\.cx«x«^. 'Yfc&YroSoL'^J&Bw*!
47»
CLEAT— CLEFT PALATE
Gearing-House, established in 1848, has its headquarters in
Dublin, and was incorporated by act of parliament in i860.
General. — The principle of clearing adopted by banks and
railways has been applied with considerable success in other
businesses.
In 1874 the London Stock Exchange Gearing-House was
established for the purpose of settling transactions in stock, the
clearing being effected by balance-sheets and tickets; the balance
of stock to be received or delivered is shown on a balance-sheet
sent in by each member, and the items are then cancelled against
one another and tickets issued for the balances outstanding.
The New York Stock Exchange Clearing-House was established in
1892. The settlements on the Paris Bourse arc cleared within the
Bourse itself, through the Compagnie des Agents de Change de
Paris.
In 1888 a society was formed in London called the Beetroot
Sugar Association for clearing bargains in beetroot sugar. For
every 500 bags of sugar of a definite weight which a broker sells,
he issues a filUre (a form something like a dock-warrant), giving
particulars as to the ship, the warehouse, trade-marks, &c. The
ulidre contains also a series of transfer forms which are filled up
and signed by each successive holder, so transferring the property
to a new purchaser. The new purchaser also fills up a coupon
attached to the transfer, quoting the date and hour of sale. This
coupon is detached by the seller and retained by him as evidence
to determine any liability through subsequent delay in the
delivery of the sugar. Any purchaser requiring delivery of the
sugar forwards the filiere to the clearing-house, and the officials
then send on his name to the first seller who tenders him the
warrant direct. These filiercs pass from hand to hand within a
limit of six days, a stamp being affixed on each transfer as a
clearing-house fee. The difference between each of the successive
transactions is adjusted by the clearing-house to the profit or loss
of the seller.
The London Produce Gearing-House was established in x888
for regulating and adjusting bargains in foreign and colonial
produce. The object of the association is to guarantee both to
the buyer and the seller the fulfilment of bargains for future
delivery. The transactions on either side are allowed to accumu-
late during a month and an adjustment made at the end by a
settlement of the final balance owing. On the same lines are the
Caisse de Liquidation at Havre and the Waaren Liquidations
Casse at Hamburg. The Cotton Association also has a clearing-
house at Liverpool for clearing the transactions which arise from
dealings in cotton.
Authowttbs.— W. Howarth, Our Clearing System and Clearing
Houses (1897), The Banks in the Clearing House (1905) ; J. G. Cannon,
Clearing-houses, their History, Methods and Administration (1901);
H. T. Easton, Money, Exchange and Banking (1905) ; and the various
volumes of the Journal of the Institute* of Bankers. (T. A. I.)
CLEAT (a word common in various forms to many Teutonic
languages, in the sense of a wedge or lump, cf. " clod " and
" clot "), a wedge-shaped piece of wood fastened to ships'
masts and elsewhere to prevent a rope, collar or the like from
slipping, or to act as a step; more particularly a piece of wood
or metal with double or single horns used for belaying ropes.
A " cleat " is also a wedge fastened to a ship's side to catch the
shores in a launching cradle or dry dock. " Cleat " is also used
in mining for the vertical cleavage-planes of coal.
CLBATOR MOOR, an urban district in the Egremont parlia-
mentary division of Cumberland, England, 4 m. S.E. of White-
haven, served by the Furncss, London & North-Wcstern and
Cleator & Workington Junction railways. Pop. (1001) 8120.
The town lies between the valleys of the Ehen and its tributary
the Dub Beck, in a district rich in coal and iron ore. The mining
of these, together with blast furnaces and engineering works,
occupies the large industrial population.
CLEAVERS, or Goose-crass, Galium Aparine (natural order
Rubiaceae), a common plant in hedges and waste places, with
a long, weak, straggling, four-sided, green stem, bearing whorls
of 6 to 8 narrow leaves, \ to 2 in. long, and, like the angles of the
ttem, rough from the presence of short, stiff, downwardly-pointing,
hooked hairs. The small, white, regular flowers are borne, a few
together, in axillary dusters, and are followed by the large, hispid,
two-celled fruit, which, like the rest of the plant, readily diogi
to a rough surface, whence the common name. The plant has a
wide distribution throughout the north temperate zone, and is also
found in temperate South America.
CLEBURNE, a town and the county-seat of Johnson county,
Texas, U.S.A., 25 m. S. of Fort Worth. Pop. (1890) 3278;
(1000) 7493, including 611 negroes; (1910)10,364. It is served by
the Gulf, Colorado & Santa F6, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas;
and the Trinity & Brazos Valley railways. It is the centre of a
prosperous farming, fruit and stock-raising region, has large
railway repair shops, flour-mills, cotton gins and foundries, a
canning factory and machine shops. It has a Carnegie library,
and St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic; for girls). The
town was named in honour of Patrick Ronaync Cleburne (1828-
1864), a major-general of the Confederate army, who was of
Irish birth, practised law in Helena, Arkansas, served at Shiloh,
Perryville, Stone River, Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, Ring-
gold Gap, Jonesboro and Franklin, and was killed in the last-
named battle; he was called the " Stonewall of the West."
CLECKHEATON, an urban district in the Spen Valley parlia-
mentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
5i m. S. by E. of Bradford, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire,
Great Northern and London & North-Western railways. Pop.
(xooi) 12,524. A chamber of commerce has held meetings here
since 1878. The industries comprise the manufacture of woollens,
blankets, flannel, wire-card and machinery.
CLEETHORPES, a watering-place of Lincolnshire, England;
within the parliamentary borough of Great Grimsby, 3 m. S.E.
of that town by a branch of the Great Central railway. Pop.
of urban district of Cleethorpe with Thrunscoe (1001) 12,578.
Clcethorpes faces eastward to the North Sea, but its shore of
fine sand, affording good bathing, actually belongs to the estuary
of the Humber. There is a pier, and the sea-wall extends for
about a mile, forming a pleasant promenade. The suburb of
New Gee connects Clcethorpes with Grimsby. The church of
the Holy Trinity and St Mary is principally Norman of various
dates, but work of a date apparently previous to the Conquest
appears in the tower. Clcethorpes is greatly favoured by
visitors from the midland counties, Lancashire and Yorkshire.
CLEFT PALATE and HARE-LIP, in surgery. Cleft Palais
is a congenital cleavage, or incomplete development in the roof
of the mouth, and is frequently associated with hare-lip. The
infant is prevented from sucking, and an operation is necessary.
Cleft-palate is often a hereditary defect. The most favourable
time for operating is between the age of two weeks and three
months, and if the deft is closed at this early date, not only are
the nutrition and general development of the child greatly;
improved, but the voice is probably saved from much of the
unpleasant tone which is usually associated with a defective
roof to the mouth and is apt to persist even if a cleft has been
successfully operated on later in childhood. The greatest advance
which has been made in the operative treatment of cleft palate
is due to the teaching of Dr Truman W. Brophy, who adopted
the ingenious plan of thrusting together to the middle line of
the mouth the halves of the palate which nature had unfortun-
ately left apart But, as noted above, this operation must, to
give the best results, be undertaken in the earliest months of
infancy. After the deft in the palate has been effectually dealt
with, the hare-lip can be repaired with ease and success.
Hare-lip.— In the hare the splitting of the lip is in the middle
line, but in the human subject it is on one side, or on both sides
of the middle line. This is accounted for on developmental
grounds: a deft in the exact middle line is of extremely rare
occurrence. Hare-lip is often assodated with deft palate.
Though we arc at present unable to explain why development
should so frequently miss the mark in connexion with the forma-
tion of the lip and palate, it is unlikely that maternal impressions
have anything to do with it. As a rule, the supposed " fright M
comes long after the lips are developed. They are completdy
formed by the ninth week. Heredity hat a powerful influence
CLEISTHENES
479
in many cues. The best time for operating on & hire-lip depends
upon various circumstances. Thus, if it is associated with cleft
palate, the palatine deft has first to be closed, in which case the
child will probably be several months old before the lip is operated
on. If the infant is in so poor a state of nutrition that it appears
unsuitable for surgical treatment, the operation must be post-
poned until his condition is sufficiently improved. But, assuming
that the infant is in fair health, that he is taking his food well and
thriving on it, that he is not troubled by vomiting or diarrhoea,
and that the hare-lip is not associated with a defective palate,
the sooner it is operated on the better. It may be successfully
done even within a few hours of birth. When a hare-lip is
tuassociated with cleft palate, the infant may possibly be enabled
to take the breast within a short time of the gap being closed.
In such a case the operation may be advisably undertaken
within the first few days of birth. The case being suitable, the
operation may be conveniently undertaken at any time after
the tenth day. (E. O .•)
. CLEISTHENES, the name of two Greek statesmen, (x) of
Athens, (a) of Sicyon, of whom the first is far the more important.
i. Cleisthenes, the Athenian statesman, was the son of
Megades and Agariste, daughter of Cleisthenes of Sicyon. He
thus belonged, through his father, to the noble family of the
Akmaeonidac (?.*.), who bore upon them the curse of the Cylon-
ian massacre, and had been in exile during the rule of the Peisi-
stratids. In the hope of washing out the stigma, which damaged
their prestige, they spent the latter part of their exile in carrying
out with great splendour the contract given out by the Amphic-
tyons for the rebuilding of the temple at Delphi (destroyed
by fire in 548 B.C.). By building the pronaos of Parian marble
instead of limestone as specified in the contract, they acquired
a high reputation for piety; the curse was consigned to oblivion,
and their reinstatement was imposed by the orade itself upon
the Spartan king, Cleomcncs O7.1O. Cleisthenes, to whom this
far-seeing atonement must probably be attributed, had also on
his side (1) the malcontents in Athens who were disgusted with
the growing severity of Hippias, and (2) the oligarchs of Sparta,
partly on religious grounds, and partly owing to their hatred
of tyranny. Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, however, treats
the alliance of the Peisistratids with Argos, the rival of Sparta
in the Peloponncse, as the chief ground for the action of Sparta
(c. 19). In c. 513 B.C. Cleisthenes invaded Attica, but was
defeated by the tyrant's mercenaries at Lcipsydrium (S. of Ml
Fames). Sparta then, in tardy obedience to the oracle, threw
off her alliance with the Peisistratids, and, after one failure,
expelled Hippias in 511-510 B.C., leaving Athens once again at
the mercy of the powerful families.
Cleisthenes, on his return, was in a difficulty; he realized
that Athens would not tolerate a new tyranny, nor were the
other nobles willing to accept him as leader of a
\^ constitutional oligarchy. It was left for him to " take
the people into partnership " as Pcisistratus had in a
different way done before him. Solon's reforms had
failed, primarily because they left unimpaired the power of the
great landed nobles, who, in their several districts, doubled the
roles of landlord, priest andpatriarch. This evil of local influence
Pcisistratus had concealed by satisfying the nominally sovereign
people that in him they had a sufficient representative. It was
left to Cleisthenes to adopt the remaining remedy of giving
substance to the form of the Solonian constitution. His first
attempts roused the aristocrats to a last effort; Isagoras
appealed to the Spartans (who, though they disliked tyranny,
had no love for democracy) to come to his aid. Cleisthenes
retired on the arrival of a herald from Clcomencs, reviving the
old question of the curse; Isagoras thus became all-powerful 1
and expelled seven hundred families. The democrats, however,
1 The archonship of Isadoras in 508 is important as showing that
Cleisthenes, three years after his return, had » far failed to secure
the support of a majority in Athens. .
lor supposing that the election of Isagoras was procured by (
: all the evidence points to its having been brought aboi
There is no sufficient reason
'Clco-
. „ „ out in
the ordinary way. Probably, therefore. Clcisi henes did not take the
" t thoroughly into partnership till after the spring of 508.
rose, and after besieging Cleomenes and Isagoras in the Acropolis,
let them go under a safe-conduct, and brought back the exiles.
Apart from the reforms which Cleisthenes was now able to
establish, the period of his ascendancy is a blank, nor are we
told when and how it came to an end. It is dear, however—
and it is impossible in connexion with the Pan-hellenic patriotism
to which Athens laid claim, to overrate the importance of the
fact— that Cleisthenes, hard pressed in the war with Boeotia,
Euboea and Sparta (Herod, v. 73 and foil.), sent ambassadors
to ask the help of Persia. The story, as told by Herodotus, that
the ambassadors of their own accord agreed to give " earth and
water " (i.e. submission) in return for Persian assistance, and
that the Ecdcsia subsequently disavowed their action as un-
authorized, is scarcely credible. Cleisthenes (1) was in full
control and must have instructed the ambassadors; (2) he
knew that any help from Persia meant submission. It is practi-
cally certain, therefore, that he (cf. the Alcmaeonids and the
story of the shield at .Marathon) was the first to " mediae "
(see Curtius, History of Greece). Probably he had hoped to
persuade the Ecclcsia that the agreement was a mere form.
Aclian says that he himself was a victim to his own device of
ostracism (?.?.); this, though apparently inconsistent with the
Constitution of Alliens (c. 22), may perhaps indicate that his
political career ended in disgrace, a hypothesis which is explicable
on the ground of this act of treachery in respect of the attempted
Persian alliance. Whether to Cleisthenes are due the final
success over Boeotia and Euboea, the planting of the 4000
clcruchs on the Lclantinc Plain, and the policy of the Aeginetan
War (see Aegina), in which Athens borrowed ships from Corinth,
it is impossible to determine. The eclipse of Cleisthenes in all
records is one of the most curious facts in Greek history. It is
also curious that we do not know in what official capacity
Cleisthenes carried his reforms. Perhaps he was given extra-
ordinary ad hoc powers for a specified time; conceivably he
used the ordinary mechanism. It seems dear that he liad fully
considered his scheme in advance, that he broached it before
the last attack of Isagoras, and that it was only after the final
expulsion of Isagoras and his Spartan allies that it became
possible for him to put it into execution.
Cleisthenes aimed at being the leader of a self-governing
people; in other words he aimed at making the democracy
actual. He realized that the dead-weight which ^^
held the democracy down was the influence on politics twk
of the local religious unit. Therefore his prime object
was to dissociate the clans and the phratrics from
politics, and to give the democracy a totally new electoral basis
in which old associations and vested interests would be split
up and become ineffective. It was necessary that no man
should govern a pocket-constituency merely by virtue of his
religious, financial or ancestral prestige, and that there should
be created a new local unit with administrative powers of a
democratic character which would galvanize the lethargic voters
into a new sense of responsibility and independence. His first
step was to abolish the four Solonian tribes and create ten new
ones. 1 Each of the new tribes was subdivided into " demes**
(roughly "townships"); this organization did not,
except politically, supersede the system of clans and tribe*
phratrics whose old religious signification remained
untouched. The new tribes, however, though geographically
arranged, did not represent local interests. Further, .the tribe
names were taken from legendary heroes (Cccropis, Pandionis,
Aegeis recalled the storied kings of Attica), and, therefore,
contributed to the idea of a national unity; even Ajax, the
cponym of the tribe Aeantis, though not Attic, was famous
as an ally (Herod, v. 66) and ranked as a national hero. Each
tribe had its shrine and its particular hero-cult, which, however,
was free from local association and the dominance of particular
•The explanation given for this step by Herodotus (v. 67) is
an amusing example of his incapacity as a critical historian. To
compare Cleisthenes of Sicyon (see below), bent on humiliating the
Dorians of Sicyon by giving opprobrious names to the Dorian tribes,
with his grandson, whose endeavour was to elevate the very, ^eevrat
whose tribal organization he replaced, viOttwfcj ?tavax&.
480
CLEISTHENES
families. This national idea Geisthenes further emphasized by
setting up in the market-place at Athens a statue of each tribal
hero.
The next step was the organization of the deme. Within
each tribe he grouped ten demes (see below), each of which had
p 9mtt (1) its hero and its chapel, and (2) its census-list kept
by the demarch. The demarch (local governor), who
was elected popularly and held office for one year, presided over
meetings affecting local administration and the provision of
crews for the state-navy, and was probably under a system of
scrutiny like the dokimasia of the state-magistrates. According
to the Aristotelian Constitution of Athens, Geisthenes further
divided Attica into three districts, Urban and Suburban, Inland
(Mesogaios), and Maritime (Paralia), each of which was sub-
divided into ten trillyes; each tribe had three trittyes in each
of these districts. The problem of establishing this decimal
system in connexion with the demes and trittyes is insoluble.
Herodotus says that there were ten 1 demes to each tribe (toca
«ff rAs tfi'XAs); but each tribe was composed of three trittyes,
one in each of the three districts. Since the deme was, as will
be seen, the electoral unit, it is clear that in tribal voting the
object of ending the old threefold schism of the Plain, the Hill
and the Shore was attained, but the relation of deme and trittys
is obviously of an unsymmctrical kind. The Constitution of
Athens says nothing of the tcn-demc-to-each-tribc arrangement,
and there is no sufficient reason for supposing that the demes
originally were exactly a hundred in number. We know the
names of 168 demes, and Polcmon (3rd century B.C.) enumerated
173. It has been suggested that the demes did originally number
exactly a hundred, and that new demes were added as the popu-
lation increased. This theory, however, presupposes that the
demes were originally equal in numbers. In the 5th and 4th
centuries this was certainly not the case; the number of demes-
men in some cases was only one hundred or two hundred,
whereas the deme Acharnac is referred to as a " great part " of
the whole state, and is known to have furnished three thousand
hoplites. The theory is fundamentally at fault, inasmuch as
it regards the deme as consisting of all those resident vsilhin
its borders. In point of fact membership was hereditary, not
residential; Demosthenes "of the Pacanian deme" might live
where he would without severing his deme connexion. Thus
the increase of population could be no reason for creating new
demes. This distinction in a deme between demesmen and
residents belonging to another deme (the lyKutrnfunot), who
paid a demc-tax for their privilege, is an important one. It
should further be noted that the demes belonging to a particular
tribe do not, as a fact, appear always in three separate groups;
the tribe Aeantis consisted of Phalcrum and eleven demes in
the district of Marathon; other tribes had demes in five or six
group*. It mubt, therefore, be admitted that the problem is
insoluble for want of data. Nor arc we better equipped to settle
Ilic relation between the Clcisthcncan division into Urban,
Maritime and Inland, and the old divisions of the Plain, the
Shore and the Upland or Hill. The " Maritime " of Clcisthencs
and the old " Shore " arc certainly not coincident, nor is the
" Inland " idcntiial with the " Upland."
^ Lastly, it has been asked whether we arc to believe that
Cln.thenes invented the demes. To this the answer is in the
negative. The demes were undoubtedly primitive divisions of
Attica, Herodotus (ix. 73) speaks of the Dioscuri as ravaging
the demes of DcrcK* (sec R. W. Macan ad loc.) and we hear of
opposition between the city and the demes. The most logical
conclusion perhaps is that Clikthcnes, while he did create the
deme* whi< h Athrns itself comprised, did not create the country
duriri but mrrHy |{avi: thrm definition as political divisions.
I l»'in the uty Itsw-If had v.\x d.-mes in five different trilies, and the
oilier five tribes were r«-pr« ■ .« nird in the suburbs and the Peiraeus.
II h f Irjr that in the ( l,i:.il„:,H dn system there was one great
**.ir,c of d«„Kcr, namely lint the- indents |„ and about Athens
tr..iM alway. | iavc ha,, f||0rc w| . iRht |p dn , |tms |||a|| ihoK in
sJL^ l '"^ W J U l M,J|, !!« , "' 1 !»'ff Mrii/. Kif.M.«rff.p». 149.150) suggests
distant demes. There can be little doubt that tfie preponderat*
ing influence of the city was responsible for the unwisdom of
the later imperial policy and the Peloponncsian war.
A second problem is the franchise reform of Geisthenes.
Aristotle in the Politics (iii. 2. 3-1275 b) says that Geisthenes
created new citizens by enrolling in the tribes " many resident
aliens and emancipated slaves."* But the Aristotelian Con-
stitution of Athens asserts that he gave "citizenship to the
masses." These two statements are not compatible. It is
perfectly dear that Clcisthencs is to be regarded as a mm ._ ^ m __
democrat, and it would have been no bribe to thejj^jjj^
people merely to confer a boon on aliens and slaves.
Moreover, a revision of the citizen-roll (diapsepkismus) had
recently taken place (after the end of the tyranny) and a
great many citizens had been struck off the roll as being of
impure descent (oi r<£ ykvu /ui) Kcrfhpol). This class had existed
from the time of Solon, and, through fear of political extinction
by the oligarchs, had been favourable to Peisistratus. Clcis-
thencs may have enfranchised aliens and slaves, but it seems
certain that he must have dealt with these free Athenians «bo
had lost their rights. Now Isagoras presumably did not carry
out this revision of the roll (diapsepkismus); as "the friend of
the tyrants " (so Ath. Pol. 20; by Meyer, Busolt and others
contest this) he would not have struck a blow at a class which
favoured his own views. A reasonable hypothesis is that
Geisthenes was the originator of the measure of expulsion, and
that he now changed his policy, and strengthened his hold on
the democracy by reinstating the disfranchised in much largrr
numbers. The new citizens, whoever they were, must, of course,
have been enrolled also in the (hitherto exclusive) phratry lists
and the dcme-rolls.
The Boule (q.v.) was reorganized to suit the new tribal arrange-
ment, and was known henceforward as the Council of the Five
Hundred, fifty from each tribe. Its exact constitution n»
is unknown, but it was certainly more democratic cmmV
than the Solonian Four Hundred. Further, the •?**•■ •*
system of ten tribes led in course of time to the con- •"■*
struct ion of boards of ten to deal with military and civil affaire,
e.g. the Stratcgi (see Stkategus), the Apodcctae, and others.
Of these the former cannot be attributed to Clcisthencs, but 00
the evidence of And rot ion it is certain that it was Geisthenes
who replaced the Colacrctac* by the Apodcctae ('•receivers"),
who were controllers and auditors of the finance department,
and, before the council in the council-chamber, received the
revenues. The Colacrctae, who had done this work before,
remained in authority over the internal expenses of the Try*
tancum. A further change which followed from the new tribal
system was the rcconstitution of the army; this, however,
probably took place about 501 B.C., and cannot be attributed
directly to Clcisthencs. It has been said that the deme became
the local political unit, replacing the naucrary (q.v.). But the
naucrarics still supplied the fleet, and were increased in number
from forty-eight to fifty; if each naucrary still supplied a ship
and two mounted soldiers as before, it is interesting to lean
that, only seventy years before the Peloponnesian War, Athens
had but fifty ships and a hundred hoYsc. 4
The device of ostracism is the final stone in the Geisthenexa
structure. An admirable scheme in theory, and, at first, ffl
practice, it deteriorated in the 5th century into a mere parr/
1 It should be observed that there are other translations of the
difficult phrase {i*oui xai bobXovt lumUwu
* Colacrctae were very ancient Athenian magistrates; either
(1) those who " cut up the joints " in the Prytaneum (t&Ao. at**),
or (2) those who "collected the joints" («£Aa. iyU**) which veff
left over from public sacrifices, and consumed in the Ptyuncum.
Thcsc officials were again important in the lime of Aristophanes
(Wasps, 603. 724; Birds, 1541), and they presided over the payment
(if the dicasts instituted by Pericles. They are not mentioned,
though they may have existed, after 403 nx. At Sieyon also
magistrates of this name arc found. ...
* It is. however, more prolviblc that the naht reading of the
passage is iixa irwut instead of «i«. which would cjvc a cavalry foirt
in early Athens of 480, a reasonable number in proportion to the
total fighting strength.
CLEITARCHUS— CLEMATIS
481
capon, and In the case of Hyperbolus (417) became an
bsurdity
In conclusion it should be noticed that Cleistbenes was
x founder of the Athens which we know To him was due
, the spirit of nationality, the principle of liberty duly
m tmMT ' apportioned and controlled by centralized and de-
moralised administration, which prepared the ground for the
ch developments of the Golden Age with its triumphs of art
nd literature, politics and philosophy. It was Cleisthcnes who
rganixed the structure which, for a long time, bore the heavy
urden of the Empire against impossible odds, the structure
hkh the very different genius of Pericles was able to beautify
Te was the first to appreciate the unique power in politics,
terature and society of an organized public opinion.
Authorities.— 4 «ri>H/: Aristotle. Constitution of Athens (ed.
E Sandys), cc. 20-22, 41 , Herodotus v 63-73. vi 131 . Aristotle.
'tithes, iii. 2, 3 (-1275 b. for franchise reforms) Modern Histories
f Greece in general, especially those of Grote and Curtius (which.
I course, lack the information contained in the Constitution of
tkens), and J. B Bury Sec also E Meyer. Gesckickte des A iter turns
t<*. ii.). G. Busolt. Crtech. Ge\ch (2nd ed.. 1893 (oil ). Milchhofer.
Ober die Demenordnung des Kleisthenes " in appendix to Abkand-
mt 4 Bert. Akad (1892); R. Locpcr in Athen Milled (1892).
P 3*9-433 • A. H I Greomdge. Handbook of Creek Constitutional
hsUry (1 896), Gilbert, Greek Constitutional Antiquities (Eng
also
ass.. 1895). R W Macan. Herodotus tv -vt., vol 11 (1895),
|l. U von Wilamowiu-Mocllendorff. Artst und Aiken.
ovlI. Ecclesia, Ostracism. Naucrarv. Solon.
a. Cleisthenes of Sicyon (c 600-570), grandfather of the
bove, became tyrant of Sicyon as the representative of the
Mquered Ionian section of the inhabitants. He emphasized
to destruction of Dorian predominance by giving ridiculous
pithets to their tribal units, which from Hylleis, Dymancs and
amphyli become Hyatae ("Swine-men"), Choircatae ("Tig
ten ") and Oneatae (" Ass-mcn "). He also attacked Dorian
irgos, and suppressed the Homeric " rhapsodists " who sang
be exploits of Dorian heroes. He championed the cause of the
Jdphic oracle against the town of Crisa (Cirrha) in the Sacred
Var (c. 500) . Crisa was destroyed, and Delphi beca me one of t he
aeeting-places of the old amphictyony of Anthela, henceforward
(tea called the Delphic amphictyony. The Pythian games,
ugely on the initiative of Cleisthenes, were re-established with
cw magnificence, and Cleisthenes won the first chariot race in
#1. He founded. Pythian games at Sicyon, and possibly built
1 new Sicyonian treasury at Delphi. His power was so great
hat when he offered his daughter Agaristc in marriage, some
if the most prominent Greeks sought the honour, which fell upon
legacies, the Alcmaeonid. The story of the rival wooers with
k famous retort, " Hippoclcidcs don't care," is told in Herod,
a. 125; see also Herod, v. 67 and Thuc. 1. 18.
Cleisthenes is also the name of an Athenian, pilloried by Aristo-
phanes (Clouds, 354; rA«m. 574) as a fop and a profligate. (J. M. M.)
CWTARCHUS, one of the historians of Alexander the Great,
■a of Deinon, also an historian, was possibly a native of Egypt,
* at least spent a considerable time at the court of Ptolemy
Lagua. Quintilian (Instil, x. 1. 74) credits him with more
ibffity than trustworthiness, and Cicero (Brutus, 11) accuses
lim of giving a fictitious account of the death of Thcmistoclcs.
Hut there is no doubt that his history was very popular, and
Bach used by Diodorus Siculus, Quintus Curtius, Justin and
fatarch, and the authors of the Alexander romances. His
lanatnral and exaggerated style became proverbial.
The fragments, some thirty in number, chiefly preserved in Aelian
ad Strabo, will be found in C. Mullcr's Scriptores Rerum Alexandn
Vif«i (in the Didot Arrian, 1846); monographs by C Kaun. De
Tikjrcho Diodori, Curlii, Justini auctore (1868). and F Reuss,
' Hclleaistische Beitrtgc " in Rkein. A/us. Ixiii. (1908}, pp. 58-78.
CLHTHRAL (Gr. nKtlBpo*, an enclosed or shut -up place),
architectural term applied to a covered Greek temple, in
Mtmdistinction to kypaethral, which designates one that is
■covered; the roof of a cleithral temple completely covers it.
CLUTOR, or Clitor. a town of ancient Greece, in that part of
rcadia which corresponds to the modern eparchy of Kalavryta
1 the nomos of Elis and Achaea. It stood in a fertile plain to
M south of Mt Chelmos, the highest peak of the Aroanian
Mountains, and not far from a stream of its own name, which
joined the A roam us. or Katzana In the neighbourhood was
a fountain, the waters of which were said to deprive those who
drank them of the taste fur wine. The town was a place of con-
siderable importance in Arcadia, and its inhabitants were noted
for their love of liberty It extended its territory over several
neighbouring towns, and in the Thcban war fought against
Orchomenus. It joined the other Arcadian cities in the founda-
tion of Megalopolis. As a member of the Achaean league it
was besieged by the Actolians in 220 B.C., and was on several
occasions the seat of the federal assemblies. It coined money
up to the time of Septimius Severus. The ruins, which bear
the common name of Paleopoli, or Old City, are still to be seen
about 3 m from a village that preserves the ancient designation.
The greater part of the walls which enclose an" area of about a
mile and several of the semi-circular towers with which they
were strengthened can be clearly made out; and there are also
remains of three Doric temples and a small theatre.
CLELAND, WILLIAM (i66i?-i68g), Scottish poet and
soldier, son of Thomas Cleland, gamekeeper to the marquis of
Douglas, was born about 1661. He was probably brought up
on the marquess of Douglas's estate in Lanarkshire, and was
educated at St Andrews University. Immediately on leasing
college he joined the army of the Covenanters, and was present
at Drumclog, where, says Robert Wodrow, some attributed to
Cleland the manoeuvre which led to the victory He also fought
at Bothwcll Bridge. He and his brother James were described
in a royal proclamation of the 16th of June 1679 among the
leaders of the insurgents. He escaped to Holland, but in 1685
was again in Scotland in connexion with the abortive invasion
of the earl of Argyll. He escaped once more, to return in 1688
as agent for William of Orange. He was appointed lieutenant-
colonel of the Cameronian regiment raised from the minority
of the western Covenanters who consented to serve under William
III. The Cameron ians were entrusted with the defence of Dun-
kcld, which they held against the fierce assault of the Highlanders
on the 26th of August. The repulse of the Highlanders before
Dunkeld ended the Jacobite rising, but Cleland fell in the struggle.
He wrote A Collection of several Poems and Verses composed
upon various occasions (published posthumously, 1697) Of
"Hullo, my fancie, whither wilt thou go? "only the last nine
stanzas are by Cleland. His poems have small literary merit,
and are written, not in pure Lowland Scots, but in English with
a large admixture of Scottish words. The longest and most
important of them arc the " mock poems " " On the Expedition
of the Highland Host who came to destroy the western shires
in winter 1678 " and " On the clergie when they met to consult
about taking the Test in the year 1681."
An Exact Narrative of the Conflict of Dunkeld . . . collected from
several officers of the regiment . . . appeared in 1G89.
CLEMATIS, in botany, a genus of the natural order Ranun-
culaceae, containing nearly two hundred species, and widely
distributed. It is represented in England by Clematis Vitalba,
" old man's beard " or " traveller's joy," a common plant on
chalky or light soil. The plants arc shrubby climbers with gener
ally compound opposite leaves, the stalk of which is sensitive
to contact like a tendril, becoming twisted round suitable objects
and thereby giving support to the plant. The flowers are arranged
in axillary or terminal clusters; they have no petals, but white
or coloured, often very large sepals, and an indefinite number
of stamens and carpels. They contain no honey, and are visited
by insects for the sake of the pollen, which is plentiful. The fruit
is a head of achencs, each bearing the long-bearded persistent
style, suggesting the popular name. This feathery style is an
important agent in the distribution of the seed by means of the
wind. Several of the species, especially the large-flowered ones,
arc favourite garden plants, well adapted for covering trellises
or walls, or trailing over the ground. Many garden forms have
been produced by hybridization; among the best known is
C. Jackmanni, due to Mr George Jackman of Woking.
Further information may be obtained from The Clematis as a
Garden Flower, by The*. Moore and George UtV"*K*. «t**. *«»
G. Nicholson, Dictionary of Gavdcnint/t. ^v*fc^ **& SuV**wm»**-
482
CLEMENCEAU— CLEMENT
CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES (1841- ), French statesman,
was born at Mouilleron-en-Pareds, Vendle, on the 28th of
September 1841. Having adopted medicine as his profession,
he settled in 1869 in Montmartre; and after the revolution of
1870 he had become sufficiently well known to be nominated
mayor of the x8th arrondissement of Paris (Montmartre) — an
unruly district over which it was a difficult task to preside.
On the 8th of February 1871 he was elected as a Radical to the
National Assembly for the department of the Seine, and voted
against the peace preliminaries. The execution, or rather
murder, of Generals Lecomte and Clement Thomas by the
communists on 18th March, which he vainly tried to prevent,
brought him into collision with the central committee sitting
at the hotel de ville, and they ordered his arrest, but he escaped;
he was accused, however, by various witnesses, at the subsequent
trial of the murderers (November 29th), of not having intervened
when he might have done, and though he was cleared of this
charge it led to a duel, for his share in which he was prosecuted
and sentenced to a fine and a fortnight's imprisonment
Meanwhile, on the 20th of March 1871, he had introduced
in the National Assembly at Versailles, on behalf of his Radical
colleagues, the bill establishing a Paris municipal council of
eighty members; but he was not returned himself at the elections
of the 26th of March. He tried with the other Paris mayors to
mediate between Versailles and the hotel dc villc, but failed,
and accordingly resigned his mayoralty and his seat in the
Assembly, and temporarily gave up politics; but he was elected
to the Paris municipal council on the 23rd of July 1871 for the
Clignancourt quartier, and retained his seat till 1876, passing
through the offices of secretary and vice-president, and becoming
president in 1875. In 1876 he stood again for the Chamber of
Deputies, and was elected for the 18th arrondissement. He joined
the Extreme Left, and his energy and mordant eloquence
speedily made him the leader of the Radical section. In 1877,
after the Seize Mai (see France: History), he was one of the
republican majority who denounced the Broglic ministry, and
he took a leading part in resisting the anti-republican policy
of which the Seize Mai incident was a symptom, his demand
in 1879 for the indictment of the Broglic ministry bringing him
into particular prominence. In 1880 he started his newspaper,
La Justice, which became the principal organ of Parisian Radical-
ism; and from this time onwards throughout M. Grevy's
presidency his reputation as a political" critic, and as a destroyer
of ministries who yet would not take office himself, rapidly grew.
He led the Extreme Left in the Chamber. He was an active
opponent of M. Jules Ferry's colonial policy and of the Oppor-
tunist party, and in 1885 it was his use of the Tongking disaster
which principally determined the fall of the Ferry cabinet.
At the elections of 1885 he advocated a strong Radical pro-
gramme, and was returned both for his old seat in Paris and for
the Var, selecting the latter. Refusing to form a ministry to
replace the one he had overthrown, he supported the Right in
keeping M. Frcycinct in power in 1886, and was responsible
for the inclusion of General Boulangcr in the Freycinet cabinet
as war minister. When Boulanger (q.v.) showed himself as an
ambitious pretender, Clcmcnceau withdrew his support and
became a vigorous combatant against the Boulangist movement,
though the Radical press and a section of the party continued
to patronize the general.
By his exposure of the Wilson scandal, and by his personal
plain speaking, M. Clemenceau contributed largely to M. Gr6vy's
resignation of the presidency in 1S87, having himself declined
Grevy's request to form a cabinet on the downfall of that of
M. Rouvier; and he was primarily responsible, by advising
his followers to vote neither for Floquet, Ferry nor Freycinet,
for the election of an "outsider" as president in M. Carnot.
H* had arrived, however, at the height of his influence, and
■f^fal factors now contributed to his decline. The split in the
**jhcal party over Boulangism weakened his hands, and its
al?S? t m *? e *•* nc *P unnecessary to the moderate republicans.
^rorther misfortune occurred in the Panama affair, Clcmenccau's
*ith Cornelius 2Ua leading to his being involved
in the general suspicion; and, though he remained the leading
spokesman of French Radicalism, his hostility to the Russian
alliance so increased his unpopularity that in the election for
1893 he was defeated for the Chamber, after having sat in it
continuously since 1876. After his defeat for the Chamber,
M. Clemenceau confined his political activities to journalism,
his career being further overclouded — so far as any immediate
possibility of regaining his old ascendancy was concerned— by
the long-drawn-out Dreyfus case, in which he took an active
and honourable part as a supporter of M. Zola and an opponent
of the anti-Semitic and Nationalist campaign. In 1900 he
withdrew from La Justice to found a weekly review, Lt Bloc,
which lasted until March 1902. On the 6th of April 1902 be
was elected senator for the Var, although he had previously
continually demanded the suppression of the Senate. He sat
with the Socialist Radicals, and vigorously supported the
Combes ministry. In June 1003 he undertook the direction of
the journal VAurore, which he had founded. In it he led the
campaign for the revision of the Dreyfus affair, and for the
separation of Church and State.
In March 1906 the fall of the Rouvier ministry, owing to the
riots provoked by the inventories of church property, at last
brought Clemenceau to power as minister of the interior in the
Sarricn cabinet The strike of miners in the Pas de Calais
after the disaster at Courrieres, leading to the threat of disorder
on the xst of May 1006, obliged him to employ the military;
and his attitude in the matter alienated the Socialist party,
from which he definitely broke in his notable reply in the Chamber
to Jean Jaurcs in June 1906. This speech marked him out as
the strong man of the day in French politics; and when the
Sarricn ministry resigned in October, he became premier. During
1007 and 1908 his premiership was notable for the way in which
the new entente with England was cemented, and for the successful
part which France played in European politics, in spite of diffi-
culties with Germany and attacks by the Socialist party in
connexion with Morocco (see France: History). But on July
20th, 1909, he was defeated in a discussion in the Chamber on
the state of the navy, in which bitter words were exchanged
between him and Dclcass6; and he at once resigned, being
succeeded as premier by M. Briand, with a reconstructed
cabinet.
CLEMENCfN, DIEGO (1765-1834), Spanish scholar and
politician, was born on the 27th of September 1765, at Murcia,
and was educated there at the Colegio dc San Fulgencio.
Abandoning his intention of taking orders, he found employment
at Madrid in 1788 as tutor to the sons of the countess-duchess
de Bcnavcnte, and devoted himself to the study of archaeology.
In 1807 he became editor of the Gaccta de Madrid, and in the
following year was condemned to death by Murat for publishing
a patriotic article; he fled to Cadiz, and under the Junta Central
held various posts from which he was dismissed by the reac-
tionary government of 1814. During the liberal regime of
1820-1823 Clemencin took office as colonial minister, was exiled
till 1827, and in 1833 published the first volume of his edition
(1833-1839) of Don Quixote. Its merits were recognized by his
appointment as royal librarian, but he did not long enjoy his
triumph: he died on the 36th of July 1834. His commentary
on Don Quixote owes something to John Bowie, and is disfigured
by a patronizing, carping spirit; nevertheless it is the most
valuable work of its kind, and is still unsuperscded. Clcmencfn
is also the author of an interesting Eiogio de la reina Isabel la
Catdlira, published as the sixth volume of the Mcmorias of the
Spanish Academy of History, to which body he was elected
on the x 2th of September 1S00.
CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. KAfoap), the
name of fourteen popes and two anti-popes.
Clement I., generally known as Clement of Rome, or Clemens
Row anus (for. c. a.d. 96), was one of the "Apostolic Fathers,"
and in the lists of bishops of Rome is given the third or fourth
place — Peter, Linus, (Anencletus), Clement. There is no ground
for identifying him with the Clement of Phil. iv. 3. He may
have been a freedman of T. Flavius Clemens, who was consul
CLEMENT (POPES)
4*3
with his cousin, the Emperor Domitian, in ad. 05. A <;th- 1
century tradition says he was martyred in the Crimea in 102;
earlier authorities say he died a natural death; be is com-!
■Mnoratcd 00 the ajrd of November.
In Tkt Skepktrd of Hennas (?.?.) (Vis. 11. iv. 3) mention b ,
Bade of one Clement whose office it is to communicate with other
churches, and this function agrees well with what we find in
the letter to the church at Corinth by which Cement is best
known. Whilst being on our guard against reading later ideas
into the title " bishop " as applied to Clement, there is no reason
to doubt that he was one of the chief personalities in the Christian I
community at Rome, where since the time of Paul the separate
house congregations (Rom. xvi.) had been united into one
church officered by presbyters and deacons (Clem. 40-42).
The letter an question was occasioned by a dispute in the church
of Corinth, which had led to the ejection of several presbyters
from their office. It docs not contain Clement's name, but is
addressed by " the Church of God which sojourneth in Rome to
the Church of God which sojourneth in Corinth." But there is
00 reason for doubting the universal tradition which ascribes'
it to Clement, or the generally accepted date, c. a.d. 06 No I
daim is made by the Roman Church to interfere on any ground
of superior rank; yet it is noteworthy that in the earliest I
document outside the canon which we can securely date, the
church in the imperial city comes forward as a peacemaker to
compose the troubles of a church in Greece. Nothing is known
of the cause of the discontent; no moral offence is charged
■gainst the presbyters, and their dismissal is regarded by
Clement as high-handed and unjustifiable, and as a revolt of
the younger members of the community against the cider
After a laudatory account of the past conduct of the Corinthian
Church, he enters upon a denunciation of vices and a praise of
virtues, and illustrates his various topics by copious citations
from the Old Testament scriptures. Thus he paves the way
for his tardy rebuke of present disorders, which he reserves until
two-thirds of his epistle is completed. Clement is exceedingly
discursive, and his letter reaches twice the length of the Epistle
to the Hebrews. Many of his general exhortations arc but very
Indirectly connected with the practical issue to which the epistle
is directed, and it is very probable that he was drawing largely
upon the homiletical material with which he was accustomed to
edify his fellow-Christians at Rome.
This view receives some support from the long liturgical
prayer at the dose, which almost certainly represents the
intercession used in the Roman cucharists. But we must not
allow such a theory to blind us to the true wisdom with which
the writer defers his censure. He knows that the roots of the
quarrel lie in a wrong condition of the church's life. His general
exhortations, courteously expressed in the first person plural,
are directed towards a wide reformation of manners. If the
wrong spirit can be exorcised, there is hope that the quarrel will
end in a general desire for reconciliation. The most permanent
interest of the epistle lies in the conception of the grounds on
which the Christian ministry rests according to the view of a
prominent teacher before the 1st century has closed. The
orderliness of nature is appealed to as expressing the mind of its
Creator. The orderliness of Old Testament worship bears a like
witness; everything is duly fixed by God, high priests, priests
and Levites, and the people in the people's place. Similarly
in the Christian dispensation all is in order due. " The apostles
preached the gospel to us from the Lord Jesus Christ, Jesus
Christ was sent from God. Christ then is from God, and the
apostles from Christ. . They appointed their first-fruits,
having tested them by the Spirit, as bishops and deacons of those
who should believe. . . Our apostles knew through our Lord
Jesus Christ that there would be strife about the name of the
bishop's office. For this cause therefore, having received
perfect foreknowledge, they appointed the aforesaid, and after-
wards gave a further injunction (timopip has now the further
evidence of the Latin Ugem) that, if these should fall asleep,
other approved men should succeed to their ministry . .
It will be no small sin in us if we eject from the bishop's
oflkc those who have offered the gifts blamelessly and holily "
(cc. xhi. xliv.).
■ Clement's familiarity with the Old Testament points to his
I being a Christian of long standing rather than a recent convert.
'We learn from his letter (i. 7) that the church at Rome, though
.suffering persecution, was firmly held together by faith and love,
and was exhibiting its unity in an orderly worship. The epistle
was publicly read from time to time at Corinth, and by the 4th
century this usage had spread to other churches. We even find
it attached to the famous Alexandrian MS. (Codex A) of the New
Testament, but this docs not imply that it ever reached canonical
rank. For the mass of early Christian literature that was gradu-
ally attached to his name sec Clementine Literature.
The epistle was published in X633 by Patrick Young from Cod.
Alcxandrinus, in which a leaf near the end was missing, so that
the great prayer (cc lv.-Lxiv.) remained unknown. In 1875 (six
years after J. u. Lighlfoot's first edition) Brycnnius (q.v.) published
a complete text from the MS. in Constantinople (dated 1055), from
which in 1883 he gave us the Didachi. In 1876 R. L. Benslv found a
complete Striae text in a MS. recently obtained by the University
library at Cambridge. Lightfoot made use of these new materials
in an Appendix (1877); his second edition, on which he had been
at work at the time of his death, came out in 1890. This must
remain the standard edition, notwithstanding Dom Morin's most
interesting discovery of a Latin version (1894). which was prob-
ably made in the 3rd century, and is a valuable addition to the
authorities for (he text. Its evidence is used in a small edition of
the epistle by R. Knopf (Leipzig. 1899). See also W. Wrcdc. Unter-
suchungemumersUn CUmenibrUf(iS^i),nnd the other literature cited
in Hcrzog-Hauck's ReaUtuyUopadie. vol. iv. (A. J C, J. A. R.)
Clement II. (Suidger) became pope on the 25th of December
1046. He belonged to a noble Saxon family, was bishop of Bam-
berg, and chancellor to the emperor Henry HI., to whom he was
indebted for his elevation to the papacy upon the abdication
of Gregory VI. He was the first pope placed on the throne by
the power of the German emperors, but his short pontificate was
only signalized by tho convocation of a council in which decrees
were enacted against simony. He died on the 9th of October
1047, and was buried at Bamberg. (L. D.*)
Clement III. (Paolo Scolari), pope from 1187 to 1191, a
Roman, was made cardinal bishop of Palestrina by Alexander III.
in 1180 or 1 181. On the 19th of December 1 187 he was chosen
at Pisa to succeed Gregory VIII. On the 31st of May 1188 he
concluded a treaty with the Romans which removed difficulties
of long standing, and in April 1 189 he made peace with the emperor
Frederick I. Barbarossa. He settled a controversy with William
of Scotland concerning the choice of the archbishop of St Andrews,
and on the 13th of March 1188 removed the Scottish church from
under the Icgatine jurisdiction of the archbishop of York, thus
making it independent of all save Rome. In spite of his con-
ciliatory policy, Clement angered Henry VI. of Germany by
bestowing Sicily on Tancred. The crisis was acute when the
pope died, probably in the latter part of March 1191.
See " Epistolae et Privilcgia." in J P. Migne, Patrohgiae ntrsvs
computus, torn. 204 (Paris, 1853), 1253 ft., additional material in
Ncues Archiv fur die dlUre deutiche Gcschuktskundt, 2. 219; 6. 293,
14. 178-182, P. Jaffc, Regesta Pontificum Romanorum, torn, a
(2nd edition, Leipzig, 1888), 535 ft*. (W. W. R.*)
Clement IV. (Gui Foulqucs), pope from 1265 to 1268, son of
a successful lawyer and judge, was born at St Gillcs-sur Rh6ne.
' He studied law, and became a valued adviser of Louis IX of
France. He married, and was the father of two daughters, but
after the death of his wife took orders. In 1257 he became
bishop of Le Puy; in 1259 he was elected archbishop of Nar-
bonne, and on the 24th of December 1261 Urban IV. created
\ him cardinal bishop of Sabina. He was appointed legate in
England on the 22nd of November 1263, and before his return
was elected pope at Perugia on the 51 h of February 1265. On
the 261 h of February he invested Charles of Anjou with the
kingdom of Sicily; but subsequently he came into conflict with
Charles, especially after the death of Manfred in February 1266.
To the cruelty and avarice of Charles he opposed a generous
humanity When Conradin, the last of the Hohcnstaufen,
appeared in Italy the pope excommunicated him and his sup-
porters, but it is improbable that he ***% \tv vV*. \ttwa\wx ^MRjKft-
+8 4
CLEMENT (POPES)
responsible for his execution. At Viterbo, where he spent most
of his pontificate, Clement died on the 29th of November 1368,
leaving a name unsullied by nepotism. As the benefactor and
protector of Roger Bacon he has a special title to the gratitude
of posterity.
See A. Pott hast, Regesta Pontificum Romanorum, vol. ii. (Berlin,
I&7S). IS42 "*-. E- Jordan, Les Registres de Clement IV (Paris, 1893
ff.) ; Hcrzoc-Hauek, Rcalentyklopadie (3rd ed., vol. iv., Leipzig. 1898),
144 f.: J. Hcidcmann. Papsl Clemens IV., I. Teil: Das Vorleben
des Papites und sein Legationsregister • Kirchengeschichtlicke Sludien,
herausgegeoen urn Knop/ter, &c, 6. Band, 4. Heft (Mflnster, 1903).
reprints Processus legattonis in Angliam, (W. W. R.*)
Clement V. (Bcrtrand de Couth), pope from 1305 to 1314, was
born of a noble Gascon family about 1264. After studying the
arts at Toulouse and law at Orleans and Bologna, he became
a canon at Bordeaux and then vicar-general to his brother the
archbishop of Lyons, who in 1294 was created cardinal bishop
of Albano. Bcrtrand was made a chaplain to Boniface Vlll.,
who in 1 295 nominated him bishop of Comingcs (Haute Garonne) f
and in 1209 translated him to the archbishopric of Bordeaux.
Because he attended the synod at Rome in 1302 in the con-
troversy between France and the Pope, he was considered a
supporter of Boniface VIII., yet was by no means unfavourably
regarded at the French court. At Perugia on the 5th of June
1305 he was chosen to succeed Benedict XL; the cardinals
by a vote of ten to five electing one neither an Italian nor a
cardinal, in order to end a conclave which had lasted eleven
months. The chronicler Villani relates that Bcrtrand owed his
election to a secret agreement with Philip IV., made at St Jean
d'Angely in Saintongc; this may be dismissed as gossip, but
it is probable that the future pope had to accept certain con-
ditions laid down by the cardinals. At Bordeaux Bcrtrand was
formally notified of his election and urged to come to Italy;
but he caused his coronation to take place at Lyons on the 14th
of November 1305. From the beginning. Clement V. was sub-
servient to French interests. Among his first acts was the
creation of nine French cardinals. Early in 1306 he modified
or explained away those features of the bulls Clericis Laicos
and Uuam sanclam which were particularly offensive to the
king. Most of the year 1306 he spent at Bordeaux because of
ill-health; subsequently he resided at Poitiers and elsewhere,
and in March 1309 the entire papal court settled at Avignon,
an imperial fief held by the king of Sicily. Thus began the
seventy years " Babylonian captivity of the Church." On the
13th of October 1307 came the arrest of all the Knights Templar
in France, the breaking of a storm conjured up by royal jealousy
and greed. From the very day of Clement's coronation the
king had charged the Templars with heresy, immorality and
abuses, and the scruples of the weak pope were at length over-
come by apprehension lest the Slate should not wait for the
Church, but should proceed independently against the alleged
heretics, as well as by the royal threats of pressing the accusation
of heresy against the late Boniface Vlll. In pursuance of the
king's wishes Clement summoned the council of Vienne (see
Vienne, Council of), which was unable to conclude that the
Templars were guilty of heresy. The pope abolished the order,
however, as it seemed to be in bad repute and had outlived its
usefulness. Its French estates were granted to the Hospitallers,
but actually Philip IV. held them until his death.
In his relations to the Empire Gcment was an opportunist.
He refused to use his full influence in favour of the candidacy
of Charles of Valois, brother of Philip IV., lest France became
too powerful; and recognized Henry of Luxemburg, whom
his representatives crowned emperor at the Latcran in 13 12.
When Henry, however, came into conflict with Robert of Naples,
Cement supported Robert and threatened the emperor with
ban and interdict But the crisis passed with the unexpected
death of Henry, soon followed by that of the pope on the 20th
of April 1314 at Roqucmaurc-sur-Rh6nc. Though the sale of
offices and oppressive taxation which disgraced his pontificate
may in pan be explained by the desperate condition of the papal
finances and by bis saving up gold for a crusade, nevertheless
Mr Indulged ia unbecomag pomp. Showing favouritism toward
en tj&4 ei 1303 (Pari*, ifi^BJ; " Clcitiriui& Papae 1
in Corpus Juris Canoniti, ctL Ac mil in* Fried bcr|..
i&tiT), M2V120O; P. B. Gama p Series Epixroporum
CHes
his family and his nation, he brought untold disaster on the
Church.
Bibliography — Sec " Clement is V. . . . et aliorum eptaolae."
in S. Baluzius, Vitae Paparum Avenionensium, torn. iL (Paris, 1693).
55 ff.; " Tractatus cum Henrico VII. imp. Germ, anno 1309," in
Pertz, Monumenta Germaniae hislorica, lccum ii. I. 492-496; J. F.
Rabanis, Clement V et Philtppe le Bel. Suivie du journal de la tisitt
pastorale de Bertrand de Cot dans la province eccUsiaslique de Bordeaux
icrtlii Pit pat V. Const it utiones,"
iu* Fried berg, vol. ii. (Leipzig,
_, Serifs Episrspoium Eulcsiae
Caihotica* (Urgr-nstbiirR. 1 i 7 J ) ; Wctzer und Weltc. Kirckenlexikon.
vol. til (2nd ed., Frtiburg, 1664}, 46J-473; Regestum dementis
Pupae V. ex VaJicanit artketypts tuta el stadia monachamm ord. Ben.
(R<imf, iM5-i&92)> 9 vol*, and appendix: J. Gmtlin, Sckuld oder
t/Htf-htfld des Temptcrntdens [%i Uttttart, 1 693 ) ; Gael? on, Piices relatifs
au dibal du pap* Cthnent V avee Vempireur licnri VH (Montpellicr,
tSi>4) : Laeotrc* NaureUes tLiades sur Ctfment V'{ 1S96) ; Herzog-Hauck,
Reairniyklopdtlte, vol. i*. (3rd ed*, Leipzig 169SK 144 (.; J. Loscrth,
GcickitUit ik'i ifxiteren MUtctatiets (Munich, 1 903) ; and A. Eitel, Da
Kirchenslaat unlet Klenwns V, (Berlin, 1907). (W. W. R.*)
Clement VI. (Pierre Roger), pope from the 7th of May 134a
to the 6lh of December 1352, was born at Maumont in Limousin
in 1291, the son of the wealthy lord of Rosicres, entered tbe
Benedictine order as a boy, studied at Paris, and became suc-
cessively prior of St Baudil, abbot of Fecamp, bishop of Arras,
chancellor of France, archbishop of Sens and archbishop of
Rouen. He was made cardinal-priest of Sti Ncreo ed Achilleo
and administrator of the bishopric of Avignon by Benedict X1L
in 1338, and four years later succeeded him as pope. He con-
tinued to reside at Avignon despite the arguments of envoys
and the verses of Petrarch, but threw a sop to the Romans by
reducing the Jubilee term from one hundred years to fifty. He
appointed Cola di Ricnzo to a civil position at Rome, and,
although at first approving the establishment of the tribunate,
he later sent a legate who excommunicated Rienzo and, with
the help of the aristocratic faction, drove him from the city
(December 1347)* Clement continued the struggle of his pre-
decessors with the emperor Louis the Bavarian, excommunicating
him after protracted negotiations on the 13th of April 1346,
and directing the election of Charles of Moravia, who received
general recognition after the death of Louis in October 1347,
and put an end to the schism which had long divided Germany.
Clement proclaimed a crusade in 1343, but nothing was accom-
plished beyond a naval attack on Smyrna (29th of October 1344).
He also carried on fruitless negotiations for church unity with
the Armenians and with the Greek emperor, John Canlacuzenus.
He tried to end the Hundred Years' War between England and
France, but secured only a temporary truce. He excommuni-
cated Casimir of Poland for marital infidelity and forced him to
do penance. He successfully resisted encroachments on ecclesi-
astical jurisdiction by the kings of England, Castile and Aragon.
He made Prague an archbishopric in 1344, and three years later
founded the university there. During the disastrous plague of
U47-1348 Clement did all he could to alleviate the distress,
and condemned the Flagellants and Jew-baiters. He tried
Queen Joanna of Naples for the murder of her husband and
acquitted her. He secured full ownership of the county of
Avignon through purchase from Queen Joanna (9th of June 1348)
and renunciation of feudal claims by Charles IV. of France, and
considerably enlarged the papal palace in that city. To supply
money for his many undertakings Clement revived the practice
of selling reservations and expectancies, which had been abolished
by his predecessor. Oppressive taxation and unblushing
nepotism were Clement's great faults. On the other hand, he
was famed for his engaging manners, eloquence and theological
learning. He died on the 6th of December 1352, and was buried
in the Benedictine abbey at Auvergnc.but his tomb was destroyed
by Cidvinisis in 1561, His successor was Innocent VI.
The chief source* for the life or Clement Vf. are in Balurius, Vita*
Pap AvemttA. vot. I. (Paris, 1GQ.3J; E. Wcruntky, Excerpta ex
rtgiitrii, Cjemrxtis Vt. et Irtntxrntit VI. (Innsbruck, 1 885); and
F, Cerasok Ckrnmu. VL b Giovanni I. di Napoti • ■ Document*
inedUe dell 1 Artkivio Vaticano tifyb.&c).
See L. Pastor. History of the P&pei, vol. t., trans, by F. I. Antrobus
(tendon. (899); F. Grcsnroviua, Rome in the Middle Ages. voL vi.
trans, by MrsG. W- HamiW (Undon. 1900-1901) ; J. B.Qriatopoe,
CLEMENT (POPES)
485
TJittoirr. d( la toipault ptndar.t le XI V' sifrlr, vol. ii. (Paris, 1853) ; also
article by L. Kiippcr in the Kirchenlcxikon (2nd cd.). (C. 11. Ha.)
Cixmdct VIL (Robert of Geneva), (d. 1394)* antipope, brother
ef Peter, count of Genevois, was connected by blood or marriage
with most of the sovereigns of Europe. After occupying the
episcopal sees of Therouanne and Cambrai, he attained to the
cardinalate at an early age. In 1377, as legate of Pope Gregory
XL in the Romagna, he directed, or rather assisted in, the
savage suppression of the revolt of the inhabitants of Cesena
against the papal authority. In the following year he took part
in the election of Pope Urban VI. at Rome, and was perhaps
the first to express doubts as to the validity of that tumultuous
election. After withdrawing to Fondi to reconsider the election,
the cardinals finally resolved to regard Urban as an intruder
and the Holy See as still vacant, and an almost unanimous vote
was given in favour of Robert of Geneva (20th of September
1378)1 who took the name of Clement VII. Thus originated the
Great Schism of the West.
To his high connexions and his adroitness, as well as to the
grow mistakes of his rival, Clement owed the immediate support
of Queen Joanna of Naples and of several of the Italian barons;
and the king of France, Charles V., who seems to have been
sounded beforehand on the choice of the Roman pontiff, soon
became his warmest protector. Clement eventually succeeded
in winning to his cause Scotland, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, a
great part of the Latin East, and Flanders. He had adherents,
besides, scattered through Germany, while Portugal on two
occasions acknowledged him, but afterwards forsook him.
From Avignon, however, where he bad immediately fixed his
residence, his eyes were always turned towards Italy, his purpose
being to wrest Rome from his rival. To attain this end he
lavished his gold— or rather the gold provided by the clergy in
his obedience— without stint, and conceived a succession of the
most adventurous projects, of which one at least was to leave a
lasting mark on history.
By the bait of a kingdom to be carved expressly out of the
States of the Church and to be called the kingdom of Adria,
coupled with the expectation of succeeding to Queen Joanna,
Clement incited Louis, duke of Anjou, the eldest of the brothers
of diaries V., to take arms in his favour. These tempting offers
gave rise to a series of expeditions into Italy carried out almost
exclusively at Clement's expense, in the first of which Louis
lost Us life. These enterprises on several occasions planted
Angevin domination in the south of the Italian peninsula, and
their roost decisive result was the assuring of Provence to the
dukes of Anjou and afterwards to the kings of France. After
the death of Louis, Clement hoped to find equally brave and
interested champions in Louis' son and namesake; in Louis of
Orleans, the brother of Charles VI.; in Charles VI. himself;
and in John III., count of Armagnac. The prospect of his
brfliant progress to Rome was ever before his eyes; and in his
thoughts force of arms, of French arms, was to be the instrument
of his glorious triumph over his competitor.
There came a time, however, when Clement and more particu-
larly his following had to acknowledge the vanity of these
illusive dreams; and before his death, which took place on the
16th of September 1394, he realized the impossibility of over-
coming by brute force an opposition which was founded on the
convictions of the greater part of Catholic Europe, and discerned
among his adherents the germs of disaffection. By his vast
expenditure, ascribable not only to his wars in Italy, his incessant
embassies, and the necessity of defending himself in the Comtat
Venaissin against the incursions of the adventurous Raymond
of Tnrenne, but also to his luxurious tastes and princely habits,
as well as by his persistent refusal to refer the question of the
schism to a council, he incurred general reproach. Unity was
the crying need; and men began to fasten upon him the responsi-
bility of the hateful schism, not on the score of insincerity —
which would have been very unjust,— but by reason of his
obstinate persistence in the course he had chosen.
N. Valois, La France el le grand xhisme d'accidenl (Paris,
(JN.V.)
Clement VII. (Giulio dc' Medici), pope from 1523 to 1534,
was the son of Giuliano de' Medici, assassinated in the conspiracy
of the Paxzi at Florence, and of a certain FioreUa, daughter of
Antonia. Being left an orphan he was taken into his own house
by Lorenzo the Magnificent and educated with his sons. In 1404
Giulio went with them into exile; but, on Giovanni's restora-
tion to power, returned to Florence, of which he was made
archbishop by his cousin Pope Leo X., a special dispensation
being granted on account of his illegitimate birth, followed by
a formal declaration of the fact that his parents had been secretly
married and that he was therefore legitimate. On the 23rd of
September 1513 the pope conferred on him the title of cardinal
and made him legate at Bologna. During the reign of the
pleasure-loving Leo, Cardinal Giulio had practically (he whole
papal government in his hands and displayed all the qualities
of a good administrator; and when, on the death of Adrian VI.
— whose election he had done most to secure — he was chosen
pope (Nov. 18, 1523), his accession was hailed as the dawn of a
happier era. It soon became clear, however, that the qualities
which had made Clement an excellent second in command were
not equal to the exigences of supreme power at a time of peculiar
peril and difficulty.
. Though free from the grosser vices of his predecessors, a
man of taste, and economical without being avaricious, Cement
VII. was essentially a man of narrow outlook and interests.
He failed to understand the great spiritual movement which
was convulsing the Church; and instead of bending his mind
to the problem of the Reformation, he from the first subordinated
the cause of Catholicism and of the world to his interests as an
Italian prince and a Medici. Even in these purely secular affairs,
moreover, his timidity and indecision prevented him from
pursuing a consistent policy; and his ill fortune, or his lack of
judgment, placed him, as long as he had the power of choice,
ever on the losing side.
Clement's accession at once brought about a political change
in favour of France; yet he was unable to take a strong line,
and wavered between the emperor and Francis I., concluding
a treaty of alliance with the French king, and then, when the
crushing defeat of Pavia had shown him his mistake, making
his peace with Charles (April 1, 1525), only to break it again
by countenancing Girolamo Morone's League of Freedom, of
which the aim was to assert the independence of Italy from
foreign powers. On the betrayal of this conspiracy Cement
made a fresh submission to the emperor, only to follow this, a
year later, by the Holy League of Cognac with Francis I. (May
32, 1526). Then followed the imperial invasion of Italy and
Bourbon's sack of Rome (May 1527) which ended the Augustan
age of the papal city in a horror of fire and blood. The pope
himself was besieged in the castle of St Angelo, compelled on the
6th of June to ransom himself with a payment of 400,000 scudi,
and kept in confinement until, .on the 26th of November, he
accepted the emperor's terms, which besides money payments
included the promise to convene a general council to deal with
Luthcranism. On the 6th of December Clement escaped, before
the day fixed for his liberation, to Orvieto, and at once set to
work to establish peace. After the signature of the treaty of
Cambrai on the 3rd of August 1529 Charles met Clement at
Bologna and received from him the imperial crown and the iron
crown of Lombardy. The pope was now restored to the greater
part of his temporal power; but for some years it was exercised
in subservience to the emperor. During this period Clement was
mainly occupied in urging Charles to arrest the progress of the
Reformation in Germany and in efforts to elude the emperor's
demand for a general council, which Cement feared lest the
question of the mode of his election and his legitimacy should
be raised. It was due to his dependence on Charles V., rather
than to any conscientious scruples, that Cement evaded Henry
VIII. 's demand for the nullification of his marriage with Catherine
of Aragon, and so brought about the breach between England
and Rome. Some time before his death, however, the dynastic
interests of his family led him once more to a rapprochement
I with France. . On the oth ol yarn \%y. wv nj"^^ '~
486
CLEMENT (POPES)
signed for the marriage of Henry of Orleans with Catherine
de' Medici; but it was not till October 1533 that Clement mel
Francis at Marseilles, the wedding being celebrated on the 27th.
Before, however, the new political alliance, thus cemented, could
take effect, Clement died, on the 25th of September 1534.
See E. Casanova. Lettere di Carlo V. a ClemenU VII. (Florence,
1893); Hugo Laramer, Monumenta Vaticana, &c. (Freiburg, 1861);
P. Balan, Monumenta saeculi XVI. hist, illustr. (Innsbruck, 1885):
ib. Man. Rrfi>rmtr Luther (Rn^riibur^ ifiS+): Ste/jn EJi«3> Rom.
Dokum. f L Ceuh* dft E-hrzchridung Hfintichj Vlff* (Paderbom,
1*9 1): Calendar of Stale Papers (London, 1869, &c)? J, J. 1, von
Dbllingrr, Britrdp jot poJUi&htn. kirthlukf-ri und Kulturttuhithte
{% vol*., Vienna., i6tii}\ P. Gujoziardini, litoria d* I tut to; L. von
Kanfee, Bit r&miithtn. Papitt in den letzten vier Jghrhundrricn,
and D&xUthe Gtsck. im ZtitaJfar dtr RtfarTnitioni W. i fellwr^. Die
politinhtm BezieAutigrti Ctement's VII. tu Karl V. t rjjtf (Lt-ipiin,
i»8g): H. Bjumtartfn, Gtsek, Karl* V. (Stuttgart, l«W)j F-
Crrgoroviu5 h Gtsckttht* dtr Stadt Rom* vol. vjiL p^ 4I4 (>nd cd^
1874) : V. Balan, Ctemtnte VII. e Vltciia de' ivai tempi (Milan. ihSi);
E- Armstrong, Charles the Filth {3 volt. London, 1402): M.
Crtighton, HuL of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation
(London, 1&&2}: and t\. M. Vauchan, The Med it i Popes (190S).
Further reference* will be found in Jltrzoe-Hauck, Rcatencykfopadie.
j. Cicrr.r'ii VI l< Sec aljMj Cambridge Modem History Y vol. tu chap- L
and bibliography. (W. A- P.)
Clement VIII. (Aegidius Munoz), antipopc from 1425 to the
26th of July 1429, was a canon at Barcelona until elected at
Peniscola by three cardinals whom the stubborn antipope
Benedict XIII. bad named on his death-bed. Clement was
immediately recognized by Alphonso V. of Aragon, who was
hostile to Pope Martin V. on account of the latter's opposition to
his claims to the kingdom of Naples, but abdicated as soon as an
agreement was reached between Alphonso and Martin through
the exertions of Cardinal Pierre dc Foix, an able diplomat and
relation of the king's. Clement spent his last years as bishop of
Majorca, and died on the 28th of December 1446.
See L. Pastor. History of the Popes, vol. i. trans, by F. I. Antrobus
(London, 1899) ; M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. ii. (London,
1899); and consult bibliography on Martin V. (C H. Ha.)
Clement Vm. (Ippolito Aldobrandini), pope from 1592 to
1605, was born at Fano, in 1535. He became a jurist and filled
several important offices. ' In 1585 he was made a cardinal, and
subsequently discharged a delicate mission to Poland with skill.
His moderation and experience commended him to his fellow
cardinals, and on the 30th of January 1 592 he was elected pope, to
succeed Innocent IX. While not hostile to Philip II., Clement
desired to emancipate the papacy from undue Spanish influence,
and to that end cultivated closer relations with France. In 1 595
he granted absolution to Henry IV., and so removed the last
objection to the acknowledgment of his legitimacy.. The peace of
Vervins (1508), which marked the end of Philip's opposition to
Henry, was mainly the work of the pope. Clement also enter-
tained hopes of recovering England. He corresponded with
James I. and with his queen, Anne of Denmark, a convert to
Catholicism. But James was only half in earnest, and, besides,
dared not risk a breach with his subjects. Upon the failure of
the line of Este, Clement claimed the reversion of Ferrara and
reincorporated it into the States of the Church (1598). He
remonstrated against the exclusion of the Jesuits from France,
and obtained their readmission. But in their doctrinal contro-
versy with the Dominicans (see Molina, Luis) he refrained from
a decision, being unwilling to offend cither party. Under Cement
the publication of the revised edition of the Vulgate, begun by
Sixtus V., was finished; the Breviary, Missal and Pontifical
received certain corrections; the Index was expanded; the
Vatican library enlarged; and the Collegium Clementinum
founded. Clement was an unblushing nepotist; three of his
nephews he made cardinals, and to one of them gradually
Surrendered the control of affairs. But on the other hand among
those whom he promoted to the cardinalate were such men
as BaroniuA, BeUarmine and Toledo. During this pontificate
occurred the burning of Giordano Bruno for heresy; and the
tragedy of the Cenci (see the respective articles). Clement died
on the 5th of Much 1605, and was succeeded by Leo XL
See ft^ranljiiiuuiary life by Ciaconius, Vitas at rts testae sum.
A^VHSm. (Roma. i6oi-l6oa); FraicM ippdito
Aldobrandini, che fu' Clement* VIII. (Perugia, 1867); Ranke's
excellent sketch, Popes (Eng. trans. Austin), ii. 234 sea.; v. Reumont
Gesch. der Stadt Rom, lii. 2, 599 scq.; Brosch, Gesch, des Kirchen*
staates (1880), i. 301 seq. (T. F. C.)
Clement IX. (Giulio Rospigliosi) was born in 1600, became
successively auditor of the Rota, archbishop of Tarsus in portions,
and cardinal, and was elected pope on the 20th of June 1667.
He effected a temporary adjustment of the Jansenist contro-
versy; was instrumental in concluding the peace of Aix-la*
Chapclle (1668); healed a long-standing breach between the
Holy See and Portugal; aided Venice against the Turks, and
laboured unceasingly for the relief of Crete, the fall of which
hastened his death on the 9th of October 1669.
Sec Oldoin, continuator of Ciaconius, Vitae el rts gestae sum-,
morum Pontiff. Rom.; Palazzi, Gesta Pontiff. Rom, (Venice, 1687-
1688), iv. 621 seq. (both contemporary); Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans.
Austin), iiL 59 scq.; and v. Reumont, Gesch, der Stadt Rom, iii. 2,
634 *cq. (T. F. C.)
Clekent X. (Emilio Altieri) was born in Rome, on the 13th of
July 1500. Before becoming pope, on the 29th of April 1670 he
had been auditor in Poland, governor of Ancona, and nuncio in
Naples. His advanced age induced him to resign the control of
affairs to his adopted nephew, Cardinal Paluzzi, who embroiled
the papacy in disputes with the resident ambassadors, and
incurred the enmity of Louis XIV., thus provoking the long
controversy over the regalia (see Innocent XL). Clement died
on the 22nd of July 1676.
See Guarnacci, # Vitae et res testae Pontiff. Rom. (Rome, 175O,
(con tin. of Ciaconius), i. 1 seq.; Palazzi, Ge>ta Pontiff. Rom. (Venice.
1687-1688), iv. 655 seq.; and Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans. Austin),
iii. 172 seq. _ (T. F. C.)
Clement XI. (Giovanni Francesco Albani), pope from 1700 to
1721, was born in Urbino, on the 22nd of July 1649, received
an extraordinary education in letters, theology and law, filled
various important offices in the Curia, and finally, on the 23rd of
November 1700, succeeded Innocent XII. as pope. His private
life and his administration were blameless, but it was his mis-
fortune to reign in troublous times. In the war of the Spanish
Succession he would willingly have remained neutral, but found
himself between two fires, forced first to recognize Philip V., then
driven by the emperor to recognize the Archduke Charles. In
the peace of Utrecht he was ignored; Sardinia and Sicily, Parma
and Piacenza, were disposed of without regard to papal claims.
When he quarrelled with the duke of Savoy, and revoked bis
investiture rights in Sicily (171s), his interdict was treated with
contempt. The prestige of the papacy had hardly been lower
within two centuries. About 1702 the Jansenist controversy
broke out afresh. Clement reaffirmed the infallibility of the pope,
In matters of fact (1705), and, in 1713, issued the bull Uni genii us,
condemning ioz Janscnistic propositions extracted from the
Moral Reflections of Pasquicr Qucsncl. The rejection of this bull
by certain bishops led to a new party division and a further
prolonging of the controversy (see Jansenism and Quesnel,
Pasquier). Clement also forbade the practice of the Jesuit
missionaries in China of " accommodating " their teachings to
pagan notions or customs, in order to win converts. Clement was
1 polished writer, and a generous patron of art and letters. He
iicd on the 19th of March 1721.
For contemporary lives see Elci. The Present State of the Court of
Rome, trans, from the Ital. (London, 1706); Polidoro, De Vita et
Reb. GesL Clem. XI. (Urbino, 1727); Rcboulct. Hist, de Gem. XL
Pape (Avignon, 1752); Guarnacci, Vitae et res gest. Pontiff. Rem.
(Rome, 1 751); Sandini, Vitae Pontiff. Rom. (Padua, 1739); Buder,
teben u. Thaten Clemenlis XI. (Frankfort, 1 720-1 721). See also
Clementis XI. Opera Omnia (Frankfort, 1729); the detailed
*' Studii sul pontincato di Clem. XL," by Pomelti in the Archivio
iella R. Soc. romana di sloria ffatria, vols. 21, 22, 23 (1898-1900),
ind the extended bibliography in HcrgenrOther, Allg. Kirchengesck.
(1880), iii. 506. * * ' (T. F. I.)
Clement XII. (Lorenzo Corsini), pope from 1730 to 1740,
succeeded Benedict XIU. on the z 2th of July 1730, at the age of
teventy-eight. The rascally Cardinal Coscia, who had deluded
Benedict, was at once brought to justice and forced to disgorge
his dishonest gains. Politically the papacy had sunk to the
evel of pitiful helplessness, unable to resist the aggressions of
Ok Powers, who ignored or coerced it at wilL Yet Clement
CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA
487
entertained high hopes for Catholicism; be laboured for a union
with the Greek Church, and was ready to facilitate the return of
the Protestants of Saxony. He deserves well of posterity for his
services to learning and art; the restoration of the Arch of
Constantine; the enrichment of the Capitoline museum with
antique marbles and inscriptions, and of the Vatican library with
oriental manuscripts (see Assekani); and the embellishment of
the city with many buildings. He died on the 6th of February
1740, and was succeeded by Benedict XIV.
See Guarnacci, Vitae et res gestae Pontiff, nam. iKorae, 1751J ;
Sandini, Vita* Pontiff. Rom, (Padua, 1739); Fabroni. De Vita
tt Re*. Cost, dementis XII. (Rome, 1760}; Kanke, Popes (Eng.
trans. Austin), iii. 191 seq.; v. Reumont, Oesch. der Stadt Rom, iu.
S, 653 seq. (T.F.C)
Clement XIIL (Carlo dclla Torre Rczzonico), pope from
1758 to 1769, was born in Venice, on the 7th of March 1693,
ailed various important posts in the Curia, became cardinal in
1737, bishop of Padua in 1743, and succeeded Benedict XIV.
as pope on the 6th of July 1758. He was a man of upright,
moderate and pacific intentions, but his pontificate of eleven
years was anything but tranquil. The Jesuits had fallen upon
evil days; in 1758 Pombal expelled them from Portugal; his
example was followed by the Bourbon countries— France, Spain,
the Two Sicilies and Parma (1764-1768). The order turned
to the pope as its natural protector; but his protests (cf. the
buD ApastoKcum pascendi tnunus, 7th of January 1765) were
tnheeded (see Jesuits). A clash with Parma occurred to aggra-
vate his troubles. The Bourbon kings espoused their relative's
quarrel, seized Avignon, Benevento and Ponte Corvo, and
united in a peremptory demand for the suppression of the
Jesuits (January 1769). Driven to extremities, Clement con-
tented to call a Consistory to consider the step, but on the very
eve of the day set for its meeting he died (and of February 1769),
act without suspicion of poison, of which, however, there appears
to be no conclusive evidence.
A contemporary account of Clement wan written by Augustin de
Andrfejr j5ojbiAas, . ..el naa'miento, estudios ZfmpUos de .". . Gem,
>PPC'
iphical note under
XJII. (Madrid, 1759). Ravignan's Clement 'X I iY.e Clement XIV.
l free from rancour; and appends many
esting documents. See also the bibliographical note under
tent XIV. infra.; and the extended bibliography in Hergcn-
*, AUg. Kirckengesch. (1880), iii. 509. (T. F. C)
£iris, 1854) is partisan but free from rancour; and ap
ererting documents. See also the . biblioi
rother,
Clement XTV. (Lorenzo Ganganelli), pope from 1769 to 1774,
ton of a physician of St Arcangclo, near Rimini, was born on
the 31st of October 1705, entered the Franciscan order at the
age of seventeen, and became a teacher of theology and philo-
sophy. As regent of the college of S. Bonaventura, Rome, he
came under the notice of Benedict XIV., who conceived a
Ugh opinion of his talents and made him consul ter of the Inquisi-
tion. Upon the recommendation of Ricci, general of the Jesuits,
Clement XIIL made him a cardinal; but, owing to his dis-
approval of the pope's policy, he found himself out of favour
and without influence. The conclave following the death of
Clement XIIL was the most momentous of at least two centuries.
The fate of the Jesuits hung in the balance; and the Bourbon
princes were determined to have a pope subservient to their
hostile designs. The struggle was prolonged three months.
At length, on the 19th of May 1769, Ganganelli was chosen, not
as a declared enemy of the Jesuits, but as being least objection-
able to each of the contending factions. The charge of simony
was inspired by Jesuit hatred; there is absolutely no evidence
that Ganganelli pledged himself to suppress the order.
The outlook for the papacy was dark; Portugal was talking
of a patriarchate; France held Avignon; Naples held Ponte
Corvo and Benevento; Spain was ill-affected; Parma, defiant;
Venice, aggressive; Poland meditating a restriction of the
rights of the nuncio. Clement realized the imperative necessity
of conciliating the powers. He suspended the public reading
of the bull In Coena Domini, so obnoxious to civil authority;
resumed relations with Portugal; revoked the monitorium of
Us predecessor against Parma. But the powers were bent upon
the destruction of the Jesuits, and they had the pope at their
sscrcy. Cement looked abroad for help, but found none. Even
Maria Theresa, his last hope, suppressed the order in Austria.
Temporising and partial concessions were of no avail At last,
convinced that the peace of the Church demanded the sacrifice,
Clement signed the brief Dominus ac Redemptor, dissolving the
order, on the aist of July 1773. The powers at once gave
substantial proof of their satisfaction; Benevento, Ponte Corvo,
Avignon and the Venaissin were restored to the Holy See.
But it would be unfair to accept this as evidence of a bargain.
Clement had formerly indignantly rejected the suggestion of
such an exchange of favours.
• There is no question of the legality of the pope's act; whether
he was morally culpable, however, continues to be a matter of
bitter controversy. On the one hand, the suppression is de-
nounced as a base surrender to the forces of tyranny and irreligjon,
an act of treason to conscience, which reaped its just punishment
of remorse; on the other hand, it is as ardently maintained
that Clement acted in full accord with his conscience, and that
the order merited its fate by its own mischievous activities
which made it an offence to religion and authority alike. But
whatever the guilt or innocence of the Jesuits, and whether their,
suppression were ill-advised or not, there appears to be no
ground for impeaching the motives of Clement, or of doubting
that he had the approval of his conscience. The stories of his
having swooned after signing the brief, and of having lost hope
and even reason, are too absurd to be entertained. The decline
in health, which set in shortly after the suppression, and his
death (on the 22nd of September 1774) proceeded from wholly
natural causes. The testimony of his physician and of his
confessor ought to be sufficient to discredit the oft-repeated
story of slow poisoning (see Duhr, Jesuiten FabeJn, 4th ed.,
1004, pp. 69 seq.).
The suppression of the Jesuits bulks so large in the pontificate
of Clement that he has scarcely been given due credit for his
praiseworthy attempt to reduce the burdens of taxation and to
reform the financial administration, nor for his liberal encourage-
ment of art and learning, of which the museum Pio-Gementino
is a lasting monument.
- No pope has been the subject of more diverse judgments than
Clement XIV. Zealous defenders credit him with all virtues,
and bless him as the instrument divinely ordained to restore the
peace of the Church; virulent detractors charge him with in-
gratitude, cowardice and double-dealing. The truth is at neither
extreme. Clement's was a deeply religious and poetical nature,
animated by a lofty and refined spirit. Gentleness, equanimity
and benevolence were native to him. He cherished high purposes
and obeyed a lively conscience. But he instinctively shrank
from conflict; he lacked the resoluteness and the sterner sort
of courage thai grapples with a crisis.
Carsetisfifa Vie dr Cement XIV (Parti, 1775} (tren^ transbfrtf),
is incirnpleie* uncritical and too laudator/. The middle of ihw
19th CK'iiitify saw quiiea spirited controversy over ClnwDt XlV-j
St Prit c . Jet hii Hi ft. de fa {hultdri JitMiks (Pari*. 1846), represented
Clcmc .t at lamentably, atmott culpably, *rak; Cn tinea u- Joly,
in hi? Uiil. . . . de ta Cpmp. de JHut (Pari a, 1^44- 1*45, and hii
CUmer.t XIV eJ lei Jliuites (Paris, 1847), wai outspoken and biitef
in his . ondemnatipn; this provoked Itirincr's Ctuk. de* Fevttficutt
Clemer.'' XIV. (Leipzig and Paris, 1853], a vitoroui defence Eased
upon original documents xo which, as custodian of the Vatkan
atchivi 1, the author had freest atce*a; Cretincati-joly replied with
Le Pair Clement XI V; LettreJ ou P+ TAeiner (Pans. 1852), Ravi-
enan't Clem, XIIL e Clem* XIV. (Paris, 1854) » ■ weak, half-
hearted apology for Clement XI V, See also v. Reumont, Ganttimltr.
Papst Clemens XI \\ (Berlin, 1847): and Beinerding, Clemens XIV.
u. d. Avfiifbunc der Geiellu haft Jem (Au^hutj t 1S54). The letter*
of CI n*nt have frequently been printed: the genuineness of
Caracc tali's collection f Paris, 1770; freq. translated} has been
quest i :ied T but most of the let (era are now generally accepted
as genuine: see alw Clemenfit XIV. Epp> oc Brevia, ed. Tbeiner
(Paris. 1852). An extended bibliography is to be found in Hergen-
rother, AUg. Kirckengesch. (1880), iii. 510 seq. (T. F. C)
CLEMENT OP ALEXANDRIA {Clemens Alexondrinus), Greek
Father of the Church. The little we know of him is mainly
derived from his own works. He was probably born about ad.
150 of heathen parents in Athens. The earliest writer after
himself who gives us any information with regard to him is
Eusebius. The only points on which his works now extant
inform us are his date and his in&trucAoicv Yn> >tat StawMteaa*
488
CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA
while attempting to show that the Jewish Scriptures were older
than any writings of the Greeks, he invariably brings down his
dates to the death of Commodus, a circumstance which at once
suggests that he wrote in the reign of the emperor Severus, from
193 to an a.d. (see Strom, lib. i. cap. xzi. 140, p. 403, Potter's
edition). The passage in regard to his teachers is corrupt, and
the sense is therefore doubtful {Strom, lib. i. cap. i. xi, p. 32?, P.).
" This treaties" he say*, *peakin£ or the Stromaltis, * J ha* not
been, contrived for tmn display, but memoranda are treasured up
in it for my old age to be a remedy for forjerf uinesn, — an image, truly,
and an out lint of those dear and living discourse*, and those men
thy "
wat'in Creccc, thelonian, the other was in Magna Graecia; the one
truly blessed and noteworthy I was privileged to near One of these
SVUfl t
privue
of them wai from Cock Syria, the other from Egypt; but there *cre
othen in the East, one of whom belonged to the Assyrians, but
the other was in Palestine, originally a Jew. The Last of those
whom T met was first in power. On falbng in with bim 1 found
rest, having tracked him while be lay concealed in Egypt, He
was in truth the Sicilian bee, and. plucking the flowers of the
prophet ie and apostolic meadow, be produced a wonderfully pure
knowledge in the souls of the Listeners* '
Some have supposed that in this passage seven teachers are
named, others that there are only five, and various conjectures
have been hazarded as to what persons were meant. The only
one about whom conjecture has any basis for speculating is the
last, for Eusebius states (H.E. y. iz) that Clement made mention
of Pantaenus as his teacher in the Hypoty poses. The reference
in this passage is plainly to one whom he might well designate as
his teacher.
To the information which Clement here supplies subsequent
writers add little. By Eusebius and Photius he is called Titus
Flavius Gemens, and '.' the Alexandrian " is added to his name.
Epiphanius tells us that aome said Clement was an Alexandrian,
others that he was an Athenian (Hoer. xxxti. 6), and a modern
writer imagined that he reconciled this discordance by the
supposition that he was born at Athens, but lived at Alexandria.
We know nothing of his conversion except that he passed from
heathenism to Christianity. This is expressly stated by Eusebius
(Praep. Evangel, lib. ii. cap. t), though it is likely that Eusebius
had no other authority than the works of Clement. These works,
however, warrant the inference. They show a singularly minute
acquaintance with the ceremonies of pagan religion, and there
are indications that Clement himself had been initiated in some
of the mysteries (Protrept. cap. ii. sec. 14, p. 13, P.). There is
no means of determining the date of his conversion. He attained
the position of presbyter in the church of Alexandria (Eus.
H.E. vi. xi, and Jerome, De Vir. III. 38), and became perhaps
the assistant, and certainly the successor of Pantaenus in the
catechetical school of that place. Among his pupils were Origen
(Eus. H.E. vi. 7) and Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem (Eus. H.E.
vi. 14.). How long he continued in Alexandria, and when and
where he died, are all matters of pure conjecture. The only
further notice of Cement that we have in history is in a letter
written in 2x1 by Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem, to the
Antiochians, and preserved by Eusebius (H.E. vi. xi). The
words are as follows:—" This letter I sent through Cement
the blessed presbyter, a man virtuous and tried, whom ye know
and will come to know completely, who being here by the
providence and guidance of the Ruler of all strengthened and
increased the church of the Lord." A statement of Eusebius in
regard to the persecution of Severus in 20a (H.E. vi. 3) would
render it likely that Clement left Alexandria on that occasion.
It is conjectured that he went to his old pupil Alexander, who was
at that time bishop of Flaviadain Cappadocia, and that when his
pupil was raised to the see of Jerusalem Cement followed him
there. The letter implies that he was known to the Antiochians,
and that it was likely he would be still better known. Some
have conjectured that he returned to Alexandria, but there is not
the shadow of evidence for such conjecture. Alexander, writing
to Origen (c. 216), mentions Clement as dead (Eus. H.E. vi. 14, 9).
Emefcius *nd Jerome give us lists of the works which dement
left behind bim. Photius has also described some of them. They
— ~ f ~^ '-*-•- — - * -— -rials, A Hortatory
.in three books.
rtfaeswtfrs w J
mi oenind aim. Photius has also described some of
»»«»» foUows:— (1) Up* -KXXtswK M701 * wmmwrvot
i«w» to ft. Creeks, (a) fj Ui**ywy6t. The Tutor, ii
U) T*mmi s >, or FofdMssfi.in right books. {4)1
s-Xofcrtoi; Who is the Rich Man that is Saved t (5) Eight books of
'Twonrs-Affcu, Adumbrations or Outlines. (6) On the Passover. (7) Dis-
courses on Fasting. (8) On Slander, (a) Exhortation to Patience, or
to the Newly Baptized. (10) The KarAr 4<»X*rta<rri«6f, the Rule oj
the Chunk, or to those who Jiidaiie. a work dedicated to AJcun^t^
bishop of Jeru&a tern.
■ Of these, the brut four have come down to us complete, or nearly
complete* The first three form together a progressive introductka
to Christianity corresponding to the stages through which the
vvartji passed at Eleu sis— purification, initiation^ revelation. The
Hortatory Address to the Greets is an appeal to them to give up iht
worship of their gods h and to devote themselves to the worship of the
one living and true God. Clement ci hi bits the absurdity and immor-
ality of the stories told with regard to the pagan deifies, the cruel tin
perpetrated in their worship, and the utter uselessness of bowing
down before image* made by hands. He at the same time show*
the Greeks that their own greatest philosophers and poets rerognimi
the unity of the divine Being h and had caught glimpses of the true
nature of God, but that fuller tight had been thrown on this subject
by the Hebrew prophet*. He replies to the objection that it m
not right to abandon the curtains of their forefathers, and poimi
them to Christ as their only safe guide to God,
The Forttefefb* U divided into three books. In the first Clement
discusses the nccesaity for and the (me nature of the racdagogus.
and shows how Christ as the Logos acted as Paedagogus, and it til
acts. In the second and third books Clement enters into particular*,
and explains how the Christian following the Logos or Reason ought
to behave in the various circumstances of life — in eating, drinking,
furnishing a house, in dress, in the relations of social life, in the c&rr
of the body, and similar concerns, and concludes with a Kenrral
description of the life of a Christian, Appended to the Pacdagofve
are two hymns, which arc* in all probability, the production of
Clement, though some have conjectured that they were portions
of the church service of that time, a-rAMMe?*?* were bags in which
bedclothes iarp^nara) were kept. The phrase was used as « book-
title by Origen and others, and fa equivalent to our " miscellanies."
1c is difficult to give a brief account of the varied con! en n of the
book. Sometimes Clement discusses chronology, sometimes phi to*
sophy, sometimes poetry, entering into the most minute critical
and chronological details; but one object runs through att, and
this is to show what the true Christian Gnostic is. and what is his
relation to philosophy. The work was in eight books, The first
seven are complete- The eighth now extant is really an incomplete
treatise on logic- Some critics have rejected this book as spurious,
since its matter is so different from, that of the rest. Others, however,
have held to its genuineness, because in a Patch -work or Book of
Miscellanies the difference of subject is no sound objection, and
because Photius seems to have regarded our present eighth book a*
genuine (Phot. cod. iii, p. Hob, Efrkkcr).
The treatise Who is tins Rich Man that if Saved 7 is an admirable
exposition of the narrative contained in St Mark's Gospel x. 17-31.
Here Clement argues that wealth* if rightly used, is not unchristian.
The HypatypoMf 1 in eight books, nave not come down to ui.
Cas*iodorus translated them Into Latin, freely altering to suit bis
own ideas of orthodoxy. Both Eusebius and Fh otitis describe the
work. It was a short commentary on all the books of Scripture,
including some of the apocryphal works, such as the Epistle of
Barnabas and the Revelation of Peter, Photius speaks in strong
language of the impiety of some opinions in the book (Eibl. cod- 100,
p. 89 a flekker), but his statements are such as to prove conclusively
that he must have had a corrupt ropy, or read very carelessly, of
grossly misunderstood Clemon t. Notes in Latin on the first epistle
of Peter, the epistle of Jude, and the first two of John have come
down to us; but whether they are the translation of Ca^ii'xWus,
or indeed! a translation of Clement's work at all, is a matter of
dispute.
The treatise on the Passover was occasioned by a work of Mclito
on the same subject. Two fragments of this treatise were given by
Pctavius, and are contained in the modern editions.
We know nothing of the work called The Ecclesiastical Canon
from any external testimony. Clement himself often mentions the
b»Xj>0-ia*rucdf k*p&9, and defines it as the agreement and harmony
of the law and the prophas with the covenant delivered at the
appearance of Christ {Strom, vi. cap. xv. 125, p. Box, P.). No doubt
this was the subject of the treatise. Jerome ana Photius call the
work Ecclesiastical Canons, but this seems to be a mistake.
t Of the other treatises mentioned by Eusebius and Jerome nothing
is known. A fragment of Clement, quoted by Antonius Melissa, m
most probably taken from the treatise on slander.
Besides the treatises mentioned by Eusebius, fragments of treatises
on Providence and the Soul have been preserved. Mention is also
made of a work by Clement on the Prophet Amos, and another en
Definitions.
In addition to these Clement often speaks of his intention to
write on certain subjects, but it may well be doubted whether in
moat cases, if not all, he intended to devote separate treatises to
1 Zahn thinks we have part of them in the Adumbrationes Clem.
L - " - A -*"- J " 'Jinonicas (Codex Lindum, 96. sec. ix.). IT
as & completion of the preceding course
CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA
489
them. Some have f-iund an ailu-ion tn the trcati-c on the S.ni!
already mentioned. The other subjects arc Marriage (yannoi \6toi),
Continence, the Duties of Bishops, Presbyters, Deacons and Widows,
Prophecy, the Soul, the Transmigration of the Soul and the Devil,
Angels, the Origin of the World. First Principles and the Divinity of
the Logos, Allegorical Interpretations of Statements made with
regard to God's anger and similar affections, the Unity of the Church,
and the Resurrection.
Two works are incorporated in the editions of Clement which
are not mentioned by himself or any ancient writer. They are
'Ek rfir OcoMrev cat r$t traroXurip taXovtiinjt kiaffnaXlas card roin
OfoWfivov xp6rom irtrojiai, and *E< tup rpo^ricwr UXoyel. The
first, if it is the work of Clement, must be a book merely of
excerpts, for it contains many opinions which Clement opposed.
Mention is made of Pantacnus in the second, and some have thought
it more worthy of him than the first. Others have regarded it as
a work similar to the first, and derived from Theodorus.
Clement occupies a profoundly interesting position in the
history of Christianity. He is the first to bring all the culture
of the Greeks and all the speculations of the Christian heretics
to bear on the exposition of Christian truth. He does not attain
to a systematic exhibition of Christian doctrine, but he paves the
way for it, and lays the first stones of the foundation. In some
respects Justin anticipated him. He also was well acquainted
with Greek philosophy, and took a genial view of it; but he was
not nearly so widely read as Clement. The list of Greek authors
whom Clement has quoted occupies upwards of fourteen of the
quarto pages in Fabricius's Bibliothcca Graeca. He is at home
•like in the epic and the lyric, the tragic and the comic poets, and
his knowledge of the prose writers is very extensive. Some,
however, of the classic poets he appears to have known only
from anthologies; hence he was misled into quoting as from
Euripides and others verses which were written by Jewish
forgers. He made a special study of the philosophers. Equally
minute is bis knowledge of the systems of the Christian heretics
And in all cases it is plain that he not merely read but thought
deeply on the questions which the civilization of the Greeks and
the various writings of poets, philosophers and heretics raised.
But U was in the Scriptures that he found his greatest delight.
He believed them to contain the revelation of Gods wisdom to
men. He quotes all the books of the Old Testament except
Ruth and the Song of Solomon, and amongst the sacred writings
of the Old Testament he evidently included the book of Tobit,
the Wisdom of Solomon and Ecdcsiasticus. He is equally full
in his quotations from the New Testament, for he quotes from all
the books except the epistle to Philemon, the second epistle
of St Peter, and the epistle of St James, and he quotes from
The Shepherd oj Her mas, and the epistles of Clemens Romanus
and of Barnabas, as inspired. He appeals also to many of the
lost gospels, such as those of the Hebrews, of the Egyptians and
of Matthias.
Notwithstanding this adequate knowledge of Scripture, the
modern theologian is disappointed to find very little of what he
deems characteristically Christian. In fact Clement regarded
Christianity as a philosophy. The ancient philosophers sought
through their philosophy to attain to a nobler and holier life,
and this also was the aim of Christiani ty. The difference between
the two, in Cement's judgment, was that the Greek philosophers
bad only glimpses of the truth, that they attained only to
fragments of the truth, while Christianity revealed in Christ
the absolute and perfect truth. All the stages of the world's
history were therefore preparations leading up to this full
revelation, and God's care was not confined to the Hebrews
alone. The worship of the heavenly bodies, for instance, was
given to man at an early stage that he might rise from a con-
templation of these sublime objects to the worship of the Creator.
Greek philosophy in particular was the preparation of the Greeks
for Christ. It was the schoolmaster or pacdagogue to lead them
to Christ Plato was Moses atticizing. Clement varies in his
statement how Plato got his wisdom or his fragments of the
Reason. Sometimes he thinks that they came direct from God,
tike ail good things, but he is also fond of maintaining that many
of Plato's best thoughts were borrowed from the Hebrew
prophets; and he makes the same statement in regard to the
•wisdom of the other philosophers. But however this may be,
Christ was the end to which all that was true- in \ Iiih.M-phies
pointed. Christ himself was the Logos, the Reason. God the
Father was ineffable. The Son alone can manifest Him fully.
He is the Reason that prevades the universe, that brings out all
goodness, that guides all good men. It was through possessing
somewhat of this Reason that the philosophers attained to any
truth and goodness; but in Christians he dwells more fully and
guides them through all the perplexities of life. Photius, prob-
ably on a careless reading of Clement, argued that he could not
have believed in a real incarnation. But the words of Clement
are quite precise and their meaning indisputable. The real
difficulty attaches not to the Second Person, but to the First.
The Father in Clement's mind becomes the Absolute of the
philosophers, that is to say, not the Father at all, but the Monad,
a mere point devoid of all attributes. He believed in a personal
Son of God who was the Reason and Wisdom of God; and he
believed that this Son of God really became incarnate though he
speaks of him almost invariably as the Word, and attaches
little value to his human nature. The object of his incarnation
and death was to free man from his sins, to lead him into the path
of wisdom, and thus in the end elevate him to the position of a
god. But man's salvation was to be gradual. It began with
faith, passed from that to love, and ended in full and complete
knowledge. There could be no faith without knowledge. But
the knowledge is impel feet, and the Christian was to do many
things in simple obedience without knowing the reason. But
he has to move upwards continually until he at length docs
nothing that is evil, and he knows fully the reason and object
of what he does. He thus becomes the true Gnostic, but he can
become the true Gnostic only by contemplation and by the
practice of what is right. He has to free himself from the power
of passion. He has to give up all thoughts of pleasure. He must
prefer goodness in the midst of torture to evil with unlimited
pleasure. He has to resist the temptations of the body, keeping
it under strict control, and with the eye of the soul undimmed by
corporeal wants and impulses, contemplate God the supreme
good, and live a life according to reason. In other words, he
must strive after likeness to God as he reveals himself in his
Reason or in Christ. Clement thus looks entirely at the en-
lightened moral elevation to which Christianity raises man. He
believed that Christ instructed men before he came into the
world, and he therefore viewed heathenism with kindly eye.
He was also favourable to the pursuit of all kinds of knowledge.
All enlightenment tended to lead up to the truths of Christianity,
and hence knowledge of every kind not evil was its handmaid.
Clement had at the same time a strong belief in evolution or
development. The world went through various stages in prepara-
tion for Christianity. The man goes through various stages
before he can reach Christian perfection. And Clement conceived
that this development took place not merely in this life, but in
the future through successive grades. The Jew and the heathen
had the gospel preached to them in the world below by Christ
and his apostles, and Christians will have to pass through pro-
cesses of purification and trial after death before they reach
knowledge and perfect bliss.
The beliefs of Clement have caused considerable difference
of opinion among modern scholars. He sought the truth from
whatever quarter he could get it, believing that all that is good
comes from God, wherever it be found. He belongs therefore
to no school of philosophers. He calls himself an Eclectic.
He was in the main a Neoplatonist, drawing from that school
his doctrines of the Monad and his strong tendency towards
mysticism. For his moral doctrine he borrowed freely from
Stoicism. Aristotelian features may be found but arc quite
subordinate. But Clement always regards the articles of the
Christian creed as the axioms of a new philosophy. Dachne
had tried to show that he was Neopla tonic, and Reinkcns has
maintained that he was essentially Aristotelian. His mode of
viewing Christianity does not fit into any classification. It
is the result of the period in which he lived, of his wide culture
and the simplicity and noble purity of his character.
It is needless to say that his books well deiecM*. *tates\\NX
CLEMENT, F.— CLEMENTINE LITERATURE
490
tbe study is not smoothed by simplicity of style. Clement
professed to despise rhetoric, but was himself a rhetorician, and
his style is turgid, involved and difficult. He is singularly
simple in his character. In discussing marriage he refuses to
use any but the plainest language. A euphemism is with him
a falsehood. But he is temperate in his opinions; and the
practical advices in the second and third books of the Pacdagogue
are remarkably sound and moderate. He is not always very
critical, and he is passionately fond of allegorical interpretations,
but these were the faults of his age.
All early writers speak of Clement in the highest terms of
laudation, and he certainly ought to have been a saint in any
Church that reveres saints, But Clement is not a saint in the
Roman Church. He was a saint up till the time of Benedict
XIV., who read Photius on Clement, believed him, and struck
the Alexandrian's name out of the calendar. But many Roman
Catholic writers, though tbey yield a practical obedience to the
papal decision, have adduced good reason why it should be
reversed (Cognat, p. 451).
Editions. — The standard edition of the collected works will be
that of Ch Suhlin (fir&t vol. rofitaininn Pretrcptkus and Paedaeogus,
Leipzig. 1905). Separate editions of Simm. vii., Hon and Major
(taoi); Q.D.S., Barnard in Texts and SindUs, v. 2 (1897); w.
Dindorfs edition in 4 vol I. (Oxford, )£6g) ii little more than a
nrprifii of the text of Cishnp Poller, 1715. For the Fragments
tee Zahn, Foruhungen cur Geith, rfci mm J; Kanons, part lii., or
liimiiick 9 ml Pre utenrn. Grirk. drt atuh. Lift., vol. L
Literature — A copious bibliography will bv found in Harnack,
Chronotagie, vol. »., or In fia.nfrnhi.wiT. Crithr der altk. Lit.^ Either
of liwrw will supply the rtiimcs oi works upon Clement's biblical text,
Ills uh of Stoic *(iwr* h hi$ quotations- from heathen writers, and his
relation to heathen phil-jWftfiy. A valuable book is dc Faye, Clint.
fAttx, (ify&J- For his theological poriifrm sec Harnack. Dogmen-
gcahichU; Hon, Six Lttturtt Mj the A ute-Nictat Fathers-, Wcftcott,
n Cfrm. of Alex." in Diet, Christ, Bfog,; Bieg, Christian Platonists
«f t\Ui. (i&tiuj. A book on Clement* rtla Lion to Mysticism is
wanted. (C.Bi.;J.D.)
CLftMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793), French historian, was
born at Bczc, near Dijon, and was educated at the Jesuit College
at Dijon. At the age of seventeen he entered the society of the
Benedictines of Saint Maur, and worked with such intense
application that at the age of twenty-five he was obliged to take
a protracted rest. He now resided in Paris, where he wrote the
nth and 12th vols, of the Hist oh c UtUraire de la France, and
edited (with Dom Brinl) the 12th and 13th vols, of the Rccucil
da hisloricns des Gauls ct de la France. The king appointed
him on the committee which was engaged in publishing charters,
diplomas and other documents connected with French history (sec
Xavier Charmcs, Le Comitides travaux historiqucs cl scientifiques,
vol. i., 18S6, passim); and the Academy of Inscriptions chose
him as a member (1785). Dom Clement also revised the Art de
liri/icr les dates, edited in 1750 by Dom Clemencet. Three
volumes with the Indexes appeared from 1783 to 1792. He
was engaged in preparing another volume including the period
befoie the Christian era, when he died suddenly of apoplexy, at
the age of sixty-nine. The work was afterwards brought down
from 1770 to 1827 by Julicn dc Courccllcs and Fortia d' Urban.
CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1580), murderer of the French
king Henry III., was born at Sorbon in the Ardennes, and
became a Dominican friar. Civil war was raging in France,
and Clement became an ardent partisan of the League; his
mind appears to have become unhinged by religious fanaticism,
and he talked of exterminating the heretics, and formed a plan
to kill Henry III. His project was encouraged by some of the
heads of the League; he was assured of temporal rewards if he
succeeded, and of eternal bliss ff he failed. Having obtained
letters for the king, he left Fan's on the 31st of July 1589, and
leached St Cloud, the headquarters of Henry, who was besieging
Faris. On the following day he was admitted to the royal
Presence, and presenting his letters he told the king that he had
»n important and confidential message to deliver. The attend-
■"J**J l * a withdrew, and while Henry was reading the letters
™**^* "Mrtally wounded him with a dagger which bad been
\!?f?r* beneath his cloak. The assassin was at once killed
*^«Utadut» who rushed ip f and Hou? died eaify on ^
following day. Clement's body was afterwards quartered and
burned. This deed, however, was viewed with far different
feelings in Faris and by the partisans of the League, the murderer
being regarded as a martyr and extolled by Pope Sixtus V.,
while even his canonization was discussed.
See E. Lavisse, Histoire de France, tome vi. (Paris, 1904).
CLEMBNTI, MUZIO (c. 1 751-1832), Italian pianist and com-
poser, was born at Rome between 1750 and 1752. His father,
a jeweller, encouraged his son's early musical talent. Buroni
and Cordicclli were his first masters, and at the age of nine
dementi's theoretical and practical studies had advanced to
such a degTee that he was able to win the position of organist
at a church. He continued his studies under Santarelli and
Carpani, and at the age of fourteen wrote a mass which was
performed in public. About 1766 Beckford, the author of
Vathek, persuaded Clcmenti to follow him to England, where
the young composer lived in retirement at one of the country
seats of his protector in Dorsetshire until 1770. In that year
he first appeared in London, where his success both as compear
and pianist was rapid and brilliant. In 1777 he was for some
time employed as conductor of the Italian opera, but he soon
afterwards left London for Faris. Here also his concerts were
crowded by enthusiastic audiences, and the same success accom-
panied Clcmenti on a tour about the year 1780 to southern
Germany and Austria. At Vienna, which he visited between
1 781 and 1782, he was received with high honour by the emperor
Joseph II., in whose presence he met Mozart, and fought a kind
of musical duel with him. His technical skill proved to be
equal if not superior to that of his rival, who on the other hand
infinitely surpassed him by the passionate beauty of his inter-
pretation. It is worth noting that one of the finest of dementi's
sonatas, that in B flat, shows an exactly identical opening theme
with Mozart's overture to the Flauto Alogico.
In May 1782 Clementi returned to London, where for the next
twelve years he continued his lucrative occupations of fashionable
teacher and performer at the concerts of the aristocracy. He
took shares in the pianoforte business of a firm which went
bankrupt in 1800. He then established a pianoforte and music
business of his own, under the name of Clcmenti & Co. Other
members were added to the firm, including Collard and Davis,
and the firm was ultimately taken over by Messrs Collard
alone. Amongst his pupils on the pianoforte during this period
may be mentioned John Field, the composer of the celebrated
Nocturnes. In his company Clcmenti paid, in 1804, a visit to
Paris, Vienna, St Petersburg, Berlin and other cities. While
he was in Berlin, Meyerbeer became one of his pupils. He also
revisited his own country after an absence of more than thirty
years. In 18 10 Clementi returned to London, but refused to
play again in public, devoting the remainder of his life to com-
position. Several symphonies belong to this time, and were
played with much success at contemporary concerts, but none
of them seem to have been published. His intellectual and
musical faculties remained unimpaired until his death, on the
9th of March 1832, at Evesham, Worcester.
Of dementi's playing in his youth, Moschclcs wrote that it
was " marked by a most beautiful legato, a supple touch in lively
passages, and a most unfailing technique." Mozart may be said
to have closed the old and Clementi to have founded the newer
school of technique on the piano. Amongst dementi's composi-
tions the most remarkable arc sixty sonatas for pianoforte, and
the great collection of £tudes called Gradus ad Parnassum.
CLEMENTINE LITERATURE, the name generally given to the
writings which at one time or another were fathered upon Pope
Clement I. (q.v.), commonly called Clemens Roman us, who was
early regarded as a disciple of St Peter. Thus they are for the
most part a species of the larger pseudo-Petrine genus. Chief
among them arc: (1) The so-called Second Epistle; (a) two
Epistles on Virginity; (3) the Homilies and Recognitions', (4)
the Apostolical Constitutions {q.v.)\ and (5) five epistles forming
part of the Forged Decretals (see Decretals). The present
article deals mainly with the third group, to which the title
literature " is usually confined, owing to the stress
CLEMENTINE LITERATURE
491
bid upon it in the famous Tubingen reconstruction of primitive
Christianity, in which it played a leading part; but later criti-
cism has lowered its importance as its true date and historical
relations have been progressively ascertained. (1) and (2)
became " Clementine " only by chance, but (3) was so originally
by literary device or fiction, the cause at work also in (4) and (5).
But while in all cases the suggestion of Clement's authorship
came ultimately from his prestige as writer of the genuine
Epistle of Clement (see Clement I.), both (3) and (4) were due to
this idea as operative on Syrian soil ; (5) is a secondary formation
based on (3) as known to the West.
(1) The "Second Epistle of Clement:*— This is really the
earliest extant Christian homily (sec Apostolic Fathers). Its
theme is the duty of Christian repentance, with a view to
obedience to Christ's precepts as the true confession and homage
which He requires. Its special charge is " Preserve the flesh pure
and the seal (i.e. baptism) unstained " (viii. 6). But the peculiar
way in which it enforces its morals in terms of the Platonic
contrast between the spiritual and sensuous worlds, as archetype
and temporal manifestation, suggests a special local type of
theology which must be taken into account in fixing its provenance.
This theology, the fact that the preacher seems to quote the
Gospel according to the Egyptians (in ch. xii. and possibly else-
where) as if familiar to his bearers, and indeed its literary
affinities generally, all point to Alexandria as the original home of
the homily, at a date about 1 20-140 (see Zcil.f. N. T. Wisscnschaft,
vii. 1 23 ff). Neither Corinth (as Light foot) nor Rome (as Harnack,
who assigns it to Bishop Soler, c. 166- 1 74) satisfies all the internal
conditions, while the Eastern nature of the external evidence and
the -homily's quasi-canonical status in the Codex- Alcxandrinus
strongly favour an Alexandrine origin.
(2) The Two Epistles to Virgins, i.e. to Christian celibates of
both sexes. These are known in their entirety only in Syriac,
and were first published by Wctsti-in (1752), who held them
genuine. This view is now generally discredited, even by Roman
Catholics like Funk, their best recent editor {Patres A post., vol.
ii.). External evidence begins with Epiphanius (Hoer. xxx. 15)
and Jerome (Ad Jovin. i. 12); and the silence of Euscbius tells
heavily against their existence before the 41b century, at any
rate as writings of Clement The Monophysitc Timothy of
Alexandria (a.d. 457) cites one of them as Clement's, while
Antiochus of St Saba (c. a.d. 620) makes copious but unacknow-
ledged extracts from both in the original Greek. There is no
trace of their use in the West. Thus their Syrian origin is
manifest, the more so that in the Syriac MS. they are appended to
the New Testament, like the belter- known epistles of Clement in
the Codex Alexandrinus. Indeed, judging from another S>riac
US. of earlier date, which includes the latter writings in its
canon, it seems that the Epistles on Virginity gradually replaced
the earlier pair in certain Syrian churches — even should Lightfoot
be right in doubting if this had really occurred by Epiphanius's
day (S. Clement of Rome, i. 412).
Probably these epistles did not originally bear Clement's name
at all, but formed a single epistle addressed to ascetics among an
actual circle of churches* In that case they, or rather it, may
date from the 3rd century in spite of Euscbius's silence, and.
axe not pseudo-Clementine in any real sense. It matters little
whether or not the false ascription was made before the division
into two implied already by Epiphanius (c. a.d. 375). Special
occasion for such a hortatory letter may be discerned in its
polemic against intimate relations between ascetics of op{k>site
sex, implied to exist among its readers, in contract to uiagc in
the writer's own locality. Now wc know that spiritual unions,
prompted originally by highslrung Christian idealism as to a
religious fellowship transcending the law of nature in relation to
sex, did exist between persons living under vows of celibacy
daring the 3rd century in particular, and not least in Syria (</.
the case of Paul of Samosata, c. 265, and the Synod of Ancyra
in GalaLia, c. 314). It is natural, then, to see in the original
Cpistle a protest against the dargcrs of such spiritual bold-
ness (c/. " Subintroductae " in llerzog-Hauck's Rcalcncyklo-
pSdie), prior perhaps to the famous case at Antioch just noted.
Possibly it is the feeling of south Syria or Palestine that here
expresses itself in remonstrance against usages prevalent in north
Syria. Such a view finds support also in the New Testament
canon implied in these epistles.
(3) [a] The Epistle of Clement to James (the Lord's brother).
This was originally part of (3) [6], in connexion with which its
origin and date are discussed. But as known to the West through
Rufinus's Latin version, it was quoted as genuine by the synod of
Vaison (a.d. 442) and throughout the middle ages. It became
" the starting point of the most momentous and gigantic of
medieval forgeries, the Isidorian Decretals," " where it stands at
the head of the pontifical letters, extended to more than twice its
original length." This extension perhaps occurred during the 5th
century. At any rate the letter in this form, along with a
" second epistle to James " (on the Eucharist, church furniture,
&c), dating from the early 6th century, had separate currency
long before the 9th century, when they were incorporated in the
Decretals by the forger who raised the Clementine epistles to five
(see Lightfoot, Clement, i. 414 ff.).
(3) [b\ The " Homilies " and " Recognitions."—" The two
chief extant Clementine writings, differing considerably in some
respects in doctrine, are both evidently the outcome of a peculiar
speculative type of Judaistic Christianity, for which the most
characteristic name of Christ was 4 the true Prophet.' The frame-
work of both is a narrative purporting to be written by Clement
(of Rome) to St James, the Lord's brother, describing at the
beginning his own conversion and the circumstances of his first
acquaintance with St Peter, and then a long succession of
incidents accompanying St Peter's discourses and disputations,
leading up to a romantic recognition of Clement's father, mother
and two brothers, from whom he had been separated since child-
hood. The problems discussed under this fictitious guise are
with rare exceptions fundamental problems for every age; and,
whatever may be thought of the positions maintained, the
discussions arc hardly ever feeble or trivial. Regarded simply as
mirroring the past, few, if any, remains of Christian antiquity
present us with so vivid a picture of the working of men's minds
under the influence of the new leaven which had entered into the
world " Mlort, Clem. Recog., p. xiv.).
The indispensable preliminary to a really historic view of these
writings is some solution of the problem of their mutual relations.
The older criticism assumed a dependence of one upon the other,
and assigned one or both to the latter part of the 2nd century.
Recent criticism, however, builds on the principle, which emerges
alike from the external and internal evidence (see Salmon in
the Diet, of Christian Biography), .that both used a common
basis. Our main task, then, is to define the nature, origin and
date of the parent document, and if possible its own literary
antecedents. Towards the solution of this problem two contri-
butions of prime importance have recently been made. The
earlier of these is by F. J. A. llort, and was delivered in the form
of lectures as far back as 1884, though issued posthumously only
in 1901; the other is the elaborate monograph of Dr Hans
Waitz (1904).
Criticism. — (i.) External Evidence as to the Clementine Romance,
The evidence of ancient writers really begins, not with Origcn, 1
but with Eusebius of Cacsarea, who in his Eccl. Hist. iii. 38,
writes as follows: " Certain men have quite lately brought
forward as written by him (Clement) other verbose and lengthy
writings, containing dialogues of Peter, forsooth, and Apion,
whereof not the slightest mention is to be found among the
ani knis, for they do not even preserve in purity the stamp of
the Apostolic orthodoxy." Apion, the Alexandrine grammarian
1 Dr Armiragc Robinson, in his edition of the Pkilocalia (extracts
made c. 35S by B.isil and Gregory from Onsen's writing-0, proved
that the passage cited below is simply introduced a« a parallel 10 an
extract of Origcn's: while Dom Chapman, in the Journal of Theol.
Studies, iii. 430 (T., made it nrokible that the passages in Origcn's
Comnt. on Matthew akin to those in the Opus Impcrf. in Alctth. arc
insertions in the former, whkh is extant only in a l.atin version.
Sulw^uently he suiKi-ited (Zritsch.f. N. T. Winemehaft. ix. 33 f.)
that the passage in the Phil* alia is due not to its authors but to an
early editor, since it is the only citation not refccccdv^^vv^-
492
CLEMENTINE LITERATURE
and foe of Judaism, whose criticism was answered by Josephus,
appears in this character both in Homilies and Recognitions,
though mainly in the former (iv. 6-vii. 5). Thus Euscbius
implies (1) a spurious Clementine work containing matter found
also in our Homilies at any rate; and (2) its quite recent origin.
Next we note that an extract in the Philoialia is introduced
as follows: " Yea, and Clement the Roman, a disciple of Peter
the Apostle, after using words in harmony with these on the
present problem, in conversation with his father at Laodicca
in the Circuits, speaks a very necessary word for the end of
arguments touching this matter, viz. those things which seem
to have proceeded from genesis (-astrological destiny), in the
fourteenth book." The extract answers to Recognitions, x. 10-13,
but it is absent from our Homilies. Here we observe that ( 1 ) the
extract agrees this time with Recognitions, not with Homilies;
(2) its framework is that of the Clementine romance found in
both; (3) the tenth and last book of Recognitions is here parallel
to book xiv. of a work called Circuits (Periodoi).
This last point leads on naturally to the witness of Epiphanius
(c 375). who, speaking of Ebionites or Judaizing Christians of
various sorts, and particularly the Esscne type, says (Haer.
xxx. 15) that " they use certain other books likewise, to wit,
the so-called Circuits of Peter, which were written by the hand
of Clement, falsifying their contents, though leaving a few
genuine things." Here Ephiphanius simply assumes that the
Ebionite Circuits of Peter was based on a genuine work of the
same scope, and goes on to say that the spurious elements are
proved such by contrast with the tenor of Clement's " encyclic
epistles" (i.e. those to virgins, (2) above); for these enjoin
virginity (celibacy), and praise Elijah, David, Samson, and all
the prophets, whereas the Ebionite Circuits favour marriage
(even in Apostles) and depreciate the prophets between Moses
and Christ, " the true Prophet." ''In the Circuits, then, they
adapted the whole to their own views, representing Peter falsely
in many ways, as that he was daily baptized for the sake of
purification, as these also do; and they say that he likewise
abstained from animal food and meat, as they themselves also
do." Now all the points here noted in the Circuits can be traced
in our Homilies and Recognitions, though toned down in different
degrees.
The witness of the ArianizingO^u* Imperfect urn in Mattkaeum
(c. 400) is in general similar. Its usual form of citation is " Peter
in Clement " (apud Clementan). This points to " Clement "
as a brief title for the Clementine Pcriodoi, a title actually found
in a Syriac MS. of a.d. 411 which contains large parts of Recogni-
tions and Homilies, and twice used by Rufinus, e.g. when he
proposes to inscribe his version of the Recognitions " Rufinus
Clemens." Rufinus in his preface to this work— in which for
the first time we meet the title Recognition^)— observes that
there arc two editions to which the name applies, two collections
of books differing in some points but in many respects containing
the same narrative. This he remarks in explanation of the order
of his version in some places, which he feels may strike his friend
Gaudentius as unusual, the inference being that the other
edition was the better-known one, although it lacked " the
transformation of Simon " (i.e. of Clement's father into Simon's
likeness), which is common to the close both of our Recognitions
and Homilies, and so probably belonged to the Circuits. We
may assume, too (e.g. on the basis of our Syriac MS.), that the
Greek edition of the Recognition(s) actually used by Rufinus
was much nearer the text of the Pcriodoi of which we have found
traces than we should imagine from its Latin form.
So far we have no sure trace of our Homilies at all, apart from
the Syriac version. Even four centuries later, Phot i us, in refer-
ring to a collection of books called both Acts of Peter and the
Recognition of Clement, does not make clear whether he means
Homilies or Recognitions or cither. " In all the copies which
we have seen (and they arc not a few) after those different
cptaki (viz. • Peter to James ' and ' Clement to James,' prefixed,
Ihecne la some MSS. the other in others) and titles, wc found
*WM variation the same treatise, beginning, I, Clement, &c."
** * blot clear that he had read note than
1 the opening of
these MSS. The fact that different epistles are prefixed to the
same work leads him to conjecture " that there were two editions
made of the Acts of Peter (his usual title for the collection), but
in course of time the one perished and that of Clement prevailed."
This is interesting as anticipating a result of modern criticism,
as will appear below. The earliest probable reference to our
Homilies occurs in a work of doubtful date, the pscudo-
Athanasian Synopsis, which mentions " Clementines, whence
came by selection and rewriting the true and inspired form."
Here too we have the first sure trace of an expurgated recension,
made with the idea of recovering the genuine form assumed, as
earlier by Epiphanius, to lie behind an unorthodox recension
of Clement's narrative. As, moreover, the extant Epitome is
based on our Homilies, it is natural to suppose it was also the
basis of earlier orthodox recensions, one or more of which
may be used in certain Florilcgia of the 7th century and later.
Nowhere do we find the title Homilies given to any form of
the Clementine collection in antiquity.
(ii.) The Genesis of the Clementine Literature. It has been need-
ful to cite so much of the evidence proving that our Homilies and
Recognitions arc both recensions of a common basis, at first known
as the Circuits of Peter and later by titles connecting it rather
with Clement, its ostensible author, because it affords data also
for the historical problems touching (a) the contents and origin
of the primary Clementine work, and (6) the conditions under
which our extant recensions of it arose.
(0) The Circuits of Peter, as defined on the one hand by the
epistle of Clement to James originally prefixed to it and by
patristic evidence, and on the other by the common element in
our Homilies and Recognitions, may be conceived as follows.
It contained accounts of Peter's teachings and discussions at
various points on a route beginning at Cacsarea, and extending
northwards along the coast-lands of Syria as* far as Antioch.
During this tour he meets with persons of typically erroneous
views, which it was presumably the aim of the work to refute
in the interests of true Christianity, conceived as the final form
of divine revelation— a revelation given through true prophecy
embodied in a succession of persons, the chief of whom were
Moses and the prophet whom Moses foretold, Jesus the Christ.
The prime exponent of the spurious religion is Simon Magus.
A second protagonist of error, this time of Gentile philosophic
criticism directed against fundamental Judaism, is Apion, the
notorious anti-Jewish Alexandrine grammarian of Petci's day;
while the r6le of upholder of astrological fatalism (Genesis) is
played by Faustus, father of Clement, with whom Peter and
Clement debate at Laodicca. Finally, all thisisalready embedded
in a setting determined by the romance of Clement and his lost
relatives, "recognition" of whom forms the denouement of
the story.
There is no reason to doubt that such, roughly speaking, were
the contents of the Clementine work to which Euscbius alludes
slightingly, in connexion with that section of it which had to his
eye least verisimilitude, viz. the dialogues between Peter and
Apion. Now Euscbius believed the work to have been of quite
recent and suspicious origin. This points to a date about the
last quarter of the 3rd century; and the prevailing doctrinal
tone of the contents, as known to us, leads to the same result.
The standpoint is that of the peculiar Judaizing or Ebonite
Christianity due to persistence among Christians of the tendencies
known among pre-Christian Jews as Esscne. The Esscnes,
while clinging to what they held to be original Mosaism, yet
conceived and practised their ancestral faith in ways which
showed distinct traces of syncretism, or the operation of influences
foreign to Judaism proper. They thus occupied an ambiguous
position on the borders of Judaism. Similarly Christian Essen-
ism was syncrctist in spirit, as we sec from its best -known
representatives, the Elchasaitcs, of whom we first hear about
920, when a certain Alcibiadcs of Apamca in Syria (some 60 m.
south of Antioch) brought to Rome the Book of //chat— the
manifesto of their distinctive message (Hippol., Phitos. ix. 13)—
and again some twenty years later, when Origen refers to one of
their leaders as having lately arrived at Cacsarea (Euscb. vi. j8).
CLEMENTINE LITERATURE
493
The first half of the 3rd century wis marked, especially in Syria,
by a strong tendency to syncretism, which may well have
stirred certain Christian Essenes to fresh propaganda. Other
writings than the Book of H el rat, representing also other species
of the same genus, would take shape. Such may have been some
of the pseudo-apostolic Acts to which Epiphanius alludes as in
use among the Ebionites of his own day: and such was probably
the nucleus of our Clementine writings, the Periodoi of Peter.
Harnack (Chronologic, ii. 522 f.), indeed, while admitting
that much (e.g. in Homilies, viii. 5-7) points the other way,
prefers the view that even the Circuits were of Catholic origin
(Chapman, as above, says Arian, soon after 325), regarding
the synergistic Jewish-Christian features in it as due either to
its earlier basis or to an instinct to preserve continuity of manner
(eg. absence of explicit reference to Paul). Hort, on the con-
trary, assumes as author " an ingenious Hclxaite . . . perhaps
stimulated by the example of the many Encratitc Periodoi "
(p. 131), and writing about ad. 200.
Only it must not be thought of as properly Elchasaite, since
it knew no baptism distinct from the ordinary Christian one.
It seems rather to represent a later and modified Essene Chris-
tianity, already half-Catholic, such as would suit a date after
250, in keeping with Euscbius's evidence. Confirmation of such
a date is afforded by the silence of the Syrian Didascalia, itself
perhaps dating from about 250, as to any visit of Simon Magus
to Caesarea, in contrast to the reference in its later form, the
Apostolical Constitutions (c. 350-400), which is plainly coloured
(vi. o) by the Clementine story. On the other hand, the Didas-
calia seems to have been evoked partly by Judaizing propaganda
hi north Syria. If, then, it helps to date the Periodoi as after
150, it may also suggest as place of origin one of the large cities
lying south of Antioch, say Laodicca (itself on the coast about
30 m. from Apamca), where the Clementine story reaches its
climax. The intimacy of local knowledge touching this region
implied in the narrative common to Homilies and Recognitions
is notable, and tells against an origin for the Periodoi outside
Syria (e.g. in Rome, as Waitz and Harnack hold, but Lightfoot
disproves, Clem. i. 55 f., 64,100, cf. Hort, p. 131). Further,
though the curtain even in it fell on Peter at Antioch itself (our
one complete MS. of the Homilies is proved by the Epitome,
based on the Homilies, to be here abridged), the interest of the
story culminates at Laodicca.
If we assume, then, that the common source of our extant
Clementines arose in Syria, perhaps c. 265, 1 had it also a written
source or sources which we can trace? Though Hort doubts it,
most recent scholars (e.g. Waitz, Harnack) infer the existence
of at least one source, " Preachings (Kerygmata) of Peter,"
containing no reference at all to Clement. Such a work seems
implied by the epistle of Peter to James and its appended
adjuration, prefixed in our MSS. to the Homilies along with the
epistle of Clement to James. Thus the later work aimed at
superseding the earlier, much as Photius suggests (sec above).
It was, then, to these " Preachings of Peter " that the most
Ebionite features, and especially the anti-Pauline allusions
under the guise of Simon still inhering in the Periodoi (as implied
by Homilies in particular), originally belonged. The fact,
however, that these were not more completely suppressed in
the later work, proves that it, too, arose in circles of kindred,
though largely modified, Judaeo-Christian sentiment (cf.
Homilies, vii., e.g. ch. 8). The differences of standpoint may be
due not only to lapse of time, and the emergence of new problems
on the horizon of Syrian Christianity generally, but also to change
in locality and in the degree of Greek culture represented by the
two works. A probable date for the " Preachings " used in the
Periodoi is c. aoo. A
1 While Hort and Waitz say c. 700, Harnack says c. 36a The
reign of Gallienus (260-268) would rait the tone of its references to
the Roman emperor (Waitz, p. 74), and also any polemic against
the NeopUtonic philosophy of revelation by visions and dreams
which it may contain.
* Even Waits agrees to this, thoueh he argues back to a yet earlier
~~1l»Pauuac (rather than anti-Marcionite) form r composed in
If the home of the Periodoi was the region of the Syrian
Laodicca, we can readily explain most of its characteristics.
Photius refers to the " excellences of its language and its learn-
ing "; while Waitz describes the aim and spirit of its contents
as those of an apology for Christianity against heresy and
paganism, in the widest sense of the word, written in order to
win over both Jews (cf. Recognitions, i. 53-70) and pagans, but
mainly the latter. In particular it had in view persons of
culture, as most apt to be swayed by the philosophical tendencies
in the sphere of religion prevalent in that age, the age of nco-
Platonism. It was in fact designed for propaganda among
religious seekers in a time of singular religious restlessness and
varied inquiry, and, above all, for use by catechumens (cf. Ep.
Clem. 2, 13) in the earlier stages of their preparation for Christian
baptism. To such its romantic setting would be specially
adapted, as falling in with the literary habits and tastes of the
period; while its doctrinal peculiarities would least give offence
in a work of the aim and character just described.
As regards the sources of the narrative part of the Periodoi,
it is possible that the " recognition " motif was a literary common-
place. The account of Peter's journeyings was no doubt based
largely on local Syrian tradition, perhaps as already embodied
in written Acts of Peter (so Waitz and Harnack), but differing
from the Western type, e.g. in bringing Peter to Rome long
before Nero's reign. As for the allusions, more or less indirect,
to St Paul behind the figure of Simon, as the arch-enemy of the
truth—allusions which first directed attention to the Clementines
in the last century — there can be no doubt as to their presence,
but only as to their origin and the degree to which they are so
meant in Homilies and Recognitions. There is certainly " an
application to Simon of words used by or of St Paul, or of claims
made by or in behalf of St Paul " (Hort), especially in Homilies
(ii. 17 f., xi. 35, xvii. 19), where a consciousness also of the
double reference must still be present, though this does not seem
to be the case in Recognitions (in Rufinus's Latin.) Such covert
reference to Paul must designedly have formed part of the
Periodoi, yet as adopted from its more bitterly anti-Pauline
basis, the " Preachings of Peter " (cf. Homilies, ii. 17 f. with Ep.
Pet. ad Jac. 2), which probably shared most of the features of
Ebionite Essen ism as described by Epiphanius xxx. 15 f. (in-
eluding the qualified dualism of the two kingdoms— the present
one of the devil, and the future one of the angelic Christ — which
appears also in the Periodoi, cf. Ep. Clem, ad Jac. 1 fin.).
(b) That the Periodoi was a longer work than either our
Homilies or Recognitions is practically certain; and its mere
bulk may well, as Hort suggests (p. &S), have been a chief cause
of the changes of form. Yet Homilies and Recognitions are
abridgments made on different principles and convey rather
different impressions to their readers. " The Homilies care most
for doctrine," especially philosophical doctrine, " and seem to
transpose very freely for doctrinal purposes " (e.g. matter in
xvi.-xi.x. is placed at the end for effect, while xx. z-10 gives
additional emphasis to the Homilies* theory of evil, perhaps over
against Manichacism). " The Recognitions care most for the
story," as a means of religious edification, " and have preserved
the general framework much more nearly." They arose in
different circles: indeed, save the compiler of the text rcpre-*
scntcd by the Syriac MS. of 411 a.d., "not a single ancient
writer shows a knowledge of both books in any form." But Hort
is hardly right in suggesting that, while Homilies arose in Syria,
Recognitions took shape in Rome. Both probably arose in
Syria (so Lightfoot), but in circles varying a good deal in religious
standpoint.* Homilies was a sort of second edition, made largely
in the spirit of its original and perhaps in much the same locality,
with a view to maintaining and propagating the doctrines of a
semi-Judaic Christianity (cf. bk. vii.), as it existed a generation
or two after the Periodoi appeared. The Recognitions, in both
recensions, as is shown by the fact that it was read in the original
with general admiration not only by Rufinus but also by others
in the West, was more Catholic in tone and aimed chiefly at
' Dom Chapman maintains that the Recognitions (c. 370-390^ «
attack the doctrine of Cod in the Ifomxliii at >5m3* %x<2oi*.>re~.
494
CLEOBULUS— CLEON
commending the Christian religion over against all non-Christian
rivals or gnostic perversions. That is, more than one effort of
this sort had been made to adapt the story of Clement's Recogni-
tions to general Christian use. Later the Homilies underwent
further adaptation to Catholic feeling even before the Epitome,
in its two extant forms, was made by more drastic methods of
expurgation. One kind of adaptation at least is proved to have
existed before the end of the 4th century, namely a selection of
certain discourses from the Homilies under special headings,
following on Recognitions, i.-iii., as seen in a Syriac MS. of ad. 411.
As this MS. contains transcriptional errors, and as its archetype
had perhaps a Greek basis, the Recognitions may be dated
c. 350-375* (its Christology suggested to Rufinus an Arianism
like that of Eunomius of Cyzicus, c. 362), and the Homilies prior
even to 350. But the different circles represented by the two
make relative dating precarious.
Summary.— The Clementine literature throws' light upon a
very obscure phase of Christian development, that of Judaco-
Christianity, and proves that it embraced more intermediate
types, between Ebionism proper and Catholicism, than has
generally been realized. Incidentally, too, its successive forms
illustrate many matters of belief and usage among Syrian
Christians generally in the 3rd and 4th centuries, notably their
apologetic and catechetical needs and methods. Further, it
discusses, as Hort observes, certain indestructible problems which
much early Christian theology passes by or deals with rather
perfunctorily; and it docs so with a freshness and reality which,
as we compare the original 3rd-ccntury basis with the conven-
tional manner of the Epitome, we see to be not unconnected with
origin in an age as yet free from the trammels of formal ortho-
doxy. Again it is a notable specimen of early Christian pscudepi-
graphy, and one which had manifold and far-reaching results.
Finally the romance to which it owed much of its popular appeal,
became, through the medium of Rufinus's Latin, the parent
of the late medieval legend of Faust, and so the ancestor of a
famous type in modern literature.
Literature.— For a full list of this down to 1904 see Hans Waits,
" Die Pscudoklcmentincn " (Texte u. Untersuchungen tur Cesch.
dtr alUhr. Litcratur, neue Folge. Bd. x. Heft 4), and A. Harnack,
Chronologic der alkhr. Litteratur (1904), ii. 518 f. In English, besides
Hort's work, there are articles by G. Salmon, in Diet, of Christ. Biog.,
C. Bigg, Studio Biblica, ii., A. C. Headlam, Journal of Thiol.
Studies, ul (J- V. B.)
CLEOBULUS, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, a native and
tyrant of Lindus in Rhodes. He was distinguished for bis strength
and bis handsome person, for the wisdom of his sayings, the
acutencss of his riddles and the beauty of his lyric poetry.
Diogenes Lacrtius quotes a letter in which Cleobulus invites
Solon to take refuge with him against Pcisistratus; and this
would imply that he was alive in 560 B.C. He is said to have held
advanced views as to female education, and he was the father
of the wise Clcobuline, whose riddles were not less famous than
his own (Diogenes Lacrtius i. 89-93).
Sec F. G. Multach, Fragmenta Philosophorum Craecorum, i.
CLEOMENES (KXto/xoTjs), the name of three Spartan kings
of the Agiad line.
Cleomenes I. was the son of Anaxandridas, whom he suc-
ceeded about 520 B.C. His chief exploit was his crushing victory
near Tiryns over the Argivcs, some 6000 of whom he burned
to death in a sacred grove to which they had fled for refuge
(Herodotus vi. 76-82). This secured for Sparta the undisputed
hegemony of the Pcloponncsc. Cleomenes' interposition in
the politics of central Greece was less successful. In 510 he
marched to Athens with a Spartan force to aid in expelling the
Peisistratidae, and subsequently returned to support the oligar-
chical party, led by Isagoras, against Clcislhcnes (q.v.). He
expelled seven hundred families and transferred the govern-
ment from the council to three hundred of the oligarchs, but being
blockaded in the Acropolis he was forced to capitulate. On his
return home he collected a large force with the intention of
1 Dom Chapman («/ supra, p. 158) says during the Neoplatonist
feacljpo under Julian 301-363, to which period fie also assigns the
making Isagoras despot of Athens, but the opposition of the
Corinthian allies and of his colleague Dcmaratus caused the
expedition to break up after reaching Eleusis (Herod, v. 64-76;
Aristotle, Ath. Pol. 19, 20). In 491 he went to Acgina to punish
the island for its submission to Darius, but the intrigues of his
colleague once again rendered his mission abortive. In revenge
Clcomcnes accused Dcmaratus of illegitimacy and secured bis
deposition in favour of Leotychides (Herod, vi. 50-73). But when
it was discovered that he had bribed the Delphian priestess to
substantiate his charge be was himself obliged to flee; he went
first to Thessaly and then to Arcadia, where he attempted to
foment an anti-Spartan rising. About 488 B.C. he was recalled,
but shortly afterwards, in a fit of madness, he committed suicide
(Herod, vi. 74, 75). Cleomenes seems to have received scant
justice at the hands of Herodotus or his informants, and Pausanias
(iii. 3, 4) does little more than condense Hcrodotus's narrative.
In spite of some failures, largely due to Demaratus's jealousy,
Clcomcncs strengthened Sparta in the position, won during his
father's reign, of champion and leader of the Hellenic race; it
was to him, for example, that the Ionian cities of Asia Minor first
applied for aid in their revolt against Persia (Herod, v. 49-51).
For the chronology see I. Wells, Journal of Hellenic Studies (1905),
p. 193 fT.. who assigns the Argive expedition to the outset 01 the
reign, whereas nearly all historians have dated it in or about 495 b*c
Cleomenes II. was the son of Cleombrotus I., brother and
successor of Agesipolis II. Nothing is recorded of his reign save
the fact that it lasted for nearly sixty-one years (370-309 B.C.).
Cleomenes III., the son and successor of Leonidas II., reigned
about 235-219 B.C. He made a determined attempt to reform
the social condition of Sparta along the lines laid down by Agis
IV., whose widow Agiatis he married; at the same time he
aimed at restoring Sparta's hegemony in the Peloponnese.
After twice defeating the forces of the Achaean League in Arcadia,
near Mount Lycaeum and at Leuctra, he strengthened his position
by assassinating four of the ephors, abolishing the ephorate,
which had usurped the supreme power, and banishing some
eighty of the leading oligarchs. The authority of the council
was also curtailed, and a new board of magistrates, the patronomi,
became the chief officers of state. He appointed his own brother
Eucleidas as his colleague in succession to the Eurypontid
Archidamus, who had been murdered. His social reforms
included a redistribution of land, the remission of debts, the
restoration of the old system of training (£70)7^) and theadmission
of picked perioeci into the citizen body. As a general Cleomenes
did much to revive Sparta's old prestige. He defeated the
Achaeans at Dyme, made himself master of Argos, and was
eventually joined by Corinth, Phlius, Epidaurus and other
cities. But Aratus, whose jealousy could not brook to see a
Spartan at the head of the Achaean league called in Antigonus
Doson of Macedonia, and Cleomenes, after conducting successful
expeditions to Megalopolis and Argos, was finally defeated at
Sellasia, to the north of Sparta, in 222 or 221 B.C. He took
refuge at Alexandria with Ptolemy Euergetes, but was arrested
by his successor, Ptolemy Philopator, on a charge of conspiracy.
Escaping from prison he tried to raise a revolt, but the attempt
failed and to avoid capture he put an end to his life. Both as
general and as politician Cleomenes was one of Sparta's greatest
men, and with him perished her last hope of recovering her
ancient supcrmacy in Greece.
See Polybius ii. 45-70, v. 35-39, viii. 1; Plutarch. Cleomenes;
Aratus, 35-46; Philopoetnen, 5, 6: Pausanias ii. 9; Gehlert, De
Clcomene (Leipzig, 1863); Holm, History of Greece, iv. cc. 10, 15.
(M. N. T.)
CLEON (d. 422* B.C.), Athenian politician during the Pclopon-
ncsian War, was the son of Clcaenetus, from whom he inherited a
lucrative tannery business. He was the first prominent repre-
sentative of the commercial class in Athenian politics. He came
into notice first as an opponent of Pericles, to whom his advanced
ideas were naturally unacceptable, and in his opposition
somewhat curiously found himself acting in concert with the
aristocrats, who equally hated and feared Pericles. During the
dark days of 430, after the unsuccessful expedition of Pericles to
CLEOPATRA— CLEPSYDRA
495
Peloponnesus, and when the city was devastated by the plague,
Geon headed the opposition to the Peri dean regime. Pericles
was accused by Cleon of maladministration of public money, with
the result that he was actually found guilty (sec Grotc's Hist, of
Greece, abridged ed. f 1007, p. 406, note 1). A revulsion of feeling,
however, soon took place. Pericles was reinstated, and Clcon now
for a time fell into the background. The death of Pericles (429)
left the field dear for him. Hitherto he had only been a vigorous
opposition speaker, a trenchant critic and accuser of state
officials. He now came forward as the professed champion and
leader of the democracy, and, owing to the moderate abilities of
his rivals and opponents, he was for some years undoubtedly the
foremost man in Athens. Although rough and unpolished, he was
gifted with natural eloquence and a powerful voice, and knew
exactly how to work upon the feelings of the people. Me
strengthened his hold on the poorer classes by his measure for
trebling the pay of the jurymen, which provided the poorer
Athenians with an easy means of livelihood. The notorious
fondness of the Athenians for litigation increased his power; and
the practice of " sycophancy " (raking up material for false
charges; see Sycophant), enabled him to remove those who were
likely to endanger his ascendancy. Having no further use for his
former aristocratic associates, he broke off all connexion with
them, and thus felt at liberty to attack the secret combinations
for political purposes, the oligarchical clubs to which they mostly
belonged. Whether he also introduced a property-tax for
military purposes, and even held a high position in connexion
with the treasury, is uncertain. His ruling principles were an
inveterate hatred of the nobility, and an equal hatred of Sparta.
It was mainly through him that the opportunity of concluding an
honourable peace (in 425) was lost, and in his determination to sec
Sparta humbled be misled the people as to the extent of the
resources of the state, and dazzled them by promises of future
benefits.
In 427 Geon gained an evil notoriety by his proposal to put to
death indiscriminately all the inhabitants of Mytilcnc, which had
put Itself at the head of a revolt. His proposal, though accepted,
was, fortunately for the credit of Athens, rescinded, although, as it
waa, the chief leaders and prominent men, numbering about xooo,
foil victims. In 425. he reached the summit of his fame by
capturing and transporting to Athens the Spartans who had been
blockaded in Sphacteria (see Pylos). Much of the credit was
probably due to the military skill of his colleague Demosthenes;
but it must be admitted that it was due to Cleon 's determination
that the Ecclesia sent out the additional force which was needed.
It waa almost certainly due to Clcon that the tribute of the
"allies " was doubled in 425 (sec Delia;; League). In 422 he
waa sent to recapture Amphipolis, but was outgcnerallcd by
Brasidaa and killed. His death removed the chief obstacle to an
arrangement with Sparta, and in 421 the peace of Nicias was
concluded (see Peloponnesian War).
The character of Cleon is represented by Aristophanes and
Thucydides in an extremely unfavourable light. But neither cin
be considered an unprejudiced witness. The poet had a grudge
against Cleon, who had accused him before the senate of having
ridiculed (in his Babylonians) the policy and institutions of his
country in the presence of foreigners and at the time of a great
national war. Thucydides, a man of strong oligarchical pre-
judices, had also been prosecuted for military incapacity and
exiled by a decree proposed by Clcon. It is therefore likely that
Cleon has had less than justice done to him in the portraits
handed down by these two writers.
Authorities-— For the literature on Cleon see C. F. Hermann,
Exkrlwh dtt trmkiitht* A ni\quiidttn t I. pt. 2 (6th cd- by V. Thumwr,
I897), p, 709, and G> BtJKiU, Qtitchwkt Gnchichie, iii. pt. 2 (1904),
p. 988, note i- The following ->*c r.hc chief authorities:— (a)
Fui tmrabk ia Cfran* — C* R R*nke, Commentatio de I'i/j Arista-
p&aitU (Leipzig* 1H45); J- G. [frroywftt AnUophanrs, ii., introd. 10
the tfitiffr'J {Bet! in t tB\j); G. Groie. Hist, of Greet e. chs. 50. 54:
W. Onckrn, Aiken and Julbii. SI. ri. joj (Lciiiiig, 18M); II. Mullir-
Slrtbinfl, AnUopkanei vnJ du* Hiitttri.uhe Kritik (Lcip/ijj, 187.O:
J. fl Bury, fiitt. <»/ Greece. L 0*>o.i). {h) t'nfavouraNe. — J. F. Knrtiim,
CfMlkkttitkt Foriikunffn (Leipzig, t8'\^). ami Zur Genhuhte
AtUtitiKifii Staain-ttj ajjunj* n (Heidelberg. 1821); F. I'asMjw,
Vermiichte Schrifttn (Leipzig, 1 843); C. Thirlwafl, llisi. of Great,
>>• P- 333 (Halle. 1S99). The balance between the two extreme views
is fairly held by I. lie loch. Die attische Politik sett PerikUs (Leipzig,
1884). and Gneckische Gesckichte. i. p. 537; and by A. Holm, Uiik
of Greece, ii. (Eng. tr.), ch. 23, with the notes.
CLEOPATRA, the regular name of the queens of Egypt in the
Ptolemaic dynasty after Cleopatra, daughter of the Sclcucid
Antiochus the Great, wife of Ptolemy V., Epiphancs. The best
known was the daughter of Ptolemy XIII. Auletes, born 69 (or
6S) B.c. At the age of seventeen she became queen of Egypt
jointly with her younger brother Ptolemy Dionysus, whose wife,
in accordance with Egyptian custom, she was to become. A few
years afterwards, deprived of all royal authority, she withdrew
into Syria, and made preparation to recover her rights by force of
arms. At this juncture Julius Caesar followed Pompey into
Egypt. The personal fascinations of Cleopatra induced him to
undertake a war on her behalf, in which Ptolemy lost his life, and
she was replaced on the throne in conjunction with a younger
brother, of whom, however, she soon rid herself by poison. In
Rome she lived openly with Caesar as his mistress until his
assassination, when, aware of her unpopularity, she returned at
once to Egypt. Subsequently she became the ally and mistress of
Mark Antony (see Antonius). Their connexion was highly
unpopular at Rome, and Octavian (see Augustus) declared war.
upon them and defeated them at Actium (31 B.C.). Cleopatra'
took to flight, and escaped to Alexandria, where Antony joined
her. Having no prospect of ultimate success, she accepted the
proposal of Octavian that she should assassinate Antony, and
enticed him to join her in a mausoleum which she had built in
order that " they might die together." Antony committed
suicide, in the mistaken belief that she had already done so, but
Octavian refused to yield to the charms of Cleopatra who put an
end to her life, by applying an asp to her bosom, according to the
common tradition, in the thirty-ninth year of her age (29th of
August, 30 b.c). With her ended the dynasty of the Ptolemies,
and Egypt was made a Roman province. Cleopatra had three
children by Antony, and by Julius Caesar, as some say, a son,
called Caesarion, who was put to death by Octavian. In her the
type of queen characteristic of the Macedonian dynasties stands
in the most brilliant light. Imperious will, masculine boldness,
relentless ambition like hers had been exhibited by queens of her
race since the old Macedonian days before Philip and Alexander.
But the last Cleopatra had perhaps some special intellectual
endowment. She surprised her generation by being able to
sjMrak the many tongues of her subjects. There may have been
an individual quality in her luxurious profligacy, but then her
predecessors had not had the Roman lords of the world for
wooers.
For the history of Cleopatra sec Antonius, Marcus; Caesax,
Gaius Julius; Pthlfmils. The life of Antony by Plutarch is our
m.iin authority; it is upon this that Shakcupcarc's Antony and
Cleopatra is bastd. Her life is the hubject of monographs by Stahr
(1879, an apologia), and Housbayv, Aspinie, Cliop&tre, &c (1879).
CLEPSYDRA (from Gr. kXcztccv, to steal, and W«p, water),
the chronometer of the Greeks and Romans, which measured time
by the flow of water. In its simplest form it was a short-necked
earthenware globe of known capacity, pierced at the bottom with
several small holes, through which the water escaped or " stole
away." The instrument was employed to set a limit to the
speeches in courts of justice, hence the phrases aquam dare, to give
the advocate speaking time, and aquam perdere, to waste time.
Smaller clepsydrae of glass were very early used in place of the
sun-dial, to mark the hours. But as the length of the hour varied
according to the season of the year, various arrangements, of
which we have no clear account, were necessary to obviate this
and other defects. For instance, the flow of water varied with the
temperature and pressure of the air, and secondly, the rate of flow
became less as the vessel emptied it«elf. The latter defect was
remedied by keeping the level of the water in the clepsydra
uniform, the volume of that discharged being noted. Plato is
said to have invented a complicated clepsydra to indicate tba
49 6
CLERESTORY— CLERGY, BENEFIT OF
hours of the night as veil as of the day. In the clepsydra or
hydraulic clock of Ctcsibius of Alexandria, made about 135 B.C.,
the movement of water-wheels caused the gradual rise of a little
figure, which pointed out the hours with a little stick on an index
attached to the machine. The clepsydra is said to have been
known to the Egyptians. There was one in the Tower of the
Winds at Athens; and the turret on the south side of the tower is
supposed to have contained the cistern which suppb'ed the water.
See Marquardt, Das Privotleben der Rdmer, i. (2nd ed., 1886),
6792: C. Bilfinger, Die Zeitmesser der antiken Voiher (1886), and
ie antiken Stundenangaben (1888).
CLERESTORY, or Clearstory (Ital. ehiaro piano, Fr. doire-
voU, claire itage, Ger. Lkhigaden), in architecture, the upper
storey of the nave of a church, the walls of which rise above the
aisles and are pierced with windows (" clere " being simply
" clear," in the sense of " lighted "). Sometimes these win-
dows are very small, being mere quatrefoils or spherical triangles.
In large buildings, however, they arc important objects, both
for beauty and utility. The windows of the clerestories
of Norman work, even in large churches, are of less import-
ance than in the later styles. In Early English they became
larger; and in the Decorated they are more important still,
being lengthened as the triforium diminishes. In Perpendicu-
lar work the latter often disappears altogether, and in many
later churches, as at Taunton, and many churches in Norfolk
and Suffolk, the clerestories are close ranges of windows. The
term is equally applicable to the Egyptian temples, where
the lighting of the hall of columns was obtained over the stone
roofs of the adjoining aisles, through slits pierced in vertical
slabs of stone. The Romans also in their baths and palaces
employed the same method, and probably derived it from the
Greeks; in the palaces at Crete, however, light-wells would
seem to have been employed.
CLBRFATT(orCiAiRFAYT), FRANCOIS SEBASTIEN CHARLES
JOSEPH DB CROIX* Count of (1733-1708), Austrian field
marshal, entered the Austrian army in 1753. In the Seven
Years' War he greatly distinguished himself, earning rapid
promotion, and receiving the decoration of the order of Maria
Theresa. At the conclusion of the peace, though still under
thirty, he was already a colonel. During the outbreak of the
Netherlands in 1787, he was, as a Walloon by birth, subjected
to great pressure to induce him to abandon Joseph II., but he
resisted all overtures, and in the following year went to the
Turkish war in the rank of lieutenant field marshal. In an
independent command Clcrfayt achieved great success, defeating
the Turks at Mehadia and Calafat. In 1792, as one of the most
distinguished of the emperor's generals, he received the command
of the Austrian contingent in the duke of Brunswick's army,
and at Croix-sous-Bois his corps inflicted a reverse on the troops
of the French revolution. In the Netherlands, to which quarter
he was transferred after Jemappcs, he opened the campaign
of 1793 with the victory of Aldcnhovcn and the relief of Macs-
tricht, and on March 18th mainly brought about the complete
defeat of Dumouricz at Necrwindcn. Later in the year, however,
his victorious career was checked by the reverse at Wattignics,
and in 1794 he was unsuccessful in West Flanders against
Pichegru. In the course of the campaign Clcrfayt succeeded
the duke of Saxc-Coburg in the supreme command, but was
quite unable to make head against the French, and had to rccross
the Rhine. In 1705, now field marshal, he commanded on the
middle Rhine against Jourdan, and this time the fortune of war
changed. Jourdan was beaten at Hochst and Mainz brilliantly
relieved. But the field marshal's action in concluding an
armistice with the French not being approved by Thugut, he
resigned the command, and became a member of the Aulic
Council in Vienna. He died in 1708. A brave and skilful
soldier, Clcrfayt perhaps achieved more than any other Austrian
commander (except the archduke Charles) in the hopeless
struggle of small dynastic armies against a " nation in arms."
SetvM Vivcnot, Thugut, CUrfayt, und Wurmser (Vienna, 1869).
CLERGY (M.E. der git, O. Fr. dergie, from Low Lat. form
tJtrid* iSkeat], by assimilation with O. Fr. cUrgti, Fr. dcrgi,
from Low Lat. clericalus), a collective term signifying In English
strictly the body of " clerks," i.e. men in holy orders (see Clem).
The word has, however, undergone sundry modifications of
meaning. Its M.E. senses of "clerkship" and "learning"
have long since fallen obsolete. On the other hand, in modern
times there has been an increasing tendency to depart from its
strict application to technical " clerks," and to widen it out so as
to embrace all varieties of ordained Christian ministers. While,
however, it is now not unusual to speak of " the Nonconformist
clergy," the word " clergyman " is still, at least in the United
Kingdom, used of the clergy of the Established Church in con-
tradistinction to "minister." As applied to the Roman Catholic
Church the word embraces the whole hierarchy, whether its
clerici be in holy orders or merely in minor orders. The term
has also been sometimes loosely used to include the members of
the regular orders; but this use is improper, since monks and
friars, as such, have at no time been clerici. The use of the word
" clergy " as a plural, though the New English Dictionary quotes
the high authority of Cardinal Newman for it, is less rare than
wrong; in the case cited " Some hundred Clergy " should have
been " Some hundred of the Clergy."
In distinction to the " clergy " we find the " laity " (Cr. XioJ,
people), the great body of " faithful people " which, in nearly
every various conception of the Christian Church, stands fa
relation to the clergy as a flock of sheep to its pastor. This
distinction was of early growth, and developed, with the increas-
ing power of the hierarchy, during the middle ages into a very
lively opposition (see Order, Holy; Church Histokt;
Papacy; Investitures). The extreme claim of the great
medieval popes, that the priest, as " ruler over spiritual things,"
was as much superior to temporal rulers as the soul is to the
body (see Innocent III.), led logically to the vast privileges
and immunities enjoyed by the clergy during the middle ages.
In those countries where the Reformation triumphed, this
triumph represented the victory of the civil over the clerical
powers in the long contest. The victory was, however, by no
means complete. The Presbyterian model was, for instance,
as sacerdotal in its essence as the Catholic; Milton complained
with justice that " new presbyter is but old priest writ large,"
and declared that " the Tide of Clergy St Peter gave to all God's
people," its later restriction being a papal and prelatical usurpa-
tion (i.e. 1 Peter v. 3, for Kkrjpos and kX^pcov).
Clerical immunities, of course, differed largely at different
times and in different countries, the extent of them having been
gradually curtailed from a period a little earlier than the close
of the middle ages. They consisted mainly in exemption from
public burdens, both as regarded person and pocket, and in
immunity from lay jurisdiction. This last enormous privilege,
which became one of the main and most efficient instruments
of the subjection of Europe to clerical tyranny, extended to
matters both civil and criminal; though, as Bingham shows,
it did not (always and everywhere) prevail in cases of heinous
crime (Origines Eedes. bk. v.).
This diversity of jurisdiction, and subjection of the clergy
only to the sentences of judges bribed by their esprit de corps
to judge leniently, led to the adoption of a scale of punishments
for the offences of clerks avowedly much lighter than that which
was inflicted for the same crimes on laymen; and this in turn
led to the survival in England, long after the Reformation, of
the curious legal fiction of benefit of clergy (see below), used to
mitigate the extreme harshness of the criminal law.
CLERGY, BENEFIT OF, an obsolete but once very important
feature in English criminal law. Benefit of clergy began with
the claim on the part of the ecclesiastical authorities in the
iath century that every cUricus should be exempt from the
jurisdiction of the temporal courts and be subject to the spiritual
courts alone. The issue of the conflict was that the common
law courts abandoned the extreme punishment of death assigned
to some offences when the person convicted was a cUricus, and
the church was obliged to accept the compromise and let a
secondary punishment be inflicted. The term "clerk" or
dcricus always included a large number of persons in what
CLERGY RESERVES— CLERKENWFXL
497
were called minor orders, ami in 1350 the privilege was extended
to secular as well as to religious clerks; and, finally, the test
of being a clerk was the ability to read the opening words of
verse 1 of Psalm Ii. t hence generally known as the M neck-verse.''
Even this requirement was abolished in 1705. In 1487 it
was enacted that every layman, when convicted of a clergyable
felony , should be branded on the thumb, and disabled from
claiming the benefit a second time. The privilege was extended
to peers, even if they could not read, in 1547, and to women,
partially in 1622 and fully in 1692. The partial exemption
claimed by the Church did not apply to the more atrocious
crimes, and hence offences came to be divided into clergyable
and undergyable. According to the common practice in England
of working out modern improvements through antiquated
forms, this exemption was made the means of modifying the
severity of the criminal law. It became the practice to claim
and be allowed the benefit of clergy; and when it was the
intention by statute to make a crime really punishable with
death, it was awarded " without benefit of clergy." The benefit
of clergy was abolished by a statute of 1827, but as this statute
did not repeal that of 1547, under which peers were given the
privilege, a further statute was passed in 1841 putting peers on
the same footing as commons and clergy.
For a full account of benefit of clergy see Pollock and Maitland.
History of English Law. vol. i. 424-440; alio Stephen, History of the
Criminal Law of England, vol. i. ; E. Friedberg, Corpus juris canonici
(Leiprig. 1879-1881).
CLERGY RESERVES, in Canada. By the act of 1791,
establishing the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, the
British government set apart one-eighth of all the crown lands
for the support of " a Protestant clergy." These reservations,
after being for many years a stumbling-block to the economic
development of the province, and the cause of much bitter
political and ecclesiastical controversy, were secularized by the
Canadian parliament in 1854, and the proceeds applied to other
purposes, chiefly educational. Owing to the wording of the
imperial act, the amount set apart is often stated as one-seventh,
and was sometimes claimed as such by the clergy.
CLERK 1 (from A.S. cleric or clerc, which, with the similar
Fr. form, comes direct from the Lat. clericus), in its original
sense, as used in the civil law, one who bad taken religious
orders of whatever rank, whether " holy " or " minor." The
word cUricus is derived from the Greek xXqpueos, " of or pertain-
ing to an inheritance," from «X>ipof,"lot," "allotment," "estate,"
" inheritance "; but the authorities are by no means agreed
m which sense the root is connected with the sense of the deriva-
tive, some conceiving that the original idea was that the clergy
received the service of God as their lot or portion; others that
they were the portion of the Lord; while others again, with
more reason as Bingham (Orig. Eccl. lib. i. cap. 5, sec. 9) seems
to think, maintain that the word has reference to the choosing
by lot, as in early ages was the case of those to whom public
offices were to be entrusted.
In the primitive times of the church the term canon was
used as synonymous with clerk, from the names of all the persons
in the service of any church having been inscribed on a roll, or
wtrur, whence they were termed canonici, a fact which shows
that the practice of the Roman Catholic Church of including
all persons of all ranks in the service of the church, ordained
or unordaincd, in the term clerks, or clergy, is at least in con-
formity with the practice of antiquity. Thus, too, in English
ecclesiastical law, a clerk was any one who had been admitted
to the ecclesiastical state, and had taken the tonsure. The
application of the word in this sense gradually underwent a
change, and " clerk " became more especially the term applied
to those in minor orders, while those in " major " or " holy "
orders were designated in full " clerks in holy orders," which in
English law still remains the designation of clergymen of the
Established Church. After the Reformation the word " clerk "
>The accepted English pronunciation, "dark." is found in
totfthern Englihh as early as the 15th century; but northern dialects
■till preserve the e sound (" clurk "). which is the common pro-
aucoatioa in America.
was still further extended to include laymen who performed
duties in cathedrals, churches, &c, e.g. the choirmen, who were
designated "lay clerks." Of these lay clerks or choirmen
there was always one whose duty it was to be constantly present
at every service, to sing or say the responses as the leader or
representative of the laity. His duties were gradually enlarged
to include the care of the church and precincts, assisting at
baptisms, marriages, &c., and he thus became the precursor of
the later parish clerk. In a somewhat similar sense wc find
bible clerk, singing clerk, &c. The use of the word " clerk "
to denote a person ordained to the ministry is now mainly
legal or formal.
The word also developed in a different sense. In medieval
times the pursuit of letters and general learning was confined
to the clergy, and as they were practically the only persons who
could read and write all notarial and secretarial work was
discharged by them, so that in time the word was used with
special reference to secretaries, notaries, accountants or even
mere penmen. This special meaning developed into what is
now one of the ordinary senses of the word. We find, accordingly,
the term applied to those officers of courts, corporations, &c,
whose duty consists in keeping records, correspondence, and
generally managing business, as clerk of the market, clerk of the
petty bag, clerk of the peace, town clerk, tic. Similarly, a clerk
also means any one who in a subordinate position is engaged
in writing, making entries, ordinary correspondence, or similar
" clerkly " work. In the United States the word means also
an assistant in a commercial house, a retail salesman.
CLERKS, AONES MARY (1842-1907), English astronomer
and scientific writer, was born on the 10th of February 1842,
and died in London on the 20th of January 1907. She wrote
extensively on various scientific subjects, but devoted herself
more especially to astronomy. Though not a practical astro-
nomer in the ordinary sense, she possessed remarkable skill In
collating, interpreting and summarizing the results of astronomi-
cal research, and as a historian her work has an important
place in scientific literature. Her chief works were A Popular
History of Astronomy during the igtk Century, first edition 1885,
fourth 1002; The System of the Stars, first edition 1800, second
1905; and Problems in Astrophysics, 1903. In addition she
wrote Familiar Studies in Homer (1892), Tke Hersckets and
Modern Astronomy (1895), Modem Cosmogonies (1906), and
many valuable articles, such as her contributions to the En-
cyclopaedia Britannica. In 1903 she was elected an honorary
member of the Royal Astronomical Society.
CLERKENWELL, a district on the north side of the city of
London, England, within the metropolitan borough of Finsbury
(q.v.). It is so called from one of several wells or springs in this
district, near which miracle plays were performed by the parish
clerks of London. This well existed until the middle of the 19th
century. Here was situated a priory, founded in 1100, which
grew to great wealth and fame as the principal institution in
England of the Knights Hospitallers of the Order of St John of
Jerusalem. Its gateway, erected in 1304, and remaining in St
John's Square, served various purposes after the suppression of
the monasteries, being, for example, the birthplace of the
Cattleman's Magazine in 1731, and the scene of far Johnson's
work in connexion with that journal. In modern times the
gatehouse again became associated with the Order, and is the
headquarters of the St John's Ambulance Association. An Early
English crypt remains beneath the neighbouring parish church of
St John, where the notorious deception of the " Cock Lane
Ghost," in which Johnson took great interest, was exposed.
Adjoining the priory was St Mary's Benedictine nunnery, St
James's church (1792) marking the site, and preserving in its
vaults some of the ancient monuments. In the 17th century
Clerkenwcll became a fashionable place of residence. A prison
erected here at this period gave place later to the House of
Detention, notorious as the scene of a Fenian outrage in 1867,
when it was sought to release certain prisoners by blowing up part
of the building. Clerkenwcll is a centre of the watch-makvNV«A.
jeweller's industries, longejst»hlvs.ta&Yvctt\ wcA'tat^&atf&Ass^M*.
49»
CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS— CLERMONT-GANNEAU
Polytechnic Institute, Northampton Square, a branch of the City
Polytechnic, has a department devoted to instruction in these
trades.
CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS, or Clermont-de-l'Oise, a
town of northern France, capital of an arrondisscment in the
department of Oi?c, on the right bank of the Breche, 41 m. N. of
Paris on the Northern railway to Amiens. Pop. (1006) 4014.
The hill on which the town is built is surmounted by a keep of the
14th century, the relic of a fortress the site of which is partly
occupied by a large penitentiary for women. The church dates
from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The hotel -dc-villc, built by
King Charles IV., who was born at Clermont in 1204, is the oldest
in the north of France. The most attractive feature of the town is
the Promenade du Chalvllicr on the site of the old ramparts.
Clermont is the scat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first
instance, a communal college and a large lunatic asylum. It
manufactures felt and corsets, and carries on a trade in horses,
cattle and grain.
The town was probably founded during the time of the Norman
invasions, and was an important military post during the middle
ages. It was several timc3 taken and retaken by the contend-
ing parties during the Hundred Years' War, and the Wars of
Religion, and in 161 5 Henry II., prince of Condi, was besieged
and captured there by the marshal d'Ancrc.
Counts of Clermont. Clermont was at one time the seat of a
countship, the lords of which were already powerful in the nth
century. Raoul de Clermont, constable of France, died at Acre
in 1 1 91, leaving a daughter who brought Clermont to her husband,
Louis, count of Blois and Chartres. Theobald, count of Blois and
Clermont, died in inS without issue, and King Philip Augustus,
having received the countship of Clermont from the collateral
heirs of this lord, gave it to his son Philip Hurcpel, whose daughter
Jeanne, and his widow, Mahaut, countess of Dammartin, next
held the countship. It was united by Saint Louis to the crown,
and afterwards given by him (1 269) to his son Robert, from whom
sprang the house of Bourbon. In 1 5:4 the countship of Clermont
was confiscated from the constable dc Bourbon, and later (1540)
given to the duke of Orleans, to Catherine dc' Medici (1562), to
Eric, duke of Brunswick (1569), from whom it passed to his
brother-in-law CharlcsofLorraine(i 596), and finally toHenry II.,
prince of Coude" (161 1). In 16 |i it was again confiscated from
Louis de Bourbon, count of Scissons, then in 1696 sold to Louis
Thomas Amadeus of Savoy, count of Sofoons.in 1702 to Francoke
dc Brancas, princcsse d'Harcourt, and in 1719 to Louis-Henry,
prince of Cond6. From a branch of the old lords of Clermont
were descended the lords of Xesle and Chant illy.
CLERMONT-FERRAND, a city of central France, capital of
the department of Puy-de-D6me, 1 13 m. W. of Lyons on the
Paris-Lyon railway. Top. (1906) town, 44,113; commune,
58,363. Clermont-Ferrand is situated on an eminence on the
western border of the fertile plain of Limagne. On the north, west
and south it is surrounded by hills, with a background of
mountains amongst which the Fuy-de-D6mc stands out
prominently. A small river, the Tiretaine, borders the town on
the north. Since 1 731 it has been composed of the two towns of
Clermont and Mont [errand, now connected by a fine avenue of
walnut trees and willows, 2 m. in length, bordered on one side by
barracks. The watering-place of Royat lies a little more than
a miJe to the west. Clermont has several handsome squares
ornamented with fountains, the chief of which is a graceful
structure erected by Bishop Jacques d'Amboise in 1515. The
streets of the older and busier quarter of Clermont in the
neighbourhood of the cathedral and the Place de Jaude, the
principal square, arc for the most part narrow, sombre and
bordered by old houses built of lava; boulevards divide this part
from more modern and spacious quarters, which adjoin it. To
the south lies the fine promenade known as (he Jardin Lecoq.
The principal building is the cathedral, a Gothic edifice begun
in the 13th century. It was not completed, however, till the
19th century, when the west portal and towers and two bays
of the amvc were added, according to the plans of VioUct-
k-Dae. The £ae stained gbu of the windows dates from the
13th to the 15th centuries. A monument of the Crusades with 1
statue of Pope Urban II. stands in the Cathedral square. The
church of Not re- Dame du Port is a typical example of the
Romanesque style of Auvcrgne, dating chiefly from the 1 ith and
1 2th centuries. The exterior of the choir, with its four radiating
chapels, its jutting cornices supported by modi! lions and columns
with carved capitals, and its mosaic decora '.ion of black and white
stones, is the most interesting part of the exterior The rest of
the church comprises a nan hex surmounted by a tower, three
naves and a trn nscpt, over which rises another tower. There zn
several churches of minor importance in the town Among the
old house* one, dating from the iOth century, was the birthplace
of Blaise Pascal, whose statue stands in a neighbouring square.
There is a statue of General Louis Charles Dcsaix de Ycygoux in
the Place de Jaude. Montferrand hrs scwrnl interesting houses
of the 15th and 16U1 centuries, and a church of the 13th, 14th and
15th centuries.
Clermont-Ferrand is the seat of a bishopric and a prefecture
and headquarters of the XIII. army corps; it has tribunals
of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators
a chamber of commerce, an exchange and a branch of the Bank
of France. The town i3 the centre of an educational division
(dcadimie), and has faculties of science and of literature. It also
has lycfcs and training colleges for both sexes, ecclesiastical
seminaries, a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy,
schools of architecture, music, tomnv. rce and industry, museums
of art and antiquities and natural history and a library. A
great variety of industries is carried on, the chief being the
manufacture of semolina and other faririceous foods, con-
fectionery, preserved fruit and jams, chemical* and rubber goods.
Liqueurs, chicory, chocolate, candles, hats, boots and shoes,
and woollen and linen goods are ol.-o made, and tanning is
practised. Clermont is the chief market for the grain and other
agricultural produce of Auvcrgne and Vclay. Its waters are in
local repute. On the bank of the Tiretaine there is u remarkable
calcareous spring, the fountain of St Allyre, the copious deposits
of which have formed a curious natural bridge over the stream.
Clermont is identified with the ancient Augiisloncinctum, the
chief town of the Arvtrni, and it still preserves some remains of
the Roman period. The present mmc, derived from Clarus
Mons and originally applied only to the citadel, was used of the
torn as early as the oth century. During the disintegration of
the Roman empire Clermont suffered as much perhaps from
capture and pillage as any city in the country; its history during
the middle ages chiefly records the struggles between its bishops
and the counts of Auvcrgne, and between the citizens and their
overlord the bishop. It was the seat of seven ecclesiastical
councils, held in the years 535, 549, 587, 1095, mo, n 24 and
1130; and of these the council of 1095 is for ever memorable as
that in which Pope Urban II. proclaimed the first crusade.
In the wars against the English in the 14th and 15th centuries
and the religious wars of the i6lh century the town .had its
full participation; and in 1665 it acquired a terrible notoriety
by the trial and execution of many members of the nobility
of Auvcrgne who had tyrannized over the neighbouring districts.
The proceedings lasted sue months, and the episode is known
as Us Grands Jours de Clermont. Before the Revolution the
town possessed several monastic establishments, of which the
most important were the abbey of Saint Allyre, founded, it is
said, in the 3rd century by St AiKtrcmonius (St Stremoine), the
apostle of Auvcrgne and first bishop of Clermont, and the abbey
of St Andre*, where the counts of Clermont were interred.
CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON (1846- ),
French Orientalist, the son of a sculptor of some repute, was born
in Paris on the 19th of February 1S46. After an education
at the £coIc des Langues Orientalcs, he entered the diplo-
matic service as dragoman to the consulate at Jerusalem, and
afterwards at Constantinople. He laid the foundation of his
reputation by his discovery (in 1870) of the " stele M of Mcsha
(Moabite Stone), which bears the oldest Semitic inscription
known w In 1874 he was employed by the British government to
Uke charge of an archaeological expedition to Palestine, and was
CLERMONT L'HERAULT— CLERUCHY
499
subsequently entrusted by his own government with similar
mkariM to Syria and the Red Sea. He was made chevalier of
the Legion of Honour in 1875. After serving as vice-consul at
Jaffa from 1880 to 1882, he returned to Paris as " secrftaire-
inlerprete " for oriental languages, and in 1886 was appointed
consul of the first class. He subsequently accepted the post of
director of the ficole des" Langues Orientates and professor at
the College de France. In 1889 he was elected a member of the
Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lcttres, of which he had
been a correspondent since 1880. In 1896 he was promoted
to be consul-general, and was minister plenipotentiary in 1906.
He was the first in England to expose the famous forgeries of
Hebrew texts offered to the British Museum by M. W.Shapira(?.v.)
in 1883, and in 1903 he took a prominent part in the investiga-
tion of the so-called " tiara of Saltapharnes." This tiara had been
purchased by the Louvre for 400,000 francs, and exhibited as
a genuine antique. Much discussion arose as to the perpetrators
of the fraud, some believing that it came from southern Russia.
It was agreed, however, that the whole object, except perhaps the
band round the tiara, was of modern manufacture.
His chief publications, besides a number of contributions to
journals, are: — Palestine inconnue (1886), Eludes d'archeologie
orUntale (1880, &c), Les Fraudes archeologiaues (1885), Rtcueil
fartkidofie oriental* (1885, &c), Album fantiquitts orientates
(1807, Ac!).
CLERMONT-L'HERAULT, or Clermont de Lodeve, a town
of southern France in the department of Hcrault, 10 m. S.S.E.
by rail of Lodeve. Pop. (1906) 4731. The town is built on the
slope of a hill which is crowned by an ancient castle and skirted
by the Rhonel, a tributary of the Lcrgue. It has an interesting
church of the 13th and 14th centuries. The chief manufacture
is that of cloth for military clothing, and woollen goods, an
industry which dates from the latter half of the 17th century.
Tanning and leather-dressing are also carried on, and there is
trade in wine, wool and grain. Among the public institutions
are a tribunal of commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures,
a board of trade-arbitration and a communal college. The town
was several times taken and retaken in the religious wars of
the 16th century.
CLERMONT-TONNERRE, the name of a French family,
members of which played some part in the history of France,
especially in Dauphine, from about 1100 to the Revolution.
Sibaud, lord of Clermont in Vicnnois, who first appears in 1080,
was the founder of the family. His descendant, another Sibaud,
commanded some troops which aided Pope Calixtus II. in his
struggle with the anti-pope Gregory VIII.; and in return for this
service it is said that the pope allowed him to add certain em-
blems — two keys and a tiara— to the arms of his family. A
direct descendant, Ainard (d. 1349), called vicomte de Clermont,
was granted the dignity of captain -general and first baron of
Dauphine" by his suzerain Humbert, dauphin of Vicnnois, in
1340; and in 1547 Clermont was made a county for Antotne
(d. 1578), who was governor of Dauphin6 and the French king's
lieutenant in Savoy. In 1572 Antoine's son Henri was created
a duke, but as this was only a " brevet " title it did not descend
to his son. Henri was killed before La Rochcllc in 1573. In 1596
Henri's son, Charles Henri, count of Clermont (d. 1640), added
Tonnerre to his heritage; but in 1648 this county was sold by
his son and successor, Francois (d. 1679).
A member of a younger branch of Charles Henri's descendants
was Gaspard de Clermont-Tonncrrc (1688-1781). This soldier
served his- country during a long period, lighting in Bohemia
and Alsace, and then distinguishing himself greatly at the battles
off Fontenoy and Lawfeldt. In 1775 he was created duke of
Germont-Tonnerre, and made a peer of France; as the senior
marshal (cr. 1747) of France he assisted as constable at thecorona-
tian of Loafs XVI. in 1774. His son and successor, Charles
Henri Jules, governor of Dauphine, was guillotined in July 1794,
a fate which his grandson, Gaspard Charles, had suffered at Lyons
fa the previous year. A later duke, Aim6 Marie Gaspard (1779-
1865), served for some years as a soldier, afterwards becoming
mfaialfr of marine and then minister of war under Charles X.,
and retiring into private life after the revolution of 1830. Aime's
grandson, Roger, duke of Ckrmont-Tonnerre, was born in 1842.
Among other distinguished members of this family was
Catherine (c. 1545-1603), only daughter of Claude de Clermont-
Tonnerre. This lady, dame d'honncur to Henry II. 's queen,
Catherine de' Medici, and afterwards wife of Albert de Gondi,
due de Retz, won a great reputation by her intellectual attain-
ments, being referred to as the " tenth muse " and the " fourth
grace." One of her grandsons was the famous cardinal de Rets.
Other noteworthy members of collateral branches of the family
were: Francois (1620-1701), bishop of Noyon from 1661 until
his death, a member of the French Academy, notorious for his
inordinate vanity; Stanislas M. A., comte de Clcrmont-Tonnerre
(q.v.); and Anne Antoine Jules (1 740-1830), cardinal and bishop
of Chalons, who was a member of the states-general in 1789,
afterwards retiring into Germany, and after the return of the
Bourbons to France became archbishop of Toulouse.
CLERHONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS MARIE ADELAIDE,
Comte de (1757-1792), French politican, was born at Pont-A-
Mousson on the 10th of October 1757. At the beginning of the
Revolution he was a colonel, with some reputation as a free-
mason and a Liberal. He was elected to the states-general of
2789 by the noblesse of Paris, and was the spokesman of the
minority of Liberal nobles who joined the Third Estate on the
25th of June. He desired to model the new constitution of
France on that of England. He was elected president of the
Constituent Assembly on the 17th of August 1789; but on the
rejection by the Assembly of the scheme elaborated by the first
constitutional committee, he attached himself to the party of
moderate royalists, known as monarchies, led by P. V. MaloueL
His speech in favour of reserving to the crown the right of
absolute veto under the new constitution drew down upon him
the wrath of the advanced politicians of the Palais Royal;
but in spite of threats and abuse he continued to advocate a
moderate liberal policy, especially in the matter of removing
the political disabilities of Jews and Protestants and of extending
the system of trial by jury. In January 1790 he collaborated
with Malouct in founding the Club des Impartiaux and the
Journal des Impartiaux, the names of which were changed in
November to the Societd des Amisdc la ConstitutionMonarchique
and Journal de la Socitil, &c. in order to emphasize their opposi-
tion to the Jacobins (Socicte* des Amis de la Constitution). This
club was denounced by Barnavc in the Assembly (January 21st,
1 791), and on the 28th of March it was attacked by a mob,
whereupon it was closed by order of the Assembly. Clcrmont-
Tonnerre was murdered by the populace during the rising of the
9th and 10th of August 1792. He was an excellent orator,
having acquired practice in speaking, before the Revolution, in
the masonic lodges. He is a good representative of the type of
the grands seigneurs holding advanced and liberal ideas, who
helped to bring about the movement of 1789, and then tried
in vain to arrest its course.
Sec Rtcueil des opinions de Stanislas de Germont-Tonnerre (^ vols.,
Paris. 1 79 1 ) , the text of his speeches us published by himself;
A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Constituante (2nd cd., Paris, 1905).
CLERUCHY (Gr. Kfo\povxl* t from jcXfJpor, a lot, *xw, to have),
in ancient Greek history a kind of colony composed of Athenian 1
citizens planted, practically as a garrison, in a conquered country.
Strictly, the settlers (clcruchs) were not colonists, inasmuch
as they retained their status as citizens of Athens (e.g. 6 SrjfWS
o h 'H^aurrfa), and their allotments were politically part of
Attic soil. These settlements were of three kinds: (1) where
the earlier inhabitants were extirpated or expatriated, and the
settlers occupied the whole territory; {2) where the settlers
occupied allotments in the midst of a conquered people; and
(j) where the inhabitants gave up portions of land to settlers
in return for certain pecuniary concessions. The primary
object (cf. the 4000 cleruchs settled in 506 B.C. upon the lands of
the conquered oligarchs of Euboe.i, known as the Hippobotae)
was unquestionably military, and in the later days of the Dclian
1 It seems (Strabo. p. 635) that sSsavVax tttomKt'wuft.wnX «ax\*t
the Milesians, e.£. 10 Letos.
500
CLERVAUX— CLEVELAND, DUCHESS OF
League the system was the simplest precaution against dis-
affection on the part of the allies, the strength of whose resent-
ment may be gathered from an inscription (Hicks and Hill, iox
(81]), which, in setting forth the terms of the second Delian
Confederacy, expressly forbids the holding of land by Athenians
in allied territory.
A secondary object of the cleruchies was social or agrarian,
to provide a source of livelihood to the poorer Athenians.
Plutarch (Pericles, 1 1) suggests that Pericles by this means rid
the city of the idle and mischievous loafers; but it would
appear that the deruchs were selected by lot, and in any case
a wise policy would not deliberately entrust important military
duties to recognized wastrels. When we remember that in 50
years of the 5th century some 10,000 deruchs went out, it is
dear that the drain on the citizen population was considerable.
It is impossible to decide precisely how far the state retained
control over the deruchs. Certainly they were liable to military
service and presumably to that taxation which fell upon Athenians
at home. That they were not liable for the tribute which
members of the Delian League paid is dear from the fact that
the assessments of places where deruchs were settled immedi-
ately went down considerably (d. the Periclean cleruchies,
450-445); indeed, this follows from their status as Athenian
citizens, which is emphasized by the fact that they retained
their membership of deme and tribe. In internal government
the deruchs adopted the Boul€ and Assembly system of Athens
itself; so we read of Polemarchs, Archons Eponymi, Agoranomi,
Strategi, in various places. With a measure of local self-govern-
ment there was also combined a certain central authority (e.g.
in the matter of jurisdiction, some case being tried by the
Nautodicae at Athens); in fact we may assume that the more
important cases, particularly those between a deruch and a
citizen at home, were tried before the Athenian dicasts. In a
few cases, the deruchs, e.g. in the case of Lesbos (437), were
apparently allowed to remain in Athens receiving rent for their
allotments from the original Lesbian owners (Thuc. iii. 50);
but this represents the perversion of the original idea of the
cferuchy to a system of reward and punishment.
See G. Gilbert, Constitutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta
(Eng. trans., London, 1805), but note that Brea. wrongly quoted
at an example, is not a cleruchy but a colony (Hicks and Hill, 41
(29]); A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of Creek Constitutional
Antiquities (London, 1896) ; for the Periclean deruchs see Pericles;
Delian League.
CLERVAUX (dara vail is), a town in the northern province
of Oesling, grand-duchy of Luxemburg, on the Clerf, a tributary
of the Sure. Pop. (1005) 866. In old days it was the fief of the
de Lannoy family, and the present proprietor is the bearer of a
name not less well known in Belgian history, the count de
Berlaymont. The old castle of the de Lannoys exists, and
might easily be restored, but its condition is now neglected and
dilapidated. In 1798 the people of Clervaux specially distin-
guished themselves against the French in an attempt to resist
the institution of the conscription. The survivors of what was
called the Kloppel-krieg (the " cudgel war ") were shot, and a
fine monument commemorates the heroism of the men of
Cler vaux.
CLETU8, formerly regarded as the name of one of the early
successors of St Peter in the see of Rome, or, according to
Epiphanius and Rufinus, as sharing the direction of the Roman
Church with Linus during Peter's lifetime. He has been identified
beyond doubt with Anendctus (q.v.). See Pere Colombier, in
Mev. jgfy« ertiom hist. Ap. »t, 1876, p. 413.
CLEVEDON, a watering-place in the northern parliamentary
division of Somersetshire, England, on the Bristol Channel,
15! m. W. of Bristol on a branch of the Great Western railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 5900. The cruciform church of
St Andrew hit Norman and later portions; it is the burial-place
of Henry Hsllam the historian, and members of his family,
induding hn sons Arthur and Henry. Clevedon Court is a
remarkable medieval mansion, dating originally from the early
part of the 14th century, though much altered in the Elizabethan
mad other period* The house is considered to be the original
of " Castlewood " in Thackeray's Esmond; the novelist was
acquainted with the place through his friendship with the Rev.
William Brookfield and his wife, the daughter of Sir Charles
Elton of Clevedon Court.
CLEVELAND, BARBARA VILUERS, Duchess of (1641-
1709), mistress of the English king Charles II., was the daughter
of William Villiers, 2nd Viscount Crandison (d. 1643), by his
wife Mary (d. 1684), daughter of Paul, 1st Viscount Bayning.
In April 1659 Barbara married Roger Palmer, who was created
earl of Castlemaine two years later, and soon after this marriage
her intimacy with Charles II. began. The king was probably
the father of her first child, Anne, born in February 1 661, although
the paternity was also attributed to one of her earliest lovers,
Philip Stanhope, and earl of Chesterfield (1633-1713). Mistress
Palmer, as Barbara was called before her husband was made
an earl, was naturally much disliked by Charles's queen, Catherine
of Braganza, but owing to the insistence of the king she was
made a lady of the bedchamber to Catherine, and began to mix
in the political intrigues of the time, showing an especial hatred
towards Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, who recipro-
cated this feeling and forbad his wife to visit her. Her house
became a rendezvous for the enemies of the minister, and
according to Pepys she exhibited a wild paroxysm of delight
when she heard of Clarendon's fall from power in 1667. Whilst
enjoying the royal favour Lady Castlemaine formed liaisons
with various gentlemen, which were satirized in public prints,
and a sharp quarrel which occurred between her and the king
in 1667 was partly due to this cause. But peace was soon made,
and her influence, which had been gradually rising, became
supreme at court in 1667 owing to the marriage of Frances
Stuart (la belle Stuart) (1648-1702) with Charles Stuart, 3rd
duke of Richmond (1640-1672). Accordingly Louts XIV. in-
structed his ambassador to pay special attention to Lady
Castlemaine, who had become a Roman Catholic in 1663.
In August 1670 she was created countess of Southampton
and duchess of Cleveland, with remainder to her first and third
sons, Charles and George Palmer, the king at this time not
admitting the paternity of her second son Henry; and she also
received many valuable gifts from Charles. An annual income
of £4700 from the post office was settled upon her, and also
other sums chargeable upon the revenue from the customs and
the excise, whilst she obtained a large amount of money from
seekers after office, and in other ways. Nevertheless ber
extravagance and her losses at gaming were so enormous that
she was unable to keep up her London residence, Cleveland
House, St James's, and was obliged to sell the contents of ber
residence at Cheam. About 1670 her influence over Charles
began to decline. She consoled herself meanwhile with lovers
of a less exalted station in life, among them John Churchill,
afterwards duke of Marlborough, and William Wycberley; by
1674 she had been entirely supplanted at court by Louise de
Kiroualk, duchess of Portsmouth. Soon afterwards the duchess
of Cleveland went to reside in Paris, where she formed an intrigue
with the English ambassador, Ralph Montagu, afterwards duke
of Montagu (d. 1709), who lost his position through some revela-
tions which she made to the king. She returned to England
just before Charles's death in 1685. In July 2705 her husband,
the earl of Castlemaine, whom she had left in 1662, died; and
in the same year the duchess was married to Robert (Bean)
FcildLing (d. 1712), a union which was declared void in 1707,
as Feilding had a wife living. She died at Chiswfck on uV
9th of October 1709.
Bishop Burnet describes her as " a woman of great beauty,
but most enormously vicious and ravenous, foolish but imperious,
ever uneasy to the king, and always carrying on intrigues with
other men, while yet she pretended she was jealous of him."
Dryden addressed Lady Castlemaine in his fourth poetical
Epistle in terms of great adulation, and Wycberley dedicated
to her his first play. Love in a Wood. Her portrait was frequently
painted by Sir Peter Lely and others, and many of these portraits
are now found in various public and private collections. By
Charles II. she had three sons and either one or two daughters-
CLEVELAND, J.— CLEVELAND, GROVER
She had also in 1686 a son by the actor Cardonnell Goodman
(d. 1699), and one or two other daughters.
Her eldest son, Charles Fitzroy (1662-1730), was created in
1675 earl of Chichester and duke of Southampton, and became
duke of Cleveland and earl of Southampton on his mother's
death. Her second son, Henry (1663-1690), was created earl
of Euston in 167a and duke of Grafton in 1675; by his wife
Isabella, daughter of Henry Bennet, carl of Arlington, be was
the direct ancestor of the later dukes of Grafton; he was the
most popular and the most able of the sons of Charles II., saw a
considerable amount of military service, and met his death
through a wound received at the storming of Cork. Her third
son, George (1665-1716), was created duke of Northumberland
In 1683, and died without issue, after having served in the
army. Her daughters were Anne (1661-1722), married in 1674
to Thomas Lennard, Lord Dacre (d. 1715), who was created
earl of Sussex in 1684; Charlotte (1664-17 18), married in 1677
to Edward Henry Lee, carl of Lichfield (d. 17 16); and Barbara
(1672-1737), the reputed daughter of John Churchill, who
entered a nunnery in France, and became by James Douglas,
afterwards 4th duke of Hamilton (1658-17 12), the mother of an
illegitimate son, Charles Hamilton (1691-1754).
The first husband of the duchess, Roger Palmer, earl of
Castlemaine (1634-1705), diplomatist and author, was an ardent
Roman Catholic, who defended his co-religionists in several
publications. Having served in the war against Holland in
1665-67, he wrote in French an account of this struggle,
which was translated into English and published by T. Price
in London in 1671. Having been denounced by Titus Oates
as a Jesuit, he was tried and acquitted, afterwards serving
James II. as ambassador to Pope Innocent XI., a mission which
led to a brief imprisonment after the king's flight from England.
Subsequently his Jacobite sympathies caused him to be suspected
by the government, and his time was mainly spent either in
prison or in exile. The earl died at Oswestry on the 21st of
Jury 1705.
The title of duke of Cleveland, which had descended in 1709
to Charles Fitzroy, together with that of duke of Southampton,
became extinct when Charles's son William, the 2nd duke, died
without issue in 1774. One of the first duke's daughters, Grace,
was married in 1725 to Henry Vane, 3rd Baron Barnard, after-
wards earl of Darlington (d. 1758), and their grandson William
Henry Vane (1 766-1842) was created duke of Cleveland in 1833.
The duke was succeeded in the title in turn by three of his sons,
who all died without male issue; and consequently when Harry
George, the 4th duke, died in 1891 the title again became extinct.
Previous to the creation of the dukedom of Cleveland there
was an earldom of Cleveland which was created in 1626 in
favour of Thomas, 4th Baron Wentworth (1 591-1667), and
which became extinct on his death.
See the article Charles II. and the bibliography thereto; G. S.
Stcinmann, Memoir of Barbara, duchess of Cleveland (London, 1871),
and Addenda (London, 1874); and the articles ('* Villicrs, Barbara"
and " Palmer, Roger ") in the Dictionary of National Biography,
vols, xliii. and IviiL (London, 1895-1899).
CLEVELAND (or Cleveland), JOHN (1613-1658), English
poet and satirist, was born at Loughborough, where he was
baptized on the 20th of June 1613. His father was assistant to
the rector and afterwards vicar of Hinckley. John Cleveland was
educated at Hinckley school under Richard Vines, who is
described by Fuller as a champion of the Puritan party. In his
fifteenth year he was entered at Christ's College, Cambridge, and
in 1634 was elected to a fellowship at St John's. He took his
1LA. degree in 1635, and was appointed college tutor and reader
in rhetoric. His Latinity and oratorical powers were warmly
pnised by Fuller, who also commends the " lofty fancy " of his
verse. He eagerly opposed the candidature of Oliver Cromwell
as M.P. for Cambridge, and when the Puritan party triumphed
there Cleveland, like many other Cambridge students, found his
way (1643) to Oxford. His gifts as a satirist were already known,
and be was warmly received by the king, whom he followed (1645)
to Newark. In that year he was formally deprived of his
50 *
Cambridge fellowship as a "malignant." He was judge-
advocate in the garrison at Newark, and under the governor
defended the town until in 1646 Charles I. ordered the surrender
of the place to Leslie; when there is a curious story that the
Scottish general contemptuously dismissed him as a mere
ballad-monger. He saw Charles's error in giving himself into the
hands of the Scots, and his indignation when they surrendered
the king to the Parliament is expressed in the vigorous verses of
"The Rebel Scot," the sting of which survives even now.
Cleveland wandered over the country depending on the alms of
the Royalists for bread. He at length found a refuge at Norwich
in the house of Edward Cooke, but in 1655 he was arrested as
being of no particular occupation, and moreover a man whose
great abilities " rendered him able to do the greater disservice."
He spent three months in prison at Yarmouth, but was released
by order of Cromwell, to whom he addressed a manly appeal, in
which he declared his fidelity to the royal house, pointing out at
the same time that his poverty and inoffensivencss were sufficient
assurance that his freedom was no menace to Cromwell's govern-
ment. He was released early in 1656, and seems to have renewed
his wanderings, finding his way eventually to Gray's Inn, where
Aubrey says he and Samuel Butler had a " club " every night.
There he died on the 29th of April 1658.
Cleveland's poems were more highly esteemed than Milton's by
his contemporaries, and his popularity is attested by the very
numerous editions of his works. His poems are therefore of
great value as an index to the taste of the 17th century. His
verse is frequently obscure and full of the far-fetched conceits
of the " metaphysical " poets, none of whom surpassed the in-
genuity of " Fuscara, or the Bee Errant." His satires are
vigorous personal attacks, the interest of which is, from the
nature of the subject, often ephemeral; but the energy of his
invective leaves no room for obscurity in such pieces as " Smec-
tymnuus, or the Club Divines," " Rupertismus " and " The Rebel
Scot."
Cleveland's works are: " Character of a London Diurnal," a
broadside; Monument urn regale. . . (1649), chiefly by Cleveland,
containing three of his elegies on the king; " The King's Dis-
guise " (1646); " On the Memory of Mr Edward King," in the
collection of verse which also included Milton's " Lyddas," and
many detached poems.
For a bibliographical account of Cleveland's peoms see J. M.
Berdan, The Poems of John Cleveland (New York, 1903), in which
there is a table of the contents of twenty-three editions, of which
the chief are: The Character of a London Diurnal, with Several
Select Poems (1647); Poems. By John Cleavtand. With additions,
never before printed (1659); /. Cleateland Revived . . . (1659), in
which the editor, E. Williamson, says he inserted poems by other
authors, trusting to the critical faculty of the readers to distinguish
Cleveland's work from the rest: Clievelandi Vindiciae . . . (1677),
edited by two of Cleveland's former pupils, Bishop Lake ana S.
Drake, who profess to take out the spurious pieces; and a careless
compilation, The Works of John Cleveland . . . (1687), containing
poems taken from all these sources. A prefatory note by Williamson
makes it clear that only a small proportion of Cleveland's political
poems have survived, many of them having been dispersed in MS.
among his friends and so lost, and that he refused to authenticate
an edition of his works, although most of the earlier collections were
genuine.
CLEVELAND, STEPHEN GROVER (1837-1008), president of
the United States from 1885 to 1889, and again from 1893 to
1897, was born, the fifth in a family of nine children, in the
village of Caldwell, Essex county, New Jersey, on the 18th of
March 1837. His father, Richard F. Cleveland, a clergyman of
the Presbyterian Church, was of good colonial stock, a descendant
of Moses Cleveland, who emigrated from Ipswich, England, to
Massachusetts in 1635. The family removed to Fayetteville,
N.Y., and afterwards to Clinton, N.Y. It was intended that
young Grover should be educated at Hamilton College, but this
was prevented by his father's death in 1852. A few years later he
drifted westward with twenty-five dollars in his pocket, and the
autumn of 1855 found him in a law office in the city of Buffalo.
At the end of four years (1859), he was admitted to the bar.
In 1863 he was appointed assistant district attorney of Erie
county, of which Buffalo is the chief city. TVca n^>x» Ssc*.
502
CLEVELAND, GROVER
public office, and it came to him, like all later preferments,
without any solicitation of his own. Two years later (1865) he
was the Democratic candidate for district attorney, but was
defeated. In 1869 Cleveland was nominated by the Democratic
party for the office of sheriff, and, despite the fact that Erie
county was normally Republican by a decisive majority, was
elected. The years immediately succeeding his retirement from
the office of sheriff in 1873 he devoted exclusively to the practice
of law, coming to be generally recognized as one of the leaders
of the western New York bar. In the autumn of 1881 he was
nominated by the Democrats for mayor of Buffalo. The city
government had been characterized by extravagance and
maladministration, and a revolt of the independent voters at the
polls overcame the usual Republican majority and Cleveland was
elected. As mayor he attracted wide attention by his inde-
pendence and business-like methods, and under his direction the
various departments of the city government were thoroughly
reorganized. His ability received further recognition when in
1882 he was nominated by his party as its candidate for governor.
The Republican party in the state was at that time weakened by
the quarrels between the " Stalwart " and " Halfbreed " factions
within its ranks; and the Democrats were thus given an initial
advantage which was greatly increased by the Republicans'
nomination for governor of Charles J. Folger (1818-1884), then
secretary of the treasury. Secretary Folger was a man of high
character and ability, who had been chief justice of the New York
supreme court when placed in control of the treasury department
by President Arthur in 188 1 . But the cry of Federal interference
was raised as a result of the methods employed in securing his
nomination, and this, together with the party division and the
popularity of Cleveland, brought about Cleveland's election by
the unprecedented plurality of 192,854. As governor Cleveland's
course was marked by the sterling qualities that he had displayed
in his other public positions. His appointees were chosen for
their business qualifications. The demands of party leaders were
made subordinate to public interests. He promoted the passage
of a good civil service law. All bills passed by the legislature
were subjected to the governor's laborious personal scrutiny, and
the veto power was used without fear or favour.
In 1884 the Democratic party had been out of power in
national affairs for twenty-three years. In this year, however,
the generally disorganized state of the Republican party seemed
to give the Democrats an unusual opportunity. Upon a platform
which called for radical reforms in the administrative depart-
ments, the civil service, and the national finances, Cleveland was
nominated for president, despite the opposition of the strong
Tammany delegation from his own state. The nominee of the
Republican party, James G. Blaine (q. v.) of Maine, had received
the nomination only after a contest in which violent personal
animosities were aroused. The campaign that followed was one
of the bitterest political contests in American history. The
Republican party was still further weakened by the defection of
a large body of independents, known as " Mugwumps." The
result was close, but Cleveland carried New York, and was
elected, obtaining a majority in the electoral college of 2x9 to 182.
Cleveland's first term was uneventful, but was marked by
firmness, justice and steady adherence on his part to the principles
which he deemed salutary to the nation. He was especially
concerned in promoting a non-partisan civil service. Congress
in 1883 had passed the " Pendleton Bill " (introduced by Senator
George H. Pendleton) to classify the subordinate places in the
service, and to make entrance to it, and promotion therein,
depend upon competitive examination of applicants, instead
of mere political influence. The first test of the efficiency and
permanence of this law came with the shifting of political power
at Washington. The new president stood firmly by the new law.
It applied only to places of the rank of clerkships, but the pre-
sident was authorized to add others to the classified service from
time to time. He added 11,757 during his first term.
President Cleveland made large use of the veto power upon
bills passed by Congress, vetoing or "pocketing" during his
Bist term 413 bills, more than two-thirds of which were private
pension bills. The most important bill vetoed was the Dependent
Pension Bill, a measure of extreme profligacy, opening the door,
by the vagueness of its terms, to enormous frauds upon the
treasury. In 1887 there was a large and growing surplus in the
treasury. As this money was drawn from the channels of business
and locked up in the public vaults, the president looked upoo
the condition as fraught with danger to the commercial com*
munity and he addressed himself to the task of reducing taxation.
About two-thirds of the public revenue was derived from duties on
imports, in the adjustment of which the doctrine of protection
to native industry had a large place. Cleveland attacked the
system with great vigour in his annual message of 1887. He
did not propose the adoption of free trade, but the administration
tariff measure, known as the Mills Bill, from its introducer
Congressman Roger Q. Mills (b. 1832) of Texas, passed the House,
and although withdrawn owing to amendments in the Republican
Senate, it alarmed and exasperated the protected classes, among
whom were many Democrats, and spurred them to extraordinary
efforts to prevent his re-election.
In the following year (1888), however, the Democrats re-
nominated Cleveland, and the Republicans nominated Benjamin
Harrison of Indiana. The campaign turned on the tariff issue,
and Harrison was elected, receiving 233 electoral votes to 168
for Cleveland, who however received a popular plurality of more
than 100,000. Cleveland retired to private life and resumed the
practice of the law in New York. He had married on the 2nd
of June 1886 Miss Frances Folsom, a daughter of a former law
partner in Buffalo.
Congress had passed a law in 1878 requiring the treasury
department to purchase a certain amount of silver bullion
each month and coin it into silver dollars to be full legal tender.
As no time had been fixed for this operation to cease, it amounted
to an unlimited increase of a kind of currency that circulated
at a nominal value much above its real value. Both political
parties were committed to this policy, and strong passions were
aroused whenever it was called in question. Cleveland had
written a letter for publication before he became president,
saying that a financial crisis of great severity must result if this
coinage were continued, and expressing the hope that Congress
would speedily put an end to it. In 1890 Congress, now con-
trolled by the Republican party, passed the McKinlcy Bill, by
which the revenues of the government were reduced by more
than $60,000,000 annually, chiefly through a repeal of the sugar
duties. At the same time expenditures were largely increased
by liberal pension legislation, and the government's purchase of
silver bullion almost doubled by the provisions of the new
Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890.
In 1892 Cleveland was nominated for president a third tine
in succession. President Harrison was nominated by the
Republicans. Cleveland received 277 electoral votes and
Harrison 145.. and 22 were cast for James B. Weaver (b. 1833)
of Iowa, the candidate of the " People's " party. Cleveland's
second term embraced some notable events. The most important
was the repeal of the silver legislation, which had been a growing
menace for fifteen years. Nearly $600,000,000 of "fiat money"
had been thrust into the channels of commerce in addition to
$346,000,000 of legal tender notes that had been issued during
the Civil War. A reserve of $100,000,000 of gold had been
accumulated for the redemption of these notes. In April 1893
the reserve fell below this sum. President Cleveland called an
extra session of Congress to repeal the Silver Law. The House
promptly passed the repealing act. In the Senate there was a
protracted struggle. The Democrats now had a majority of that
body and they were more decidedly pro-silver than the Re-
publicans. The president had undertaken to coerce his own
party to do something against its will, and it was only by the aid
of the Republican minority that the passage of the repealing bill
was at last made possible (October 30th). The mischief, how-
ever, was not ended. The deficit in the treasury made it inevit-
able that the gold reserve should be used to meet current ex-
penses. Holders of the government's legal tender notes anticipat-
ing this fact presented them for redemption. Borrowing was
CLEVELAND
5<>3
resorted to by the government. Bonds were issued and sold
to the amount of $162,000,000. The business world was in a
state of constant agitation. Bank failures were numerous and
commercial distress widespread. Among the consequences of the
panic was a reduction of wages in many employments, accom-
panied by labour troubles more or less serious. The centre of
disturbance was the Pullman strike at Chicago (q.v.), whence
die disorder extended to the Pacific coast, causing riot and
bloodshed in many places. President Cleveland waited a reason-
able time, as he conceived, for Governor Altgcld of Illinois
to put an end to the disorder in that state. On the 6th of July
1804, despite Governor Altgeld's protest, he directed the military
forces of the United States to clear the way for trains carrying
the mails. The rioters in and around Chicago were dispersed
in a single day, and within a week the strike was broken.
Another important event was the action of the government
as regards the question of arbitration between Great Britain and
Venezuela (q.v.), in which Richard Olncy, the secretary of state,
played a somewhat aggressive part. On the 17th of December
1805 President Cleveland sent to Congress a special message
calling attention to Great Britain's action in regard to the
disputed boundary line between British Guiana and Venezuela,
and declaring the necessity of action by the United States to
prevent an infringement of the Monroe Doctrine. Congress
at once appropriated funds for an American commission to
investigate the matter. The diplomatic situation became for
the moment very acute, but after a short period of bellicose
talk the common-sense of both countries prevailed. Negotiations
with Great Britain ensued, and before the American special
commission finished its work, Great Britain had agreed,
November 1896, to arbitrate on terms which safeguarded the
national dignity on both sides.
Cleveland's independence was nowhere more strikingly shown
during his second term than in his action in regard to the tariff
legislation of his party in Congress. A tariff bill introduced
in the House by William Lync Wilson (1843-1000), of West
Virginia, chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means, was
so amended in the Senate, through the instrumentality of
Senator Arthur Pue Gorman and a coterie of anti-administration
democratic senators, that when the bill eventually came before
him, although unwilling to veto it, the president signified his
dissatisfaction with its too high rates by allowing it to become
a law without his signature. Cleveland's second administration
began by vigorous action in regard to Hawaii; he at once,
withdrew from the Senate the annexation treaty which President
Harrison had negotiated.
During his second term Cleveland added 44,004 places in the
crvQ service to the classified list, bringing them within the rules
of the merit system. This was a greater number than all that
had been placed in the list before, and brought the whole number
up to 86,932. Toward the end of his second term the president
became very much out of accord with his party on the free-silver
question, in consequence of which the endorsement of the
administration was withheld by the Democratic national conven-
tion at Chicago in 1896. In the ensuing campaign the president
and his cabinet, with the exception of Hoke Smith (b. 1855),
secretary of the interior, who resigned, gave their support to
Palmer and Buckner, the National, or " Sound Money " Demo-
cratic nominees.
Cleveland's second term expired on the 4th of March 1897,
and he then retired into private life, universally respected and
constantly consulted, in the university town of Princeton, New
Jersey, where he died on the 24th of June 1008. He was a
trustee of Princeton University and Stafford Little lecturer on
public affairs. Chosen in 1905 as a member of a committee of
three to act as trustees of the majority of the stock of the Equit-
able life Assurance Company, he promoted the reorganization
and the actualization of that company, and acted as rebate
mferee for it and for the Mutual and New York Life insurance
companies. He published Presidential Problems (New York,
1904), made up in part of lectures at Princeton University, and
ftffttBf and Hunting Sketches (1906).
A large amount of magazine literature has been devoted to
President Cleveland'* career. W. O. Stoddard's Graver Cleveland
(1888; " Lives of the Presidents" scries) and J. Lowry Whittle's
Grovcr Cleveland (1896; " Public Men of To-day " series)
written by W. Dorsheimer,
judicious^ volumes I^and "Campaign Bjographies ^ (1884) were
Mdr
dent
Magazine, vol. ix.; " Second Administration of Grover Cleve-
land"); William Allen White (McClure's, vol 18, "Character
Sketch of Cleveland "), and Henry L. Nelson (North American
Also Jesse L. Williams, Mr Cleveland: A
D. Welch. See articles by Woodrow Wilson (Atlantic Monthly,
vol. 79; "Cleveland as President"); Carl Schurz (McCluris
Review, vol. 188). ,
Personal Impression (1909).
(H. Wu.)
CLEVELAND, a city and port of entry in the state of Ohio,
U.S.A., and the county-seat of Cuyahoga county, the sixth
largest city in the United States. It is on Lake Erie at the
mouth of Cuyahoga river, about 260 m. N.E. of Cincinnati,
357 m. E. of Chicago, and 633 m. W. by N. of New York. Pop.
(1890) 261,353; (1900) 381,768, of whom 124,631 were foreign-
born, 288,591 were of foreign parentage (i.e. having one or
both parents foreign-born), and 5988 were negroes; (1910)
560,663. Of the 124,631, who in 1900 were foreign-born,
Germans were greatly predominant (40,648, or 32-6 %), with the
Bohemians (13,509, or 10-9%) and Irish (13,120, or io«6%) next
in importance, the Bohemians being later comers than the Irish.
The city commands pleasant views from its position on a
plateau, which, at places on bluffs along the shore, has elevations
of about 75 ft. above the water below, and rises gradually
toward the S.E. to 115 ft. and on the extreme E. border to more
than 200 ft. above the lake, or about 800 ft. above sea-level;
the surface has, however, been cut deeply by the Cuyahoga,
which here pursues a meandering course through a valley about
J m. wide, and is also broken by several smaller streams. The
city's shore-line is more than 12 m. long. The city varies
considerably in width, and occupies a total area of about 41
sq. m., much the greater part of which is E. of the river. The
streets are of unusual width (varying from 60 ft. to 132 ft.);
arc paved chiefly with Medina dressed stone, brick and asphalt;
and, like the parks, arc so well shaded by maples, elms and
other trees, that Cleveland has become known as the " Forest
City." The municipality maintains an efficient forestry depart-
ment. About \ m. from the lake and the same distance E. of
the river is the Public Square, or Monumental Park, in the
business centre of the city. Thence the principal thoroughfares
radiate. The river is spanned with bridges, and its valley by
two viaducts, the larger of which (completed in 1878 at a cost
of more than $2,000,000), 321 1 ft. long, 64 ft. wide, and 68 ft.
above water, connects Superior Avenue on the E. with Detroit
Avenue on the W. The Central Viaduct, finished in 1888,
extends from Central Avenue to W. 14th Street, and there
connects with a smaller viaduct across Walworth Run, the
combined length of the two being about 4000 ft. Another
viaduct (about 830 ft. long) crosses Kingsbury Run a short
distance above its mouth. Lower Euclid Avenue (the old
country road to Euclid, O., and Erie, Pa.) is given up to com-
mercial uses; the eastern part of the avenue has handsome
houses with spacious and beautifully ornamented grounds,
and is famous as one of the finest residence streets in the country.
Sections of Prospect Avenue, E. 40II1, E. 93rd, E. 75th, E. 55th,
W. 44th and E. 79th streets also have many fine residences.
The principal business thoroughfares arc Superior Avenue
(132 ft. wide), the W. part of Euclid Avenue, and Ontario St.
The manufacturing quarters are chiefly in the valley of the
Cuyahoga, and along the railway tracks entering the city, chiefly
on the E. side. In 1902 the city arranged for grouping its
public buildings — in the so-called " Group Plan " — at a cost of
$25,000,000. The court-house and city hall are on the bluff
overlooking Lake Erie; 1000 ft. south are the Federal post-
office and the public library. The Mall connecting the court-
house and city hall with the post-office and library is 600 ft.
wide; on one side of it is the grand music-hall, on the other a
I fine art gallery. The six granite buildings forming this quadrangle
were built under the supervision of Arnold ttarannt % ^ ^sv*«c*r
I ment architect, and o\ y>Ynv'&. C*xt«t« *\A\>.Vl. ^k\Jomr>
5°4
CLEVELAND
who planned the buildings at the Pan-American Exposition
and the Chicago World's Fair respectively. The city has,
besides, numerous fine office buildings, including that of the
Society for Savings (an institution in which each depositor is
virtually a stockholder), the Citizens', Rose, Williamson, Rocke-
feller, New England and Garfield buildings; and several beautiful
churches, notably the Roman Catholic and Trinity cathedrals,
the First Presbyterian (" Old Stone "), the Second Presbyterian,
the First Methodist and Plymouth (Congregational) churches.
The Arcade, between Euclid and Superior avenues, and the
Colonial Arcade, between Euclid and Prospect avenues, arc
office and retail store buildings worthy of mention. The former,
finished in 1889, » 4°° '*• l° n 8» 180 ft. wide, and 140 ft. high,
with a large interior court, overlooked by five balconies. The
Colonial Arcade contains a hotel as well; it was finished in 1808.
In the Public Square is a soldiers' and sailors' monument consist-
ing of a granite shaft rising from a memorial room to a height
of 125 ft., and surmounted with a figure of Liberty; in the same
park, also, is a bronze statue of Moses Cleaveland, the founder
of the city. On a commanding site in Lake View Cemetery is
the Garfield Memorial (finished in 1800) in the form of a tower
(165 ft. high), designed by George Keller and built mostly of
Ohio sandstone; in the base is a chapel containing a statue
of Garfield and several panels on which are portrayed various
scenes in his life; his remains are in the crypt below the statue.
A marble statue of Commodore Oliver H. Perry, erected in
commemoration of his victory on Lake Erie in 1813, is in Wade
Park, where there is also a statue of Harvey Rice (1800-1891),
who reformed the Ohio public school system and wrote Pioneers
of the Western Reserve (1882) and Sketches 0/ Western Life (1888).
The parks contain altogether more than 1 500 acres. A chain of
parks connected by driveways follows the picturesque valley of
Doan Brook on the E. border of the city. At the mouth of the
brook and on the lake front is the beautiful Gordon Park of 122
acres, formerly the private estate of William J. Gordon but given
by him to the city in 1893; from this extends up the Doan Val-
ley the Urge Rockefeller Park, which was given to the city in 1896
by John D. Rockefeller and others, and which extends to and
adjoins Wade Park (85 acres; given by J. H. Wade) in which are
a zoological garden and a lake. Lake View Park along the lake
shore contains only 10J acres, but is a much frequented resting-
place near the business centre of the city, and affords pleasant
views of the lake and its commerce. Monumental Park is
divided into four sections (containing about 1 acre each) by
Superior Avenue and Ontario Street. Of the several cemeteries,
Lake View (about 300 acres), on an elevated site on the E. border,
is by far the largest and most beautiful, its natural beauty
having been enhanced by the landscape gardener. Besides
Garfield, John Hay and Marcus A. Hanna are buried here.
Education. — Cleveland has an excellent public school system.
A general state law enacted in 1004 placed the management of
school affairs in the hands of an elective council of seven members,
five chosen at large and two by districts. This board has power
to appoint a school director and a superintendent of instruction.
The superintendent appoints the teaching force, the director all
other employes; appointments are subject to confirmation by
the board, and all employes are subject to removal by the
executive officials alone. The " Cleveland plan," in force in the
public schools, minimizes school routine, red tape and frequent
examinations, puts great stress on domestic and manual training
courses, and makes promotion in the grammar schools depend on
the general knowledge and development of the pupil, as estimated
by a teacher who is supposed to make a careful study of the
individual. In 1909 there were 8 high schools and 90 grammar
schools in the city; more than $2,500,000 is annually expended
by Cleveland on its public schools. Besides the public school
•J*** there are many parochial schools; the University school,
•ila an eight Years' course; the Western Reserve University,
*«h iU medical school (opened in 1843), the Franklin T. Backus
JjjSchool (t8oa), the dental department (1892), Adelbert
GwgCuma ttti the Western Reserve College, founded in 1826,
** Badum. oUty the College lor Women (1888), and the
Library school (1904); St Ignatius College (Roman Catholic,
conducted by the Fathers of the Society of Jesus; incorporated
1890), which has an excellent meteorological observatory; St
Mary's theological seminary (Roman Catholic); the Case School
of Applied Science, founded in 1880 by Leonard Case (1820-1880),
and opened in 1881; the Cleveland College of Physicians and
Surgeons (founded in 1863; from 1869 until 1896 the medical
department of the University of Wooster; since 1S96 a part of
Ohio Wcsleyan University, Delaware, Ohio), the Cleveland
Homeopathic Medical College, the Cleveland School of Pharmacy,
the Cleveland Art School, and a school for the deaf, dumb and
blind. In 1907- 1008 Western Reserve University had 193
instructors and 914 students (277 in Adelbert College; 269 in
College for Women; 20 in graduate department; and 102 in
medical, 133 in law, 75 in dental and 51 in Library school); and
the Case School of Applied Science 40 instructors and 440 students.
The public library contained 330,000 volumes in 1008, the Case
library (subscription) 65,000 volumes, the Hatch library of
Adelbert College about 56,000 volumes, the library of the Western
Reserve Historical Society 22,500 volumes, and the Cleveland
law library, in the court house, 20,000 volumes.
The city has a highly developed system of charitable and
corrective institutions. A farm of more than 1600 acres, the
Cleveland Farm Colony, 1 1 m. from the city, takes the place of
workhouses, and has many cottages in which live those of the
city's poor who were formerly classed as paupers and were sent to
poorhouscs, and who now apply their labour to the farm and are
relieved from the stigma that generally attaches to inmates of
poorhouses. On the " farm " the city maintains an *' infirmary
village," a tuberculosis sanatorium, a detention hospital, a
convalescent hospital and houses of correction. On a farm 22 m.
from the city is the Boyvillc Home (maintained in connexion with
the juvenile court) for " incorrigible " boys. The " cottage "
plan has been adopted; each cottage is presided over by a man
and wife whom the boys call father and mother. The boys have a
government of their own, elect their officials from among them-
selves, and inflict such punishment on any of their number as
the boys deem merited. Besides the city, there are the Northern
Ohio (for the insane, founded in 1855), the Cleveland general,
Lake Side (endowed), St Alexis and the Charity hospitals (the
last managed by Sisters of Charity). The Goodrich House ( 18Q7),
the Hiram House and the Alt a House are among the best
equipped and most efficient social settlements in the country-
Cleveland has also its orphan asylums, homes for the aged,
homes for incurables, and day nurseries, besides a home for
sailors, homes for young working women, and retreats for
unfortunate girls. The various charity and benevolent institu-
tions are closely bound together on a co-operative basis by the
agency of the associated charities.
The principal newspapers of the city arc the Plain Dealer
(1841, independent), the Press (1878, independent), the
Leader (1847. Republican), and the Naos (i8S9, Republican).
Bohemian, Hungarian and German dailies are published.
Municipal Enterprise. — Municipal ownership has been a great-
er issue in Cleveland than in any other large city in the United
States, chiefly because of the advocacy of Tom Loftin Johnson
(born 1854), a street-railway owner, iron manufacturer, an
ardent single-taxcr, who was elected mayor of the city in 1001,
1903, 1905 and 1907. The municipality owns the water-works,
a small electric-light plant, the garbage plant and bath houses.
The city water is pumped to reservoirs, through a tunnel 9 ft. in
diameter 60 ft. below the bottom of the lake, from an intake
situated a distance of 26,500 ft. from the shore. The system has
a delivery capacity of 80,000,000 gallons daily. The depart ment
serves about 70,000 consumers. All water is metered and sells
for 40 cents per thousand cub. ft., or 5 barrels for 1 cent. The
municipal electric-lighting plant does not seriously compete with
the private lighting company. The municipal garbage plant
(destructor) collects and reduces to fertilizer 100 tons of garbage
per day. The sale of the fertilizer more than pays for the cost of
reduction, and the only expense the city has is in collecting it
In the city's six bath houses the average number of baths per day,
CLEVELAND
50S
per house, In iqo6, was 1165. The municipal street cleaning
department cleans all streets by the wet process. To do this the
city maintained (1906) 24 flushing wagons working 2 shifts of 8
hours each per day. A new street car company began operations
on the 1st of November 1906, charging a 3 cent fare. The grants
of this company were owned by the Forest City RailwayCompany
and the property was leased to the Municipal Traction Company
(on behalf of the public— the city itself not being empowered to
own and operate street railways). In 1908 the Cleveland Electric
Street Railway Corporation (capital $23,000,000), which owned
most of the electric lines in the city, was forced to lease its
property to the municipality's holding company, receiving a
" security franchise," providing that under certain circumstances
{e.g. if the holding company should default In its payment of
interest) the property was to revert to the corporation, which
was then to charge not more than twenty-five cents for six
tickets. In October 1008, at a special election, the security
franchise was invalidated, and the entire railway system was
put in the hands of receivers. In 1000 Johnson was defeated.
In 1910 a 2 5 -year franchise was granted to the Cleveland Rail-
way Company, under which a 3-ccnt fare is required if the com-
pany can earn 6% on that basis, and 4 cents (7 tickets for as
cents) is the maximum fare, with a cent transfer charge, re-
tained when the transfer Is used.
Commerce. — To meet the demands of the rapidly increasing
commerce the harbour has been steadily improved. In 1008 it
consisted of two distinct parts, the outer harbour being the work
of the federal government, and the inner harbour being under the
control of the city. The outer harbour was formed by two
breakwaters enclosing an area of a m. long and 1700 ft. wide;
the main entrance, 500 ft. wide, lying opposite the mouth of the
Cuyahoga river, 1350 ft. distant. The depth of the harbour
ranges from 21 to 26 ft.; and by improving this entrance, so as
to make it 700 ft. wide, and 1000 ft. farther from the shore, and
extending the east breakwater 3 m., the capacity of the outer
harbour has been doubled. The inner harbour comprises the
Cuyahoga, the old river bed, and connecting slips. The channel at
the mouth of the river (325 ft. wide) is lined on the W. side by a
concrete jetty 1054 ft. long, and on the E. side by commercial
docks. The river and old river bed furnish about 13 m. of safe
dock frontage, the channel having been dredged for 6 m. to a
depth of 21 ft. The commerce of the harbour of Cleveland in 1007
was 12,872,448 tons.
Cleveland's rapid growth both as a commercial and as a
manufacturing city is due largely to its situation between the
Iron regions of Lake Superior and the coal and oil regions of
Pennsylvania and Ohio. Cleveland is a great railway centre
and b one of the most important ports on the Great Lakes. The
dtjr is served by the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern; the New
York, Chicago & St Louis; the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago
k St Louis; the Pennsylvania; the Erie; the Baltimore & Ohio;
and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways; by steamboat lines to
the principal ports on the Great Lakes; and by an extensive
system of inter-urban electric lines. Cleveland is the largest
ore market in the world, and its huge ore docks are among its
most interesting features; the annual receipts and shipments
of coal and iron ore are enormous. It is also the largest market
for fresh-water fish in America, and handles targe quantities of
ramber and grain. Thcm«*t important manufactures are iron
and steel, carriage hardware, electrical supplies, bridi»e*. boilers,
engines, car wheels, sewinjj m*rh»*rie?. printing pre*s«. a;rri-
cohnral implements, and v.ir>>us o*h*r con modi ties made wholly
or chiefly from iron and steil. Othi-r important manufactures
•re automobiles lvalue, kcs. S4.256.07O and ifk-yopes. More ;
steel wire, wire nail*, ar.d bvirs ar.d ruts are made here thtin in
any other city in the world ''.he total value for ir'n and sieel !
products as das*i*ed by the census, was. in 1005. $42 01,0 v,c, '
and the value of four dry a-*! rrachir.e-sh.07j pro*! urn in «he »rre |
year was $15,852^*7 . ar-i rore rrertr.ar.i vise's th-in :r. ir.y
other Ameri^in r/.y. fkv'.a.-d is the fces^v-"^ °f tJie !
largest shoddy k'IIi ■-. :':.* *** -.try 'vas-e of product, r/i', ,
$1^084,504). cakes mv.h ciotvr.g :-/z? Irct^.-S;*, manu-
factures a large portion of the chewing gum made in the United
States, and is the site of one of the largest refineries of the
Standard Oil Company. The product of Cleveland breweries
in 1005 was valued at $3,086,050, and of slaughtering and meat-
packing houses in the same year at $10,426,535. The total
value of factory products in 1005 was $172,115,101, an increase
of 36-4% since 1000; and between 1900 and 1005 Cleveland
became the first manufacturing city in the state.
Government. — Since Cleveland became a city in 1836 it has
undergone several important changes in government. The
charter of that year placed the balance of power in a council
composed of three members chosen from each ward and as
many aldermen as there were wards, elected on a general ticket.
From 1852 to 1801 the city was governed under general laws
of the state which entrusted the more important powers to
several administrative boards. Then, from 1801 to 1003, by
what was practically a new charter, that which is known as the
" federal plan " of government was tried; this centred power
in the mayor by making him almost the only elective officer,
by giving to him the appointment of his cabinet of directors —
one for the head of each of the six municipal departments— and
to each director the appointment of his subordinates. The fed-
eral plan was abandoned in 1003, when a new municipal code
went into effect, which was in operation until 1000, when the
Paine Law established a board of control, under a government
resembling the old federal plan. (For laws of 1903 and 1009
see Ohio!) Few if any cities in the Union have, in recent
years, been better governed than Cleveland, and this seems to
be due largely to the keen interest in municipal affairs which
has been shown by her citizens. Especially has this been
manifested by the Cleveland Chamber of Commerce and by the
Municipal Association, an organization of influential professional
and business men, which, by issuing bulletins concerning candi-
dates at the primaries and at election time, has done much
for the betterment of local politics. The Cleveland Chamber
of Commerce, an organization of 1600 leading business men, is a
power for varied good in the city; besides its constant and
aggressive work in promoting the commercial interests of the
city, it was largely influential in the federal reform of the consular
service; it studied the question of overcrowded tenements
and secured the passage of a new tenement law with important
sanitary provisions and a set minimum of air space; it urges
and promotes home-gardening, public baths and play-grounds,
and lunch-rooms, &c. f for employes in factories; and it was
largely instrumental in devising and carrying out the so-called
" Group Plan " described above.
History.— A trading post was established at the mouth of the
Cuyahoga river as early as 1786, but the place was not per-
manently settled until 1796, when it was laid out as a town by
Moses Clcaveland (1 754-1806), who was then acting as the agent
of the Connecticut Land Company, which in the year before had
purchased from the state of Connecticut a large portion of the
Western Reserve. In 1800 the entire Western Reserve was
erected into the county of Trumbull and a township government
was given to Cleveland; ten years later Cleveland was made the
seat of government of the new county of Cuyahoga, and in 1814
it was incorporated as a village. Cleveland's growth was, how-
ever, very slow until the opening of the Ohio canal as far as
Akron in 1827; about the same time the improvement of the
harbour was begun, and by 1832 the canal was opened to the
Ohio river. Cleveland thus was connected with the ir.terior
of the state, for whose mineral and agricultural product* it
became the lake outlet. Ihe discovery of iron ore in the Lake
Superior region made Cleveland the natural meeting-point of
the iron ore and the coal from the Ohio, Pennsylvania and West
Yirgfnis mir.es; and it is from this that the city's great com*
mer.l-'l ifr.port^.ice dates. Ihe buildir.g of railways during
the decade 1*^0- iVx> greatly increaved this insporfan'.e, and
the r?»y grew with great nj/idi'.y. The growth during the
Ci.-.'l Wirt *--•. pir'Iy d':e to * nr/«! dr.*. loprrj'.nt of the ium>-
i*v .t'.'Z I'ver'.-^i of •}.-: f sty. *'<\'u •..;#;.:>'! large 'j\*aniit>»
of iron pro !:.'.*.% and of f.Sotk>.( to »h» r«d"*l q*riw>n**N.
506
CLEVER— CLEYNAERTS
The population of 1076 in 1830 increased to 6071 in 1840, to
17,034 in 1850, to 43,417 in i860, 1092,829 m i87oand to 160,146
in 1880. Until 1853 the city was confined to the £. side of the
river, but in that year Ohio City, which, was founded in 1807,
later incorporated as the village of Brooklyn, and in 1836
chartered as a city (under the name Ohio City), was annexed.
Other annexations followed: East Cleveland in 1872, Newburg
in 1873, West Cleveland and Brooklyn in 1893, and Clcnville
and South Brooklyn in 1905. In recent history the most notable
events not mentioned elsewhere in this article were the elaborate
celebration of the centennial of the city in 1896 and the street
railway strike of 1899, in which the workers attempted to force
a redress of grievances and a recognition of their union. Mobs
attacked the cars, and cars were blown up by dynamite. The
strikers were beaten, but certain abuses were corrected. There
was a less violent street car strike in 1908, after the assumption
of control by the Municipal Traction Company, which refused
to raise wages according to promises made (so the employees
said) by the former owner of the railway; the strikers were
unsuccessful.
Authorities.— Manual e*f ihw City Council (1879): Annuals of
the Cleveland Chamber of Commerce (1894- J ; E< M. Avtry,
Cleveland in a Nutshell: An Historical and Descriptive Ready*
rtffrtnxe Bock (Cleveland, ifloj) ; J a me* H. Kennedy, A Hislary
ttf iht City vf Ctei-rland [CwvtWM. 1896): C A. Urann, Centennial
Hiitery ef tlenland {Cleveland 1896); C. Whittlesey. The Early
History 0/ Cleveland (Clevchnd< 1867); C. E. Bolton. A Few Cine
Ptohlems of Greater Cleveland (Cleveland, 1897);" Plan of School
Administration." by 5. P. Ortru in voL nix. Political Science Quarterly
(New York, 1904^: Charles Snavely. A H iltory vf the City Gcwcrn-
ment 0/ Cleveland (Baltimore. 190J); C> C. Williamson, The Finances
0/ Cleveland (New York. 1907J; Pl The Government of Cleveland,
Ohio/' by Lincoln St c Hen 5, in Aft" Clare's Afagaxine, vol. wtv. (New
York, loos); and C. P. Tlivfng, ' h Cleveland, the Pleasant Ciry."
in Powell's //i* tor ic Towns of the Wei tern Stales (New York, 1901).
CLEVER* an adjective implying dexterous activity of mind
or body, and ability to meet emergencies with readiness and
adroitness. The etymology and the early history of the word
arc obscure. The earliest instance quoted by the New English
Dictionary is in the Bestiary of c. 1200 {An Old English Mis-
cellany, ed. R. Morris, 1872, E.E.T.S. 49)—" On the clothed the
neddrc (adder) is cof (quick) and the devel diver on sinncs,"
i.e. quick to seize hold of; this would connect the word
with a M. Eng. 4I cliver " or " clivre," a talon or claw (so
H. Wedgwood, Did. of Eng. Etym.). The ultimate original woilld
be the root appearing in " claw," " cleave," " cling, " " clip,"
&c, meaning to "stick to." This original sense probably
survives in the frequent use of the word for nimble, dexterous,
quick and skilful in the use of the hands, and so it is often applied
to a horse, " clever at his fences." The word has also been
connected with O. Eng. glfaw, wise, which became in M. Eng.
gleu, and is cognate with Scottish gleg, quick of eye. As
to the use of the word, Sir Thomas Browne mentions it among
" words of no general reception in English but of common use
in Norfolk or peculiar to the East Angle countries " (Tract, viii.
in Wilkins's ed. of Works, iv. 205). The earlier uses of the word
seem to be confined to that of bodily dexterity. In this sense
it took the place of a use of " deliver " as an adjective, mean-
ing nimble, literally "free in action," a use taken from Fr.
delivre (Late Lat. delibcrare, to set free), cf. Chaucer, Prologue to
Cant. Talcs, 84, " wonderly deliver and gretc of strength," and
Romaunt of the Rose, 831, " Deliver, smert and of grct might."
It has been suggested that " clever " is a corruption of " deliver "
in this sense, but this is not now accepted. The earliest use of
the word for mental quickness and ability in the New English
Dictionary is from Addison in No. 22 of The Freeholder (17 16).
CLEVES (Ger. Clevc or Klcre), a town of Germany in the
kingdom of Prussia, formerly the capital of the duchy of its own
name, 46 m. N.W. of Diisseldorf, 12 m. E. of Nijmwegen, on the
main Cologne-Amsterdam railway. Pop. (1900) 14,678. The
town is neatly built in the Dutch style, lying on three small hills
in a fertile district near the frontier of Holland, about 2 m. from
the Rhine, with which it is connected by a canal (the Spoylcanal).
The old castle of Schwa nenburg (formerly the residence of the
dukes of Cicves), has a massive tower (Schwancnturm) 180 ft.
high. With it is associated the legend of the " Knights of the
Swan," immortalized in Wagner's Lohengrin. The building has
been restored in modern times to serve as a court of justice and a
prison. The collegiate church (Stiftskirche) dates from about
1340, and contains a number of fine ducal monuments. Another
church is the Annexkirche, formerly a convent of the Minorites;
this dates from the middle of the 15th century. The chief manu-
factures are boots and shoes, tobacco and machinery; there is
also some trade in cattle. To the south and west of the city
a large district is laid out as a park, where there is a statue to
the memory of John Maurice of Nassau-Siegen (1604-1679),
who governed Cleves from 1650 to 1679, and in the western
part there are mineral wells with a pump room and bathing
establishment. Owing to the beautiful woods which surround
it and its medicinal waters Cleves has become a favourite
summer resort.
The town was the seat of the counts of Cleves as early as the
nth century, but it did not receive municipal rights until 1242.
The duchy of Cicves, which lay on both banks of the Rhine and
had an area of about 850 sq. m., belonged before the year 1000
to a certain Rutger, whose family became extinct in 1368. It
then passed to the counts of La Marck and was made a duchy
in 141 7, being united with the neighbouring duchies of Jiilich
and Berg in 1521. The Reformation was introduced here in
'533> but it was not accepted by all the inhabitants. The death
without direct heirs of Duke John William in 1609 led to serious
complications in which almost all the states of Europe were
concerned; however, by the treaty of Xantcn in 1614, Cleves
passed to the elector of Brandenburg, being afterwards incor-
porated with the electorate by the great elector, Frederick
William. The French held Cleves from 1757 to 1762 and in
1795 the part of the duchy on the left bank of the Rhine was
ceded to France; the remaining portion suffered a similar fate
in 1805. After the conclusion of peace in 1S15 it was restored
to Prussia, except some small portions which were given to the
kingdom of Holland.
Sec Char, Ceschicfite des Hersoglums Kleve (Cleves, 1845); Velsen,
Die Stadl Kleve (Cleves, 1846); R. Scholten, Die Siadt Kleu
(Cleves, 1879-1881). For Anne of Cleves see that article.
CLEYNAERTS (Clenardus or Clenard), NICOLAS (1405-
1542), Belgian grammarian and traveller, was born at Diest,
in Brabant, on the 5th of December 1495. Educated at the
university of Louvain, he became a professor of Latin, which
he taught by a conversational method. He applied himself
to the preparation of manuals of Greek and Hebrew grammar,
in order to simplify the difficulties of learners. His Tabulae in
grammaticen hebracam (1529), Inslitutiones in linguam graecam
(1530), and Meditaliones graccanicae (1531) appeared at Louvain.
The Inslitutiones and Meditaliones passed through a number of
editions, and had many commentators. He maintained a prin-
ciple revived in modern teaching, that the learner should not be
puzzled by elaborate rules until he has obtained a working ac-
quaintance with the language. A desire to read the Koran led
him to try to establish a connexion between Hebrew and Arabic.
These studies resulted in a scheme for proselytism among the
Arabs, based on study of the language, which should enable
Europeans to combat the errors of Islam by peaceful methods.
In prosecution of this object he travelled in 1532 to Spain, and
after teaching Greek at Salamanca was summoned to the court
of Portugal as tutor to Don Henry, brother of John III. He
found another patron in Louis Mcndoza, marquis of Mondcxas,
governor-general of Granada. There with the help of a Moorish
slave he gained a knowledge of Arabic. He tried in vain to gain
access to the Arabic MSS. in the possession of the Inquisition,
and finally, in 1540, set out for Africa to seek information for
himself. He reached Fez, then a flourishing scat of Arab learning,
but after 6ftccn months of privation and suffering was obliged
to return to Granada, and died in the autumn of 154a. He was
buried in the Alhambra palace.
Sec his Latin letters to his friends in Belgium, Nicolai CUnariu
Peregrinationum ac de rebus mackometicis epistolae elegantisximat
(Louvain, 1550), and a more complete edition. Nit. CUnwii
CLICHTOVE— CLIFFORD, JOHN
EMMolamm tibri duo (Antwerp. 1561 ), from the house of Plantin ; alto
Victor Chauvin and Alphonse Roersch, " Etude sur la vie ct ks
travaux de Nicolas Clenard " in Memoir es couronnis (vol. be., 1900-
1901) of the Royal Academy of Belgium, which contains a vast
amount of information on Clevnaerts and an extensive bibliography
of his work*, and of notices of him by earlier commentators.
CUCHTOVB, JOSSB VAN (d. 1543), Belgian theologian,
received his education at Louvain and at Paris under Jacques
Lefebvre H'Etapies. He became librarian of the Sorbonne
and tutor to the nephews of Jacques d'Amboise, bishop of
Clermont and abbot of Cluny. In 15 19 he was elected bishop
of Tournai, and in 1521 was translated to the see of Chartres.
He is best known as a distinguished antagonist of Martin Luther,
against whom he wrote a good deal. When Cardinal Duprat
convened his Synod of Paris in 1528 to discuss the new religion,
Clichtove was summoned and was entrusted with the task
of collecting and summarizing the objections to the Lutheran
doctrine. This he did in his Compendium vcritatum , . . contra
erroneas Luther anor urn, asset Hones (Paris, 1529). He died at
Chartres on the 22nd of September 1543.
CLICHY, or Clichy-la-Garenne, a town of northern France,
in the department of Seine, on the right bank of the Seine, immedi-
ately north of the fortifications of Paris, of which it is a manu-
facturing suburb. Pop. (1906) 41,516. Its church was built
jn the 27th century under the direction of St Vincent dc Paul,
who had previously been cure" of Clichy. Its industries include
the manufacture of starch, rubber, oil and grease, glass, chemicals,
soap, &c. Clichy, under the name of Clippiacum, was a residence
of the Merovingian kings.
CLIFF-DWELLINGS, the general archaeological term for the
habitations of primitive peoples, formed by utilizing niches
or caves in high cliffs, with more or less excavation or with
additions in the way of masonry. Two special sorts of cliff-
dwelling are distinguished by archaeologists, (1) the cliff-house,
which is actually built on levels in the cliff, and (2) the cavate
house, which is dug out, by using natural recesses or openings.
A great deal of attention has been given to the North American
cliff-dwellings, particularly among the canyons of the south-west,
in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and Colorado, some of which are
still used by Indians. There has been considerable discussion
as to their antiquity, but modern research finds no definite
justification for assigning them to a distinct primitive race, or
farther back than the ancestors of the modern Pueblo Indians.
The area in which they occur coincides with that in which other
traces of the Pueblo tribes have been found. The niches which
were utilized are often of considerable size, occurring in cliffs
of a thousand feet high, and approached by rock steps or log-
ladders.
See the article, with illustrations and bibliography, in the Hand-
book of American Indians (Washington, 1907).
CLIFFORD, the name of a famous English family and barony,
taken from the village of Clifford in Herefordshire, although
the family were mainly associated with the north of England.
Robert dc Clifford (c. 127 5- 13 14), a son of Roger de Clifford
(d. 1282), inherited the estates of his grandfather, Roger de
Clifford, in 1286; then he obtained through his mother part of
the extensive land of the Viponts, and thus became one of the
most powerful barons of his age. A prominent soldier during
the reigns of Edward I. and Edward II., Clifford was summoned
to parliament as a baron in 1209, won great renown at the siege
of Carlaverock Castle in 1300, and after taking part in the
movement against Edward Il.'s favourite, Piers Gaveston, was
killed at Bannockburn. His son Roger, the 2nd baron (1299-
1322), shared in the rebellion of Thomas, earl of Lancaster, and
was probably executed at York on the 23rd of March 1322.
Robert's grandson Roger, the 5th baron (1333-1389), and the
tatter's son Thomas, the 6th baron (c. 1363-*. '390. served the
English kings on the Scottish borders and elsewhere. The same
b true of Thomas, the 8th baron (1414-1455). wh * wa » Wiled
at the first battle of St Albans in May 1455-
Thomas's son John, the 9th baron (c. 1435-M61), was more
famous. During the Wars of the Roses he fought for Henry VI.,
earning by his cruelties the name of the " butcher "; after the
507
battle of Wakefield in 1460 he murdered Edmund, earl of Rutland,
son of Richard, duke of York, exclaiming, according to the
chronicler Edward Hall, " By God's blood thy father slew mine;
and so will I do thee and all thy kin." Shakespeare refers to
this incident in King Henry VI., and also represents Clifford
as taking part in the murder of York. It is, however, practically
certain that York was slain during the battle, and not afterwards
like his son. Clifford was killed at Ferrybridge on the 28th of
March 1461, and was afterwards attainted. His young son
Henry, the loth baron (c. 1454-15*3), lived disguised as a
shepherd for some years, hence he is sometimes called the
" shepherd lord." On the accession of Henry VII. the attainder
was reversed and he received his father's estates. He spent a
large part of his time at Barden in Lancashire, being interested
in astronomy and astrology. Occasionally, however, he visited
London, and he fought at the battle of Flodden in 15 13. This
lord, who died on the 23rd of April 1523, is celebrated by Words-
worth in the poems " The white doe of Rylstone " and " Song
at the feast of Brougham Castle." Henry, the 1 ith baron, was
created earl of Cumberland in 1525, and from this time until the
extinction of the title in 1643 the main line of the Cliffords was
associated with the earldom of Cumberland (q.v.).
Richard Clifford, bishop of Worcester and London under
Henry IV. and Henry V., was probably a member of this family.
This prelate, who was very active at the council of Constance,
died on the 20th of August 1421.
On the death of George, 3rd earl of Cumberland, in 1605, the
barony of Clifford, separated from the earldom, was claimed
by his daughter Anne, countess of Dorset, Pembroke and
Montgomery; and in 1628 a new barony of Clifford was created
in favour of Henry, afterwards 5th and last earl of Cumberland.
After Anne's death in 1676 the claim to the older barony passed
to her daughter Margaret (d. 1676), wife of John Tufton, 2nd
earl of Thanet, and her descendants, whose title was definitely
recognized In 169 1. After the Tuftons the barony was held
with intervening abeyances by the Southwells and the Russclls,
and to this latter family the present Lord De Clifford belongs. 1
When the last earl of Cumberland died in 1643 the newer
barony of Clifford passed to his daughter Elizabeth, wife of
Richard Boyle, 2nd earl of Cork, and from the Boyles it passed
to the Cavendishes, falling into abeyance on the death of William
Cavendish, 6th duke of Devonshire, in 1858.
The barony of Clifford of Lanesborough was held by the
Boyles from 1644 to 1753, and the Devonshire branch of the
family still holds the barony of Clifford of Chudleigh, which was
created in 1672.
See G. E. C(olcayne). Complete Peerage (1887-1898); and T. D.
Whitaker, History of Craven (1877).
CLIFFORD, JOHN (1836- ), British Nonconformist
minister and politician, son of a warp-machinist at Sawley,
Derbyshire, was born on the 16th of October 1836. As a boy
he worked in a lace factory, where he attracted the notice of
the leaders of the Baptist community, who sent him to the
academy at Leicester and the Baptist college at Nottingham
to be educated for the ministry. In 1858 he was called to
Praed Street chapel, Paddington (London), and while officiating
there he attended University College and pursued his education
by working at the British Museum. He matriculated at London
University (1859), and took its B.A. degree (1861), B.Sc. (1862),
M.A. (1864), and LL.B. (1866), and in 1883 he was given the
h6norary degree of D.D. by Bates College, U.S.A., being known
therefrom as Dr Clifford. This degree, from an American
college of minor academic status, afterwards led to sarcastic
allusions, but Dr Clifford had not courted it, and his London
University achievements were evidence enough of his intellectual
equipment. At Praed Street chapel he gradually obtained a
1 The original writ of summons (1290) was addressed in Latin,
Roberto domino de Clifford, U. Robert, lord of Clifford, and subse.
quently the barons styled themselves indifferently .Lords Clifford
or de Clifford, until in 1777 the nth lord definitively adopted the
latter form. The " De w henceforth became part of the name, havinff
quite lost its earliest significance, and with unconscious taut6logy
the barony Is commonly referred to as that of Dc Clifford.
508
CLIFFORD, W. K.— CLIFFORD OF CHUDLEIGH
Urge following, and in 2877 Wcstbourne Park chapel was opened
for him. As a preacher, writer, propagandist and ardent Liberal
politician, he became a power in the Nonconformist body. He
was president of the London Baptist Association in 1879, of the
Baptist Union in 1888 and 1899, and of the National Council of
Evangelical Churches in 1898. His chief prominence in politics,
however, dates from 1903 onwards in consequence of his advocacy
of " passive resistance " to the Education Act of 1002. Into
this movement he threw himself with militant ardour, his own
goods being distrained upon, with those of numerous other
Nonconformists, rather than that any contribution should be
made by them in taxation for the purpose of an Education Act
which in their opinion was calculated to support denominational
religious teaching in the schools. The " passive resistance "
movement, with Dr Clifford as its chief leader, had a large share
in the defeat of the Unionist government in January 1906, and
his efforts were then directed to getting a new act passed which
should be undenominational in character. The rejection of
Mr Birrell's bill in 1906 by the House of Lords was accordingly
accompanied by denunciations of that body from Dr Clifford
and his followers; but as year by year went by, up to 1909,
with nothing but failure on the part of the Liberal ministry to
arrive at any solution of the education problem, — failure due
now not to the House of Lords but to the inherent difficulties
of the subject (see Education),— it became increasingly clear
to the public generally that the easy denunciations of the act of
1902, which had played so large a part in the elections of 1906,
were not so simple to carry into practice, and that a compromise
in which the denominationalists would have their say would
have to be the result. Meanwhile " passive resistance " lost
its interest, though Dr Clifford and his followers continued to
protest against their treatment.
CLIFFORD, WILLIAM KINGDON (1845-1879), English
mathematician and philosopher, was born on the 4th of May
1845 at Exeter, where his father was a prominent citizen. He
was educated at a private school in his native town, at King's
College, London, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he
was elected fellow in 1868, after being second wrangler in 1867
and second Smith's prizeman. In 187 1 he was appointed
professor of mathematics at University College, London, and in
1874 became fellow of the Royal Society. In 1875 he married
Lucy, daughter of John Lane of Barbados. In 1876 Clifford,
a man of high-strung and athletic, but not robust, physique,
began to fall into ill-health, and after two voyages to the South,
died during the third of pulmonary consumption at Madeira,
on the 3rd of March 1879, leaving his widow with two daughters.
Mrs W.*K. Clifford soon earned for herself a prominent place
in English literary life as a novelist, and later as a dramatist.
Her best-known story, Mrs Keith's Crime (1885), was followed
by several other volumes, the best of which is Auni Anne
(1893); and the literary talent in the family was inherited by her
daughter Ethel (Mrs Fisher Dilke), a writer of some charming
verse.
Owing to his early death, Professor Clifford's abilities and
achievements cannot be fairly judged without reference to the
opinion formed of him by his contemporaries. He impressed
every one as a man of extraordinary acuteness and originality;
and these solid gifts were set off to the highest advantage by
quickness of thought and speech, a lucid style, wit and poetic
fancy, and a social warmth which made him delightful as a
friend and companion. His powers as a mathematician were
of the highest order. It harmonizes with the concrete visualizing
turn of his mind that, to quote Professor Henry Smith, " Clifford
was above all and before all a geometer." In this he was an
innovator against the excessively analytic tendency of Cambridge
mathematicians. In his theory of graphs, or geometrical repre-
sentations of algebraic functions, there are valuable suggestions
which have been worked out by others. He was much interested,
too, in universal algebra, non-Euclidean geometry and elliptic
functions, bis papers " Preliminary Sketch of Bi-quaternions "
(1873) and " On the Canonical Form and Dissectionof a Riemann's
Surface " (1877) ranking as classics. Another important paper
is his " Classification of Loci " (1878). He also published several
papers on algebraic forms and projective geometry
As a philosopher Clifford's name is chiefly associated with
two phrases of his coining, "mind-stuff" and the " tribal self "
The former symbolizes his metaphysical conception, which wis
suggested to him by his reading of Spinoza. " Briefly put,"
says Sir F. Pollock, " the conception is that mind is the one
ultimate reality; not mind as we know it in the complex forms
of conscious feeling and thought, but the simpler elements out
of which thought and feeling are built up. The hypothetical
ultimate element of mind, or atom of mind -stuff, precisely corre-
sponds to the hypothetical atom of matter, being the ultimate
fact of which the material atom is the phenomenon. Matter
and the sensible universe are the relations between particular
organisms, that is, mind organized into consciousness, and the
rest of the world. This leads to results which would in a loose
and popular sense be called materialist. But the theory must,
as a metaphysical theory, be reckoned on the idealist side. To
speak technically, it is an idealist monism." The other phrase,
" tribal self," gives the key to Clifford's ethical view, which
explains conscience and the moral law by the development in
each individual of a "self," which prescribes the conduct
conducive to the welfare of the " tribe." Much of Clifford's
contemporary prominence was due to his attitude towards
religion. Animated by an intense love of truth and devotion
to public duty, he waged war on such ecclesiastical systems as
seemed to him to favour obscurantism, and to put the claims
of sect above those of human society. The alarm was greater,
as theology was still unreconciled with the Darwinian theory;
and Clifford was regarded as a dangerous champion of the anti-
spiritual tendencies then imputed to modern science.
His works, published wholly or in part since his death, are Elements
of Dynamic (1879-1887); Seeing and Thinking, popular science
lectures (1879); Lectures and Essays, with an introduction by Sir F.
Pollock (1S79); Mathematical Papers, edited by R. Tucker, with an
introduction by Henry J. S. Smith (1882): and The Common Sense
of the Exact Sciences, completed by Professor Karl Pearson (1885).
CLIFFORD OF CHUDLEIGH. THOMAS CLIFFORD, ist
Baron (1 630-1 673), English lord treasurer, a member of the
ancient family of Clifford, descended from Waller de Clifford
of Clifford Castle in Herefordshire, was the son of Hugh Clifford
of Ugbrook near Exeter, and of Mary, daughter of Sir George
Chudleigh of Ashton, Devonshire. He was born on the ist of
August 1630, matriculated in 1647 at Exeter College, Oxford,
where he showed distinguished ability, supplicated for the B.A.
degree in 1650, and entered the Middle Temple in 1648. He
represented Totnes in the convention parliament and in that
of 1661; and he joined the faction of young men who spoke
" confidently and often," and who sought to rise to power by
attacking Clarendon. The chancellor, according to Burnet, had
repulsed his advances on account of his Romanism, and Clifford
accordingly offered his services to Arlington, whose steady
supporter he now became.
On the 1 6th of February 1663 Clifford obtained the reversion
of a tellership in the exchequer, and in 1664, on the outbreak
of the Dutch war, was appointed commissioner for the care of
the sick, wounded and prisoners, with a salary of £1200. He
was knighted, and was present with James at the victory off
Lowestoft over the Dutch on the 3rd of June 1665, was rewarded
with the prize-ship " Patriarch Isaac," and in August, under
the earl of Sandwich, took a prominent part in the unsuccessful
attempt to capture the Dutch East India fleet in Bergen harbour.
In August he was appointed by Arlington's influence ambassador
with Henry Coventry to the north of Europe. Subsequently
he served again with the fleet, was present with Albemarle at
the indecisive fight on the ist to the 4th of June 1666, and at
the victory on the 25th of July. In October 1667 he was one
of those selected by the Commons to prepare papers concerning
the naval operations. lie showed great zeal and energy in naval
affairs, and he is described by Pepys as " a very fine gentleman,
and much set by at court for his activity in going to sea and
stoutness everywhere and stirring up and down." He became
the same year controller of the household and a privy councillor.
CLIFTON— CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
5«>9
in 1667 a commissioner for the treasury, and in 1668 treasurer
of the household. In the Commons he supported the court,
opposing the bill for frequent parliaments in 1668 and the
Coventry Act (see Coventry, Sir John) in 167a
Clifford was an ardent Roman Catholic, a supporter of the
royal prerogative and of the French alliance. He regarded with
favour the plan of seeking French assistance in order to force
Romanism and absolute government upon the country, and his
complete failure to understand the real political position and the
interests of the nation is reflected in the advice he was said to
have given to Charles, to accept the pension from Louis, and " be
the slave of one man rather than of 500." As one of the Cabal
ministry, therefore, he co-operated very zealously with the king
in breaking through the Triple Alliance and in effecting the
understanding with France. He was the only minister besides
Arlington entrusted with the secret treaty of Dover of 1670,
signing both this agreement and also the ostensible treaty im-
parted to all the members of the Cabal, and did bis utmost to urge
Charles to join France in the attack upon the Dutch, whom he
detested as republicans and Protestants. In 1672, during the
absence of Arlington and Coventry abroad, Clifford acted as
principal secretary of state, and was chiefly responsible for the
" stop of the exchequer," and probably also for the attack upon
the Dutch Smyrna fleet. He was appointed this year a com-
missioner to inquire into the settlement of Ireland. On the 22nd
of April he was raised to the peerage as Baron Clifford of Chud-
leigh, and on the 28th of November, by the duke of York's
interest, he was made lord treasurer; his conduct to Arlington,
whose claims to the office he had pretended to press, was,
according to Evelyn, the only act of " real ingratitude " in his
career. Arlington, however, quickly discovered a means of
securing Clifford's fall. The latter was strongly in favour of
Charles's policy of indulgence, and supported the declaration of
this year, urging the king to overcome the resistance of parliament
by a dissolution. Arlington advocated the contrary policy of
concession, and after Charles's withdrawal of the declaration gave
his support to the Test Act of 1673. Clifford spoke with great
vehemence against the measure, describing it as " monstrum
horrendum ingens," but his speech only increased the anti-
Roman Catholic feeling in parliament and ensured the passing of
the bill. In consequence Clifford, as a Roman Catholic, followed
the duke of York into retirement. His resignation caused con-
siderable astonishment, since he had never publicly professed
his religion, and in 167 1 had even built a new Protestant chapel
at his home at Ugbrook. According to Evelyn, however, his
conduct was governed by a promise previously given to James.
He gave up the treasuryship and his seat in the privy council in
June. On the 3rd of July 1673 he received a general pardon from
the king. In August he said a last farewell to Evelyn, and in less
than a month he died at Ugbrook. In Evelyn's opinion the cause
of death was suicide, but his suspicions do not appear to have
received any contemporary support. Clifford was one of the
worst advisers of Charles II., but a sincere and consistent one.
Evelyn declares him" a valiant, uncorrupt gentleman, ambitious,
not covetous, generous, passionate, a most constant, sincere
friend." He married Elizabeth, daughter of William Martin of
Lindridge, Devonshire, by whom he had fifteen children, four sons
and seven daughters surviving him. He was succeeded as 2nd
baron by Hugh, his fifth, but eldest surviving son, the ancestor of
the present Lord Clifford of Chudleigh. (P. C. Y.)
CLIFTON, a suburb and residential district of Bristol, England,
adjoining it on the west; 122 m. W. of London by the Great
Western railway. The river Avon (q.v.) here runs in a gorge,
followed closely by a railway on either side, and having several
quarries, which have in a measure spoiled the beauty of its
hanging woods. At a height of 245 ft. above high water Isambard
Brunei's famous suspension bridge bestrides this gorge. It was
begun in 1832 and completed in 1864. It has a span of 702 ft.,
and its total weight is 1500 tons, and it is calculated to bear a
burden of 9 tons per sq. in. The long famous hot springs of
CUfton, to which, in fact, the town was indebted for its rise,
issue from an aperture at the foot of St Vincent's Rock, in the
portion of Clifton known as Hot wells. The water has a tempera-
ture of about 76 F. A hydropathic establishment is attached
to them. Immediately above the suspension bridge the Clifton
Rocks railway ascends from the quays by the river-side to the
heights above. The Clifton and Durdham Downs (both on the
Gloucestershire side of the river), form the principal pleasure-
grounds of Bristol They lie high above the river, extend for some
5000 acres, and command a beautiful prospect over the city, with
its picturesque irregular site and many towers, and over the
surrounding well-wooded country.
Three ancient British earthworks bear witness to an early
settlement on the spot, and a church was in existence as far back
as the time of Henry II., when it was bestowed by William de
Clyfton on the abbot of the Austin canons in Bristol; but there
are no longer any architectural vestiges of an earlier date than the
1 8th century. Clifton gives name to a Roman Catholic bishopric
Of the churches the most important are St Andrew's parish
church; All Saints, erected in 1863 after the designs of G. E.
Street, and remarkable for the width of its nave and the narrow-
ness of its aisles; and the Roman Catholic pro-cathedral church
of the Holy Apostles, with a convent and schools attached.
Clifton College, a cluster of buildings in Gothic style, was founded
in 1862 by a limited liability company, and takes rank among the
principal modern English public schools. Down the river from
Clifton is Shirehampton, a fav ourite resort from Bristol.
CUM (or Clym) OF THB CLOUGH, a legendary English
archer, a supposed companion of the Robin Hood band. He
is commemorated in the ballad Adam Bell, Clym of the Cloughe
and WyUyam of CloudesUe, The three were outlaws who had
many adventures of the Robin Hood type. The oldest printed
copy of this ballad is dated 1550.
CLIMACTERIC (from the Gr. xXt/ioxr^p, the rung or step of
a «X!pa£ or ladder), a critical period in human life; in a medical
sense, the period known as the " change of life," marked in
women by the menopause. Certain ages, especially those which
are multiples of seven or nine, have been superstitiously regarded
as particularly critical; thus the sixty-third and the eighty-first
year of life have been called the " grand climacteric." The word
is also used, generally, of any turning-point in the history of a
nation, a career or the like.
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY. The word clima (from
Gr. xXIrap, to lean or incline; whence also the English " clime,"
now a poetical term for this or that region of the earth, regarded
as characterized by climate), as used by the Greeks, probably
referred originally either to the supposed slope of the earth towards
the pole, or to the inclination of the earth's axis. It was an
astronomical or a mathematical term, not associated with any
idea of physical climate. A change of clima then meant a change
of latitude. The latter was gradually seen to mean a change in
atmospheric conditions as well as in length of day, and clima thus
came to have its present meaning. " Climate " is the average
condition of the atmosphere. H Weather " denotes a single
occurrence, or event, in the series of conditions which make up
climate. The climate of a place is thus in a sense its average
weather. Climatology is the study or science of climates.
Relation of Meteorology and Climatology. — Meteorology and
climatology are interdependent. It is impossible to distinguish
sharply between them. In a strict sense, meteorology deals with
the physics of the atmosphere. It considers the various atmo-
spheric phenomena individually, and seeks to determine their
physical causes and relations. Its view is largely theoretical.
When meteorology (q.v.) is considered in its broadest meaning,
climatology is a subdivision of it. Climatology is largely
descriptive. It aims at giving a dear picture of the interaction
of the various atmospheric phenomena at any place on the
earth's surface. Climatology may almost be defined as geographi-
cal meteorology. Its main object is to be of practical service
to man. Its method of treatment lays most emphasis on the
elements which are most important to life. Climate and crops,
climate and industry, climate and health, are subjects of vital
interest to man.
The Climatic Elements and their Treatment. — Climatology has
5"
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
important dements as wind and rainfall. So distinctive are the
larger climatic features of the great wind belts of the world,
that a classification of climates according to wind systems has
been suggested. 1 As the rain-belts of the world are closely
associated with these wind systems, a classification of the zones
by winds also emphasizes the conditions of rainfall. In such a
scheme the tropical zone is bounded on the north and south
by the margins of the trade-wind belts, and is therefore larger
than the classic torrid zone. This trade-wind zone is somewhat
wider on the eastern side of the oceans, and properly includes
within its limits the equable marine climates of the eastern
margins of the ocean basins, even as far north as latitude 30°
or 35°. Most of the eastern coasts of China and of the United
States are thus left in the more rigorous and more variable
conditions of the north temperate zone. Through the middle
of the trade-wind zone extends the sub-equatorial belt, with
its migrating calms, rains and monsoons. On the polar margins
of the trade-wind zone lie the sub-tropical belts, of alternating
trades and westerlies. The temperate zones embrace the
latitudes of the stormy westerly winds, having on their equator-
ward margins the subtropical belts, and being somewhat narrower
than the classic temperate zones. Towards the poles there is
no obvious limit to the temperate zones, for the prevailing
westerlies extend beyond the polar circles. These circles may,
however, serve fairly well as boundaries, because of their import-
ance from the point of view of insolation. The polar zones
in the wind classification, therefore, remain just as in the older
scheme.
Need of a Classification of Climates. — A broad division of the
earth's surface into zones is necessary as a first step in any
systematic study of climate, but it is not satisfactory when a
more detailed discussion is undertaken. The reaction of the
physical features of the earth's surface upon the atmosphere
complicates the climatic conditions found in each of the zones,
and makes further subdivision desirable. The usual method is
to separate the continental (near sea-level) and the marine. An
extreme variety of the continental is the desert', a modified
form, the littoral; while altitude is so important a control that
mountain and plateau climates are always grouped by themselves.
Marine or Oceanic Climate. — Land and water differ greatly
in their behaviour regarding absorption and radiation. The
former warms and cools readily, and to a considerable degree;
the latter, slowly and but little. The slow changes in tempera-
ture of the ocean waters involve a retardation in the times of
occurrence of the maxima and minima, and a marine climate,
therefore, has a cool spring and a warm autumn, the seasonal
changes being but slight. Characteristic, also, of marine climates
is a prevailingly higher relative humidity, a larger amount of
cloudiness, and a heavier rainfall than is found over continental
interiors. All of these features have their explanation in the
abundant evaporation from the ocean surfaces. In the middle
latitudes the oceans have distinctly rainy winters, while over
the continental interiors the colder months have a minimum
of precipitation. Ocean air is cleaner and purer than land air,
and is generally in more active motion.
Continental Climate. — Continental climate is severe. The
annual temperature ranges increase, as a whole, with increasing
distance from the oceans. The coldest and warmest months
are usually January and July, the times of maximum and
minimum temperatures being less retarded than in the case of
marine climates. The greater seasonal contrasts in temperature
over the continents than over the oceans are furthered by the
less cloudiness over the former. Diurnal and annual changes
of nearly all the elements of climate are greater over continents
than over oceans; and this holds true of irregular as well as
of regular variations. Fig. 3 illustrates the annual march of
temperature in marine and continental climates. Bagdad, in
Asia Minor (Bd.), and Funchal on the island of Madeira (M.)
are representative continental and marine stations for a low
latitude. Nerchinsk in eastern Siberia (N.) and Valentia in
south-western Ireland (V.) axe good examples of continental
1 W.M.Davis, Elementary Meteorology (Boston, 1894). pp. 334-335.
M. A, M
s. a, n a x
and marine climates of higher latitudes in the northern hemi-
sphere. The data for these and the following curves were taken
from Hann's Lehrbuch der Meteor ologie (1901).
Owing to the distance from the chief source of supply of
water vapour — the oceans — the air over the larger land areas
is naturally drier and dustier than that over the oceans. Yet
even in the arid continental interiors in summer the absolute
vapour content is surprisingly large, and in the hottest months
the percentages of relative humidity may reach 20 % or 30 %.
At the low temperatures which prevail in the winter of the higher
latitudes the absolute humidity is very low, but, owing to the
cold, the air is often damp. Cloudiness, as a rule, decreases
inland, and with this lower relative humidity, more abundant
sunshine and higher temperature, the evaporating power of a
continental climate is much greater than that of the more humid,
cloudier and cooler
marine climate.
Both amount and '
frequency of rainfall,
as a rule, decrease
inland, but the con-
ditions are very
largely controlled by
local topography
and by the prevail-
ing winds. Winds
average somewhat
lower in velocity,
and calms are more
frequent, over con-
tinents than over JJ^
oceans. The seasonal
changes of pressure
over the former give
rise to systems of
inflowing and out-
flowing, so-called
continental, winds, -40
sometimes so well
developed as to be-
come true monsoons.
The extreme tcm-*^
perature changes
which occur over the
continents are the
more easily borne - 1 F M *■ u < J - J - *■ s ■ & N - D - <>•
because of the dry- F IC « 3- — Annua! March of Air Temperature,
ncss of the air; be- l nflucnce of Land and Water. (After Angot.)
#•«•..«!» ♦»,« m : n .'mii m M, Madeira. V, Valentia.
cause the minimum ^ ^ dad N, Nerchinsk,
temperatures of •
winter occur when there is little or no wind, and because
during the warmer hours of the summer there is the most air-
movement.
Desert Climate. — An extreme type of continental climate
is found in deserts. Desert air is notably free from micro-
organisms. The large diurnal temperature ranges of inland
regions, which are most marked where there is little or no
vegetation, give rise to active convectional currents during
the warmer hours of the day. Hence high winds are common
by day, while the nights are apt to be calm and relatively cool.
Travelling by day is unpleasant under such conditions. Diurnal
cumulus clouds, often absent because of the excessive dryness
of the air, are replaced by clouds of blowing dust and sand.
Many geological phenomena, and special physiographic types
of varied kinds, are associated with the peculiar conditions of
desert climate. The excessive diurnal ranges of temperature
cause rocks to split and break up. Wind-driven sand erodes
and polishes the rocks. When the separate fragments become
small enough they, in their turn, are transported by the winds
and further eroded by friction during their journey. Curious
conditions of drainage result from the deficiency in rainfall-
Rivers "wither" away, or end in sinks or brackish lakes.
CLIMATE
Plate I.
I.. _ t , * , m I , , ■ .> r— '- 1 U ' ^* ■ J ' ^t , ll ■_, ,| ,. , ,l\. p ., J,
Annual Distribution of Temperature and Pressure.
Plate II.
CLIMATE
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
5»3
Desert plants protect themselves against the attacks of animals
by means of thorns, and against evaporation by means of hard
surfaces and by a diminished leaf surface. The life of man in
the desert is likewise strikingly controlled by the climatic
peculiarities of strong sunshine, of heat, and of dust.
Coast or Littoral Climate. — Between the pure marine and the
pure continental types the coasts furnish almost every grade of
transition. Prevailing winds are here important controls. When
these blow from the ocean, the climates arc marine in character,
but when they are off-shore, a somewhat modified type of con-
tinental climate prevails, even up to the immediate sea-coast.
Hence the former have a smaller range of temperature; their
summers are more moderate and their winters milder; extreme
temperatures are rare; the air is damp, and there is much cloud.
All these marine features diminish with increasing distance
from the ocean, especially when there are mountain ranges near
the coast In the tropics, windward coasts are usually well
supplied with rainfall, and the temperatures are modified by
sea breezes. Leeward coasts in the trade-wind belts offer
special conditions. Here the deserts often reach the sea, as on
the western coasts of South America, Africa and Australia.
Cold ocean currents, with prevailing winds along-shore rather
than on-shore, arc here hostile to rainfall, although the lower
air is often damp, and fog and cloud arc not uncommon.
Monsoon Climate. — Exceptions to the general rule of rainier
eastern coasts in trade-wind latitudes are found in the monsoon
legions, as in India, for example, where the western coast of
the peninsula is abundantly watered by the wet south-west
monsoon. As monsoons often sweep over large districts, not
only coast but interior, a separate group of monsoon climates
fe desirable. In India there are really three seasons — one cold,
during the winter monsoon; one hot, in the transition season;
and one wet, during the summer monsoon. Little precipitation
occurs in winter, and that chiefly in the northern provinces.
In low latitudes, monsoon and non-monsoon climates differ but
little, for summer monsoons and regular trade-winds may both
give rains, and wind direction has slight effect upon temperature.
The winter monsoon is off-shore and the summer monsoon
on-shore under typical conditions, as in India. But exceptional
cases are found where the opposite is true. In higher latitudes
the seasonal changes of the winds, although not truly monsoonal,
Involve differences in temperature and in other climatic elements.
The only well-developed monsoons on the coast of the continents
of higher latitudes are those of eastern Asia. These are off-shore
during the winter, giving dry, clear and cold weather; while
the on-shore movement in summer gives cool, damp and cloudy
weather.
Mountain and Plateau Climate.— Both by reason of their
actual height and because of their obstructive effects, mountains
Influence climate similarly in all the zones. Mountains as con-
trasted with lowlands are characterized by a decrease in pressure,
temperature and absolute humidity; an increased intensity of
insolation and radiation; usually a greater frequency of, and
up to a certain altitude more, precipitation. At an altitude of
16,000 ft., more or less, pressure is reduced to about one-half
of its sea-level value. The highest human habitations are found
under these conditions. On high mountains and plateaus the
pressure is lower in winter than in summer, owing to the fact
that the atmosphere is compressed to lower levels in the winter
and is expanded upwards in summer.
The intensity of insolation and of radiation both increase
aloft in the cleaner, purer, drier and thinner air of mountain
climates. The great intensity of the sun's rays attracts the
attention of mountain-climbers at great altitudes. The vertical
decrease of temperature, which is also much affected by local
conditions, is especially rapid during the warmer months and
hours; mountains are then cooler than lowlands. The inversions
of temperature characteristic of the colder months, and of the
night, give mountains the advantage of a higher temperature
then — a fact of importance in connexion with the use of mountains
as winter resorts. At such times the cold air flows down the
mountain sides and collects in the valleys below, being replaced
by warmer air aloft. Hence diurnal and annual ranges of
temperature on the mountain tops of middle and higher latitudes
are lessened, and the climate in this respect resembles a marine
condition. The times of occurrence of the maximum and
minimum temperature are also much influenced by local condi-
tions. Elevated enclosed valleys, with strong sunshine, often
resemble continental conditions of large temperature range, and
plateaus, as compared with mountains at the same altitude,
have relatively higher temperatures and larger temperature
ranges. Altitude tempers the heat of the low latitudes. High
mountain peaks, even on the equator, can remain snow-covered
all the year round.
No general law governs the variations of relative humidity
with altitude, but on the mountains of Europe the winter is
the driest season, and the summer the dampest. At well-exposed
stations there is a rapid increase in the vapour content soon after
noon, especially in summer^ The same is true of cloudiness,
which is often greater on mountains than at lower levels, and is
usually at a maximum in summer, while the opposite is true
of the lowlands in the temperate latitudes. One of the great
advantages of the higher Alpine valleys in winter is their small
amount of cloud. This, combined with their low wind velocity
and strong insolation, makes them desirable winter health resorts.
Latitude, altitude, topography and winds are the determining
factors in controlling the cloudiness on mountains. In the rare,
often dry, air of mountains and plateaus evaporation is rapid,
the skin dries and cracks, and thirst is increased.
Rainfall usually increases with increasing altitude up to a
certain point, beyond which, owing to the loss of water vapour,
this increase stops. The zone of maximum rainfall averages
about 6000 to 7000 ft. in altitude, more or less, in intermediate
latitudes, being lower in winter and higher in summer. Mountains
usually have a rainy and a drier side; the contrast between the
two is greatest when a prevailing damp wind crosses the moun-
tain, or when one slope faces seaward and the other landward.
Mountains often provoke rainfall, and local "islands," or
better, " lakes," of heavier precipitation result.
Mountains resemble marine climates in having higher wind
velocities than continental lowlands. Mountain summits have
a nocturnal maximum of wind velocity, while plateaus usually
have a diurnal maximum. Mountains both modify the general,
and give rise to local winds. Among the latter the well-known
mountain and valley winds are often of considerable hygienic
importance in their control of the diurnal period of humidity,
cloudiness and rainfall, the ascending wind of daytime tending
to give clouds and rain aloft, while the opposite conditions
prevail at night.
Su pan's Climatic Provinces. — The broad classification of
climates into the three general groups of marine, continental
and mountain, with the subordinate divisions of desert, littoral
and monsoon, is convenient for purposes of summarizing the
interaction of the climatic elements under the controls of land,
water and altitude. But in any detailed study some scheme
of classification is needed in which similar climates in different
parts of the world are grouped together, and in which their
geographic distribution receives particular consideration. An
almost infinite number of classifications might be proposed;
or we may take as the basis of subdivision either the special
conditions of one climatic element, or similar conditions of a
combination of two or more elements. Or we may take a
botanical or a zoological basis. Of the various classifications
which have been suggested, that of Supan gives a very rational,
simple and satisfactory scheme of grouping. In this scheme
there are thirty-five so-called climatic provinces. 1 It emphasizes
the essentials of each climate, and serves to impress these
essentials upon the mind by means of a compact, well-considered
verbal summary in the case of each province described.
Obviously, no classification of climates which is at all complete
can approach the simplicity of the ordinary classification of
the zones.
1 A. Supan, Grundxuge der pkysischen Erdkunde (3rd ed., Leipzig.
*9°3). PP- 21 1-214- Also Alias of Mclcorolo&s PL 1.
5H
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
The Characteristics of the Torrid Zone.
General: Climate and Weather. — The dominant characteristic
of the torrid zone is the simplicity and uniformity of its climatic
features. The tropics lack the proverbial uncertainty and
changeableness of the weather of higher latitudes. Weather and
climate arc essentially synonymous terms. Periodic phenomena,
depending upon the daily and annual march of the sun, are
dominant. Non-periodic weather changes are wholly subordinate.
In special regions only, and at special seasons, is the regular
sequence of weather temporarily interrupted by an occasional
tropical cyclone. These cyclones, although comparatively in-
frequent, are notable features of the climate of the areas in
which they occur, generally bringing very heavy rains. The
devastation produced by one of these storms often affects the
economic condition of the people in the district of its occurrence
for many years.
Temperature.— The mean temperature is high, and very
uniform over the whole zone. There is little variation during the
year. The mean annual isotherm of 68° is a rational limit at the
polar margins of the zone, and the mean annual isotherm of 8o°
encloses the greater portion of the land areas, as well as much of
the tropical oceans. The warmest latitude circle for the year is
not the equator, but latitude io° N. The highest mean annual
temperatures, shown by the isotherm of 85 , arc in Central Africa,
in India, the north of Australia and Central America, but, with
the exception of the first, these areas are small. The tempera-
tures average highest where there is little rain. In June, July
and August there arc large districts in the south of Asia and
north of Africa with temperatures over oo°.
Over nearly all of the zone the mean annual range of tempera-
ture is less than io°, and over much of it, especially on the oceans,
it is less than 5 . Even near the margins of the zone the ranges
arc less than 25 , as at Calcutta, Hong-Kong, Rio dc Janeiro and
Khartum. The mean daily range is usually larger than the mean
annual. It has been well said that " night is the winter of the
tropics." Over an area covering parts of the Pacific and Indian
Oceans from Arabia to the Caroline Islands and from Zanzibar to
New Guinea, as well as on the Guiana coast, the minimum
temperatures do not normally fall below 68°. Towards the
margins of the zone, however, the minima on the continents fall to
or even below 32 . Maxima of 115 and even over 120 occur
over the deserts of northern Africa. A district where the mean
maxima exceed 113 extends from the western Sahara to north-
western India, and over Central Australia. Near the equator the
maxima arc therefore not as high as those in many so-called
" temperate " climates. The tropical oceans show remarkably
small variations in temperature. The " Challenger " results on
the equator showed a daily range of hardly 0.7 in the surface
water temperature, and P. G. Schott determined the annual
range as 4-1° on the equator, 4-3° at latitude io°, and 6-5° at
latitude 20 .
The Seasons. — In a true tropical climate the seasons are not
classified according to temperature, but depend on rainfall and the
prevailing winds. The life of animals and plants in the tropics,
and of man himself, is regulated very largely, in some cases almost
wholly, by rainfall. Although the tropical rainy season is
characteristically associated with a vertical sun, that season is not
necessarily the hottest time of the year. It often goes by the
name of winter for this reason. Towards the margins of the zone,
with increasing annual ranges of temperature, seasons in the
extra-tropical sense gradually appear.
Physiological Effects of Heat and Humidity. — Tropical heat is
associated with high relative humidity except over deserts and in
dry seasons. The air is therefore muggy and oppressive. The
high temperatures are disagreeable and hard to bear. The
" hot-house air " has an enervating effect. Energetic physical
and mental action are often difficult or even impossible. The
tonic effect of a cold winter is lacking. The most humid districts
in the tropics are the least desirable for persons from higher
latitudes', the driest are the healthiest. The most energetic
natives arc the desert-dwellers. The monotonously enervating
heat of the humid tropics makes man sensitive to slight tempera-
ture changes. The intensity of direct insolation, as well as of
radiation from the earth's surface, may produce heat prostration
and sunstroke. " Beware of the sun " -is a good rule in the
tropics.
Pressure. — The uniform temperature distribution in the
tropics involves uniform pressure distribution. Pressure
gradients arc weak. The annual fluctuations arc slight, even or.
the continents. The diurnal variation of the barometer is so
regular and so marked that, as von Humboldt said, the time of
day can be told within about twenty minutes if the reading of the
barometer be known.
Winds and Rainfall. — Along the barometric equator, where the
pressure gradients are weakest, is the equatorial belt of calms,
variable winds and rains — the doldrums. This belt offers
exceptionally favourable conditions for abundant rainfall, and is
one of the rainiest regions of the world, averaging probably about
100 in. Here the sky is prevailingly cloudy; the air is hot and
oppressive; heavy showers and thunderstorms are frequent,
chiefly in the afternoon and evening. Here are the dense tropical
forests of the Amazon and of equatorial Africa. This belt of
calms and rains shifts north and south of the equator after the
sun. In striking contrast are the easterly trade winds, blowing
between the tropical high pressure belts and the equatorial belt
of low pressure. Of great regularity, and contributing largely to
the uniformity of tropical climates, the trades have long been
favourite sailing routes because of the steadiness of the wind, the
in frequency of storms, the brightness of the skies and the fresh-
ness of the air. The trades are subject to many variations.
Their northern and southern margins shift north and south after
the sun; at certain seasons they are interrupted, often over wide
areas near their equatorward margins, by the migrating belt of
equatorial rains and by monsoons; near lands they are often
interfered with by land and sea breezes; in certain regions they
are invaded by violent cyclonic storms. The trades, except
where they blow on to windward coasts or over mountains, are
drying winds. They cause the deserts of northern Africa and of
the adjacent portions of Asia; of Australia, South Africa and
southern South America. The monsoons on the southern and
eastern coasts of Asia are the best known winds of their class
In the northern summer the south-west monsoon, warm and
sultry, blows over the latitudes from about io° N. to and beyond
the northern tropic, between Africa and the Philippines, giving
rains over India, the East Indian archipelago and the eastern
coasts of China. In winter, the north-cast monsoon, the normal
cold-season outflow from Asia combined with the north-east
trade, and generally cool and dry, covers the same district,
extending as far north as latitude 30*. Crossing the equator,
these winds reach northern Australia and the western islands of
the South Pacific as a north-west rainy, monsoon, while this
region in the opposite season has the normal south-east trade.
Other monsoons are found in the Gulf of Guinea and in equatorial
Africa. Wherever they occur, they control the seasonal changes.
Tropical rains arc in the main summer rains, coming when the
normal trade gives way to the equatorial belt of rains, or when the
summer monsoon sets in. There arc, however, many cases of a
rainy season when the sun is low, expecially on windward coasts
in the trades. Tropical rains come usually in the form of heavy
downpours and with a well-marked diurnal period, the maximum
varying with the locality between noon and midnight. Local
influences arc, however, very important, and in many places
night rainfall maxima arc found.
Land and Sea Breezes. — The sea breeze is an important
climatic feature on many tropical coasts. With its regular
occurrence, and its cool, clean air, it serves to make many
districts habitable for white settlers, and has deservedly won the
name of " the doctor." On not a few coasts, the sea breeze is a
true prevailing wind. The location of dwellings is often deter-
mined by the exposure of a site to the sea breeze.
Thunderstorms. — Local thunderstorms arc frequent in the
humid portions of the tropics. They have a marked diurnal
periodicity, find their best opportunity in the equatorial belt
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
5'5
of weak pressure gradients and high temperature, and are
commonly associated with the rainy season, being most common
at the beginning and end of the regular rains. In many places,
thunderstorms occur daily throughout their season, with extra-
ordinary regularity and great intensity.
Cloudiness.— T&ken as a whole, the tropics are not favoured
with such dear skies as is often supposed. Cloudiness varies
about as does the rainfall. The maximum is in the equatorial
belt of calms and rains, where the sky is always more or less
cloudy. The minimum is in the trade latitudes, where fair skies
as a whole prevail. The equatorial cloud belt moves north and
south after the sun. Wholly clear days are very rare in the
tropics generally, especially near the equator, and during the
rainy season heavy clouds usually cover the sky. Wholly
overcast, dull days, such as are common in the winter of the
temperate zone, occur frequently only on tropical coasts in the
vicinity of cold ocean currents, as on the coast of Peru and on
parts of the west coast of Africa.
Intensity of Sky-Light and Turilight.— The light from tropical
skies by day is trying, and the intense insolation, together with
the reflection from the ground, increases the general dazzling
glare under a tropical sun. During much of the time smoke
from forest and prairie fires (in the dry season), dust (in deserts),
and water-vapour give the sky a pale whitish appearance. In
the heart of the trade-wind belts at sea the sky is of a deeper
blue. Twilight within the tropics is shorter than in higher
latitudes, but the coming on of night is less sudden than is gener-
ally assumed.
Climatic Subdivisions. — The rational basis for a classification
of the larger climatic provinces of the torrid zone is found in the
general wind systems, and in their control over rainfall. Follow-
ing this scheme there are: (i) the equatorial belt; (a) the trade-
wind belts; (3) the monsoon belts. In each of these sub-
divisions there are modifications due to marine and continental
influences. In general, both seasonal and diurnal phenomena
are more marked in continental interiors than on the oceans,
islands and windward coasts. Further, the effect of altitude
is so important that another group should be added to include
(4) mountain climates.
1. The Equatorial Belt.— Within a few degrees of the equator,
and when not interfered with by other controls, the annual curve
of temperature has
two maxima follow-
ing the two zenithal
positions of the sun,
and two minima at
about the time of
the solstices. This
equatorial type of
annual march of
temperature is illus-
trated in the three
curves for the interior
of Africa, Batavia
and Jaluit (fig. 4).
The greatest range is
shown in the curve
for the interior of
Fie. a.—Annual march of temperature: Africa; the curve for
sular conditions with
less range, and the oceanic type for Jaluit, Marshall Islands,
gives the least range. This double maximum is not a universal
phenomenon, there being many cases where but a single maximum
occurs.
As the belt of rains swings back and forth across the equator
after the sun, there should be two rainy seasons with the sun
vertical, and two dry seasons when the sun is farthest from the
zenith, and while the trades blow. These conditions prevail on
the equator, and as far north and south of the equator (about
io°-ia°) as sufficient time elapses between the two zenithal
positions of the sun for the two rainy seasons to be distinguished
J. A, S. . H 0-
from one another. In this belt, under normal conditions, there is
therefore no dry season of any considerable duration. The double
rainy season is clearly seen in equatorial Africa and in parts of
equatorial South America. The maxima lag somewhat behind
the vertical sun, coming in April and November, and are un-
symmetrically developed, the first maximum being the principal
one. The minima arc also unsymmetrically developed, and the
so-called " dry seasons " are seldom wholly rainless. This rainfall
type with double maxima and minima has been called the
equatorial type, and is illustrated in the following curves for
South Africa and Quito (fig. 5). The monthly rainfalls are given
S^SPSt "£—*'•■»■»**'■*""
mean annual rainfall
at Quito is 42-12 in.
These double rainy and
dry seasons are easily
modified by other con-
ditions, as by the mon-
soons of the Indo-
Australian area, so
that there is no rigid
belt of equatorial rains
extending around
the world. In South
America, east of the
Andes, the distinction
between rainy and dry
seasons is often much
confused. In this equa-
torial belt the cloudi-
ness is high through-
out the year, averaging
•7 to -8, with a rela-
tively small annual
period. The curve fol-
lowing, E (fig. 6), is
fairly typical, but the
annual period varies
greatly under local
controls.
At greater distances
from the equator than
about io° or 12° the
sun is still vertical
twice a year within
the tropics, but the
interval between these two dates is so short that the two rainy
seasons merge into one, in summer, and there is also but one dry
season, in winter. This is the so-called tropical type of rainfall,
and is found where the trade belts arc encroached upon by the
equatorial rains during the migration of these rains into each
hemisphere. It is illustrated in the curves for Sao Paulo, Brazil
and for the city of
Mexico (fig. 5). The ,»_J
mean annual rainfall at
Sio Paulo is 54-13 in. -.
and at Mexico 2209 i°- t^^-
The districts of tropical
rains of this type lie
along the equatorial
margins of the torrid
zone, outside of the lati-
tudes of the equatorial
type of rainfall. The
rainy season becomes
shorter with increasing distance from the equator. The weather
of the opposite seasons is strongly contrasted. The single
dry season lasts longer than cither dry season in the equatorial
belt, reaching eight months in typical cases, with the wet
season lasting four months. The lowlands often become dry
and parched during the long dry trade-wind season (winter)
J. f M. A. M. J. J. A, 5. 0. K D. J-
Fie. 5. — Annua) march of rainfall in the
tropics.
S.A, South Africa. M, Mexico.
Q. Quito. 11, Hilo.
S.P, Sao Paulo. P.D, Port Darwin.
Fig. 6. — Annual march of cloudiness
in the tropics. E, Equatorial type;
M, Monsoon type.
5i6
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
and vegetation withers away, while grass and flowers grow
in great abundance and all life takes on new activity during
the time when the equatorial rainy belt with its calms,
variable winds and heavy rains is over them (summer). The
Sudan lies between the Sahara and the equatorial forests of
Africa. It receives rains, and its vegetation grows actively,
when the doldrum belt is north of the equator (May- August).
But when the trades blow (December-March) the ground is
parched and dusty. The Venezuelan llanos have a dry season
in the northern winter, when the trade blows. The rains come
in May-October. The campos of Brazil, south of the equator,
have their rains in October-April, and are dry the remainder of
the year. The Nile
WOT
X A. S. 0. N. D. J,
; overflow results
from the rainfall on
the mountains of
Abyssinia during
the northward mi-
gration of the belt
of equatorial rains.
, The so-called
™ tropical type of
temperature varia-
tion, with one maxi-
mum and one mini-
mum, is illustrated
in the accompany-
ing curves for Wadi
Haifa, in upper
Egypt; Alice
S^t.t^i. Australia;
Nagpjr, Ir.dja;
Hoaoi J j . Ha vaii ;
ati Jixe&'.'/ws, Si
Htl*:-i '£*.:;. Tut
efee: cf the ralr.y
i*i son is of:t.\
tzx of
te=?en:
Bf^:. — Tzs zn.'Jt
\rtLzs =*tir sea-It *tl
i I j j I areiincierje-i^y
Icr: nl^i oc r.K
if- RXKjjJLSCfciJ. Ui» :<" n-i
heat, accentuated by the absence of vegetation, are disagreeable,
but the calmer nights, with active radiation under clear skies,
are much more comfortable. The nocturnal temperatures are
even not seldom too low for comfort in the cooler season,
when thin sheets of ice may form.
While the trades are drying winds as long as they blow strongly
over the oceans, or over lowlands, they readily become rainy
if they are cooled by ascent over a mountain or highland. Hence
the windward (eastern) sides of mountains or bold coasts in the
trade-wind belts arc well watered, while the leeward sides, or
interiors, are dry. Mountainous islands in the trades, like the
Hawaiian islands, many of the East and West Indies, the
Philippines, Borneo, Ceylon, Madagascar, Tcneriffe, &c, show
marked differences of this sort. The eastern coasts of Guiana
Central America, south-eastern Brazil, south-eastern Africa,
and eastern Australia are well watered, while the interiors are
dry. The eastern highland of Australia constitutes a more
effective barrier than that in South Africa; hence the Australian
interior has a more extended desert. South America in the
south-east trade belt is not well enclosed on the east, and the
most arid portion is an interior district close to the eastern base
of the Andes where the land is low. Even far inland the Andes
again provoke precipitation along their eastern base, and the
narrow Pacific coastal strip, to leeward of the Andes, a a very
pronounced desert from near the equator to about lat. 30° S. The
cold ocean waters, with prevailing southerly (drying) winds
alongshore, arc additional factors causing this aridity. Highlands
in the trade belts are therefore moist on tlicir windward slopes,
and become oases of luxuriant plant growth, while close at band,
on the Reward sides, dry savannas or deserts may be found
The damp, rainy and forested windward side of Central America
was from the earliest days of European occupation left to the
natives, wl.jh the centre of civilization was naturally established
on the rr.',rc open and sunny south-western side.
The rainfall associated with the conditions just described a
k.wt as the trade type. These rains have a maximum in winter
1 A Airs
er^iEsS n-x V 'A;
So-.w: K. K.-jc
hstc**: X. Xac:^:.
;a«. a»i a cresixscy aof rtr £*?-.? :e -n
ik aces* *s» .r :« its >rj: ic -j a
ink cqaa&k s. :he wsr-i tie prtj^ac sr^fas : "tr tiiat
: lis in -jss. x-i-Mt tin j-iar ±=-^*
d the c^BBBCasnl ra-: :»i: r:tn.* te^wres jw.i. r: : lzz ;-s : .
«wa*«ltepeft: ^srrj :i _:-f tr z. Ti-as i^ins ls-^:.i
oavafe *» tke •aitrs ri» r- _:e Kivxri vascsrs zhjf^ a"
KvU^ShEJ AJ33. i-T- =*■-.! r -=ii— iiX.
I •■« Aa CMMntav acrr ;r* zz^: : j: :.^ .\ m ^z- a :it _-*-ii-
9 «U^aa Vmb i^"' -c *-•-> »-"«= i---*? _. -LT -t.--
■ri^. ni Wta « ^ - -^ ^' i-"= -a=-- ■*- T"w c 1-
unnnne ■amia^iMBS ~ja jl:<- ■: .»: v..: : -■■-. m-: ru.
^ cry season. The curve for Hilo (mean annual rainftl
lxi :x . l-. on the windward side of the Hawaiian Islands, shows
1: ** JT * , '- r - T" or "* ( ^* fi «- 5). The trade t>-pe of rainfall is oka
r-^: cir^:a:ed by the combination with it of the tofe-a
•.;.7< as.- o: :r.c w^j^ii type. In the Malay archipelago tin
^V.t^^T-'^ 1011 * of cquatorial and lradc rain *; ^ke^
■■■"■» ;J;' x *^ ; ; 5 ~ In a typical monsoon region the ixia
:;:'.' _ .1^. ?*"* and therefore have a simple annex
--"/ir/.:" "t* a r of thc topical type above desaftet
t.T\:^^l- ypt 0f rainfaI1 » well illustrated in the or*
"' V: f r mean an nwl rainfaU 6272 in.), in Austab
. -.JVr V - - _.\-*. suminc ' mon&oon rainfall results froa a
r« ■•'-- ^"' **""• molsl «'r from thc sea uponahD*
Z Z, .'. . " ": " -*^wnt retardation of thc velocity of ik 1
ir: '."~7: ;~ i .l c ? ll, l l 2 f fr «ciion, and an ascent of the air. &
\'ZZZ'Z Z Z "2- -T* "j , f hcav y w hcre thc winds have toc^:
• iT- -jd^-T • -v ^in ' thc Precipitation is heaviest k b ■ -
r/V. .. i. r"".\ 0I » cn pl (where Chcrrapunji, at the bep I ^>
-f v-- xacl-"-"* ■ M ^i,,s, has a mcan annua l rainJsli I "=
"-V- r~ir ■ - - •"-" 'T In) ' **° n * lhc southern base of the T f *~
Z'^. . I - ^" ~ . on lhc bol, l western coast of the po
■- ■ -Vs -r N ! Ver ^ and on lnc mo " n tains of ]
■IT.'./', . . r ' (hc n «n-shadow of the Western Ghaa » J
" . . " .' ::;*7 frc J B drought ami famine unless the rao^
-,- . ■ .",""1 ""'" Md * cU distributed. The prevailincv
^7- ^ -""- ■' . c . ons<>on wind in India is south-wesr «» I
I. , . -, " t* r "".-*: ,l w *>uth east. This monsoon M
" i-: -2 '■"• -""" "^ lhc lm,ian ^ea". Arabian Sea *
T.; -7*T ?;' . i V"- l:n K continental areas; the P»A *
— -""V.""-^" 1 "".. i'°.* and J a l» an «*as, ami nmnerom 1
:_T : " ." .„ " ;^*ha!:n on thc north ami to the It
■ --. ra$s. A typical temperature curve for IS
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
.W
!iapr. ■ ike baSta IVvcaa ,a* *\ *»i a
mzsxem cznx s ff -wax a ag ?.^r8uu&ut
• tie use ae tic rrrtxai sua. a lie mj&j jouco.
gad tae cr-r ttt-t is tbe cry seuec
la tbe Azsz^Liz. zsccscca repo^. *bx& n»c^ lews*
Xcst Gr-'-an aad zz* 5u£a IsLltcs. a-x£ we*: os V^*:ra-^. :*
the f*** ; -»* Ocsx=. over »:ir*.naes o*-:c* S . :Sr r\'^,w. «.:■*
osaee w~a north- vest winds m tbe perxvi be; acts Noww:Nt
aadMarcaorA^L
The general rJe that eastern coasts in tbe i^ are (V
nnaieat nods extepboci ia the cue ct tbe raisy »c»:ccn a\*»c»
m India and other districts wi:b si=ular n»rv*wft rain*. i^» the
coast of the Gulf of Guinea, for euopJe. there ts a snutl iam>
■■■■won area during the summer; heavy rains ull on ihe
seaward slopes of the Cameroon Mount* La*. tionV, U 1 . 1 5* X ..
OB the coast of Senegambia. gives a nne examine of a rainj
(smauner) and a dry (winter) monsoon. Numerous comhin* lion*
of equatorial, trade and monsoon rainfall* are fouiul, often
ating great complexity. The islands of the Fast Indian ar\ hi-
► furnish many examples of such curious complication*.
4. Mountain Cliwtate. — In the torrid cone altitude is chii-lly
important because of its effect in tcm|>cring the heat of the
lowlands, especially at night. If tropical mountains are high
h, they carry snow all the year round, even on the equator,
1 the zones of vegetation may range from the densest tropiiitl
forest at their base to the snow on their summits. The highlands
and mountains within the tropics are thus often sharply con-
trasted with the lowlands, and offer more agreeable and nunc
healthy conditions for white settlement. They are thus often
sought by residents from colder latitudes as the most ntlrai live
resorts. In India, the hill stations arc crowded during the hot
months by civilian and military officials. The climate of many
tropical plateaus and mountains has the reputation of being a
" perpetual spring." Thus on the interior plateau of the I ropli al
Cordilleras of South America, and on the pluteaus of tropical
Africa, the heat is tempered by the altitude, while the lowlands
and coasts are very hot. The rainfall on tropical mountains and
highlands often differs considerably in amount from that on the
lowlands, and other features common to mountain 1 liiimtts the
world over are also noted.
The Characteristics of the Temperate Zones.
General.— As a whole, the " temperate zone* " are Urn penile
only in that their mean temperatures and their phyaiologi' al
effects are intermediate between those of the tropk* and i\vnr.
•f the polar zones. A marked charigeablene** of the w«-aih<r
h a striking characteristic of theie zon«*. Appan r»ily it »« gul;<f
and haphazard, these continual weather '.hango, although tiny
are essentially non-periodic, neverthel'^t run through a fauly
systematic series. Climate and weather art by u» u+mu%
ayaoaymous over mott of the extra tropical Utiiuka.
Temper zivre. — Tbe mean a.*j£u*l tom;«trat>jr'A *i the vnn^.i.%
•f the north terx.pt ra*e zotve f.JI-.r by ns,r< than }»,\ \\*
between tfct ttjaxi terr.peraiJLr'tt. *A isAu-j tuA ",.'■,• .1
:hs reach 120'' at t f *ei/ gu/.v.'jo. jr. t**ni.i±*uir. ',./*».,,
be? is, N'-nh Aiur!:*. A J*-*..i'/ f.v*j. of '•/ a.vi •
-Jar/ me.s of vr*. *•*•* fc**.** *A ****t ivf *.-*'. « ■■ ■■* -A
\ ocr-r sz. u* tar* vjt*. '.«-<• u #«*-• W4p\ • +»*.•*/./*
ei'-t» a.v; v.zarj.i. x 'is>.' '■#». a % -.jis*. V ••* «/■**!-■
ft§ sl VxSjLa- l.'-i u/j& i«-" . -'-*i «-*.v>/: '-••• '.-"*'. 'M
Over xwjlx v. .ut vjojh •/. .'jt j rj^». »•.,/. «'/'^-; '?j» tx m.
^OKtgt .; r.A ''.a.: -S '.'. '•* ;:•. i^»«i..» »#* -i^u * ••
*m ex.r*.::.» n.:^«.. « euki *.{;•} v.»- y, v . ■/■ 1:* ii«*'
4e Ei"5^ '-' -Ut AAKA il- V :; .■.-•V V Vd»- 1 ' IU« ••U >rf.- t
^Idvi «.:■•- *.u».n.iii. li ur^* u-t:* ryj^i.^x "u» C»k*i*-
C *"i«t ^-»r i.-a ..«.«» y. .ji.uu 1 ^i*t ij-.<.i. -•^,•■'1 /-..i*/^ *.!•
. >• ,i« i...i.rff.« 11 ^.1 ,^.* ; • . i» \rs* i.
.■A *. **C V i* ifcjf^ 1. ^ 1 '/ •■*'***
' «a»K Is .1*6* a»i at tW «mmWm« av***%>**<v* iov »^K»»as%
aw s;aiaX iSe av»«A» ma^^ a^v «W nV*m*> >M \*\t' i >»»sm» w*
t ^VK ttKV\.S Iv^ 1 -Sl lbs' %UlV« \^ |»M\iUl^M A»«l |U .itnU^tU lUtx^
. IXKt \'\ iV Psr.'WC t.\JV l h^ k\Ul\UkKtH uw\\ AMVM»I i\» *t<4»ll
I t»\« KKV.(Kv iWtU A»d «kU^U luw A «««uk»vV t« A *>v4
i HHit^ ami «mui Autuuw, \w*uvw«l», t>» »iutiUt («m^s^u^«
' in U'lh «t«.iug ami ull
!%«>«*•» J«j|l MKlV IIW |MV\AlUlVg Wttldi A)\ th« " W^*U»
Ih-t," »hl\h4IV lUUkh K'-u l\K««Ul 1)WIU th« tlri.k* \\\y\ \A\\
giVAtb in Ncksii.s m dtllcivul (viih^ia *\\\\ \\\ slutv^^t <,^«vh<
and ai«' »liiuigvi in >ntiiU-« th.iu iu Miming \h*\ ■*»» ««tiu li
iuUttct\>l \»iih, i^|s\ull> tit tho hi||Wi iimihi i»» Itiut.di^ \\\
mnuoimI 1 h.tn^i «0 lvimviiiluiv And pi« »*»»v »»n i i lh« tiMiittii nl«
Hhrivbv the Ulici c*tM>lut», iiumc iM K*i «m ». --Ui*h . * *\ \*m
i»f obh«|uel> oiillhiMiiiii wiudk 111 w Intel mid id id>lii|in \\ i«nt«i%iiii H
wiiith in tunuiiei . Inauumtvi, ^li»u \\\\ l-iitiU \\*\\ Um pn- tun .
the iiMtheni ihvsiih am iloiimtiiliil hi 1pc.1l ms^I «ii».u w\ lush
pic»me, with oullliinilhg apii.il iddi»», wltiln lu hIiiiu, hIhii
tlh* noithi'ill liilida h.ivv lil||h pit<Mmi>, th»» limlhiiii pi >i I Ion*
»if the tHriina ili'velnp titloiili mat una id litlltiHlii|| i«hid« mil
I hell win in Hrttui. All iIkm 1 vifd iiniiiiuiilitl itud un4iiii
»y«loni* id hpliiillmg MlmU nit lin|H<iMlil illhiiilli iMiiliidk
The Ht'ntiiliin uir al-u itnn It nudum d ttnd liilmiiiiltd l»>
htorius, hIh'ih r I hill ditl^iiiillmi id Wi>ii«y Wtihilh* ho
(-iHiimmi uir mu h lull nupllnitii HimI lln< punnlllitH wi*lui|
wind iliirilloii U idli-ii dlllnull In dliiiin HllhiMd miilui
olMM'rvHllon. Cyiluiili kluiMia mu imt-l iuiiiii-imim mid lu-tl
itevelnfNil In wlnhi- Alllimtgli h< • •* t Iv Inliilmd *iili in-m
■ru Irvrl by toiilllii lilttl ihmi|(i« u( pn-Mitin, hy ik-iloitli Mild
niitlf yiloidi whllU, mid by |<md Im i|«i.illlli n u| tin. uiodoi. Iln
I'lmlwmd luovi im nl ol tin iilHi'^plii m hhikIm* w»y himhUiiI
llloll. 'I III' WMlf ll liliipililli rillii- |n|ll|l ilililly •*■»•», ill*
wchlillin ull lull llllli ilJilmlii 'I IImm by iiinllln »•! «■ I ■ tf» i la.
Hit wiMi lalll mil* 4<#* mnl '"*" ■) I In- " Iimvi. wrinl VflinU " blow
with a tonal j n< y and vil'i'My fiiiiinl In Mm ihiiIIhiii lii.fiil«*|<lii »■•
only on iIm oiimia, mid tin it hi a iiMHliliid Ihihi Mlmiii*,
frrqi|< nl mid hvh*, < luiim I11I/-1. Horn*, ami 1 In mi lo-Mil>phi »*>
Wll'lll'*, II lid l.l.Jllly toifl'l llllitlliflia MM- li |ll|#*M4lll/ |l'lt*d
during lb' If |«Mr.Migi Voy>'f<4 hi Id* »»i •! mi'HimI * xpi- II'/mi
agUJii*'! b''id K'd'h, and In "ild Vnt *i*l|j<f, mi- jim<< h lifted"!
'*<#ijlhof Alii* j whd AikIi-iIi.i, «il ««, i|i> mi .Ih||i..im *• turn i^bl/
r.fiwd/ *lA fclfiiig 'ili« vrji.lii In lli'.i l»m<j'l'- J. hl^<M'i*i
limn iIm kiiiiiift«f # \iu\ ih« i.'m^hi^I iMIjikik 1, U.- linn t*'tt*U
FtitnjHU I'l.lf.fidl U 1V11J/ i.b-ii.d«iii «/^f li.*- *i***4** *iid
*W» '//'» • 't/OJt'U l-i,U p«/l i A I i.i. Imti'U * y, **t Mi «'<d Ht*/Hf
/l '//IMI <}«.J tj/ jf« >*,it J /.',». *;'!• U< J «• ••*! *yl'*i.i* •-!'/« M». 1/4
.#. 1 b'«f^'*/> '>/!/'/* ■>/ gi'v 1 ■ »* •»»* tlttlttn.iA. K,*t.yi+\A,u
: f./J p« /«•/•;.« . if f* •.*«.! p#-,'J .«•': t// t'M* t> 1 »a * ii/ i«#i |^f» ' .«*.
*'*;s*yj*t/'i/ * /• Jn. ' **t' '. >!*•*. '»> . «i.»i //■ 1/ ii.' #1 •* ■ W •* nl
'.*<. «•«! i«< . .•! •.'/"!. fi* " <k ->/ifp.i>! it.*tf-i. 'A **■* '***'
j/» '4 "* ///'^ r. «. . <.«.f.^ *.*ii.tji in. i).4 pi< .#1 **,*..-•. m* lJ-»
^/f,» v 1. '^ »-v».- '-' ^« ««• f\*..**J, I// »** I - '/I J.*O.I </#
f'wVO«», < #. J;v- "...-., «/• "<^ [r/-.« > /- »/»•-»
*/*".***■ !■'/»» «/'-V. .' ■■•-'. »»^/«« • /* -i ii 'i^ *»>A- J i~iUi***t-»
:■ " *j w/i. . } tA '.* x t . '/ -n- it,.-: ..* 1 -, f»* Ij'/u. j «^ v • »«4r
• #^u« ■ / r''-«i ' #1. < •.' ^y.//. »*/ fno*. t 1^ i/4 |kJ>i i/J,f.i ',,*»
•j/ *.*fj '^At.' ••' *S. » t.s-i f».ii< »i'i :> j «-a<m<i/ «rf -■•-». *.^#4
./;■ '1 • '« ■ '+■* »•• 1 •'« **. ■■ / Jv*-*« '/^ * . «wi« »« v# 'iw<-
\ .*•?*•. •*..• ' ■ .< 1 1 »a m^ <//«..»^ y».n>* H -j.> *+*/M i§i
11-/ »■!■ I-. »..i.:.. '/••■* '/;^k, .^.m*^. *ts, *■«*#■ */**—. i*0 '*a
«.•_.*'..» ..»■ '««•« H*'/* «V'.*J < /«.>/!<«• ,/***. **• ti*+*' t.*t**l
*JV. i.i.'. '/i j <i' ■'■«/' i.l«t '4^ '/y*< -. .■•»#. '-III. '4rf rfttz/f'uy
*".«]., . .* /. I.. /•«•#* !«•/•■ ^ »<** >-.I^^MSV««f JI^S«-
;*• a, . ^ > ,V<.'_. .-. ', j I.-., . ^ ..A '/i'i Vj# V/if .1^1*,.
fc t« hi*^> *w fcJI# A ««h.iiMil •»!«' '<^ f+Js* j*uA pA»*» «rf# «•«>
r,,H
CMMATK AND CLIMATOLOGY
il-m li-i .■ il..»« tiiiiiliiinin 'llii wrtiin'i iiiiicrli) l/»ir,j/ I he
Hi i -lin <i'l I I ill i| " • lln • Mfllil.' *.»■-. ' '/li'Jlll'rlO ill' 1 lliUi
I iIJi f'H i»ifl'. -ii,,i iIimi|# .lu'l. Ii'iin id' .Hlj.Kifil i in, int.,
|l,.ii 1 lti> In I •.j.|i'hIhiiiI / f'il xiiiyi i li'fii. lliiiiuli I :>IjOW' I*
n nhl, ill il<|i «.n rln l.-.i nlhiM i-, I In ».i|r.n My ill tin ii ir
|.,i ...i.j ..j i |'ii ■•)■ < I In iii.iiiin l/|n ill i.iinl.iM, with
H <llii> I Il.-Hlll. I ■ l> ■•>■ • III ■• • I III- V • ll Ml ll«r|l|. |-| l|| I 111'
llii i i "I •■ < I in I'" »ImI. i Mini, ill nl (In- .Mil,
|i..ji|. i| I,. M I' ilnl-ill -hi Ik ■--)' I iilm.]' lln ll.iiliul |un:.l
III >|IM III I , > !• ■■« !• • lullll •
I .■! i ...iilin nl.d .l.il -. tin lij... il ilillv in inli i>( l.iliil.ill
. tin i .i i lil. I *-llniMii In lln nlli niii'iii, mill il m i iitnl.i I V
In i -Iii.i.ih In lln iilflil 1 1 1 \ iii.iinlii|i I In i hh I liitntlililfil
• ■■mi . 1 1. 1 1 • • ii in \ ii mill i I 1 M In i:.l il. i Hi mi |ii In I it II V ll.i\r
.1 nil lil in i In! hi. I .i iiilnliiiiilii In iHirn |n % M ■» Mil .| P U.
ll.,t....:.,i .tn / i .' .../ i '■ A Aiituiihii ijivi.n llir iiiimii
.|..li.llii. >.l..| .llll.i.iil l.illlllili ■ .M li'llmta
"
P
l'»
in"
.v»
!■■!
.1*
!••
.|M
I Ii. Itlnli. I I 1 1 il tt.l
l l.'W.lln. .« i, In. Ii i .pi il. .mil i V « 11 l Mil til ill. it ,i| I III' i>i]ll.lt«Mi.ll
lull I lii kiii.-iml • -Hi i.i « « I % i ii\n llu iiu'.liri ,ili> I nM'.li Ih.lll
lnliii.l Hi. I>. Il • .■! minimum i l.m.luu -.-i .in* .il iil»i»\ll l.il. W'"*
N .llltl »l III, I ilk* iHllllllilll.il llll.ll.>|l lilt' tUillilh it MMNtill
|. ..1111111111 I'm ilit .iiiitMMil l« iu\ti \ti\ l.ili'.t* OlheiWlse.
ii i.ii, i i. »,i ii. . itl\ id. , Uiiuli. .( ., i .'it .iiixl muIi .% t.uiU high
tut in iiim> il iiii-iiiiii
|li, |l...l.ii. IiiiIi,..! .* K« lllh,i|, J,. I, l',vh|!','u PjVl.ltlLkV
of pi ri«#di« diurnal <:lrmci:ls, under the regular control oi the
hint, .irnl of noii- per \wY\k cyclonic and anticyclonic elements. la
MUfiiinr, on land, when the cyclonic element is weakest and the
r.ol.ii 'i/nirol ii flu- :.trongf'it, the dominant types are associated
ttiili lln- r«-gul.ir rhanges from day to night. Daytime cumulus
< I'mmK; <liiiin;il variation in wind velocity; afternoon thundir-
..Ifiuii:., with <<>iiM'l<:r;iMc regularity, characterize the warmest
mo n tin tivn I In: coiiliiiriil.s nnd present an analogy with tropical
i (iimIm i'»ir>. ( 'yi Ionic, and anticyclonic spells of hotter or cooler,
i. liny in dry, weather, with varying winds differing in the
li iiipi latum, ami the moisture which they bring, serve to break
I In' n-gul.uily of the diurnal types. In winter the non-periodic,
i v'l'Miit (oiitmliNst longest. The irregular changes from clear to
\ Imiily, Iidiii wanner to colder, from dry air to snow or rain,
rtlruil over large ureas, nnd show little diurnal control. Spring
nnd lull art- trn nation seasons, and have transition weather types.
Tin' south temperate zone oceans have a constancy of noa-
periodic cyclonic weather changes
through the year which is only
faintly imitated over the oceans
of the northern hemisphere.
a°_
5<»
5»>
Ml
Ch»*S.
75
I lln Ii ihi>, i.iii- «iihi'i thiit Imve it iiiiiin | Winter types differ little from summer. The diurnal control is
nr\ er vi'i y si mug. Stormy weather prevails throughout the yen
although the we.it her changes arc more frequent ar.d stronger m
lhi' i older months.
iVi»«i.:.':. N.i .'■.:. ■;■:'.* /.''i*.— There are fundamental difer^ces
Ivlweeii I lie i\»»ilh and south tenij^erat clones. The lztier zczt a
miiIu ientl\ ititli\ iduul to Iv given a pl.:ee by itself. The nirrjui
Mil* t iopie.il lvll» mu>t also ho ccr.>idcrcd as a separate gro.7 :y
t hi- ii> m- 1 \ » > Ihe nori h temper a : o -or. e as a who! ? is i " is -lt
ii'!- I In i»! .mi In in. I. it i\mv.o v ','', ii>,m\*«m
. ...i I k. Ii...'l llu.l, l |S. tN'u.i. U..I 1 Uil fl t\t
I .., ,1. y -i.l. i>.i I in. I |i)i.ni »Ji, \i.-i.l i! n.,i.> I l\,
»■« t in >>, ii%->i i i.m,v. I i. -i.i It !». :u< tin"^'. .i>'.l
.t-i. i. ■•» »-i i xt'lj. i 1 1. .,■,!.■ !■. ■ 'j; ,i.-.
'. »» i'\ei the
,"■. -1,'sl'l*.
» ! % in'.!» .in
'lAi.' i■.^*-. , . , . A
V %' "XV - »\l
;-\ ii > v.:
^ i \ x«; ;V
.'» i:v\ IS:
;,■■■ v *'.-:*"
k t. . .• >. . sv:
'Vr
uu\i> ol Uii*!. stretching oxer nur.y degrees c:
41 ol *Jlor. Meiuv it civ-br-ces ^ ri:v. a rouble z z:-tr&.:~ H
%\\w\.*w+ iS.it no >!::g , .» ,> di^:::;: car. be t-ker. as i^T^ii- :< ~:t
»*:o!, K l^' >isv|.\i>: .-.r.d r:o*: r-ticr.-I K:.r.: ::; • ; ^ssi>.^-
\\>\ o: :**»■»*• c!::-.- .■.:.-> a. b«>;v' os tbo l-r.iir- :--_^. iSeries
j.:c^n. W "-::»: ire ;S;- *_":c ..iii i - .:: - rs:;— t ^ii-.
ji ■ -J. »• ji ^ . .- : :•. . . c « i :■.■ cats:*. i~ i — : i ~: rs. M ; «.- : ^ - 1-ru .■«
<. i, j I'.^r.'. . /. i . — ?.vj.-a*r ^ ." -Jr-i .>.*ct :•: . -: >^-. . .-?. ".■*
• ■ :: ■■ '.'i! ■ ". v ■>,-." . * . "*: T"" : s: _". * : : — -.-.*■: : tc e.-'
-■-•■v - X*.- ,.•■ ::-ryezi:: ' I:* ::r:-.-. .-; :-_l:** at
j.r^ . > :.r : *i -^ ■ ■■ * irz >.:::;: ;- : *■ . . : ; - .-_:: 3 j»
:vf >. r T *■- -.s.:.v^; .i sc^j-ttj in t. ■ -: _: rr -^ ■»■£:.:■*
> "»*■■ i.. m :; "- jl-.tt :r —■-.-.' ::w-.:.. - :■:: — ■-• ir. :tr
.■■.■:.:.c .'.1: ^:i. T'tf iT -:.-r. - ,- : - ■ . r. . . : nzisL:'.^
:*- a;=¥. u-J
II ■ . * . . X .
In* mi t *•.... ,, •
tllll.1, !,...» . »
M llll, I ^|4|tl.l ."» » \
H'Mlllilll |ltl|||\l| t i . '.
* lilll llll-l\lM uli, ti l't k . t . ■
till m\. I ll.|l|||| H ,|, ^ „,| . t ,^ t . ,
I.l |lllipil. M .|..|, ||, k U tl ^ ^ t
"lll'll pK.-lllH • ^|l III H. J
'"••»• ••••* I Hln- ll« ,»i..
/fc * '•/'«- * -llii Iti* ,
■ re ?rtrcrcw
-?•-* «i'i ■■■*
»:2'*r *e
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CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
5*9
These winter rains are not steady and continuous, but are separ-
ated by spells of fine sunny weather. The amounts vary great ly. 1
In summer, when the trades are extended polewards by the out-
flowing equatorward winds on the eastern side of the ocean
anticyclones, mild, dry and nearly continuous fair weather
prevails, with general northerly winds.
The sub-tropical belts of winter rains and dry summers are
not very clearly defined. They are mainly limited to the western
coasts of the continents, and to the islands off these coasts in
latitudes between about 28 and 40 . The sub-tropical belt
is exceptionally wide in the old world, and reaches far inland
there, embracing the countries bordering on the Mediterranean
in southern Europe and northern Africa, and then extending
eastward across the Dalmatian coast and the southern part of
the Balkan peninsula into Syria, Mesopotamia, Arabia north
of the tropic, Persia and the adjacent lands. The fact that the
Mediterranean countries are so generally included has led to
the use of the name " Mediterranean climate." Owing to the
great irregularity of topography and outline, the Mediterranean
province embraces many varieties of climate, but the dominant
characteristics are the mild temperatures, except on the higher
elevations, and the sub-tropical rains.
On the west coasts of the two Americas the sub-tropical
belt of winter rains is dearly seen in California and in northern
Chile, on the west of the coast mountain ranges. Between the
region which has rain throughout the year from the stormy
westerlies, and the districts which are permanently arid under
the trades, there is an indefinite belt over which rains fall in
winter. In southern Africa, which is controlled by the high
pressure areas of the South Atlantic and south Indian oceans,
the south-western coastal belt has winter rains, decreasing to the
north, while the cast coast and adjoining interior have summer
rains, from the south-east trade. Southern Australia is climatic-
ally similar to South Africa. In summer the trades give rainfall
on the eastern coast, decreasing inland. In winter the westerlies
give moderate rains, chiefly on the south-western coast.
The sub-tropical climates follow the tropical high pressure
belts across the oceans, but they do not retain their distinctive
character far inland from the west coasts of the continents
(except in the Mediterranean case), nor on the east coasts. On
the latter, summer monsoons and the occurrence of general
summer rains interfere, as in eastern Asia and in Florida.
Strictly winter rains are typical of the coasts and islands of
this belt. The more continental areas have a tendency to spring
and autumn rains. The rainy and dry seasons are most marked
at the equatorward margins of the belt. With increasing
latitude, the rain is more evenly distributed through the year,
the summer becoming more and more rainy until, in the con-
1 r «j * .i ■ *> * a, a 1 tinental interiors of
t the higher UtitudcSi
the summer becomes
the season of maxi-
mum rainfall. The
monthly distribution
of rainfall in two sub-
tropical regions is
shown in the accom-
panying curves for
Malta and for Western
J, F t M A M< J J A. S. 0. N. D J. Australia (fig. 8). In
Fie. 8.— Annual March of Rainfall : Sub- Alexandria the dry
tropical Type. W.A, Western Australia: season lasts nearly
M.Malta, eight months; in
Palestine, from six to seven months; in Greece, about four
months. The sub-tropical rains are peculiarly well developed
on the eastern coast of the Atlantic Ocean.
The winter rains which migrate equatorward are separated
by the Sahara from the equatorial rains which migrate poleward.
An unusually extended migration of either of these rain belts
may bring them close together, leaving but a small part, if any,
■ Approximately Lisbon has 2860 in.; Madrid, 1650; Algiers,
»8'I5; Nice, 33-00; Rome, 29-90; Ragusa, 6390.
of the Intervening desert actually rainless. The Arabian desert
occupies a somewhat similar position. Large variations in the
annual rainfall may be expected towards the equatorial margins
of the sub-tropical belts.
The main features of the sub-tropical rains east of the Atlantic
are repeated on the Pacific coasts of the two Americas. In
North America the rainfall decreases from Alaska, Washington
and northern Oregon southwards to lower California, and the
length of the summer dry season increases. At San Diego, six
months (May-October) have each less than 5% of the annual
precipitation, and four of these have 1%. The southern ex-
tremity of Chile, from about latitude 38 S. southward, has heavy
rainfall throughout the year from the westerlies, with a winter
maximum. Northern Chile is persistently dry. Between these
two there are winter rains and dry summer.!. Neither Africa
nor Australia extends far enough south to show the different
members of this system well. New Zealand is almost wholly in
the prevailing westerly belt Northern India is unique in
having summer monsoon rains and also winter rains, the latter
from weak cyclonic
storms which corrc- IP
spond with the sub-
tropical winterrains.
From the position
of the sub-tropical $&*
belts to leeward
of the oceans, and
at the equatorial e[yD
margins of the
temperate zones,
it follows that their
temperatures are not
extreme. Further,
the protection
afforded by moun-
tain ranges, as by ^°
the Alps in Europe
and the Sierra Ne-
vada in the United
States, is an import-
ant factor in keep-
ing out extremes of
winter cold. The 40°
annual march and
J. U 0. N, ft J.
I0QO
70
50C- -
Jf.
«0O
M.AM.J J, A 5, O. M DL J.
ranges of tempera- Fig. 9.— Annual March of Temperature for
tiire denem! unon seated Sub-tropical Stations. C, Cordoba;
lure depend upon A Auckland . Ba, Bermuda; Bd, Bagdad,
position with refer- ' *
ence to continental or marine influences. This is seen in
the accompanying data and curves for Bagdad, Cordoba
(Argentina) , Bermuda and Auckland (fig. 9). The Mediterranean
basin is particularly favoured in winter, not only in the protection
against cold afforded by the mountains but also in the high
temperature of the sea itself. The southern Alpine valleys
and the Riviera are well situated, having good protection and a
southern exposure. The coldest month usually has a mean
temperature well above 32 . Mean minimum temperatures
of about, and somewhat below, freezing occur in the northern
portion of the district, and in the more continental localities
minima a good deal lower have been observed. Mean maximum
temperatures of about 95 occur in northern Italy, and of still
higher degrees in the southern portions. Somewhat- similar
conditions obtain in the sub-tropical district of North America.
Under the control of passing cyclonic storm areas, hot or cold
winds, which often owe some of their special characteristics
to the topography, bring into the sub-tropical belts, from higher
or lower latitudes, unseasonably high or low temperatures.
These winds have been given special names (mistral, sirocco,
bora, &c).
These belts are among the least cloudy districts in the world.
The accompanying curve, giving an average for ten stations,
shows the small annual amount of cloud, the winter maxittwro,
and the marked summet mtvva\um« V& * Vftprab. w&**s»$K9^
520
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
„ 1 FM *■*■■»■ -
#— ^_
t
J — „,„
«
! E s:
n — .-
1 fc S P T*. a JL,
^1 ~1
1
-* '
,
fflTffl
climate (fig. io). The winter rains do not bring continuously
overcast skies, and a summer month with a mean cloudiness
of io% is not excep-
k« tional in the drier parts
* oi the sub-tropics.
1 j With prevailing fair
]* sides, even tempera-
; * tures, and moderate rain-
j fall, the sub-tropical belts
possess many climatic
y advantages which fit
_ . . .. , „ ~, „ them for health resorts.
Fig. io.— Annual March of Cloudiness Xhft i.__ Km§ - _. lf
in a Sub-tropical Climate (Eastern Medi- J he ton * tal of ™'
terranean). known resorts on the
Mediterranean coast,
and the shorter list for California, bear witness to this fact.
North Temperate Zone: West Coasts. — Marine climatic types
are carried by the prevailing westerlies on to the western coasts
of the continents, giving them mild winters and cool summers,
abundant rainfall, and a high degree of cloudiness and relative
humidity. North-western Europe is particularly favoured
because of the remarkably high temperatures of the North
Atlantic Ocean. January means of 40 to 50° in the British
Isles and on the northern French coast occur in the same latitudes
as those of o° and io° in the far interior of Asia. In July means
6o° to 70 in the former contrast with 70 to 8o° in the latter
districts. ' The conditions are somewhat similar in North America.
Along the western coasts of North America and of Europe the
mean annual ranges are under a$° — actually no greater than
some of those within the tropics. Irregular cyclonic temperat ure
changes are, however, marked in the temperate zone, while absent
in the tropics. The curves for the Scilly Isles and for Thorshavn,
Faroe Islands, illustrate the insular type of temperature on the
west coasts (fig. 11). The annual march of rainfall, with the
marked maximum in the fall and winter which is characteristic
of the marine regime, is illustrated in the curve for north-western
Europe (fig. 1 2). On the northern Pacific coast of North America
the distribution is
similar, and in the
southern hemisphere
the western coasts
of southern South
America, Tasmania
and New Zealand
show the same type.
The cloudiness and
relative humidity
average high on wes-
tern coasts, with the
maximum in the
colder season.
The west coasts
therefore, including
the important cli-
matic province of
M, A M. J> JL A 5, a tL 0. J.
F10. w.— Annual March of Rainfall: Tern- western Europe, and
Derate Zone C.E, Central Europe; A, the coast provinces of
Northern Ana; N.A, Atlantic coast of north-w^i^m Knrih
Ho^A»^;N.W.E.No rt h.w« S tEu ro pc.^ h n .^™ w N ^
land and southern Chile, have as a whole mild winters, equable
temperatures, small ranges, and abundant rainfall, fairly well
Attributed through the year. The summers are relatively cool.
GuriMMftfoJ Interiors.— The equable climate of the western
, gradually or suddenly, into the more extreme
1 of the interiors. In Europe, where no high mountain
fl ags tater rene, the transition is gradual, and broad stretches
«t country nun the benefits of the tempering influence of the
fltt. U*— 'famutUlfth of Temperature for Selected Stations in
« 1 u.m-1^. • the Temperate Zones.
& !. t SdB yMM t & fanipalatinsk. Sa, Sakhalin.
SB 1 ** KKhkta. T, Thorshavn.
Iilbtovyeshchentk. Y, Yakutsk.
SQ°
J. F. M. A. M. J, 1 A. S. 0, N.
5CF
40°
20°
30C
40*
SOP
J. f. M A. M J. J. A. & a t
%\Uk\U
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
5"
it In North America the change it abrupt, and comes
»ng the lofty western mountain barrier. The curves in
illustrate well the gradually increasing contincntality of
nate with increasing distance inland in Eurasia,
continental interiors of the north temperate zone have
atest extremes in the world. Towards the Arctic circle
ters are extremely severe, and January mean temperatures
' and -20° occur over considerable areas. At the cold
north-eastern Siberia a January mean of -6o° is found,
minimum temperatures of -40 occur in the area from
. Russia, over Siberia and down to about latitude 50° N.
10 small part of Siberia minimum temperatures below
ay be looked for every winter. Thorshavn and Yakutsk
ellent examples of the temperature differences along the
titudc line (see fig. 1 1). The winter in this interior region
inated by a marked high pressure. The weather is pre-
ly clear and calm. The ground is frozen all the year round
a slight depth over wide areas. The extremely low
atures are most trying when the steppes are swept by icy
winds (buran, purga), carrying loose snow, and often
ig in loss of life. In the North American interior the winter
somewhat less severe. North American winter weather in
latitudes is often interrupted by cyclones, which, under
cp poleward temperature gradient then prevailing, cause
it, marked and sudden changes in wind direction and
a lure over the central and eastern United States. Cold
md warm waves are common, and blizzards resemble the
or purga of Russia and Siberia. With cold northerly
temperatures below freezing are carried far south towards
pic
January mean temperatures in the southern portions of
tincntal interiors average about 50° or 6o°. In summer
rtbern continental interiors arc warm, with July means
and thereabouts. These temperatures are not much
than those on the west coasts, but as the northern interior
i are much colder than those on the coasts, the interior
are very large. Mean maximum temperatures of 86°
acyond the Arctic circle in north-eastern Siberia, and
. latitude 6o° in North America. In spile of the extreme
cold, agriculture extends remarkably far north in these
, because of the warm, though short, summers, with
ible rainfall distribution. The summer heat is sufficient
r the upper surface of the frozen ground, and vegetation
t for its short season. At this lime great stretches of flat
become swamps. The southern interiors have torrid
summer, temperatures of over oo° being recorded in the
testern United States and in southern Asia. In these
s the diurnal ranges of temperature are very large, often
Jig 40 , and the mean maxima exceed no°.
winter maximum rainfall of the west coasts becomes a
r maximum in the interiors. The change is gradual in
, as was the change in temperature, but more sudden in
America. The curves for central Europe and for northern
1st rate these continental summer rains (see fig. 12). The
r maximum becomes more marked with the increasing
tital character of the climate. There is also a well-
decrease in the amount of rainfall inland. In western
the rainfall averages 20 to 30 in., whith much larger
s (reaching 80-100 in. and even more) on the bold west
Is in the British Isles and Scandinavia, where the moist
: winds arc deflected upwards, and also locally on moun-
kges, as on the Alps. There are small rainfalls (below
in eastern Scandinavia and on the Iberian peninsula.
Europe has generally less than 20 in., western Siberia
I in., and eastern Siberia about 10 in. In the southern part
treat overgrown continent of Asia an extended region
»es and deserts, too far from the sea to receive sufficient
ation, shut in, furthermore, by mountains, controlled
tier by drying northerly winds, receives less than 10 in.
and in places less than 5 in. In this interior district of
pulation is inevitably small and suffers under a condition
less aridity.
The North American interior has more favourable rainfall con-
ditions than Asia, because the former continent is not overgrown.
The heavy rainfalls on the western slopes of the Pacific coast
mountains correspond, in a general way, with those on the west
coast of Europe, although they are heavier (over 100 in. at a
maximum). The close proximity of the mountains to the Pacific,
however, involves a much more rapid decrease of rainfall inland
than is the case in Europe, as may be seen by comparing the
isohyetal lines 1 in the two cases. A considerable interior region
is left with deficient rainfall (less than 10 in.) in the south-west.
The eastern portion of the continent is freely open to the Atlantic
and the Gulf of Mexico, so that moist cyclonic winds have access,
and rainfalls of over 20 in. are found everywhere cast of the 100th
meridian. These conditions are much more favourable than
those in eastern Asia. The greater part of the interior of North
America has the usual warm-season rains. In the interior basin,
between the Rocky and Sierra Nevada mountains, the higher
plateaus and mountains receive much more rain than the desert
lowlands. Forests grow on the higher elevations, while irrigation
is necessary for agriculture on the lowlands. The rainfall here
comes largely from thunderstorms.
In South America the narrow Pacific slope has heavy rainfall
(over 80 in.). East of the Andes the plains are dry (mostly less
than 10 in.). The southern part of the continent is very narrow,
and is open to the east, as well as more open to the west owing
to the decreasing height of the mountains. Hence the rainfall
increases somewhat to the south, coming in connexion with
passing cyclones. Tas- ±r *nku±jt%^H^j
mania and New Zealand ^ |~~ri — T ) l \ I I II I""! *
have most rain on their '
western slopes.
In a typical conti-
nental climate the
winter, except for radia-
tion fogs, is very dear, J ~
and the summer the J
cloudiest season, as is _ . .«.#*..-.
well shown in Uk .ccom- tJ^T^ £^£FSKK
panying curve for At Eastern Asia; M, mountain,
eastern Asia (A, fig. 13).
In a more moderate continental climate, such as that of central
Europe (E, fig. 13), and much of the United States, the winter is
the cloudiest season. In the first case the mean cloudiness is
small; in the second there is a good deal of cloud all the year
round.
East Coasts.— The prevailing winds carry the continental
climates of the interiors off over the eastern coasts of the
temperate zone lands, and even for some distance on to the
adjacent oceans. The east coasts therefore have continental
climates, wiih modifications resulting from the presence of the
oceans to leeward, and are necessarily separated from the west
coasts, with which they have little in common. On the west
coasts of the north temperate lands the isotherms are far apart.
On the cast coasts they are crowded together. The east coasts
share with the interiors large annual and cyclonic ranges of
temperature. A glance at the isothermal maps of the world will
show at once how favoured, because of its position to leeward of
the warm North Atlantic waters, is western Europe as compared
with eastern North America. A similar contrast, less marked, is
seen in eastern Asia and western North America. In eastern Asia
there is some protection, by the coast mountains, against the
extreme cold of the interior, but in North America there is no
such barrier, and severe cold winds sweep across the Atlantic
coast slates, even far to the south. Owing to the prevailing
offshore winds, the oceans to leeward have relatively little effect.
As already noted, the rainfall increases from the interiors
towards the cast coasts. In North America the distribution
through the year is very uniform, with some tendency to a
summer maximum, as in the interior (N.A, fig. 12).
In eastern Asia the winters are relatively dry and dear, under
1 i.e. lines drawn on a map to connect all places having an «QjiaL
rainfall.
522
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
the influence of the cold offshore monsoon, and the summers
arc warm and rainy. Rainfalls of 40 in. are found on the east
coasts of Korea, Kamchatka and Japan, while in North America,
which is more open, they reach farther inland. Japan, although
occupying an insular position, has a modified continental rather
than a marine climate. The winter monsoon, after crossing the
water, gives abundant rain on the western coast, while the winter
is relatively dry on the lee of the mountains, on the cast. Japan
has smaller temperature ranges than the mainland.
Mountain Climates. — The mountain climates of the temperate
zone have the usual characteristics which are associated with
altitude everywhere. If the altitude is sufficiently great the
decreased temperature gives mountains a polar climate, with the
difference that the summers are relatively cool while the winters
are mild owing to inversions of temperature in an ticy clonic
weather. Hence the annual ranges arc smaller than over
lowlands. At such times of inversion the mountain -tops often
appear as local areas of higher temperature in a general region of
colder air over the valleys and lowlands. The increased intensity
of insolation aloft is an important factor in giving certain
mountain resorts their deserved popularity in winter (e.g. Davos
and Mcran). Of Meran it has been well said that from December
to March the nights are winter, but the days arc mild spring. The
diurnal ascending air currents of summer usually give mountains
their maximum cloudiness and highest relative humidity in the
warmer months, while winter is the drier and clearer season.
This is shown in curve M, fig. 13. The clouds of winter arc low,
those of summer arc higher. Hence the annual march of cloudi-
ness on mountains is usually the opposite of that on lowlands.
Characteristics of the Polar Zones.
General.— The temperate zones merge into the polar zones at
the Arctic and Antarctic circles, or, if temperature be used as the
basis of classification, at the isotherms of 50 for the warmest
month, as suggested by Supan. The longer or shorter absence of
the sun gives the climate a peculiar character, not found elsewhere.
Beyond the isotherm of 50 for the warmest month forest trees
and cereals do not grow. In the northern hemisphere this line is
well north of the Arctic circle in the continental climate of Asia,
and north of it also in north-western North America and in
northern Scandinavia, but falls well south in eastern British
America, Labrador and Greenland, and also in the North Pacific
Ocean. In the southern hemisphere this isotherm crosses the
southern extremity of South America, and runs fairly east and
west around the globe there. The conditions of life arc
necessarily very specialized for the peculiar climatic features
which are met with in these zones. There is a minimum of life,
but more in the north polar than the south polar zone. Plants
are few and lowly. Land animals which depend upon plant food
must therefore likewise be few in number. Farming and cattle-
raising cease. Population is small and scattered. There are no
permanent settlements at all within the Antarctic circle. Life is a
constant struggle for existence. Man seeks his food by the chase
on land, but chiefly in the sea. He lives along, or near, the sea-
coast The interior lands, away from the sea, are deserted.
Gales and snow and cold cause many deaths on land, and,
especially during fishing
expeditions, at sea. Under
such hard conditions of
securing food, famine is a
likely occurrence.
In the arctic climate vegetation must make rapid growth in
the short, cool summer. In the highest latitudes the summer
temperatures are not high enough to melt snow on a. level.
Exposure is therefore of the greatest importance. Arctic plants
grow and blossom with great rapidity and luxuriance where the
exposure is favourable, and where the water from the melting
snow can run off. The soil then dries quickly, and can be
effectively wanned. Protection against cold winds is another
important factor in the growth of vegetation. Over great
stretches of the northern plains the surface only is thawed out
in the warmer months, and swamps, mosses and lichens are
found above eternally frozen ground. Direct insolation is very
effective in high latitudes. Where the exposure is favourable,
snow melts in the sun when the temperature of the air in the
shade is far below freezing.
Arctic and antarctic zones differ a good deal in the distribution
and arrangement of land and water around and in them. The
southern zone is surrounded by a wide belt of open sea; the
northern, by land areas. The northern is therefore much
affected by the conditions of adjacent continental masses.
Nevertheless, the general characteristics arc apparently much the
same over both, so far as is now known, the antarctic differing
from the arctic chiefly in having colder summers and in the
regularity of its pressure and winds. Both zones have the lowest
mean annual temperatures in their respective hemispheres, and
hence may properly be called the cold zones.
Temperature. — At the solstices the two poles receive the
largest amounts of insolation which any part of the earth's
surface ever receives. It would seem, therefore, that the
temperatures at the poles should then be the highest in the
world, but as a matter of fact they are nearly or quite the lowest.
Temperatures do not follow insolation in this case because much
of the latter never reaches the earth's surface; because most of
the energy which docs reach the surface is expended in melting
the snow and ice of the polar areas; and because the water areas
are large, and the duration of insolation is short.
A set of monthly isothermal charts of the north polar area,
based on all available observations, has been prepared by
H. Mohn and published in the volume on Meteorology of the
Nanscn expedition. In the winter months there are three cold
poles, in Siberia, in Greenland and a t the pole itself. In January
the mean temperatures at these three cold poles are -40 , -40°
and -40 respectively. The Siberian cold pole becomes a
maximum of temperature during the summer, but the Greenland
and polar minima remain throughout the year. In July the
temperature distribution shows considerable uniformity; the
gradients are relatively weak. A large area in the interior of
Greenland, and one of about equal extent around the pole, are
within the isotherm of 32 . For the year a large area around
the pole is enclosed by the isotherm of -4 , with an isotherm
of the same value in the interior of Greenland, but a local area
of -7-6° is noted in Greenland, and one of -11-2° is centred
at lat. 8o° N. and long. 170° E.
The north polar chart of annual range of temperature shows
a maximum range of about 120 in Siberia; of 8o° in North
America; of 75-6° at the North Pole, and of 72 in Greenland.
The North Pole obviously has a continental climate. The
minimum ranges are on the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The
mean annual isanomalies show that the interior of Greenland
has a negative anomaly in all months. The Norwegian sea area
is 45 too warm in January and February. Siberia has -f-io-8'
in summer, and —45° in January. Between Bering Strait and
the pole there is a negative anomaly in all months. The influence
of the Gulf Stream drift is clearly seen on the chart, as it is
also on that of mean annual ranges.
For the North Pole Mohn gives the following results, obtained
by graphic methods: —
Mean Temperatures at the North Pole.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Year.
-41-8°
-41-8°
-3I-C
-18-4°
8-6°
28-4°
30-2°
26-6°
8-6°
-11-2°
-274°
-36-4°
-8-9°
It appears that the region about the North Pole is the coldest
place in the northern hemisphere for the mean of the year, and
that the interior ice desert of Greenland, together with the inner
polar area, are together the coldest parts of the northern hemi-
sphere in July. In January, however, Verkhoyansk, in north-
eastern Siberia, just within the Arctic circle, has a mean tempera-
ture of about — 6o°, while the inner polar area and the northern
interior of Greenland have only — 40 Thus far no minima
as low as those of north-eastern Siberia have been recorded io
the Arctic.
For the Antarctic our knowledge is still very fragmentary,
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
5*3
nd relates chiefly to the summer months. Hann has determined
be mean temperatures of the higher southern latitudes as
allows:—
Mean Temperatures of High Southern Latitudes.
SLat. . . « y>° 6o° 70° *>•
Mean Annual , 41-9 28-4 11*3 —3*6
January . ,.: . 469 37-8 306 30*3
July » 37-2 18-3 -8-o -247
Vom lat. 70 S. polewards, J. Hann finds that the southern
emisphere is colder than the northern. Antarctic summers
re decidedly cold. The mean annual temperatures experienced
ave been in the vicinity of io°, and the minima of an ordinary
ntarctic winter go down to -40 9 and below, but so far no
linima of the severest Siberian intensity have been noted. The
laxima have varied between 35° and 50°.
The temperatures at the South Pole itself furnish an interesting
abject for speculation. It is likely that near the South Pole
ill prove to be the coldest point on the earth's surface for the
ear, as the distribution of insolation would imply, and as the
auditions of land and ice and snow there would suggest. The
rarest winter and summer temperatures in the southern hemi-
aherc will almost certainly be found in the immediate vicinity
f the pole. It must not be supposed that the isotherms in the
ntarctic region run parallel with the latitude lines. They bend
okwards and equatorwards at different meridians, although
luch less so than in the Arctic.
The annual march of temperature in the north polar zone, for
Mch we have the best comparable data, is peculiar in having
much-retarded minimum in February or even in March — the
suit of the long, cold winter. The temperature rises rapidly
iwmrds summer, and reaches a maximum in July. Autumn
i warmer than spring.
The continents do not penetrate far enough into the arctic
Me to develop a pure continental climate in the highest latitudes,
crkhoyansk, in lat. 67° 6' N., furnishes an excellent example
f an exaggerated continental type for the margin of the zone,
ith an annual range of i;o°. One-third as large a range is
mad on Novaya Zcmlya. Polar climate as a whole has large
anual and small diurnal ranges, but sudden changes of wind
lay cause marked irregular temperature changes within twenty-
tar hours, especially in winter. The smaller ranges arc associ-
ted with greater cloudiness, and vice versa. The mean diurnal
■liability is very small in summer, and reaches its maximum
1 winter, about 7 in February, according to Mohn.
Pressure and Winds.— Owing to the more symmetrical dis-
ibution of land and water in the southern than in the northern
alar area, the pressures and winds have a simpler arrangement
1 the former, and may be fi rst considered. The rapid southward
acrcase of pressure, which is so marked a feature of the higher
ititudes of the southern hemisphere on the isobaric charts of
ie world, does not continue all the way to the South Pole. Nor
the prevailing westerly winds, constituting the " circumpolar
hill," which are so well developed over the southern portions
\ the southern hemisphere oceans, blow all the way home to
it South Pole. The steep poleward pressure gradients of these
wthern oceans end in a trough of low pressure, girdling the
irth at about the Antarctic circle. From hero the pressure
icreascs again towards the South Pole, where a permanent inner
alar an ticy clonic area is found, with outflowing winds deflected
y the earth's rotation into easterly and south-easterly directions.
hese easterly winds have been observed by the recent expedi-
ons which have penetrated far enough south to cross the low-
rcssure trough. The limits between the prevailing westerlies
ad the outflowing winds from the pole ('* easterlies ") vary with
w longitude and migrate with the seasons. The change in
assing from one wind system to the other is easily observed.
his south polar anticyclone, with its surrounding low-pressure
irdle, migrates with the season, the centre apparently shifting
okwards in summer and towards the eastern hemisphere in
inter. The outflowing winds from the polar anticyclones
weep down across the inland ice. Under certain topographic
1 Nature, Ixxi. (Jan. 5. 1905), p. 221.
conditions, descending across mountain ranges, as in the case
of the Admiralty Range in Victoria Land, these winds may
develop high velocity and take on typical fikn character-
istics, raising the temperature to an unusually high degree.
Fdkn winds are also known on both coasts of Greenland, when
a passing cyclonic depression draws the air down from the icy
interior. These Greenland John winds are important climatic
elements, for they blow down warm and dry, raising the tempera-
ture even 30 or 40 above the winter' mean, and melting the
snow.
In the Arctic area the wind systems are less clearly defined
and the pressure distribution is much less regular, on account
of the irregular distribution of land and water. The isobaric
charts published in the report of the Nansen expedition show
that the North Atlantic low-pressure area is more or less well
developed in all months. Except in June, when it lies over
southern Greenland, this tongue-shaped trough of low pressure
lies In Davis strait, to the south-west or west of Iceland, and
over the Norwegian Sea. In winter it greatly extends its limits
farther cast into the inner Arctic Ocean, to the north of Russia
and Siberia. The Pacific minimum of pressure is found south of
Bering Strait and in Alaska. Between these two regions of lower
pressure the divide extends from North America to eastern
Siberia. This divide has been called by Supan the " Arktische
Wind-scheide." The pressure gradients are steepest in winter.
At the pole itself pressure seems to be highest in April and
lowest from June to September. The annual range is only
about 0-20 in.
The prevailing westerlies, which in the high southern latitudes
are so symmetrically developed, are interfered with to such an
extent by the varying pressure controls over the northern
continents and oceans in summer and winter that they are often
hardly recognisable on the wind maps. The isobaric and wind
charts show that on the whole the winds blow out from the inner
polar basin, especially in winter and spring.
Rain and Snow. — Rainfall on the whole decreases steadily
from equator to poles. The amount of precipitation must of
necessity be comparatively slight in the polar zones, chiefly
because of the small capacity of the air for water vapour at the
low temperatures there prevailing; partly also because of the
decrease, or absence, of local convectional storms and thunder*
showers. Locally, under exceptional conditions, as in the case
of the western coast of Norway, the rainfall is a good deal
heavier. Even cyclonic storms cannot yield much precipitation.
The extended snow and ice fields tend to give an exaggerated idea
of the actual amount of precipitation. It must be remembered,
however, that evaporation is slow at low temperatures, and
melting is not excessive. Ilcncc the polar store of fallen snow is
well preserved: interior snowficlds, ice sheets and glaciers are
produced.
The commonest form of precipitation is naturally snow,
the summer limit of which, in the northern hemisphere, is near
the Arctic circle, with the exception of Norway. So far as
exploration has yet gone into the highest latitudes, rain falls in
summer, and it is doubtful whether there are places where all
the precipitation falls as snow. The snow of the polar regions
is characteristically fine and dry. At low polar temperatures
flakes of snow are not found, but precipitation is in the form of
ice spicules. The finest glittering ice needles often fill the air,
even on clear days, and in calm weather, and gradually descend*
ing to the surface, slowly add to the depth of snow on the ground.
Dry snow is also blown from the snowfidds on windy days,
interfering with the transparency of the air.
Humidity, Cloudiness and Fog. — The absolute humidity must
be low in polar latitudes, especially in winter, on account of the
low temperatures. Relative humidity varies greatly, and very
low readings have often been recorded. Cloudiness seems to
decrease somewhat towards the inner polar areas, after passing
the belt of high cloudiness in the higher latitudes of the temperate
zones. In the marine climates of high latitudes the summer,
which is the calmest season, has the maximum cloudiness;
the winter, with more active wind move.mft«x,>a^Rax«. "C*»
524
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
It
1-
t
M
*■■
V
1
J
a
5
o
N
D
J
curve here given illustrates these conditions (fig. 14)- The
summer maximum is largely due to fogs, which are produced
where warm, damp air is chilled by coming in contact with ice.
They are also formed over open waters, as among the Faeroe
Islands, for example, and open water spaces, in the midst of an
ice-covered sea, are commonly detected at a distance by means
of the "steam fog" which rises from them. Fogs are less
common in winter, when
they occur as radiation
fogs, of no great thick-
ness. The small winter
I cloudiness, which is re-
* ported also from the ant-
arctic zone, corresponds
with the low absolute
humidity and small pre-
Fig. 14-— Annual March of Cloudiness in cipitation. The coasts
Polar Latitudes (marine type). ^ ^^ btU|ed by
the warm waters of the Gulf Stream drift usually have a higher
cloudiness in winter than in summer. The place of fog is in
winter taken by the fine snow crystals, which often darken the
air like fog when strong winds raise the dry snow from the surfaces
on which it is lying. Cumulus cloud forms are rare, even in
summer, and it is doubtful whether the cloud occurs at all in
its typical development. Stratus is probably the commonest
cloud of high latitudes, often covering the sky for days without
a break. Cirrus cloud forms probably decrease polewards.
Cyclones and Weather. — The prevailing westerlies continue
up into the margins of the polar rones. Many of their cyclonic
storms also continue on to the polar zones, giving sudden and
irregular pressure and weather changes. The inner polar areas
seem to be beyond the reach of frequent and violent cyclonic
disturbance. Calms are more common; the weather is quieter
and fairer; precipitation is less. Most of the observations thus
far obtained from the Antarctic come from this marginal zone
of great cyclonic activity, violent winds, and wet, disagreeable,
inhospitable weather, and therefore do not show the features
of the actual south polar climate.
During the three years of the " Fram's " drift depressions
passed on all sides of her, with a preponderance on the west.
The direction of progression averaged nearly due east, and the
hourly velocity 27 to 34 m., which is about that in the United
States. For the higher latitudes, most of the cyclones must pass
by on the equatorial side of the observer, giving " backing "
winds in the northern hemisphere. The main cyclonic tracks
are such that the wind characteristically backs in Iceland, and
still more so in Jan Mayen and on the eastern coast of Greenland,
these districts lying on the north and west of the path of progres-
sion. Frightful winter storms occasionally occur along the east
coast of Greenland and off Spitzbergen.
For much of the year in the polar zones the diurnal control
is weak or absent. The successive spells of stormy or of fine
weather are wholly cydonically controlled. Extraordinary
records of storm and gale have been brought back from the far
south and the far north.. Wind direction and temperature
vary in relation to the position of the cyclone. During the long
dreary winter night the temperature falls to very low readings.
Snowstorms and gales alternate at irregular short intervals
with calmer spells of more extreme cold and dearer skies. The
periods of greatest cold in winter are calm. A wind from any
direction will bring a rise in temperature. This probably results
from the fact that the cold is the result of local radiation, and
a wind interferes with these conditions by importing higher
temperatures, or by mixing upper and lower strata. During the
long summer days the temperature rises well above the winter
mean, and under favourable conditions certain phenomena,
such as the diurnal variation in wind vdodty, for example, give
evidence of the diurnal control But the irregular cyclonic
weather changes continue, in a modified form. There is no really
warm season. Snow still falls frequently. The summer is
essentially only a modified winter, especially in the Antarctic
In summer deer 4PeD» ait relatively warm, and winds bring I
lower temperatures. In spite of its lack of high temperatures,
the northern polar summer, near the margins of the zone, has
many attractive qualities in its clean, pure, crisp, dry air, free
from dust and impurities; its strong insolation; its slight
precipitation.
Twilight and Optical Phenomena. — The monotony and darkness
of the polar night are decreased a good deal by the long twilight.
Light from moon and stars, and from the aurora, also relieves
the darkness. Optical phenomena of great variety, beauty
and complexity are common. Solar and lunar haloes, and
coronae, and mock suns and moons are often seen. Auroras
seem to be less common and less brilliant in the Antarctic than
in the Arctic Sunset and sunrise colours within the polar
zones are described as being extraordinarily brilliant and im-
pressive.
Physiological Effects. — The north polar summer, as has been
pointed out, in spite of its drawbacks, is in some respects a
pleasant and healthful season. But the polar night is mono-
tonous, depressing, repelling. Sir \V. £. Parry said that it would
be difficult to conceive of two things which are more alike than
two polar winters. An everlasting uniform snow covering;
rigidity; lifelessness; silence — except for the howl of the gale
or the cracking of the ice. Small wonder that the polar night
has sometimes unbalanced men's minds. The first effects are
often a strong desire for sleep, and indifference. Later effects
have been sleeplessness and nervousness, tending in extreme
cases to insanity; anaemia, digestive troubles. Extraordinarily
low winter temperatures are easily borne if the air be dry and
still. Zero weather seems pleasantly refreshing if dear and
calm. But high relative humidity and wind — even a light
breeze — give the same degree of cold a penetrating feeling of
chill which may be unbearable. Large temperature ranges are
endured without danger in the polar winter when the air is dry.
When exposed to direct insolation the skin burns and blisters;
the lips swell and crack. Thirst has been much complained
of by polar explorers, and is due to the active evaporation from
the warm body into the dry, relatively cold air. There is no
doubt that polar air is singularly free from micro-organisms—
a fact which is due chiefly to lack of communication with other
parts of the world. Hence many diseases which are common
in temperate zones, " colds " among them, are rare.
Changes of Climate.
Popular Belief in Climatic Change. — Belief in a change in the
climate of one's place of residence, within a few generations,
and even within the memory of living men, is widespread.
Evidence is constantly being brought forward of apparent
climatic variations of greater or less amount which are now
taking place. Thus we have many accounts of a gradual desicca-
tion which seems to have been going on over a large region in
Central Asia during historical times. In northern Africa certain
andent historical records have been taken by different writers
to indicate a general decrease of rainfall during the last 3000 or
more years. In his crossing of the Sahara between Algeria and
the Niger, E. F. Gautier found evidence of a former large popula-
tion. A gradual desiccation of the region is therefore believed
to have taken place, but to-day the equatorial rain bdt seems
to be again advandng farther north, giving an increased rainfall.
Farther south, several lakes have been reported as decreasing
in size, e.g. Chad and Victoria; and wells and springs as running
dry. In the Lake Chad district A. J. B. Chevalier reports the
discovery of vegetable and animal remains which indicate an
invasion of the Sudan by a Saharan climate. It is often hdd
that a steady decrease in rainfall has taken place over Greece,
Syria and other eastern Mediterranean lands, resulting in a
gradual and inevitable deterioration and decay of their people.
What Meteorological Records show. — As concerns the popular
impression regarding change of climate, it is clear at the start
that no definite answer can be given on the basis of tradition
or of general impression. The only answer of real value must
be based on the records of accurate instruments, properly
exposed and carefully read. When such instrumental records
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
525
are carefully examined, from the time when they were first kept,
which in a few cases goes back about 150 years, there is found
no good evidence of any progressive change in temperature, or
in the amount of rain and snow. Even when the most accurate
instrumental records are available, care must be taken to inter-
pret them correctly. Thus, if a rainfall or snowfall record of
several years at some station indicates an apparent increase or
decrease in the amount of precipitation, it does not necessarily
follow that this means a permanent, progressive change in
climate, which is to continue indefinitely. It may simply mean
that there have been a few years of somewhat more precipitation,
and that a period of somewhat less precipitation is to follow.
Value of Evidence concerning Changes of Climate. — The body
of facts which has been adduced as evidence of progressive
changes of climate within historical times is not yet sufficiently
Urge and complete to warrant any general correlation and study
of these facts as a whole. But there are certain considera-
tions which should be borne m mind in dealing with this evidence
before any conclusions are reached. In the first place, changes
In the distribution of certain fruits and cereals, and in the dates
of the harvest, have often been accepted as undoubted evidence
of changes in climate. Such a conclusion is by no means inevit-
able, for many changes in the districts of cultivation of various
crops have naturally resulted from the fact that these same
crops are in time found to be more profitably grown, or more
easily prepared for market, in another locality. In France, C. A.
Angot has made a careful compilation of the dates of the vintage
from the 14th century down to the present time, and finds no
support for the view so commonly held there that the climate
has changed for the worse. At the present time, the average
date of the grape harvest In A u bonne is exactly the same as at
the close of the 16th century. After a careful study of the
conditions of the date tree, from the 4th century, B.C., D. Eginitis
concludes that the climate of the eastern portion of the Mediter-
ranean basin has not changed appreciably during twenty-three
centuries.
Secondly, a good many of the reports by explorers from little-
known regions arc contradictory. This shows the need of caution
in jumping at conclusions of climatic change. An increased use
of water for irrigation may cause the level of water in a lake
to fall. Periodic oscillations, giving higher and then lower water,
do not indicate progressive change in one direction. Many writers
have seen a law in what was really a chance coincidence.
Thirdly, where a progressive desiccation seems to have taken
place, it is often a question whether less rain is actually falling,
or whether the inhabitants have less capacity and less energy
than formerly. Is the change from a once cultivated area to a
barren expanse the result of decreasing rainfall, or of the emigra-
tion of the former inhabitants to other lands? The difference
between a country formerly well irrigated and fertile, and a
present-day sandy, inhospitable waste may be the result of a
former compulsion of the people, by a strong governing power,
to till the soil and to irrigate, while now, without that compulsion,
no attempt is made to keep up the work. A region of deficient
rainfall, once thickly settled and prosperous, may readily
become an apparently hopeless desert, even without the inter-
vention of war and pestilence, if man allows the climate to master
him. In many cases the reports of increasing dryness really
concern only the decrease in the water supply from rivers and
springs, and it is well known that a change in the cultivation
of the soil, or in the extent of the forests, may bring about marked
changes in the flow of springs and rivers without any essential
change in the actual amount of rainfall.
Lastly, a region whose normal rainfall is at best barely sufficient
for man's needs may be abandoned by its inhabitants during a
few years of deficient precipitation, and not again occupied even
when, a few years later, normal or excessive rainfall occurs.
Periodic Oscillations of Climate: Sun-spot Period.— -The
discovery of a distinct eleven-year periodicity in the magnetic
phenomena of the earth naturally led to investigations of similar
periods in meteorology. The literature on this subject has
assumed large proportions. The results, however, have not been
satisfactory. The problem is difficult and obscure. Fluctua-
tions in temperature and rainfall, occurring in an eleven-year
period, have been made out for certain stations but the varia-
tions are slight, and it is not yet dear that they are sufficiently
marked, uniform and persistent over large areas to make
practical application of the periodicity in forecasting possible.
In some cases the relation to sun-spot periodicity is open to
debate; in others, the results are contradictory.
W. P. Koppen has brought forward evidence of a sun-spot
period in the mean annual temperature, especially in the tropics,
the maximum temperatures coming in the years of sun-spot
minima. The whole amplitude of the variation in the mean
annual temperatures, from sun-spot minimum to sun-spot
maximum, is, however, only 1-3° in the tropics and a little less
than i° in the extra-tropics. More recently Nordmann (for the
years 1870-1000) has continued KBppen's investigation.
In 1872 C. Meldrum, then Director of the Meteorological
Observatory at Mauritius, first called attention to a sun-spot
periodicity in rainfall and in the frequency of tropical cyclones
in the South Indian Ocean. The latter- arc most numerous in
years of sun-spot maxima, and decrease in frequency with the
approach of sun-spot minima. Poey found later a similar relation
in the case of the West Indian hurricanes. Meldrum 's conclusions
regarding rainfall were that, with few exceptions, there is more
rain in years of sun-spot maxima. S. A. Hill found it to be true of
the Indian summer monsoon rains that there seems to be an
excess in the first half of the cycle, after the sun-spot maximum.
The winter rains of northern India, however, show the opposite
relation ; the minimum following, or coinciding with, the sun-spot
raJfcmum. Particular attention has been paid to the sun-spot
cycle of rainfall in India, because of the close relation between
famines and the summer monsoon rainfall in that country. Sir
Norman Lockycr and Dr W. J. S. Lockyer have recently studied
the variations of rainfall in the region surrounding the Indian
Ocean in the light of solar changes in temperature. They find
that India has two pulses of rainfall, one near the maximum and
the other near the minimum of the sun-spot period. The famines
of the last fifty years have occurred in the intervals between these
two pulses, and these writers believe that if as much had been
known in 1836 as is now known, the probability of famines at all
the subsequent dates might have been foreseen.
Relations between the sun-spot period and various other
meteorological phenomena than temperature, rainfall and tropical
cyclones have been made the subject of numerous investigations,
but on the whole the results are still too uncertain to be of
any but a theoretical value. Some promising conclusions seem,
however, to have been reached in regard to pressure variations,
and their control over other climatic elements.
Bruckner's 3$ - Year Cycle. — Of more importance than the
results thus far reached for the sun-spot period arc those which
clearly establish a somewhat longer period of slight fluctuations
or oscillations of climate, known as the Bruckner cycle, after
Professor Brilckner of Bern, who has made a careful investiga-
tion of the whole subject of climatic changes and finds evidence
of a 35-year periodicity in temperature and rainfall. In a cycle
whose average length is 35 years, there comes a series of years
which are somewhat cooler and also more rainy, and then a series
of years which are somewhat warmer and drier. The interval in
some cases is twenty years; in others it is fifty. The average
interval between two cool and moist, or warm and dry, periods
is about 35 years. The mean amplitude of the temperature
fluctuation, based on large numbers of data, is a little less than
2 . The fluctuations in rainfall are more marked in interiors
than on coasts. The general mean amplitude is 12%, or, ex-
cluding exceptional districts, 24%. Regions whose normal
rainfall is small are most affected.
The following table shows the dates and characters of
Brtlckncr's periods: —
Warm l74<5-»755 1791-1805 1821-1835 1851-1870
Dry . 1756-1770 1781-1805 1826-1840 1856-1870
Cold . 1731-1745 1756-1790 1806-1820 I 836-1 850 1871-1885
Wet . 1736-1755 1771-1780 1806-1825 184,1-1^ \*\v->afcjs
526
CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY
Interesting confirmation of Bruckner's 35-year period has been
found by £. Richter in the variations of the Swiss glaciers, but
as these glaciers differ in length, they do not all advance and
retreat at the same time. The advance is seen during the cold
and damp periods. B riickner has found certain districts in which
the phases and epochs of the climatic cycle are exactly reversed.
These exceptional districts are almost altogether limited to
marine climates. There is thus a sort of compensation between
oceans and continents. The rainier periods on the continents are
accompanied by relatively low pressures, while the pressures are-
high and the period dry over the oceans and vice versa. The cold
and rainy periods are also marked by a decrease in all pressure
differences. It is obvious that changes in the general distribu-
tion oL atmospheric pressures, over extended areas, are closely
associated with fluctuations in temperature and rainfall. These
changes in pressure distribution must in some way be associated
with changes in the general circulation of the atmosphere, and
these again must depend upon some external controlling cause or
causes. W. J. S. Lockyer has called attention to the fact that
there seems to be a periodicity of about 35 years in solar activity,
and that this corresponds with the Brilckner period.
It is clear that the existence of a 35-year period will account for
many of the views that have been advanced in favour of a
progressive change of climate. A succession of a few years wetter
or drier than the normal is likely to lead to the conclusion that
the change is permanent. Accurate observations extending over
as many years as possible, and discussed without prejudice, are
.necessary before any conclusions are drawn. Observations for
one station during the wetter part of a cycle should not be
compared with observations for another station during the #icr
part of the same, or of another cycle.
There are evidences of longer climatic cycles than eleven or 35
years. Brilckner calls attention to the fact that sometimes two of
his periods seem to merge into one. £. Richter shows much the
same thing for the Alpine glaciers. Evidence of considerable
climatic changes since the last glacial period is not lacking. But
as yet nothing sufficiently definite to warrant general con-
clusions has been brought forward.
Geological Changes in Climate. — Changes of climate in the
geological past are known with absolute certainty to have taken
place: periods of glacial invasion, as well as periods of more
genial conditions. The evidence, and the causes of these changes
have been discussed and re-discussed, by writers almost without
number, and from all points of view. Changes in the intensity
of insolation; in the sun itself; in the conditions of the earth's
atmosphere; in the astronomical relations of earth and sun;
in the distribution of land and water; in the position of the
earth's axis; in the altitude of the land; in the presence of
volcanic dust; — now cosmic, now terrestrial conditions—have
been suggested, combated, put forward again. None of these
hypotheses has prevailed in preference to others. No actual
proof of the correctness of this or that theory has been brought
forward. No general agreement has been reached.
Conclusion. — Without denying the possibility, or even the
probability, of the establishment of the fact of secular changes,
there is as yet no sufficient warrant for believing in considerable
permanent changes over large areas. Dufour, after a thorough
study of all available evidence, has concluded that a change of
climate has not been proved. There are periodic oscillations of
slight amount. A 35-year period is fairly well established,
but is nevertheless of considerable irregularity, and cannot as
yet be practically applied in forecasting. Longer periods are I
suggested, but not made out As to causes, variations in solar
activity are naturally receiving attention, and the results thus
far are promising. But climate is a great complex, and complete 1
and satisfactory explanations of all the facts will be difficult,
perhaps impossible, to reach. At present, indeed, the facts |
which call for explanation are still in most cases but poorly j
determined, and the processes at work are insufficiently under-
stood. Climate is not absolutely a constant. The pendulum I
swings to the right and to the left. And its swing is as far to
the right ms to the left. Each generation lives through a part of
one, or two, or even three oscillations. A snapshot view of these
oscillations makes them seem permanent. As Supan has well
said, it was formerly believed that climate changes locally, but
progressively and permanently. It is now believed that oscilla-
tions of climate are limited in time, but occur over wide areas.
LlTEPLAlUKE.— Scientific climatology is based upon numerical
results, o brained by systematic* long continued, accurate meteon>
logical observation*. The essential part of its literature is therefore
found in the col tec t ions of data publithed by the various meteoro-
logical services. The only comprehensive tent-book of climatology
is the flandhttth dcr Klunatologir of Professor Julius Hann, 0/ tHe
university of Vienna (Stuttgart* tRttf), This is the standard boot
on the subject, and upon it is based much of I he present article, and
of other recent discussions of climate- The first volume deals with
general climatology, and has been translated into English (London
and New York, 1903). Reference should be made to this book fur
further details than are here given, The second and third volumes
art devoted to the climates of the different countries of the world.
Wocikoft Die KlimaU dcr Erde fjena, iSIr) is ilso a valuable refer*
enct book. The ttancfordi meteorological journal of the world, the
hUtcorvlogiithe Zritichrijt (Braunschweig, monthly), is indispensable
to any one who wishes to keep in touch with the latest publications.
The Quarterly Journal (tf iht Reya-f Mrttcrohgitol Swirly (London j,
' j Man
Sytums'j M&fltttiy tSrttorototkd Magna nt (London), and the
Monthly Weather Review (Washington, D,C.) are also valuable.
The newest and most complete collection of charts is that in iht
A '/ui of Sfzirarol&fy (London, 1 Boo), in which also there is an excellent
working bibliography. For the titles of more recent publications
reference may be made to the Jntentatwnal Caialct,ut of Siientific
Literature {Metevretogyl (R. De C. W.J
Climate in the Treatment of Disease.— The most important
qualities of the atmosphere in relation to health are (i.) the
chemical composition, (ii.) the solids floating in it, (iii.) the mean
and extreme temperatures, (iv.) the degree of humidity, (v.) the
diathermancy, (vi.) the intensity of light, (vii.) the electrical
conditions, (viii.)the density and pressure, and (ix.) the prevailing
winds. Generally speaking, the relative purity of the air — i.e.
] absence of septic solid particles — is an important consideration;
while cold acts as a stimulant and tonic, increasing the amount
of carbon dioxide exhaled in the twenty-four hours. Different
individuals, however, react both to heat and cold very differently.
At health resorts, where the temperature may vary between
55 and 70 F., strong individuals gradually lose strength and
begin to suffer from various degrees of lassitude; whereas a
dcDcate person under the same conditions gains vigour both of
mind and body, puts on weight, and is less liable to disease.
And a corresponding intensity of cold acts in the reverse manner
in each case. Thus a health resort with a moderate degree of
heat is very valuable for delicate or elderly people, and those
who are temporarily weakened by illness. Cold, however, when
combined with wind and damp must be specially avoided by
the aged, the delicate, and those prone to gouty and rheumatic
affections. The moisture of the atmosphere controls the distri-
bution of warmth on the earth, and is closely bound up with
the prevailing winds, temperature, light and pressure. In dry
air the evaporation from both skin and lungs is increased,
especially if the sunshine be plentiful and the altitude high.
In warm moist air strength is lost and there is a distinct tendency
to intestinal troubles. In moist cold air perspiration is checked,
and rheumatic and joint affections arc very common. The main
differences between mountain air and that of the plains depend
on the former being more rarefied, colder, of a lower absolute
humidity, and offering less resistance to the sun's rays. As the
altitude is raised, circulation and respiration are quickened,
probably as an effort on the part of the organism to compensate
for the diminished supply of oxygen, and somewhat more
gradually the number of red blood corpuscles increases, this
increase persisting for a considerable time after a return to
lower ground. In addition to these changes there is a distinct
tendency to diminished proteid metabolism, resulting in an in-
crease of weight owing to the storage of proteid in the tissues.
Thus children and young people whose development is not yet
complete are especially likely to benefit by the impetus given to
growth and the blood-forming organs, and the therapeutic value
in their case rarely fails. For older people, however, the benefit
depends on whether their organs of circulation and respiration
CLIMAX— CLINOCLASITE
527
an sufficiently vigorous to respond to the increased demands
00 than. For anaemia, pulmonary tuberculosis, pleural thicken-
ing, deficient expansion of the lungs, neurasthenia, and the
debility following fevers and malaria, mountain air is invaluable.
But where there is valvular disease of the heart, or rapidly
advancing disease of the lungs, it is to be avoided. Light,
•specialty direct sunlight, is of primary importance, the lack
of it tending to depression and dyspeptic troubles. Probably
its germicidal power accounts for the aseptic character of the
air of the Alps, the desert and other places.
Sir Hermann Weber has defined a " good " climate as that
in whicn all the organs and tissues of the body are kept evenly
at work in alternation with rest. Thus a climate with constant
moderate variations in its principal factors is the best for the
maintenance of health. But the best climate for an invalid
depends on the particular weakness from which he may suffer.
Pulmonary tuberculosis stands first in the importance of the
effects of climate. The continuous supply of pure fresh air is
the main desideratum, a cool climate being greatly superior to a
tropical one. Exposure to strong winds is harmful, since it
increases the tendency to cough and thus leads to loss of body
temperature, which is in its turn made up at the expense of
increased metabolism. A high altitude, from the purity and
stimulating properties of the air, is of value to many mild or
very early cases, but where the disease is extensive, where the
heart is irritable, or where there is any tendency to insomnia,
high altitudes are contra-indicated, and no such patient should
be sent higher than some 1 500 ft. Where the disease is of long
standing, with much expectoration, or accompanied by albu-
minuria, the patient appears to do best in a humid atmosphere
but little above the sea-Icvcl. The climate of Egypt is especially
suitable for cases complicated with bronchitis or bronchiectasis,
but is contra-indicated where there is attendant diarrhoea.
Madeira and the Canaries are useful when emphysema is present
or where there is much irritability of constitution. Bronchitis
in young people is best treated by high altitudes, but in older
patients by a moist mild climate, except where much expectora-
tion is present
The influence of atmospheric conditions on the functions of the
nose is very marked. Within the ordinary ranges of humidity
and temperature the nasal mucous membrane completely
saturates the air with aqueous vapour before it reaches the
pharynx. In cold and dry mountain climates there is a very
free nasal secretion, far beyond what is needed for the saturation
of the air; and at low levels the reverse action takes place, the
nose becoming " stuffy." The mechanism on which this depends
b found in the erectile tissue, and anything favouring the
engorgement of the veins, such as weak heart action, chronic
bronchitis or kidney troubles, &c, leads to a corresponding
turgidity of the nose and sinuses. In addition to barometric
and other influences, it has been found that light produces
collapse of this tissue, smoke having a similar effect. On this
latter effect probably depends the fact that many asthmatics
are better in a city like London than elsewhere, the smoke
relieving the turgcsccncc of the inferior turbinals of the nose.
In the treatment of pathological nasal conditions, all cases of
obstruction from whatsoever cause arc best in a dry atmosphere,
and where there is atrophy and a deficient flow of mucus in a
moist atmosphere. If the raucous membrane is irritable a dry
sheltered spot on a sandy soil and in the neighbourhood of
pine trees is by tar the best.
Scrofulous children, namely, those in whom the resistance to
micro-organisms and their products is low, pre-eminently
require sea air, and had belter be educated at some seaside
place Where the child is very delicate, with small power of
reaction, the winter should be passed on some mild coast resort.
Gouty and rheumatic affections require a dry soil and warm dry
climate, cold and moist winds being especially injurious.
For heart affections high altitudes arc to be avoided, though
some physicians make an exception of mitral cases where the
compensation is good. Moderate elevations of 500 to 1500 ft.
are preferable to the sea-level.
In diseases of the kidneys, a warm dry climate, by stimulating
the action of the skin, lessens the work to be done by these
organs, and thus is the most beneficial. Extremes of heat and
cold and elevated regions are all to be avoided.
CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525-600 a.d.), ascetic and mystic, also
called Scholasticus and Sinaltcs, . After-having spent forty years
in a cave at the foot of mount Sinai, he became abbot of the
monastery. His life has been written by Daniel, a monk belong-
ing to the monastery of Raithu, on the Red Sea. He derives his
name Climax (or Climacus) from his work of the same name
(KXt/xag row Ilapaoctoov, ladder to Paradise), in thirty sections,
corresponding to the thirty years of the life of Christ. It is
written in a simple and popular style. The first part treats of
the vices that hinder the attainment of holiness, the second of
the virtues of a Christian.
E
the
also f . Krumbachcr, Ceschichte der byzai
Gau-Krflger in Herzog-Hauck. Reatencykiopddie fur proUstanhsehe
Theologie, , Bd. 9 (1001). The Ladder has been translated into several
foreign languages— into English by Father Robert, Mount St Ber-
nard s Abbey, Leicestershire (1850).
CLIMBING 1 FERN, the botanical genus Lygodium, with about
twenty species, chiefly in the warmer parts of. the Old World,
of interest from its climbing habit. . The plants have a creeping
stem, on the upper face of which is borne a row of leaves. Each
leaf has a slender stem-like axis, which twines round a support
and bears leaflets at intervals; it goes on growing indefinitely.
It is a favourite warm greenhouse plant.
CUNCHANT, JUSTIN (1820-1881), French soldier, entered
the army from St Cyr in 1841. From 1847 to 185a he was
employed in the Algerian campaigns, and in 1854 and 1855 in
the Crimea. At the assault on the Malakoff (Sept. 8th, 1855)
he greatly distinguished himself at the head of a battalion.
During the 1859 campaign he won promotion to the rank of
lieut.-colonel, and as a colonel he served in the Mexican War.
He was made general of brigade in 1866, and led a brigade of the
Army of the Rhine in 1870. His troops were amongst those
shut up in MeU, and he passed into captivity, but soon escaped.
The government of national defence made him general of division
and put him at the head of the 20th corps of the Army of the
East. He was under Bourbaki during the campaign of the Jura,
and when Bourbaki attempted to commit suicide he succeeded
to the command (Jan. 23rd, 1871), only to be driven with
84,000 men over the Swiss frontier at Pontarlicr. In 1871
Clinchant commanded the 5th corps operating against the
Commune. He was military governor of Paris when he died
in 1881.
CLINIC; CLINICAL (Gr. xXtwj, a bed), an adjective strictly
connoting association with the bedside, and so used in ccdcsiology
of baptism of the sick or dying, but more particularly in medicine
to characterize its aspect as associated with practice on the
living patient. Thus clinical experience is opposed to what
is learnt from laboratory research or theoretical considerations.
The substantive " clinic " is technically employed for a medical
school or class where instruction is given in practical work as
illustrated by the examination and treatment of actual cases
of disease.
CLINKER. (1) (From an old Dutch word klinkaerd, from
klinken t to ring), a hard paving brick, a brick with a vitrified
surface, or a fused mass of brick; also the incombustible residue
of coal, which occurs, half-fused into hard masses, in grates or
furnaces; a fused mass of lava. (2) (From clinch, or clench,
a common Teutonic word, meaning " to fasten together "), a
term appearing usually in the form " clinker-built " as opposed
to " cravcl-built," for a boat whose strakes overlap and are not
fastened " flush."
CLINOCLASITE, a rare mineral consisting of the basic copper
arsenate (CuOH) a AsO«. It crystallizes in the monoclinic
1 The word " climb M (O.E. elimban), meaning strictly to ascend
(or similarly descend) by progressive self-impulsion, with some
apparent degree of laborious effort and by means of contact with
the surface traversed, is connected with the same root as in " cleave "
and " cling." For Alpine climbing. &c.. see Mount aikkeeimc.
5 28
CLINTON, DE WITT— CLINTON, G.
system and possesses a perfect cleavage parallel to the basal
plane; this cleavage is obliquely placed with respect to the
prism faces of the crystal, hence the name clinoclase or dino-
dasite, from Gr. kMvuv, to incline, and xXav, to break. The
crystals are deep blue in colour, and are usually radially arranged
in hemispherical groups. Hardness 2I-3; specific gravity 4-36.
The mineral was formerly found with other copper arsenates
in the mines of the St Day district of Cornwall. It has also been
found near Tavistock in Devonshire, near Sayda (or Saida) in
Saxony, and in the Tin tic district of Utah. It is a mineral of
secondary origin, having resulted by the decomposition of copper
ores and mispickel in the upper part of mineral veins. The
corresponding basic copper phosphate, (CuOH)|PO«, is the
mineral pseudomalachite, which occurs as green botryoidal
masses resembling malachite in appearance.
CLINTON, DB WITT (1769-1828), American political leader,
was born on the 2nd of March 1769 at Little Britain, Orange
county, New York. His father, James Clinton (1736-18 12),
served as a captain of provincial troops in the French and Indian
War, and as a brigadier-general in the American army in the War
of Independence, taking part in Montgomery's attack upon
Quebec in 1775, unsuccessfully resisting at Fort Montgomery,
along the Hudson, in 1777 the advance of Sir Henry Clinton,
accompanying General John Sullivan in 1779 in his expedition
against the Iroquois in western New York, and in 1781 taking
part in the siege of Yorktown, Virginia. De Witt Clinton
graduated at Columbia College in x 786, and in x 790 was admitted
to the bar. From 1 790 to x 795 he was the private secretary of his
uncle, George Clinton, governor of New York and a leader of the
Republican party. He was a member of the New York assembly
from January to April 1708, and in August of that year entered
the state senate, serving until April 1802. He at once became
a dominant factor in New York politics, and for the next quarter
of a century he played a leading role in the history of the common-
wealth. From 1 80 1 to 1802 and from 1806 to 1807 he was a
member of the Council of Appointment, and realizing the power
this body possessed through its influence over the selection of
a vast number of state, county and municipal officers, he
secured in 1801, while his uncle was governor, the removal of a
number of Federalist office-holders, in order to strengthen the
Republican organization by new appointments. On this account
Clinton has generally been regarded as the originator of the
" spoils system " in New York; but he was really opposed to
the wholesale proscription of opponents that became such a
feature of American politics in later years. It was his plan to fill
the more important offices with Republicans, as they had been
excluded from appointive office during the Federalist ascendancy,
and to divide the smaller places between the parties somewhat
in accordance with their relative strength. 1 In counties where
the Federalists had a majority very few removals were made.
In r8o2 Clinton became a member of the United States Senate,
but resigned in the following year to become mayor of New York
city, an office he held from 1803 to 1807, from 1808 to 1810,
and from 18 1 x to 181 5. During his mayoralty he also held other
offices, .being a member of the state senate from 1806 to 181 1
and lieutenant-governor from 18x1 to 1813. In 1812, after a
congressional caucus at Washington had nominated Madison for
a second term, the Republicans of New York, desiring to break
up the so-called Virginia dynasty as well as the system of con-
gressional nominations, nominated Clinton for the presidency
by a legislative caucus. Opponents of a second war with Great
Britain had revived the Federalist organization, and Federalists
from eleven states met in New York and agreed to support Clinton,
not on account of his war views, which were not in accord with
their own, but as a protest against the policy of Madison. In
the election Clinton received 89 electoral votes and Madison 128.
As a member of the legislature Clinton was active in securing
1 fa 1801 a state convention adopted an amendment to the con-
•Ututxmnving the council an equal voice with the governor in the
of appointments; but Clinton, who is often represented
. , . .., -■-. — - — . represented
as the father of this movement, though chosen as a member of the
convention, did not attend its meetings.
the abolition of slavery and of imprisonment for debt, and in
perfecting a system of free public schools. In 18 10 he was a
member of a commission to explore a route for a canal between
Lake Erie and the Hudson river, and in 181 1 he and Gouverneur
Morris were sent to Washington to secure Federal aid for the
undertaking, but were unsuccessful. The second war with Great
Britain prevented any immediate action by the state, but in 1816
Clinton was active in reviving the project, and a new commission
was appointed, of which he became president. His connexion
with this work so enhanced his popularity that he was chosen
governor by an overwhelming majority and served for two
triennial terms ( 181 7-1823). As governor he devoted his energies
to the construction of the canal, but the opposition to his admin-
istration, led by Martin Van Buren and Tammany Hall, became
so formidable by 1822 that he declined to seek a third term. His
successful opponents, however, overreached themselves when
in 1824 they removed him from the office of canal commissioner.
This partisan action aroused such indignation that at the next
election he was again chosen governor, by a large majority, and
served from 1825 until his death. As governor he took part in
the formal ceremony of admitting the waters of Lake Erie into
the canal In October 1825, and thus witnessed the completion
of a work which owed more to him than to any other man.
Clinton died at Albany, N.Y., on the nth of February 1828.
In addition to his interest in politics and public improvements,
he devoted much study to the natural sciences; among his
published works are a Memoir on the Antiquities of Western
New York (1818), and Letters on the Natural History and Internal
Resources of New York (1822).
See J. Renwick's Life of De Wilt Clinton (New York, 184s);
D. Hosack's Memoir of De Witt Clinton (New York. 1829): W. W.
Campbell's Life and Writings of De Witt Clinton (New York. 1849);
and H. L. McBain's De Witt Clinton and the Origin of the Spoils
System in New York (New York, 1907).
CLINTON, GEORGE (1739-X812), American soldier and
political leader, was born at Little' Britain, Ulster (now Orange)
county, New York, on the 26th of July 1 739. His father, Charles
Clinton (1600-1773), who was born of English parents in Co.
Longford, Ireland, emigrated to America in 1729, and commanded
a regiment of provincial troops in the French and Indian War.
The son went to sea at the age of sixteen, but, finding the sailor's
life distasteful .joined his father's regiment and accompanied him
as lieutenant in the expedition against Fort Frontenac in 1758.
After the war he practised law in his native town and held a
number of minor civil offices in Ulster county. From 1768 to
1775 he sat in the New York provincial assembly, and in the
controversies with Great Britain zealously championed the
colonial cause. In 1774 he was a member of the New York
committee of correspondence, and in 1775 was chosen a member
of the second Continental Congress. In December of this year he
was appointed a brigadier-general of militia by the New York
provincial congress, and in the following summer, being ordered
by Washington to assist in the defence of New York, he left
Philadelphia shortly after voting for the Declaration of Inde-
pendence, but too soon to attach his signature to that document
He had also been chosen a deputy to the provincial congress
(later the state convention) for 1776-1777, but his various other
duties prevented his attendance.
General Clinton took part in the battle of White Plains (October
28th, 1776), and-latcr was charged with the defence of the High-
lands of the Hudson, where, with De Witt Clinton, in October
1777. he offered a firm but unsuccessful resistance to the advance
of Sir Henry Clinton. In March of this year he had been
appointed by Congress a brigadier-general in the Continental
army, and he thus held two commissions, as the state convention
refused to accept his resignation as brigadier-general of militia.
So great was Clinton's popularity at this time that at the first
election under the new state constitution he was chosen both
governor and lieutenant-governor; he declined the latter office,
and on the 30th of July 1777 entered upon his duties as governor,
which were at first largely of a military nature. In 1780 he took
the field and checked the advance of Sir John Johnson and the
CLINTON, SIR H.— CLINTON
529
1 to the Mohawk Valley. In his administration Clinton
is energetic and patriotic, and though not possessing the
tcflectnal attain menu of some of his New York contemporaries,
warn more popular than any of them, as b attested by his
nvice as governor for eighteen successive years (1777-1705),
d for another triennial term from 1801 to 1804. In the
ictions of 1780, 1783 and 1786 he bad no opponent. In 1800-
01 be was a member of the assembly. In the struggle in New
>rk over the adoption of the Federal Constitution he was one of
t leaders of the opposition, but in the state convention of 1788,
er which he presided, his party was defeated, and the con-
tation was ratified. In national politics he was a follower of
umas Jefferson, and in state politics he led the faction known as
CUatonians," which was for a long time dominant. In 1789,
92 and 1 706 Clinton received a number of votes in the electoral
(lege, but not a sufficient number to secure him the vice-
esidency, which was then awarded to the recipient of the second
{best number of votes. In 1804, however, after the method of
ting had been changed, he was nominated for the vice-presi-
ncy by a Congressional caucaus, and was duly elected. In 1808
sought nomination for the presidency, and was greatly dis-
pomted when this went to Madison. He was again chosen
vice-president, however, and died at Washington before the
pfaation of his term, on the 20th of April 1 81 2. He was buried
the Congressional Cemetery, from which in May 1908 his
nains were transferred to Kingston, N.Y. His casting vote in
e Senate in 181 1 defeated the bill for the renewal of the charter
the Bank of the United States.
The Public Papers of George Clinton (6 vols., New York, 1899-
n) have been published by the state of New York.
CLINTON, SIR HENRY (c. 1738- 1795), British general, was
e son of admiral George Ginton (governor of Newfoundland
d subsequently of New York), and grandson of the 6th earl of
ncofai. After serving in the New York militia, he came to
igfauid and joined the Coldstream Guards. In 1758 he became
plain and lieutenant-colonel in the Grenadier Guards, and in
60-62 distinguished himself very greatly as an aide-de-camp
Ferdinand of Brunswick in the Seven Years' War. He was
scooted colonel in 1762, and after the peace received the
loadcy of a regiment of foot, becoming major-general in 1772.
on 1772 to 1784, thanks to the influence of his cousin, the 2nd
ike of Newcastle, he had a seat in parliament, first for Borough-
fdge and subsequently for Newark, but for the greater part of
b time he was on active service in America in the War of
dependence. He took part in the battles of Bunker Hill and
Of Island, subsequently taking possession of New York. For
l share in the battle of Long Island he was made a lieutenant-
oeral and K.B. After Saratoga be succeeded Sir William
>we as commander-in-chief in North America. He had already
en made a local general. He at once concentrated the British
tees at New York, pursuing a policy of foraying expeditions in
ice of regular campaigns. In 1 779 he invaded South Carolina,
d in 1780 in conjunction with Admiral M. Arbuthnot won
important success in the capture of Charleston. Friction,
wever, was constant between him and Lord Cornwallis, his
rood in command, and in 1782, after the capitulation of Corn-
lUss at York town, he was superseded by Sir Guy Carle ton.
ituraing to England, he published in 1783 his Narrative of ike
mpaign of 178 1 in North America, which provoked an acri-
nfous reply from Lord Cornwallis. He was elected M.P. for
unceston in 1700, and in 1794 was made governor of Gibraltar,
tere he died on the 23rd of December 179s.
His elder son, Sir William Henry Clinton (1769-1846),
tered the British army in 1784, and served in the campaigns of
93-04 in the Low Countries. In 1796 he became aide-de-camp
the duke of York, and in 1799 he was entrusted with a mission
the Russian army in Italy, returning to the duke in time for the
itch expedition of 1799. He was promoted colonel in 1801 , and
A part in the expedition which took possession of Madeira,
nch he governed up to 1802. His next important service was
1807, when he went to Sweden on a military mission. Pro-
Mod major-general in 1808, he served from 1812 to 1814 in the
Mediterranean and in Catalonia, and in the latter year he com-
manded against Marshal Suchet. He had become a lieutenant-
general in 1813, and in 1815 he was made a G.CJB. He com-
manded the British troops in Portugal, i826-28,and was promoted
full general in 1830. He died at Cockenhatch, near Royston,
Herts, on the 15th of February 1846.
The younger son, Sir Henry Clinton (1771-1829), entered
the army in 1787 and saw some service with the Prussians in
Holland in 1789. He served on the staff of the duke of York in
1793-04. becoming brevet-major in 1794, and lieu tenant-colonel
of a line regiment in 1796. In 1797-98 he was aide-de-camp to
Lord Cornwallis in the Irish rebellion, and in 1709 he was sent
with Lord William Bentinck to the Russian headquarters in Italy,
being present at the Trebbia, at Novi, and in the fighting about
the St Gotthard. During a short period of service in India Clinton
distinguished himself at Laswari. He accompanied the Russian
headquarters in the Austerlitz campaign, and was adjutant-
general to his intimate friend, Sir John Moore, in the Corunna
campaign of 1808-9. Promoted major-general in 1810, he
returned to the Peninsula to fill a divisional command under
Wellington in 181 1. His division played a notable part in the
capture of the forts at Salamanca and in the battle of Salamanca
( 181 2), and he was given the local rank of lieutenant-general early
in 1 813. For his conduct at Vitoria he was made a K.B., and he
took his part in the subsequent victories of the Nive, Orthes and
Toulouse. At the end of the war he was made a lieutenant-
general and inspector-general of infantry. Clinton commanded
a division with distinction at Waterloo. He died on the irth of
December 1829.
CLINTON, HENRY FYNES (1781-1852), British classical
scholar and chronologist, was born at Gamston in Nottingham-
shire on the 14th of January 1781. He was descended from
Henry, second earl of Lincoln; for some generations his family
bore the name of Fynes, but his father resumed the older family
name of Clinton in 1821. He was educated at Westminster
school and Christ Church, Oxford, where he studied classical
literature and history. From 1806 to 18:6 he was M.P. for
Aid borough. He died at Welwyn, Herts, where he had purchased
the residence and estate of the poet Young, on the 24th of
October 1852. His reading was extraordinarily methodical
(see his Literary Remains). The value of his Fasti, which set
classical chronology on a scientific basis, can scarcely be over-
estimated, even though subsequent research has corrected some
of his conclusions.
His chief works are: Fasti Hellenici, the Civil and Literary
Chronology of Greece from the 5$th to the 124th Olympiad (1824-1851),
including dissertations on points of Greek history and Scriptural
chronology: and Fasti Romani, the Civil and Literary Chronology of
Rome and Constantinople from the Death of A ugustus to the Death of
Heraclius (1845-1850). In 1851 and 1853 respectively he published
epitomes of the above. The Literary Remains of H. F. Clinton (the
first part of which contains an autobiography written in 1818) were
edited by C. J. F. Clinton in 1854.
CLINTON, a city and the county-seat of Clinton county, Iowa,
U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, in the extreme eastern part of the
state. Pop. (1890) 13,619; (1900) 22,698 (5434 being foreign-
born); (1905) 22,756; (1910)25,577. The great increase during
the decade 1890-1900 was partly due to the absorption by Clinton
in 1895 of the city of Lyons (pop. in 1890, 5700). Clinton is
served by the Chicago & North- Western (which has machine-
shops here), the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific
railways, and is connected with Davenport by an electric line.
The river is spanned here by a railway bridge. A large portion
of the city stands between the river and a series of bluffs. Clinton
is the scat of Wart burg College (1869), a German Evangelical
Lutheran institution, and of the Clinton Business College.
Among the public buildings are the city hall, the court-house,
the Federal building and the Carnegie library. As a manu-
facturing centre Clinton has considerable importance; among
its manufactures are furniture, blinds, wire-doth, papier-mache
goods, gas-engines, farm wagons, harness and «u&&kc3 , ^s»
locks, pressed brick, ftoux, %,ncl ^uctmt v^ta**** TV*** v» *a»
53°
CLINTON— CLISSON, O. DE
a large sugar refinery. The value of the factory product in 1000
was $6,203,316; in 1905, $4,006,355. The American Protective
Association (A.P.A.),a secret order opposed to Roman Catholi-
cism, was formed here in 1887. The city was founded in 1855
by the Iowa Land Company, and was incorporated first in 1857,
and again in 1867, this time under a general law of the state
for the incorporation of cities. The county, from which the city
took its name, was named in honour of Dc Witt Clinton.
CLINTON, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., in the central part of the state, on the Nashua river,
about 15 m. N.N.E. of Worcester. Pop. (1890) 10424; (1000)
13,667, of whom 5504 were foreign-born; (1010, U. S. census)
13.075- The township is traversed by the Boston & Maine and
New York, New Haven & Hartford railways. It contains
7 sq. m. of varied and picturesque hilly country on the E. slope
of the highland water-parting between the Connecticut river
and the Atlantic. There is charming scenery along the Nashua
river, the chief stream. The S.W. corner of the township is
now part of an immense water reservoir, the Wachusett dam and
reservoir (excavated 1806-1005; circumference, 35*2 m.), on the
S. branch of the Nashua, which will hold 63,000 million gallons
of water for the supply of the metropolitan region around
Boston. On this is situated the village of Clinton, which has
large manufactories, among whose products are cotton and
woollen fabrics, carpets, wire-cloth, iron and steel, and combs.
The textile and carpet mills arc among the most famous in the
United States. In 1005 the total factory product of the township
was valued at $5,457,865, the value of cotton goods, carpets
and wire-work constituting about nine-tenths of the total.
The prominence of the township as a manufacturing centre
is due to Erastus Brigham Bigclow (1814-1870), one of the
incorporators of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
who devised power-looms for the weaving of a variety of
figured fabrics, — coach-lace, counterpanes, ginghams, silkbrocatel,
tapestry carpeting, ingrain and Brussels carpets,— and revolu-
tionized their manufacture. In 1843 he and his brother Horatio
N. Bigclow established in Clinton the Lancaster Mills for the
manufacture of ginghams. From 1845 to 185 1 he perfected his
loom for the weaving of Brussels and Wilton carpets, the greatest
of his inventions; and he established the Bigelow Carpet Mills
here. He also invented the loom for the weaving of wire-cloth.
It is claimed that the first production in the United States of
finished cotton cloths under one roof and under the factory
system was not at Waltham in 181 6, but at Clinton in 1813;
neither place was the first to spin by power, nor the first to
produce finished cloths without the factory system. The comb
industry dates from the eighteenth century. The first of the
modern textile mills were established in 1838 for the manu-
facture of coach-lace. Clinton was a part of Lancaster, now
a small farming township (pop. in 1910, 2464), until 1850, when
it was set off as an independent township. The earliest settle-
ment goes back to 1645.
See A. E. Ford, History of (lie Origin of the Town of Clinton,
Massachusetts, 1653-186$ (Clinton, 1896).
CLINTON, a city and the county-scat of Henry county,
Missouri, U.S.A., on the Grand river, 87 m. S.E. of Kansas City.
Pop. (1800) 47371 000) 5061 (4 70 being negroes); (1910)4902.
It is served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the Missouri,
Kansas & Texas, and the Kansas City, Clinton & Springfield
railways. The city is situated on the border of a rolling prairie
about 770 ft. above the sea. The vicinity abounds in coal,
but is principally agricultural, and Clinton's chief interest is in
trade with it. The principal manufactures arc flour and pottery.
Clinton was laid out in 1836 and was incorporated in 1865.
CLINTON, a village of Oneida county, New York, U.S.A.,
on the Oriskany Creek, about 9 m. S.W. of Utica. Pop. (1890)
1269; (1900) 1340; (1005) 1315; (1910) 1236. It is served
by the New York, Ontario & Western railway, and is connected
with Utica by an electric line. Several fine mineral springs in
the vicinity have given Clinton some reputation as a health
resort. There are iron mines, blast furnaces, and iron smelters.
Clinton is the seat of Hamilton College (non-sectarian), which
was opened as the Hamilton Oneida Academy in 1798, and
was chartered under its present name in 181 2. It was founded
by the Rev. Samuel Kirkland (1741-1808), a missionary among
the Oneida Indians; its corner-stone was laid by Baron Steuben;
its shade trees were furnished by Thomas Jefferson; and its
name was received from Alexander Hamilton, one of its early
trustees. It had in.1907-1908 20 instructors, 178 students,
and a library of 47,000 volumes and 30,000 pamphlets. At
Clinton are also excellent minor schools. Litchfield Observatory
is connected with the college, and was long in charge of the well*
known astronomer, Christian H. F. Peters (1813-1800), who
discovered here more than 40 asteroids and made extensive
investigations concerning comets. The village was settled
about 1786 by pioneers from New England, was named in honour
of George Clinton, and was incorporated in 1842.
CLINTONITB, a group of micaceous minerals. known as the
" brittle micas." Like the micas and chloritcs, they are mono-
clinic in crystallization and have a perfect cleavage parallel to
the flat surface of the plates or scales, but differ markedly from
these in the brittlcness of the laminae; they arc also considerably
harder, the hardness of chloritoid being as high as 6} on Mobs'
scale. They differ chemically from the micas in containing less
silica and no alkalis, and from the chloritcs in containing much
less water; in many respects they are intermediate between
the micas and chlorites.
The following species are distinguished:—
Mar gar He is a basic calcium aluminium silicate, H.CaAUSiAh
and is classed by some authors as a lime-mica. It forms white
pearly scales, and was at first known as pearl-mica and after*
wards as margarite, from fxapyapirrfi, a pearl. It is a character*
istic associate of corundum, of which it is frequently an alteration
product (facts which suggested the synonymous names corun*
dcllite and cmerylitc), and is found in the emery deposits of
Asia Minor and the Grecian Archipelago, and with corundum
at several localities in the United States.
Seyberlite, Brand isitc and Xanthophyllite are closely allied
species consisting of basic magnesium, calcium and aluminium
silicate, and have been regarded as isomorphous mixtures of a
silicate (HjCaM&SijOn) and an aluminatc (HaCaMgAUOu).
Seybertitc (the original clintonitc) occurs as reddish-brown to
copper-red, brittle, foliated masses in mctamorphic limestone
at Amity, New York; brandisitc as ycllowish-grccn hexagonal
prisms in mctamorphic limestone in the Fassathal, Tirol ; xantho-
phyllite as yellow folia and as distinct crystals (waluewitc) in
chloritic schists in the Urals.
Chloritoid has the formula H 2 (Fc,Mg)Al 2 SiO;. It forms
tabular crystals and scales, with indistinct hexagonal outlines,
which arc often curved or bent and aggregated in rosettes. The
colour is dark grey or green; a characteristic feature is the
plcochroism, the plcochroic colours varying from yellowish-
green to indigo-blue. Hardness, 6J ; specific gravity, 3-4-3 6. It
occurs as isolated scales scattered through schistose rocks and
phyllites of dynamo-metamorphic origin. The ottrelitcs of the
phyllites and ottrclitc-schists of Ottrcz and other localities in
the Belgian Ardennes is a manganifcrous variety of chloritoid,
but owing to enclosed impurities the analyses differ widely from
those of typical chloritoid. (L. J. S.)
CLISSON, OLIVIER DB (1336-1407), French soldier, was the
son of the Olivier dc Clisson who was put to death in 1343 on the
suspicion of having wished to give up Nantes to the English.
He was brought up in England, where his mother, Jeanne de
Belleville, had married her second husband. On his return to
Brittany he took arms on the side of dc Montfort, distinguishing
himself at the battle of Auray (1364), but in consequence of
differences with Duke John IV. went over to the side of Blois.
In 1370 he joined Bertrand du Gucsclin, who had lately become
constable of France, and followed him in all his campaigns against
the English. On the death of du Gucsclin Clisson received the
constable's sword (1380). He fought with the citizens 0/ Ghent,
defeating them at Roosebek (1382), later on commanded the
army in Poitou and Flanders (1389), and made an unsuccessful
attempt to invade England. On his return to Paris, ia 139s,
CLISSON— CLIVE, KITTY
531
an attempt was made to assassinate him by Pierre de Craon,
at the instigation of John IV. of Brittany. In order to punish
the latter, Charles VI., accompanied by the constable, marched
on Brittany, but it was on this expedition that the king was
seized with madness. The uncles of Charles VI. took proceedings
against Clisson, so that he had to take refuge in Brittany. lie
was reconciled with John IV., and after the duke's death, in
1399. he became protector of the duchy, and guardian of the
young princes. He had gathered vast wealth before his death
on the 23rd of April 1407.
CLISSON, a town of western France, in the department of
Loire-Infericurc, prettily situated at the confluence of the Scvrc
Nantaisc and the Moinc 17 m. S.E. of Nantes by rail. Pop.
(1006) 2244. The town gave its name to the celebrated family
of Clisson, of which the most famous member was Olivier de
Clisson. It has the imposing ruins of their stronghold, parts
of which date from the 13th century. The town and castle were
destroyed in 1702 and 1793 during the Vendean wars. The
sculptor F. F. Lcmont afterwards bought the castle, and the town
was rebuilt in the early part of the 19th century according to
his plans. There arc picturesque parks on the banks of the
rivers. The Moinc is crossed by an old Gothic bridge and by a
fine modern viaduct.
CLITHEROE, a market town and municipal borough in the
Clitberoe parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 220 m.
N.N.W. from London and 35 m. N. by W. from Manchester, on
the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 11,414. It is
finely situated in the valley of the Ribble, at the foot of Pcndle
Hill, a steep plateau-like mass rising to 1831 ft. The church of
St Mary Magdalene, though occupying an ancient site, is wholly
modernized. There are a grammar school, founded in 1554,
and a technical school. On a rocky elevation commanding the
valley stands the keep and other fragments of a Norman castle,
but part of the site is occupied by a modern mansion. The
Industrial establishments comprise cotton-milk, print-works,
paper-mills, foundries, and brick and lime works. The corpora-
tion consists of a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors. Area,
»38s acres.
Stonyhurst College, 5 m. S.W. of Clitheroc, is the principal
establishment in England for Roman Catholic students. The
Jesuits of St Omcr, after emigrating to Bruges and Liege, were
disorganized by the revolutionary troubles at the close of the
18th century, and a large body came to England, when Thomas
Weld, In 1795, conferred his property of Stonyhurst upon them.
Hie fine and extensive buildings, of which the nucleus is a
mansion of the 17th century, contain a public school for boys
and a house of studies for Jesuit ecclesiastics, while there is a
preparatory school at a short distance. Every branch of study
is prosecuted, the college including such institutions as an
observatory* laboratories and farm buildings.
The Honour of Clitheroe, the name of which is also written
Clyderhow and Clethcrwoode, was first held by Roger de Poictou,
who was almost certainly the builder of the castle, which was
dismantled in 1649. He granted it to Robert de Lacy, in whose
family it remained with two short intervals until it passed by
marriage to Thomas, carl of Lancaster, in 13 10. It formed part
of the duchy of Lancaster till Charles II. at the Restoration
bestowed it on General Monk, from whose family it descended
through the house of Montague to that of Buccleuch. The
Clitheroe Estate Company are the present lords of the Honour.
The first charter was granted about 1283 to the burgesses by
Henry de Lacy, second earl of Lincoln, confirming the liberties
granted by the first Henry dc Lacy, who is therefore sometimes
said, although probably erroneously, to have granted a charter
about 1 147. The 1 283 charter was confirmed by Edward III. in
1346, Henry V. in 1413-1414, Henry MIL in 1542, and James I.
in 1604. Of the fairs, those on December 7th to 9th and March
14th 10 20th are held under a charter of Henry IV. in 1409.
A weekly market has been held on Saturday since the Co nqutiuT a
days. In 1 558 the borough was granted two member* «f **ribri
at, and continued to return them till iftjt, *hr "«■" ■ <
I to one. Under the RidUtrjMfckfl
borough was disfranchised. The municipal government was
formerly vested in an in-bailifl and an out-bailiff elected annually
from the in and out burgesses. A court-lect and court-baron
used to be held half-yearly, but both arc now obsolete. The
present corporation governs under the Municipal Corporation
Act (1837). There was a church or chapel here in early times,
and a chaplain is mentioned in Henry II. 's reign.
CLITOMACHUS, Greek philosopher, was a Carthaginian
originally named Hasdrubal, who came to Athens about the
middle of the 2nd century B.C. at the age of twenty-four. He
made himself well acquainted with Stoic and Peripatetic philo-
sophy; but he studied principally under Carncadcs, whose views
he adopted, and whom he succeeded as chief of the New Academy
in 129 B.C. He made it his business to spread the knowledge of
the doctrines of Carncadcs, who left nothing in writing himself.
Clitomachus' works were some four hundred in number; but
wc possess scarcely anything but a few titles, among which arc
De suslincndis assensionibus (TLtpl irox*fc, " on suspension of
judgment ") and Utpl alpeoewv (an account of various philo-
sophical sects). In 146 he wrote a treatise to console his country-
men after the ruin of their city, in which he insisted that a wise
man ought not to feel grieved at the destruction of his country
Cicero highly commends his works and admits his own debt in
the Academics to the treatise Utfil ejroxV. Parts of Cicero's
De Nalura and De Divinatione, and the treatise De Fato are also
in the main based upon Clitomachus.
Sec E. Wcllmann in Ersch and Grubcr's Allgemrine Encyclopedic,
R. Hirzcl, Untcrsuckungen tu Ciceros philosophischen Schriftcn. i.
(1877); Dtog. Lacrt. iv. 67-92; Cicero, Acad. Pr. u. 31, 32, and
Tusc. iii. 22; and article Academy, Grlek.
CUTUVNUS, a river in Umbria, Italy, which rises from a very
abundant spring by the road between the ancient Spolctium and
Trcbia, 8 m. from the former, 4 m. from the Latter, and after a
short course through the territory of the latter town joins the
Tinia, a tributary of the Tiber. The spring is well described
by Pliny (Epist. viii. 8): it was visited by Caligula and by
Honorius, and is still picturesque — a clear pool surrounded by
poplars and weeping willows. The stream was personified as a
god, whose ancient temple lay near the spring, and close by
other smaller shrines; the place, therefore, occurs under the name
Sacraria (the shrines) as a Roman post station. The building
generally known as the Tcmpio di Clitunno, dose to the spring,
is, however, an ancient tomb, converted into a Christian church
in the early middle ages, the decorative sculptures, which are
obviously contemporary with those of S. Salvatorc at Spolcto,
belonging to the 4th or 6th century according to some authorities,
to the 1 2th according to others.
See H. Grfaar, Nucvo bulhttxno di archcologia cri'tianc (Rome,
1895) i. 127; A. Vcnturt, Sloria deW arte i tali ana (Milan, 1904),
iii. 903.
CUVE, CAROLINE (1S01-1S73), English authoress, was born
in London on the 24th of June 1801, the daughter of Mr Mcyscy-
Wiglcy, M.P. for Worcester. She married, in 1840, the Rev.
Archer Give. She published, over the signature " V.," eight
volumes of poetry, but is best known as the author of Paul
Fcrroll (1855), a sensational novel, and Why Paul Fcrroll killed
his Wife (i860). She died on the 13th of July 1873, at Whit-
field, Herefordshire.
CUVE, CATHERINE (Kitty] (1711-1785), British actress,
was born, probably in London, in 171 1. Her father, William
Raftor, an Irishman of good family but small means, had held
a captain's commission in the French army under Louis XIV.
From her earliest years she showed a talent for the stage, and
about 1728 became a member of the company at Drury Lane,
of which Collcy Cibbcr was then manager. Her first part was
that of the page Ismcncs (" with a song ") in the tragedy Milhri-
dales. Shortly afterwards she married George Clivc, a barrister
and a relative of (he 1st Lord Clive, but husband and wife soon
separated by mutual consent. In 1 731 she definitely established
her reputation aa a comic actress and singer in Charles Cofiey's
adaptation, The Devil to Pay, and from this time
'*■ - i «4yi a popular favourite. She acted liita. wonsSAr
fffeate U. \m &t W*vas. tut* <& ^w. «e\s©wfc>
.! '
53*
CLIVE, LORD
members of Garrick's company. She took part, however, in some
of the oratorios of Handel, whose friend she was. In 1 769, having
been a member of Garrick's company for twenty-two years, she
quitted the stage, and lived for sixteen years in retirement at
a villa at Twickenham, which had been given her some time
previously by her friend Horace Walpole. Mrs Clive had small
claim to good looks, but as an actress of broad comedy she was
unreservedly praised by Goldsmith, Johnson and Garrick. She
had a quick temper, which on various occasions involved her
in quarrels, and at times sorely tried the patience of Garrick, but
her private life remained above suspicion, and she regularly
supported her father and his family. She died at Twickenham
on the .6th of December 1785. Horace Walpole placed in his
garden an urn to her memory, bearing an inscription, of which
the last two lines run:
" The comic mux with her retired
And shed a tear when she expired."
See Percy Fitzgerald. Lif of Mrs Catherine CHve (1888); W. R.
Chetwood, General History of the Stage (1749); Thomas Davies,
Memoirs of the Life of David Garrick (1784).
CLIVB, ROBERT CUVB, Bason (1725-1774). the statesman
and general who founded the empire of British India, was born on
the 29th of September 1735 at Styche, the family estate, in the
parish of Moreton Say, Market Drayton, Shropshire. We learn
from himself, in his second speech in the House of Commons in
1773, that as the estate yielded only £500 a year, his father
followed the profession of the law also. The Clives, or Gyves,
were one of the oldest families in the county of Shropshire,
having held the manor of that name in the reign of Henry II.
One Clive was Irish chancellor of the exchequer under Henry
VIII.; another was a member of the Long Parliament; Robert's
father for many years represented Montgomeryshire in parlia-
ment. His mother, to whom he was tenderly attached, and who
had a powerful influence on his career, was a daughter, and with
her sister Lady Sempill co-heir, of Nathaniel Gaskell of Man-
chester. Robert was thei r eldest son. Wi th his five sisters, all of
whom were married in due time, he ever maintained the most
affectionate relations. His only brother survived to 1825.
Young Clive was the despair of his teachers. Sent from school
to school, and for only a short time at the Merchant Taylors'
school, which then as now had a high reputation, he neglected his
books for perilous adventures. But he was not so ignorant as his
biographers represent. He could read Horace in after life ; and
he must have laid In his youth the foundation of that clear and
vigorous English style which marked all his despatches, and
made Lord Chatham declare of one of his speeches in the House
of Commons that it was the most eloquent he had ever heard.
From his earliest years, however, his ambition was to lead his
fellows; but he never sacrificed honour, as the word was then
understood, even to the fear of death. At eighteen he was sent
out to Madras as a " factor " or " writer " in the civil service of
the East India Company. The detention of the ship in B razil for
nine months enabled him to acquire the Portuguese language,
which, at a time when few or none of the Company's servants
learned the vernaculars of India, he often found of use. For the
first two years of his residence he was miserable. He felt keenly
the separation from home; he was always breaking through the
restraints imposed on young " writers "; and he was rarely out
of trouble with his fellows, with one of whom he fought a dueL
Thus early, too, the effect of the climate on his health began to
show itself in those fits of depression during one of which he
afterwards prematurely ended his life. The story is told of him
by his companions, though he himself never spoke of it, that he
twice snapped a pistol at his head in vain. His one solace was
found in the governor's library, where he sought to make up for
past carelessness by a systematic course of study. He was just of
age, when in 1746 Madras was forced to capitulate to Labour-
donnais during the War of the Austrian Succession. The breach
of that capitulation by Dupleix, then at the head of the French
settlements in India, ted Give, with others, to escape from the
town to /A* subordinate Fort St David, some so m. to the south.
Then, disgusted with the state of attain and the purely com-
mercial duties of an East Indian civilian, as they then were, Clive
obtained an ensign's commission.
At this time India was ready to become the prise of the first
conqueror who to the dash of the soldier added the skill of
the administrator. For the forty years since the death of the
emperor Aurangzeb, the power of the Great Mogul had gradually
fallen into the hands of his provincial viceroys or subodkon.
The three greatest of these were the nawab of the Deccan, or
south and central India, who ruled from Hyderabad, the nawab
of Bengal, whose capital was Mursbidabad, and the nawab or
wazir of Oudh. The prise lay between Dupleix, who had the
genius of an administrator, or rather intriguer, but was no
soldier, and Clive, the first of a century's brilliant succession of
those " soldier-politicals," as they are called in the East, to whom
Great Britain owes the conquest and consolidation of its greatest
dependency. Clive successively established British ascendancy
against French influence in the three great provinces under these
nawabs. But his merit lies especially in the ability and foresight
with which he secured for bis country, and for the good of the
natives, the richest of the three, Bengal First, as to Madras snd
the Deccan, Clive had hardly been able to commend himself to
Major Stringer Lawrence, the commander of the British troops, by
his courage and skill in several small engagements, when the
peace of Aix-la-Chapclle (1748) forced him to return to his civil
duties for a short time. An attack of the malady which so
severely affected his spirits led him to visit Bengal, where he was
soon to distinguish himself. On his return he found a contest
going on between two sets of rival claimants for the position of
viceroy of the Deccan, and for that of nawab of the Carnatic, the
greatest of the subordinate states under the Deccan. Dupleix,
who took the part of the pretenders to power in both places, was
carrying all before him. The British had been weakened by the
withdrawal of a large force under Admiral Boscawen, and by the
return home, on leave, of Major Lawrence. But that officer had
appointed Clive commissary for the supply of the troops with
provisions, with the rank of captain. More than one disaster had
taken place on a small scale, when Clive drew up a plan for
dividing the enemy's forces, and offered to carry it out himself.
The pretender, Chanda Sahib, had been made nawab of the
Carnatic with Dupleix's assistance, while the British had taken
up the cause of the more legitimate successor, Mahommed Ali.
Chanda Sahib had left Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, to
reduce Trichinopoly, then held by a weak English battalion.
Clive offered to attack Arcot in order to force Chanda Sahib to
raise the siege of Trichinopoly. But Madras and Fort St David
could supply him with only 200 Europeans and 300 sepoys. Of
the eight officers who led them, four were civilians like Clive
himself, and six had never been in action. His force had but
three field-pieces. The circumstances that Clive, at the bead of
this handful, had been seen marching during a storm of thunder
and lightning, frightened the enemy into evacuating the fort,
which the British at once began to strengthen against a siege.
Clive treated the great population of the city with so much
consideration that they helped him, not only to fortify his position,
but to make successful sallies against the enemy. As the days
passed on, Chanda Sahib sent a large army under his son and bis
French supporters, who entered Arcot and closely besieged Clive
in the citadel.
Macaulay gives the following brilliant account of the siege: —
" Raja Sahib proceeded to invest the fort, which seemed quite
incapable of sustaining a siege. The walls were ruinous, the ditches
dry, the ramparts too narrow to admit the guns, and the battle-
ments too low to protect the soldiers. The little garrison had been
greatly reduced by casualties. It now consisted of ISO Europeans
and 300 sepoys. Only four officers were left, the stock of provisions
was scanty, and the commander who had to conduct the defence
under circumstances so discouraging was a young man of five and
twenty, who had been bred as a book-keeper. During fifty days the
siege went on. and the younr captain maintained the defence with
a firmness, vigilance and ability which would have done honour to
the oldest marshal in Europe. The breach, however, increased day
by day. Under such circumstances, any troops so scantily provided
with officers might have been expected to show signs of insubor-
dination; and the danger was peculiarly great in a force composed of
men differing widely from each other in extraction, colour, language.
CLIVIi, LORD
533
manners and religion. 15ui the devotion of the little kind to its
chief surpassed anything that is related of the Tenth Legion of
Caesar, or the Old Guard of Napoleon. The sepoys came to Clive.
not to complain of their scanty (are, but to propose that all the grain
should be given to the Europeans, who required more nourishment
i the natives of Asia. The thin gruel, they said, which was
oed away from the rice would suffice for themselves. History
contains no more touching instance of military fidelity, or of the
influence of a commanding mind. An attempt made by the governor
of Madras to relieve the place had failed ; but there was hope from
another quarter. A body of 3000 M ah rat Us, half soldiers, half
robbers, under the command of a chief named Murari Rao had been
hired to assist Mahommed Ali; but thinking the French power
irresistible, and the triumph of Chanda Sahib certain, they had
hitherto remained inactive on the frontiers of the Carnatic. The
fame of the defence of Arcot roused them from their torpor; Murari
Rao declared that he had never before believed that Englishmen
could fight, but that he would willingly help them since he saw that
they had spirit to help themselves. Raja Sahib learned that the
Mahrattas were in motion, and it was necefsary for him to be ex-
peditious. He first tried negotiations — he offered large bribes to
Clive, which were rejected with scorn ; he vowed that if his proposals
were not accepted, he would instantly storm the fort, and put every
man in h to the sword. Clive told him. in reply, with characteristic
haughtiness, that his father was a usurper, that his army was a rabble,
and that he would do well to think twice before he sent such poltroons
into a breach defended by English soldiers. Raja Sahib determined
to storm the fort. The day was well suited to a bold military enter-
prise* It was the great Mahommedan festival, the Muharram, which
is sacred to the memory of Husain. the son of Ali. Clive had received
: intelligence of the design, had made his arrangements, and,
exhausted by fatigue, had thrown himself on his bed. He was
awakened by the aUrm, and was instantly at his post. The enemy
advanced, drivine before ihem elephants whose foreheads were
armed with iron plates. It was expected that the gates would yield
to the ihoclt of thew living battering-rams. But the huge beasts
no sooner ftlt the r!niji>h musket balls than they turned round and
rushed furiously aw.iy. trampling on the multitude which had urged
them fof ward, A raft *»» launched on the water which filled one
part of the ditch, Clive perceiving that his gunners at that po*t
did not understand I heir 1 airiness, took the manage— I of a mece
of artillery himself, and cleared the raft in a few minutes. Whtre
the moat was dry, the »snj Slants mounted with greart boldness; but
they were received wiih a fire so heavy and so well directed, that it
soon quelled the courage even of fanaticism and of \n\n\u .in..n.
The rcaf ranks of the b-ngiuih kept the front ran La supplinj with a
CMutant succession of loaded muskets, and every ihot told on the
living mass below. The struggle lasted about an hour; 400 of the
assailants fell; the gar^*on lost only five or six men. The besieged
passed an anxious night, looking for a renewal of the attack, hut
when day broke, the enemy were no more to be teen. They had
retired, leaving to the English several guns and a large quantity of
In India, we might say in all history, there is no parallel to
this exploit of 17 51 till we come to the siege of Lucknow in 1857.
dive, now reinforced, followed up his advantage, and Major
Lawrence returned in time to carry the war to a successful issue.
In 1754 the first of the Carnatic treaties was made provisionally,
between T. Saunders, the Company's resident at' Madras, and
M. Godeheu, the French commander, in which the English
protege 1 , Mahommed Ali, was virtually recognized as nawab,and
both nations agreed to equalize their possessions. When war
again broke out in 1 756, and the French, during Give's absence in
Bengal, obtained successes in the northern districts, his efforts
helped to drive them from their settlements. The Treaty of
Paris in 1763 formally confirmed Mahommed Ali in the position
whkh Clive bad won for him. Two years after, the Madras work
of Give was completed by a firman from the emperor of Delhi,
recognizing the British possessions in southern India.
The siege of Arcot at once gave Cb've a European reputation.
Pitt pronounced the youth of twenty-seven who had done such
deeds a " heaven-born general," thus endorsing the generous
appreciation of his early commander, Major Lawrence. When
the court of directors voted him a sword worth £700, he refused
lo receive it unless Lawrence was similarly honoured. He left
Madras for home, after ten years' absence, early in 1753, but
sot before marrying Miss Margaret Maskelyne, the sister of a
friend, and of one who was afterwards well known as astronomer
royal AH his correspondence proves him to have been a good
husband and father, at a time when society was far from pure,
aad scandal made havoc of the highest reputations. In after
days, when Clive 's uprightness and stern reform of the Company's
civil and military services made him many enemies, a biography
of him appeared under the assumed name of Charles Carracioli,
Gtut. All the evidence is against the probabUity of iU scandalous
stories being true. Clive aa a young man occasionally indulged
in loose or free talk among intimate friends, but beyond this
nothing has been proved to his detriment After he had been
two years at home the state of affairs in India made the directors
anxious for his return. He was sent out, in 1756, as governor
of Fort St David, with the reversion of the government of
Madras, and he received the commission of lieutenant colonel
in the king's army. He took Bombay on his way, and there
commanded the land force which captured Gheria, the stronghold
of the Mahratta pirate, Angria. In the distribution of prize
money which followed this expedition he showed no little self-
denial. He took his seat as governor of Fort St David on the
day on which the nawab of Bengal captured Calcutta, and
thither the Madras government at once sent him, with admiral
Watson. He entered on the second period of his career.
Since, in August 1600, Job Char nock had landed at the village
of Sutanati with a guard of one officer and 30 men, the infant
capital of Calcutta had become a rich centre of trade. The
successive nawabs or viceroys of Bengal had been friendly to it,
till, in 1 756, Suraj-ud-Dowlah succeeded hisuncleat Murshidabad.
His predecessor's financial minister had fled to Calcutta to escape
the extortion of the new nawab, and the English governor
refused to deliver up the refugee. Enraged at this, Suraj-ud-
Dowlah captured the old fort of Calcutta on the 20th of June,
and plundered it of more than two millions sterling. Many of
the English fled to ships and dropped down the river. The 146
who remained were forced into " the Black Hole " in the stifling
heat of the sultriest period of the year. Only 23 came out alive.
The fleet was as strong, for those days, as the land force was
weak. Disembarking his troops some miles below the city,
Clive marched through the jungles, where he lost his way owing
to the treachery of his guides, but soon invested Fort William,
while the fire of the ships reduced it, on the 2nd of January 1757.
On the 4th of February he defeated the whole army of the nawab,
which had taken up a strong position just beyond what is now
the most northerly suburb of Calcutta. The nawab hastened
to conclude a treaty, under which favourable terms were con-
ceded to the Company's trade, the factories and plundered
property were restored, and an English mint was established.
In the accompanying agreement, offensive and defensive, Clive
appears under the name by which he was always known to the
natives of India, Sabut Jung, or " the daring in war." The hero
of Arcot had, at Angria 's stronghold, and now again under the
walls of Calcutta, established his reputation as the first captain
of the time. With 600 British soldiers, 800 sepoys, 7 field-pieces
and 500 sailors to draw them, he had routed a force of 34,000 men
with 40 pieces of heavy cannon, 50 elephants, and a camp that
extended upwards of four miles in length. His own account, in a
letter to the archbishop of Canterbury, gives a modest but vivid
description of the battle, the importance of which has been
overshadowed by Plassey. In spite of his double defeat and the
treaty which followed it, the madness of the nawab burst forth
again. As England and France were once more at war, Clive
sent the fleet up the river against Chandcrnagore, while he
besieged it by land. After consenting to the siege, the nawab
sought to assist the French, but in vain. The capture of their
principal settlement in India, next to Pondicherry, which had
fallen in the previous war, gave the combined forces prise to
the value of £130,000. The rule of Suraj-ud-Dowlah became
as intolerable to his own people as to the British. They formed
a confederacy to depose him, at the head of which was Jafar
Ali Khan, his commander-in-chief. Associating with himself
Admiral Watson, Governor Drake and Mr Watts, Clive made
a treaty in which it was agreed to give the office of viceroy of
Bengal, Behar and Orissa to Jafar, who was to pay a million
sterling to the Company for its losses in Calcutta and the cost
of its troops, half a million to the British inhabitants o( Ctkaxv^
£200,000 to the native inhabvUxvVi, vuc\ \^o x «»\»\N& Kxtok««».
merchants. \3p to t\\\s pouvx. ^ «• tXw • ^^Y^^* 5 **^'***
534
CLIVE, LORD
hopeless as a ruler. His relations alike to his master, the merely
titular emperor of Delhi, and to the people left the province open
to the strongest. After " the Black Hole," the battle of Calcutta,
and the treachery at Chandernagore in spite of the treaty which
followed that battle, the East India Company could treat the
oawab only as an enemy. Clive, it is true, might have disregarded
all native intrigue, marched on Murshidabad, and at once held
the delta of the Ganges in the Company's name. But the time
was not ripe for this, and the consequences, with so small a
force, might have been fatal. The idea of acting directly as
rulers, or save under native charters and names, was not developed
by events for half a century. The political morality of the time
in Europe, as well as the comparative weakness of the Company
in India, led Clive not only to meet the dishonesty of his native
associate by equal dishonesty, but to justify his conduct by the
declaration, years after, in parliament, that he would do the
same again. It became necessary to employ the richest Bengali
trader, Omichund, as an agent between Jafar Ali and the British
officials. Master of the secret of the confederacy against Suraj-
ud-Dowlah, the Bengali threatened to betray it unless he was
guaranteed, in the treaty itself, £300,000. To dupe the villain,
who was really paid by both sides, a second, or fictitious treaty,
was shown him with a clause to this effect. This Admiral
Watson refused to sign; " but," Clive deponed to the House
of Commons, " to the best of his remembrance, he gave the
gentleman who carried it leave to sign his name upon it; his
lordship never made any secret of it; he thinks it warrantable
in such a case, and would do it again a hundred times; he had
no interested motive in doing it, and did it with a design of
disappointing the expectations of a rapacious man." Such is
Give's own defence of the one act which, in a long career of
abounding temptations, was of questionable honesty.
The whole hot season of 1757 was spent in these negotiations,
till the middle of June, when Clive began his march from Chander-
nagore, the British in boats, and the sepoys along the right bank
of the Hugli That river above Calcutta is, during the rainy
season, fed by the overflow of the Ganges to the north through
three streams, which in the hot months are nearly dry. On the
left bank of the Bhagirathi, the most westerly of these, 100 m.
above Chandernagore, stands Murshidabad, the capital of the
Mogul viceroys of Bengal, and then so vast that Clive compared
it to the London of his day. Some miles farther down is the field
of Plasscy, then an extensive grove of mango trees, of which
enough yet remains, in spite of the changing course of the stream,
to enable the visitor to realize the scene. On the 21st of June
Clive arrived on the bank opposite Plassey, in the midst of that
outburst of rain which ushers in the south-west monsoon of India.
His whole army amounted to 1100 Europeans and 2100 native
troops, with 9 field-pieces. The nawab had drawn up 18,000
horse, 50,000 foot and S3 pieces of heavy ordnance, served by
French artillerymen. For once in his career Clive hesitated, and
called a council of sixteen officers to decide, as he put it, " whether
in our present situation, without assistance, and on our own
bottom, it would be prudent to attack the nawab, or whether
we should wait till joined by some country power?" Clive
himself headed the nine who voted for delay; Major (afterwards
Sir) Eyre Coote led the seven who counselled immediate attack.
But, either because his daring asserted itself, or because, also,
of a letter that he received from Jafar Ali, as has been said, Clive
was the first to change his mind and to communicate with Major
Eyre Coote. One tradition, followed by Macaulay, represents
him as spending an hour in thought under the shade of some
trees, while he resolved the issues of what was to prove one of
the decisive battles of the world. Another, turned into verse by
Sir Alfred Lyall, pictures his resolution as the result of a dream.
However that may be, he did well as a soldier to trust to the dash
and even rashness that had gained Arcot and triumphed at Cal-
cutta, and as a statesman, since retreat, or even delay, would
have put back the civilization of India for years. When, after
the heavy rain, the sun rose brightly on the 22nd, the 3200 men
and the 9 guns crossed the river and took possession of the
trove sad its tanks of water, while Clive established his head-
quarters in a hunting lodge. On the 23rd the engagement took
place and lasted the whole day. Except the 40 Frenchmen and
the guns which they worked, the enemy did little to reply to the
British cannonade which, with the 39th Regiment, scattered
the host, inflicting on it a loss of 500 men. Clive restrained the
ardour of Major Kilpatrick, for he trusted to Jafar Ali's abstin-
ence, if not desertion to his ranks, and knew the importance of
sparing his own small force. He lost hardly a white soldier; in
all 22 sepoys were killed and 50 wounded. His own account,
written a month after the battle to the secret committee of the
court of directors, is not less unaffected than that in which he
had announced the defeat of the nawab at Calcutta. Suraj-ud-
Dowlah fled from the field on a camel, secured what wealth be
could, and came to an untimely end. Clive entered Murshidabad,
and established Jafar Ali in the position which his descendants
have ever since enjoyed, as pensioners, but have not infrequently
abused. When taken through the treasury, amid a million and a
half sterling's worth of rupees, gold and silver plate, jewels and
rich goods, and besought to ask what he would, Clive was content
with £160,000, while half a million was distributed among the
army and navy, both in addition to gifts of £24,000 to each
member of the Company's committee, and besides the public
compensation stipulated for in the treaty. It was to this occasion
that he referred in his defence before the House of Commons,
when he declared that he marvelled at his moderation. He
sought rather to increase the shares of the fleet and the troops
at his own expense, as he had done at Gheria, and did more
than once afterwards, with prize of war. What he did take from
the grateful nawab for himself was less than the circumstances
justified from an Oriental point of view, was far less than was
pressed upon him, not only by Jafar Ali, but by the hundreds
of native nobles whose gifts Clive steadily refused, and was openly
acknowledged from the first. He followed a usage fully recog-
nized by the Company, although the fruitful source of future evils
which he himself was again sent out to correct. The Company
itself acquired a revenue of £100,000 a year, and a contribution
towards its losses and military expenditure of a million and a half
sterling. Such was Jafar All's gratitude to Clive that he after-
wards presented him with the quit-rent of the Company's lands
in and around Calcutta, amounting to an annuity of £27,000
for life, and left him by will the sum of £70,000, which Give
devoted to the army.
While busy with the civil administration, the conqueror of
Plassey continued to follow up his military success. He sent
Major Coote in pursuit of the French almost as far as Benares.
He despatched Colonel Forde to Vizagapatam and the northern
districts of Madras, where that officer gained the battle of
Condore, pronounced by Broome " one of the most brilliant
actions on military record." He came into direct contact, for
the first time, with the Great Mogul himself, an event which
resulted in the most important consequences during the third
period of his career. Shah Alam, when shahzada, or heir-apparent,
quarrelled with his father Alam Gir II., the emperor, and
united with the viceroys of Oudh and Allahabad for the con-
quest of Bengal. He advanced as far as Patna, Which he besieged
with 40,000 men. Jafar Ali, in terror, sent his son to its relief,
and implored the aid of Clive. Major Caillaud defeated the
prince's army and dispersed it. Finally, at this period, Clive
repelled the aggression of the Dutch, and avenged the massacre
of Amboyna, on that occasion when he wrote his famous letter,
" Dear Forde, fight them immediately; I will send you the order
of council to-morrow." Meanwhile he never ceased to improve
the organization and drill of the sepoy army, after a European
model, and enlisted into it many Mahommedans of fine physique
from upper India. He rcfortified Calcutta. In 1 760, after four
years of labour so incessant and results so glorious, his health
gave way and he returned to England. " It appeared," wrote a
contemporary on the spot, " as if the soul was departing from
the government of Bengal." He had been formally made
governor of Bengal by the court of directors at a time when his
nominal superiors in Madras sought to recall him to their help
there. But he had discerned the Importance of the province
CLIVE, LORD
535
even during his first visit to its rich delta, mighty rivers and
teeming population. It should be noticed, also, that he had
the kingly gift of selecting the Ablest subordinates, for even thus
early he had discovered the ability of young Warren Hastings,
destined to be his great successor, and, a year after Plassey, made
him resident at the nawab's court.
In 1760, at thirty-five years of age, Give returned to England
with a fortune of at least £300,000 and the quit-rent of £27,000
a year, after caring for the comfort of his parents and sisters,
and giving Major Lawrence, his old commanding officer, who had
early encouraged his military genius, £500 a year. The money
had been honourably and publicly acquired, with the approval
of the Company. The amount might have been four times what
it was bad Clivc been either greedy after wealth or ungenerous
to the colleagues and the troops whom he led to victory. In the
five years of his conquests and administration in Bengal, the
young man had crowded together a succession of exploits which
led Lord Macairiay, in what that historian termed his " flashy "
essay on the subject, to compare him to Napoleon Bonaparte.
But there was this difference in Clivc's favour, due not more
to the circumstances of the time than to the object of his policy —
he gave peace, security, prosperity and such liberty as the case
allowed of to a people now reckoned at nearly three hundred
millions, who had for centuries been the prey of oppression,
while Napoleon's career of conquest was inspired only by personal
ambition, and the absolutism he established vanished with his
fall. During the three years that Clivc remained in England he
sought a political position, chiefly that he might influence the
course of events in India, which he had left full of promise. He
had been well received at court, had been made Huron Clivc of
Plassey, in the peerage of Ireland, had bought estates, and had
got not only himself, but his friends returned to the House of
Commons after the fashion of the time. Then it was that he set
himself to reform the home system of the East India Company,
and began a bitter warfare with Mr Sulivan, chairman of the
court of directors, whom in the end he defeated. In this he
was aided by the news of reverses in Bengal. Vansittart, his
successor, having no great influence over Jafar Ali Khan, had
put Kasim Ali Khan, the son-in-law, in his place in consideration
of certain payments to the English officials. After a brief tenure
Kasim Ali had fled, had ordered Walter Reinhardt (known to the
Mahommedans as Sumru), a Swiss mercenary of his, to butcher
the garrison of 150 English at Patna, and had disappeared under
the protection of his brother viceroy of Oudh. The whole
Company's service, civil and military, had become demoralized
by gifts, and by the monopoly of the inland as well as export
trade, to such an extent that the natives were pauperized, and
the Company was plundered of the revenues which Give had
acquired for them. The court of proprietors, accordingly, who
elected the directors, forced them, in spite of Sulivan, to hurry
out Lord Give to Bengal with the double powers of governor and
commander-in-chief.
What he had done for Madras, what he had accomplished
for Bengal proper, and what he had effected in reforming the
Company itself, he was now to complete in less than two years,
in this the third period of his career, by putting his country
politically in the place of the emperor of Delhi, and preventing
for ever the possibility of the corruption to which the British
in India had been driven by an evil system. On the 3rd of May
1765 he landed at Calcutta to learn that Jafar Ali Khan had
died, leaving him personally £70,000, and had been succeeded
by his son, though not before the government had been further
demoralized by taking £100,000 as a gift from the new nawab;
while Kasim Ali had induced not only the viceroy of Oudh,
but the emperor of Delhi himself, to invade Bchar. After the
first mutiny in the Bengal army, which was suppressed by
blowing the sepoy ringleader from a gun, Major Munro, " the
Napier of those times," scattered the united armies on the hard-
fought field of Buxar. The emperor, Shah Alam, detached
himself from the league, while the Oudh viceroy threw himself
on the mercy of the British. Give had now an opportunity of
repeating in Hindustan, or Upper India, what he had accom-
plished for the pood of Bengal. He mi^lit have secured what are
now called the United Provinces, and have rendered unnecessary
the campaigns of WeUesley and Lake. But he had other work
in the consolidation of rich Bengal itself, making it a base from
which the mighty fabric of British India could afterwards
steadily and proportionally grow. Hence he returned to the
Oudh viceroy all his territory save the provinces of Allahabad
and Kora, which he made over to the weak emperor. But from
that emperor he secured the most important document in the
whole of British history in India up to that time, which appears
in the records as " firmaund from the King Shah Aalum, granting
the dewany of Bengal, Bchar and Orissa to the Company,
1765." The date was the 12th of August, the place Benares,
the throne an English dining-table covered with embroidered
cloth and surmounted by a chair in Give's tent. It is all pictured
by a Mahommedan contemporary, who indignantly exclaims
that so great a " transaction was done and finished in less time
than would have been taken up in the sale of a jackass." By
this deed the Company became the real sovereign rulers of thirty
millions of people, yielding a revenue of four millions sterling.
All this had been accomplished by Give in the few brief years
since he had avenged " the Black Hole " of Calcutta. This would
be a small matter, or might even be a cause of reproach,
were it not that the Company's undisputed sovereignty proved,
after a sore period of transition, the salvation of these millions.
The lieutenant-governorship of Bengal since Give's time has
grown so large and prosperous that in 1005 it was found advis-
able to divide it into two separate provinces. But Give, though
thus moderate and even generous to an extent which called
forth the astonishment of the natives, had all a statesman's
foresight. On the same date he obtained not only an imperial
charter for the Company's possession in the Carnatic also, thus
completing the work he began at Arcot, but a third firman for
the highest of all the lieutenancies of the empire, that of the
Deccan itself. This fact is mentioned in a letter from the secret
committee of the court of directors to the Madras government,
dated the 27th of April 1768. Still so disproportionate did the
British force seem, not only to the number and strength of the
princes and people of India, but to the claims and ambition of
French, Dutch and Danish rivals, that Give's last advice to
the directors, as he finally left India in 1767, was this: " We
are sensible that, since the acquisition of the dewany, the power
formerly belonging to the soubah of those provinces b totally, in
fact, vested in the East India Company. Nothing remains
to him but the name and shadow of authority. This name,
however, this shadow, it is indispensably necessary we should
seem to venerate." On a wider arena, even that of the Great
Mogul himself, the shadow was kept up till it obliterated itself
in the massacre of English people in the Delhi palace in 1857;
and Queen Victoria was proclaimed, first, direct ruler on the
1st of November 1858, and then empress of India on the 1st of
January 1877.
Having thus founded the empire of British India, Give's
painful duty was to create a pure and strong administration,
such as alone would justify its possession by foreigners. The
civil service was dc-orientalized by raising the miserable salaries
which had tempted its members to be corrupt, by forbidding
the acceptance of gifts from natives, and by exacting covenants
under which participation in the inland trade was stopped.
Not less important were his military reforms. With his usual
tact and nerve he put down a mutiny of the English officers,
who chose to resent the veto against receiving presents and the
reduction of batta at a time when two Mahratta armies were
marching on Bengal. His reorganization of the army, on the
lines of that which he had begun after Plassey, and which was
neglected during his second visit to England, has since attracted
the admiration of the ablest Indian officers. He divided the
whole into three brigades, so as to make each a complete force,
in itself equal to any single native army that could be brought
against it. He had not enough British artillerymen, however,
and would not make the mistake of his successors, who trained
natives to work the guns, which were turned *^vw* k V>JNt' , fcx<3oa&>k.
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V -«. . »x
*"i»"- T_
V » »
^ -w
-•- -4 •
CLOCK
537
ir nther, It Is said, gambled away, by Henry VIII. In 1292 a
lock in Canterbury cathedral is mentioned as costing £30, and
mother at St Albans, by R. Wallingford, the abbot in 1326, is
aid to have been such as there was not in all Europe, showing
ramus astronomical phenomena. A description of one in Dover
Castle with the date 1348 on it was published by Admiral
AT. H. Smyth (1788-1865) in 1851, and the clock itself was
adiibited going, in the Scientific Exhibition of 1876. A very
imilar one, made by Henry dc Vick for the French king
Zbarlcs V. in 1379 was much like the common clocks of the 18th
■ntury, except that it had a vibrating balance instead of a
wndulum. The works of one of these old clocks still exist in a
ping condition at the Victoria and Albert Museum. It came from
Veils cathedral, having previously been at Glastonbury abbey.
These old clocks had what is called a verge escapement, and
i balance. The train of wheels ended with a crown wheel, that
a, a wheel serrated with teeth like those of a saw, placed parallel
rlth its axis (fig. x). These teeth, D, engaged with pallets
ZB t CA, mounted on a verge or staff placed parallel to the face
€ the crown wheel. As the crown wheel was turned round the
•eth pushed the pallets alternately until one or the other slid
msU a tooth, and thus let the crown wheel rotate. When one
■aHet had slipped over a tooth, the other pallet caught a corre-
•Mmding tooth on the opposite side of the wheel. The verge
was terminated by a balance rod
placed at right angles to it with a
ball at each end. It is evident that
when the force of any tooth on the
crown wheel began to act on a
pallet, it communicated motion to
the balance and thus caused it to
rotate. This motion would of course
be accelerated, not uniformly, but
according to some law dependent on
the shape of the teeth and pallets.
When the motion had reached its
maximum, the tooth slipped past
the pallet. The other pallet now
engaged another tooth on the op-
posite side of the wheel The motion
of the balls, however, went on and
they continued to swing round, but
this time they were opposed by
' the pressure of the tooth. For a
j* they overcame that pressure, and drove the tooth back,
jting a recoil. As, however, every motion if subjected to an
* tfse acceleration (i.e. a retardation) must come to rest, the
Ji stopped, and then the tooth, which had been forced to
"oil, advanced in its turn, and the swing was repeated. The
iBgerocnt was thus very like a huge watch balance wheel in
Tph the driving weight acted in a very irregular manner, not
^y as a driving force, but also as a regulating spring. The
"Tg of such clocks was influenced greatly by friction and by
oD on the parts, and never could be satisfactory, for the time
"fad with every variation in the swing of the balls, and this
again with every variation of the effective
j driving force.
The first great step in the improvement of
the balance clock was a very simple one. In
the 17th century Galileo had discovered the
isochronism of the pendulum, but he made
no practical use of it, except by the invention
of a little instrument for enabling doctors to
count their patients' pulse-beats. His son,
however, is supposed to have applied the
pendulum to clocks. There is at the Victoria
■r *"7lS?*' Ic0 ' S an( * Albert Museum a copy of an early clock,
Escapement, ^j^ t0 ^ Ga.Iilco*s. in which the pins on a
Hag wheel kick a pendulum outwards, remaining locked after
Of done so till the pendulum returns and unlocks the next
which then administers another kick to the pendulum (fig. 2).
Interest of the specimen is that it contains the germ of the
-%.!> — Verge Escapement.
chronometer escapement and free pendulum, which is possibly
destined to be the escapement of the future.
The essential component parts of a clock are: —
1. The pendulum or time-governing device;
2. The escapement, whereby the pendulum controls the speed
of going;
3. The train of wheels, urged round by the weight or main-
spring, together with the recording parts, i.e. the dial, hands
and hour motion wheels;
4. The striking mechanism.
The general construction of the going part of all clocks, except
large or turret clocks, is substantially the same, and fig. 3 is a
section of any or-
dinary house clock.
B is the barrel with
the cord coiled round
it, generally 16 times
for the 8 days; the
barrel is fixed to its
arbor K, which is
prolonged into the
winding square com-
ing up to the face
or dial of the clock;
the dial is here
shown as fixed cither
by small screws x,
or by a socket and
pin s, to the pro-
longed pillars p, p,
which (4 or 5 in
number) connect the
plates or frame of
the clock together,
though the dial is
commonly set on to
the front plate by
another set of pillars
of its own. The great
wheel G rides on the
arbor, and is con-
nected with the
barrel by the ratchet
R, the action of
which is shown more
fully in fig. 25. The
intermediate wheel r
in this drawing is for a purpose which will be described hereafter,
and for the present it may be considered as omitted, and the click
of the ratchet R as fixed to the great wheel. The great wheel
drives the pinion c which is called the centre pinion, on the arbor
of the centre wheel C, which goes through to the dial, and carries
the long, or minute-hand; this wheel always turns in an hour,
and the great wheel generally in 12 hours, by having 12 times
as many teeth as the centre pinion. The centre wheel drives
the " second wheel " D by its pinion d, and that again drives
the scape-wheel E by its pinion e. If the pinions d and e have
each 8 teeth or leaves (as the teeth of pinions arc usually called),
C will have 64 teeth and D 60, in a clock of which the scape-
wheel turns in a minute, so that the seconds hand may be set
on its arbor prolonged to the dial. A represents the pallets of
the escapement, which will be described presently, and their
arbor a goes through a large hole in the back plate near F, and
its back pivot turns in a cock OFQ screwed on to the back plate.
From the pallet arbor at F descends the crutch F/, ending in
the fork /, which embraces the pendulum P, so that as the
pendulum vibrates, the crutch and the pallets necessarily vibrate
with it. The pendulum is hung by a thin spring S from the cock
Q, so that the bending point of the spring may be just opposite
the end of the pallet arbor, and the edge of the spring as close
to the end of that arbor as possible.
We may now go \o vYvt \tQTvvV5>t\^v\v^xv^^\^R^a^,"wA<
Fig. 3.— Section of House Clock.
538
CLOCK
describe the dial or " motion-work." The minute hand fits on
to a squared end of a brass socket, which is fixed to the wheel
M, and fits dose, but not tight, on the prolonged arbor of the
centre wheel. Behind this wheel is a bent spring which is (or
ought to be) set on the same arbor with a square hole (not a
round one as it sometimes is) in the middle, so that it must
turn with the arbor; the wheel is pressed up against this spring,
and kept there, by a cap and a small pin through the end of the
arbor. The consequence is, that there is friction enough between
the spring and the wheel to carry the hand round, but not
enough to resist a moderate push' with the finger for the purpose
of altering the time indicated. This wheel M , which is sometimes
called the minute-wheel, but is better called the hour-wheel aa
it turns in an hour, drives another wheel N, of the same number
of teeth, which has a pinion attached to it; and that pinion
drives the ixoclvc-hour wheel H, which is also attached to a large
socket or pipe carrying the hour hand, and riding on the former
socket, or rather (in order to relieve the centre arbor of that
extra weight) on an intermediate socket fixed to the bridge L»
which is screwed to the front plate over the hour-wheel M. The
weight W, which drives the train and gives the impulse to the
pendulum through the escapement, is generally hung by a
catgut line passing through a pulley attached to the weight,
the other end of the cord being tied to some convenient place
in the clock frame or seat-board, to which it is fixed by screws
through the lower pillars.
Pendulum.— Suppose that we have a body P (fig. 4) at rest,
and that it is material, that is to say, has " mass." And for
>-^ simplicity let us consider it a ball of
jf/ift il nnffiH imP-%P some heavy matter. Let it be free
P to move horizontally, but attached
Fig* 4« to a fixed point A by means of a
spring. As it can only move horizontally and not fall, the
earth's gravity will be unable to impart any motion to it.
Now it is a law first <liscovered by Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
that if any elastic spring be pulled by a force, then, within its
elastic limits, the amount by which it will be extended is propor-
tional to the force. Hence then, if a body is pulled out against
a spring, the restitutional force is proportional to the displace-
ment. If the body be released it will tend to move back to its
initial position with an acceleration proportioned to its mass and
to its distance from rest. A body thus circumstanced moves with
harmonic motion, vibrating like a stretched piano string, and the
peculiarity of its motion is that it is isochronous. That is to say,
the time of returning to its initial position is the same, whether
it makes a large movement at a high velocity under a strong
restitutional force, or a small movement at a lower velocity under
a smaller restitutional force (see Mechanics) . In consequence of
this fact the balance wheel of a watch is isochronous or nearly
so, notwithstanding variations in the amplitude of its vibrations.
It is like a piano string which sounds the same note, although the
sound dies away as the amplitude of its vibrations diminishes.
A pendulum is isochronous for similar reasons. If the bob be
drawn aside from D to C (fig. 5), then the restitutional force 1
tending to bring it back to rest is ap-
proximately the force which gravitation
would exert along the tangent CA, i.e.
A™™ BC displacement BC
* cos ACW- ggC-^ length 01 pendulum '
..*f Since g is constant, and the length of the
/ pendulum does not vary, it follows that
when a pendulum is drawn aside through
a small arc the force tending to bring it
back to rest is proportional to the dis-
placement (approximately). Thus the
pendulum bob under the influence of
gravity, if the arc of swing is small, acts
as though instead of being acted on by gravity it was acted on
by a spring lending to drag it towards D, and therefore is
isochronous. The qualification " If the arc of swing is small " is
introduced because, as was discovered by Christiaan Uuygcns,
the arc of vibration of a truly isochronous pendulum should ]
Fig. 5.
not be a circle with centre O, but a cycloid DM, generated by
the rolling of a circle with diameter DQ«=JOD, upon a straight
line QM. However, for a short distance near the bottom, the
circle so nearly coincides with the cycloid that a pendulum
swinging in the usual circular path is, Q
for small arcs, isochronous for practical
purposes.
The formula representing the time of
oscillation of a pendulum, in a circular arc,
is thus found:— Let OB (fig. 6) be the
pendulum, B be the position from which
the bob is let go. and P be its position at A^
some period during its swing, rut FC«*-A,
and MC=x, and OB-/. Now when a
body is allowed to move under the force
of gravity in any path from a height A,
the velocity it attains is the same as a body would attain falling
freely vertically through t he dist anc e A. Wh ence if v be the
velocity of the bob at P, v = V2*FM- ^2g{h-x). Let Pp - ds, and
the vertical distance of p below P-rfx, then Pp" velocity at PX#;
ds I I
that is, di=dsfv. Also
Idx
3J"MP"
Vx(2/-X)'
Expanding the second part we have
V 1 -*/2/
....).
If this is integrated between the limits of o and A, we have
'-•V3K+-).'
where I is fhe time of swing from B to A._The terms after the second
may be neglected. The first term, w V Ug, is the time of swine in a
cycloid. The second part represents the addition necessary u tbe
swing is circular and not cycloidal, and therefore expresses the
"circular error." Now A-BO/Z-ajrV/^oo 1 , where is half the
angle of swing expressed in degrees; hence A/8/ =0752520, and tbe
formula becomes / - w\/~ (1 +55^5) •
Hence the ratio of the time of swing of an ordinary pendulum of any
length, with a semiarc of swing -S degrees is to the time of swing
of a corresponding cycloidal pendulum as 1 +0V5252O : 1. Also
the difference of time of swing caused by a small increase 0* in the
semiarc of swing -2W/52 520 second per second, or 33W seconds
per day. Hence in the case of a seconds pendulum whose semiarc
of swing is 2° an increase of *i° in this semiarc of 2° would cause
the dock to lose 3-3X2X0-1 --66 second a day.
Huygens proposed to apply his discovery to clocks, and since the
evolute of a cycloid is an equal cycloid, he suggested the use of a
flexible pendulum swinging between cycloidal cheeks. But this wa»
only an example of theory pushed too far, because the friction on the
cycloidal cheeks involves more crrur than ihcy correct, and other
disturbances of a higher degree of importance &re left uncorrected.
In fact the application of pendulums to clocks, though governed
in the abstract by theory, has to be modified by experiment.
Neglecting the circular error,, if L be the Length of a pendulum and
g the acceleration of gravity at the place where the pendulum
is, then T, the time of a stncle vibration = w^l(Lf^}. From this
formula it follows that the times of vibration of pendulum* are
directly proportional to the square root of their length*, and in-
versely proportional to the square root of the acceleration of gravity
at the place where the pendulum is i^inging. The value of t for
London is 32*2 ft. per second per second, whence it results that the
length of a pendulum for London to beat second* of mean solar
timc^Q'li in. nearly, the length of an astronomical pendulum to
beat seconds of sidereal time being 38 87 in.
This length is calculated on the supposition that I he arc of swing
iscycloidaland that the whole mass of the pendulum is concentrated
at a point whose distance, called the radius of oscillation, from the
point of suspension of the pendulum is 39-14 in. From this it might
be imagined that if a sphere, say of iron, were suspended from a light
rod, so that its centre were 39* 14 in. below its point of support, it
would vibrate once per second. This, however, is not the case. For
as the pendulum swings, the ball also tends to turn in space to and
fro round a horizontal axis perpendicular to the direction of its
motion. Hence the force stored up in the pendulum is expended,
not only in making it swing, but also in causing the ball to oscillate
to and fro through a small angle about a horizontal axis. We have
therefore to consider not merely the vibrations of the rod, but the
oscillations of the bob. The moment of the momentum of the system
round the point of suspension, called its moment of inertia, is com-
posed of the sum of the mass of each particle multiplied into the
square of its distance from the axis of rotation. Hence the moment
CLOCK
539
of Inerti* of the body 1 -= z(ma'}. If A be defined by the relation
2{*w I )-I(*)X*\ then* is call L-d the radius of gyration. If k be the
radius of gyrntinn of a bob round a horizontal axis through its centre
of gravity, h the distance of its centre of gravity below its point ol
suspension, and h* the radlui of g> ration of the bob round the centre
of suspension, then a* -*■+*■. If / be the length of a simple pen-
dulum chat oscillates in the same time, then Ih ■*'»■» A , +A». Now
ft can be rale ula ted if we know the form of the bob, and / is the length
of the timpte pendulum ^39-14 in.; hence *, the distance of the
centre of gravity of the bob below the point of suspension, can be
found.
In an ordinary pendulum, with a thin rod and a bob, this distance
ft is not very different from the theoretical length, / "-39-14 in., of
a simple theoretical pendulum in which the rod has no weight and
the bob b only a single heavy point. For the effect of the weight
of the rod is to throw the centre of oscillation a little above the centre
of gravity of the bob, while the effect of the size of the bob is to
throw the centre of oscillation a little down. In ordinary practice
it is usual to make the pendulum so that the centre of gravity is
about 39 in. below the upper free end of the suspension spring and
leave the exact length to be determined by
■ rrx o triaL _
fr Jrt Since T «»V L/g, we have, by differentiating,
[J" (J dL/L-aoT/T, that is, any small percentage of
ffmfa. increase in L will correspond to
ifaJT double the percentage of increase in
T. Therefore with a seconds pen-
dulum, in order to make a second's difference in
a day, equivalent to 1/86,400 of the pendulum's j
rate of vibration, since there are 86400 seconds
in 24 hours. w», must have a difference of length
amounting to 2/06,400 » 1/43 ,aoo of the length
of the rod- This U 39 i 38/43 ,jm -•000906 in.
Hence if under the pendulum bob be put a nut
working a screw of 31 threads to the inch and
having its head divided into 30 parts, a turn
of this nut 1 h mush one division will alter the
length of the pendulum by -0009 In. and change
the rate of the clock by about a second a day.
To accelerate the clock the nut ha* always to
be turned to the right, or as you would drive
in a corkscrew and vice versa. But in astrono-
mical and in large turret docks, it is desirable
to avoid stopping or in any way disturbing the
pendulum; and for the finer adjustments other j
methods of regulation are adqptcd. The best
is that of fixing a collar, as shown in fig. 7 at C,
about midway down the rod, capable of having
very small weights laid upon it, this being the
place where the addition of any small weight
E reduces the greatest effect, and where, it may
e added, any moving of that weight up or
down on the rod produces the least effect. If
M is the weight of the pendulum and / its
length (down to the centre of oscillation), and
m a small weight added at the distance n
below the centre of suspension or above the
c.o. (since they arc reciprocal), / the time of
vibration, and -dl the acceleration due to
adding m; then
w. * . -dl m (n n'\.
Tig. 7.-Section T'm \T T '
•I Westminster
Clock Pendulum. from which it is evident that if *-//2,^hen
=<//// -m/8M. But as there are 86400 seconds
in a day, — rfT, the daily acceleration, -86400 dt> or to&oo i«/M,
or if m is the 10800th of the weight of the pendulum it will
accelerate the clock a second a day, or 10 grains wUl do that
on a pendulum of 15 lb weight (7000 gr. being m 1 lb A or an
ounce on a pendulum of 6 cwt. In like manner if n^ifa from
either top or bottom, m must -M/7200 to accelerate the clock a
second a day The higher up the collar the lcs* is the ri*k of disturb*
log the pendulum in putting on or taking off the regulating we inhis
bat the bigger the weight required to produce the effect. The weights
should be made in a scries, and marked £, }, l. 2, according 10 the
number of seconds a day by which they will accelerate, and the
pendulum adjusted at first to lose a little, perhaps a second a day.
when there are no weights on the collar, so that it may always have
some weight on, which can be diminished or increased from time
to time with certainty, as the rate may vary.
The length of pendulum rods is also affected by temperature and
■Jao, if they are made of wood, by damn. Hence, to ensure good
„ time-keeping qualities in a clock, it is necessary (1) to make
zj^T, fftlM the rods of materials that arc as little affected by such
(!»wii B tK»» influences as possible, and (2) to provide means of com-
pensation* by which the effective length of the rod is kept constant
fa spite of expansion or contraction in the material of which it is
composed. Fairly good pendulums for ordinary u*e may be made
Bat of very well dried wood, soaked in a thin rotation of shellac
fat spirits of wine, or in melted paraffin wax; but wood shrinks in
1 so uncertain a manner that such pendulums are not admissible for
I clocks of high exactitude. Steel is an excellent material for pen-
I dulum rods, for the metal is strong, is not stretched by the weight
of the bob, and does not suffer great changes in molecular structure
in the course of time. But a steel rod expands on the average
lineally by -0000064 of its length for each degree F. by which its
temperature rises; hence an expansion of '00009 in. on a pendulum
rod of 39-14 in., that is •000023 of its length, will be caused by an
increase of temperature of about 4 F., and that is sufficient to make
the clock lose a second a day. Since the summer and winter tem-
peratures of a room may differ by as much as 50° F., the going of a
clock may thus be affected by an error of 12 seconds a day. With a
pendulum rod of brass, which has a coefficient of expansion of
•00001, a clock might gain one-third of a minute daily in winter as
compared with its rate in summer. The coefficients of linear ex*
panston per degree F. of some other materials used in making pen-
dulums are as follows: white deal, -0000024; flint glass, -0000048;
iron, -000007; lead, -000016; zinc, 000016; and mercury, -000033.
The solid or cubical expansions of these bodies are three times the
above quantities respectively.
The first method of compensating a pendulum was invented in
1722 by George Graham, who proposed to use a bob of mercury,
taking advantage of the high coefficient of expansion of that metal.
As now employed, the mercurial pendulum consists of a rod of steel
terminating in a stirrup of the same metal on which rests a glass
vessel full of mercury, having its centre of gravity about 39 in. below
the point of suspension of the pendulum. For each Fahrenheit
degree of temperature the centre of gravity of the bob is lowered
by the expansion of the rod about jVbo of an inch. The glass vessel
and the mercury in it have therefore to be so contrived, that their
centre of gravity will rise 4 Ab in. per degree F. The glass having a
small coefficient of expansion, the lateral expansion of the mercury
will be chocked by it r and this will help to raise the column. For
t he linear coefficient of expansion of glass is -0000048 per degree F.,
whence the sectional area of a glass vessel increases by -0000096 per
degree ¥.. and therefore the coefficient of vertical expansion of a
column of mercury whose volumetric expansion coefficient is -oooi
per degree F. is (0001 — 0000096) - -000090a. Let x be the height
of the vessel necessary to compensate a steel rod upon the bottom
of which it rests. Then, the coefficient of expansion of steel being
♦0000066 per degree F», we have
|(-oooo904- -0000066) ••0000066X39- 14, whence x-6J in.
It must, however, be remembered that the glass jar has some weight
and that it does not rise by anything like the amount of the mercury.
This tends to keep the centre of gravity down. So that the height
of mercury of 6J in. will not be sufficient to effect the compensation,
and about 6} to 7 in. will be required. Some authors specify 7 in.;
this is when the diameter of the jar is small. A certain amount of
negative compensation must also be deducted to allow for the
changes of temperature in the air, as will presently be seen; this
amounts in the case of mercury to about | in.
In consequence of the complication of all these calculations it is
usual to allow about 6J to 7 in. of mercury in the glass vessel and to
adjust the exact amount of mercury by trial.
Another very good form of mercurial pendulum was proposed by
E. J. Dent ; it consists of a cast-iron jar into the top of which the
steel pendulum rod is screwed, having its end plunged into the
mercury contained in the jar. By this means the mercury, jar and
rod rapidly acquire the same temperature. This pendulum is less
likely to break than the form just described. The depth of mercury
required in an iron jar is stated by Lord Grimthorpe to be 8} to 9 in.
The reason why it is greater than it is when a glass jar is employed
is that iron has a larger coefficient of expansion than glass, and that
it is also heavier, in all cases, however, of mercury pendulums
experiment seems to be the only ultimate test of the quantity of
mercury required, for the results are so complicated by the liehaviour
of the oil and the barometric errors that at its best the regulation
of a clock can only be ultimately a matter of scientifically guided
compromise. A small amount of eomjx-nsation of a purely experi-
mental character is also allowed to compensate the changes which
temperature effects on the suspension spring. This is sometimes
made as much as J of the length correction.
As an alternative to the mercurial pendulum other systems have
been employed. The " gridiron " pendulum consists of a group of
alternate rods of steel and brass, so arranged that the expansion of
the brass acts upwards and counteracts that of the steel downwards.
It was invented in 1726 by John Harrison. Assuming that 9 rods
are u»cd— 5 of steel and 4 of brass— their lengths may De as follows
from pin to pin: — Centre steel rod 31-5 in.; 2 steel rods next the
centre 24-5 in.; 2 steel rods farthest from centre 29-5 in.; from
the Iowlt end of outside steel rods to centre of bob 3 in.; total
89-5 in. Of the 4 brass rods the 2 outside ones are 26*87 * n -» a °d
the tu"> inside ones 22-25 »"•". total 49-12 in. Thus the expansion
of 8fl J in. of btc-cl is counteracted by the expansion of 49) in. of brass.
Everything depends, however, on the expansion coefficient of the
steel and bra** employed, the requirement in every case being that
of total lengths of the brass and iron should be in^c-a-^^Yu&.xn'tae-
linc-ar coefficients of expaxoiotv efc. vYvo* toRfca^ \V*. ik»N*. V-s^an**
540
CLOCK
arc for a very soft brass and steel. Thos. Reid, with more ordinary
ateei and brass. preicribcc! a ratio of id to Jt w Lord Grimthorpe a
ratio of loo to 6t, It is absolutely necessary to put the actual rod*
to be used for making the pendulum in a tot water bath, and
measure their expansions with a microscope*
John Smeatou, taking advantage of a far grcatser expansion co-
efficient of Bine as com pa tied with brass, proposed to use A steel rod
with a collar at the bottom, on which rested a hard drawn line rod*
From i hi* rod hung a steel tube to which the bob was attached.
The total krrigth of the steel rod and of the steel tube down to the
centre of the T»b was made to the total length of the zinc tube, in
the ratio of 5 to 2 (being the ratio of the expansions of iine and steel) ;
fora 39- tj in- pendulum we should therefore want a cine tube equal in
length to J (jy- 14) = 20 J in. In praeticc the zinc tube is made about
37 m. long, and then gradually cut down by trial. In fact the weight
01 a heavy pen du turn squeezes the zinc* and it is impossible by mete
theory to determine what will be its behaviour. The line tube must
l» of rolled Einc, hard drawn through a die, and musl not be cast.
Ventilating holes mu«t be made m suitable places in the steel tube
and the collar on which it rest a, to ensure that changes of temperature
are rapidly communicated throughout the system,
A pendulum with a rod of dry varnished dral it tolerably com-
pensated by a bob of lead or of rinc loj, to 13 in. in height, rest trig
on a nut at the bottom of the rod.
The old methods of pendulum compensation for heat may now
be considered a* superseded by the invention of ** invar/' a com-
jzr^ binalion of nickel and steel, due to Charles E. Guillaumc,
of the IntcmaTioual Office of Weights and Measures at
Sevres near Pans. This alloy has a linear coefficient of expansion
on the average of ■ocooqi per degree centigrade, that is to say, only
about fS that of ordinary steel. Hence it can lie canity compensated
by means of brass, lead of any other suitable met a I- Brass is
usually employed. In the invar pendulum Introduced into Great
Britain by Mr Agar Ba ugh a departure is made from the previous
practice of merely calculating the length of the compensator, fasten'
jng it to the lower part ol the pendulum, and attaching it to the
centre of the bob, In the case of these pendulums, accurate com-
f>u cations are made of the moments ol inertia of every separate
ndividual part. Thus, for instance, since an addition of volume
due to the effect of heat to the upper part of the bob has a different
effect upon the moment of inertia from that of an equal quantity
added to the lower part of the bob, the bob is suspended not from
its cent re, but from a point about ^ in. below it, the distance vary ing
according to the shape of the bob, so that the heat expan&ion of the
bob may cauic its centre ol gravity to rise and compensate the effect
of its increased moment of inertia. Again the suspension spring
is measured for wschronlsm, and an alloy of steel prepared: for It
which docs not alter its elasticity with change 01 temperature.
Moreover, since rods of invar steel bubjeetcd to strain do not acquire
their final coefficients of expansion, and elasticity for some ttme,
the invar Is artificially *' aged " by exposure to strain and heat.
These considerations serve as a guide in arranging for the com,'
pens&tion of the expansion of the rod and bob due to change of
temperature. But they are not the only ones required: wc have
albo to deal with changes due to the density of the air in which the
pendulum is moving. A body suspend ed m a fluid loses in weight
by an amount equal to the weight of the fluid displaced,, whence it
follows that a pendulum suspended in air has not the weight which
ought truly to correspond 10 its mass* M tenia ins constant while
Mg is less than in a vacuum. Jf the density of the air remained
constant, this loss of weight, being, constant, could be allowed for
and would make no difference to the time- keeping. The period of
swing would only be a little increased over what it would be in vacuo.
But the weight of a givttn volume of air varies both with the baro-
metric pressure and also with temperature. If the bob be of typ^
metal it weighs less in air than In a vacuum by about ^000103 part,
and for each 1* F. rise in temperature (.1 he barometer remaining con-
stant and therefore the pressure remaining the aamc), the variation
ol density causes the bob to gain ■00000014 of its weight. This, of
course, makes the pendulum go quicker. Since the time of vibration
varies as the inverse -.quire root of f. It follows that a small increment
of weight, the mass remaining constant, produces a diminution of
one half that increment in time of swing, Hence, then, a rile of
temperature of 1* F* will produce a diminution in the time of swing
of K*oooooi?th part or -0104 second in a day. But in making this
calculation it has been assumed that the mass moved remains
unaltered by the temperature. This is not so. A pendulum when
swinging sets in motion a volume of air dependent on the tire of the
bob, but in a 10 lb bob nearly equal to its own volume- Hence
while the rise of i° of temperature increases the weight by
♦000000 rath part* it alio decreases the mass by about the same
pnjponiofl, and therefore the increase of period due to a rise of
temperature of 1* F, will, instead of being -OJ04 second a day, be
about -oa second. This must be compensated negatively by
lengthening the pendulum by about j^a ^ ' or cac ^ ^8^^* °f T * w
of temperature, which wHI require a piece of brass about 2 in- tang.
It fell lows, t he.rc.fore, tha t wi i h a n i n var rod having a. Knrar c*pan sion
cve/Fit-jent of -uooooat p*r degree F.. which requires a piece of
-? *l<tut •$ m, Joj^g to compensate k, the ccmpuJuauon which '
Is to regulate both the expansion of the rod and also that of the air
must be -fl in. -a In-, or -i-j in.; so that the bob must be hung
downwards from a piece of brass nearly I j in. in length. If the co*
efficient of expansion of the invar were •00000053 per degree F.,
then the two corrections, one for the expansion el the rod and the
oc her for the expansion of the air, would jubt neutral ixe one another,
and the pendulum rod would require no com pen si tor at alL There
are a number of other refinements which might be added, but which
are too long for insertion here. By taking in all the sou roes of error
of higher orders, it has been possible to calculate a pendulum so
accurately that, when the clock is loaded with the weight sufficient
to give the pendulum the arc of swing lor which it U designed, a rate
of error has been produced of only half a minute in a year. These
refinements, however, are only required for clocks of precision;
for ordinary doe ks an Invar pendulum with a lead bob and bras
compensator is quite sufficient,
Invar pendulum rods are often made of steel with coefficients of
expansion of about •00000 J} linear per 1* C: such a bob as this
would require about 6'7 cm. of brass to compensate it, and, deduct'
ing 5 cm* of hrass for t he air compensation, this leaves about 1*7 cm.
of positive compensation for the pcncMum. Hut a* has been said,
the exact deduction depends on the shape and sife of the bob, and
the metal of which it is made. The diameters of the rods are 8 mm.
for a 1 5 lb bob, 5 mm, for a 4 lb bob. and 12 to 15 mm. for a 60 lb
hob. The bob id either a single cylinder or two cylinders with the
tnd between them. Lenticular and spherical! bobs are not used.
The great object is to allow the air ready access to all parts of the
rod and compensator, so that they arc all heated or cooled simul-
taneously. The bobs are usually made of a compound of lead,
antimony, and tin, which forma a hard metal, free from bubbles
and with a sptvifn- gravity of about lo. The usual weight 0/ the bobs
of the best pendulums for an ordinary; astronomical clock is about
15 lb. A greater weight than this is found liable to make the
support of the pendulum rock nnd to put an undue strain on the
parts, without any corresponding advantage. The Tods used are all
artificially aged, and h.ive their heat expansion measured. No
adjust ine screw at the bottom h provided, the regulation f icing done
by the addition of weight* half way up the rod. An adjusting screw
at the bottom has the disadvantage that it is Imno&'ible to know
on which of the threads the rod is really resting: nenee extra com-
pensation may be introduced when not required, It is considered
better that the supports of the bob should be rigid and invariable.
The effect of changes in the pressure of the air as shown by a
barometer is too important to be omitted in the design of a good
clock. But we do not propose to give more than a mere
indication of the principles which govern, compensation
for this effect, since the full discussion of the problem
would be loo protracted. We have seen that the action
of the air in affecting the time of oscillation of a pendulum depends
chiefly on the fact that its buoyancy makes the pendulum lighter,
so that while the mass of the bob which has to be moved remains the
same or nearly the same, the acceleration of gravity on it has less
effect. A uoTunue of air at ordinary temperature and pressure has,
ns has been said, 'Ooqjoj the weight of an equal volume of type
metal, whence it follows that the acceleration of gravity on a type
metal bob in air is ^999897 of the acceleration of gravity on the bob
in ivfuo- _ If, therefore, we diminish the value of g in the formula
T^rvTJg by ■000103, we shall have the difference of time of
vibration of a type metal bob in air, as compared with its time
in vacua, and this, by virtue of the principle used when discussing
the increase of time of oscillation due to increased pendulum lengths,
is J ^000*03) second in one second, or about 4 J seconds in a day
of B6.400 seconds, ft follows that a barometric pressure of 30 in.
causes a loss of 4} seconds in the day, equivalent to -15 second per
day for each inch of dillereope of the barometer. But, as has already
been explained, the effect of the mass of the air transported with the
pendulum must also be taken into account and therefore the above
figures must be doubled Of nearly doubled. A difference of 30 in.
of barometric pressure would thus make a difference of 9 seconds
ir day in the rate of the pendulum, and the clock would lose about,
of a second a day for each inch of rl^e of the barometer, the result
icing of the same magnitude as would be produced by a fall of
temperature of t£° F. in the air. Either of these effects would
require a shortening of the pendulum of rrV ft in. r Hii, estimate
is not far from the truth, fi>r observation* taken at various European
observatories on various clocks, and collected by Jakob H tinker,
give a mean of -15 second of retardation per day per centimetre oi
barometric pressure, or *j7 second per day for each inch rise of the
barometer.
In order to counteract variations In going which must thus
obviously be produced by variations of barometrical pressure,
attempts have been made purposely to disturb the Ircchromsm of the
pendulum, by making the arcs of vibration "abnormally large.
Again. I he bob has been fitted with a piece of iron, which Is subjected
to the attraction of a piece of magnetised steel floating on the mercury
in the open end of a barometer tube, *o that when the barometer falls
the at tract Ion is increased and the pendulum retarded. Again,
mercury barometers havebcen attached to pendulums, A simple
method is to in on aneroid Ijaromcter with about seven compart-
Jacnts on the pendulum about 5 to 6 in. Uivn *««.- » u »|jrn»iuu spring,
CLOCK
54*
and to attach to the lop of it a suitable weight which is lowered
as the barometric pressure increases. One of tbe best methods of
oevtrabaing (be tfiectJ of variations of barometric pressure is to
enclose the whole clock in an air-ci^ht case, which rimy either be a
Urge gktst cylinder or 4 square caw with a itout platc-glas* front.
That readers It independent o( outride variation?, whether of tem-
perature or preiLsure, and keeps the density of the air inside the case
uniform. It the case could be completely, or almost completely,
exhausted of air, and kept §0 exhausted, of course the pendulum
would experience the minim urn of resistance and would have to be
lengthened a little. Que in practice it is impossible to secure the
maintenance of. a good vacuum without telling up the case in such
a way ai to render repairs very difficult, and this plan It therefore
rarely resorted to. What is usually done is to put thee lock In a metal
case covered with a thick sheet of plate gto*s bedded in imjb- rubber
itrips. and held down by an iron Ranged lid or frame firmly nied
by means of small bolts. An air-pump it attached to the case, a
turn-off tap being; inserted, and by a few strokes the prelum of the
ahr inside the case ean be lowered to (say) 30 in-, or a tittle below
the usual barometric height at the place where the clock is. The
difference of pressure being small, the tendency of air from outride
to leak In is also small, and if the workmanship is good the inside
pressure will remain unaltered for many days. In any caie the
difference produced by leakage will be ama.ll, and will not greatly
affect the going of the clock. With care, and a daily or weekly touch
nf the pump, the pressure inside can be kept practically constant,
and hence the atmospheric error will be eliminated. The cover has
also incidentally the effect of keeping damp and fumes from the
dock and thus preserving it from rust, especially if a vessel with
quicklime or some hygroscopic material be put in the case.
Cases have considerable effect on the air, which moves with a
pendulum and is Hung off from it at each, vibration; the going rate
of a chronometer can be altered by removing the case, It is therefore
desirable that casts enclosing pendulums should be roomy. Many
people prefer to omit the sir-tight case, and to keep a record of
barometric, thermometric and hygrometrir changes, applying cor rcc-
tjaaa based on the*e to the times shown by the dock,
1 It was formerly usual to suspend pendulums by means of a single
j about § in, wide riveted with chops of metal. The upper chnp
bad a pin driven through it, which rested in grooves
gigf so as to allow the pendulum to hang vertically. The
wnfcfcmi "ben mot l t;rn pendulums are now made with two parallel
springs put a little less than an inch apart. The edges of
the chops where the sprint's enter are slightly rounded so as to avoid
too sharp bending of the springs, Suspension of pendulums on knife
edges was tried by B, L. Vulliamy and others, but did not prove
It was once thought that lenticular pendulum bobs resisted the
air less than those of othc r shapes, but it was forgotten that their
large surface offered more " skin friction.'* They arc now no lunger
ujeq, nor are spheres on account of difficulty of construction. A
cylinder is the best (oral of bob; it U sometimes rounded at the
top and bottom.
Exaptmatfi.— The term escapement if applied to any arrange-
ment by which, as the wheels rotate, periodic impulses are given
to tbe pendulum, while at the same time the motion qf the wheels
b arrested until the vibration of the pendulum has been com-
pleted. It thus serves as a mechanism for both counting and
impelling. Since the vibrations of a pendulum through smalt
arcs are performed in times independent of the length oi tbe arc,
it follows that if a pendulum hanging at rest receive an impulse
it will awing nut and! in again, and the time of its excursion
outwards and of its return will remain the sami whatever
(within limits) be the arc of the swing, and whatever be the
impulse given to it. tf the impulse is big, it starts with a high
velocity , but makes a Larger excursion outwards, and the distance
it has to travel counteracts lis increase of speed, so that Its Lime
remains the same. Hence a pendulum, if free t a swing outwards
and in again, without impediment, will adapt the length of its
swing to the impulse it has received, and sny Interference with
it, as by the locking or unlocking of Lhe escapement, will be Tar
less deleterious to its isochronism when such interference occurs
at the middle of its path rather than at the ends. It follows that
the best escapement will be one which gives an impulse to the
pendulum for a short period at the lowest point of its path, and
then leaves it quite free to move as tt chooses until the time comes
for the ne it impulse.
But a pendulum is not quite truly isochronous, and has Its
lime slightly affected by an increase of its are; it is therefore
desirable that the impulses given to it shall always be equal. If
the escapement forms the termination of a clock -l tain impelled
b* a vajfbt, the driving foice of the escapement is apt to vary
according to the friction of the wheels, while every change in
temperature causes a difference in the thickness of the oil. It
is therefore desirable, if possible, to secure uniformity of impulse
—say, by causing the train of wheels to lift up a certain specified
weight, and let it drop on the pendulum at regular intervals,
or by some equivalent method.
The two requirements above stated have given rise respectively
to what are known as detached escapements, and remontoires,
which will be described presently. In the first place, however, it
it desirable to describe the principal forms of escapement in
ordinary use.
The balance escapement, which has been already mentioned,
was in use before the days of pendulums. It was to a „ h
balance escapement that rluygens applied the pendulum, ^"z!*™
by removing the weight from one arm and increasing the mmmY
length ol the other arm.
very shortly afterwards R. Hooke invented the anchor or recoil
escapement. Thin is represented in fig. 8, where a tooth of the escape*
wheel is ju« escaping from the right pallet, and another Aaet-r
tooth it the same time falls upon the left-hand pallet at ■Wasg
some distance from its point. A* the pendulum moves on mtmL
in the same direction, the tooth slides farther up the pallet,
thus producing a recoil, as in the crown-wheel escapement. The act-
ing faces of the pallets should J
be convex* For when they are
flat, and of course still more
when they are concave, the
points of the teeth always wear
a hole in the pallets at the
extremity of their usual swing,
and the motion is obviously
ea »icr a nd therefore better when
the pallets are made convex;
in fact, they then approach
more nearly to the ' dead "
ew-apement, which will be de-
scribed presently. The effect
of some escapements is not
only to counteract the circular
error, or the natural increase
of the time of a pendulum as
the arc increases, out to over-
balance it by an error of
the contrary tond. The recoil
escapement does so; for it is
almost invariably found that
w ha tever m ay be the shape of FlG. 8.— Anchor or Recoil Eacape-
these pallets, the clock loses as ment.
the arc of the pendulum falls
off* and vice versa. It is unfortunately impossible so to arrange
the pallets that the circular error may be thus exactly neutralized,
because the escapement error depends, in a manner reducible to no
l.iw. upon variations in friction of the pallets themselves and of
the clock train, which produce different effects; and the result
is that it Is impossible to
obtain very accurate time-
keeping from any clock of this
construction. The point in
which the anchor escapement
was superior to all that had
gone before, was that it would
wnrk well with a small arc of
swing of the pendulum. The
bafo nee csca pement , even when
adapted to a pendulum, neces-Q
si tared n swing of some 20°,
and 1 hence the circular error,
that is to say. the deviation of
the park from a true cycloid,
was considerable. But with an
anchor rsca pement the pendu-
lum swing need be only 3
or 4 ,l - On the other hand, it
violates the conditions above
laid down for a perfect escape-
ment, inasmuch as the pendu-
lum ii never free, but at the
end of lis swing is still operated
on by the escapement, which it
causes to recoil
To get fid of this defect the dead escapement, or. as the French call
'H,rkk>ipt*mc7it & rtpos, was invented by G. Graham. It is -^-
represented in fig. o. It will be observed that the teeth ^?L.
vt i he scape-wheel have their points set the opposite way jmmST
to those of the rvcoil escapement. The tooth B is here
represented ia the net of dropping on to tht t\^\Aiiacc&\Hftieiwfc/Q6St
Flu. 9. — Dead Escapement.
i utit of the tape*
might a* far from
i Light. The pallet
wing, so that their
endulum as nearly
at least the Lhrce-
*cr very well with
spring. The eLic
19 they must be at
dieel when to con-
: pellet arm; and
tking can only be
} raise* the pallet
we call t* vi<, the
the pallet, is only
; like *I if7 t where
trip immediately,
i, and A and B are
very well; but it
and nobody else
Lord Grimthorpe,
v-uiv, which | how'
■ <<■•.•',■- the motion,
ut finally adopted
arms as being the
he latter for Targe
Hit of an astrono-
ran the from the
.1
■uMe Three-legged
tpement.
ng teeth ate made
pas* of which four
i point backward*,
ill the tenuis EC,
>p of the pendulum
MJgh the resultant
rth while to crank
■tide exactly with
! beat pins on the
I not be quite do*
but one i* behind
feinting backward*
lately— it dot* not
id and the stop s'
and ju*i beginning
he wheel will begin
pin* which is now
line of etiurv*. and
i till the tooth now
hfte the pallet Ci'
» the end of {he arc
(a IK frith the pen-
If side of o, so thai
alternately falling
|*o depends on the
Utanceol it* centre
LK' it fct on with a
id should be as long
ivcthan width,
rhich was first uted
The principle of it
« pallet* being one
two acts of lifting
pin*, then are two wheel* ABC. «k . with the three lifting pin* and
the two pallet* between them like a fa mem pinion. One Mop B
point* forward and the other A backward. The two wheels have
their teeth tet inter mediately or 6o* Apart, though that is not
essential, and the angle of 1 20 may be divided between them in any
other proportion*, as 70* and 50*, and in that way the pallet* may
be still more oblique than 30* from the vertical, which, however, ■
found enough to prevent tripping even if the fly gets loo*e, which is
more likely to happen from carelessness in large clock* than in
astronomical ones.
Of course the fly for those escapement* in targe clock*, with
weights heavy enough to drive i he hands in all weather, must be
much larger than in smalt ones* For average church clocks with
1 1 »ec* pendulum, the leg* of the *cape-w heels arte generally made
a in. long and the fly from 6 to 7 in. long in each vane hy 1 i or 1 1
witJc Fur t| *ec pendulum* the scape- whccJi are generally made
4 J radius. At Westminster they are 6 in.
Lord Grimthorpe considered that these escapement* set better,
especially in regulators, if the pallet* do not fall quite on the lifting
Kins, but on a banking, or stop at any convenient place, so as to
rave the wheel free at the moment of starling; just a* the striking
of a common house clock will sometimes fail to start uidcs* the wheel
with the pins has a littTc run before a pin begins to lift the hammer.
The best way to manage the banking is to make the beat'pina long
enough to reach a little way behind the pendulum, and lot the banking
be a thin plate of any metal screwed adjustably to the back of the
case. This plate cannot well be shown in the drawings together
with the pendulum, which, it may be added, should take up one
pallet just when it leave* the other,
In chronometer tpfing remontoire* the pendulum, as it goes by.
flip* a delicate spring and releases a small weight or spring which
ha* been wou nd u p in rcadi ness by the ac lion of the scape-
wheel and which by leaping on to the pendulum gives it zsi\~~^
a puih. One on this principle made about the middle .
of the 19th century by Robert Houdin i> to be seen at JJ^riSa*
the Conservatoire dei Arts et Metiers. It i* very com-
plicated- The following is more simple. In fig. 11 a scape-wheel
AH hi*, jo pins and j&o teeth. It is cngaaed with a fly vane EP
mounted on a pinion of 11 teeth. Each pin a* it passes raises an
impulse arm CD which is hooked upon a detent K. A pall NM then
engages the fly vane and prevents the scape-wheel from moving
farther. The impulse arm being now set, a* the plate F attached
to the lower end of the pendulum Hies past from left to right a pall
Fig. 21.— ^Chronometer Spring Remontoirt
G knocks aside the detent K, and allows a pin O projecting from
the end of the impulse arm to fall upon an inclined pallet h r which is
thus urged forward. As soon is the pallet has left the pin, the
impulse arm in its further fall strikes N, which die? ngsgi-s the pajl
at P am J allows the scape- wheel to move on and again wind up the
impulse arm CD, which is then again locked by the detent K. On
the return journey of the pendulum the light pall G, which acts the
part of a chronometer spring, flips over the detent. The pallet h
• I. jul iK- sided, * and ft*, so that if by chance the clock runs down while
the pendulum swinjt* from left to right the impulse arm will be simply
raited and not smashed > + It has a Hat ape*, 00 which the pto falls
before descending. The impulse given depends on the weight of the
impulse arm and may be vaf i-wi ai pleasure. The work done fn un-
locking the detent is invariable, a? it depends on the pressure of the
Hy vane at P and is independent of the c Joe k- train. 1 he duration of
the impulse is very short — only about f& of the arc of swing. It is
given exactly at the centre of the swing, and when not under
impulse the pendulum is detached.
Clock H'Afeij.— Since, as we have seen, any Increase in the arc
of a pendulum ia accompanied by a cha.t\*jt Vfc \Jca v*n%' n ***
,1
542
CLOCK
tooth A escapes from the left pallet. But instead of the pallet having
a continuous face as in the recoil escapement, it is divided into two,
of which BE on the right_pallet, and FA on the left, are called the
impulse faces, and BD, FG, the dead faces. The dead faces are
portions of circles (not necessarily of the same circle), having the axis
of the pallets C for their centre; and the consequence evidently is,
that as the pendulum goes on, carrying the pallet still nearer to the
wheel than the position in which a tooth falls on to the corner A or
B of the impulse and the dead faces, the tooth still rests on the dead
fa<*M ; " L ' ~— "• «~»*"1 .an*!! ♦!•«» rvnni-l iilum ralnrna fin A !/>f« fJlA
tooth
diminish the friction retardation. This is known as the half-dead
escapement. The pin-wheel escapement, if properly constructed,
i« * l*a " dead." that is to say, the outward swing of the pendatara
i« unfettered except by the slight friction of the teeth against the
dead fates of the pallets.
In order to diminish the effect of the impact of the scape-wheel
on the pallet, and of the crutch on the pendulum rod, the plan has
been tried of mating the crutch into an elastic spring. In theory
this of course would not .destroy the isochronism of the pendulum,
using oil as far as possible, the best clocks are made with jewels _ --■ , t ,. . . _, - ■
(sapphires are the best for the purpose) let into the pallets. superposed on one another still remain harmonic. Hence, then, the
The pallets are generally made to embrace about one-third of the action of a spring superadded upon the action of gravity on a peo-
drcumference of the wheel, and it is not at all desirable that they dulum still leaves the motion harmonic. But changes of tempera-
should embrace more: for the longer they are, the longer is the ture would affect the spring considerably. In the case of sucha
run of the teeth upon them, and the greater the friction. In some spring the repose faces of Graham s escapement might be mummied
clocks the seconds hand moves very slowly and rest* a very short and the escapement checked each side by a stop, so as tp prevent the
time; this shows that the impulse is long in proportion to the arc pallets from rubbing on the points of the scape- wheel. Grahams
of swine. In others the contrary is the case. A not uncommon escapement can, if well made, be arranged so as not to vary more than
proportion is that out of a total arc of swing of 3°, **, or about one an average of A of a second from its mean daily rate, and this is so
' i on each side of the vertical, are occupied in receiving the good a result that many people doubt whether further effort in the
~ and A should subtend an angle direction of inventing new escapements will result in any better
impulse. In other words, the points F and A should subtend an angle
of a p at the centre C. It is not to be forgotten that the scape-wheel
tooth docs not overtake the face of the pallet immediately, on
account of the moment of inertia of the wheel. The wheels of
astronomical clocks, and indeed of all English house clocks, are
generally made too heavy, especially the scape-wheel, which, by
increasing the moment of inertia, causes a part of the work to be lost
in giving blows, instead of being all used up in gentle pushes.
A very useful form of the dead
escapement, which is adopted in
many of the best turret clocks,
is called the " pin-wheel escape-
ment." Fig. 10 will sufficiently
explain its action and construc-
tion. Its advantages are — that
it does not require so much
accuracy as the other; if a pin
gets broken it is easily replaced,
whereas in the other the wheel is
ruined if the point of a tooth is
injured; a wheel of given size
will work with more pins than
teeth, and therefore a train of
less velocity will do, and that
sometimes amounts to a saving
of one wheel in the train, and a
good deal of friction; and the
blow on both pallets being down-
_..__„_.. _. inventing i._ . r — — _„
form. Two adaptations of Graham's escapement have been made,
F,o. .o.-Pin-Wh*. H^peo**. ^JSST^ ~g f,"^
steady ; all which things are of more consequence in the heavy and
rough work of a turret clock than in an astronomical one. It has
been found expedient to make the dead faces not quite dead, but
with a very slight recoil, which rather tends to check the variations
of arc, and also the general disposition to lose time if the arc is
increased ; when so made the escapement is generally called " half-
dead.
In the dead escapement, during each excursion of the pendulum
the repose surface of the pallets rubs against the points of the teeth
of the scape-whccl. Thus the pendulum is subject to a constant
retardation by frittion r Curiously enough, this friction, which at
first eight might appear a defect, is an advantage, and to a large
extent accounts for the excellence of the escapement. For if the
driving force of the clock is increased so that the impulse on the
pallets is greater , the velocity of the pendulum is increased. But
this very increase of the driving force cause* a greater prcssura of
the teeth of the scape-wheel on the rest-facet of the pallets, and
hence counteract * the increased drive of the pendulum by an in-
creased f Fictional retardation* If the clock weight be enormously
increased, the f fictional retardation becomes increased relaiivtly
in a greater proportion than the drive, so that as the weight of the
dock ie inerca-ted the pendulum's Lime of vibration is first diminished,
until at last a neutral point is reached and finally the increased
loading of the clock weight begins to make the time of vibration
increase again* It Is the neutral point which it is desirable to
arrange for, and only trial and experience tan so fit the shape and
lite of the pallets, scape-wheel and clock weight to one another,
.•»- rn lecurc that a mo let ite \ iriation of the driving pom utitbtJ
accelerates nor retards the motion of the pendulum, while at the
same time such an arc of vibration it secured as slull be least subject
to barometric error, and not have too great a circular error. The
celebrated clotkmakcr B, L. Vulltamy {17&0-18543 greatly improved
Graham's escapement by careful experiment, and other makers
introduced further improvement* into the shape of the icape'wbecJ
and pallets, so that the best form of the dead beat escapement ii
now fairly well determined and is given in books upon horology.
For small docks a little slope is given to the rest-faces so as to
Fig. 11. — Riefler's Escapement.
one by Gemens (lieficr of Nes&elwang, and the other by L. Sinner
of Glnshutte, Saxony, which give good results in practice. Riffler's
scheme is to mount the upper block, into which the suspension
spring is fastened, upon knife edge?, and rock it to and fro by the
action of a .modified Graham's escapement, thus giving: impulse*
to the pendulum, Fig. 1 1 shows the arrangement. FP are the
Xtes upon which the fcuife edges CC rest. A is the anchor, KH
scape-wheels* and S the pallets.
Straswr's clock is arranged^ on the same idea as that or Ricflcr. only
that the rocking motion is given, not fo the spring* that carry the
pendulum, but to a second pair 0/ springs placed outside of them and
parallel to them, The weight of the pendulum is therefore carried
by an upper stationary block, but above that a second block is
subjected to the rocking motion of the anchor. The general dciifcn
is shown in fig. 12. The pallets ate each formed of two stone*, so
contrived as to minimize the banging of the teeth of the scape-wheel.
Both RJefler's and Strasscr's clocks aim at having a virtually free
pendulum: in fact, they are in reality adaptations of the principle
of the spring-clutch to Graham's escapement* The weak point in
both is the tampering with the suspension.
The dead escapement is not* however, truly free. In order to
mate a free escapement it would be necessary to provide that as
soon as the pendulum approached its centre position,
some pin or projecting point upon it should free the
escapement wheel, a tooth of which should thus be enabled
to leap upon the back of the pendulum, give it a short
push, and then be locked until the pendulum had returned and again
swung forward. An arrangement of this kind is shown in fig. IJ.
Let A be a block of metal fixed on the lower end of a pendulum rod.
On the block let a small pall B be fastened, free to move round a
CLOCK
centre C and resting against a stop D. Let E be a 4 Jeaved scape-
wheel, the teeth of which as they come round rest against the bent
pall GFL at G. The pall is prevented from flying too far back by
a pin H, and kept up to position by a very delicate spring K. As soon
543
is to disconnect the escapement from the dock train, and to give
the escapement a driving power of its own, acting as directly as
possible on the pallets without the intervention of a clock-train
containing many wheels. The escapement is thus as it were made
into a separate clock, which of course needs repeated winding, and
this winding is effected by the dock-train. From this it results that
variations in the force transmitted by the clock-train merely affect
the speed at which the " rewinding of the escapement is effected,
but do not affect the force exerted by the driving power of the
escapement.
There arc several modes of carrying out this plan. The first of
them h simpEy to provide the scape-wheel with a weight or toting
of its own, which spring is wound tip by the clock -tram _l .
as often 3s it mm down. Contrivances of this kind arc
culled train rtmrmt mire*. In .irrangmK such a remontoire
it it obvious that the clock-train must be provided with
Fio. 12.— Strasser's Escapement (Strasser & Rohde).
aa the pendulum rod, moving from left to right, has arrived at the
position shown in the figure, the pall B wit] engage the arm FL, force
it forwards, and by raising G will liberate the * cane- wheel, a tooth
of which, M, will thus close upon the heel N of the block A, and urge
it forward. As soon, however, as N has arrived at G the tooth M
will slip off the block A and rest on the pall G, ind the impulse wilt
cease. The pendulum is now perfectly free or *' detached* and can
awirur on unimpeded as far as it chooses. On iti return from right
to left, the pall B slips over the pall L without dtiturbing it, and the
pendulum is still free to make an excursion towards the left. On its
return journey from left to right the process is again repeated. Such
aa escapement operates once every 2 seconds, One made on a some-
what similar plan was applied to a clock by Robert -H..u. I in, about
1830, and afterwards by Mr Haswell, and another by Sir George Airy,
Fig. 13. — Free Escapement. Fie. 14. — Free Escapement
(old form).
But the principle was already an old one, as maybe seen from fig. 14,
which was the work of an anonymous maker in the 18th century.
A consideration of this escapement will show that it is only the
application of the detached chronometer escapement to a dock. -
Even detached escapements, however, are not perfect. In order
that an escapement should be perfect, the impulse given to the pen-
dulum should be always exactly the same. It may be asked why,
if the time of oscillation of the pendulum be independent of the
amplitude of the arc of vibration, and hence of the impulse, it is
necessary that the impulse should be uniform. Theanwser is that
the arc of vibration not being a true cycloid, as it should be if true
bochronism is to be secured, but being the arc of a circle, any change
of amplitude of vibration produces a change of time in the swing given
by the formula |(o"— &*)■ loss in seconds per day, where a and 6
are the serai-arcs of vibration estimated in degrees. Thus 10' in-
crease of arc in a swing of 4°, that is to say, I in. increase of arc in
a total arc of 2 1 in., produces an error of about a second a day. Now
cold weather, by making the oil thick and thus clogging the wheels,
will easily produce such a change of arc; dust will also make a
change even though the clock wdght, acted on by gravity, still
exerts a uniform pull. Besides, if the clock has work to do of a varying
amount — as when the hands of a turret clock are acted on by a heavy
wind pressure tending sometimes to retard them, sometimes to drive
them on — then it is clear that the impulses given by the scape-wheel
to the pendulum may be very unequal, and that the arc of vibration
of the pendulum may thus be seriously affected and its isochronism
disturbed.
To abolish errors arising from the changes in the force driving
(he escap em ent, what is known as the " remontoire " system was
g 9m9m adopted. It first came into use for watches, which was
£4*, perhaps natural, seeing that the driving force of a watch*
is not a uniform weight like that of a dock, but depends
on springs, which are far less trustworthy. The idea of a remontoire
a stop to prevent it from overwinding the scape- whed weight of
■pringr and further, that there must be on the scape- wheel some sort
of stud or other contrivance to release the clock-train at soon at the
scape-whet] weight or spring has run down and needs rewinding.
We believe the first maker of a large clock with a train remontoire
was Thomas Reid of Edinburgh, who described his apparatus in
his book on Hwoteey (ta to}. The scape- wheel was driven by a small
weight hung by a Huygena'a end leu chain, of w hich one of the pulleys
was fixed to the at bor, and the other rode upon the arbor, with the
pinioa attached to it, and the pinion was driven and the weight
wound up by the wheel below [which we will call the third wheel),
as follows. Assuming the scape-wheel to turn h a minute, its arbor
has a notch cut half Through it on opposite *ldca in two places near
to each other; on the arbor of the u-hed, which r urnr in ten minutes,
suppose, there is another wheel with Jo spikns sticking out of its
rim, but alternately in two different planes, to that one set of spikes
can only pass through one of the notches in the scape- wheel arbor,
and the other set only t hruug h t he ot her. Whenever, then, the scape-
wheel completes a Jul Mum, one spite is let go. and the third wheel
is able to move, and with it the whole dock-train an J the hands,
until the next spike of the other set is stopped by the tea pc- wheel
arbor; at the same time the pinion on that arbor is turned half
round, winding up the remontoire wnght, but without taking its
pressure off the scape- wheel, Kcid say s tint, so long at this appar-
atus was kept in good order, the dock went better than k did after it
was removed in consequence of its getting out of order from the
constant banging of the spikes ngaintt the arbor.
A clock at the Royal Exchange. London, was made in 1844 on the
same principle, except that, jnst fad of the endless chain, an internal
wheel was used, with the spikes $t-t on it externally, which is one of
the modes by which an occasional secondary motion may be given
to ■ wheel without disturbing its primary and regular motion. The
following is a more simple arrangement of a gravity train remontoire.
much more frequently used in principle. Let E la fig. i£ be the
■cape-wheel turning in a minute, and * its pinion, which 15 driven
by the wheel D having a pinion 4 driven by the wheel C, which we
may suppose lo turn in an hour The arbors of the scape- wheel and
hour- whed are distinct, their pivots meeting in a bush fixed some-
where between the wheels, The pivots of the wheel D are set in the
frame Ai\ which rides on the arbors of the hour- wheel and scapc-
Fic. 15.— Gravity Train Remontoire.
wheel, or on another short arbor between them. The hour-wheel
also drives another wheel G, which again drives the pinion / on the
arbor which carries the two arms/ A, / B ; and on the same arbor is
set a fly with a ratchet, like a common striking fly, and the numbers
of the teeth are so arranged that the fly wilt turn once for each turn
of the scape-wheel. The ends of the remontoire arms / A, / B are
capable ofalternatdy passing the notches cut half through the arbor
of the scape-wheel, as those notches successivdy come into the proper
position at the end of every half-minute; as soon as that happens
the hour-wheel raises the movable wheel D and its frame through
a small angle; but, nevertheless, that whed keeps pressing on the
scape-wheel as if it were not moving, the point of contact of the
whed C and the pinion d being the fulcrum or centre of motion of
the lever A 4 P. It will be observed ttal vS^-wsroKeasJa* weo»\ K»
544
CLOCK
/ B have springs set on them to diminish the blow on the scape-wheel
arbor, as it is desirable not to have the fly so large as to make the
motion of the train, and consequently of the hands, too slow to
he distinct.
Another kind of remontoire is on the principle of one bevelled
■wheel lying between two others at right angle* to it. The nr§t
of the bevelled win. vis is driven by the train, and the third is fixed
to the arbor of the scape-wheel ; nrtd the intermediate bevelled
wheel, of any sire, rides on ill arbor at right angles la the other two
arbor* which are in the same line. The scape- wheel will evidently
turn with the same average velocity as the first bevelled wheel*
though the intermediate one may move up and down at intervals.
The transverse arbor which carries it is let off and lifted a little at
hall~minute intervals, as in the remontoire just now described;
and it gradually works down as the scape- wheel turns tinder its
pressure, until it is freed again and lifted by the clock-tciin.
In all these gravity remontoires, however, only the friction of the
heavy parts of the train and the dial-work is got nd of, and the scape-
wheel is still subject to the friction, of the remontoire. wheels, which ,
though much less than the other, is still something considerable.
Accordingly, attempts have frequently been made to drive the scape-
wheel by a spiral spring, like the mainspring of □ watch* One of
these was describee! in the 7th edition of this encyclopaedia; and
Sir G. Airy invented another on the same principle, of which one
specimen is still going well. One of the best forms of such a rcmon-
tour* ia shown in Jig. i6 r In which A, B, D. E. c./arc the tame thing*
as in fig. 15. But *, the scape*,
wheel pinion* is no longer fixed
to the arbor, nor docs it ride
on the arbor, as had been the
ease in all the previous spring
remontoire*. thereby producing
probably more friction than was
saved in other respects; but it
rides on a stud k, which is set
in the clock frame, On the face
of the pinion is a plate, of which
the only use is to carry a pin k
(and consequently its shape is
immaterial ) t and in front of the
plate is set a bush b r with a hole
through it, of which half is
occupied by the end of the stud
j-by-\ k ^- 1° which the bush is fixed by
p]'-£j a small pin, and the other half
is the pi vet- bole for the scape-
wheel arbor. On the arbor is
set the remontoirc spring 1 (a
modern te-si/ed musical- box
spring is generally used) 4 of which
the outer end is bent into a loop
«... take hold of the pin A* In
fact, there are two pins at h, one
a little behind the other, to keep
the coils of the spring from
touching each other. Now, it is
evident that the spring may be
wound up half or a quarter of a
turn at the proper intervals without taking the force oil the scape-
wheel, and also without affecting it by any friction whatever. When
the scape-wheel turns in a minute, the let ting-off would be done as
before described, by a couple of notches in the scape- wheel arbor,
through which the spikes A, ft, as in fig* 15, would pass alternately.
During the half-minute that the spring ia running down the impulse
on the pendulum constantly diminishes; but this error h small if
the spring be properly shaped* and besides, bcinc periodic, dots not
a fleet the awni^e time-keeping of the clock. It would be inad-
missible in astronomical clocks where each particular second has
always to be true, In clocks with only three wheels in the train it
is best to make the scape-wheel turn in two minutes. In that ca«
four notches and four remontoire arms are required, and the fly
makes only * ua r t it of a t u rn. Lord C ri mthor pe mac] e t he folio w-
ing provision for diminishing the friction ol the Ietiing-ofT work
The fly pinion/ ha* only batf the number or teeth of the scape-wheel
pinion, being a lantern pinion of 7 or a, while the other b a leaved
pinion of 14 or 16. and therefore the same wheel D will properly
drive both, as will be seen hereafter* The scape- wheel arbor ends
in a cylinder about f in, in diameter, with two notches at right angles
Cut m 1 us face, one of them narrow and deep, and the other broad
and shallow, so that a long and thin pin B can pass only through
one. and a broad and short pin A through the other, Consequently
at each quarter ol a turn of the scape- wheel, th* remontoire fly, on
which the pins A, U are set on spring*, as jn fig. 15, can turn half
round. It ia set on its arbor/ by a square ratchet and click which
enables the spring to be adjusted to the requisite tension to obtain
the proper vibration of the pendulum* A better conduction
afterward* introduced, ts to make the «y separate from the letting
08 arms, whereby the blow on the cylinder ts diminished thr fly
bring allowL-d to go on as in the gravity escapement It should be
oteeniecf, Aewwer, that even m tpring remomoire require* a larger
Flo* 16.— Spring Remontoire
weight than the same clock without one; hut as none of that ad-
ditional force reaches the pendulum, that is of no consequence. The
variation of force of the remontoire spring from temperature, as it
only affects the pendulum through the medium of the dead escape-
ment, is far too small to produce any appreciably effect; and it n
found that clock? or 1 hi* kind, with a com pen ui ted pendulum 6 ft.
long, and weighing about 2 cwt, H will not vary above a second a month,
if the pallets are kept clean and well oiled. No turret clock without
cither a train remontoire or a gravity escapement will approach that
degree of accuracy.
The introduction of this remontoire led to another very important
alteration in the construction of large clocks. Hitherto it hid
always been considered necessary, with a view to diminish the
friction as far as passible, to make the wheels of bra-xs or gun- metal,
with the teeth cut in an engine. The French clockmafcera nad beg-on
to use cast iron striking parts, and east iron w lux's bad bei.11 oc-
casionally used in (he going part of interior clocks for the sake of
cheapness; but they had never been used in any clock making preten-
sions to accuracy. But in consequence of the success of a ekek
shown in the 1S51 Exhibition, it was determined by Sir G, Airy a Ad
LordGrimthorpe (then l£. Denison). who were jointly consulted by [he
Board of Works about the great West minster clock in 1853, to alter the
original requisition for gun -metal wheels there tocait iron. But cast
iron wheels must drive cast iron pinions, for they will wear out 4tntL
The next kind of remontoire still leaves the scape- wheel linked
up with the clock-train, but makes it wind up the pallets which
are held raised up till their action is wanted, when they are allowed
to drop gently on the crutch or the pendulum rod, ]n this case the
two arms of the anchor are usually divided and mounted on srpai^te
shaTts so as to act independently. This idea was first start id \>y
Thomas Mudge (1717-1704) and Alexander Cummin 12 { 1 733-1 S 14'.
Mudge + s escapement is shown in fig. 17, The tooth A of the icare*
whceiiS resting against the stop or detent a at the end of the pa/to
CA, Jfom the oats or arbor of which descends the half-
fork CP to touch the pendulum. From the other pallet
CB descends Oie. other half- lor k CO. The two arbors are
set as near t he poi nt of suspension, or top of t he pend ul itm ■""""
spring, as possible. The pendulum, as hero represented^ must fce
moving to the right, and just leaving contact with the left pallet an J
going to take up the right one; as soon as tt has raised that paflft
a little it wit! evidently unlock the wheel and let it turn, and thentte
tooth B will raise the felt pallet untiUt is caught by the stop h on that
pallet, and then it will stay until the pendulum returns and rckatfs
it by raising that pallet still higher Each pallet therefore descend*
with the pendulum to a lower point than that where it is taken up,
and the difference between them is supplied by the lilting or car*
pallet by the clock, which docs not act on the pendulum at ill; «
that the pendulum Is independent of all variations of force inJ
friction in the train, This escapement is said by Lord Grim-
Qrf*r
Fig. 17.— Mudgc's Gravity Escape- Fio. 18.— Btatam's Gravity
ment. Escapement.
thorpe, in his Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks, first published is
1850, to be liable to trip, the pallets being apt to be jerked by the
pendulum, so that the teeth sfip past the hook, and the wheel flies
round. This, however, appears entirely a matter of construction.
The really weak point is that while the impulses on the pendulum
due to the gravitational fall of the arms are uniform, the force which
has to be exercised by the pendulum in unlocking them from the
scape-wheel varies with the pressure of the clock-train. Hence wc
miss the compensation which is so beautiful a result of Graham's
escapement. To avoid this. J. M. Bloxam, a barrister, proposed
•wutthe middle of the 19th century his legged gravity escapement
Chg. 18). By this arrangement the parts ofthe scape^rhed whkn
CLOCK
5+5
rity arms were brought as new to the axis of the scape-
ibfc, while the locking arms were brought as far from
ssible so that the pressure should be light. The pallet
ranked, to embrace the pendulum-spring, so that their
ion might coincide with that of the pendulum at nearly
tfrhaps an unnecessary refinement: at least the three-
^/'legged gravity escapements answer very well with
of* wrl on each *idc of the top of the spring. The si*e
letcrminta the length of ihe pallets, as they must be at
to each other that the radii of the wheel when in can-
to stop may be at right angle* to the pallet arm; ami
a wheel of this *i*e 4 the depth o* locking can only be
The pinion in Blg%am'* r lac It only raise* the pallet
it earn beat; t,f- the angle which we call y, v'ti^ the
the pendulum when it begins to lilt the pallet* i* only
ably, if it were increased to anything like */Vi* where
ire of swing, the escapement would trip imnv-'li,ii*ly,
ij pint marked E, F, are the fork-pins, and A and 8 are
lie clock which Bloxatn had went very well; but it
ncly fine train, with (.unions of 1&; and nobody rise
ve been able to make one to answer.
icapement was modified in form by Lord Grimthorpe,
ovement being the addition of a fly vane, which, how-
riously been used for remontoires to steady the motion,
ous modifications of construction, but finally adopted
fed " and " double-three-legged " forms as being the
lory, the former for regulators and the latter for Targe
9 is a back view of the escapement part of an astrono-
rlth the four-legged wheel; seen from the front the
pins, there are two wheels ABC, ebt, with the three lifting pins and
the two pallets between them like a lantern pinion. One stop B
points forward and the other A backward. The two wheels have
their teeth set intermediately or 60* apart, though that is not
essential, and the angle of 120* may be divided between them in any
other proportions, as 70° and 50 , and in that way the pallets may
be still more oblique than 30° from the vertical, which, however, is
found enough to prevent tripping even if the fly gets loose, which is
more likely to happen from carelessness in large clocks than in
astronomical ones.
Of course the fly ff>r those escapements in large clocks, with
weights heavy enough to drive (he hands in all weather, must be
much larger than jo small ones. For average church clocks with
1 J set. pendulum the legs of the scape- wheels are generally made
4 in. long and the fly from 6 to 7 in. long in each vane by 1 J or I J
wide, For i\ sec. pendulums the scape- wheels are generally made
4ft radius. At Westminster they are in.
Lord Grimthorpe considered that these escapements act better,
especially in regulators if the pallets do not fall quite on the lifting
pins, but oh a banking, or stop at any convenient place, so as to
leave the wheel free at the moment of starting; just as the striking
of a common house clock will sometimes fail to start unless the wheel
with the pins has a little run before a pin begins to lift the hammer.
The best way to manage the banking ts to make the beat-pins long
enough to reach a lit tk- way behind the pendulum, and 1st the banking
be a thin plate of any metal screwed adjustably to the back of the
case. Thu plate cannot well be shown in the drawings together
with the pendulum, whkh, it may be added, should take up one
pallet just when it lea^n the other.
In thronLHTieirr ^m 1 * lemontoires the pendulum, as it goes by.
flips a delicate spring and releases a small weight or spring which
has been wound up in readiness by the action of the scape-
wheel and which by leaping on to the pendulum gives it i,"£J°"
a push. One on this principle made about the middle "ZJ^ WMm
of the 19th century by Robert Houdin is to be seen at JJ^sws"
the Conservatoire des Arts ct Metiers. It is very com-
plicated. The following is more simple. In fig. 21 a scape- wheel
AB has 30 pins and 360 teeth. It is engaged with a fly vane EP
mounted on a pinion of 12 teeth. Each pin as it passes raises an
impulse arm CD which is hooked upon a detent K. A pall NM then
engages the fly vane and prevents the scape-wheel from moving
farther. The impulse arm being now set, as the plate F attached
to the lower end of the pendulum flies past from left to right a pall
uMegged Gravity Fig. 20. — Double Three-legged
pement. Escapement.
turn the other way. The long locking teeth are made
og from the centre, and the lifting pins, of which four
Is while four other intermediate ones point backwards,
lore than t \ of the distance between the centres EC,
fheel and pallets ; or rather C is the top of the pendulum
eh the pallets Cr, CY converge, though the resultant
n is a little below C. It is not worth while to crank
an did, in order to make them coincide exactly with
ic pendulum, as the friction of the beat pins on the
insignificant, and even then would not be quite dc-
i pallets are not in the same plane, but one is behind
in front of the wheel, with one stop pointing backwards
' forwards to receive the teeth alternately — it does not
1; in this figure the stop 1 is behind and the stop s'
• pendulum is now going to the right, and just beginning
it pallet and free the stop /; then the wheel will begin
lift the other pallet by one of the pins which is now
rhich moves through 45° across the fine of centres, and
1 with very little friction. It goes on till the tooth now
MS s and is stopped there. Meanwhile the pallet Cr'
the pendulum as far as it may go, to the end of the arc
re called o, starting from 7; but it falls with the pen-
not only to y but to -7 on the other side of o, so that
is due to the weight of each pallet alternately falling
and the magnitude of the impulse also depends on the
f the pallet on the whole, i.e. on the distance of its centre
m the vertical through C. The fly KK' is set on with a
I like the common striking-part fly, and should be as long
•m for. length being much more effective than width.
f three-legged gravity escapement, which was first used
■faster dock, is shown in fig. 20. The principle of it
sol the four-legs; but instead of the pallets being one
be other in front of the wheel, with two sets of lifting
Fig. 21. — Chronometer Spring Remontoire.
G knocks aside the detent K + and allows a pin O projecting From
the end of the impulse arm to fall upon an inclined pallet A, wliivh is
thus urged forward. As soon as the pallet has left the pin h the
impulse arm in its further fall strike* N, which disengages the pall
at P and allows the ^cape-wheel to move on **nd again wind up the
impulse arm CD, which i* then ^g.iin Im-kt-d by the detent K, On
the return journey ol the pendulum the hghi pa El G, which act* the
part of a chronometer spring. Hip* o^tr the detent. The pallei U
double sided, h and h\ §0 that if by chance thee lotfc runs down while
the pendulum swings from left to fight the impulse arm will be {.imply
raised and not smashed, h has a ilit ape.*, on whkh the pin fails
before descending. The impulse given depend* on the weight of the
impulse arm and ma^ be varied at pleasure. The work done in un-
locking the detent is invariable, as it depends on the pressure of the
fly vane at P and is independent of the clock-train. The duration of
the impulse is very short — only about A of the arc of swing. It is
given exactly at the centre of the swing, and when not under
impulse the pendulum is detached.
Clock Wheels. — Since, as we have seen, any increase in the arc
of a pendulum is accompanied by a change, uv vv.% v^o*, \*aot.„
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: i s.-.i v.- :c:emir-ei lo use a cia-
:.:-.'. * i
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:h. :r.j: ii *.e.:h abo^t v^ia.iraiil
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■UL
irJ:
t: i -i
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-t
';- ; . — s". = 1 1 is. for the snulkt
.lo-l l:
icr
t c: : .'■
-r
»■*!■ .*■ :r.. :'.r :hc hrgcr wheel whii
'/i! i h ■-.
.•"-• i.
i '.::::.
•■1 "
he
■:.:h ir. \ be 4 c« in di* meter lo the
■■;.'. ■:.-:.'. rr.- i.y* 0: -.r; :^:h. The hzi-V.:: :^.:-.i whed would be -;jof
'.: ". \.v .!■.: v.... I ^r. izl. b. ■.lir.:-. .-:.- ovrr ^11. The p::ch circus of the wheA
.-...■: :..•. <A t :. j w-. j. '. J j« i a r. d 4 in . rc ? r- ■. l ; I ve : y. For t ne » h eel work , whrt
.•r .:..-; ...^.-..c ! 1 he Jri-.vr is ;.!;.-iy* ir,u;h hr^ir ih.-.n the driven wheel, \k
". : . \ i y > ».o : 6 , . e ^,i iy : !o." i . ' t >x. :h a; r ca k [ nc :c r^ t !j . as i: is generally considered
•y :. :; v.- ■ .. . '.f -he ; :o j,-.: 1cm.. tlie sir^La on the pi:iioa ^hceL But the rtbli*
J. : :...".:. -t .,;..-h, n-itrit* of li.t two iyiLcms have never b<?n properly tested fcf
Gtvzi B;rr-;.-A deck wl:»h_a ci r ,» v of poj.g accunt ^
niu-t hive ^r..c c^-"™:c to ^? it f . : .. a ^ hiJc itbbe i|
wound up la the old- f.«^a ko W ekefc*. ^hich we*
•■ound up Ujr rr-ftMy p^ jr.j or.e of the ftrirp,. and in wild
■„ «m„, d , :c c :•. «J , * u to this w». cone hy v.], t ;s cl^d :!.« c vllcss ch^n of Hu>VS
i. iln.lr to admit the p^sded ■ a: ■« I'- ' :r 5 over fji-i ;■■....;. a m J-- iuurs of the great wheA
■: •:. ••: ■■.' v. v'-^-h LiCh
.- .-. .. ' •■ J..;.-..' :;thu
' -.f :■.•;.■■.,- :.:r..--r-.i--he
./ ',:. :»•■- i^-? «...'!•; of i t.rck
CLOCK
5+7
sp grooves and spikes in them, to prevent the .chain from
. In one of the two loops or festoons which hang from
er pulley* is a loose pulley without spikes, carrying the
sight, and in the other a small weight only heavy enough
the chain close to the upper pulleys. Now, suppose one
pulleys to be on the arbor of the great wheel of the strik-
:, with a ratchet and click, and the other pulley fixed to
ir of the great wheel of the going part; then (whenever
k is not striking) the weight may be pulled up by pulling
at part of the string which hangs from the other side of
Jng part; and yet the weight will be acting on the going
the time. It would be just the same if the striking part
pulley were wound up with a key, instead of the string
died, and also the same, if there were no striking part at
the second pulley were put on a blank arbor, except
hat case the weight would take twice as long to run down,
ig that the striking part generally requires the same
< fall as the going part.
dad of going barrel, however, is evidently not suited to
cacy of an astronomical dock; and Harrison's going
is now universally adopted in such clocks, .and also in
teters and watches for keeping the action of the train
acapement during the winding. Fig. 25 (in which the
tters are used as in the corresponding parts of fig- 3)
_s_ shows its construction. The
— <) click of the barrel-ratchet R
is set upon another larger
ratchet-wheel with its teeth
pointing the opposite way,
and its dick rT is set in the
dock frame. That ratchet
is connected with the great
wheel by a spring si pressing
against the two pins s in the
ratchet and j* in the whed.
When the wdght is wound
up (wfiich is equivalent to
_ taking it off), the dick Tr
" I prevents that ratchet from
I turning back or to the right;
^^^J And as the spring «i' is kept
-HamsonsGoing-Ratchet. of Unsi<m equiviIe|lt to thc
Itself it will drive the wheel to the left for a short
;, when its end s is hdd fast, with the same force as if
td was pulled forward by the wdght; and as the
had has to move very little during the short time the
1 winding, the spring will keep the dock going long
s commoner kind of turret clocks a more simple apparatus
which goes by the name of the boll and shutter, because it
of a weighted lever with a broad end, which shuts up the
i-hoie. When it is lifted a spring-bolt attached to the
r its arbor, runs into the teeth of one of the wheels, and
|ht of the lever keeps the train going until the bdt has
U out of gear. Clocks are not always driven by weights,
iccuracy is not necessary, but portability is desirable,
•reused. The old form of spring became weaker as it was
id and necessitated the use of a device called a fusee or
nun. This apparatus will be found described in the
Watch.
«g licckanistn.—Theit are two kinds of striking work
clocks. The older of them, the locking-plate system,
l still used in most foreign docks, and in turret clocks in
i also, will not allow the striking of any hour to be cither
1 or repeated, without making the next hour strike wrong;
1 In the rack system, which is used in all English house
the number of blows to be struck depends merely on the
1 of a whed attached to thc going part, and therefore the
; of any hour may be emitted or repeated without derang-
following ones. We shall only describe the second of
rhicb is the more usual in modern timepieces.
Fig. *6 is a front view of a common English house clock with
the face taken off, showing the repeating or rack striking move
ment. Here, as in fig. 3, M is the hoqr-whed, on the pipe of which
the minute-hand is set, N the reversed hour-wheel, and * its
pinion, driving the 12-hour whed H, on whose socket is fixed
what is called the snail Y, which bdongs to the striking work
exdusivdy. The hammer is raised by the eight pins in the rim
of the second whed in the striking train, in the manner whkh is
obvious.
The hammer does not quite touch the bell, as it would jar in
striking if it did, and prevent the full sound. The form of the
hammer-shank at the arbor where the spring S acts upon it is
such that the spring both drives the hammer against the bell
when the tail T is raised, and also checks it just before it reaches
the bell, the blow on the bell thus being given by the hammer
having acquiredmoroentum enough to go a little farther than its
place of rest. Sometimes two springs are used, one for impelling
cz^n
Fie. 26. — Front view of common English House Clock.
the hammer, and the other for checking it. But nothing will
check the chattering of a heavy hammer, except making it lean
forward so as to act, partially at least, by its weight. Thc
pinion of the striking-wheel generally has eight leaves, the same
number as the pins; and as a dock strikes 78 blows in 12 hours,
the great wheel will turn in that time if it has 78 teeth instead of
06, which the great wheel of the going part has for a centre
pinion of eight. The striking-wheel drives thc wheel above it
once round for each blow, and that wheel drives a fourth (in
which there is a single pin P), six. or any other integral number of
turns, for one turn of its own, and that drives a fan-fly to
moderate the velocity of the train by the resistance of the air, an
expedient at least as old as De Vick's .clock in 1 370.
The wheel N is so adjusted that, within a few minutes of the
hour, the pin in it raises the lifting-piece LONF so far that that
piece lifts the dick C out of the teeth of the rack BKRV, which
immediately falls back (helped by a spring near the bottom) aa
far as its tail V can go by reason of the snail Y, against which it
falls; and it is so arranged that the number of teeth which pass
thc dick is proportionate to the depth of the snail; and as there
is one step in the snail for each hour, and it goes round with the
hour-hand, the rack always drops just as many teeAh. «& Mefe
it
H <
5+8
CLOCK
number of the hour to be struck. This drop makes the noise of
" giving warning." Hut the clock is not yet ready to strike till
the lifting piece has fallen again; for, as soon as the rack was let
off, the tail of the tathoing pallet G.on the prolonged arbor of the
third wheel, was enabled to |u» the pin K of the rack on which it
was prrsklng More, and the striking train began to move; but
before the fourth wheel had got half round, its pin P was caught
by the end of the lifting-piece, which is bent back and goes
thiough a hole in the plate, and when raised stands in the way of
the pin 1\ so that the train cannot go on till the lifting-piece
dtojw, which ft din's exactly at the hour, by the pin N then
»li|>piiig pa»t it. Then the train is free; the striking wheel begins
to lift the hammer, and the gathering pallet gathers up the rack,
a tooth for each blow, until it has returned to the place at which
thcjullct is >toppcd by the pin K coming under it. In this figure
the Idling piece i* prolonged to F, where there b a string hung to
it, an thi> is the proper place for such a string when it is wanted
for the pui|**e »»f learning the hour in the dark, and not (as it is
geneiallv put) on the ilick C; for if it is put there and the string
i> held a little too long, the flock will strike too many; and if the
Miing an ide nt ally stiiks in the vase, it will goon striking till it is
ttni do* ii neither of which things can happen when the string
is put on the lil tin): piece.
The mail i" sometimes sot on a separate stud with the apparatus
i .died .1 »;.i» u *«.■; and./ Mmfer. On the left side of the frame we
ha\ e placed a lever a , * ith the let lew 5/ below it , and si above. If
it is pushed up to «". the other end Mill come against a pin in the
i.uk. and pie\ent it from tailing, and «ill thus make the clock
Mlriit; and thi* i* much more sample than the old-fashioned
" >tuke and Mlent " apparatus, which *e shall therefore not
ilc v nlv. especially as it i«M-!domuscd now.
li the il.vA i" 4 requued to >tiike quarters, a third "part** or
tt.vn oi «KvUi> added oH\ihe right hand of the going part; and
i(n gcnoial «o:i«!iucii««n is the same as the hour-striking part;
orl\ iKiv- .tic t«o mote bc!l>» and two hammers so placed that
owe is i.i-s,\l a I.: tic a'ter the other, li there are more quarter-
s', N th-ri t»o. the hammers are generally rai>ed by a ehirr.e-
Kativ!. nS;»h i> i:u;vN a cxlin.lcr set on the arbor of the slriking-
whool v .ii tSt »v.>e ge::e:aMi the th : rd in the train\ mith short
|Vrt» s:-. : , V. !•■!»» i; in she prop*" places to ra?*e the hammers in the
ojx'.ct i\\;u;;ed w. the n:::e ot the chimes. The quarters are
\:xv:a'.!\ made to V: o J the hour, and thi* connexion may be trade
:.\ :*o »a>* l! the \V.tv* are d;5orer: in tune tor each garter,
.i :*.,'. -^o: :-cre'.> th»* vi'-.c t^:*c repeated t»o. three and :o-r tir^e*.
the ;viv::".:o-.: r-.owvc'l r-..>: rot be used tor them, as it »ou?J
:r»vo« the :-.:•• o» -.-.to ».- 't^v^. but the «\d Icvkirg- plate rr.ove-
»"»■.*.: a> :- ;-.:::v: c'o* V>. jr. 1 . tS-rev-e. :! »* cvr.ee: ve :be hc:_r
\* i
■•;:.v:.v.^ :>
carter .ovairrg-p.ate. a* !t x »-'
the * Nvi N -.?. ?$ :? •.: ;s ex >ie*:: that the ;va »ij A-whargt -he
K-..: *:. k. vc '.v;:: i* i-.? .o.r.h ^-. art*r i - * >he*.
K „t » hc:v the : c-.v: .:••.-. r.vxerrx:;; » rec,,::red :or :b* stiiartfrs.
the v.\»;u*r Is as* : <>.:.- >o jj-rrif. T^e rrac:;\*e s>t" :: cay shortly
Nr cVscv.Xv. :>-* VS: o-artors :Vcrrse:\e* ha%« a nek ar^
vu.. Xv . -*s; 1 vo :\: v .v^ eaortS :^i: iSc s?aj ss iieti or ore
oc *.>.- S.v. >w Sv'* >t o- N :?rf:ea^ o; oc ;Se :*X'i'*'«*i-.Xir "•bee-I.
*v K as o.-\ -^ . >.>-; \„-„ >.;«^ , se :Se c-ir:er-raci. :o Se
%.» ;\a.o«- : k j:w. - . i>*or •>; *.o-r.* <;.a::»r ■:> pra:e>:
A*.v" '■ l ■*"**- "■>. >tf N."-" " • ~Jt r rce*c-rs"*>v-eSr:'aee-0
a^* \ >»* *s ■..- : . >^ : i s,« .Sc . .* C IV: ;>* r*^ * - ^
oa.^; *■* .V: . .v V V i-- >o :S* . ; -5 ^oot »-_ rs— a- -r
*9±x x'J ; v ; — % ». .ro ^i.:..-- -i.i i.-r .caiSr^ci -,r. *.?i as
:W. > ovwv . — :n x m:< ..» ;>r^tff :i« c-^k v^c a.'v: «
sV*r,-«:.» . v . ■;. ,: .\::. , > , .-i k 'f rvi- TVj cica \\ *m.
wtv*i*^o* -s.. -. s, <s _, % . : s, ». 4 ^- c ^ ir:< ^
TV jiwsKv ^ * ■. i *• *. *.-«■?■ * »«.--ca "ra^ Se iiorvi.xc
>» jwwi :..-.**-.■. .N: -.%•-■■ r»orw~«.--:> ip< : i-c •
5 a Apt* ku*r\- ^-;a.- .■» a Vc-^ -.x—v: - --r Se a:u.-S?i :.•
-■K *.v» ^ xVt - . s, i-«-* .Ss »>«\- Ne .t-.-p- * .» »*««:
^«\^ * %.-il €*•-.. ■• * -"* in: Vj'-."-«r -ar*s,^ M^c-na.-^*
anc vr*afsj*w a». : *.• a-s vo a.^; •.-*i. % > ^»f ra.— ^v— 2\»z
■*• Ar ** *C*Sk.v j.^ .-■ ».■ *^ * .*«•. .^.:^ ?>:.•«• .-«« soc
antr jKrt wv iArw*. \ ■ *•:.•- K* -\\v re «*. . j^ <4 •_•« ■ i-—
at the time required: if it was always to be let off at the same
time all that would be necessary would be to set a pin in the
twelve-hour wheel at the proper place to raise the lifting-piece
which lets off the alarum at that lime. But as the time imui
be capable of alteration, this discharging pin must be set in
another wheel (without teeth), which rides with a friction-
spring on the socket of the twelve-hour wheel, with a small
movable dial attached to it, having figures so an-anged with
reference to the pin that whatever figure is made to come to a
small pointer set as a tail to the hour hand, the alarum shall
be let off at that hour.
The watchman's or tell-tale clock, used when it is desired to
make sure of a watchman being on the spot and awake all the
night, is a clock with a set of spikes, generally 48 or 96, sticking
out all round the dial, and a handle somewhere in the case, by
pulling which one of the spikes which is opposite to it, or to some
lever connected with it is pressed in. This wheel of spikes is
carried round with the hour-hand, which in these clocks u
generally a twenty-four hour one. It is evident that every spike
which is seen still sticking out in the morning indicates that a:
the particular time to which that spike belongs the watchmar
was not there to push it in — or at any rate, that he did not
At some other part of their circuit, the inner ends of the piss
are carried over a roller or an inclined plane which pushes tbea
out again ready for business the next night. The time at vhiw
workmen arrive at their work may be recorded by proviir?
each of them with a numbered key with which he stamps -»
number on a moving tape, on which also the time is rnarke'
by a clock.
Ckwik and Turret Clocks. — Seeing that a clock — at least t»
going part of it — is a machine in which the only work to be d.^
is the overcoming of its own friction and the re?: itar.ee cf *>e
air. it is evident that when the friction and resistar.ee are =--"
increased it may become necessary- to resort t:> expeder:
for neutralising their effects, which are not required ic a sral.-r
machine with less friction. In a turret clock, the :ri«:c= j
enormously increased Vy the great *<:£h: of xA the part*, i".
the resistance of the wind, and sorr^: irr.es sr.ow. to the =:. :
of the hands, further aggravates the circuity cf rr.^'.zii.^:
a constant force on the pend-Jurr.: and h«e*iiis :hi*. ttrz:: -•
the exposure of the dock to the dirt ar. i d->: * hich a^e l«*>
found in towers, a^d of the oil to a terr;*ra:Lri v.h^ :h z.ar
or quite freeres it all ihrccgh the us^a'. eeli cf -:-:;r. 7^=
last circvr^stacce alone wiU ;;r.eral> rr.iWe the arc « >
pend-Iua a: least ha!f a decree rwre :-. «-— ~.tr ihj.- :r ■»■■■?■
a:xi ira5irr.:ch as the lirr.e is materia!;. »-- ;. ; i ••. ••-+ ^
»hlch arri\es a: the pendJin. as "Rci: a* :h; :'r : '._:>-. :.: "-*
pulV-i wSea it does arrive ih*re. It is e .i:- :> ;— r.;^t ;> t
aryt-rre: clock c: the eri>aryc :r^:.-.;: ::. t*:.;:.i_ : . -» -^j.f
da's, to keep a=y errs tar.t rate :hr:_j* th* m-:_« ^:-p
oc ;e~7«rat-re. "»eat v er iiicJr.tr •- h ;h '.z i& circ*el. Hs-
sr*ec:aIp'rtcaL*J:rs.s- , ':h as the -se :f r;— ■:-t-:>s» i_- ; r*i : ~
escarx-3e=:s» have :e be cbser.e-i :-. *J** ;rs. f- :; 'j-c* zn&
that haN* ary yretersr-s tc arr-irk-. - :-.;r :; *-s.-* a
t K e arc c: '. r< >er i J -— 3 - : : a*K: k : ;■ : 1 : i ~ i! ^.rri^r*: t* "^
s-^h as >• -i-rre»,-< r= the rati* :- 1 --. - -.>- -»r«:-^-r"-^
?-t s^-.h "-a . e h«- :'■>• .— T-: m <x~r *rt« *"=•:- . ; - *■ ..--- . -Vx*. 1
:*a: n:*er t*i.- r.- :.* :*e :-■:■-? i xrzuz
r-sra -■.:■?*. .t tr^>ei> ir r-^'srah-e :: 4
^*c« - jo— < s>;::-^ .»._«:■ xri -m
:-.-.-. -■ vr _-..t :-e hi- -j .v :-i --:
5Z.-. ? ■• i C^i*.- — >« :■■" t^ir.i. 1 .:-:
:.* c'-xts '■is r-a5e h> Ki\i?it? 3jl: ^ : ;_-.
>e *t->e L"-*e >«r C *"Srati-.:t«. ?. 1
FiJ ua— rr a>£ Lr-a srtr.-s: -■---.;"; -.^.
r cct r-ra," . -5e-kee=K.-5- ! : a =■: : rr: - .. <:■; - -^
-Ver? =-a» r--c*=.'-- =j-t. it 4...t.x: .- S-ne .- .-
Jlita-fc •."■« ;/:■* L'..' it .*---- •;: rr : . r iw^ _~"
5---t r«*y.'» , « a/cr^'.azL.'r^- C. S^rJ^d ~i
- i.tji:!->
=-:?rr »J>^
x^LxV*
\
Fig. 27.— Turret Clock for Hidalgo, Mexico, driving
ces in the Appendix 10 Tobler's Die eUctrischcn Ukren
g, 1885), and a list of books given by F. Hope Jones, Proc.
Kec. Eng., 1000, vol. 29. The history of electrical clocks
ig and complicated matter, for there are some 600 or 700
l for these clocks in Europe and America, some containing
ms of valuable ideas but most pure rubbish. All that can
e b to select one or two prominent types of each class and
brief description of their general construction.
. in the apparently simple matter of making and keeping
ctrical contact that most of the systems of electrical time-
I have failed, for want of attention to the essential
ons of the problem. In practice every metal is covered
thin film of non-conducting oxide over which is another
moisture, oil, dirt or air. Hence what is wanted is a
igorous push of a blunted point or edge preferably obliquely
more or less yielding surface so as to get a rubbing action.
f the stiff spring a b (fig. 28) were stabbed down on the
i surface C D a good contact would invariably result,
ed that the metals employed were gold, platinum or some
lily oxidizable metal. Or again, if a mercury surface be
simply touched with a pin, the slight sparking
that is produced on making the current will soon
form a little pile of dirty oxide at the point of
entry, and the contact will frequently fail. If it
be necessary to have a mercury contact, the pin
must be well driven in below the surface of the
mercury or else swept through it as an oar is swept
through the water. Another form of electrical
contact that acts well is a knife edge brought into
t with a series of fine clastic strips of metal laid parallel
another like the fingers of a hand. The best metal for
ts, if they arc to bear hard usage, is either silver or gold
ixture of 40% iridium with 60% of platinum. A pressure
e 15 grammes, at least, is needful to secure a good contact.
the source of current for driving electrical clocks, if
cm* cells be used they should preferably be kept in the
ihr under cover so as not to dry up. If direct electric
t is available from electric light mains or the accumulators
>r light ing a private house, so much the bet tcr. Of course
Enure of 50 or 100 volts used for lighting would be far loo
or clock -driving, where only the pressure of a few volts is
•d. But it is easy by the insertion of suitable resistances,
Instance one or more incandescent lamps, to weaken down
r
is.
CLOCK 549
the pressure of the fighting system
and make it available for electric
docks, bells or other similar purposes.
Electricity is applied to clocks in
three main ways:— (1) in actuating
timepieces which measure their own
time and must therefore be provided
with pendulums or balance wheels;
(a) in reproducing on one or more
dials the movements of the hands of
a master dock, by the aid of electric
impulses sent at regular intervals, say
of a minute or a half -minute; and
(3) in synchronizing ordinary clocks
by occasional impulses sent from
some accurate regulator at a distance.
Electrically driven timepieces may
be divided under two heads:— (a)
those in which the electric current
drives either the pendulum or some
lever which operates upon it, which
lever or pendulum in turn drives the
clock hands; and (b) those time-
pieces which are-driven by a weight
or spring which is periodically wound
up by electricity— in fact electrical
j remontoires.
The simplest dock of the first
four 8 ft. dials. character that could be imagined
would be constructed by fastening an electromagnet with a soft
iron core to the bottom of a pendulum, and causing it to be
attracted as the pendulum swings by another electromagnet
fixed vertically under it (fig. 29). As the pendulum approached
the vertical and was say half an inch from its lowest point,
the current would be switched on, and switched off as soon as
the pendulum got to its lowest point. A very small attraction
with this arrangement, probably about a grain weight, acting
through the 4 in. would drive a heavy pendulum. A switch
would have to be worked in connexion with the pendulum.
A strip of ebonite with a small face of metal on the end of one side,
such as a b (fig. 29) might be pivoted at one end on the pendulum
with a weak spring to keep it where free along the rod. As the
pendulum swung by this would be swept on its Journey from
left to right against a fixed pin P.
This would complete the electric
circuit down through the pendu-
lum rod, round the coil on the
bottom of the pendulum, through
the switch into the pin P, thence
through the fixed electromagnet,
and so back to the battery. On
the return journey no contact
would be made because only the
ebonite face of the switch would
touch P. The pendulum would
thus receive an impulse every
other vibration. We have de-
scribed this switch, not to advocate it, but to warn against its
For the contact would be quite insufficient. In order that
OP
Fie. 29.— Electrical Clock
(faulty design).
the switch might not unduly retard the pendulum it must be
light, but this would make the pressure on P too light to be
trustworthy. Moreover, the strength of the impulse would vary
with the strength of the battery, and hence the arc would be
repeatedly uneven.
In contrast with this, let us consider a clock that is now giving
excellent results at the Observatory of Neuchatcl in Switzerland
on Hipp's system (La Pcndule tieclrique de precision, Neuchatcl,
1884 and 1891). The pendulum (fig. 30) consists of two rods of
steel joined by four bridges, one just below the suspension
spring, the next about 12 in. lower, the next about half way
down, and the last supporting a glass vessel of mercury which
forms the bob. On the third of them is placed an iron axmsAux*^
55°
CLOCK
which works between the poles of an electromagnet fixed to
the case, and by which the pendulum is actuated. The circuit
is closed and broken by a flipper, which is swayed to and fro by
a block fixed to the pendulum at the second bridge. As long as
the flipper is merely swayed, no contact takes place, but when
the arc of vibration of the pendulum is diminished the flipper 1
docs not clear the block but is caught by a nick in it, and forced
downwards. In this way the circuit is closed. Fig. 31 is a dia-
gram of the apparatus. When the block g attached to the
pendulum catches and presses down the flipper s, the lever
/ / is rocked over, so that a contact is made at k, and the current
which enters the lever / through the knife
edge tn, runs through the second lever n n,
down through the knife edge to the
battery, and through the electromagnet
6 which causes the armature a to be
attracted. As the block g goes on and
releases s, the lever / again falls upon the
rest p t the lever n follows it a part of the
way till it is stopped by the contact q;
this shortdrcuits the electromagnet and
prevents to a large extent the formation
of an induced current. It is claimed that
sparking is by this method almost entirely
avoided. It is only when s is caught in the
notch of the block g that s is pressed down,
so that the electric attraction only takes
place every few vibrations. This ingenious
arrangement makes the working of the
clock nearly independent of the strength
of the battery, for if the battery is strong
the impulses are fewer and the average arc
remains the same. The clock is enclosed
in an airtight glass case so as to avoid
barometric error. It was tested in 1005
at the Ncuchatci observatory. In winter
in a room of a mean temperature of 35° F.
it was J sec. too slow, in summer when
the temperature was 70°, it was } sec.
too fast. In the succeeding winter it
became -53 sec. too slow again, thus gain-
ing a little in summer and losing in
-HipnKlec-
t ricat Clock tVcycr,
Vim. 31. — C«<nuct Arrange-
ment of Hipp Clock.
Fig. 30.-
rio.it Cl<
Favargcr ct Cic).
winter. Its average variation from its daily rate was, however,
only «033 sec.
In and her system originated by G. Fromcnt, a small weight
is raised by electricity and allowed to fall upon an arm sticking
out at right angles to the pendulum in the plane of its motion,
so as to urge it onward*. The weight is only allowed to rest on
the arm during the downward swing ot the pendulum. The
method is not theoretically good, as the impulse is given at the
end of the vibration of the pendulum instead of at its middle
position.
Iq the clock Invented by C Fe*iy («hcf dc* iravnux pt4tii|ur«
at the Ecole dc riiy«ii|ue et Chimir, l*»itiO, an rlcttiii impul-ie
is given at every vibration, not bv a Imttri v hut bv mr.mii oi thr
uiionn movement of mi •imstun 1 wl»(. It U aliritmirlv pulled
*w*y from and puOinl InwstiU n |n minium lnu»e«hni« utAitnrl
£zrrz3£g*felhutintl\i\ ed In n MiIiIh nl im* wit*' pints! b, t ween
«fcr pals* W tk§ bonethof MW' ' '»" M»*»vrm«iU of th«
armature arc produced by another horseshoe magnet actuated
by the primary current from a battery which is turned on and off
by the swinging of the pendulum. The energy of the induced
current that drives the clock depends solely on the total move-
ment of the armature, and is independent of whether that
movement be executed slowly or rapidly, and therefore of the
strength of the battery.
Electrical rcmoiUoircs possess great advantages if they can
be made to operate with certainty. For they can be made
to wind up a scape-wheel just as is done in the case of
the arrangement shown in fig. 16 so as to constitute a
spring rcmontoire, or better still they can be made to raise
a weight as in the case of the gravity train rcmontoire
(fig. 15) but without the complications of wheel-work shown
in that contrivance. Of this type one of the best known is
that of H. Chcstcrs Pond. A mainspring fixed on the arbor
of the hour wheel is wound up every hour by means of another
toothed wheel riding loose on the same arbor and driven by a
small dynamo, to which the other end of the mainspring is
attached. As soon as the hour wheel has made one revolution
(driven round by the spring), a contact switch is closed whereupon
Fig. 32. — Hope Jones Electrical Rcmontoire.
the dynamo winds up the spring again exactly as the tram aad
fly wind up the spring in fig. 15. These docks require a good
deal of power, and not being always trustworthy seem to have
gone out of use. A contrivance of this kind now in use is that
patented by F. Hope Jones and G. B. Bowcll, and is represented
in fig. 32. A pendulum is driven by the scape-wheel A, and
pallets B B in the usual way. The scape-wheel is driven by
another wheel C which, in turn, is driven by the weighted lever
D supported by click E engaging the ratchet wheel F. Tins fever
is centred at G and has an extension H at right angles to it.
J is an armature of soft iron pivoted at K and worked by the
electromagnet M. D gradually falls in the act of driving the
clock by turning the wheels C and A until the contact plate c*
the arm H meets with the contact screw L at the end of the aiaa>
ture J, thus completing the electrical circuit from terminal T
to terminal T' through the electromagnet M, and tfcroqgm aay
number of step-by -step dial movements which may be mrtorird
in t he same scries circuit. The armature is them drmwm towanfe
D with it
tlxdfck
K engages another tooth of the ratchet F. Aqm ckhre ak of ik
cin uit i* thus secured, and the contact at L is a food c «,fc*
bcvau»c the whole of the energy required 10 keep xfce dockf ejf
or in other wwds the energy required to raise the kw D*
CLOCK
551
mechanically transmitted through its surfaces at each operation,
and secondly, owing to the arrangement of the fulcrums at G
and K which secure a rubbing contact. The duration of the con-
tact is just that necessary to accomplish the work which has to be
done, and it is remarkable that when used to operate large
circuits of electrically propelled dials the duration accommodates
itself to their exact requirements and the varying conditions of
battery and self-induction. The ratchet wheel F is usually
mounted loosely upon its arbor and is connected to the wheel C
by means of a spiral spring, which in conjunction with the
back-stop click P maintains the turning force on the wheelwork
at the instant when the lever D is being raised.
Electrically driven dials usually consist of a ratchet uhcel
driven by an electrically moved pall. Care has to be taken that
the pushes of the pall do not cause the ratchet wheel to be
impelled too far. The anchor escapement of a common grand-
father's clock can be made to drive the works by means of an
electromagnet, the pendulum being removed. With a common
anchor escapement the scape-wheel can be driven round by
wagging the anchor to and fro. All then that is necessary is to
fix a piece of iron on the anchor so that its weight pulls the
anchor over one way, while an electromagnet pulls the iron the
other. Impulses sent through the electromagnet will then
drive the clock. If the clock is wound up in the ordinary way
the motion will be so
much helped that the
electric current has very
fljlj * lit lie to do, and thus may
be very feeble. Tig. 33
shows the dial-driving de-
vice of Hope Jones's clock.
Each time that a current
is sent by the master-
clock, the electromagnet
B attracts the pivoted
armature C, and when the
current ceases the lever D
with the projecting arm
-, ,» , .„.,,.. E is driven back to its old
FlO. 33.-HopcJo„« s Dial-dnving po . ilion by the spring F?
thus driving the wheel A
forward one division. G is a back-stop dick, and H, I, fixed
stops.
It seems doubtful whether in large towna a number of dials
could be electrically driven from a distance because of the large
amount of power that would have to be transmitted. But for
large buildings, such os hotel.?, they arc excellent. One master-
dock in the cellar will drive a hundred or so placed over the
building. The master-clock may itself be driven by electricity,
but it will require the services from time to time of some one
to correct the time. Even this labour may be avoided if the
master-clock is synchronized, and as synchronization requires
but a small expenditure of force, it can be done over large areas.
Hence the future of the clock seems to be a series of master-
docks, electrically driven, and synchronized one with another,
in various parts of a city, from each of which a number of dir.ls
in the vicinity are driven. Electrical synchronization was worked
out by Louis Briguct and others, and a successful system was
perfected in England by J. A. Lund. The leading principle of
the best systems ia at each hour to cause a pair of fingers or some
equivalent device to close upon the minute hand and put it
exactly to the hour. Other systems arc designed to retard or
to accelerate the pendulum, but the former appears the more
practical method. There is probably a future before synchroniza-
tion which will enable the services of a clock maker to be largely
dispensed with and relegate his work merely to keeping the
instruments in repair.
Miscellaneous Clocks.— Some small clocks are made to go for
a year. They have a heavy balance wheel of brass weighing
about 2 lb and about 2 1 in. in diameter, suspended from a point
above its centre by a fine watch spring about 4 in. long. The
dutch engages with the upper part of the spring, and as the
balance wheel swings the pallets are actuated. The whole
clock is but a large watch with a suspended balance wheel,
oscillating once in about 8 seconds. Unless the suspension
spring be compensated for temperature, such clocks gain very
much in winter.
An ingenious method of driving a clock by water has been
proposed. As the pendulum oscillates to one side, an arm on it
rises and at last lightly touches a drop of water hanging from
a very fine nozzle; this drop is taken of! and carried away by the
arm, to be subsequently removed by adhesion to an escape
funnel placed below the arm. Hence at each double vibration
of the pendulum pari of the work done by a drop of water
falling through a short distance is communicated to the pendu-
lum, which is thus kept in motion as long as the water lasts.
At this rate a gallon of water ought to drive the clock for 40
hours. Care of course must be taken to keep the water in
the reservoir at a constant level, so that the drops formed
shall be uniform.
If it were worth while, no doubt the oscillations of a pendulum
working in a vacuum could be maintained by the communication
and discharge at each oscillation of a slight charge of electricity;
or again, heat might at each oscillation be communicated to a
thermo-electric junction, and the resulting current used to drive
the pendulum.
The expansions and contractions of metal rods under the
influence of the changes of temperature which take place in the
course of each night and day have also been employed to keep
a clock wound up, and if there were any need for it no doubt
a small windmill rotating at the top of a tower would easily
keep a turret clock fully wound, by a simple arrangement which
would gear the going barrel of the clock to the wind vane motion,
whenever the weight had fallen too low, and release it when the
binding up was completed. Even a smoke jack would do the
same office for a kitchen clock.
The methods of driving astronomical telescopes by means of
clockwork will be found in the article Telescope. Measurements
of small intervals of time arc performed by means of chrono-
graphs which in principle depend on the use of isochronous
vibrating tuning-forks in place of pendulums. In practice it is
needful in most cases that an observer should intervene in time
measurements, although perhaps by means of a revolving
photographic film a transit of the sun might be timed with
extraordinary accuracy. But if the transit of a star across a
wire is to be observed, there is no mode at present in use of doing
so except by the use of the human eye, brain and hand. Hence in
all such observations there is an clement of personal error.
Unfortunately we cannot apply a microscope to time as we
can to space and make the cycle of events that takes place in
a second last say for five minutes so as to time them truly. By
personal observations the divisions of a second cannot in general
be made more accurately than to iV or -fa of a second. The most
rapid music player does not strike a note more than 10 or 12
times in a second. It is only in case of recurring phenomena
that we can make personal observations more accurate than
this by taking the mean of a large number of observations, and
allowing for personal error. For the purpose of determining
longitude at sea accuracy to ^5 of a second of time would find the
place to about 20 yards. It seems to follow that the extent
to which astronomical clocks can be made accurate, viz. to -fa
of a second average variation from their mean daily rate, or one
two-and-a-half millionth of 24 hours, is a degree of accuracy
sufficient for present purposes, and it seems rather doubtful
whether mechanical science will in the case of clocks be likely
to reach a much higher figure.
In the 17th century it was a favourite device to make a clock
show sidereal time as well as mean solar time. The length of
the sidereal day is to the mean solar day as -99727 to 1, and
various attempts have been made by trains of wheels to obtain
this relation — but all arc somewhat complicated.
Magical clocks arc of several kinds. One that was in vogue
about 1SS0 had a bronze figure on the top with outstretched arm
holding in its hand the upper part of the soriw^W'^^^mfe.*
552
CLOCK
about 10 in. long. The pendulum had apparently no escapement
and the puzzle was how it was maintained in motion. It was
impossible to detect the mystery by the aid of the eye alone; the
truth, however, was that the whole figure swung to and fro at
each oscillation of the pendulum, to an amount of rio°f an tncn
on the outside rim of the base. A movement of j-J$of an inch
per half second of time is imperceptible; it would be equivalent
to perception of motion of the minute hand of a clock about 6 in.
in diameter, which is almost impossible. The connexion of the
figure to the anchor of the escapement was very complicated, but
clocks of the kind kept fair time. A straw, poised near the end on
a needle and with the short end united by a thread to the bronze
figure, makes the motion apparent at once and discloses the trick.
Another magical clock consists of two disks of thin sheet glass
mounted one close behind the other, one carrying the minute hand
and the other the hour hand. The disks rest on rollers which rotate
and turn them round. The front and back of the movable
disks are covered by other disks of glass surrounded by a frame,
to that the whole looks simply like a single sheet of glass mounted
in a frame, in the centre of which the hands rotate, without any
visible connexion with the works of the clock.
Clocks have been made with a sort of balance wheel consisting
of a thread with a ball at the end which winds backwards and
forwards spirally round a rod. In others a swing or sec-saw is
attached to the pendulum, or a ship under canvas is made to
oscillate in a heavy sea. In others the time is measured by the
fall of a ball down an inclined plane, the lime of fall being given
by the formula /= V (25/jsina), where s is the length of the incline
and a the inclination. But friction so modifies the result as to
render experiment the only mode of adjusting such a clock.
Sometimes a clock is made to serve as its own weight, as for
instance when a clock shaped like a monkey is allowed to slide
down a rope wound round the going barrel. Or the clock is made
of a cylindrical shape outside and provided with a weighted arm
instead of a going barrel; on being put upon an incline, it rolls
down, and the fall supplies the motive power.
Clocks are frequently provided with chimes moved exactly like
musical boxes, except that the pins in the barrel, instead of
flipping musical combs, raise hammers which fall upon bells.
The driving barrel is let off at suitable intervals. The cuckoo
clock is a pretty piece of mechanism. By the push of a wire given
to the body of the bird, it is bent forward, the wings and tail arc
raised and the beak opened. At the same time two weighted
.bellows measuring about 1 Xa in. are raised and successively let
drop. These are attached to small wooden organ pipes, one tuned
a fifth above the other, which produce the notes. Phonographs
are also attached to clocks, by which the hours are called instead
of rung.
Clocks are also constructed with conical pendulums. It is a
property of the conical pendulum that if swung round, the time
of one complete revolution is the same as that of the double
vibration of a pendulum equal in length to the vertical distance
of the bob of the conical pendulum below its point of support.
It follows that if the driving force of such a pendulum can be kept
constant (as it easily can by an electric contact which is made at
every revolution during which it falls below a certain point) the
clock will keep time; or friction can be introduced so as to
reduce the speed whenever the pendulum flics round too fast and
hence the bob rises. Or again by suitable arrangements the bob
may be made to move in certain curves so as to be isochronous.
Plans of this kind are employed rather to drive telescopes,
phonographs and other machines requiring uniform and steady
movement.
Comical and performing clocks were very popular in the 15th
and 1 6th centuries. One at Basel in Switzerland was arranged
to as gradually to protrude a long tongue as the pendulum
vibrated. It is still to be seen there in the museum. The famous
clock at Strassburg, originally constructed in 1574, remade in
1842, displays a whole series of scenes, including processions of
the apostles and other persons, and a cock that crows, A fine |
clock at Venice has two rather stiff bronze giants that strike the
hours.
Clocks with complicated movements representing the positions
of the heavenly bodies and the days of the week and month,
allowance being made for leap year, were once the delight of tht
curious. Repeating clocks, which sounded the hours when a
string was pulled, were once popular. The string simply raised the
lifting piece and let the clock strike as the hands would do when
they came to the hour. This was of use in the old days when the
only mode of striking a light at night was with a flint and sled,
but lucifer matches and the electric light have rendered these
clocks obsolete.
Testing docks.— The average amount by which a clock gains or
loses is called its mean or average daily rate. A Urge daily rate
of error is no proof that a clock is a bad one, for it might be
completely removed by pendulum adjustment. What b required
is that the daily rale shall be uniform, that is, that the clock shall
not be gaining (or losing) more on one day than on another, or at
one period of the same day than at another. In fig. 34 A B is a
curve in which the abscissae represent intervals of time, the
ordinates the number of seconds at any lime by which the clock
is wrong. The curve C D is one in which the ordinates are
proportional to the tangents of the angles of inclination of the
curve A B to the axis of x, that is dyjdx. Whenever the line A B
is horizontal, C D cuts the axis of x. In a clock having no
variation in its daily rate the curve A B would become a straight
line, though it might be inclined to the axis of x, and C D, also a
straight line, would be parallel to the axis of x, though it might
not coincide with it. In a dock set to exact time and having
no variations of daily
rate, both the curves
would be straight
lines and would coin-
cide with the axis of
x. The curve C D,
known as the curve
of variation of daily
rate, will generally
be found to follow
changes of day and Flc# ^-Curve of Variation of daily rate
night, and of tern*
perature, and the fluctuations of the barometer and hygrometer,
it is the curve which reveals the true character of the clock.
Hence in testing a clock two things have to be determined:
first, the daily rate of error, and second, the average variations
from that daily rale, in other words the irregularities of going.
To test a clock well six months' or a year's trial is needed, and
it is desirable to have it subjected to considerable changes of
temperature.
The bibliography of horology is very extensive. Among modem
works Lord Grimthorpe's Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks. Watcka
and Bells (8th edition. London, 1903) is perhaps the most convenient.
Many references to older literature will be found in Thomas Reids
Treatise on Clock and Watchmaking (1849). (C; H. H. C)
Decorative Aspects. —In art the clock occupies a position of
considerable distinction, and antique examples are prized and
collected as much for the decorative qualities of their cases as
for the excellence of their time-keeping. French and Fngt^h
cabinet-makers have especially excelled, although in entirely
different ways, in the making of clock cases. The one aimed at
comely utility, often made actually beautiful by fit proportion
and the employment of finely grained woods; the other sought
a bold and dazzling splendour in which ornament overlay
material. It was not in either country until the latter part of
the 17th century that the cabinet-maker's opportunity came.
The bracket or chamber dock gave comparatively little scope
to the worker in wood— in its earlier period, indeed, it was
almost invariably encased in brass or other metal; and it was
not until the introduction of the long pendulum swinging in a
small space that it became customary to encase clocks in de-
corative woodwork. The long or " grandfather H dock dates
from about the fourth quarter of the 17th century— what is.
perhaps, the earliest surviving English dated
inscribed with the date 1681. Originally it was a <
CLODIA, VIA— CLODIUS
553
of the dome-shaped bucket dock/ tod in the older examples
the characteristic dome or canopy is preserved. The first time-
keepers of this type had oaken cases—indeed oak was never
entirely abandoned; but when walnut began to come into favour
a few years later that beautifully marked wood was almost
invariably used for the choicest and most costly specimens.
Thus in 1608 the dean and chapter of St Paul's cathedral paid
the then very substantial price of £14 for an inlaid walnut long-
cased eight-day clock to stand in one of the vestries. The
rapidity with which the new style came into use is suggested
by the fact that while very few long clocks can be certainly dated
before 1600, between that year and the end of the century there
are many examples. Throughout the 18th century they were
made in myriads all over England, and since they were a prized
possession it is not surprising that innumerable examples have
survived. Vary as they may in height and girth, in wood and
dial, they are all essentially alike. In their earlier years their
faces were -usually of brass engraved with cherubs' heads or
conventional designs, but eventually the less rich white face
grew common. There are two varieties — the eight-day and the
thirty-hour. The latter is but little esteemed, notwithstanding
that it is often as decorative as the more expensive dock. The
favourite walnut case of the late 17th and early 18th century
gave place in the course of a generation to mahogany, which
retained its primacy uniO the introduction of cheaper docks
brought about the supersession of the long-cased variety. Many
of these cases were made in lacquer when that material was in
vogue; so tin wood and other costly foreign timbers were also
used for bandings and inlay. The most elegant of the " grand-
father " cases are, however, the narrow-waisted forms of the
William and Mary period in walnut inlay, the head framed in
twisted pilasters. Long docks of the old type are still made
in small numbers and at high prices; they usually contain
chimes. During the later period of their popularity the beads
of long clocks were often filled in with painted disks representing
the moon, by wbich its course could be followed. Such conceits
as ships moving on waves or time with wings were also in favour.
The northern parts of France likewise produced tall docks,
usually in oaken cases; those with Louis Quinxe shaped panels
are often very decorative. French love of applied ornament
was, however, generally inimical to the rather uncompromising
squareness of the English case, and the great Louis Qui rue and
Louis Seize cabinetmakers made some magnificent and monu-
mental docks, many of which were " long " only as regards the
case, the pendulum being comparatively short, while sometimes
the case acted merely as a pedestal for a bracket -dock fixed on
the top. These pieces were usually mounted very elaborately
in gilt bronze, cast and chased, and French bracket and chamber
docks were usually of gilded metal or marble, or a combination
of the two; this essentially late 18th-century type still persists.
English bracket docks contemporary with tbem were most
frequently of simple square or arched form in mahogany. The
"grandfather" case was also made in the Low Countries, of
generous height, very swelling and bulbous.
See F. J. Britten. Old Clocks and Watches and their Makers (2nd
edition, London. 1904); Mathieu Planchon. L'Horhge. son histoire
retrospective, pittoresque el arlistique (Paris, 1899). (J. P.-B.)
CLODIA, VIA. an ancient high-road of Italy. Its course, for
the first 11 m., was the same as that of the Via Cassia; it then
diverged to the N.N.W. and ran on the W. side of the Lacus
Sabatinus, past Forum Clodii and Blcra. At Forum Cassii it
may have rejoined the Via Cassia, and it seems to have taken
the same line as the latter as far as Florentia (Florence). But
beyond Florentia. between Luca (Lucca) and Luna, we find
another Forum Clodii, and the Antonine Itinerary gives the
route from Luca to Rome as being by the Via Clodia— wrongly
as regards the portion from Florentia southwards, but perhaps
rightly as regards that from Luca to Florentia. In that case
the Clodius whose name the road bears, possibly C. Clodius
Vestalis (c. 43 B.C.), was responsible for the construction of the
first portion and of that from Florentia to Luca (and Luna), and
the founder of the two Fort Clodii. The name seems, in imperial
times, to have to some extent driven out that of the Cassia, and
both roads were administered, with other minor roads, by the
same curator.
See Ch. HQlsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencydopddie, iv. 63; cf.
Cassia, Via. (T. As.)
CLODIUS, 1 PUBUTJS (c. 93-52 B.C.), surnamed Pulcher,
Roman politician. He took part in the third Mithradatic war
under his brother-in-law Lucius Licinius Lucullus, but considering
himself treated with insufficient respect, he stirred up a revolt;
another brother-in-law, Q. Mardus Rex, governor of Cilida, gave
him the command of his fleet, but be was captured by pirates.
On bis release he repaired to Syria, where he nearly lost his life
during a mutiny instigated by himself. Returning to Rome
in 65, he prosecuted Catiline for extortion, but was bribed by
him to procure acquittal. There seems no reason to believe that
Clodius was implicated in the Catilinarian conspiracy; indeed,
according to Plutarch (Cicero, 29), he rendered Cicero every
assistance and acted as one of his body-guard. The affair of
the mysteries of the Bona Dea, however, caused a breach
between Clodius and Cicero in December 62. Clodius, dressed
as a woman (men were not admitted to the mysteries), entered
the house of Caesar, where the mysteries were being celebrated,
in order to carry on an intrigue with Caesar's wife. He was
detected and brought to trial, but escaped condemnation by
bribing the jury. Cicero's violent attacks on this occasion
inspired Clodius with the desire for revenge. On his return from
Sidly (where he had been quaestor in 61) he renounced his
patridan rank, and, having with the connivance of Caesar been
adopted by a certain P. Fonteius, was elected tribune of the
people ( 10th of December 59). His first act was to bring forward
certain laws calculated to secure him the popular favour. Corn,
instead of being sold at a low rate, was to be distributed gratui-
tously once a month; the right of taking the omens on a fixed
day and (if they were declared unfavourable) of preventing the
assembly of the comitia, possessed by every magistrate by the
terms of the Lex Aelia Fufia, was abolished; the old clubs or
gilds of workmen were re-established; the censors were forbidden
to exclude any citizen from the senate or inflict any punishment
upon him unless he had been publicly accused and condemned.
He then contrived to get rid of Cicero (q.v.) and the younger
Cato (q.v.), who was sent to Cyprus as praetor to take possession
of the island and the royal treasures. Cicero's property was
confiscated by order of Clodius, his house on the Palatine burned
down, and its site put up to auction. It was purchased by
Clodius himself, who, not wishing to appear in the matter, put
up some one to bid for him. After the departure of Caesar for
Caul, Clodius became practically master of Rome with the aid
of armed ruffians and a system of secret societies. In 57 one of
the tribunes proposed the recall of Cicero, and Clodius resorted
to force to prevent the passing of the decree, but was foiled
by Titus Annius Milo (q.v.), who brought up an armed band
sufficiently strong to hold him in check. Clodius subsequently
attacked the workmen who were rebuilding Cicero's bouse at
the public cost, assaulted Cicero himself in the street, and set
fire to the house of Q. Cicero. In 56, when curule aedile, he
impeached Milo for public violence (de vi), when defending his
house against the attacks of Clodius, and also charged him with
keeping armed bands in his service. Judicial proceedings were
hindered by outbreaks of disturbance, and the matter was
finally dropped. In 53, when Milo was a candidate for the
consulship, and Godius for the praetorship, the rivals collected
armed bands and fights took place in the streets of Rome, and
on the 20th of January 52 Clodius was slain near Bovillae.
His sister, Clodia, wife of Q. Caedlius Mclellus Celer, was
notorious for her numerous love affairs. It is now generally
admitted that she was the Lesbia of Catullus (TeufTcl-Scbwabe,
Hist, of Roman Lit., Eng. tr., 214, 3). For her intrigue with M.
Caelius Rufus, whom she afterwards pursued with unrelenting
1 It it suggested (W. M. Lindsay. The Latin Lanpiate.p. 41) that
he changed his name Claudius into the plebeian form Clodius, in
order to gain the favour of the mob.
554
CLOGHER— CLOISTER
hatred and accused of attempting to poison her, see Cicero,
Pro Caelio, where she is represented as a woman of abandoned
character.
Authorities. — Cicero, Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser). Pro Caelio,
pro Sestio, pro Milonc, pro Domo sua, de Haruspicum Rcsponsis, in
Pisonem; Plutarch, Lucullus, Fompey, Cicero, Caesar-, Dio Cas^ius
xxxvi. 16, 19, xxxvii. 45, 46. 51, xxxviii. 12-14, xxxix. 6. n, xl. 48.
See also I. Gentile, Clodio e Cicerone (Milan, 1876); E. S. Bceslcy,
" Cicero and Clodius," in Fortnightly Review, v. ; G. Lncour-Gayet,
De P. Clodio Pulchro (Paris, 1888), and in Revue hiilorique (Sept.
1889); H. White, Cicero, Clodius and Milo (New York, 1900); G.
Boissier, Cicero and his Friends (Eng. trans., 1897).
CLOGHER, a market village of Co. Tyrone, Ireland, in the
South parliamentary division, on the Cloghcr Valley light
railway. Pop. (1901) 225. It gives name to dioceses of the
Church of Ireland and the Roman Catholic Church, but the
seat of the Roman Catholic bishop is at Monaghan, with the
cathedral. The Protestant cathedral, dedicated to St Macartin,
dates from the 18th and early 19th century, but St Macartin
(c. 500) was a disciple of St Patrick, and it is said that St Patrick
himself founded a bishopric here. The name is derived from
the Irish cloch, a pillar stone, such as were worshipped and
regarded as oracles in many parts of pagan Ireland; the stone
was preserved as late as the 15th century in the cathedral, and
identity is even now claimed for a stone which lies near the
church.
CLOISTER (Lat. daustrum; Fr. cloilre; Ital. ckiostro;
Span, claustro; Gcr. Kloster). The word "cloister," though
now restricted to the four-sided enclosure, surrounded with
covered ambulatories, usually attached to coventual and
cathedral churches, and sometimes to colleges, or by a still
further limitation to the ambulatories themselves, originally
signified the entire monastery. In this sense it is of frequent
occurrence in earlier English literature (e.g. Shakespeare, Meas.
for Meas. i. 3, " This day my sister should the cloister enter"),
and is still employed in poetry. The Latin claustrum, as its
derivation implies, primarily denoted no more than the enclosing
wall of a religious house, and then came to be used for the whole
building enclosed within the wall. To this sense the German
" Kloster " is still limited, the covered walks, or cloister in the
modern sense, being called " Klostergang," or "Kreuzgang."
In French the word cloUre retains the double sense.
In the special sense now most common, the word " cloister "
denotes the quadrilateral area in a monastery or college of
canons, round which the principal buildings arc ranged, and
which is usually provided with a covered way or ambulatory
running all round, and affording a means of communication
between the various centres of the ecclesiastical life, without
exposure to the weather. According to the Benedictine
arrangement, which from its suitability to the requirements
of monastic life was generally adopted in the West, one side of
the cloister was formed by the church, the refectory occupying
the side opposite to it, that the worshippers might have the
least annoyance from the noise or smell of the repasts. On the
eastern side the chapter-house was placed, with other apartments
belonging to the common life of the brethren adjacent to it,
and, as a common rule, the dormitory occupied the whole of the
upper story. On the opposite or western side were generally
the cellarer's lodgings, with the cellars and store-houses, in
which the provisions necessary for the sustenance of the con-
fraternity were housed. In Cistercian monasteries the western
side was usually occupied by the " domus conversorum," or
lodgings of the lay-brethren, with their day-rooms and workshops
below, and dormitory above. The cloister, with its surrounding
buildings, generally stood on the south side of the church, to
secure as much sunshine as possible. A very early example of
this disposition is seen in the plan of the monastery of St Gall
.(see Abbey, fig. 3). Local requirements, in some instances,
caused the cloister to be placed to the north of the church.
This is the case in the English cathedrals, formerly Benedictine
abbeys, of Canterbury, Gloucester and Chester, as well as in
that of Lincoln. Other examples of the northward situation
Mre at Tintem, Buildwas and Sherborne. A/though the covered
ambulatories are absolutely essential to the completeness of 1
monastic cloister, a chief object of which was to enable the
inmates to pass from one part of the monastery to another
without inconvenience from rain, wind, or sun, it appears that
they were sometimes wanting. The cloister at St Albans seems
to have been deficient in ambulatories till the abbacy of Robert
of Gorham, 1151-1166, when the eastern walk was erected.
This, as was often the case with the earliest ambulatories, vas
of wood covered with a sloping roof or " penthouse." We learn
from Osbern's account of the conflagration of the monastery of
Christ Church, Canterbury, 1067, that a cloister with covered
ways existed at that time, affording communication between
the church, the dormitory and the refectory. We learn from an
early drawing of the monastery of Canterbury that this cloister
was formed by an arcade of Norman arches supported on shafts,
and covered by a shed roof. A fragment of an arcaded cloister
of this pattern is still found on the eastern side of the infirmary-
cloister of the same foundation. This earlier form of cloister
has been generally superseded in England by a range of windows,
usually unglazed, but sometimes, as at Gloucester, provided
with glass, lighting a vaulted ambulatory, of which the cloisters
of Westminster Abbey, Salisbury and Norwich are typical
examples. The older design was preserved in the South, where
" the cloister is never a window, or anything in the least approach-
ing to it in design, but a range of small elegant pillars, sometimes
single, sometimes coupled, and supporting arches of a light and
elegant design, all the features being of a character suited to
the place where they are used, and to that only " (Fergusson.
Hist, of Arch. i. p. 610). As examples of this description of
cloister, we may refer to the exquisite cloisters of St John
Latcran, and St Paul's without the walls, at Rome, where the
coupled shafts and arches are richly ornamented with ribbons
of mosaic, and those of the convent of St Scholastica at Subiaco,
all of the 13th century, and to the beautiful cloisters at Aries,
in southern France; those of Aix, Fontfroide, Elne, &c, are
of the same type; as also the Romanesque cloisters at Zurich,
where the design suffers from the deep abacus having only a
single slender shaft to support it, and at Laach, where the
quadrangle occupies the place of the " atrium " of the early
basilicas at the west end, as at St Clement's at Rome, and St
Ambrose at Milan. Spain also presents some magnificent
cloisters of both types, of which that of the royal convent of
Huelgas, near BuTgos, of the arcaded form, is, according to
Fergusson, " unrivalled for beauty both of detail and design,
and is perhaps unsurpassed by anything in its age and style
in any part of Europe." Few cloisters are more beautiful than
those of Monreale and Cefalu in Sicily, where the arrangement
is the same, of slender columns in pairs with capitals of elaborate
foliage supporting pointed arches of great elegance of form.
All other cloisters arc surpassed in dimensions and in sump-
tuousness of decoration by the " Campo Santo " at Pisa. This
magnificent cloister consists of four ambulatories as wide and
lofty as the nave of a church, erected in 1278 by Giovanni
Pisano round a cemetery composed of soil brought from Palestine
by Archbishop Lanfranchi in the middle of the 12th century.
The window-openings are semicircular, filled with elaborate
tracery in the latter half of the 15th century. The inner walls
are covered with frescoes invaluable in the history of art by
Orcagna, Simone Mcmmi, Buffalmacco, Benozzo Gozatoli, and
other early painters of the Florentine school. The ambulatories
now serve as a museum of sculpture. The internal dimensions
are 415 ft. 6. in. in length, r37 ft. 10 in. in breadth, while each
ambulatory is 34 ft. 6. in. wide by 46 ft. high.
The cloister of a religious house was the scene of a large part
of the life of the inmates of a monastery. It was the place of
education for the younger members, and of study for the elders.
A canon of the Roman council held under Eugcnius II., in 826,
enjoins the erection of a cloister as an essential portion of an
ecclesiastical establishment for the better discipline and instruc-
tion of the clerks. Peter of Blois (Scrm. 25) describes schools
for the novices as being in the west walk, and moral lectures
delivered in that next the church. At Canterbury the monks'
CLONAKILTY— CLONMEL
555
school was in the western ambulatory, and it was in the same
walk that the novices were taught at Durham (Willis, Monastic
Buildings of Canterbury, p. 44; Rites of Durham, p. 71). The
other alleys, especially that next the church, were devoted to the
studies of the elder monks. The constitutions of Hildcmar and
Dunstan enact that between the services of the church the
brethren should sit in the cloister and read theology. For this
purpose small studies, known as " carrols," i.e. a ring or enclosed
space, were often found in the recesses of the windows. Of this
arrangement there are examples at Gloucester, Chester and
elsewhere. The use of these studies is thus described in the
Rites of Durham: — " In every wyndowe " in the north alley
" were iii pewes or carrclls, where every one of the oldc monkes
had his carrell severally by himself e, that when they had dyned
they dyd rcsortc to that place of cloister, and there studyed
upon their books, every one in his carrell all the aftcrnonne unto
evensong tyme. This was there exercise every daie." On the
opposite wall were cupboards full of books for the use of the
students in the carrols. The cloister arrangements at Canterbury
were similar to those just described. New studies were made by
Prior De Estria in 1317, and Prior Selling (1472-1494) glazed
the south alley for the use of the studious brethren, and con-
structed " the new framed contrivances, of late styled carrols "
(Willis, Man. Buildings, p. 45). The cloisters were used not for
study only but also for recreation. The constitutions of Arch-
bishop Lanfranc, sect. 3, permitted the brethren to converse
together there at certain hours of the day. To maintain necessary
discipline a special officer was appointed under the title of prior
clauslri. The cloister was always furnished with a stone bench
running along the side. It was also provided with a lavatory,
usually adjacent to the refectory, but sometimes standing
in the central area, termed the cloister-garth, as at Durham.
The cloister- gaith was used as a place of sepulture, as well as the
surrounding alleys. The cloister was in some few instances of
two stories, as at Old St Paul's, and St Stephen's chapel, West-
minster, and occasionally, as at Wells, Chichester and Hereford,
had only three alleys, there being no ambulatory under the
church wall.
The larger monastic establishments had more than one cloister;
there was usually a second connected with the infirmary, of which
there are examples at Westminster Abbey and at Canterbury;
and sometimes one giving access to the kitchen and other
domestic offices.
The cloister was not an appendage of monastic houses ex-
clusively. It was also attached to colleges of secular canons,
as at the cathedrals of Lincoln, Salisbury, Wells, Hereford and
Chichester, and formerly at St Paul's and Exeter. It is, however,
absent at York, Lichfield, Beverley, Ripon, Southwell and Wim-
borne. A cloister forms an essential part of the colleges of Eton
and Winchester, and of New College and Magdalen at Oxford,
and was designed by Wolsey at Christ Church. These were used
for religious processions and lectures, for ambulatories for the
studious at all times, and for places of exercise for the inmates
generally in wet weather, as well as in some instances for
sepulture.
For the arrangements of the Carthusian cloisters, as well as
for some account of those appended to the monasteries of the
East, see Abdey. (E. V.)
CLONAKILTY, a seaport and market town of Co. Cork, Ireland,
in the south parliamentary division, at the head of Clonakilty
Bay, 33 m. S.W. of Cork on a branch of the Cork, Bandon &
South Coast railway. Pop. of urban district (iooi). 3098. It
was brought into prosperity by Richard Boyle, first carl of Cork,
and was granted a charter in 1613; but was partly demolished
on the occasion of a fight between the English and Irish in 1641.
It returned two members to the Irish parliament until the union.
In the 18th century there was an extensive linen industry. The
present trade is centred in brewing, corn-milling, yarn and
farm-produce. The harbour-mouth is obstructed by a bar, and
there is a pier for large vessels at Ring, a mile below the town. The
fisheries are of importance. A ruined church on the island of
Incbdorey, and castles on Galley Head, at Dunnycove, and at
Dunowen, together with a stone circle, are the principal antiquities
in the neighbourhood.
CLONES, a market town of Co. Monaghan, Ireland, in the
north parliamentary division, 64) m. S.W. by W. from Belfast,
and 93) m. N.W. from Dublin by the Great Northern railway,
on which system it is an important junction, the lines from
Dublin, from Belfast, from Londonderry and Enniskillcn, and
from Cavan converging here. Pop. of urban district (1001), 2068.
The town has a considerable a rgi cultural trade, and there are
corn nulls and manufactures of agricultural implements. A
former lace-making industry is extinct. The market-place,
called the Diamond, occupies the summit of the slight elevation
on which the town is situated. Goncs was the seat of an abbey
founded in the 6th century by St Tighernach (Tierncy), to whom
the Protestant parish church is dedicated. Remains of the abbey
include a nave and tower of the 1 2th century, and a curious shrine
formed out of a great block of red sandstone. Other antiquities
are a round tower of rude masonry, 75 ft. high but lacking the
cap; a rath, or encampment, and an ancient market cross in the
Diamond.
CLONMACNOISE, one of the most noteworthy of the numerous
early religious settlements in Ireland, on the river Shannon, in
King's county, 9 m. S. of Athlone. An abbey was founded here
by St Kieran in 541, which as a seat of learning gained a European
fame, receiving offerings, for example, from Charles the Great,
whose companion Alcuin the scholar received part of his educa-
tion from the great teacher Colcu at Conmacnoise. Several
books of annals were compiled here, and the foundation became
the scat of a bishopric, but it was plundered and wasted by the
English in 1552, and in 1568 the diocese was united with that of
Mcath. The most remarkable literary monument of C Ion mac-
noise is the Book of the Dun Cow, written about 1100 still
preserved (but in an imperfect form) by the Royal Irish Academy,
and containing a large number of romances. It is a copy of a
much earlier original, which was written on the skin of a favourite
cow of St Kieran, whence the name of the work. The full title of
the foundation is the " Seven Churches of Clonmacnoise," and
remains of all these arc extant. The Great Church, though
rebuilt by a chief named McDcrmot, in the 14th century, retains
earlier remains in a fine west doorway; the other churches are
those of Finecn, Conor, St Kieran, Kelly, Mclaghlin and Dow ling.
There arc two round towers; O'Rourke's, lacking the roof, but
occupying a commanding situation on rising ground, is dated by
Pctric from the early xoth century, and stands 62 ft. in height;
and McCarthy's, attached to Fineen's church, which is more
perfect, but rather shorter, and presents the unusual feature of a
doorway level with the ground, instead of several feet above it as
is customary. There arc three crosses, of which the Great Cross,
made of a single stone and 15 ft. in height, is splendidly carved,
with tracery and inscriptions. It faces the door of the Great
Church, and is of the same date. A large number of inscribed
stones dating from the Qth century and after arc preserved in the
churches. There arc further remains of the Castle and Episcopal
palace, a fortified building of the 14th century, and of a nunnery
of the 1 2th century. In the neighbourhood are seen striking
examples of the glacial phenomenon of eskers, or gravel ridges.
CLONMEL, a municipal borough and the county town of Co.
Tippcrary, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, nam.
S.W. from Dublin on a branch fromThurlcsof the Great Southern
& Western railway, which makes a junction here with the
Watcrford and Limerick line of the same company. Pop. (1001)
10,167. Clonracl is built on both sides of the Suir, and also
occupies Moore and Long Islands, which are connected with
the mainland by three bridges. The principal buildings are the
parish church, two Roman Catholic churches, a Franciscan friary,
two convents, an endowed school dating from 1685, and the
various county buildings. The beauty of the environs, and
especially of the river, deserves mention; and their charm is
enhanced by the neighbouring Galtce, Knockmcaldown and other
mountains, among which Slicvenaman (2364 ft.) is conspicuous.
A woollen manufacture was established in 1667, and was ex-
tensively carried on until the close of the i&tk c**sAj«^j *^»
556
CLOOTS— CLOT
town contains breweries, flour-mills and tanneries, and has a
considerable export trade in grain, cattle, butter and provisions.
It stands at the head of navigation for barges on the Suir. It was
the centre of a system, established by Charles Bianconi (1786-
1875) in 1815 and subsequently, for the conveyance of travellers
on light cars, extending over a great part of Leinster, Munster
and Connaught. It is governed by a mayor and corporation,
which, though retained under the Local Government (Ireland)
Act of 2808, has practically the status of an urban district
council. By the same act a part of the town formerly situated
in county Waterford was added to county Tipperary. It was
a parliamentary borough, returning one member, until 1885;
having returned two members to the Irish parliament until the
union.
The name, Cluain mealla f signifies the Vale of Honey. In
1269 the place was chosen as the seat of a Franciscan friary by
Otho de Grandison, the first English possessor of the district; and
it frequently comes into notice in the following centuries. In
2641 it declared for the Roman Catholic party, and in 1650 it was
gallantly defended by Hugh O'Neill against the English under
Cromwell. Compelled at last to capitulate, it was completely
dismantled, and was never again fortified. Remains of the wall
arc seen in the churchyard, and the West Gate still stands in the
main street.
CLOOTS. JEAN BAPTISTS DU VAL DE GRACE, Baron von
(1 755-1794), better known as Anacharsis Cloots, a noteworthy
figure in the French Revolution, was born near Cleves, at the
castle of Gnadenthal. He belonged to a noble Prussian family
of Dutch origin. The young Cloots, heir to a great fortune, was
sent at eleven years of age to Paris to complete his education.
There he imbibed the theories of his uncle the Abbe Cornelius de
Pauw (1730-1709), philosopher, geographer and diplomatist at
the court of Frederick the Greats His father placed him in the
military academy at Berlin, but he left it at the age of twenty and
traversed Europe, preaching his revolutionary philosophy as an
apostle, and spending his money as a man of pleasure. On the
breaking out of the Revolution he returned in 1789 to Paris,
thinking the opportunity favourable for establishing his dream
of a universal family of nations. On the 19th of June 1790 he
appeared at the bar of the Assembly at the head of thirty-six
foreigners; and, in the name of this " embassy of the human
race," declared that the world adhered to the Declaration of the
Rights of Man and of the Citizen. After this he was known as
" the orator of the human race," by which title he called himself,
dropping that of baron, and substituting for his baptismal names
the pseudonym of Anacharsis, from the famous philosophical
romance of the AbW Jean Jacques Barthelemy. In 1792 he
placed z 2,000 livres at the disposal of the Republic—" for the
arming of forty or fifty fighters in the sacred cause of man
against tyrants. 11 The zoth of August impelled him to a still
higher flight; he declared himself the personal enemy of Jesus
Christ, and abjured all revealed religions. In the same month he
had the rights of citizenship conferred on him; and, having in
September been elected a member of the Convention, he voted
the king's death in the name of the human race, and was an active
partisan of the war of propaganda. Excluded at the instance
of Robespierre from the Jacobin Club, he was soon afterwards
implicated in an accusation levelled against the H6bertists.
His innocence was manifest, but he was condemned, and
guillotined on the 24th of March 1794.
Cloots' main works are : La Certitude des preuves du mahomt-
tisme (London, 1780), published under the pseudonym of Ali-Gur-
Ber, in answer to Bcrgier's Certitude des preuves du christianisme ;
VOraltur du genre kumoin, ou Dipiches du Prussicn Cloots au
Prussien Henberg (Paris, 1791), and La Ripublique universale
(1792).
The biography of Cloots by G. Avenel (2 vols., Paris, 1865) is too
eulogistic. See the three articles by H. Baulig in La Revolution
francaise, V 41 (1901).
CLOQUET, a city of Carlton county, Minnesota, U.S.A., on
the St Louis river, 28 m. W. by S. of Duluth. Pop. (1800) 2530;
O900) J072; (1905, state census) 6227, of whom 2755 were
foreign born (716 Swedes, 689 Finns, 685 Canadians, 334 Norwe-
gians) ; (1910) 7031. Cloquet is served by the Northern Pacific,
the Great Northern, the Duluth & North-Eastern, and (for
freight only) the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. The
river furnishes good water-power, and the city has various
manufactures, including lumber, paper, wood pulp, match
blocks and boxes. The first mill was built in 1878, and the
village was named from the French word cloquet (sound of the
mill). Cloquet was incorporated as a village in 2883 and was
chartered as a city in 1003.
CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1003), Irish geologist,
was born in Dublin in 1822. He was educated at Weymouth
and at Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated in 1846; and
two years later he entered holy orders. For a year he wis
curate of AU Saints, Northampton; from 2849 to 2857 he was
rector of Shangton in Leicestershire; and then for four yean
he was curate of Wallham-on-lhe- Wolds. In 2862, on the death
of his father, he returned to Dublin, and while giving his services
to various churches in the city, devoted himself almost wholly
to literary and scientific pursuits, and especially to the glacial
geology of Ireland, on which subject he became an acknowledged
authority. His paper, read before the Geological Society of
Ireland in 2866, on the " General Glaciation of Ireland " is »
masterly description of the effects of glaciation, and of the
evidence in favour of the action of land-ice. Later on he dis-
cussed the origin of the elevated shell-bearing gravels near
Dublin, and expressed the view that they were accumulated
by floating ice when the land had undergone submergence. He
was for a time treasurer of the Royal Irish Academy, an active
member of the Royal Dublin Society, and president in 2878
of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Astronomy and
physics, as well as the ancient language and antiquities of
Ireland, attracted his attention. He died in Dublin on the 22th
of September 2903.
The obituary by Prof. G. A. J. Cole in Irish Naturalist, voLsfi.
(1903) PP. 301-306, contains a list of publications and portrait.
CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut), a closed place or enclosure.
In English law, the term is applied to a portion of land, enclosed
or not, held as private property, and to any exclusive interest
in land sufficient to maintain an action for trespass quare dausum
Jregit. The word is also used, particularly in Scotland, of the
entry or passage, including the common staircase, of a block
of tenement houses, and in architecture for the precincts of a
cathedral or abbey.
The adjective " close " (i.e. closed) is found in several phrases,
such as " close time " or " close season " (see Game Laws);
close borough, one of which the rights and privileges were
enjoyed by a limited class (see Borough); close rolls and writs,
royal letters, &c, addressed to particular persons, under seal,
and not open to public inspection (see Record; Chancery;
Letters Patent). From the sense of " closed up," and so
" confined," comes the common meaning of " near."
CLOSURE (Fr. cloture), the parliamentary term for the dosing
of debate according to a certain rule, even when certain
members are anxious to continue the debate. (See Parliament:
Procedure.)
CLOT, ANTOINE BARTHELEMY (2793-1868), French
physician, known as Clot Bey, was born at Grenoble on the
7U1 of November 1793, a Q d graduated in medicine and surgery
at Montpellier. After practising for a time at Marseilles he was
made chief surgeon to Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt. At
Abuzabel, near Cairo, he founded a hospital and schools for all
branches of medical instruction, as well as for the study of
the French language; and, notwithstanding the most serious
religious difficulties, instituted the study of anatomy by means
of dissection. In 1832 Mehemet Ali gave him the dignity of
bey without requiring him to abjure his religion; and in 2836
he received the rank of general, and was appointed head of the
medical administration of the country. In 2849 he returned to
Marseilles, though he revisited Egypt in 2856. He died at Mar-
seilles on the 28th of August 2868. His publications included:
Relation des Spidtmics de choUra qui ont rigni A rHetgi**,
CLOTAIRE— CLOUD
557
4 Swm, d at £gypte (1839); De la pesU observU en £gypte
(1840); Aper<» gtniral sur r£gypU (1840); Coup tTml snr la
pcsU €t Us qucrantoines (1851); £k V ophthalmia (1864).
CLOTAIRE (Chlothachar), the name of four Frankish kings.
Clotaire I- (d. 561) was one of the four sons of Clovis. On
the death of his father in 511 he received as his share of the
kingdom the town of Soissons, which be made his capital, the
cities of Laon, Noyon, Cambrai and Maastricht, and the lower
course of the Meuse. But he was very ambitious, and sought
to extend his domain. He was the chief instigator of the murder
of his brother Clodomcr's children in 524, and his share of
the spoils consisted of the cities of Tours and Poitiers. He took
part in the various expeditions against Burgundy, and after
the destruction of that kingdom in 534 obtained Grenoble, Die
and some of the neighbouring cities. When Provence was
ceded to the Franks by the Ostrogoths, he received the cities
of Orange, Carpentras and Gap. In 531 he marched against the
Thuringi with his brother Theuderich(Thierry)I., and in 542 with
his brother Childebert against the Visigoths of Spain. On the
death of his great-nephew Theodcbald in 555, Clotaire annexed
his territories; and on Childebert 's death in 558 he became king
of all Gaul. He also ruled over the greater part of Germany,
made expeditions into Saxony, and for some time exacted from
the Saxons an annual tribute of 500 cows. The end of his reign
was troubled by internal dissensions, his son Chram rising
against him on several occasions. Following Chram into
Brittany, where the rebel had taken refuge, Clotaire shut him
up with his wife and children in a cottage, to which he
set fire. Overwhelmed with remorse, he went to Tours to
implore forgiveness at the tomb of St Martin, and died shortly
afterwards.
Clotaire II. (d. 629) was the son of Chilpcric I. On the
assassination of his father in 584 he was still in his cradle. He
was, however, recognized as king, thanks to the devotion of his
mother Fredegond and the protection of his uncle Gontran,
king of Burgundy. It was not until after the death of his
cousin Childebert II. in 595 that Clotaire took any active part
in affairs. He then endeavoured to enlarge his estates at the
expense of Children's sons, Theodebcrt, king of Austrasia, and
Theuderich II., king of Burgundy; but after gaining a victory
at Laffaux (597). he was defeated at Dormelles (600), and lost
part of his kingdom. After the war between Theodebcrt and
Theuderich and their subsequent death, the nobles of Austrasia
and Burgundy appealed to Clotaire, who, after putting Brun-
hflda to death, became master of the whole of the Frankish
kingdom (613). He was obliged, however, to make great con-
cessions to the aristocracy, to whom he owed his victory. By
the constitution of the iSlh of October 614 he gave legal force
to canons which had been voted some days previously by a
council convened at Paris, but not without attempting to modify
them by numerous restrictions. He extended the competence
of the ecclesiastical tribunals, suppressed unjust taxes and
undertook to select the counts from the districts they had to
administer. In 623 he made his son Dagobert king of the
Australians, and gradually subdued all the provinces that had
formerly belonged to Childebert II. He also guaranteed a
certain measure of independence to the nobles of Burgundy,
giving them the option of having a special mayor of the
palace, or of dispensing with that officer. These concessions
procured him a reign of comparative tranquillity. He died
on the 18th of October 629. and was buried at Paris in the
church of St Vincent, afterwards known as St Germain des
Pros.
Clotaire III. (652-073) was a son of King Clovis II. In
657 he became the nominal ruler of the three Frankish kingdoms,
but was deprived of Austrasia in 663, retaining Neustria and
Burgundy until his death.
Clotaire IV. (d. 719) was king of Austrasia from 717 to
710. (C. Pf.)
CLOTH, properly a covering, especially for the body, clothing,
then the material of which such a covering is made; hence any
material woven of wool or hair, cotton, flax or vegetable fibre.
In commercial usage, the word is particularly applied to a
fabric made of wooL The word is Teutonic, though it does not
appear in all the branches of the language. It appears in
German as Kleid, dress (Kleidttng, clothing), and in Dutch
as kited. The ultimate origin is unknown; it may be connected
with the root kit- meaning to stick, cling to, which appears
in " day," " cleave " and other words. The original meaning
would be either that which clings to the body, or that which is
pressed or " felted " together. The regular plural of '• cloth "
was " clothes," which is now confined in meaning to articles
of clothing, garments, in which sense the singular " cloth " is
not now used. For that word, in its modern sense of material,
the plural " cloths " is used. This form dates from the beginning
of the 17th century, but the distinction in meaning between
" cloths " and " clothes " is a 19th-century one.
CLOTHIER, a manufacturer of cloth, or* a dealer who sells
cither the cloth or made-up clothing. In the United States the
word formerly applied only to those who dressed or fulled cloth
during the process of manufacture, but now it is used in the
genera) sense, as above,
CLOTILDA. SAINT (d. 544), daughter of the Burgundian king
Chilperic, and wife of Clovis, king of the Franks. On the death
of Gundioc, king of the Burgundians, in 473, his sons Gundobald,
Godcgcsil and Chilperic divided his heritage between them;
Chilpcric apparently reigning at Lyons, Gundobald at Vicnne
and Godcgcsil at Geneva. According to Gregory of Tours,
Chilpcric was slain by Gundobald, his wife drowned, and of his
two daughters, Chrona took the veil and Clotilda was exiled.
This account, however, seems to have been a later invention.
At Lyons an epitaph has been discovered of a Burgundian queen,
who died in 506, and was most probably the mother of Clotilda.
Clotilda was brought up in the orthodox faith. Her uncle
Gundobald was asked for her hand in marriage by the Frankish
king Clovis, who had just conquered northern Gaul, and the
marriage was celebrated about 493. On this event many romantic
stories, all more or less embroidered, are to be found in the
works of Gregory of Tours and the chronicler Fredegarius, and
in the Liber historiae Fratuorum. Clotilda did not rest until
her husband had abjured paganism and embraced the orthodox
Christian faith (406). With him she built at Paris the church
of the Holy Apostles, afterwards known as Ste Genevieve.
After the death of Clovis in 511 she retired to the abbey of St
Martin at Tours. In 523 she incited her sons against her uncle
Gundobald and provoked the Burgundian war. In the following
year she tried in vain to protect the rights of her grandsons, the
children of Clodomer, against the claims of her sons Childebert
I. and Clotaire I., and was equally unsuccessful in her efforts
to prevent the civil discords between her children. She died
in 544, and was buried by her husband's side in the church of
the Holy Apostles.
There is a mediocre Life in Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script, rer. Jderov.,
vol. ii. See alio G. Kurth, Sainte Clotilde (2nd ed., Paris. 1897).
(C.Pr.)
CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod,"
a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a
mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late
13th century; the Anglo-Saxon clad is only used in the sense
of " a mass of rock," wolcen being used for " cloud "), a mass of
condensed vapour hanging in the air at some height from the
earth.
Classification of Clouds.— The earliest serious attempt to name
the varieties of cloud was made by J. B. Lamarck in 1801; but
he only used French terms, and those were not always happily
chosen. The field was therefore still clear when in 1803 Luke
Howard published, in Tilloch's Philosophical Magazine, an
entirely independent scheme in which the terms were all Latin,
and were applied with such excellent judgment that his system
remains as the broad basis of those in use to-day. He recognized
three primary types of cloud— Cirrus, Cumulus and Stratus
— and four derivative or compound forms, — Cirro-cumulus,
Cirro-stratus, Cumulo-stratus and Cumulo-cicnxtratus or
Nimbus.
558
CLOUD
His own definitions were:—
(i) Cirrus. — Parallel, flexuous or diverging fibres, extensible in
any or all directions.
(a) Cumulus. — Convex or conical heaps, increasing upward from
• horizontal base.
(3) Stratus. — A widely-extended continuous horizontal sheet,
increasing from below.
(4) Cirro-cumulus. — Small, well-defined, roundish masses, in close
horizontal arrangement.
(5) Cirro-stratus. — Horizontal or slightly inclined masses, attenu-
ated towards a part or the whole of their circumferences, bent
downward, or undulated, separate or in groups consisting of 6mall
clouds having these characters.
. (6) Cumulo-stratus. — The cirro-stratus blended with the cumulus,
and either appearing intermixed with the heaps of the latter or
superadding a widespread structure to its base
(7) Cumulo-cirro-stratus, or nimbus.-fThc rain-cloud : a cloud or
system of clouds from which rain is falling. It is a horizontal sheet,
above which the cirrus spreads, while the cumulus enters it laterally
and from beneath.
This system was universally adopted, and apart from some
ambiguity in the definitions of cumulo-stratus and nimbus, it
was sufficiently detailed for many purposes, such as the general
relations between clouds and the movements of the barometer.
When, however, such questions as the mode of origin of parti-
cular forms of cloud came to be investigated, it was at once felt
that Howard's classes were too wide, and something much more
detailed was required. The result has been the promulgation
from time to time of revised schemes, most of these being based
on Howard's work, and differing from him by the introduction
of new terms or of subdivisions of his types. Some of these
new terms have come more or less into use, such as A. Poey's
pallium to signify a uniform sheet, but as a general rule the pro-
posals were not accompanied by a clear enough exposition of
their precise meaning for others to be quite sure of the author's
intention. Other writers not appreciating how fully Howard's
names had become established, boldly struck out on entirely
new lines. The most important of these were probably those
due respectively to (1) Poey, published in the Annuoire de la
sociiU mltiorologique de France, 1865, (2) M. l'Abb6 Maze,
published in the Mcmoires du congrcs mitiorologique inter-
national, 1889, and (3) Frederic Gaster, Quart. Jour. R. Meteoro-
logical Society, 1893. In all of these Howard's terms are used,
but the systems were much more elaborate, and the verbal
descriptions sometimes difficult to follow.
In his book Cloudland (1894) Clement Ley published a novel
system. He grouped all clouds under four heads, in accordance
with the mode in which he believed them to be formed.
I. Clouds of Radiation.
Nebula Fog.
Nebula Stillans Wet fog.
Nebula Pulverea Dust fog.
II. Clouds of Inlcrfret.
Nubes Informis. Scud.
Stratus Quietus Quiet cloud.
Stratus Lenticularis Lenticular cloud.
Stratus Maculosus Mackerel cloud.
Stratus Castcllatus Turret cloud.
Stratus Precipitant Plane shower.
III. Clouds of Inversion.
Cumulo-rudimentum Rudiment.
Cumulus Heap cloud.
Cumulo-stratus Anvil cloud.
Cumulo-stratus Mammatus Tubcrclcd anvil cloud.
Cumulo-nimbus Shower cloud.
Cumulo-nimbus Nivosus Snow shower.
Cumulo-nimbus Grand incus Hail shower.
Cumulo-nimbus Mammatus Festooned shower cloud.
Nimbus Rainfall cloud.
Nimbus nivosus Snowfall.
Nimbus grandineus Hail fall.
IV. Clouds of Inclination.
Nubes Fulgens Luminous cloud.
Cirrus Curl cloud.
Cirro-filum Gossamer cloud.
Cirro- velum Veil cloud.
Cirro-macula Speckle cloud.
Cirro-vclu m Mammatum. 1 Draped veil cloud.
1 Varieties.
It will be seen that Ley's scheme is really an amplification
of Howard's. The term " Interf ret " is defined as the intcrtctioo
of horizontal currents of different velocities. Inversion is >
'synonym for vertical convection, and Inclination is uscdtoimplj
that such clouds consist of sloping lines of falling ice particles.
While Ley had been finishing his work and seeing it throat)
the press, H. Hildcbrand-Hildcbrandsson and R. Aberaomby
had devised another modification which differed from Howard's
chiefly by the introduction of a new class, which they distin-
guished by the use of the prefix Alto. This scheme was formally
adopted by the International Meteorological Conference held
at Munich in 1891, and a committee was appointed to draw up
an atlas showing the exact forms typical of each variety con-
sidered. Finally in August 1894 a small sub-committee consist-
ing of Messrs H. Hildebrand-HUdcbrandsson, A. Riggenbacb-
Burckhardt and Teisscrenc de Bort was charged with the task
of producing the atlas. Their task was completed in 1806, an)
meteorologists were at last supplied with a fairly detailed scheme,
and one which was adequately illustrated, so that there coukJ
be no doubt of the authors' meaning. It is as follows: —
The International Classification.
(a) Separate or globular masses (most frequently seen in
dry weather).
(6) Forms which are widely extended, or completely cowt
the sky (in wet weather).
A. Upper clouds, average altitude 9000 metres. 1
a. 1. Cirrus.
b. 2. Cirro-stratus.
B. Intermediate clowls, between 3000 m. and 7000 m.
a. 3. Cirro-cumulus.
4. Alto-cumulus.
b. 5. Alto-stratus.
C. Lower clouds, 2000 m.
a. 6 St rate-cumulus.
b. 7. Nimbus.
D. Clouds of Diurnal Ascending Currents.
a. 8. Cumulus, apex 1S00 m., base 1400 m.
b. 9. Cumulo-nimbus, apex 3000 m. to 8000 m., base
1400 m.
E. Iligh Fogs, under 1000 m.
10. Stratus.
Explanations.
1. Cirrus (Ci.). — Detached clouds, delicate and fibrous-looking,
taking the form of feathers, generally of a white colour, sometimes
arranged in belts which cross a portion of the sky in great circles
and by an effect of perspective, converge towards one or two points
of the horizon (the Ci.-S. and the Ci. Cu. often contribute to the
formation of these belts). Sec Plate, fig. 1.
2. Cirro-stratus (Ci.-S.)- — A thin, whitish sheet, at times com-
pletely covering the sky. and only giving it a whitish appearance
(it is then sometimes called cirro-nebula), or at others presenting,
more or less distinctly, a formation like a tangled web. This sheet
often produces halos around the sun and moon. See fig. 2.
t, Cirro-cumulus (Ci.-Cu.). — Small globular masses, or whke
es without shadows, or having very slight shadows, arranged m
groups and often in lines. Sec fig. 3.
4. Alto-cumulus (A.-Cu.). — Largish globular masses, white or
greyish, partially shaded, arranged in groups or lines, and often so
closely packed that their edges appear confused. The detached
masses arc generally larger and more compact (changing to S.-Co.)
at the centre of the group; at the margin they form into fntr
flakes (changing to Ci.-Cu.). They often spread themselves out ia
lines in one or two directions. See fig. 4.
5. Alto-stratus (A.-S.). — A thick sheet of a grey or bluish colour,
showing a brilliant patch in the neighbourhood of the sun or moon,
and without causing halos, sometimes giving rise to coronae. This
form goes through all the changes like Cirro-stratus, but according
to measurements made at Upsala, its altitude is one-half as great.
Sec fig. 5.
6. Strato-cumulus (S.-Cu.).— Large globular masses or rolls of
dark cloud, frequently covering the whole sky, especially in winter,
and occasionally giving it a wavy appearance. The layer is not,
as a rule, very thick, and patches of blue sky are often seen through
intervening spaces. All sorts of transitions between this form and
Alto-cumulus are seen. It may be distinguished from nimbus by its
globular or rolled appearance, and also because it does not bring
rain. See fig. 6.
1 1 metre -3-28 ft.
CLOUDBERRY— CLOUET, F.
559
iwtbus (N.). Rain Cloud. — A thick layer of dark clouda,
t shape and with ragged cdys, fp>m which continued rain
t generally fall*. Through opening s in these clouds an upper
f cirro-stratus or alto-stratus may almo->t invariably be seen,
layer of nimbus separates up Into shreds, or i/ small loose
arc visible floating at a low level, underneath a large nimbus
ay be described as fraclo-nimhus <S.ud of sailors). See fie. 9.
umiUus (Cu.) {Wool-pack Clouds).— Thick clouds of which
ytr surface is dome-shaped and exhibit;* protuberances while
e is horizontal. The*c clouds appf.ir to he formed by a diurnal
onal movement which is almost always observable. When the
is opposite the sun. the Mirfacts usually presented to the
a- have a greater brilliance than the margins of the protul»cr-
\Yhcn the light falls aslant, these ilomU give deep chndow*,
:hey are 011 the same side as the sun they appear dark, with
edges. See fig. 7.
true cumulus has dear superior and inferior limit s. It is often
up by strong winds, and the detached portions uml< -rgo
ul changes. These altered forms may be distinguished by
ne of Fracto-cumulus.
umtdo-nimbus (Cu.-N.); The Thunder-chud '; Skw-cloud.
ty masses of clouds, rising in the form of mountain*, turrits
ib, generally having a sheet or si ret n of fibnu-i .!pj».»a ranee
(false cirrus) and underneath, a m;i-s of cl"ud simihr to
l From the ba«=c there generally f.ill lt»al sh'iwcrs of rain or
occasionally hail or soft hail). Sometimes the up|»er edf,« s
ie compact form of cumulus, rising into mas«i\e ptaks round
the delicate falb<? cirrus fhiats, and «omefimi-s the edijrs
Ives separate into a fringe of filament v <imiLir to that of cirrus.
st form is particularly common in »«princ shower*. Sec fig. 10.
front of thunderclouds of wide extent frequently prcM-nts the
' alarge bow spread over a portion of the sky which is uniformly
t in colour.
Stratus (S ).— A horizontal fhect of lifted fog. When this
• broken up into irrcguUr shreds by the wind, or l>y the
ts of mountains, it may be distinguished by the name of
•stratus. Sec fig. 8.
scheme also provides that where a Mratus or nimbus takes a
form, this fact sh ill be described by the adj« live cumulifornns,
ts base shows downward projecting bosses the word mammato
ued.
ed as it has been with the authority of an international
ss of specialists, this scheme has been generally accepted,
ust be regarded as the orthodox system, and for the great
ty of observations it is quite detailed enough. But it
ot give universal satisfaction. Cirrus clouds, for instance,
t many forms, and these so diverse that they must be
' very different causes. Hence for the minuter study of
forms a more elaborate scheme is still needed.
cc in 1896 II. H. Clayton of the Blue Hill observatory,
chusetts, published in the Annuls of the astronomical
atory of Harvard College a highly detailed scheme in
the International types and a number of subdivisions
rrouped under four classes— stmt i forms or shrct clouds;
Worms or woolpack clouds; ftoeci forms, including si ra to-
ils, alto-cumulus and cirro-cumulus; and cirriforms or
clouds. The International terms arc embodied and the
I varieties arc distinguished by the use of prefixes such as
•cirrus or cirrus bands, grano-cirro-cumulus or granular
&c.
in in 1904 F. L. Obenbach of the Cleveland observatory
d a different system, published in the annual report, in
the International types are preserved, but each is sub-
d into a number of species. In the absence of any at Ins
ine the precise meaning of the dc«i riptions given, neither
$e American schemes has come into ptncrnl use.
thcr proposals were put forward by A. W. Clayden in ChuJ
1(1905). His scheme accepts the whole of the International
which he regards as the cloud genera, and suggests
c Latin names for the chief varietiis, accompanying the
ttions by photograph;. The proposed scheme is as follows.
Species.
Cirro-ncbnla
Cirro-fihim
Cirrus F.xceUus
., Veniosus
,. Kehul<mi9
Caudatus
Vittitus
Incunstans
,. Communis
Cirrus haze.
Thn-ad cirrus.
\\ indy „
Harv
Tailed
Ribbon „
Change
Common „
Cirro-stratus
Cirro-cumulus
Alto-clouds
Alto-clouds
Stratus
Cumulus
Communis
Nebulusus
Vittat us
Cumulosus
Cirro- macula
Nebulosuj
Alto-stratus
„ ,, maculosus
., ., fraetus
Allo-strato-cumulus
Alto-cumulus informis
,, ,, mbulosus
Alto-cumulus castt llutus
„ „ glomerulus
,, „ communis
„ „ sfratiformis
Stratus nuculotus
,, ,, radius
,, Ienticularis
Stratocumulus
Cumulus minor
,, major
Cumiilo-nimbus
Common CL-S.
Hazy
Ribbon
Flocculcnt Ci.-S.
Speckle cloud.
Hazy Ci. cu.
Mackerel sky.
Turret cloud.
High ball cumulus.
Flat alto-cum.
Roll cloud.
Fall cloud.
Small cumulus.
Large cumulus.
Storm cloud.
The term nimbus is to be applied to any cloud from which rain
is falling, but if the true form of the cloud is visible the term
should be used as a qualifying adjective. The prefix fraclo-
or the adjective fraetus should be used when the cloud is under-
going disintegration or appears ragged or broken. Mammato-
is used in the ordinary sense, and finally undatus or waved is
to be added to the name of any cloud showing a wave-like or
rippled structure. (A. W. C.)
CLOUDBERRY, Rubus Chamacmorus, a low-growing creeping
herbaceous plant, with stem not prickly, and with simple
obtusely lobed leaves and solitary white flowers, resembling
those of the blackberry, but larger— one inch across, — and with
stamens and pistils on different plants. The orange-yellow
fruit is about half an inch long ami consists of a few large drupes
with a pleasant flavour. The plant occurs in the mountainous
parts of Great Britain, and is widely distributed through the
more northerly portions of l>oth hemispheres. In northern
Denmark and Sweden the fruit is gathered in large quantities
and sold in the markets.
CLOUD-BURST, a suddvn and violent storm of rain. The
name probably originate 1 from £he idea that the clouds were
solid masses full of water that occasionally burst with disastrous
results. A w hi rl wind passing over the f ea sometimes carries the
water upwards in a whirling vortex; passing over the land its
motion is checked and a deluge of water falls. Occasionally on
high lands far from the sea violent storms occur, with rain that
seems to descend in sheets, sweeping away bridges and culverts
and tearing up roads and streets, being due to great and rapid
condensation and vortical whirling of the resulting heavy clouds
(see MnroROLOGY).
CLOUDED LEOPARD (Ft/15 twbuhsa or maeroscclis), a large
arboreal cat from the forests of south-cast Asia, Sumatra, Java,
Borneo and Formosa. This cat, often called the clouded tiger,
is beautifully marked, and has an elongated head and body,
long tail and rather short limbs. The canine teeth are pro-
portionately longer than in any other living cat. Little is known
of the habits of the clouded leopard, but it preys on small
mammals and birds, and rarely comes to the ground. The
native Malay name nArimauduLiH (" tree-tiger "). The species
is nearly related to the small Indian marbled cat (F. ir.armorata) ,
and Fontanicrs cat (F . Iristis) of Central Asia. (R. L.*)
CLOUET, FRANCOIS (d. 1572), French miniature painter.
The earliest reference to him is the document dated December
1541 (sec Clouet, Jfan), in which the king renounces for the
benefit of the artist his father's estate which had escheated to
the crown as the estate of a foreigner. In it the younger Janet
is said to have " followed his father very closely in the science
of his art." Like his father, he held the office of groom of the
chamber and painter in ordinary to the king, and so far as salary
is concerned, he started where his father left off. A long list
of drawings contains those which are attributed to this artist,
but we still lack perfect certainty about his works. There is,
however, more to go upon than there was in the case q( h\&U.vta.i,>
I
CLori)
Plate I.
S3
fife
if
Plate II.
CLOUD
CLOUGH, A. H.— CLOVER
561
Tib hostel,started in Regent Street, Cambridge, in 1871 with five
students, and continued at Merton Hall in 187a, led to the
balding of Newnham Hall, opened in* 1875, * nd *> the erection
of Newnham College on its present basis in 1880. Miss dough's
personal charm and high aims, together with the development
of Newnham College under her care, led her. to be regarded as
one of the foremost leaders of the women's educational move-
ment. She died at Cambridge on the 27th of February 1892.
Two portraits of Miss Clough are at Newnham College, one by
Sir W. B. Richmond, the other by J. J. Shannon.
See Memoir of Anne Jemima Qough, by Blanche Athena Cough
(1897).
CLOUGH, ARTHUR HUGH (1819-1861), English poet, was
bom at Liverpool on the 1st of January 1819. He came of a
good Welsh stock by his father, James Butler dough, and of a
Yorkshire one by his mother, Anne Perfect. In 1822 his father,
a cotton merchant, moved to the United States, and dough's
childhood was spent mainly at Charleston, South Carolina,
much under the influence of his mother, a cultivated woman,
full of moral and imaginative enthusiasm. In 1828 the family
paid a visit to England, and dough was left at school at Chester,
whence he passed in 1829 to Rugby, then under the sway of
Dr Thomas Arnold, whose strenuous views on life and education
he accepted to the full. Cut off to a large degree from home
relations, he passed a somewhat reserved and solitary boyhood,
devoted to the well-being of the school and to early literary
efforts in the Rugby Magazine. In 1836 his parents returned
to Liverpool, and in 1837 he went with a scholarship to Balliol
College, Oxford. Here his contemporaries included Benjamin
Jowett, A. P. Stanley, J. C. Shairp, W. G. Ward, Frederick
Temple and Matthew Arnold.
Oxford, in 1837, was in the full swirl of the High Church
movement led by J. H. Newman. Clough was for a time carried
tway by the flood, and, although he recovered his equilibrium,
it was not without an amount of mental disturbance and an
expenditure of academic time, which perhaps accounted for his
failure to obtain more than a second class in his final examination.
He missed a Balliol fellowship, but obtained one at Oriel, with
a tutorship, and lived the Oxford life of study, speculation,
lectures and reading-parties for some years longer. Gradually,
however, certain sceptical tendencies with regard to the current
religious and social order grew upon him to such an extent as
to render his position as an orthodox teacher of youth irksome,
and in 1848 he resigned it The immediate feeling of relief
showed itself in buoyant, if thoughtful, literature, and he published
poems both new and old. Then he travelled, seeing Paris in
revolution and Rome in siege, and in the autumn of 1849 took
up new duties as principal of University Hall, a hostel for
Students at University College, London. He soon found that
he disliked London, in spite of the friendship of the Carlyles,
nor did the atmosphere of Unitarianism prove any more con-
genial than that of Anglicanism to his critical and at bottom
conservative temper. A prospect of a post in Sydney led him
to engage himself to Miss Blanche Mary Shore Smith, and when
It disappeared he left England in 1852, and went, encouraged
by Emerson, to Cambridge, Massachusetts. Here he remained
some months, lecturing and translating Plutarch for the book-
sellers, until in 1853 the offer of an examinership In the Education
Office brought him to London once more. He married, and
pursued a steady official career, diversified only by an appoint-
ment in 1856 as secretary to a commission sent to study certain
aspects of foreign military education. At this, as at every period
of his life, he enjoyed the warm respect and admiration of a
small circle of friends, who learnt to look to him alike for un-
selfish sympathy and for spiritual and practical wisdom. In
i860 his health began to fail. He visited first Malvern and
Freshwater, and then the East, France and Switzerland, in
search of recovery, and finally came to Florence, where he was
struck down by malaria and paralysis, and died on the 13th of
November 1 86 r . Matthew Arnold wrote upon him the exquisite
lament of Thyrsis.
Shortly before he left Oxford, in the stress of the Irish potato-
vi. 10
famine, Clough wrote an ethical pamphlet addressed to the
undergraduates, with the title, A Consideration of Objections
against the Retrenchment Association at Oxford (1847). His
Homeric pastoral The Bothio of Topcr-na-Fuosich, afterwards
rechristened Tober-na-Vuolich (1848), was inspired by a long
vacation after he had given up his tutorship, and is full of
socialism, reading-party humours and Scottish scenery. Am-
barvalia (1849), published jointly with his friend Thomas
Burbidge, contains shorter poems of various dates from 1840,
or earlier, onwards. Amours do Voyage, a novel in verse, was
written at Rome in 1849; Dipsyckus, a rather amorphous satire,
at Venice in 1850; and the idylls which make up Mori Magna,
or Tales on Board, in 1861. A few lyric and elegiac pieces, later
in date than the Ambaroalia, complete the tale of dough's
poetry. His only considerable enterprise in prose was a revision
of the 1 7 th cen tury translation of Plutarch by Dry den and others,
which occupied him from 1852, and was published as Plutarch**
Lives (1859).
No part of dough's life was wholly given up to poetry, and
he probably had not the gift of detachment necessary to produce
great literature in the intervals of other occupations. He wrote
but little, and even of that little there is a good deal which
does not aim at the highest seriousness. He never became a
great craftsman. A few of his best lyrics have a strength of
melody to match their depth of thought, but much of what
he left consists of rich ore too imperfectly fused to make a
splendid or permanent possession. Nevertheless, he is rightly
regarded, like his friend Matthew Arnold, as one of the most
typical English poets of the middle of the 19th century. His
critical instincts and strong ethical temper brought him athwart
the popular ideals of his day both in conduct and religion. His
verse has upon it the melancholy and the perplexity of an age
of transition. He is a sceptic who by nature should have been
with the believers. He stands between tw6 Worlds, watching one
crumble behind him, and only able to look forward by the
sternest exercise of faith to the reconstruction that lies ahead
in the other. On the technical side, dough's work is interesting
to students of metre, owing to the experiments which he made,
in the Bothie and elsewhere, with English hexameters and other
types of verse formed upon classical models.
dough's Poems were collected, with a short memoir by F. T.
Palgrave, in 1862; and his Letters and Remains, with a longer
memoir, were privately printed in 1865. Both volumes were pub-
lished together in i860 and have been more than once reprinted.
Another memoir is Arthur Hugh Oough: A Monograph (1883),
by S. Waddington. Selections from the poems were made by Mrs
dough for the Golden Treasury series in 1894, and by E. Rhys in
1896. '(E. K. C.)
CLOUTING, the technical name given to a light plain cloth
used for covering butter and farmers' baskets, and for dish and
pudding cloths. The same term is often given to light cloths
of the nursery diaper pattern.
CLOVELLY, a fishing village in the Barnstaple parliamentary
division of Devonshire, England, n m. W.S.W. of Bideford.
Pop. (xooi) 621. It is a cluster of old-fashioned cottages in a
unique position on the sides of a rocky cleft in the north coast;
its main street resembles a staircase which descends 400 ft.
to the pier, too steeply to allow of any wheeled traffic. Thick
woods shelter it on three sides, and render the climate so mild
that fuchsias and other delicate plants flourish in midwinter.
All Saints' church, restored in 1866, is late Norman, containing
several monuments to the Carys, lords of the manor for $00
years. The surrounding scenery is famous for its richness of
colour, especially in the grounds of Cary Court, and along " The
Hobby," a road cut through the woods and overlooking the
sea. dovelly is described by Dickens in A Message from the Sea.
CLOVER, in botany, the English name for plants of the
genus Trifolium, from Lat. tres, three, and folium, a leaf, so
called from the characteristic form of the leaf, which has three
leaflets (trifoliate), hence the popular name trefoil. It is a
member of the family Leguminosae, and contains about three
hundred species, found chiefly in north temperate regions, but
also, like other north temperate genera, on the mountains in
562
CLOVES
the tropics. The plants are small annual or perennial herbs
wilh trifoliate (rarely 5- or 7-foliatc) leaves, with stipules adnate
to the leaf-stalk, and heads or dense spikes of small red, purple,
white, or rarely yellow flowers; the small, few-seeded pods
are enclosed in the calyx. Eighteen species are native in Britain,
and several are extensively cultivated as fodder-plants. T.
pretense, red or purple clover, is the most widely cultivated.
This plant, either sown alone or in mixture wilh rye-grass, has
for a long time formed the staple crop for soiling; and so long
as it grew freely, its power of shooting up again after repeated
mowings, the bulk of crop thus obtained, its palatablcncss to
stock and feeding qualities, the great range of soils and climate
in which it grows, and its fitness either for pasturage or soiling,
well entitled it to this preference. Except on certain rich
calcareous clay soils, it has now, however, become an exceedingly
precarious crop. The seed, when genuine, which unfortunately is
very often not the case, germinates as freely as ever, and no
greater difficulty than heretofore is experienced in having a full
plant during autumn and the greater part of winter; but over
most part of the country, the farmer, after having his hopes
raised by seeing a thick cover of vigorous-looking clover plants
over his field, finds to his dismay, by March or April, that
they have either entirely disappeared, or are found only in
capricious patches here and there over the field. No satisfactory
explanation of this " clover-sickness " has yet been given, nor
any certain remedy, of a kind to be applied to the soil, discovered.
One important fact is, however, now well established, viz. that
when the cropping of the land is so managed that clover does
not recur at shorter intervals than eight years, it grows with
much of its pristine vigour. The knowledge of this fact now
determines many farmers in varying their rotation so as to
secure this important end. At one time there was a somewhat
prevalent belief that the introduction of beans into the rotation
had a specific influence of a beneficial kind on the clover when
it came next to be sown; but the true explanation seems to be
that the beans operate favourably only by the incidental cir-
cumstance of almost necessarily lengthening the interval betwixt
the recurrences of clover.
When the four-course rotation is followed, no better plan of
managing this process has been yet suggested than to sow beans,
pease, potatoes or tares, instead of clover, for one round, making
the rotation one of eight years instead of four. The mechanical
condition of the soil seems to have something to do with the
success or failure of the clover crop. We have often noticed
that headlands, or the converging line of wheel-tracks near a
gateway at which the preceding root crop had been carted from
a field, have had a good take of clover, when on the field generally
it had failed. In the same way a field that has been much
poached by sheep while consuming turnips upon it, and which
has afterwards been ploughed up in an unkindly state, will have
the clover prosper upon it, when it fails in other cases where
the soil appears in far better condition. If red clover can be
again made a safe crop, it will be a boon indeed to agriculture.
Its seeds are usually sown along wilh a gram crop, any time
from the 1st of February to May, at the rate of 12 lb to 20 lb per
acre when not combined with other clovers or grasses.
Italian rye-grass and red clover are now frequently sown in
mixture for soiling, and succeed admirably. It is, however, a
wiser course to sow them separately, as by substituting the
Italian rye-grass for clover, for a single rotation, the farmer not
only gets a crop of forage as valuable in all respects, but is
enabled, if he choose, to prolong the interval betwixt the sowings
of dover to twelve years, by sowing, as already recommended,
puke the first round, Italian rye-grass the second, and clover
the third.
TTiese two crops, then, arc those on which the arable-land
farmer mainly relies for green forage. To have them good, he
must be prepared to make a liberal application of manure.
Good farm-yard dung may be applied with advantage either
it astnmn or spring, taking care to cart it upon the land only
whs ft b dry enough to admit of this being done without injury.
Jtmimt ah* be jgvead very evenly so soon as emptied from the
carts. But it is usually more expedient to use either guano,
nitrate of soda, or soot for this purpose, at the rates respectively
of 2 cwt., 1 cwt. and 20 bushels. If two or more of these sub-
stances are used, the quantities of each will be altered in pro-
portion. They are best also to be applied in two or three portions
at intervals of fourteen to twenty days, beginning towards the
end of December, and only when rain seems imminent or has
just fallen.
When manure is broadcast over a young clover field, and
presently after washed in by rain, the effect is identical with
that of first dissolving it in water, and then distributing the
dilution over the surface, with this difference, namely, that
the first plan costs only the price of the guano, &c, and is avail-
able at any time and to every one, whereas the latter implies
the construction of tanks and costly machinery.
T. incarnatum, crimson or Italian clover, though not hard)
enough to withstand the climate of Scotland in ordinary winters,
is a most valuable forage crop in England. It is sow n as quickly
as possible after the removal of a grain crop at the rate of 18 lb
to 20 lb per acre. It is found to succeed better when only the
surface of the soil is stirred by the scarifier and harrow than
when a ploughing is given. It grows rapidly in spring, and
yields an abundant crop of green food, peculiarly palatable to
live stock. It is also suitable for making into hay. Only one
cutting, however, can be obtained, as it does not shoot again
after being mown.
T. re Pens, white or Dutch clover, is a perennial abundant in
meadows and good pastures. The flowers are white or pinkish,
becoming brown and dcflexed as the corolla fades. T. hybridan,
Alsike or Swedish clover, is a perennial which was introduced
early in the 19th century and has now become naturalized in
Britain. The flowers are white or rosy, and resemble those of
the last species. T. medium, meadow or zigzag clover, a
perennial with straggling flexuous stems and rose-purple flowers,
is of little agricultural value. Other British species are: T.
arvense, hare's-foot trefoil, found in fields and dry pastures, a
soft hairy plant with minute white or pale pink flowers and
feathery sepals; T. fragifcrum, strawberry clover, with densely-
flowered, globose, rose-purple heads and swollen calyxes; T.
procumbens, hop trefoil, on dry pastures and roadsides, the
heads of pale yellow flowers suggesting miniature hops; and
the somewhat similar T. minus, common in pastures and road-
sides, with smaller heads and small yellow flowers turning dark
brown. The last named is the true shamrock. Specimens of
shamrock and other clovers are not infrequently found with
four leaflets, and, like other rarities, arc considered lucky.
Calvary clover is a member of the closely allied genus Medicago—
M. Echinus, so called from the curled spiny pod; it has small
heads of yellow clover-like flowers, and is a native of the south
of France.
CLOVES, the dried, unexpanded flower-buds of Eugenia
coryophyllata, a tree belonging to the natural order Myrtaccae.
They are so named from the French word clou, on account of
their resemblance to a nail. The clove tree is a beautiful
evergreen which grows to a height of from 30 to 40 ft., having
large oval leaves and crimson flowers in numerous groups of
terminal clusters. The flower-buds are at first of a pale colour
and gradually become green, after which they develop into a
bright red, when they are ready for collecting. Cloves are
rather more than half an inch in length, and consist of a long
cylindrical calyx, terminating in four spreading sepals, and four
unopened petals which form a small ball in the centre. The
tree is a native of the small group of islands in the Indian Archi-
pelago called the Moluccas, or Spice Islands; but it was long
cultivated by the Dutch in Amboyna and two or three small
neighbouring islands. Cloves were one of the principal Oriental
spices that early excited the cupidity of Western commercial
communities, having been the basis of a rich and lucrative
trade from an early part of the Christian era. The Portuguese,
by doubling the Cape of Good Hope, obtained possession of the
principal portion of the clove trade, which they continued to
hold for nearly a century, when, in 1605, they were expelled
CLOVIO— CLOVIS
563
from the Moluccas by the Dutch. That power exerted great
and inhuman efforts to obtain a complete monopoly of the
trade, attempting to extirpate all the clove trees growing in
their native islands, and to concentrate the whole production
in the Amboyna Islands. With great difficulty the French
succeeded in introducing the clove tree into Mauritius in the
year 1770; subsequently the cultivation was introduced into
Guiana, Brazil, most of the West Indian Islands and Zanzibar.
The chief commercial sources of supply are now Zanzibar and
its neighbouring island Pcmba on the East African coast, and
Amboyna. Cloves are also grown in Java, Sumatra, Reunion,
Guiana and the West India islands.
Cloves as they come into the market have a deep brown
colour, a powerfully fragrant odour, and a taste too hot and
acrid to be pleasant. When pressed with the nail they exude a
volatile oil with which they are charged to the unusual pro-
portion of about 18 %. The oil is obtained as a commercial
product by submitting the cloves with water to repeated
distillation. It is, when new and properly prepared, a pale
yellow or almost colourless fluid, becoming after some time of
a brown colour; and it possesses the odour and taste peculiar
to cloves. The essential oil of cloves — the Oleum Caryopkylli
of the British Pharmacopoeia — is a mixture of two substances,
one of which is oxidized, whilst the other is not. Eugenol, or
eugenic acid, CmIIuO;, is the chief constituent It is capable
of forming definite salts. The other constituent is a hydro-
carbon CijHm, of which the distilling point differs from that
of eugenol, and which solidifies only with intense cold. Oil of
cloves is readily soluble in alcohol and ether, and has a specific
gravity of about 1 '055. Its dose is I-3 minims. Besides this
oil, cloves also contain two neutral bodies, eugenin and caryo-
phyllin, the latter of which is an isomer of camphor. They are
of no practical importance. The British Pharmacopoeia con-
tains an infusion of cloves (Infusum CorycpkyW), of which the
strength is x part in 40 of boiling water and the dose \-i oz.
Cloves are employed principally as a condiment in culinary
operations, in confectionery, and in the preparation of liqueurs.
In medicine they arc tonic and carminative, but they are little
used except as adjuncts to other substances on account of their
flavour, or with purgatives to prevent nausea and griping.
The essential oil forms a convenient medium for using cloves
for flavouring purposes, it possesses the medicinal properties
characteristic of a volatile oil, and it is frequently employed
to relieve toothache. Oil of cloves is regarded by many dental
surgeons as the most effective local anaesthetic they possess
in cases where it is desired, before cutting a sensitive tooth for
the purpose of filling it, to lower the sensibility of the dentine.
For this purpose the cavity must be exposed to cotton wool
saturated with the oil for about ten days.
CLOVIO, GIORGIO GIULIO (1408-1578), Kalian painter, by
birth a Croat and by profession a priest, is said to have learned
the elements of design in his own country, and to have studied
afterwards with intense diligence at Rome under Giulio Romano,
and at Verona under Girolamo dc' Libri. He excelled in histori-
cal pieces and portraits, painting as for microscopical examina-
tion, and yet contriving to handle bis subjects with great force
and precision. His book of twenty-six pictures representing the
procession of Corpus Domini, in Rome, was the work of nine
years, and the covers were executed by Benvenuto Cellini.
The British Museum has his twelve miniatures of the victories
of the emperor Charles V. In the Vatican library is preserved
a manuscript life of Frederick, duke of Urbino, superbly illus-
trated by Clovio,who is facile prince ps among Italian miniaturists.
He was called Maccdo, or Maccdonc, to connect him with his
supposed Macedonian ancestry.
CLOVIS [Chlodovech] (c. 466-511), king of the Salian Franks,
son of Childeric I., whom he succeeded in 48 1 at the age of fifteen.
At that date the Salian Franks had advanced as far as the
river Somme, and the centre of their power was at Tournai.
On the history of Clovis between the years 481 and 486 the
records are silent. In 4S6 he attacked Syagrius, a Roman
general who, after the fall of the western empire in 476, had
carved out for himself a principality south of the Somme, and
is called by Gregory of Tours " rex Romanoruin." Alter being
defeated by Clovis at the battle of Soissons, Syagrius sought
refuge with the Visigothic king Alaric II., who handed him
over to the conqueror. Henceforth Clovis fixed his residence at
Soissons, which was in the midst of public lands, e.g. Bcrny-
Riviere, Juvigny, &c. The episode of the vase of Soissons 1
has a legendary character, and all that it proves is the deference
shown by the pagan king to the orthodox clergy Clovis un-
doubtedly extended his dominion over the whole of Bclgica
Secunda, of which Reims was the capital, and conquered the
neighbouring cities in detail. Little is known of the history of
these conquests. It appears that St Genevieve defended the
town of Paris against Clovis for a long period, and that Verdun-sur-
Mcuse, after a brave stand, accepted an honourable capitulation
thanks to St Euspittus. In 491 some barbarian troops in the
service of Rome, Arboruchi ('Aptt6pvx<x), Thuringians, and even
Roman soldiers who could not return to Rome, went over to
Clovis and swelled the ranks of his army.
In 4Q3 Clovis married a Burgundian princess, Clotilda, niece
of Gundobald and Godegesil, joint kings of Burgundy. This
princess was a Christian, and earnestly desired the conversion
of ber husband. Although Clovis allowed his children to be
baptized, he remained a pagan himself until the war against
the Alemanni, who at that time occupied the country between
the Vosges, and the Rhine and the neighbourhood of Lake
Constance. By pushing their incursions westward they came
into collision with Clovis, who marched against them and
defeated them in the plain of the Rhine. The legend runs that,
in the thickest of the fight, Clovis swore that he would be con*
verted to the God of Clotilda if her God would grant him the
victory. After subduing a part of the Alemanni, Clovis went to
Reims, where he was baptized by St Rcmigius on Christmas
day 496, together with three thousand Franks. The story of
the phial of holy oil (the Sainte Ampoule) brought from heaven
by a white dove for the baptism of Clovis was invented by
Archbishop Hincmar of Reims three centuries after the event.
The baptism of Clovis was an event of very great importance.
From that time the orthodox Christians in the kingdom of the
Burgundian s and Visigoths looked to Clovis to deliver them
from their Afian kings. Clovis seems to have failed in the case
of Burgundy, which was at that time torn by the rivalry between
Godegesil and his brother Gundobald. Godegesil appealed for
help to Clovis, who defeated Gundobald on the banks of the
Ouche near Dijon, and advanced as far as Avignon (500), but
had to retire without being able to retain any of his conquests.
Immediately after his departure Gundobald slew Godegesil at
Vienne, and seized the whole of the Burgundian kingdom.
Clovis was more fortunate in his war against the Visigoths.
Having completed the subjugation of the Alemanni in 506, he
marched against the Visigothic king Alaric II. in the following
year, in spite of the efforts of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths,
to prevent the war. After a decisive victory at Vouille near
Poitiers, in which Clovis slew Alaric with his own hand, the whole
of the kingdom of the Visigoths as far as the Pyrenees was added
to the Frankisb empire, with the exception of Septimania, which,
together with Spain, remained in. possession of Alaric's grandson
Amalaric, and Provence, which was seized by Theodoric and
annexed to Italy. In 508 Clovis received at Tours the insignia
of the consulship from the eastern emperor, Anastasius, but
the title was purely honorific. The last years of his life Clovis
spent in Paris, which he made the capital of his kingdom, and
where he built the church of the Holy Apostles, known later as
the church of St Genevieve. By murdering the petty Frankish
1 The story is as follows. The vase had been taken from a church
by a Frankish soldier after the battle of Soissons, and the bishop
had requested Clovis that it might be restored. But the soldier * ho
had taken it refused to give it up, and broke it into fragments with
his franeisea, or battle-axe. Some time afterwards, when Clovis
was reviewing his troops, he singled out the soldier who had broken
the vase, upbraided him for the neglect of his arms, and dashed his
franeisea to the ground. As the man stooped to pick it up, the king
clove his skull with the words: " Thus didst thou serve the vase 01
Soissons."
5 6 4
CLOWN— CLUB
kings who reigned at Cambrai, Cologne and other residences,
he became sole king of all the Frankish tribes. He died in 51 1.
Clovis was the true founder of the Frankish monarchy. He
reigned over the Salian Franks by hereditary right; over the
other Frankish tribes by reason of his kinship with their kings
and by the choice of the warriors, who raised him on the shield ;
and he governed the Gallo-Romans by right of conquest He
had the Salic law drawn up, doubtless between the years 486
and 507; and seems to have been represented in the cities by a
new functionary, the graf, comes, or count. He owed his success
in great measure to his alliance with the church. He took the
property of the church under his protection, and in 51 x convoked
a council at Orleans, the canons of which have come down to us.
But while protecting the church, he maintained his authority
over it. He intervened in the nomination of bishops, and at the
council of Orleans it was decided that no one, save a son of a
priest, could be ordained clerk without the king's order or the
permission of the count
The chief source for the life of Clovis is the Historic Francorum
(bk. ii.) of Gregory of Tours, but it must be used with caution.
Among modern works, see W. Junghans, Die GtsckickU derfrdnki-
schtn Kdnige Ckilderich und Clodovech (Gdttinsen, 1857) ; F. Dahn,
UrgesckichU der germanischen und romaniscken Vothtr, vol. Hi.
(Berlin, 1883) ; W. Schultze, Deutsche GeschichU v. d. Uruil bis zu
den Karotingern, vol. ii. (Stuttgart, 1896); G. Kurth, Clovis (2nd ed.,
Paris, 1001). W (C.Pf.)
CLOWN (derived by Fuller, in his Worthies, from Lat colonus,
a husbandman; but apparently connected with "clod" and
with similar forms in Teutonic and Scandinavian languages),
a rustic, boorish person; the comic character in English panto-
mime, always dressed in baggy costume, with face whitened
and eccentrically painted, and a tufted wig. The character
probably descends from representations of the devil in medieval
miracle-plays, developed partly through the stage rustics and
partly through the fools or jesters (a'lso called clowns) of the
Elizabethan drama. The whitened face and baggy costume
indicate a connexion also with the continental Pierrot. The
prominence of the clown in pantomime (q.v.) is a comparatively
modern development as compared with that of Harlequin.
CLOYNE, a small market town of Co. Cork, Ireland, in the
east parliamentary division, 15 m. E. S. E. of the city of Cork.
Pop. (1001) 827. It gives its name to a Roman Catholic diocese,
the cathedral of which is at Queenstown. Cloyne was the seat
of a Protestant diocese until 1835, when it was united to that of
Cork. It was originally, a foundation of the 6th century. The
cathedral church, dedicated to its founder St Colman, a disciple
of St Finbar of Cork, is a plain cruciform building mainly of
the 14th century, with an earlier oratory in the churchyard.
It contains a few handsome monuments to its former bishops,
but until 1890, when a monument was erected, had nothing to
preserve the memory of the illustrious Dr George Berkeley,
who held the see from 1734 to 1753. Opposite the cathedral
is a very fine round tower 100 ft. in height, though the conical
roof has long been destroyed. The Roman Catholic church is a
spacious building of the early 19th century. The town was
several times plundered by the Danes in the 9th century; it
was laid waste by Dermot O'Brien in 107 1, and was burned in
1x37. In 1430 the bishopric was united to that of Cork; in
1638 it again became independent, and in 1660 it was again
united to Cork and Ross. In 1678 it was once more declared,
independent, and so continued till 1835. The name, Cluain-
Uamha, signifies " the meadow of the cave," from the curious
limestone caves in the vicinity. The Pipe Roll of Cloyne,
compiled by Bishop SwarTham in 1364, b a remarkable record
embracing a full account of the feudal tenures of the see, the
nature of the impositions, and the duties the pwri homines Sancti
Colmani were bound to perform at a very early period. The
roll is preserved in the record office, Dublin. It was edited by
Richard Caulfield in 1859.
CLUB (connected with " clump "),(i) a thick stick, used as a
weapon, or heavy implement for athletic exercises ("Indian
dub," &c.); (j) one of the four suits of playing-cards,— the
translation of the Spanish basto— represented by * black trefoU
(taken from the French, in which language it h trefU); (3) a
term given to a particular form of association of persons It n
to this third sense that this article is devoted.
By the term " club," the most general word for which ii in
Gr. tVotpio, in Lat sodalitas, b here meant an association within
the state of persons not united together by any natural ties of
kinship, real or supposed. Modern clubs are dealt with below,
and we begin with an account of Greek and Roman dubs. Such
dubs are found in all ancient states of which we have any
detailed knowledge, and seem to have dated in one form or
another from a very early period. It b not unreasonable to
suppose, in the absense of certain information, that the rigid
system of groups of kin, i.e. family, gens, phr atria, &c, affording
no principle of association beyond the maintenance of society
as it then existed, may itself have suggested the formation of
groups of a more elastic and expansive nature; in other words,
that dubs were an expedient for the deliverance of society from
a too rigid and conservative principle of crystallization.
Creek. — The most comprehensive statement we possess as to
the various kinds of dubs which might exist in a single Greek
state is contained in a law of Solon quoted incidentally in the
Digest of Justinian (47*22), which guaranteed the administrative
independence of these associations provided they kept within
the bounds of the law. Those mentioned (apart from demes
and phratries, which were not dubs as here understood) are
associations for religious purposes, for burial, for trade, for
privateering (hi \dav), and for the enjoyment of common
meals. Of, these by far the most important are the religious
dubs, aoout which we have a great deal of information, chiefly
from inscriptions; and these may be taken as covering those
for burial purposes and for common meals, for there can be no
doubt that all such unions had originally a religious object of
some kind. But we have to add to Solon's list the political
iroipUu which we meet with in Athenian history, which do not
seem to have always had a religious object, whatever their origin
may have been; and it may be convenient to dear the ground
by considering these first
In the period between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars
we hear of hetairies within the two political parties, oligarchic
and democratic; Themistocles is said (Plut. Arts tides, 2) to have
belonged to one, Perides' supporters seem to have been thus
organized (Plut. Per. 7 and 13), and Cimon had a hundred
hetairoi devoted to him (Plut. Cim. 1 7). These associations were
used, like the collegia sodalicia at Rome (see below), for securing
certain results at elections and in the law-courts (Thuc. viii. 54),
and were not regarded as harmful or illegal But the bitterness
of party struggles in Greece during the Peloponnesian War
changed them in many states into political engines dangerous
to the constitution, and especially to democratic institutions;
Aristotle mentions (Politics, p. 13 10 a) a secret oath taken by the
members of oligarchic clubs, containing the promise, " I will be
an enemy to the people, and will devise all the harm I can
against them." At Athens in 413 B.C. the conspiracy against
the democracy was engineered by means of these dubs, which
existed not only there but in the other cities of the empire
(Thuc. viii. 48 and 54), and had now become secret conspiracies
(vwaipocUu) of a wholly unconstitutional kind. On this
subject see Grote, Hist, of Greece, v. 360; A. H. J. Greenidge,
Handbook of Greek Constitutional History, 208 foil.
Passing over the clubs for trade or plunder mentioned in
Solon's law, of which we have no detailed knowledge, we come
to the religious associations. These were known by several
names, especially thiasi, eranoi and orgeones, and it is not possible
to distinguish these from each other in historical times, though
they may have had different origins. They had the common
object of sacrifice to a particular deity; the thiasi and orgeones
seem to be connected more especially with foreign deities whose
rites were of an orgiastic character. The organization of these
societies is the subject of an excellent treatise by Paul Foucart
(Les Association* rr/fffr*"" chcz les Grecs, Paris, X873), still
indispensable, fmm wiihh thr following particulars are chiefly
drawn. For the greslrr purl of them the evidence consists of
CLUB
565
inscriptions from various parts of Greece, many of which were
published for the first time by Foucart, and will be found at the
end of his book.
The first striking point is that the object of all these associa-
tions is to maintain the worship of some foreign deity, i.e. of
some deity who was not one of those admitted and guaranteed
by the state — the divine inhabitants of the city, as they may be
called. For all these the state made provision of priests, temples,
sacrifices, &c; but for all others these necessaries had to be
looked after by private individuals associated for the purpose.
The state, as we see from the law of Solon quoted above, made no
difficulty about the introduction of foreign worships, provided
they did not infringe the law and were not morally unwholesome,
and regarded these associations as having all the rights of legal
corporations. So we find the cult of deities such as Sabazius,
Mater Magna (see Great Mother of the Gods) and Attis,
Adonis, Isis, Serapis, Men Tyrannos, carried on in Greek states,
and especially in seaports like the Peiraeus, Rhodes, Smyrna,
without protest, but almost certainly without moral benefit to
the worshippers. The famous passage in Demosthenes (de
Corona, sect. 259 foil.) shows, however, that the initiation at an
early age in the rites of Sabazius did not gain credit for Aeschines
in the eyes of the best men. We are not surprised to find that,
in accordance with the foreign character of the cults thus main-
tained, the members of the associations are rarely citizens by
birth, but women, freedmen, foreigners and even slaves. Thus
in an inscription found by Sir C. Newton at Cnidus, which
contains a mutilated list of members of a tkiasos, one only out
of twelve appears to be a Cnidian citizen, four are slaves, seven
are probably foreigners. Hence we may conclude that these
associations were of /mportance, whether for good or for evil, in
organizing and encouraging the foreign population in the cities
of Greece.
The next striking fact is that these associations were organized,
as we shall also find them at Rome, in imitation of the con-
stitution of the city itself. Each had its law, its assembly, its
magistrates or officers (i.e. secretary, treasurer) as well as
priests or priestesses, and its finance. The law regulated the
conditions of admission, which involved an entrance fee and an
examination (Soxtpaela) as to character; the contributions,
which had to be paid by the month, and the steps to be taken
to enforce payment, e.g. exclusion in case of persistent neglect
of this duty; the use to be made of the revenues, such as the
building or maintenance of temple or club-house, and the cost
of crowns or other honours voted by the assembly to its officers.
This assembly, in accordance with the law, elected its officers
once a year, and these, like those of the state itself, took an oath
on entering office, and gave an account of their stewardship at
the end of the year. Further details on these points of internal
government will be found in Foucart 's work (pp. 20 foil.), chiefly
derived from inscriptions of the orgeones engaged in the cult
of the Mother of the Gods at the Peiraeus. The important
question whether these religious associations were in any sense
benefit clubs, or relieved the sick and needy, is answered by him
emphatically in the negative.
As might naturally be" supposed, the religious clubs increased
rather than diminished in number and importance in the later
periods of Greek history, and a large proportion of the inscrip-
tions relating to them belong to the Macedonian and Roman
empires. One of the most interesting, found in z868, belongs
to the 2nd century a.d., viz. that which reveals the worship
of Men Tyrannos at Laurium (Foucart, pp. 119 foil.). This
Phrygian deity was introduced into Attica by a Lycian slave,
employed by a Roman in working the mines at Laurium. He
founded the cult and the eranos which was to maintain it, and
seems also to have drawn up the law regulating its ritual and
government. This may help us to understand the way in which
similar associations of an earlier age were instituted.
Roman. — At Rome the principle of private association was
recognized very early by the state; sodalUates for religious
purposes are mentioned in the XII. Tables (Gaius in Digest,
47. sa. 4), and collegia opificum, or trade gilds, were believed
to have been instituted by Numa, which probably means that
they were regulated by the jus divinum as being associated
with particular worships. It is difficult to distinguish between
the two words collegium and sodalitas; but collegium is the
wider of the two in meaning, and may be used for associations
of all kinds, public and private, while sodalitas is more especially
a union for the purpose of maintaining a cult. Both words
indicate the permanence of the object undertaken by the associa-
tion, while a societas is a temporary combination without strictly
permanent duties. With the socidates puUicanorum and other
contracting bodies of which money-making was the main object,
we are not here concerned.
The collegia opificum ascribed to Numa (Plut. Numa, 17)
include gilds of weavers, fullers, dyers, shoemakers, doctors,
teachers, painters, &c, as we learn from Ovid, Fasti, iii. 819 foil.,
where they are described as associated with the cult of Minerva,
the deity of handiwork; Plutarch also mentions flute-players,
who were connected with the cult of Jupiter on the Capitol,
and smiths, goldsmiths, tanners, &c. It would seem that, though
these gilds may not have had a religious origin as some have
thought, they were from the beginning, like all early institutions,
associated with some cult; and in most cases this was the cult
of Minerva. In her temple on the Aventine almost all these
collegia had at once their religious centre and their business
headquarters. When during the Second Punic War a gild of
poets was instituted, this too had its meeting-place in the same
temple. The object of the gild in each case was no doubt to
protect and advance the interests of the trade, but on this point
we have no sufficient evidence, and can only follow the analogy
of similar institutions in other countries and ages. We lose
sight of them almost entirely until the age of Cicer6, when they
reappear in the form of political clubs (collegia sodalicia or
compitalicia) chiefly with the object of securing the election of
candidates for magistracies by fair or foul means-— usually the
latter (see esp. Cic pro Plancio, passim) . These were suppressed
by a senatusconsultum in 64 B.C., revived by Clodius six years
later, and finally abolished by Julius Caesar, as dangerous to
public order. Probably the old trade gilds had been swamped in
the vast and growing population of the city, and these, inferior
and degraded both in personnel and objects, had taken their
place. But the principle of the trade gild reasserts itself under
the Empire, and is found at work in Rome and in every municipal
town, attested abundantly by the evidence of inscriptions.
Though the right of permitting such associations belonged to
the government alone, these trade gilds were recognized by the
state as being instituted " ut necessariam operam publicis utUi-
tatibus exkiberent " (Digest, 50. 6. 6). Every kind of trade and
business throughout the Empire seems to have had its collegium,
as is shown by the inscriptions in the Corpus from any Roman
municipal town; and the life and work of the lower orders of
the munici pales arc shadowed forth in these interesting survivals.
The primary object was no doubt still to protect the trade;
but as time went on they tended to become associations for
feasting and enjoyment, and more and more to depend on the
munificence of patrons elected with the object of eliciting it.
Fuller information about them will be found in G. Boissier,
La Religion romoine d'Auguste aux Antonins, ii. 286 foil., and
S. Dill, toman Society from Nero to Marcus A urclius, pp. 264 foil.
How far they formed a basis or example for the gilds of the
early middle ages is a difficult question which cannot be answered
here (see Gilds); it is, however, probable that they gradually
lost their original business character, and became more and more
associations for procuring the individual, lost as he was in the
vast desert of the empire, some little society and enjoyment in
life, and the certainty of funeral rites and a permanent memorial
after death.
We may now return to the associations formed for the main-
tenance of cults, which were usually called sodalUates, though
the word collegium was also used for them, as in the case of the
college of the Arval Brothers (q.v.). Of the ancient Sodales
Titii nothing is known until they were revived by Augustus;
but it seems probable that when a gens or family chax^A^M^.
566
CLUB
the maintenance of a particular cult had died out, its place was
supplied by a sodalilas (Marquardt, StaatsverwaUung, iii. 134)*
The introduction of new cults also led to the institution of new
associations; thus in 495 B.C. when the worship of Minerva was
introduced, a collegium mer cater um was founded to maintain it,
which held its feast on the dies nalaHs (dedication day) of the
temple (Liv. ii. 27. 5); and in 387 the ludi CapUolini were
placed under the care of a similar association of dwellers on the
Capitoline hilL In 204 B.C. when the Mater Magna was intro-
duced from Pessinus (see Cheat Mother of the Gods) a
sodalilas (or sodalilaUs) was instituted which, as Cicero tells
us (de Seneci. 13. 45) used to feast together during the ludi
McgoUnscs. All such associations were duly licensed by the
state, which at all times was vigilant in forbidding the main-
tenance of any which it deemed dangerous for religious or political
reasons; thus in 186 B.C. the senate, by a decree of which pari
is preserved (C.I.L. j. 43), made all combination for promoting
the Bacchic religious rites strictly illegal. But legalized sodali-
tales are frequent later; the temple of Venus Gcnctrix, begun
by Julius and finished by Augustus, had its collegium (Pliny,
N.H. ii. 93), and sodalilaUs were instituted for the cult of the
deified emperors Augustus, Claudius, &c.
We thus arrive by a second channel at the collegia of the
empire. Both the history of the trade gilds and that of the
religious collegia or sodalilaUs conduct us by a course of natural
development to that extraordinary system of private association
with which the empire was honeycombed.
As has been already said of the trade gilds, the main objects
of association seem to have been to make life more enjoyable
and to secure a permanent burial-place; and of these the latter
was probably the primary or original one. It was a natural
instinct in the classical as in the pre-classical world to wish
to rest securely after death, to escape neglect and oblivion.
This is not the place to explain the difficulties which the poorer
classes in the Roman empire had to face in satisfying this instinct;
but since the publication of the Corpus Inscriptionum has made
us familiar with the conditions of the life of these classes, there
can be no doubt that this was always a leading motive in their
passion for association. In the year a.d. 133 under Hadrian
this instinct was recognized by law, i.e. by a senatusconsultum
which has fortunately come down to us. It was engraved at the
head of their own regulations by a collegium instituted for the
worship of Diana and Antinous at Lanuvium, and runs thus:
" Qui stipem menstruam conferre voleni in funera, in id collegium
coeanl, neque sub specie ejus coUegii nisi semel in mense coeanl
confer endi causa unde dejuncli sepeliantur" (C.I.L. xiv. 21 12).
From the Digest, 47. 22. x, the locus dassicus on this subject,
we learn that this was a general law allowing the founding of
funerary associations, provided that the law against illicit
collegia were complied with, and it was natural that from that
time onwards such collegia should spring up in every direction.
The inscription of Lanuvium, together with many others (for
which see the works of Boissier and Dill already cited), has
given us a clear idea of the constitution of these colleges. Their
members were as a rule of the humblest classes of society, and
often included slaves; from each was due an entrance fee and
a monthly subscription, and a funeral grant was made to the
heir of each member at his death in order to bury him in the
burying-place of the college, or if they were too poor to construct
one of their own, to secure burial in a public columbarium.
The instinct of the Roman for organization is well illustrated
in the government of these colleges. They were organized on
exactly the same lines as the municipal towns of the empire;
their officers were elected, usually for a year, or in the case of
honorary distinctions, for life; as in a municipal town, they
were called quinquennales, curatores, praefecti, &c, and quaestors
superintended the finances of the association. Their place of
meeting, if they were rich enough to have one, was called schola
and answered the purpose of a club-house; the site or the building
was often given them by some rich patron, who was pleased to
sec his name engraved over its doorway. Here we come upon
one of those defects in the society of the empire which seem
gradually to have sapped the virility of the population— the
desire to get others to do for you what you are unwilling or
unable to do for yourself. The patroni increased in number,
and more and more the colleges acquired the habit of dependinf
on their benefactions, while at the same time it would seem that
the primary object of burial became subordinate to the claims
of the common weal. It may also be asserted with confidence,
as of the Greek clubs, that these collegia rarely or never did the
work of our benefit clubs, by assisting sick or infirm members;
such objects at any rate do not appear in the inscriptions. Toe
only exceptions seem to be the military collegia, which, though
strictly forbidden as dangerous to discipline, continued to
increase in number in spite of the law. The great legionary
camps of the Roman province of Africa (Cagnat, L'Armh
romaine, 457 foil.) have left us inscriptions which show not only
the existence of these clubs, but the way in which their fundi
were spent; and it appears that they were applied to useful
purposes in the life of a member as well as for his burial, e.g. to
travelling expenses, or to his support after his discharge (see
especially C.IX. viii. 2552 foil.).
As the Roman empire became gradually impoverished and
depopulated, and as the difficulty of defending its frontiers
increased, these associations must have been slowly extinguished,
and the living and the dead citizen alike ceased to be the object
of care and contribution. The sudden invasion of Dacia by
barbarians in a.d. 166 was followed by the extinction of one
collegium which has left a record of the fact, and probably by
many others. The master of the college of Jupiter Ccrnenius,
with the two quaestors and seven witnesses, attest the fact that
the college has ceased to exist. "The accounts have been
wound up, and no balance is left in the chest. For a long time
no member has attended on the days fixed for meetings, and
no subscriptions have been paid " (Dill, op. cil. p. 285). The
record of similar extinctions in the centuries that followed,
were they extant, would show us how this interesting form of
crystallization, in which the well-drilled people of the empire
displayed an unusual spontaneity, gradually melted away and
disappeared (sec further Gilds and Chakity and Charities).
Besides the works already cited may be mentioned Mommsen.
de Collegiis el Sodaliciis (1843), which laid the foundation of all
(W. W. F.*)
Modem Clubs.— -The word " club," in its modern sense of an
association to promote good-fellowship and social intercourse,
is not very old, only becoming common in England at the time
of The Taller and The Spectator (1 709-171 2). It is doubtful
whether its use originated in its meaning of a knot of people,
or from the fact that the members " clubbed " together to pay
the expenses of their meetings. The oldest English clubs were
merely informal periodic gatherings of friends for the purpose
of dining or drinking together. Thomas Occlcvc (temp. Henry
IV ) mentions such a club called La Court de Bone Compaignie, of
which he was a member. John Aubrey (writing in 1659) says:
" We now use the word clubbe for a sodality in a tavern." Of
these early clubs the most famous was the Bread Street or Friday
Street Club, originated by Sir Walter Raleigh, and meeting at
the Mermaid Tavern. Shakespeare, Beaumont, Fletcher, Selden
and Donne were among the members. Another such club was
that which met at the Devil Tavern near Temple Bar; and of
this Ben Jonson is supposed to have been the founder.
With the introduction of coiTce-drinking in the middle of the
17th century, clubs entered on a more permanent phase. The
coffee-houses of the later Stuart period are the real originals of
the modern club-house. The clubs of the late 17th and early
1 8th century type resembled their Tudor forerunners in being
oftenest associations solely for conviviality or literary coteries
But many were confessedly political, e.g. The Rota, or Coffee
Club (1659), a debating society for the spread of republican ideas,
broken up at the Restoration, the Calves Head Club (c. 1693)
and the Green Ribbon Club (1675) (q.v.). The characteristics
of all these clubs were: (x) no permanent financial bond between
CLUB
567
the members, each man's liability ending for the time being
wKcn he had paid his " score " after the meal; (2) no permanent
dub-house, though each clique tended to make some special
coffee-house or tavern their headquarters. These coffee-house
clubs soon became hotbeds of political «candal-mongering and
intriguing, and in 1675 Charles II. issued a proclamation which
ran, " His Majesty hath thought fit and necessary that coffee
houses be (for the future) put down and suppressed," owing to
the fact " that in such houses divers false, malitious and scandal-
ous reports are devised and spread abroad to the Defamation
of his Majesty's Government and to the Disturbance of Peace
and Quiet of the Realm." So unpopular was this proclamation
that it was almost instantly found necessary to withdraw it,
and by Anne's reign the coffee-house club was a feature of
England's social life.
From the 18th-century clubs two types have been evolved.
(1) The social and dining dubs, permanent institutions with
fixed club-house. The London coffee-house clubs in increasing
their members absorbed the whole accommodation of the coffee-
house or tavern where they held their meetings, and this became
the dub-house, often retaining the name of the original keeper,
e.g. White's, Brooks's, Arthur's, Boodle's. The modern dub,
sometimes proprietary, i.e. owned by an individual or private
syndicate, but more frequently owned by the members who
ddegate to a committee the management of its affairs, first
reached its highest development in London, where the district
of St James's has long been known as " Clubland ", but the
institution has spread all over the English-speaking world.
(2) Those dubs which have but occasional or periodic meetings
and often possess no dub-house, but exist primarily for some
specific object. Such are the many purely athletic, sports and
pastimes dubs, the Jockey Club, the Alpine, chess, yacht and
motor dubs. Then there are literary dubs, musical and art
dubs, publishing clubs; and the name of " club " has been
annexed by a large group of associations which fall between the
dub proper and mere friendly societies, of a purely periodic
and temporary nature, such as slate, goose and Christmas clubs,
which are not required to be registered under the Friendly
Sodeties Act
Thus it is seen that the modern dub has little in common
with its prototypes in the 18th century. Of those which survive
in London the following may be mentioned: While's, originally
established in 1698 as White's Chocolate House, became the
headquarters of the Tory party, but is to-day no longer political.
Brooks's (1764), originally the resort of the Whigs, is no longer
strictly associated with Liberalism. Boodle's (1762) had a
tradition of being the resort of country gentlemen, and especially
of masters of foxhounds. Arthur's (1765), originally an offshoot
of White's, has always been purely social. The Cocoa Tree
(1746) also survives as a sodal resort. Social dubs, without
club-houses, are represented by the Literary Club (" The Club "),
founded in 1764 by Sir Joshua Reynolds and Dr Johnson, and
such recent institutions as the Johnson Club, Ye Sctte of Odd
Volumes (founded by Bernard Quaritch) and many others.
The number of regularly established clubs in London is now
upwards of a hundred. Of these the more important, with the
dates of their establishment, are: Army and Navy (1837);
Athenaeum (1824), founded by Sir Walter Scott and Thomas
Moore " for the association of individuals known for their
scientific or literary attainments, artists of eminence in any
class of the fine arts, and nobleman and gentlemen distinguished
as liberal patrons of science, literature or the arts "; Bachelors'
(1881); Carlton (1S32), the chief Conservative club. City
Carlton (1868); Conservative (1840); Constitutional (1883);
Devonshire (187s); East India United Service (1849); Garrick
(1831), " for the general patronage of the drama, for bringing
together the supporters of the drama, and for the formation of
a theatrical library with works on costume"; Guards (1813);
Junior Athenaeum (1864); Junior Carlton (1864); Marlborough
(1869); National Liberal (18S2); Oriental (1824), Oxford
and Cambridge (1830); Reform (1837), formerly the Liberal
headquarters; Savage (1857); St James's (1857), diplomatic;
Travellers' (1819), for which a candidate must have " travelled
out of the British Islands to a distance of at least 500 m. from
London in a direct line"; Turf (1868); Union (1822); United
Service (1815); Wellington (1885); Windham (1828). Almost
every interest, rank and profession has its dub. Thus there is a
Press Club, a Fly-Fishers' Dub, a Gun Club, an Authors', a
Farmers', a Lawyers' (the Eldon) and a Bath Club. Of the
purely women's dubs the most important are the Alexandra
(1884), the Empress (1897), Lyceum (1004) and Ladies' Army
& Navy (1904); while the Albemarle and the Sesame have a
leading place among dubs for men and women. Of political
dubs having no dub-house, the best known are the Cobden
(Free Trade, 1866); the Eighty (Liberal, 1880) and the United
(Unionist, 1886). There are dubs in all important provincial
towns, and at Edinburgh the New Club (1787),. and in Dublin
the Kildare Street (1700), rival those of London.
The mode of election of members varies. In some dubs
the committee alone have the power of choosing new members.
In others the election is by ballot of the whole dub, one black
ball in ten ordinarily excluding. In the Athenaeum, whilst the
prindple of election by ballot of the whole club obtains, the duty
is also cast upon the committee of annually selecting nine
members who are to be " of distinguished eminence in science,
literature or the arts, or for public services," and the rule makes
stringent provision for the conduct of these dections. On the
committee of the same club is likewise conferred power to elect
without ballot princes of the blood royal, cabinet ministers,
bishops, the speaker of the House of Commons, judges, &c
The affairs of dubs are managed by committees constituted
of the trustees, who are usually permanent members, and of
ordinarily twenty four other members, chosen by the club at
large, one-third of whom go out of office annually. These
committees have plenary powers to deal with the affairs of the
dub committed to their charge, assembling weekly to transact
current business and audit the accounts. Once a year a meeting
of the whole dub is held, before which a report is laid, and any
action taken thereupon which may be necessary. (Sec J.
Wcrthcimcr, The Law relating to Clubs, 1003; and Sir E. Carson
on Club law, in vol. iii. of The Laws of England, 1009.)
Previous to 1902 dubs in England had not come within the
purview of the licensing system. The Licensing Act of 1002,
however, remedied that defect, and although it was passed
principally to check the abuse of " clubs " being formed solely
to sell intoxicating liquors free from the restrictions of the
licensing acts, it applied to all clubs in England and Wales, of
whatever kind, from the humblest to the most exalted Pall
Mall dub. The act required the registration of every club
which occupied any premises habitually used for the purposes
of a club and in which intoxicating liquor was supplied to
members or their guests. The secretary of every club was
required to furnish to the clerk to the justices of the petty
sessional division a return giving (a) the name and objects of
the club; (b) the address of the club, (<■) the name of the
secretary; (d) the number of members; (r) the rules of the
dub rdating to (i.) the election of members and the admission
of temporary and honorary members and of guests; (ii.) the
terms of subscription and entrance fee, if any; (iii.) the cessation
of membership; (iv ) the hours of opening and closing; and
(v.) the mode of altering the rules. The same particulars must
be furnished by a secretary before the opening of a new dub.
The act imposed heavy penalties for supplying and keeping
liquor in an unregistered club. The act gave power to a court
of summary jurisdiction to strike a dub off the register on
complaint in writing by any person on any of various grounds,
e.g if its members numbered less than twenty-five; if there
was frequent drunkenness on the premises; if persons were
habitually admitted as members without forty-dght hours'
interval between nomination and admission; if the supply
of liquor was not under the control of the members or the com-
mittee, &c. The Licensing (Scotland) Act 1003. made Scottish
dubs liable to registration in a similar manner.
In no other country did dub-life attain such an e&d<? vxfcs&jssa.
CLUMP— CLUNY
569
of the elder Oppianicus was just and in no way the result of
the jury having been bribed by Cluentius; only a small portion
of the end of the speech deals with the specific charge. It was
generally believed that the verdict in the former trial was an
unfair one; and this opinion was most prejudicial to Cluentius.
But even if it could be shown that Cluentius had bribed the jury-
men, this did not prove that he had poisoned Oppianicus,
although it supplied a sufficient reason for wishing to get him
out of the way. The speech delivered by Cicero on this occasion
is considered one of his best.
Editions of the speech by W. Y. Faussct (1887), W. Ramsay
(1883); see also H. Nettleship, Lectures and Essays (1885).
CLUMP, a word common to Teutonic languages, meaning
a mass, lump, group or cluster of indefinite form, as a clump
of grass or trees. The word is used of a wooden and clumsy
shoe, made out of one piece of wood, worn by German peasants,
and by transference is applied to the thick extra sole added to
heavy boots for rough wear. Shoemakers speak of " clumping "
a boot when it is mended by having a new sole fastened by nails
and not sewn by hand to the old sole.
CLUMES, a borough of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia,
§j\ m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (ioox) 2426. It is the
centre of an agricultural, pastoral and mining district, in which
fold was first discovered in 1851. It lies in a healthy and
picturesque situation at an elevation of 1081 ft. An annual
agricultural exhibition and large weekly cattle sales are held
in the town.
CLUNY, or Clugny, a town of east central France, in the
department of Saone-ct-Loire, on the left bank of the Grosne,
Z4 m. N.W. of M ft con by road. Pop. (1906) 3 105. The interest
of the town lies in its specimens of medieval architecture, which
include, besides its celebrated abbey, the Gothic church of
Notre-Dame, the church of St Marcel with its beautiful Roman-
esque spire, portions of the ancient fortifications, and a number
of picturesque houses belonging to the Romanesque, Gothic
and Renaissance periods. The chief remains of the abbey (see
Abbey) are the ruins of the basilica of St Peter and the abbot's
palace. The church was a Romanesque building, completed
early in the 12th century, and until the erection of St Peter
at Rome was the largest ecclesiastical building in Europe.
It was in great part demolished under the First Empire, but
the south transept, a high octagonal tower, the chapel of Bourbon
(15th century), and the ruins of the apse still remain. In 1750
the abbey buildings were largely rebuilt and now contain a
ttrn 1 "™ 1 school. Part of the site of the church is given up to
the stabling of a government stud. The abbot's palace, which
belongs to the end of the 15th century, serves as h6tel-de-ville,
library and museum. The town has quarries of limestone and
building-stone, and- manufactures pottery, leather and paper.
A mere village at the time when the abbey was founded (910),
Quny gradually increased in importance with the development
of the religious fraternity, and in 1090 received a communal
charter from the abbot St Hugh. In 1471 the town was taken
by the troops of Louis XI. In 1529 the abbey was given " in
commendam " to the family of Guise, four members of which
held the office of abbot during the next hundred years. The
town and abbey suffered during the Wars of Religion of the
x6th century, and the abbey was closed in 1700. The residence
erected in Paris at the end of the 15th century by the abbots
Jean de Bourbon and Jacques d'Amboise, and known as the
Hotel de Quny (see House, Plate I., fig. 6), is occupied by the
du Sommerard collection; but the College de Cluny founded
in 1269 by the abbot Yves de Vergy, as a theological school for
the order, is no longer in existence.
The Order of Cluniac Benedictines.— -The Monastery of Cluny
was founded in 910 by William I. the Pious, count of Auvergne
and duke of Guienne (Aquitaine). The first abbot was Bcrno,
who had under his rule two monasteries in the neighbourhood.
Before bis death in 927 two or three more came under his control,
■o that he bequeathed to his successor the government of a
'tie group of five or six houses, which became the nucleus of
* order of Quny. Bcrno's successor was Odo: armed with
papal privileges he set to work to make Cluny the centre of a
revival and reform among the monasteries of France; he also
journeyed to Italy, and induced some of the great Benedictine
bouses, and among them St Benedict's own monasteries of
Subiaco and Monte Cassino, to receive the reform and adopt
the Cluny manner of life. The process of extension, partly by
founding new houses, partly by incorporating old ones, went
on under Odo's successors, so that by the middle of the 12th
century Cluny had become the centre and head of a great
order embracing 314 monasteries — the number 2000, sometimes
given, is an exaggeration— in all parts of Europe, in France,
Italy, the Empire, Lorraine, Spain, England, Scotland, Poland,
and even in the Holy Land. And the influence of Cluny extended
far beyond the actual order: many monasteries besides Monte
Cassino and Subiaco adopted its customs and manner of life
without subjecting themselves to its sway; and of these, many
in turn became the centres of reforms which extended Cluny
ideas and influences over still wider circles: Fleury and Hirsau
may be mentioned as conspicuous examples. The gradual
stages in the growth of the Cluny sphere of influence is exhibited
in a map [VI. C.)in Heussi and Mulcrt's Handatlos zur Kirchen-
geschichte, 1905.
When we turn to the inner life of Cluny, we find that the
decrees of Aix-la-ChapcIle, which summed up the Carolingian
movement for reform (see Benedictines), were taken as the
basis of the observance. Field work and manual labour were
given up; and in compensation the tendency initiated by
Benedict of Aniane, to prolong and multiply the church services
far beyond the canonical office contemplated by St Benedict,
was carried to still greater extremes, so that the services came
to occupy nearly the whole day. The lessons at the night 'office
became so lengthy that, e.g., the Book of Genesis was read
through in a week; and the daily psalmody, between canonical
office and extra devotions, exceeded a hundred psalms (see
Edm. Bishop, Origin of the Primer , Early English Text Soc.,
Original Series, No. 109).
If its influence on the subsequent history of monastic and
religious life and organization be considered, the most noteworthy
feature of the Cluny system was its external polity, which con-
stituted it a veritable " order " in the modern sense of the word,
the first that had existed since that of Pachomius (sec Mon-
astics m). All the houses that belonged, cither by foundation
or incorporation, to the Cluny system were" absolutely subject
to Cluny and its abbot, who was " general " in the same sense
as the general of the Jesuits or Dominicans, the practically
absolute ruler of- the whole system. The superiors of all the
subject houses (usually priors, not abbots) were his nominees;
every member of the' order was professed by his permission,
and had to pass some of the early years of his monastic life
at Cluny itself; the abbot of Cluny had entire control over
every one of the monks — some 10,000, it is said; it even came
about that he had the practical appointment of his successor.
For a description and criticism of the system, see F. A. Gasquet,
Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History, pp. xxxii-xxxv (the
Introduction to. 2nd ed. (189$) of the English trans, of the
Monks of the West); here it must suffice to say that it is the very
antithesis of the Benedictine polity (see Benedictines).
The greatness of Cluny is really the greatness of its early
abbots. If the short reign of the unworthy Pontius be excepted,
Cluny was ruled during a period of about 250 years (910-1157)
by a succession of seven great abbots, who combined those
high qualities of character, ability and religion that were
necessary for so commanding a position; they were Bcrno,
Odo, Aymard, Majolua (Maicul), Odilo, Hugh, Peter the Vener-
able. Sprung from noble families of the neighbourhood;
educated to the highest level of the culture of those times;
endowed with conspicuous ability and prudence in the conduct
of affairs; enjoying the consideration and confidence of popes
and sovereigns; employed again and again as papal legates and
imperial ambassadors; taking part in all great movements of
ecclesiastical and temporal politics; refu&tai VVjt ^vssX. ^*s«» \sw
Western Christendom, Vba cjax&naVtte, wg*\ SJ&& ^^ras V«8&:
57°
CLUSERET— CLUSIUM
they ever remained true to their state as monks, without loss
of piety or religion. Four of them, indeed, Odo, Maieul, Odik>
and Hugh, are venerated as saints.
In the movement associated with the name of Hildebrand
the influence of Cluny was thrown strongly on the side of religious
and ecclesiastical reform, as in the suppression of simony and
the enforcing of clerical celibacy; but in the struggle between
the Papacy and the Empire the abbots of Cluny seem to have
steered a middle course between Guelfs and Ghibellines, and to
have exercised a moderating influence; St Hugh maintained
relations with Henry IV. after his excommunication, and
probably influenced him to go to Canossa. Hildebrand himself,
though probably not a monk of Cluny, was a monk of a Cluniac
monastery in Rome; his successor, Urban II., was actually
a Cluny monk, as was Paschal II. It may safely be said that
from the middle of the 10th century until the middle of the
1 2th, Cluny was the chief centre of religious influence throughout
Western Europe, and the abbot of Cluny, next to the pope,
the most important and powerful ecclesiastic in the Latin
Church.
Everything at Cluny was on a seals worthy of so great a
position. The basilica, begun 1089 and dedicated 1131, was,
until the building of the present St Peter's, the largest church
in Christendom, and was both in structure and ornamenta-
tion of unparalleled magnificence. The monastic buildings were
gigantic.
During the abbacy of Peter the Venerable (1121-1157) it
became clear that, after a lapse of two centuries, a renewal of
the framework of the life and a revival of its spirit had become
necessary. Accordingly he summoned a great chapter of the
whole* order whereat the priors and representatives of the
subject housas attended in such numbers that, along with the
Cluny community, the assembly consisted of 1200 monks.
This chapter drew up the 76 statutes associated with Peter's
name, regulating the whole range of claustral life, and Solemnly
promulgated as binding on the whole Cluniac obedience. But
these measures did not succeed in saving Cluny from a rapid
decline that set in immediately after Peter's death. The
monarchical status of the abbot was gradually curtailed by
the holding of general chapters at fixed periods and the appoint-
ment of a board of definitors, elected by the chapter, as a per-
manent council for the abbot. Owing to these restrictions and
still more to the fact that the later abbots were not of the same
calibre as the esrly ones, their power and influence waned, until
in 1528 (if not in 1456) the abbey fell into " commendam."
The rise of the Cistercians and the mendicant orders were
contributory causes, and also the difficulties experienced in
keeping houses in other countries subject to a French superior.
And so the great system gradually became a mere congregation
of French houses. Of the commendatory abbots the most
remarkable were Cardinals Richelieu and Maxarin, who both
initiated attempts to introduce reforms into the Cluny congrega-
tion, the former trying to amalgamate it with the reformed
congregation of St Maur, but without effect. Martene tells
us that in the early years of the 18th century in the monastery
of Baume, one of Berno's original group of Cluny houses— indeed
the parent house of Cluny itself — no one was admitted as a
monk who had not sixteen quarterings in his coat of arms.
A reform movement took root in the Cluny congregation, and
during the last century of its existence the monks were divided
into two groups, the Reformed and the Unreformed, living
according to different laws and rules, with different superiors,
and sometimes independent, and even rival, general chapters.
This most unhappy arrangement hopelessly impaired the
vitality and work of the congregation, which was finally dissolved
and suppressed in 1700, the church being deliberately destroyed.
Cluniac houses were introduced into England under the
Conqueror. The first foundation was at Barnstaple; the second
at Lewes by William de Warenne, in 1077, and it counted as
one of the " Five Daughters of Cluny." In quick succession
followed Thetford, Montacute, Wenlock, Bcrmondsey, and in
Scotland, Paisley; a Dumber of lesser foundations were made,
and offshoots from the English houses; so that the English
Cluniac dependencies in the 13th century a m ou nted to 4©-
It is said that in the reign of Edward III. they transmitted
to Cluny annually the sum of £2000, equivalent to £60,000 c4
our money. Such a drain on the country was naturally looked
on with disfavour, especially during the French wars; and so
it came about that as " alien priories " they were frequently
sequestered by the crown. As the communities came to be
composed more and more of English subjects, they tended to
grow impatient of their subjection to a foreign house, and began
to petition parliament to be naturalized and to become denizen.
In 1 3 51 Lewes was actually naturalized, but a century later
the prior of Lewes appears still as the abbot of Quay's vicar
in England. Though the bonds with Cluny seem to have been
much relaxed if not wholly broken, the Cluniac houses continued
as a separate group up to the dissolution, never taking part in
the chapters of the English Benedictines. At the end there
were eight greater and nearly thirty lesser Cluniac bouses: for
list see Table in F. A. Gasquet's English Monastic Life; and
Catholic Dictionary, art. " Cluny."
The history of Cluny up to the death of Peter the Venerable nay
be extracted out of Mabillon's Annates by means of the Index; tbe
story is told in Helyot, Hist, des ordres relxgieux (179 2 ). v. cc. 18, 19.
Abndged accounts, with references to the most recent literature,
may be found in Max Heimbuchcr, Orien und KongregaHonen (1896).
L {20; Hcrzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (ed. 3), art. "Cluni"
(Grutzmacher) ; and Wctzer und Welte, KirckenUxtkon (ed. a), art.
" Clueny " (Hefele). The best modern monograph is by E. Sackur,
Die Ciuniacenser (1891-1894). In English a good account is given
in Maitland, Dark Ages, f§ xviiL-xxvi.; the Introduction to G. F.
Duckett's Charters and Records of Cluni (1890) contains, besides
general information, a description of the church and the buildings,
and a list of the chief Cluniac houses in all countries. The story of
the English houses is briefly sketched in the second chapter of F. A.
Gasquet's Henry VIII. and the English Monasteries (the larger ed.,
1886}. .... » . (E. C B.)
CLUSERET, GUSTAVB PAUL (1823-1000), French soldier
and politician, was born at Paris. He was an officer in tbe
garde mobile during the revolution of 1848. He took part in
several expeditions in Algeria, joined Garibaldi's volunteers
in i860, and in 1861 resigned his commission to take part in
the Civil War in America. He served under Fremont and
McClellan, and rose to the rank of general. Then, joining a
band of Irish adventurers, he went secretly to Ireland, and
participated in the Fenian insurrection (1866-67). He escaped
arrest on the collapse of the movement, but was condemned to
death in his absence. On his return to France he proclaimed
himself a Socialist, opposed militarism, and became a member
of the Association internationale da traxaiUeurs, a cosmopolitan
Socialist organization, known as the " Internationale" On the
proclamation of the Third Republic in 1871 he set to work to
organize the social revolution, first at Lyons and afterwards at
Marseilles. His energy, his oratorical gifts, and his military
experience gave him great influence among the working classes.
On the news of the communist rising of the z8th of March 1871
he hastened to Paris, and on the x6th of April was elected a
member of the commune. Disagreements with the other com-
munist leaders led to his arrest on the xst of May, on a false
charge of betraying the cause. On the 24th of the same month
the occupation of Paris by the Versailles troops restored him to
liberty, and he succeeded in escaping from France. He did not
return to the country till 1884. In 1888 and 1889 he was relumed
as a deputy to the chamber by Toulon. He died in 190a
Cluseret published his Memoires (of the Commune) at Paris
in 1 887-1 888.
CLUSIUM (mod. Chiusi, q.v.), an ancient town of Italy, one
of the twelve cities of Etruria, situated on an isolated hill at
the S. end of the valley of the Clanis (China). It was according
to Roman tradition one of the oldest cities of Etruria and indeed
of all Italy, and, if Camars (the original name of the town,
according to Livy) is rightly connected with the Camertes
Umbri, its foundation would go back to pre-Etruscan times.
It first appears in Roman history at the end of the 7th century
B.C., when it joined the other Etruscan towns against Tarquinius
Priscus, and at the end of the 6th century B.C. it placed itself,
CLUWER— CLYDE, LORD
S7>
under its king Lars Porsena, at the head of the attempt to
re-establish the Tarquins in Rome. At the time of the invasion
of the Gauls in 391 B.C., on the other hand, Clusium was on
frigndly terms with Rome; indeed, it was the action of the
Roman envoys who had come to intercede for the people of
Clusium with the Gauls, and then, contrary to international law,
took part in the battle which followed, which determined the
Gauls to march on Rome. Near Clusium too, according to Livy
(according to Polybius ii. 19. 5, iv r§ Kafxpriw x&A9> >•*• in
Umbria near Camerinum), a battle occurred in 206 B.C. between
the Gauls and Samnites combined, and the Romans; a little
later the united forces of Clusium and Perusia were defeated
by the Romans. The precise period at which Clusium came under
Roman supremacy is, however, uncertain, though this must
have happened before 225 B.C., when the Gauls advanced as far
as Clusium. In 205 B.C. in the Second Punic War we bear that
they promised ship timber and corn to Scipio. The Via Cassia,
constructed after 187 B.C., passed just below the town. In the
first civil war, Papirius Carbo took up his position here, and
two battles occurred in the neighbourhood. Sulla appears to
have increased the number of colonists, and a statue was certainly
erected in his honour here. In imperial times we hear little
of it, though its grain and grapes were famous. Christianity
found its way into Clusium as early as the 3rd century, and the
tombstone of a bishop of a.d. 322 exists. In a.d. 540 it is named
as a strong place to which Vitigcs sent a garrison of a thousand
men.
Of pre-Roman or Roman buildings in the town itself there
are few remains, except for some fragments of the Etruscan
town walls composed of rather small rectangular blocks of
travertine, built into the medieval fortifications. Under it,
however, extends an elaborate system of rock-cut passages,
probably drains. The chief interest of the place lies in its
extensive necropolis, which surrounds the city on all sides.
The earliest tombs (tombe a pouo, shaft tombs) are previous
to the beginning of Greek importation. Of tombe a Josso there
are none, and the next stage is marked by the so-called tombe
a tiro, in which the cinerary urn (often with a human head)
is placed in a large clay jar (tiro, Lat. dolium). These belong
to the 7th century B.C., and are followed by the tombe a camera,
in which the tomb is a chamber hewn in the rock, and which
can be traced back to the beginning of the 6th century B.C.
From one of the earliest of these came the famous Francois
vase; another is the tomb of Poggio Renso, or dcUa Scimmia
(the monkey), with several chambers decorated with archaic
paintings. The most remarkable group of tombs is, however,
that of Poggio Gaiella, 3 m. to the N., where tiie hill is honey-
combed with chambers in three storeys (now, howevar, much
ruined and inaccessible), partly connected by a system of
passages, and supported at the base by a stone wall which forms
a circle and not a square — a fact which renders impossible
its identification with the tomb of Porsena, the description of
which Pliny (Hist. Not. xxxvi. 91) has copied from Varro.
Other noteworthy tombs are those of the Granduca, with a
single subterranean chamber carefully constructed in travertine,
end containing eight sarcophagi of the same material; of
Vigna Grande, very similar to this; of Colle Casucdni (the
ancient stone door of which is still in working order), with two
chambers, containing paintings representing funeral rites;
of Poggio Moro and Valdacqua, in the former of which the
paintingsarealmost destroyed, while the latter is now inaccessible.
A conception of the size of the whole necropolis may be
gathered from the fact that nearly three thousand Etruscan
inscriptions have come to light from Clusium and its district
alone, while the part of Etruria north of it as far as the Arno
has produced barely five hundred. Among the later tombs
bilingual inscriptions are by no means rare, and both Etruscan
and Latin inscriptions arc often found in the same cemeteries,
showing that the use of the Etruscan language only died out
gradually. A large number of the inscriptions arc painted
upon the tiles which closed the niches containing the cinerary
urns. The urns themselves are small, often of terra-cotta,
originally painted, though the majority of them have lost their
colour, and rectangular in shape. This style of burial seems
peculiar to a district which E. Bormann (Corp. Inter, Lai. xi.,
Berlin, 1887, p. 373) defines as a triangle formed by the Clania
(with the lakes of Chiusi and Montepulciano, both small, shallow
and fever-breeding), on the E., the villages of Cetona, Sarteano,
Castcllucdo and Monticchiello on the W., and Montepulciano
and Acquaviva on the N. In Roman times the territory of
Clusium seems to have extended as far as Lake Trasimene.
The local museum contains a valuable and important collection
of objects from the necropolis, including some specially fine
bucchero, sepulchral urns of travertine, alabaster and terra-cotta,
painted vases, stone cippi with reliefs, &c.
Two Christian catacombs have been found near Clusium, one
in the hill of S. Caterina near the railway station, the inscriptions
of which seem to go back to the 3rd century, another 1 m. to the
E. in a hill on which a church and monastery of S. Mustiola
stood, which goes back to the 4th century, including among its
inscriptions one bearing the date a.d. 303, and the tombstone
of L. Petronius Dexter, bishop of Clusium, who died in a.d. 322.
The total number of inscriptions known in Clusium is nearly
3000 Etruscan {Corp. Inter. Etrutc., Berlin, 475-3306) and 500
Latin (Corp. Inter. Lat. xi. 2000-2593). To the W. and N.W.
of Chiusi — at Cetona, Sarteano, Chianciano and Montepulciano —
Etruscan cemeteries have been discovered; the objects from
them formed, in the latter half of the 19th century, interesting
local collections described by Dennis, which have since mostly
passed to larger museums or been dispersed.
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of ifrtirta (London, ift83).ii.2Q0
seq. ; L. Giometti, Cuida di Chiusi (Poggibonsi, 1904). (T. As.)
CLUWER (Ciuver, Cluvier, Cluverius), PHILIP (1580-
1623), German geographer and historian, was born at Danzig
in 1580. After travelling in Germany and Poland (where he
learnt Polish), he began the study of law at Leiden, but be soon
turned his attention to history and geography, which were
then taught there by Joseph Scaligcr. After campaigning in
Bohemia and Hungary, suffering imprisonment, and travelling
in Englarid, Scotland and France, he finally settled in Holland,
where (after 1616) he revived a regular pension from Leiden
Academy. In 161 1 he began to publish his works. He died at
Leiden in 1623. His principal writings are: Gcrmania Antiqua
(16 16), SicUiae Antiquoe libri duo, Sardinia et Corsica Antiqua
(1619), and the posthumous Italia Antiqua (1624) and Intro-
ductio in Universam Geograpkiom (1629).
CLYDE, COLIN CAMPBELL, Baron (1792-1*63), British
soldier, was born at Glasgow on the 20th of October 1792. He
received his education at the Glasgow high school, and when
only sixteen years of age obtained an ensigncy in the 9th foot,
through the influence of Colonel Campbell, his maternal uncle.
The youthful officer had an early opportunity of engaging in
active service. He fought under Sir Arthur WcUesley at Vimicra,
took part in the retreat of Sir John Moore, and was present
at the battle of Corunna. He shared in all the fighting of the
Peninsular campaigns, and was severely wounded while leading
a storming-party at the attack on San Sebastian. He was again
wounded at the passage of the Bidassoa, and compelled to return
to England, when his conspicuous gallantry was rewarded by
promotion without purchase. Campbell held a command in the
American expedition of 1814; and after the peace of the following
year he devoted himself to studying the theoretical branches
of his profession. In 1823 he quelled the negro insurrection
in Demerara, and two years later obtained his majority by
purchase. In 1832 he became lieutenant-colonel of the 98th
foot, and with that regiment rendered distinguished service
in the Chinese War of 1842. Campbell was next employed in
the Sikh War of 1848-49. under Lord Gough. At Chillianwalla,
where ht was wounded, and at the decisive victory of Gujrat,
his skill and valour largely contributed to the success of the
British arms; and his " steady coolness and military precision "
were highly praised in official despatches. He was made a
K.C.B. in 1849, and specially named in the thanks of n*rtian*«i.
After rendering ira^otUwV wriVmVcAT&xa^ft ^j^C^aaa^^.
572
CLYDE— CLYDEBANK
returned home in 1853. Next year the Crimean War broke out,
and he accepted the command of the Highland brigade, which
formed part of the duke of Cambridge's division. The brigade
and its leader distinguished themselves very greatly at the Alma;
and with his " thin red line " of Highlanders he repulsed the
Russian attack on Balaklava. At the dose of the war Sir Colin
was promoted to be knight grand cross of the Bath, and elected
honorary D.CL. of Oxford. His military services, however,
had as yet met with tardy recognition; but, when the crisis
came, his true worth was appreciated. The outbreak of the
Indian Mutiny (q.v.) called for a genera] of tried experience;
and on the nth of July 1857 the command was offered to him
by Lord Palmers ton. On being asked when be would be ready
to set out, the veteran replied, " Within twenty-four hours."
He was as good as his word; he left England the next evening,
and reached Calcutta on the 13th of August. After spending
upwards of two months in the capital to organize his resources,
he started for the front on the a 7th of October, and on the 17th of
November relieved Lucknow for the second time. Sir Colin,
however, considered Lucknow a false position, and once more
abandoned it to the rebels, retaking it in March 1858. He
continued in charge of the operations in Oudh until the embers
of the revolt had died away. For these services he was raised
to the peerage, in 1858, as Lord Clyde; and, returning to
England in the next year, he received the thanks of both Houses
of Parliament and a pension of £2000 a year. He died on the
14th of August 1863.
Though not a great genera], and lacking in the dash which
won England so many victories in India, Lord Clyde was at
once a brave soldier and a careful and prudent leader. The
soldiers whom he led were devotedly attached to him; and his
courteous demeanour and manly independence of character
won him unvarying respect.
• Sec Sir Owen Tudor Burne, Oyde and Stratknairn (•• Rulers of
India " series, 1891); and L. Shadwcll, Life of Colin Campbell, Lord
Clyde (1881).
CLYDB (Welsh, Owyd, "far heard," "strong," the Ootta
of Tacitus), the principal river of Lanarkshire, Scotland. It is
abo the name of the estuary which forms the largest and finest
firth on the west coast.
1. The River.— Daer Water, rising in Gana Hill (a 100 ft.)
on the borders of Lanarkshire and Dumfriesshire, after a course
of iof m., and Potrail -Water, rising 3 m. farther W. in the same
hilly country (1928 ft.), after running N.NJE. for 7 m., unite
3I m. S. of Ervanfoot to form the Clyde, of which they are the
principal headstreams, though many mountain burns in these
upland regions are abo contributory. The old rhyme that
" Annan, Tweed and Clyde rise a' out o' ae hillside " is not true,
lor Little Clyde Burn here referred to, rising in Clyde Law
(2100 ft), is only an affluent and not a parent streanb From the
junction of the Daer and Potrail the river pursues a direction
mainly northwards for several miles, winding eastwards around
Tinto Hill, somewhat north-westerly to near Carstairs, where
it follows a serpentine course westwards and then southwards.
From Harperfield, a point about 4 m. above Lanark, it assumes
a north-westerly direction, which, roughly, it maintains for the
rest of its course as a river, which is generally held to end at
Dumbarton, where it merges in the Firth. Its principal tribu-
taries on the right are the Medwin (16 m. long), entering near
Carnwath, the Mouse (15 m.), joining it at Lanark, the South
Calder (16 m.) above Bothwell, the North Calder (12 m.) below
Uddingston, the Kelvin (21 m.) at Glasgow, and the Leven (7 m.)
at Dumbarton. The chief left-hand affluents are the Elvan
(8 m.), entering at Elvanfoot, the Duneaton (19 m.), joining a
few miles above Roberton, the Garf (6§ m.) below Lamington,
the Douglas (20 m.) above Bonnington, the Nethan (12 m.)
at Crossford, the Avon (28 m.) at Hamilton, the Rotten Calder
(10 m.) near Newton, and the Cart (1 m.), formed by the junction
of the Black Cart (9 m.) and the White Cart (19 m.), below
Renfrew. j
The total length of the Gyde from the head of the Daer to
J>azabmrtoa is 106 m., and it drains an area estimated at 1481
sq. m. It is thus the third longest river in Scotland (being
exceeded by the Spey and Tay), but in respect of the industries
on its lower banks, and its sea-borne commerce, it is one of the
most important rivers in the world. Near Lanark it is broken
by the celebrated Falls, four in number, which are all found
within a distance of 3! m. Bonnington Linn, the most graceful,
2 m. above Lanark, is divided into two parts by a mass of tree-
dad rocks in mid-stream, and has a height of 30 ft. From this
spot the river runs for half a mile through a rugged, red sand-
stone gorge till it reaches Corra Linn, the grandest of the Falls,
where in three leaps, giving it the aspect of a splendid cascade,
it makes a descent of 84 ft., which, however, it accomplishes
during flood at a single bound. Almost \ m. below Com linn,
Dundaff Linn is reached, a fall of only 10 ft Farther down,
1 1 m. below Lanark, at Stonebyres Linn, reproducing the
characteristic features of Corra Linn, the river descends in
ordinary water in three leaps, and in flood in one bold drop of 80
ft. Within this space of 3} m. the river effects a total fall of
230 ft, or 61} ft. in the mile. From Stonebyres Linn to the sea
the fall is practically 4 ft in every mile. The chief villages and
towns on or close to the river between its source and Glasgow
are Crawford, Lamington, New Lanark, Lanark, Hamilton,
Bothwell, Blantyre and Uddingston. At Bowling (pop. 1018)—
the point of transhipment for the Forth and Clyde Canal— the
river widens decidedly, the fairway being indicated by a stone
wall continued seawards as far as Dumbarton. Dunglass Point,
near Bowling, is the western terminus of the wall of Antoninus,
or Grim's Dyke; and in the grounds of Dunglass Castle, now a
picturesque fragment, stands an obelisk to Henry Bell (1767-
1830), the pioneer of steam navigation in Europe.
As far down as the falls the Clyde remains a pure fishing stream,
but from the point at which it begins to receive the varied tribute
of industry, its water grows more and more contaminated, and
at Glasgow the work of pollution is completed. Towards the
end of the 18th century the river was yet fordablc at the Broomfe-
law In the heart of Glasgow, but since that period, by unexampled
enterprise and unstinted expenditure of money, the stream has
been converted into a waterway deep enough to allow liners and
battleships to anchor in the harbour (see Glasgow).
Clydesdale, as the valley of the upper Clyde is called, begins
in the district watered by headstreams of the river, the course
of which in effect it follows as far as Bothwell, a distance of 50 m.
It is renowned for its breed of cart-horses (specifically known as
Clydesdales), its orchards, fruit fields and market gardens, its
coal and iron mines.
2. The Fifth. — From Dumbarton, where the firth is commonly
considered to begin, to Aiba Craig, where it ends, the fairway
measures 64 m. Its width varies from 1 mat Dumbarton to
37 m. from Girvan to the Mull of Kintyre. The depth varies
from a low-tide minimum of 22 ft in the navigable channel at
Dumbarton to nearly 100 fathoms in the Sound of Bute and at
other points. The Cumbraes, Bute and Arran are the principal
islands in its waters. The sea lochs all lie on the Highland shore,
and comprise Gare Loch, Loch Long, Loch Gofl, Holy Loch,
Loch Striven, Loch Riddon and Loch Fyne. The only rivers
of any importance feeding the Firth are the Ayrshire streams, of
which the chief are the Garnock, Irvine, Ayr, Doon and Girvan.
The tide ascends above Glasgow, where its farther rise is barred
by a weir. The head-ports are Glasgow, Port Glasgow, Greenock,
Ardrossan, Irvine, Troon, Ayr and Campbeltown. In addition
to harbour lights, beacons on rocks, and light-ships, there are
lighthouses on Aiba Craig, Sanda, Davaar, Pladda, Holy Isle,
and Little Cumbrae, and at Turnberry Point, Cloch Point and
Toward Point The health and holiday resorts on the lochs :
islands and mainland coast are numerous.
CLYDEBANK, a police burgh of Dumbartonshire, Scotland,
on the right bank of the Clyde, 6 m. from Glasgow. Pop. (1891)
10,014 ; (1001) 21,591. There arc stations at Yoker, Clydebank,
Kilbowie and Dalmuir, all comprised within the burgh since
1886, served by both the North British and the Caledonian
railways. In 1875 the district was almost purely rural, but since
that date flourishing industries have been planted in the different
CNIDUS-^CNOSSUS
573
parts. At Clydebank are Urge shipbuilding yards and
ing works; at Yokef there is some shipbuilding and a distillery;
at Obowie the Singer Manufacturing Company have an immense
.factory, covering nearly 50 acres and giving employment to
many thousands of operatives; at Dalmuir are the building
and repairing yards of the Clyde Navigation Trust. The import-
ant Rothesay Dock, under this trust, was opened by the prince
and princess of Wales in April 1007. The municipality owns
a fine town hall and buildings. Part of the parish extends
across the Clyde into the shire of Renfrew.
GMIDUS (mod. Tekir), an ancient city of Caria in Asia Minor,
situated at the extremity of the long peninsula that forms the
southern side of the Sinus Ceramicus or Gulf of Cos. It was
built partly on the mainland and partly on the Island of Triopion
ox Cape Krio, which anciently communicated with the continent
by a causeway and bridge, and now by a narrow sandy isthmus.
By means of the causeway the channel between island and
mainland was formed into two harbours, of which the larger,
or southern, now known as Port Freano, was further enclosed
by two strongly-built moles that are still in good part entire.
The extreme length of the city was little less than a mile, and the
whole intramural area is still thickly strewn with architectural
remains. The walls, both insular and continental, can be traced
throughout their whole circuit; and in many places, especially
round the acropolis, at the N.E. corner of the city, they are
remarkably perfect. Our knowledge of the site is largely due
to the mission of the Dilettanti Society in 181 a, and the excava-
tions executed by C. T. Newton in 1857-1858; but of recent
years it has become a frequent calling station of touring steamers,
which can still lie safely in the southern harbour. The agora,
the theatre, an odeum, a temple of Dionysus, a temple of the
Muses, a temple of Aphrodite and a great number of minor
buildings have been identified, and the general plan of the city
has been very clearly made out. The most famous statue by
the elder Praxiteles, the Aphrodite, was made for Cnidus. It
has perished, but late copies exist, of which the most faithful
is in the Vatican gallery. In a temple-enclosure C. T. Newton
discovered a fine seated statue of Demeter, which now adorns
the British Museum; and about 3 m. south-east of the city he
came upon the ruins of a splendid tomb, and a colossal figure
of a lion carved out of one block of Pentelic marble, 10 ft. in
length and 6 in height, which has been supposed to commemorate
lhe great naval victory of Conon over the Lacedaemonians in
394 B.C. Among the minor antiquities obtained from the city
itself, or the great necropolis to the east, perhaps the most
interesting are the leaden ffeu-afar/iot, or imprecationary tablets,
found in the temple of Demeter, and copied in facsimile in the
appendix to the second volume of Newton's work. Peasants
still find numerous antiquities, and the site would certainly
repay more thorough excavation.
Cnidus was a city of .high antiquity and probably of Lacedae-
monian colonization. Along with Halicarnassus and Cos, and
the Rhodian cities of Lindus, Camirus and Ialysus it formed
the Dorian Hexapolis, which held its confederate assemblies
on the Triopian headland, and there celebrated games in honour
of Apollo, Poseidon and the nymphs. The city was at first
governed by an oligarchic senate, composed of sixty members,
known as d/ii^/ioref, and presided over by a magistrate called
an &p6ffrf)p; but, though it is proved by inscriptions that the
old names continued to a very late period, the constitution
underwent a popular transformation. The situation of the city
was favourable for commerce, and the Cnidians acquired consider-
able wealth, and were able to colonize the island of Lipara, and
founded the city of Corcyra Nigra in the Adriatic. They ulti-
mately submitted to Cyrus, and from the battle of Eurymedon
to the latter part of the Pcloponnesian War they were subject
to Athens. In 394 B.C. Conon fought off the port the battle
which destroyed Spartan hegemony. The Romans easily
obtained their allegiance, and rewarded them for help given
against Antiochus by leaving them the freedom of their city.
During the Byzantine period there must still have been a con-
siderable population; for the ruins contain a large number of
buildings belonging to the Byzantine style* and Christian
sepulchres are common in the neighbourhood. Eudoxus, the
astronomer, Cteaias, the writer on Persian history, and Sostratus,
the builder of the celebrated Pharos at Alexandria, are the most
remarkable of the Cnidians mentioned in history.
See C T. Newton and R. P. Pullen, Hist, of Discoveries at Balicar-
nassus, Cnidus, &c (1663).
CM06SUS, Knossos, or Gnossus, an ancient city of Crete,
on the left bank of the Caeratus, a small stream which falls into
the sea on the north side of the island. The dty was situated,
about 3 m. from the coast, and, according to the old traditions,
was founded by Minos, king of Crete. The locality was associated
with a number of the most interesting legends of Greek mythology,
particularly with those which related to Jupiter, who was said
to have been born, to have been married, and to have been
buried in the vicinity. Cnossus was also assigned as the site
of the labyrinth in which the Minotaur was confined. The
truth behind these legends has been revealed in recent years by
the excavations of Dr Evans. As the historical city was peopled
by Dorians, the manners, customs and political institutions
of its inhabitants were all Dorian. Along with Gortyna and
Cydonia, it held for many years the supremacy over the whole
of Crete; and it always took a prominent part in the civil wars
which from time to time desolated the island. When the rest
of Crete fell under the Roman dominion, Cnossus shared the
same fate, and became a Roman colony. Aenesidemus, the
sceptic philosopher, and Chcrsiphron, the architect of the
temple of Diana at Ephesus, were natives of Cnossus.
The Site. — As the excavations at Cnossus are discussed at
length in the article Crete, it must suffice here briefly to enumer-
ate the more important. The chief building is the Great Palace,
the so-called " House of Minos," the excavation of which by
Arthur Evans dates from 1000: a number of rooms lying round
the central paveel court, oriented north and south, have been
identified, among them being the throne-room with some well-
preserved wall paintings and a small bathroom attached, in the
north-west quarter a larger bathroom and a shrine, and residential
chambers in the south and cast. The latter part of the palace
is composed of a number of private rooms and halls, and is
especially remarkable for its skilful drainage and water-supply
systems.
In 1007 excavations on the south side of the palace showed
that the plan was still incomplete, and a southern cryptoporticus,
and outside it a large south-west building, probably an official
residence, were discovered. Of special interest was a huge
circular cavity under the southern porch into which the sub-
structures of the palace had been sunk. This cavity was filled,
with rubbish, sherds, &c, the latest of which was found to
date as far back as the beginning of the Middle Minoan age, and
the later work of x 008 only proved (by means of a small, shaft
sunk through the dlbris) that the rock floor was 53 ft. below
the surface. The first attempt to reach the floor by a cutting
in the hill-side proved abortive, but the operations of 1910 led to
a successful result. The cavity proved to be a great reservoir
approached by a rock-cut staircase and of Early Minoan date.
In 1 004- 1 005 a paved way running due west from the middle
of the palace was excavated, and found to lead to another build-
ing described as the " Little Palace " largely buried under an
olive grove. The first excavations showed that this building
was on the same general plan and belonged to the same period
as the " House of Minos," though somewhat later in actual date
(17th century B.C.). Large halls, which had subsequently been
broken up into smaller apartments, were found, and among a
great number of other artistic remains one seal-impression of
special interest showing a one-masted ship carrying a thorough-
bred horse — perhaps representing the first importation of horses
into Crete. A remarkable shrine with fetish idols was also dis-
covered. The sacred Double-Axe symbol is prominent, as in
the greater palace. By the end of 1910 the excavation of this
smaller palace was practically completed. It was found to cover.
an area of more than 9400 ft. with a frontage of more than it>o (t. x
and had five stone staircases* Owttfc\*o^%^«c\^\Tfc.^^
574
COACH— COAHUILA
ro the course of excavation is a black steatite vessel in the form
of a bull's head. The modelling is of a very high order, and the
one eye which remains perfect is cut out of rock crystal, with
the pupil and iris marked by colours applied to the lower face
of the crystal.
The work of excavation in the palace has been complicated by
the necessity of propping up walls, floors and staircases. In some
instances it has been found necessary to replace the original
wooden pillars by pillars of stone. Again in the " Queen's
Mcgaron " in the east wing of the Great Palace it was found
that the exposure of the remains to the violent extremes of
Cretan weather must soon prove fatal to them. It was therefore
decided to restore the columns and part of the wall, and to roof
over the whole area.
For recent excavations ace R. M. Burrows, The Discoveries in
W>1 _ WP .
Cretan Palaces.
COACH (through the Fr. coche, originally from the Magyar
kocsi, an adjective from the Hungarian place named Kocs,
between Raab and Buda, i.e. the sort of vehicle used there in
the 15th century), a large kind of carriage for passengers (see
Carriage). As a general term it is used (as in " coach-building '*)
for all carriages, and also in combination with qualifying attributes
for particular forms (stage-coach, mail-coach, mourning-coach,
hackney-coach, &c); but the typical coach involves four wheels,
springs and a roof. The stage-coach, with seats outside and in,
was a public conveyance which was known in England from the
1 6th century, and before railways the stage-coaches had regular
routes (stages) all over the country; through their carrying
the mails (from 1784) the term " mail-coach " arose. Similar
vehicles were used in America and on the European continent.
The diligence, though not invariably with four horses, was the
Continental analogue for public conveyance, with other minor
varieties such as the Steltoagcn and Eiltcagen.
The driving of coaches with four horses was a task in which
a considerable amount of skill was required, 1 and English
literature is full of the difficulties and humours of " the road "
in old days. A form of sport thus arose for enterprising members
of the nobility and gentry, and after the introduction of railways
made the mail-coach obsolete as a matter of necessity, the old
sport of coaching for pleasure still survived, though only to a
limited extent. The Four-in-hand Cub was started in England
in 1856 and the Coaching Club in 1870, as the successors of the
old Bensington Driving Club (1807-1852), and Four-Horse
Club (1808-1829); and in America the New York Coaching
Club was founded fa 1875. But coaching remains the sport of
the wealthier classes, although in various parts of England
(e.g. London to Brighton, and in the Lake district), in America,
and in Europe, public coaches still have their regular times and
routes for those who enjoy this form of travel. The earliest
railway vehicles for passengers were merely the road coaches
of the period adapted to run on rails, and the expression " coach-
ing traffic " is still used in England to denote traffic carried in
passenger trains.
Of coaches possessing a history the two best known in the
United Kingdom are the king's state coach, and that of the
lord mayor of London. The latter is the oldest, having been
built, or at least first used, for the procession of Sir Charles Asgil,
lord mayor elect, in November 1757. The body of this vehicle
It not supported by springs, but hung on leather straps; and
the whole structure is very richly loaded with ornamental
carving, gilding and paint-work. The different panels and the
doors contain various allegorical groups of figures representing
suitable subjects, and heraldic devices painted in a spirited
manner. The royal state coach, which is described as " the
most superb carriage ever built," was designed by Sir William
Chambers, the paintings on it were executed by Cipriani, and
1 The idea of " driving " was responsible for the use of the term
"n>s<h " snd " reaching " to mean a tutor or trainer, for exaroin-
Mt/ons or sthletic coatat*.
the work was completed in 1 761 . During the later part of Queen
Victoria's reign it was hardly ever seen, but on the accession
of Edward VII. the coach was once more put in order for
use on state occasions. The following is an official description
of this famous coach: —
" The whole of the carriage and body is richly ornamented with
laurel and carved work, beautifully gilt. The length, 24 ft.; width.
8 ft. 3 in., height, 12 ft.; length of pole, 12 ft. 4 in. ; weight, 4 tons.
The carriage and body of the coach is composed as follows.-— Of four
large tritons, who support the body by lour braces, covered with
red morocco leather, and ornamented with gilt buckles, the rw>
figures placed in front of the carriage bear the driver, and are repre-
sented in the action of drawing by cables extending round their
shoulders, and the cranes and sounding shells to announce the
approach of the monarch of the ocean; and those at the back carry
the imperial fasces, topped with tridents. The driver's foot-board u
a large scallop shell, ornamented with bunches of reeds and other
marine plants. The pole represents a bundle of lances; the splinter
bar is composed of a rich moulding, issuing from beneath a voluted
shell, and each end terminating in the head of a dolphin; and the
wheels are imitated from those of the ancient triumphal chariot. The
body of the coach is composed of eight palm-trees, which, branching
out at the top, sustain the roof; and four angular trees are loaded
with trophies allusive to the victories obtained by Great Britain
during the late glorious war, supported by four lions heads. On (be
centre of the roof stand three boys, representing the genii of England,
Scotland and Ireland, supporting the imperial crown of Great Britain,
and holding in their hands the sceptre, sword of state, and ensigns
of knighthood; their bodies are adorned with festoons of laurel,
which Tall from thence towards the four corners. The panels and
doors are painted with appropriate emblematical devices, and the
linings arc of scarlet velvet richly embossed with national emblems."
See the Badminton Driving, by the duke of Beaufort (1888):
Rogers's Manual of Driving (Philadelphia, 1900) ; and " Nirnrod's "
Essays on the Road (1876).
COAHUILA, a northern frontier state of Mexico, bounded
N. and N.E. by Texas, U.S.A., E. by Nuevo Leon, S. by San
Luis Potosi and Zacatecas, and W. by Durango and Chihuahua.
Area, 63,569 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 237.815; (iox») 296,938.
Its surface is a roughly broken plateau, traversed N.W. to S.E.
by several ranges of mountains and sloping gently toward the
Rio Grande. The only level tract of any size in the state is the
Bolson de Mapimf , a great depression on the western side which
was long considered barren and uninhabitable. It is a region
of lakes and morasses, of arid plains and high temperatures,
but experiments with irrigation toward the end of the 19th
century were highly successful and considerable tracts have
since been brought under cultivation. In general the state is
insufficiently watered, the rainfall being light and the rivers
small. The rivers flow eastward to the Rio Grande. The
climate is hot and dry, and generally healthy. Stock-raising
was for a time the principal industry, but agriculture has been
largely developed in several localities, among the chief products
of which are cotton — Coahuila is the principal cotton-producing
state in Mexico — Indian corn, wheat, beans, sugar and grapes.
The Parra&district in the southern part of the state has long been
celebrated for its wines and brandies. The mineral wealth of
the stale is very great, and the mining industries, largely operated
with foreign capital, arc important. The mineral products
include silver, lead, coal, copper, and iron. The mining opera-
tions are chiefly centred in the Sierra Mojada, Sierra Carmen,
and in the Santa Rosa valley. The modern industrial develop-
ment of the state is due to the railway lines constructed across
it during the last quarter of the 19th century, and to the invest-
ment of foreign capital in local enterprises. The first Spanish
settlement in the region now called Coahuila was at Saltillo
in 1586, when it formed part of the province of Nucva Viscaya.
Later it became the province of Nueva Estremadura under the
Spanish regime, and in 1824, under the new republican organiza-
tion, it became the state of Coahuila and included Texas and
Nuevo Le6n. Later in the same year Nuevo Leon was detached,
but Texas remained a part of the state until 1835. The capital
of the state is Saltillo; Monclova was the capital from 1833 to
1835. Among the more Important towns are Parras (pop. 6476
in 1900), 98 m. W. by N. of Saltillo in a rich grape-producing dis-
trict, Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, and Monclova (pop, 6684 in 1900); 105
m. N. by W. of Saltillo, on the Mexican International railway-
COAL
575
COAL, In it* most general tense the term "cod" includes
ail varieties of carbonaceous minerals used as fuel, but it is now
usual in England to restrict it to the particular varieties of such
minerals occurring in the older Carboniferous formations.
On the continent of Europe it is customary to consider coal
as divisible into two great classes, depending upon differences
of colour, namely, brown coal, corresponding to the term "lignite"
used in England and France, and black or stout coal, which is
equivalent to coal as understood in England. Stone coal is
also a local English term, but with a signification restricted to
the substance known by mineralogists as anthracite. In old
English writings the terms pit-coal and sea-coal- are commonly
used. These have reference to the mode in which the mineral
is obtained, and the manner in which it is transported to market.
The root kol is common to all the Teutonic nations, while in
French and other Romance languages derivatives of the Latin
carbo are used, e.g. charbon ie Urrc. In France and Belgium,
however, a peculiar word, kouille, is generally used to signify
mineral coal. This word is supposed to be derived from the
Walloon koie, corresponding to the medieval Latin hullat
Littrl suggests that it may be related to the Gothic haurja, coal.
Anthracite is from the Greek Mp*$, and the term lithanthrax,
stone coal, still survives, with the same meaning, in the Italian
liiantracc.
It must be borne in mind that the signification now attached
to the word coal is different from that which formerly obtained
when wood was the only fuel in general use. Coal then meant
the carbonaceous residue obtained in the destructive distillation
of wood, or what is known as charcoal, and the name collier was
applied indifferently to both coal-miners ancf charcoal-burners.
The spelling " cole " was generally used up to the middle of
(he 17th century, when it was gradually superseded by the
modern form, " coal." The plural, coals, seems to have been
used from a very early period to signify the broken fragments
of the mineral as prepared for use.
Coal is an amorphous substance of variable composition,
and therefore cannot be as strictly denned as a crystallized or
definite mineral can. It varies in colour from a light
brown in the newest lignites to a pure black, often with
a bluish or yellowish tint in the more compact an-
thracite of the older formations. It is opaque, except
in exceedingly thin slices, such as made for microscopic in-
vestigation, which are imperfectly transparent, and of a dark
brown colour by transmitted light. The streak is black in
anthracite, but more or less brown in the softer varieties. The
maximum hardness is from 2-5 to 3 in anthracite and hard
bituminous coals, but considerably less in lignites, which are
nearly as soft as rotten wood. A greater hardness is due to the
presence of earthy impurities. The densest anthracite is often
of a semi-metallic lustre, resembling somewhat that of graphite.
Bright, glance or pitch coal is another brilliant variety, brittle,
and breaking into regular fragments of a black colour and pitchy
lustre. Lignite and cannel are usually dull and earthy, and of
an irregular fracture, the latter being much tougher than the
black coaL Some lignites are, however, quite as brilliant as
anthracite; cannel and jet may be turned in the lathe, and are
susceptible of taking a brilliant polish. The specific gravity
is highest in anthracite and lowest in lignite, bituminous coals
giving intermediate values (see Table I.).' As a rule, the density
increases with the amount of carbon, but in some instances a
very high specific gravity is due to intermixed earthy matters',
which are always denser than even the densest form of coal
substance.
Coal is never definitely crystalline, the nearest approach to
such a structure being a compound fibrous grouping resembling
that of gypsum or arragonite, which occurs in some of the steam
coals of South Wales, and is locally known as " cone in cone,"
but no definite form or arrangement can be made out of the fibres.
Usually it occurs in compact beds of alternating bright and dark
bands in which impressions of leaves, woody fibre and other
vegetable remains are commonly found. There is generally
a tendency in coals towards cleaving into cubical or prismatic .
blocks, but sometimes the cohesion between the particles is so
feeble that the mass breaks up into dust when struck. These
peculiarities of structure may vary very considerably within
small areas; and the position of the divisional planes or cleats
with reference to the mass, and the proportion of small coal
or slack to the larger fragments when the coal is broken up by
cutting-tools, are points of great importance in the working of
coal on a large scale.
The divisional planes often contain small films of other
minerals, the commonest being calctte, gypsum and iron pyrites,
but in some cases zeolitic minerals and galena have been observed.
Salt, in the form of brine, is sometimes present in coal. Hydro-
carbons, such as petroleum, bitumen, paraffin, &c, are also
found occasionally in coal, but more generally in the associated
sandstones and limestones of the Carboniferous formation
Gases, consisting principally of light carburcttcd hydrogen or
marsh gas, are often present in considerable quantity in coal, in a
dissolved or occluded state, and the evolution of these upon
exposure to the air, especially when a sudden diminution of
atmospheric pressure takes place, constitutes one of the most
formidable dangers that the coal miner has to encounter.
The classification of the different kinds of coal may be con-
sidered from various points of view, such as their chemical
composition, their behaviour when subjected to heat
or when burnt, and their geological position and JjJJJ"
origin. They all contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen, forming the carbonaceous or combustible portion,
and some quantity of mineral matter, which remains after
combustion as a residue or "ash." As the amount of ash
varies very considerably in different coals, and stands in no rela-
tion to the proportion of the other constituents, it is necessary in
forming a chemical classification to compute the results of
analysis after deduction of the ash and hygroscopic water.
Examples of analyses treated in this manner are furnished in the
last column of Table I., from which it will be seen that the
nearest approach to pure carbon is furnished by
anthracite, which contains above 00%. This class of 3X*'
coal burns with a very small amount of flame, produc-
ing intense local heat and no smoke. It is especially' used for
drying hops and malt, and in blast furnaces where a high tempera-
ture is required, but it is not suited for teverberatory furnaces.
The most important class of coals is that generally known
as bituminous, from their property of softening or undergoing an
apparent fusion when heated to a temperature far
below that at which actual combustion takes place. £JJ^
This term is founded on a misapprehension of the nature
of the occurrence,, since, although the softening takes place at a
low temperature, still it marks the point at which destructive
distillation commences, and hydrocarbons both of a solid and
gaseous character are formed. That nothing analogous to
bitumen exists in coals is proved by the fact that the ordinary
solvents for bituminous substances, such as bisulphide of
carbon and benzol, have no effect upon them, as would bt
the case if they contained bitumen soluble in these re-agents.
The term is, however, a convenient one, and one whose use
is almost a necessity, from its having an almost universal
currency among coal miners. Hie proportion of carbon in
bituminous coals may vary from 80 to 00% — the amount being
highest as they approach the character of anthracite, and least in
those which are nearest to lignites. The amount of hydrogen Is
from 4! to 6%, while the oxygen may vary within much wider
limits, or from about 3 to 14 %. These variations in composition
are attended with corresponding differences in qualities, whkh
are distinguished by special names. Thus the semi-anthracitic
coals of South Wales are known as " dry " or " steam coals,"
being especially valuable for use in marine steam-boilers, as they
burn more readily than anthracite and with a larger amount of
flame, while giving out a great amount of heat, and practically
without producing smoke. Coals richer in hydrogen , on the other
hand, are more useful for burning in open 6res— -smiths' forges
and furnaces— where a long flame is required.
The .excess of hydrogen in a coal, atant vY* vcbrnqcx^mxmmx 1 !
576
COAL
to combine with its oxygen to form water, is known as " dis-
posable " hydrogen, and is a measure of the fitness of the coal
_. for use in gas-making. This excess is greatest in what is
* known as canncl coal, the Lancashire kennel or candle
coal, so named from the bright light it gives out when burning.
This, although of very small value as fuel, commands a specially
high price for gas-making. Cancel is more compact and duller
than ordinary coal, and can be wrought in the lathe and polished.
oxygen and hygroscopic water are much higher than in true coals.
The property of caking or yielding a coherent coke is usually
absent, and the ash is often very high. The specific gravity is km
when not brought up by an excessive amount of earthy matter.
Sometimes it is almost pasty, and crumbles to powder when dried,
so as to be susceptible of use as a pigment, forming the colour
known as Cologne earth, which resembles umber or sepia. In
Nassau and Bavaria woody structure is very common, and it is
Table I,— Elementary Composition of Coal (the figures denote the amounts per cent).
Composition
calculated exclusive of
Water, *
Sulphur and Ash.
Localities.
Specific
Gravity.
Carbon.
Hydro-
gen.
Oxygen.
Nitro-
gen.
Sulphur.
Ash.
Water.
Carbon.
Hydro-
gen.
O.andN.
Anthracite.
I. South Wales . . .
1-39*
90*39
3-28
2*98
0-83
0*91
t*6i
2*00
93-54
9489
3-39
3-8*
2. Pennsylvania . . .
1*462
90-45
82*70
2-43
2-43
467
r&
2-57
3. Peru
141
0*85
•*>35
375
0*94
9734
1*00
Bituminous Steam and
Coking Coal.
4. Risca, South Wales
5. Aberdare, „
6. Hartley, Northumberl'd
BS
4-73
4-35
6-78
3-06
1*21
0-83
10-67
440
1*12
O-66
8678
9224
8067
5-43
4-51
779
325
7865
465
J*'* 6
©•55
249
476
14-5
7. Dudley, Staffordshire .
8. StranitSen, Styria . .
t-27«
78-57
529
1288
184
039
\°d
I 13
7970
5*37
14*9
79-90
4-85
12*75
0*64
0*20
..
81*45
4-92
1363
Cannd or Cos Coal.
9. Wigan, Lancashire . .
1*276
80-07
5*53
8*91
914
8*o8
2*12
150
2*70
0*9?
8548
79-61
82-67
5-90
862
10. Boghead, Scotland
ir. (Albertite) Nova Scotia
12. (Tasmanite) Tasmania
63*10
82*67
725
8*19
0*96
1978
11-24
914
OI5
819
I*'l8
7934
10*41
4*93
5-3*
..
8380
io-99
521
Lignite and Brown Coal,
13. Cologne ....
X-IOO
6329
498
26*24
8*49
6697
527
27*76
14. Bovey Tracy, Devon-
shire
6631
5-63
22*86 I 0*57
33-18 | 2*8o
236
tf
69-53
500
24*57
15. Trifail, Styria . . .
5072
534
090
55-"
580
3909
These properties are most highly developed in the Substance
known as jet, which is a variety of cannel found in the lower
oolitic strata of Yorkshire, and is almost entirely used for
ornamental purposes, the whole quantity produced near Whitby,
together with a further supply from Spain, being manufactured
into articles of jewellery at that town.
When coal is heated to redness out of contact with the air,
the more volatile constituents, water, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen are in great part expelled, a portion of the
carbon being also volatilized in the form of hydro-
carbons and carbonic oxide, — the greater part, how-
ever, remaining behind, together with all the mineral matter or
ash, in the form of coke, or, as it is also called, " fixed carbon."
The proportion of this residue is greatest in the more anthracitie
or drier coals, but a more valuable product is yielded by those
richer in hydrogen. Very important distinctions — those of
caking or non-caking— are founded on the behaviour of coals
when subjected to the process of coking. The former class
undergo an incipient .fusion or softening when heated, so that the
fragments coalesce and yield a compact coke, while the latter
(also called free-burning) preserve their form, producing a coke
which is only serviceable when made from large pieces of coal, the
smaller pieces being incoherent and of no Value. The caking
property is best developed in coals low in oxygen with 25 to 30%
of volatile matters. As a matter of experience, it is found that
caking coals lose that property when exposed to the action of the
air for a lengthened period, or by heating to about 300 C, and
that the dust or slack of non-caking coal may, in some instances,
be converted into a coherent coke by exposing it suddenly to a
very high temperature, or compressing it strongly before charging
it into the oven.
Lignite or brown coal includes all varieties which art inter-
mediate in properties between wood and coals of the older
jfc,^ formations. A coal of this kind is generally to be
^^ distinguished by its brown colour, either in mass or in
the blacker varieties in the streak. The proportion of carbon
is comparatively low, usually not exceeding 70%, while the
from this circumstance that the term lignite is derived. The best
varieties are black and pitchy in lustre, or even bright and
scarcely to be distinguished from true coals. These kinds are
most common in Eastern Europe. Lignites, as a rule, are
generally found in strata of a newer geological age, but there are
many instances of perfect coals being found in such strata.
By the term " ash " is understood the mineral matter re-
maining unconsumed after the complete combustion of the
carbonaceous portion of a coal. According to Couriot
{Annates de la sottitt gtologique de Belgique, vol. xxiii. ^jjt* 1
p. 105) the stratified character of the ash may be
rendered apparent in an X-ray photograph of a piece of coal
about an inch thick, when it appears in thin parallel bands,
the combustible portion remaining transparent. It may also be
rendered visible if a smooth block of free-burning coal is allowed
to burn away quickly in an open fire, when the ash remains in
thin grey or yellow bands on the surface of the block. The
composition of the ashes of different coals is subject to consider-
able variation, as will be seen by Table II
The composition of the ash of true coal approximates to that
of a fire-clay, allowance being made for lime, which may be
present either as carbonate or sulphate, and for
sulphuric acid. Sulphur is derived mainly from iron
pyrites, which yields sulphates by combustion. An
indication of the character of the ash of a coal is afforded by its
colour, white ash coals being generally freer from sulphur than
those containing iron pyrites, which yield a red ash. There are,
however, several striking exceptions, as for instance in the
anthracite from Peru, given in Table I., which contains more
than 10% of sulphur, and yields but a very small percentage of a
white ash. In this coal, as well as in the lignite of Tasmania,
known as white coal or Tasmanite, the sulphur occurs in organic
combination, but is so firmly held that it can only be very
partially expelled, even by exposure to a very high and continued
heating out of contact with the air. An anthracite occurring in
connexion with the old volcanic rocks of Arthur's Seat,Edinburgh.
which contains a large amount of sulphur in proportion to the
COAL
Table \l.— Composition of the Ash** of Coals.
577
Silica.
Alumina.
Ferric
Oxide.
Lime.
Magnesia.
Potash.
Sulphuric
Acid.
Phosphoric
Acid.
Total
True Coals.
Dowtais, South Wales .
Ebbw Vale, „ .
Kdmgsgrube, Silesia
Ohio
Lignites.
Helmstadt, Saxony
Edeleney, Hungary
39*64
53-00
55-41
4400
17-27
36-01
39-ao
3501
1895
41:0
n -57
2307
11*84
1606
740
5-57
505
I 81
394
321
361
23*67
15-6*
258
a -20
2 05
1-82
2.64
238
489
1-73
0-59
33-83
»3'35
301
o-88
036
0-29
9808
9992
9964
10069
97-13
9812
ash, has been found to behave in a similar manner. Under
ordinary conditions, from | to \ of the whole amount of sulphur
in a coal is volatilized during combustion, the remaining \ to }
being found in the ash.
The amount of water present in freshly raised coals varies very
considerably. It is generally largest in lignites, which may
sometimes contain 30% or even more, while in the
m/i coals of the coal measures it does not usually exceed
from s to 10%. The loss of weight by exposure to the
atmosphere from drying may be from J to \ of the total amount of
water contained.
Coal is the result of the transformation of woody fibre and
other vegetable matter by the elimination of oxygen and
<Jrfrito ^ hydrogen in proportionally larger quantity than
22" carbon, so that the percentage of the latter element
is increased in the manner shown in Table III., given
by J. Percy, the mineral matter being also changed by the re-
moval of silica and alkalis and the substitution of substances
analogous in composition to fire-clay. The causes and methods
of these changes arc, however, not very exactly defined. Accord -
Table III. — Composition of Fuels {assuming Carbon -100).
Carbon.
Hydro-
gen.
Oxygen.
Disposable
Hydrogen.
Wood .....
Peat. .....
Lignite ....
Thick Coal, S. Stafford-
•hire
Hartley Steam Coal .
South Wales Steam
Coal
American Anthracite .
100
100
100
xoo
100
100
100
1218
985
837
612
5-91
*l S
284
8307
55-67
42.42
21-23
18-32
5-28
174
!-8o
289
307
362
409
263
ing to the elaborate researches of B. Renault {Bulletin de la
Sociiti de I' Industrie minirale, 3 ser. vol. xiii. p. 865), the agents
of the transformation of cellulose into peaty substances are
saprophytic fungi and bacterial ferments. As the former are
only active in the air while the latter are anaerobic, the activity
of either agent is conditioned by variation in the water level
of the bog. The ultimate term of bacterial activity seems to
be the production of ulmic acid, containing carbon 65*31 and
hydrogen 385%, which is a powerful antiseptic. By the pro-
gressive elimination of oxygen and hydrogen, partly as water
and partly as carbon dioxide and marsh gas, the ratios of carbon
to oxygen and hydrogen in the rendered product increase in
the following manner::—
C:H
Cellulose 7-2
Peat 98
Lignite, imperfect 12-2
„ perfect 12-6
The resulting product is a brown pasty or gelatinous substance
which binds the more resisting parts of the plants into a compact
mass. The same observer considers Boghead coal, kerosene
shale and similar substances used for the production of mineral
oils to be mainly alteration products of gelatinous fresh water
algae, which by a nearly complete elimination of oxygen have
been changed to substances approximating in composition to
C:0
CsHa and C*H», where C:H«=7-o8 and C:0+N« 4 6-3. In
cannel coals the prevailing constituents arc the spores of crypto-
gamic plants, algae being rare or in many cases absent. By
making very thin sections and employing high magnification
(1000- 1 200 diameters), Renault has been enabled to detect
numerous forms of bacilli in the woody parts preserved in coal,
one of which, Micrococcus car bo, bears a strong resemblance to
the living Cladotkrix found in trees buried in peat bogs. Clearer
evidence of their occurrence has, however, been found in frag-
ments of wood fossilized by silica or carbonate of lime which are
sometimes met with in coal seams.
The subsequent change of peaty substance into coal is probably
due to geological causes, i.e. chemical and physical processes
similar to those that have converted ordinary sediments into rock
masses. Such changes seem, however, to have been very
rapidly accomplished, as pebbles of completely formed coal are
commonly found in the sandstones and coarser sedimentary
strata alternating with the coal seams in many coalfields.
The variation in the composition of coal seams in different
parts of the same basin is a difficult matter to explain. It has
been variously attributed to metamorphism, consequent upon
igneous intrusion, earth movements and other kinds of geo-
thermic action, greater or less loss of volatile constituents during
the period of coaly transformation, conditioned by differences
of permeability in the 'enclosing rocks, which is greater for
sandstones than for argillaceous strata, and other causes; but
none of these appears to be applicable over more than limited
areas. According to L. Lemiere, who has very fully reviewed
the relation of composition to origin in coal seams {Bulletin de
la Sociiti de V Industrie minirale, -4 ser. vol. iv. pp. 851 and
1299, vol. v. p. 273), differences in composition are mainly
original, the denser and more anthracitic varieties representing
plant substance which has been more completely macerated
and deprived of its putrcscible constituents before submergence*
or of which the deposition had taken place in shallow water,
more readily accessible to atmospheric oxidizing influences thaa
the deeper areas where conditions favourable to the elaboration
of compounds richer in hydrogen prevailed.
The conditions favourable to the production of coal seem
therefore to have been — forest growth in swampy ground about
the mouths of rivers, and rapid oscillation of level, the coal
produced during subsidence being covered up by the sediment
brought down by the river forming beds of sand or clay, which,
on re-elevation, formed the soil for fresh growths, the alternation
being occasionally broken by -the deposit of purely marine beds.
We might therefore expect to find coal wherever strata of
estuarine origin are developed in great mass. This is actually
the case; the Carboniferous, Cretaceous and Jurassic systems
(qq.v.) contain coal-bearing strata though in unequal degrees, —
the 'first being known as the Coal Measures proper, while the
others are of small economic value in Great Britain, though
more productive in workable coals on the continent of Europe.
The Coal Measures which form part of the Palaeozoic or oldest
of the three great geological divisions are mainly confined to
the countries north of the equator. Mesozoic coals are more
abundant in the southern hemisphere, while Tertiary coals
seem to be tolerably uniformly distributed irrespective of
latitude.
The nature of the Coal Measures will be best understood by
57 8
COAL
considering in detail the areas within which they occur in Britain,
together with the rocks with which they are most intimately
associated. The commencement of the Carboniferous period is
marked by a mass of limestones known as the Carboniferous or
Mountain Limestone, which contains a large assemblage
of marine fossils, and has a maximum thickness in
S.W. England and Wales of about 2000 ft. The
upper portion of this group consists of shales and sand-
stones, known as the Yoredale Rocks, which are highly developed
in the moorland region between Lancashire and the north
side of Yorkshire. These are also called the Upper Limestone
Shale, a similar group being found in places below the limestone,
and called the Lower Limestone Shale, or, in the north of England,
the Tucdian group. Going northward the beds of limestone
diminish in thickness, with a proportional increase In the inter-
calated sandstones and shales, until in Scotland they are entirely
subordinate to a mass of coal-bearing strata, which forms
the most productive members of the Scotch coalfields. The
next member of the series is a mass of coarse sandstones,
with some slates and a few thin coals, known as the Mill-
stone Grit, which is about equally developed in England and
in Scotland. In the southern coalfields it is usually known
by the miners' name of " Farewell rock," from its marking the
lower limit of possible coal working. The Coal Measures, forming
the third great member of the Carboniferous series, consist of
alternations of shales and sandstones, with beds of coal and
nodular ironstones, which together make up a thickness of many
thousands of feet — from 12,000 to 14,000 ft. when at the maxi-
mum of development. They are divisible into three parts, the
Lower Coal Measures, the middle or Pennant, a mass of sandstone
containing some coals, and the Upper Coal-Measures, also con-
taining workable coal. The latter member is marked by a thin
limestone band near the top, containing Spirorbis carbonarius,
a small marine univalve.
Hie uppermost portion of the Coal Measures consists of red
sandstone so closely resembling that of the Permian group,
which are next in geological sequence, that it is often difficult
to decide upon the true line of demarcation between the two
formations. These are not, however, always found together,
the Coal Measures being often covered by strata belonging to
the Trias or Upper New Red Sandstone series.
The areas containing productive coal measures are usually
known as coalfields or basins, within which coal occurs in more
or less regular beds, also called seams or veins, which can often
be followed over a considerable length of country without change
of character, although, like all stratified rocks, their continuity
may be interrupted by faults or dislocations, also known as slips,
hitches, heaves or troubles.
The thickness of coal scams varies In Great Britain from a
mere film to 35 or 40 ft; but in the south of France and in India
masses of coal are known up to 200 ft in thickness. These very
thick seams are, however, rarely constant in character for any
great distance, being found commonly to degenerate into
carbonaceous shales, or to split up into thinner beds by the
intercalation of shale bands or partings. One of the most striking
examples of this is afforded by the thick or ten-yard seam of
South Staffordshire, which is irom 30 to 45 ft thick in one con-
nected mass in the neighbourhood of Dudley, but splits up into
eight seams, which, with the intermediate shales and sandstones,
are of a total thickness of 400 ft in the northern part of the coal-
field in Cannock Chase. Seams of a medium thickness of 3 to 7
ft are usually the most regular and continuous in character.
Cannd coals are generally variable in quality, being liable to
change into shales or black-band ironstones within very short
horizontal limits. In some instances the coal seams may be
changed as a whole, as for instance in South Wales, where the
coking coals of the eastern side of the basin pass through the
state of dry steam coal in the centre, and become anthracite in
the western side. (H. B.)
The most important European coalfields are in Great Britain,
Belgium and Germany. In Great Britain there is the South
Welsh Acid, extending westward from the march of Monmouth-
shire to Kidwelly, and northward to Merthyr Tydfil. A midland
group of coalfields extends from south Lancashire to the Wen
Riding of Yorkshire, the two greatest industrial districts
in the country, southward to Warwickshire and
Staffordshire, and from Nottinghamshire on the east to
Flintshire on the west In the north of England are
the rich field of Northumberland and Durham, and
a lesser field on the coast of Cumberland (White-
haven, &c). Smaller isolated fields arc those of the Forest of
Dean (Gloucestershire) and the field on either side of the Avoo
above Bristol. Coal has also been found in Kent, in the
neighbourhood of Dover. In Scotland coal is worked at various
points (principally in the west) in the Clyde-Forth lowlands.
In Belgium the chief coal-basins are those of Hainaut and Liege.
Coal has also been found in an extension northward from this
field towards Antwerp, while westward the same field extends
into north-eastern France. Coal is widely distributed in Germany.
The principal field is that of the lower Rhine and Westphalia,
which centres in the industrial region of the basin of the Ruhr,
a right-bank tributary of the Rhine. In the other chief industrial
region of Germany, in Saxony, Zwickau and Lugau, are important
mining centres. In German Silesia there is a third rich field,
which extends into Austria (Austrian Silesia and Galicia), for
which country it forms the chief home source of supply (apart
from lignite). Part of the same field also lies within Russian
territory (Poland) near the point where the frontiers of the three
powers meet Both in Germany and in Austria-Hungary the
production of lignite is large — in the first-named especially in
the districts about Halle and Cologne; in the second in north-
western Bohemia, Styria and Carniola. In France the principal
coalfield is that in the north-east, already mentioned; another
of importance is the- central (Le Creusot,&c.) and a third, the
southern, about the lower course of the Rhone. Coal is pretty
widely distributed in Spain, and occurs in several districts in the
Balkan peninsula. In Russia, besides the Polish field, there is
an important one south of Moscow, and another in the lower
valley of the Donetx, north of the Sea of Azov. The European
region poorest in coal (proportionately to area) is Scandinavia,
where there is only one field of economic value — a small one in
the extreme south of Sweden.
In Asia the Chinese coalfields are of peculiar interest They
are widely distributed throughout China Proper, but those of
the province of Shansi appear to be the richest Proportionately
to their vast extent they have been little worked. In a modified
degree the same is true of the Indian fields; large supplies are
unworked, but in several districts, especially about Raniganj
and elsewhere in Bengal, workings are fully developed. Similarly
in Siberia and Japan there are extensive supplies unworked or
only partially exploited. Those in the neighbourhood of Semi-
palatinsk may be instanced in the first case and those in the
island of Yezo in the second. In Japan, however, several smaller
fields (e.g. in the island of Kiushiu) arc more fully developed.
Coal is worked to some extent in Sumatra, British North Borneo,
and the Philippine Islands.
In the United States of America the Appalachian mountain
system, from Pennsylvania southward, roughly marks the line
of the chief coal-producing region. This group of fields is followed
in importance by the " Eastern Interior " group in Indiana,
Illinois and Kentucky, and the " Western Interior " group in
Iowa, Missouri and Kansas. In Arkansas, Oklahoma and
Texas, and along the line of the Rocky Mountains, extensive
fields occur, producing lignite and bituminous coal. The last-
named fields are continued northward in Canada (Crow's Nest
Pass field, Vancouver Island, &c). There is also a group of
coalfields on the Atlantic seaboard of the Dominion, principally
in Nova Scotia. Coal is known at several points in Alaska, and
there are rich but little worked deposits in Mexico.
In the southern countries coal-production is insignificant
compared with that in the northern hemisphere. In South
America coal is known in Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, northern
Chile, Brazil (chiefly in the south), and Argentina (Parana, the
extreme south of Patagonia, and Ticrra del Fuego), but in no
COAL
579
country are the workings extensive. Africa is apparently the
continent poorest in coal, though valuable workings have been
developed at various points in British South Africa, e.g. at
Kronstad, &c., in Cape Colony, at Vereeniging, Boksburg and
elsewhere in the Transvaal, in Natal and in Swaziland. Australia
possesses fields of great value, principally in the south-east (New
South Wales and Victoria), and in New Zealand considerable
quantities of coal and lignite are raised, chiefly in South Island.
The following table, based on figures given in the Journal of
Ike Iron and Steel Institute, vol. 7 a, will give an idea of the
coal production of the world. —
Tablb IV.
Europe: — • Tons.
United Kingdom .... 1905 256,128,936
Germany, coal 121,298,167
lignite 52498,507
France „ 35.869.497
Belgium „ 21,775,280
Austria, coal „ 12,585,263
„ lignite „ 22,692,076
Hungary, coal 1904 1,031,501
„ „ lignite S447.*83
Spain 190s 3,202,911
Russia .,...'.. 1904 19,318,000
Holland ...... ,. 466,997
Bosnia, lignite 1905 540,237
Rumania „.../. 1903 110,000
Servia ...... 1904 183,204
Italy, coal and lignite . . 1905 412,910
Sweden „ 322,384
Greece, lignite . . . . > 1904 466,997
Asia: —
India 1905 8417,739
Japan 1903 10,088,845
Sumatra 1904 207,280
Africa.—
Transvaal ', 1904 2409,033
Natal ...... i$o5 1,129407
Cape Colony 1904 154,272
America: —
United States 1905 350,821,000
Canada ...... 1904 7,509,860
Mexico 700,000
Peru f 1905 72,665
Australasia :—
New South Wales .... 1905 6,632,138
Queensland „ 529*326
Victoria ,. 153.135
Western Australia „ 127,364
Tasmania , 51.993
New Zealand „ 1.585.756
The questions, what is the total amount of available coal in
the coalfields of Great Britain and Ireland, and how long it may
Coa/ be expected to last, have frequently been discussed
whrm since the early part of the 19th century, and particular
mtanmt attention was directed to them after the publication
Br****- of Stanley Jcvons's book on The Cool Question in 1865.
In 1866 a royal commission was appointed to inquire into the
subject, and in its report, issued in 1871, estimated, that the
Table V.
District.
F.
G.
Coalfield.
'South. Wales and MontnouthcTii
Somen* U.h ire and part at Gtoi
Cestcrshin: .
1 Forest of Dean
North Stafford
South Stafford
Warwickshire .
Lcicestmhin* .
Shropshire
Lancashire . .
Cheshire . .
> North Waks .
, Yorkshire -
^Derby and Kottm.
Nort h u mbrr Ea nd
1 Cumberland
Durham
Scotland
Ireland .
I.
31443 f ot»J39
No del oil*
305,92(1. 1 37
5,167,833,074
1,448,804,556
2 467, SSjMos
360,174,650
S.349,554437
358.0OH,t7»
1,513,026,300
No detailt
No detail a
7-<M<\S4M*7
7,188,93030
6,607.700,512
31,150,767.661
T\a detail*
coal resources of the country, in seams of x ft. thick and
upwards situated within 4000 ft of the surface, amounted to
90,207,285,398 tons. A second commission, which was appointed
in 1001 and issued its final report in 1905, taking 4000 ft. as the
limit of practicable depth in working and j ft as the minimum
workable thickness, and after making all necessary deductions,
estimated the available quantity of coal in the proved coalfields
of the United Kingdom as 100,9x4,668,167 tons. Although in
the years 1870-1003 the amount raised was 5,694,928,507 tone,
this later estimate was higher by 10,707,382,769 tons than that
of the previous commission, the excess being accounted for
partly by the difference in the areas regarded as productive by
the two commissions, and partly by new discoveries and more
accurate knowledge of the coal seams, In addition it was
estimated that in the proved coalfields at depths greater than
4000 ft there were 5,239,433,980 tons, and that in concealed
and unproved fields, at depths less than 4000 ft. there were
39,483,844,000 tons, together with 854,608,307 tons in that part
of the Cumberland coalfield beyond 5 m. and within 12 m. of
high-water mark, and 383,024,000 tons in the South Wales coal-
field under the sea in St Bride's Bay and part of Carmarthen Bay.
In Table V. below column I. shows the quantity of coal still
remaining unworked in the different coalfields at depths not
exceeding 4000 ft and in seams not less than x ft. thick, as
estimated by seven district commissioners; column II. the total
estimated reductions on account of loss in working due to faults
and other natural causes in seams and of coal required to be left
for barriers, support of surface buildings, &c; and column III.
the estimated net available amount remaining unworked.
As regards the duration of British coal resources, the com-
missioners reported (1905): —
" This question turns chiefly upon the maintenance or the varia-
tion of the annual output. The calculations of the last Coal Com-
mission as to the future exports and of Mr Jevons as to the future
annual consumption make us hesitate to prophesy how long oar
coal resources are likely to last. The present annual output is in
round numbers 230 million tons, and the calculated available
resources in the proved coalfields are in round numbers 100,000
million tons, exclusive of the 40,000 million tons in the unproved
coalfields, which we have thought best to regard only as probable
or speculative. For the last thirty years the average increase in the
output has been 2$% per annum, and that in the exports (including
bunkers) 4|% per annum. It is the general opinion of the Dis-
trict Commissioners that owing to physical considerations it is highly
probable that the present rate of increase of the putput of coal
can long continue — indeed, they think that some districts have
already attained their maximum output, but that on the other
hand the developments in the newer coalfields will possibly increase
the total output for some years.
In view 01 this opinion and of the exhaustion of the shallower
collieries we look forward to a time, not far distant, when the rate
of increase of output will be slower, to be followed by a period of
stationary output, and then a gradual decline."
According to a calculation made by P. Freeh in xooo, on the
basis of the then rate of production, the coalfields of central
France, central Bohemia, the kingdom of Saxony, the Prussian
province of Saxony and the north
of England, would be exhausted in
100 to 200 years, the other British
coalfields, the Waldenburg-Schats-
lar and that of the north of France
in 250 years, those of Saarbrlicken,
Belgium, Aachen and Westphalia
in 600 to 800 years, and those of
Upper Silesia in more than 1000
years. (0. J. R.H.; H.M. R.)
Coal-Mining.
The opening and laying out, or,
as it is generally called, "winning,"
of new collieries Is rarely pnigmuw
undertaken without a ary trial
preliminary examination •y<»» » v
of the character of the wmrUa *P'
strata by means of borings, either
for the puroose, «1 ^NssRs&sss&vbR.
II
6,972,003,760
No details
47^04,690
609.78J-7J7
538,179.363
321,8^.653
^1*4,354
1,1(1,046,710
67,165,901
776.558 371
No detail*
No details
1. 510.7" -4 #>
661 , jmons
in.
20470,994579
4,19(1,301.000
4,368,050,347
M15.44EM'73
i T u6 h gS 1,903
1,82545^55"
320,993,699
4. 338.5°7i 7 * 7
391,833,371
1,736467,829
19.138,006,395
7,360,725,100
5,5^9-*35,64i
In537.70«,flo5
5,171,116,346
15,681456,356
17* 45S.000
58o
COAL
number and nature of the coal seams in new ground, or the
position of the particular seam or seams which it is proposed to
work in extensions of known coalfields.
The principle of proving a mineral field by boring is illustrated
by fig. i, which represents a line direct from the dip to the rise
of the field, the inclination of the strata being one in eight.
No. i bore is commenced at the dip, and reaches a seam of coal
A, at 40 fathoms; at this depth it is considered proper to remove
nearer to the outcrop so that lower strata may be bored into
at a less depth, and a second bore is commenced. To find the
position of No. 2, so as to form a continuous section, it is necessary
to reckon the inclination of the strata, which is 1 in 8; and as
Fie. 1. —Proving by Boreholes.
bore No. x was 40 fathoms in depth, we multiply the depth by
the rate of inclination, 40X8 - 320 fathoms, which gives the point
at which the coal seam A should reach the surface. But there is
generally a certain depth of alluvial cover which requires to be
deducted, and which we call 3 fathoms, then (40—3 ■■ 37) X8 ■» 396
fathoms; or say 386 fathoms is the distance that the second
bore should be placed to the rise of the first, so as to have, for
certain, the seam of coal A in clear connexion with the seam
of coal B. In bore No. 3, where the seam B, according to the
same system of arrangement, should have been found at or near
the surface, -another seam C is proved at a considerable depth,
differing in character and thickness from either of the preceding.
This derangement being carefully noted, another bore to the
outcrop on the same principle is put down for the purpose of
proving the seam C; the nature of the strata at first is found
to agree with the latter part of that bored through in No. 3,
but immediately on crossing the dislocation seen in the figure
it is changed and the deeper seam D is found.
The evidence therefore of these bores (3 and 4) indicates some
material derangement, which is then proved by other bores,
cither towards the dip or the outcrop, according to the judgment
of the borer, so as to ascertain the best position for sinking pits.
For the methods of boring see Bokinc.)
The working of coal may be conducted either by means of
levels or galleries driven from the outcrop in a valley, or by
shafts- or pits sunk from the surface. In the early
days of coal-mining, open working, or quarrying from
the outcrop of the seams, was practised to a consider-
able extent; but there are now few if any places in
England where this can be done. In 1873 there could be seen,
in the thick coal seams of Bengal, near Raniganj, a seam about
50 ft. thick laid bare, over an area of several acres, by stripping
off a superficial covering varying from 10 to 30 ft., in order to
remove the whole of the coal without loss by pillars. Such a
case, however, is quite exceptional. The operations by which
the coal is reached and laid out for removal are known as " win-
ning," the actual working or extraction of the coal being termed
" getting." In fig. a A B is a cross cut level, by which the seams
of coal x and 2 are won, and C D a vertical shaft by which the
teams x, 3 and 3 are won. When the field is won by the former
method, the coal lying above the level is said to be " level free."
The mode of winning by level is of less general application than
that by shafts, as the capacity for production is less, owing to the
smaller sue of roadways by which the coal must be brought to
the surface, levels of large section being expensive and difficult
to keep open when the mine has been for some time at
work. Shafts, on the other hand, may be made of almost any
capacity, owing to the high speed in drawing which is attainable
with proper mechanism, and allow of the use of more perfect
arrangements at the surface than can usually be adopted at
the mouth of a level on a hill-side. A more cogent reason, how-
ever, is to be found in the fact that the principal coalfields are in
flat countries, where the coal can only be reached by vertical
sinking.
The methods adopted in driving levels for collieries are
generally similar to those adopted in other mines. The ground
is secured by timbering, or more usually by arching in masonry
or brick-work. Levels like that in fig. 3, which are driven
across the stratification, or generally anywhere not in coal, are
known as " stone drifts." The sinking of colliery shafts, how-
ever, differs considerably from that of other mines,
owing to their generally large size, and the difficulties
that are often encountered from water during the
sinking. The actual coal measure strata, consisting mainly of
shales and clays, are generally impervious to water, but when
strata of a permeable character are sunk through, such as the
magnesian limestone of the north of England, the Permian
sandstones of the central counties, or the chalk and greensand in
the north of France and Westphalia, special methods are required
in order to pass the water-bearing beds, and to protect the shaft
and workings from the influx of water subsequently. Of these
methods one of the chief is the plan of tubbing, or lining _
the excavation with an impermeable casing of wood or 7 " iM *
iron, generally the latter, built up in segments forming rings,
which are piled upon each other throughout the whole depth of
the water-bearing strata. This method necessitates the use of
very considerable pumping power during the sinking, as the
water has to be kept down in order to allow the sinkers to reach
a water-tight stratum upon which the foundation of the tubbing
Fig. 3.— Shaft and LcveL
can be placed. This consists of a heavy cast iron ring, known as
a wedging crib, or curb, also fitted together in segments, which is
lodged in a square-edged groove cut for its reception, tightly
caulked with moss, and wedged into position. Upon this the
tubbing is built up in segments, of which usually from 10 to is
are required for the entire circumference, the edges being made
perfectly true. The thickness varies according to the pressure
expected, but may be taken at from } to 1} in. The inner face
is smooth, but the back is strengthened with angle brackets
at the corners. A small hole is left in the centre of each segment,
which is kept open during the fitting to prevent undue pressure
upon any one, but is stopped as soon as the circle is completed.
In the north of France and Belgium wooden tubbings, built of
polygonal rings, were at tone time in general use. The polygons
adopted were of 30 or more sides approximating to a circular
form.
The second principal method of sinking through water-bearing
ground is by compressed air. The shaft is lined with a cylinder
of wrought iron, within which a tubular chamber,
provided with doors above and below, known as an ]
air-lock, is fitted by a telescopic joint, which is tightly
packed so as to close the top of the shaft air-tight. Air is then
forced into the inclosed space by means of a compressing engine,
until the pressure is sufficient to oppose the flow of water into
the excavatidn, and to drive out any that may collect in the
bottom of the shaft through a pipe which is carried through the
air-sluice to the surface.. The miners work in the bottom in
the same manner as divers in an ordinary diving-bell. Access to
the surface is obtained through the double doors of the air-sluice*
COAL
581
the pressure being reduced to that of the external atmosphere
when it is desired to open the upper door, and increased to that
of the working space below when it is intended to communicate
with the sinkers, or to raise the stuff broken in the bottom. This
method has been adopted in various sinkings on the continent
of Europe.
The third method of sinking through water-bearing strata is
that of boring, adopted by Messrs Kind & Chaudron in Belgium
mhtmm and Germany. For this purpose a horizontal bar
fjjjg, armed with vertical cutting chisels is used, which cuts
out the whole section of the shaft simultaneously. In
the first instance, a smaller cutting frame is used, boring a hole
from 3 to 5 ft in diameter, which is kept some 50 or 60 ft in
advance, so as to receive the detritus, which is removed by a
shell pump of large size. The large trepan or cutter weighs about
16 tons, and cuts a hole of from 9 to 15 ft in diameter. The
water-tight lining may be either a wrought iron tube, which is
pressed down by jack screws as the borehole advances, or cast
iron tubbing put together in short complete rings, in contra-
distinction to the old plan of building them up of segments.
The tubbing, which is considerably less in diameter than the
borehole, is suspended by rods from the surface until a bed
suitable for a foundation is reached, upon which a sliding length
of tube, known as the moss box, bearing a shoulder, which is
filled with dried moss, is placed. The whole weight of the tubbing
is made to bear on the moss, which squeezes outwards, forming
a completely water-tight joint. The interval between the back
of the tubbing and the sides of the borehole is then filled up with
concrete, which on setting fixes the tubbing firmly in position.
With increase in depth, however, the thickness and weight of the
cast iron tubbing in a large shaft become almost unmanageable;
in one instance, at a depth of 2215 ft, the bottom rings in a
shaft 14$ ft in diameter are about 4 in. thick, which is about
the limit for sound castings. It has therefore been proposed,
for greater depths, to put four columns of tubbings of smaller
diameters, 8§ and 5^ ft., in the shaft, and fill up the remainder
of the boring with concrete, so that with thinner and lighter
castings a greater depth may be reached. This, however, has
not as yet been tried. Another extremely useful method of
sinking through water-bearing ground, introduced by Messrs
A. & H. T. Poetsch in 18S3, and originally applied to shafts
passing through quicksands above brown coal seams, has been
applied with advantage in opening new pits through the secondary
and tertiary strata above the coal measures in the north of
France and Belgium, some of the most successful examples being
those at Lens, Anzin and Vicq, in the north of France basin. In
this system the soft ground or fissured water-bearing rock is
rendered temporarily solid by freezing the contained water
within a surface a few feet larger in diameter than the size of the
finished shaft, so that the ground may be broken either by hand
tools or blasting in the same manner as hard rock. The miners
arc protected by the frozen wall, which may be 4 or 5 ft thick.
The freezing is effected by circulating brine (calcium chloride
solution) cooled to 5° F. through a series of vertical pipes closed
at the bottom, contained in boreholes arranged at equal distances
apart around the space to be frozen, and carried down to a short
distance below the bottom of the ground to be secured. The
chilled brine enters through a central tube of small diameter,
passes to the bottom of the outer one and rises through the latter
to the surface, each system of tubes being connected above by a
ring main with the circulating pumps. The brine is cooled in a
tank filled with spiral pipes, in which anhydrous ammonia,
previously liquefied by compression, is vaporized in vacuo at the
atmospheric temperature by the sensible heat of the return-
current of brine, whose temperature has been slightly raised in
its passage through the circulating tubes. When hard ground
is reached, a seat is formed for the cast iron tubbing, which is
built up in the usual way and concreted at the back, a small
quantity of caustic soda being sometimes used in mixing the
concrete to prevent freezing. In an application of this method
at Vicq , two shafts of 12 and 16-4 ft. diameter, in a covering of
cretaceous strata, were frozen to a depth of 300 ft in fifty days,
the actual sinking and lining operations requiring ninety days
more. The freezing machines were kept at work for 200 days,
and a 1 91 tons of coal were consumed in supplying steam for the
compressors and circulating pumps.
The introduction of these special methods has considerably
simplified the problem of sinking through water-bearing strata.
Some of the earlier sinkings of this kind, when pumps had to be
depended on for keeping down the water, were conducted at
great cost, as, for instance, at South Helton, and more recently
Ryhope, near Sunderland, through the magnesian limestone
of Durham.
The size and form of colliery shafts vary in different districts.
In the United States and Scotland rectangular pits secured by
timber framings are still common, but the tendency
is now generally to make them round, 20 ft being about MhaUg.
the largest diameter employed. In the Midland
counties, from 7 to 9 ft is a very common size, but larger dimen-
sions are adopted where a large production is required. Since
the accident at Hartley colliery in 1862, caused by the breaking
of the pumping-engine beam, which fell into the shaft and
blocked it up, whereby the whole of the men then at work in the
mine were starved to death, it has been made compulsory upon
mine-owners in the United Kingdom to have two pits for each
working, in* place of the single one divided by walls or brattices
which was formerly thought sufficient. The use of two inde-
pendent connexions— whether separate pits or sections of the
same pit, between the surface and the workings— is necessary
for the service of the ventilation, fresh air from the surface being
carried down one, known as the " downcast," while the foul or
return air of the mine rises through the other or " upcast " pit
back to the surface. In a heavily-watered mine it is often
necessary to establish a special engine-pit, with pumps per-
manently fixed, or a division of one of the pits may be devoted
to this purpose. The pumps, placed close to the point where the
water accumulates, may be worked by an engine on the surface
by means of heavy reciprocating rods which pass down the shaft,
or by underground motors driven by steam, compressed air or
electricity.
Where the water does not accumulate very rapidly it is a
common practice to allow it to collect in a pit or sump below the
working bottom of the shaft, and to draw it off in a water tub
or " hoppet " by the main engine, when the latter is not employed
in raising coal.
The laying out of a colliery, after the coal has been won, by
sinkings or levels, may be accomplished in various ways, accord-
ing to the nature of the coal, its thickness and dip, and LMylttr
the extent of ground to be worked. In the South JJf
Staffordshire and other Midland coalfields, where only workJag*
shallow pits are required, and the coals are thick, a
pair of pits may be sunk for a very few acres, while in the North
of England, on the other hand, where sinking is expensive, an
area of some thousands of acres may be commanded from the
same number of pits. In the latter case, which represents the
most approved practice, the sinking is usually placed about the
centre of the ground, so that the workings may radiate in every
direction from the pit bottom, with the view of employing the
greatest number of hands to advantage. Where a large area
cannot be commanded, it is best to sink to the lowest point of
the field for the convenience of drawing the coal and water which
become level-free in regard to the pit. Where properties are much
divided, it is always necessary to maintain a thick barrier of
unwrought coal between the boundary of the mine and the
neighbouring workings, especially if the latter are to the dip.
If a prominent line of fault crosses the area it may usually be
a convenient division of the fields into sections or districts. The
first process in laying out the workings consists in driving a
gallery on the level along the course of the coal seam, which is
known as a " dip head level," and a lower parallel one, in which
the water collects, known as a " lodgment level." Galleries
driven at right angles to these are known as a " dip " or " rise
headings," according to their position above or below tha. ^
bottom. In StaffordsMxt \Sut tm&&> Vn£& *» ^»^«^ ^
5 8a
COAL
" gate roads." To secure the perpendicularity of the shaft, it
is necessary to leave a large mass or pillar of the seam untouched
around the pit bottom. This pillar is known in Scotland as the
11 pit bottom stoop." The junction of the levels with the pit is
known as the " pit eye "; it is usually of an enlarged section,
and lined with masonry or brick-work, so as to afford room for
handling the wagons or trams of coal brought from the working
faces. In this portion of the pit are generally placed the furnaces
for ventilation, and the boilers required for working steam engines
underground, as well as the stables and lamp cabin.
The removal of the coal after the roads have been driven may
be effected in many different ways, according to the custom of
the district. These may, however,
all be considered as modifications
of two systems, .viz. pillar work
and long-wall work. In the former,
which is also known as "post and stall" or
" bord and pillar " in the north of England,
"pillar and stall" in South Wales, and '
" stoop and room " in Scotland, the field r
however, are so difficult to support that sits take place when
the half of the coal is left in pillars. Fig. 4 will convey a general
idea of the appearance of sits,— k, m, n showing different stages.
The modern method of pillar working is shown in fig. 5. In
the Northumberland steam coal district, where it is carried out
in the most perfect manner, the bords are 5 to 6 yds. in width,
while the pillars are 22 yds. broad and 30 yds. long, which are
subsequently got out on coming back. In the same figure is
also shown the method of working whole coal and pillars at the
same time, a barrier of two or three ranges of pillars or a rib of
solid coal being left between the working in the solid and those
in the pillars. The space from which the entire quantity of coal
T\
is divided into strips by numerous openings j^afcfe"''
driven parallel to the main rise headings, l^*i-JUJJTJ , ,jy'
called " bords " or " bord gates," which are I Jl3U0QQ331"'|cV
again divided by cutting through them at nQuOOOLltJjQ
intervals, so as to leave a series of m
workiag. P»U&rs arranged chequer-wise over
the entire area. These pillars arc
left for the support of the roof as the work
ings advance, so as to keep the mine open ■
and free from waste. In the oldest form of r _:' V?"^-_ 1Z
this class of working, where the size of the ■
pillar is equal to the width of the stall or
excavation, about \ of the whole seam will
be removed, the remainder being left in the
pillars. A portion of this may be got by the
QQDQ
Rtfereaca
1 *i+ ipSTf
QUE
ueifc
ISlL
""OQQLJUl
T r r -r ,
requeue
process known as robbing the pillars, but the coal so obtained
is liable to be very much crushed from the pressure of the
superincumbent strata. This crushing may take place cither from
above or below, producing what are known as "creeps" or
" sits."
A coal seam with a soft. pavement and a hard roof is the most
subject to a " creep." The first indication is a dull hollow sound
heard when treading on the pavement orfloor, probably occasioned
' goaf,"
FlG. 5.— Pillar Working.
has been removed is known in different districts as the '
" gob," or " waste."
Fig. 6 represents the Lancashire system of pillar working.
The area is laid out by two pairs of level drifts, parallel to each
other, about 150 yds. apart, which arc carried to the boundary.
About 100 yds. back from the boundary a communication is
made between these levels, from which other levels arc driven
forward, dividing the coal into ribs of about 25 or 30 yds. wide,
which are then cut back by taking off the coal in slices from
Fig. 3. — " Creeps " in Coal-Mines.
by some of the individual layers parting from each other as
shown at a fig. 3; the succeeding stages of creep arc shown at
b, c, d,f, and g, in the same figure; the last being the final stage,
when the coal begins to sustain the pressure from the overlying
strata, in common with the disturbed pavement.
Flo. 4. — " Sits " in Mines.
" Sfts " are the reverse of creeps; in the one case the pavement
is forced up, and in the other the roof is forced or falls down, for
want of proper support or tenacity in itself. This accident
geaenJIy Arises from an improper size of pillars; some roofs,
Fig. 6. — Lancashire method of working Coal.
the level towards the rise in breadths of about 6 yds. By this
method the whole of the coal is got backwards, the main roads
being kept in solid coal; the intermediate levels not being driven
till they are wanted, a greater amount of support is given, and
the pillars arc less crushed than is usual in pillar working.
In the South Wales system of working, cross headings are
driven from the main roads obliquely across the rise to get
a sufficiently easy gradient for horse roads, and from these
the stalls are opened out with a narrow entrance, in order to
COAL
583
leave support on cither side of the road, but afterwards widening
to as great a breadth as the seam will allow, leaving pillars of
a minimum thickness. The character of such workings is very
irregular in plan, and as the ventilation is attended with con-
siderable difficulty, it is now becoming generally superseded
by more improved methods.
The second great principle of working is that known as long-
wall or long- work, in which the coal is taken away either in broad
. .. faces from roads about 40 or 50 yds. apart and parallel
wJJJjJJ^. to each other, or along curved faces between roads
radiating from the pit bottom — the essential feature
in both cases being the removal of the whole of the coal at once,
without first sub-dividing it into pillars, to be taken away at a
Fig. 7.— Long-wall method of working Coal in Derbyshire.
second working. The roof is temporarily supported by wooden
props or pack walling of stone, for a sufficient breadth along the
face to protect the workmen, and allow them to work together
behind. The general character of a long-wall working is shown
in fig. 7, which represents an area of about 500 acres of the bottom
hard steam coal at Shipley in Derbyshire. The principal road
extends from the shafts southward; and on both sides of it
the coal has been removed from the light-shaded area by cutting
it back perpendicularly towards the boundaries, along faces
about 50 yds. in length, those nearest to the shaft being kept
in advance of those farther away, producing a step-shaped
outline to the face of the whole coal. It will be seen that by this
method the whole of the scam, with the exception of the pillars
left to protect the main roadways, is removed. The roads for
drawing the coal from the working faces to the shaft are kept
open by walling through the waste or goaf produced by the fall
of the unsupported roof. The straight roads arc the air-ways
for carrying pure air from the down-cast shaft to the working
faces, while the return air passes along the faces and back to
the up-cast by the curved road. The above is the method of
working long-wall forward, i.e. taking the coal in advance from
the pit towards the boundary, with roads kept open through the
gob. Another method consists in driving towards the boundary,
and taking the coal backward towards the shafts, or working
homeward, allowing the waste to close up without roads having
to be kept open through it. This is of course preferable, but is
only applicable where the owner of the mine can afford to
expend the capital required to reach the limit of the field in
excess of that necessary when the raising of coal proceeds pari
passu with the extension of the main roads. Fig. 6 is sub-
stantially a modification of this kind of long- wall work.
yJJrfcsAftv Fig. 8 represents a method of working practised in
method, the South Yorkshire district, known as bords and
banks. The field is divided by levels and headings into
rectangular banks, while from the main levels bords or wickets
about 30 yds. wide, separated from each other by banks of about
the same width, are carried forward in long-wall work, as shown
on the left side of the figure, the waste being carefully packed
behind so as to secure the ventilation. When these have been
worked up to the extremity, as shown on the right side, the inter-
mediate bank is removed by working backward towards the
level. This system, therefore, combines both methods of long-
wall working, but it is not generally applicable, owing to the
difficulty of ventilation, due to the great length of air-way that
has to be kept open around the waste on each bank.
The relative advantages of the different methods may be
generally stated as follows. Long-wall work is best suited for
thin coals, and those having a good roof, i.e. one that gives way
gradually and fills up the excavation made by removing the coal
without scaling off suddenly and falling into the working faces,
when practically the whole of the coal may be removed. Against
these advantages must be placed the difficulties attending the
maintenance of roads through the goaves, and in some cases
the large proportion of slack to round or large coal obtained.
Pillar working, in the whole coal, is generally reputed to give a
more advantageous proportion of round coal to slack, the latter
being more abundantly produced on the removal of the pillars,
but as these form only a small portion of the whole seam, the
general yield is more advantageous than in the former method.
The ventilation of pillar working is often attended with difficulty,
and the coal is longer exposed to the influence of the air, a point
of importance in some coals, which deteriorate in quality when
exposed to a hot damp atmosphere. The great increase in the
size of the pillars in the best modern collieries worked upon this
principle has, however, done much to approximate the two
systems to an equality in other respects.
Where the whole of the coal is removed at once there is less
chance of surface damage, when the mines are deep, than with
pillar workings. A notable instance of this was afforded at
Ncwstead, Notts, where the ruined front of Ncwstead Abbey was
lowered several feet without any injury to the structure.
The working of very thick seams presents certain special
peculiarities, owing to the difficulties of supporting the roof in
the excavated portions, and supplying fresh air to the Wmr ^ lma
workings. The most typical example of this kind of t kSt
working in England is afforded by the thick coal mm,
of South Staffordshire, which consists of a series of
closely associated coal seams, varying from 8 to x a or 13, divided
Fie. 8.— Bords and Banks.
from each other by their partings, but making together one great
bed of from 25 to 40 ft. or more in thickness. The partings
together do not amount to more than 2 or 3 ft. The method of
working which has been long in use is represented in fig. 9. The
main level or gate road is driven in the benches coal, or lower part
of the seam, while a smaller drift for ventilation, called an air
heading, is carried above it in one of the upper beds called the
slipper coal. From the gate road a heading called a bolt-hole is
opened, and extended into a large rectangular chamber, known
as a " side of work," large pillars being left at regular intervals,
besides smaller ones or cogs. The order in which the coal is cut
is shown in the dotted and numbered squares in the figure.
The coal is first cut to the top of the slipper coal from below, after
which the upper portion is either broken down by wedging at
falls of itself. The working o( th«iit>&\iv«\RtttaNSk>& «iRs*a&*^pi.
58+
COAL
dangerous, owing to the great height of the excavations, and
fatal accidents from falls of roof are in consequence more common
in South Staffordshire than in any other coalfield in this country.
The air from the down-cast shaft enters from the gate road, and
passes to the up-cast through the air heading above. About one-
half of the total coal (or less) is obtained in the first working;
the roof is then allowed to fall, and when the gob is sufficiently
consolidated, fresh roads arc driven through it to obtain the ribs
and pillars left behind by a second or even, in some cases, a third
Fie. 9.— South Staffordshire method of working Thick Coal.
working. The loss of coal by this method is very considerable,
besides great risk to life and danger from fire. It has, therefore,
been to some extent superseded by the long-wall method, the
upper half being taken at the first working, and removed as
completely as possible, working backwards from the boundaries
to the shaft. The lower half is then taken in the same manner,
after the fallen roof has become sufficiently consolidated to allow
the mine to be rc-opened.
In the working of thick seams inclined at a high angle, such as
those in the south of France, and in the lignite mines of Styria
and Bohemia, the method of working in horizontal slices, about
12 or 15 ft. thick, and filling up the excavation with broken rock
and earth from the surface, is now generally adopted in pre-
ference to the systems formerly used. At Monceaux les Mines,
in France, a seam 40 ft. thick, and dipping at an angle of 20 , is
worked in the following manner. A level is driven in a sandstone
forming the floor, along the course of the coal, into which com-
munications are made by cross cuts at intervals of 16 yds., which
are driven across to the roof, dividing up the area to be worked
into panels. These are worked backwards, the coal being taken
to a height of 20 ft., the opening being packed up with stone sent
down from the surface. As each stage is worked out, the floor level
is connected with that next below it by means of an incline, which
facilitates the introduction of the packing material. Stuff contain-
ing a considerable amount of clay is found to be the best suited
for the purpose of filling, as it consolidates readily under pressure.
In France and Germany the method of filling the space left
by the removal of the coal with waste rock, quarried under-
ground or sent down from the surface, which was originally used
in connexion with the working of thick inclined seams by the
method of horizontal slices, is now largely extended to long-wall
workings on thin scams, and in Westphalia is made compulsory
where workings extend below surface buildings, and safety pillars
of unwTOUght coal are found to be insufficient. With careful
packing it is estimated that the surface subsidence will not exceed
40% of the thickness of the seam removed, and will usually
be considerably leas. The material for filling may be the waste
from earlier workings stored in the spoil banks at the surface;
'where there are blast furnaces in the neighbourhood, granulated
slag mixed with earth affords excellent packing. In thick seams
packing adds about sd. per ton to the cost of the coal, but in
thinner seams the advantage is on the other side.
In some anthracite collieries in America the small coal or culm
find other waste are washed into the exhausted workings by
water which gives a compact mass filling the excavation when the
water has drained away. A modification of this method, which
originated in Silesia, is now becoming of importance in many
European coalfields. In this the filling material, preferably
sand, is sent down from the surface through a vertical steel pipe
mixed with sufficient water to allow it to flow freely through
distributing pipes in the levels commanding the excavations to
be filled; these are closed at the bottom by screens of boards
sufficiently close to retain the packing material while allowing
the water to pass by the lower level to the pumping-cngine which
returns it to the surface.
The actual cutting of the coal is chiefly performed by manual
labour, the tool employed being a sharp-pointed double-armed
pick, which is nearly straight, except when required __ ^
for use in hard rock, when the arms are made with an *" '"
inclination or "anchored." The terms pike, pick, JJ2**
mandril and slitter are applied to the collier's pick in
different districts, the men being known as pikemen or hewers.
In driving levels it is necessary to cut grooves vertically parallel
to the walls, a process known as shearing; but the most import-
ant operation is that known as holing or kirving, which consists
in cutting a notch or groove in the floor of the seam to a depth
of about 3 ft., measured back from the face, so as to leave the
overhanging part unsupported, which then cither falls of its own
accord within a few hours, or is brought down cither by driving
wedges along the top, or by blasting. The process of holing in
coal is one of the severest kinds of human labour. It has to
be performed in a constrained position, and the miner lying on
his side has to cut to a much greater height, in order to get room
to carry the groove in to a sufficient depth, than is required to
bring the coal down,
giving rise to a great
waste in slack as com-
pared with machine
work. This is some-
times obviated by
holing in the beds
below the coal, or in
any portion of a seam
of inferior quality that
may not be worth
working. This loss is
proportionately greater
in thin than in thick
seams, the same
quantity being cut to
waste in either case.
The method of cutting
coal on the long-wall
system is seen in fig. 10,
representing the work-
ing at the Shipley col-
liery. The coal is 40 in.
thick, with a seam of
fire-clay and a roof of
black shale; about 6
in. of the upper part,
known as the roof coal,
not being worth work-
ing, is left behind. A
groove of triangular
section of 30 in. base and 9 in. high is cut along the face,
inclined timber props being placed at intervals to support
the overhanging portion until the required length is cut. These
are then removed, and the coal is allowed to fall, wedges
or blasting being employed when necessary. The roof of the
excavation is supported as the coal is removed, by packing up
the waste material, and by a double row of props 9 ft. from each
other, placed temporarily along the face. These are placed 5 ft.
apart, the props of the back row alternating with those in front.
Fie. 10. — Long- wall working-face —
Plan and Section.
COAL
S8S
The props used are preferably of small oak or English larch,
but large quantities of fir props, cut to the right length, are
also imported from the north of Europe. As the work proceeds
onwards, the props are withdrawn and replaced in advance,
except those that may be crushed by the pressure or buried by
sudden falls of the roof.
In Yorkshire hollow square pillars, formed by piling up short
blocks of wood or chocks, are often used instead of props formed
of a single stem.
In securing the roof and sides of coal workings, malleable iron
and steel are now used to some extent instead of timber, although)
the consumption of the latter material is extremely large. As
a substitute for timber props at the face, pieces of steel joists,
with the web cut out for a short distance on either end, with the
flanges turned back to give a square bearing surface, have been'
introduced. In large levels only the cap pieces for the roof are
made of steel joists, but in smaller ones complete arches made
of pieces of rails fish-jointed at the crown are used. In another
system introduced by the Mannesmann Tube Company the
prop is made up of weldless steel tubes sliding telescopically
one within the other, which are fixed at the right height by a
screw clamp capable of carrying a load of 15 to 16 tons. These
can be most advantageously used on thick seams 6 to 10 ft. or
upwards. For shaft linings steel rings of H or channel section*
supported by intermediate struts are also used, and cross-bearers
or 4 buntons of steel joists and rail guides arc now generally
substituted for wood.
When the coal has been under-cut for a sufficient length,
the struts are withdrawn, and the overhanging mass is allowed
to fall during the time that the workmen arc out of the pit, or it
may be brought down by driving wedges, or if it be of a com-
pact character a blast in a borehole near the roof may be
required. Sometimes, but rarely, it happens that it is necessary
to cut vertical grooves in the face to determine the limit of
the fall, such limits being usually dependent upon the elect or
divisional planes in the coal, especially when the work is carried
perpendicular to them or on the end.
The substitution of machinery for hand labour in cutting coal
has long been a favourite problem with inventors, the earliest
plan being that of Michael Mcinzies, in 1761, who
proposed to work a heavy pick underground by power
Aft*** transmitted from an engine at the surface, through
the agencies of spear-rods and chains passing over
pulleys; but none of the methods suggested proved to be prac-
tically successful until the general introduction of compressed
air into mines furnished a convenient motive power, susceptible
of being carried to considerable distances without any great loss
of pressure. This agent has been applied in various ways, in
machines which either imitate the action of the collier by cutting
with a pick or make a groove by rotating cutters attached to an
endless chain or a revolving disk or wheel. The most successful
of the first class, or pick machines, that of William Firth of
Sheffield, consists essentially of a horizontal pick with two
cutting arms placed one slightly in advance of the other, which
is swung backwards and forwards by a pair of bell crank levers
actuated by a horizontal cylinder engine mounted on a railway
truck. The weight is about 15 cwt. At a working speed of 60
yds. per shift of 6 hours, the work done corresponds to that of
twelve average men. The width of the groove cut is from a to
3 in. at the face, diminishing to 1$ in. at the back, the pro-
portion of waste being very considerably diminished as com-
pared with the system of holing by hand. The use of this
machine has allowed a thin seam of cannel, from 10 to 14 in. in
thickness, to be worked at a profit, which had formerly been
abandoned as too hard to be worked by band-labour. Pick
machines have also been introduced by Jones and Levick, Bidder,
and other inventors, but their use is now mostly abandoned in 1
favour of those working continuously.
In the Gartsherrie machineof Messrs Baird, the earliest of the
flexible chain cutter type, the chain of cutters works round a
fixed frame or jib projecting at right angles from the engine
carriage, an arrangement which makes it necessary to cut from
the end of the block of coal to the full depth, instead of holing
into it from the face. The forward feed is given by a chain
winding upon a drum, which hauls upon a pulley fixed to a prop
about 30 yds. in advance. This is one of the most compact forms
of machine, the smaller size being only 20 in. high. With an air
pressure of from 35 to 40 lb. per sq. in., a length of from 300 to
3 So ft. of coal is holed, 2 ft. 9 in. deep, in the shift of from 8 to
zo hours. The chain machine has been largely developed in
America in the Jeffrey, Link Bell, and Morgan Gardner coal
cutters. These are similar in principle to the Baird machine,
the cutting agent being a flat link chain carrying a double set
of chisel points, which are drawn across the coal face at the rate
of about 5 ft. per second; but, unlike the older machines, in
which the cutting is done in a fixed plane, the chain with its
motor is made movable, and is fed forward by a rack-and-pinion
motion as the cutting advances, so that the cut is limited in
breadth (3} to 4 ft), while its depth may be varied up to the
maximum travel (8 ft.) of the cutting frame. The carrying
frame, while the work is going on, is fixed in position by jack*
screws bearing against the roof of the seam, which, when the
cut is completed, are withdrawn, and the machine shifted
laterally through a distance equal to the breadth of the cut and
fixed in position again. The whole operation requires from
8 to 10 minutes, giving a cutting speed of 120 to 150 sq. ft. per
hour. These machines weigh from 20 to 22 cwt., and are mostly
driven by electric motors of 25 up to 35 h.p. as a maximum.
By reason of their intermittent action they are only suited for
use in driving galleries or in pillar-and-stall workings.
A simple form of the saw or spur wheel coal-cutting machine
is that of Messrs Winstanly & Barker (fig. n), which is driven
Fig. 11.— Winstanly & Barker's Coal-cutting Machine— Plan.
by a pair of oscillating engines placed on a frame running on
rails in the usual way. The crank shaft carries a pinion which
gears into a toothed wheel of a coarse pitch, carrying cutters at
the ends of the teeth. This wheel is mounted on a carrier which,
being movable about its centre by a screw gearing worked by
hand, gives a radial sweep to the cutting edges. When at work
it is slowly turned until the carrier is at right angles to the frame,
when the cut has attained the full depth. The forward motion
is given by a chain winding upon a crab placed in front, by which
it is hauled slowly forward. With 25 lb pressure it will bole
3 ft. deep, at the rate of 30 yds. per hour, the cut being only
2} in. high, but it will only work on one side of the carriage.
This type has been greatly improved and now is the most popular
machine in Great Britain, especially in long-wall workings.
W. E. Garforth's Diamond coal cutter, one of the best known,
undercuts from 5$ to 6 ft. In some instances electric motors
have been substituted for compressed-air engines in such
Another class of percussive coal-cutters of American origin
is represented by the Harrison, Sullivan and Ingersoll-Sergeant
machines, which are essentially large rock "trills without turning
gear for the cutting tool, and mounted upon a pair of wheels
placed so as to allow the tool to work on a forward slope. When,
in use the machine is placed uysti *. ^<*A<sa, T^aivsrasi N&sSs&a^,
586
COAL
towards the face, upon which the miner lies and controls the
direction of the blow by a pair of handles at the back of the
machine, which is kept stationary by wedging the wheels against
a stop on the platform. These machines, which are driven by
compressed air, are very handy in use, as the height and direction
of the cut may be readily varied; but the work is rather severe
to the driver on account of the recoil shock of the piston, and an
assistant is necessary to clear out the small coal from the cut,
which limits the rate of cutting to about 125 sq.ft. per hour.
Another kind of application of machinery to coal mining is
that of Messrs Bidder & Jones, which is intended to replace the
^ ml _ use of blasting for bringing down the coal. It consists
of a small hydraulic press, which forces a set of expand-
ing bits or wedges into a bore-hole previously bored
by a long screw augur or drill, worked by hand, the
action of the press being continued until a sufficient strain is
obtained to bring down the coal. The arrangement is, in fact,
a modification of the plug and feather system used in stone
quarrying for obtaining large blocks, but with the substitution
of the powerful rending force of the hydraulic press for hand-
power in driving up the wedges. This apparatus has been used
at Harccastlc in North Staffordshire, and found to work well,
but with the disadvantage of bringing down the coal in un-
manageably large masses. A method of wedging down coal
sufficiently perfected to be of general application would add
greatly to the security of colliers.
The removal of the coal broken at the working face to the pit
bottom may in small mines be effected by hand labour, but more
Voder- generally it is done by horse or mechanical traction,
grouad upon railways, the " trams " or " tubs," as the pit
coaviy- wagons arc called, being where possible brought up to
***"■ the face. In steeply inclined scams passes or shoots
leading to the main level below are sometimes used, and in
Belgium iron plates are sometimes laid in the excavated ground
to form a slide for the coal down to the loading place. In some
instances travelling belts or creepers have been adopted, which
deliver the coal with a reduced amount of breakage, but this
application is not common. The capacity of the trams varies
with the size of the workings and the shaft. From 5 to 7 cwt are
common sizes, but in South Wales they are larger, carrying up to
one ton or more. The rails used are of fiat bottomed or bridge
section varying in weight from 15 to 25 lb to the yd.; they are
laid upon cross sleepers in a temporary manner, so that they can
be easily shifted along the working faces, but are carefully
secured along main roads intended to carry traffic continuously
for some time. The arrangement of the roads at the face is
shown in the plan, fig. xo. In the main roads to the pit when the
distance is not considerable horse traction may be used, a train
of 6 to 15 vehicles being drawn by one horse, but more generally
the hauling or, as it is called in the north of England, the leading
of the trains of tubs is effected by mechanical traction.
In a large colliery where the shafts are situated near the centre of
the field, and the workings extend on all sides, both to the dip and
rise, the drawing roads for the coal may be of three different kinds
— <r) levels driven at right angles to the dip, suitable for horse
roads, (2) rise ways, known as jinny roads, jig-brows, or up-brows,
which, when of sufficient slope, may be used as self-acting planes,
i.e. the loaded waggons may be made to pull back the empty
ones to the working faces, and (3) dip or down-brows, requiring
engine power. A road may be used as a self-acting or gravitating
incline when the gradient is x in 30 or steeper, in which case the
train is lowered by a rope passing over a pulley or brake drum
at the upper end, the return empty train being attached to the
opposite end of the rope and hauled up by the descending load.
The arrangements for this purpose vary, of course, with the
amount of work to be done with one fixing of the machinery;
where it is likely to be used for a considerable time, the drum and
brake are solidly constructed, and the ropes of steel or iron wire
carefully guided over friction rollers, placed at intervals between
the rails to prevent them from chafing and wearing out on the
ground. Where the load has to be hauled up a rising gradient,
underground engines, driven by steam or compressed air or
electric motors, are used. In some cases steam generated in
boilers at the surface is carried in pipes to the engines below, but
there is less loss of power when compressed air is sent down in the
same way. Underground boilers placed near the up-cast pit so
that the smoke and gases help the ventilating furnace have beca
largely used but are now less favourably regarded than formerly.
Water-pressure engines, driven by a column of water equal to the
depth of the pit, have also been employed for hauling. These
can, however, only be used advantageously where there are fixed
pumps, the fall of water generating the power resulting in a
load to be removed by the expenditure of an equivalent amount
of power in the pumping engine above that necessary for keeping
down the mine water.
The principal methods in which power can be applied to
underground traction are as follows.—
1. Tail rope system.
2. Endless chain system.
3. Endless rope system on the ground.
4. Endless rope system overhead.
The three last may be considered as modifications of the same
principle. In the first, which is that generally used in Northum-
berland and Durham, a single line of rails is used, the loaded
tubs being drawn " out bye,' 1 i.e. towards the shaft, and the
empty ones returned " in bye," or towards the working faces,
by reversing the engine; while in the other systems, double
lines, with the rope travelling continuously in the same direction,
are the rule. On the tail rope plan the engine has two drums
worked by spur gearing, which can be connected with, or cast
loose from, the driving shaft at pleasure. The main rope, which
draws out the loaded tubs, coils upon one drum, and passes near
the floor over guide sheaves placed about 20 ft. apart. The tail
rope, which is of lighter section than the main one, is coiled on the
second drum, passes over similar guide sheaves placed near the
roof or side of the gallery round a pulley at the bottom of the
plane, and is fixed to the end of the train or set of tubs. When
the load is being drawn out, the engine pulls directly on the
main rope, coiling it on to its own drum, while the tail drum runs
loose paying out its rope, a slight brake pressure being used to
prevent its running out too fast. When the set arrives out bye,
the main rope will be wound up, and the tail rope pass out from
the drum to the end and back, i.e. twice the length of the way;
the set is returned in bye, by reversing the engine, casting loose
the main, and coupling up the tail drum, so that the tail rope is
wound up and the main rope paid out. This method, which is
the oldest, is best adapted for ways that are nearly level, or
when many branches are intended to be worked from one engine,
and can be carried round curves of small radius without deranging
the trains; but as it is intermittent in action, considerable
engine-power is required in order to get up the required speed,
which is from 8 to 10 m. per hour. From 8 to 10 tubs arc usually
drawn in a set, the ways being often from 2000 to 3000 yds. long.
In dip workings the tail rope is often made to work a pump
connected with the bottom pulley, which forces the water back
to the cistern of the main pumping engine in the pit.
For the endless chain system, which is much used in the Wigan
district, a double line of way is necessary, one line for full and the
other for empty tubs. The chain passes over a pulley driven
by the engine, placed at such a height as to allow it to rest upon
the tops of the tubs, and round a similar pulley at the far end of
the plane. The forward edge of the tub carries a projecting
pin or horn, with a notch into which the chain falls which drags
the tub forward. The road at the outer end is made of a less
slope than the chain, so that on arrival the tub is lowered, clears
the pin, and so becomes detached from the chain. The tubs arc
placed on at intervals of about so yds., the chain moving con-
tinuously at a speed of from 2} to 4 m. per hour. This system
presents the greatest advantages in point of economy of driving
power, especially where the gradients are variable, but is ex-
pensive in first cost, and is not well suited for curves, and branch
roads cannot be worked continuously, as a fresh set of pulleys
worked by bevel gearing is required for each branch.
The endless rope system may be used with either a single or
COAL
S87
double line of way, but the latter is more generally advantageous.
The rope, which is guided upon sheaves between the rails, is
taken twice round the bead pulley. It is also customary to use
a stretching pulley to keep the rope strained when the pull of
the load diminishes. This is done by passing a loop at the upper
end round a pulley mounted in a travelling frame, to which
is attached a weight of about 15 cwt. hanging by a chain. This
weight pulls directly against the rope; so if the latter slacks,
the weight pulls out the pulley frame and tightens it up again.
The tubs are usually formed into sets of from 2 to xa, the front
one being coupled up by a short length of chain to a clamping
hook formed of two jaws moulded to the curve of the rope which
are attached by the " run rider," as the driver accompanying
the train is called. This system in many respects resembles
the tail rope, but has the advantage of working with one-third
less length of rope for the same length of way.
The endless rope system overhead is substantially similar to
the endless chain. The wagons are attached at intervals by
short lengths of chain lapped twice round the rope and hooked
into one of the links, or in some cases the chains are hooked
into hempen loops on the main rope. In mines that are worked
from the outcrop by adits or day levels traction by locomotives
driven by steam, compressed air or electricity is used to some
extent. The most numerous applications are in America.
One of the most important branches of colliery work is the
management of the ventilation, involving as it does the supply
ff of fresh air to the men working in the pit, as well as
tt9Bt the removal of inflammable gases that may be given
off by the coal. This is effected by carrying through
the workings a larfee volume of air which is kept continually
moving in the same direction, descending from the surface by
one or more pits known as intake or downcast pits, and leaving
the mine by a return or upcast pit. Such a circulation of air
can only be effected by mechanical means when the workings
are of any extent, the methods actually adopted being — (x) The
rarefaction of the air in the upcast pit by a furnace placed at the
bottom; and (2) Exhaustion by machinery at the surface. The
former plan, being the older, has been most largely used, but is
becoming replaced by some form of machine.
The usual form of ventilating furnace is a plain fire grate
placed under an arch, and communicating with the upcast shaft
by an inclined drift. It is separated from the coal by a narrow
passage walled and arched in brickwork on both sides. The
size of the grate varies with the requirements of the ventilation,
but from 6 to 10 ft. broad and from 6 to 8 ft. long are usual ,
dimensions. The fire should be kept as thin and bright as possible,
to reduce the amount of smoke in the upcast. When the mine
is free from gas, the furnace may be worked by the return air,
but it is better to take fresh air directly from the downcast by
a scale, or split, from the main current. The return air from
fiery workings is never allowed to approach the furnace, but is
carried into the upcast by a special channel, called a dumb
drift, some distance above the furnace drift, so as not to come
in contact with the products of combustion until they have been
cooled below the igniting point of fire-damp. Where the upcast
pit is used for drawing coal, it is usual to discharge the smoke
and gases through a short lateral drift near the surface into a
tall chimney, so as to keep the pit-top as clear as possible for
working. Otherwise the chimney is built directly over the
mouth of the pit.
Mechanical ventilation may be effected either by direct ex-
haustion or centrifugal displacement of the air to be removed.
In the first method reciprocating bells, or piston machines, or
rotary machines of varying capacity like gas-works exhausters,
are employed. They were formerly used on a very large scale
in Belgium and South Wales, but the great weight of the moving
parts makes it impossible to drive them at the high speed
called for by modern requirements, so that centrifugal fans are
now generally adopted instead. An early and very successful
machine of this class, the Guibal fan, is represented in fig. 12.
The fan has eight arms, framed together of wrought iron bars,
wftn diagonal struts, so as to obtain rigidity with comparative
lightness, carrying flat dose-boarded blades at their extremities.
It revolves with the smallest possible clearance in a chamber
of masonry, one of the side walls being perforated by a luge
round hole, through which the air from the mine is admitted
to the centre of the fan. The lower quadrant of the casing is
enlarged spirally, so as to leave a narrow rectangular opening:
at the bottom, through which the air is discharged into a chimney
of gradually increasing section carried to a height of about 25 ft.
The size of the discharge aperture can be varied by means of a
flexible wooden shutter sliding in a groove in a cast iron plate,
curved to the slope of the casing. By the use of the spiral guide
casing and the chimney the velocity of the effluent air is gradually
Fig. 12.— Guibal Fan.
reduced up to the point of final discharge into the atmosphere,
whereby a greater useful effect is realized than is the case when
the air streams freely from the circumference with a velocity
equal to that of the rotating fan. The power is applied by steam
acting directly on a crank at one end of the axle, and the diameter
of the fan may be 40 ft. or more.
The Waddle fan, represented in fig. 13, is an example of
another class of centrifugal ventilator, in which a close casing
is not used, the air exhausted being discharged from the circum-
ference directly into the atmosphere. It consists of a hollow
sheet iron drum formed by two conoidal tubes, united together
Fie. 13.— Waddle Fan.
by numerous guide blades, dividing it up into a series of rect-
angular tubes of diminishing section, attached to a horizontal
axle by cast iron bosses and wrought iron arms. The tubes at
their smallest part are connected to a cast iron ring, 10 ft. m
diameter, but at their outer circumference they are only 2 ft.
apart. The extreme diameter is 25 ft.
By the adoption of more refined methods of construction,
especially in the shape of the intake and discharge passages for
the air and the forms of the fan blades, the efficiency of the
ventilating fan has been greatly increased so that the dimensions
can be much reduced and a higher rate of speed adopted. Notable
examples are found in the Rateau, Ser and Capell fans, and
where an electric generating station is available electric motors
can be advantageously used instead of steam.
The quantity of air required for a large colliery depends upon
the number of men employed, as for actual, respiration tana.
588
COAL
ioo to aoo cub. ft. per minute should be allowed. In fiery
mines, however, a very much larger amount must be provided
D / K(l ^ u in order to dilute the gas to the point of safety.
mm o/aa- Even with the best arrangements a dangerous increase
***** in the amount of gas is not infrequent from the sudden
* nam4, release of stored-up masses in the coal, which, over-
powering the ventilation, produce magazines of explosive material
ready for ignition when brought in contact with the flame of a
lamp or the blast of a shot The management of such places,
therefore, requires the most constant vigilance on the part of
the workmen, especially in the examination of the working places
that have been standing empty during the night, in which gas
may have accumulated, to see that they are properly cleared
before the new shift commences.
The actual conveyance or coursing of the air' from the intake
to the working faces is effected by splitting or dividing the current
at different points in its course, so as to carry it as directly as
possible to the places where it is required. In laying out the
mine it is customary to drive the levels or roads in pairs, com-
munication being made between them at intervals by cutting
through the intermediate pillar; the air then passes along one
and returns by the other. As the roads ad-
vance other pillars are driven through in the
same manner, the passages first made being
closed by stoppings of broken rock, or built
up with brick and mortar walls, or both.
When it is desired to preserve a way from one
road or similar class of working to another,
double doors placed at sufficient intervals
apart to take in one or more trams between
them when closed are used, forming a kind of lock or sluice.
These are made to shut air-tight against their frames, so as
to prevent the air from taking a short cut back to the up-
cast, while preserving free access between the different districts
without following the whole round of the air-ways. The ventila-
tion of ends is effected by means of brattices or temporary
partitions of thin boards placed midway in the drift, and extend-
ing to within a few feet of the face. The air passes along one side
of the brattice, courses round the free end, and returns on the
other side. In many cases a light but air-proof doth, specially
made for the purpose, is used instead of wood for brattices, as
being more handy and more easily removed. In large mines
where the air-ways are numerous and complicated, it often
happens that currents travelling in opposite directions are
brought together at one point In these cases it is necessary to
cross them. The return air is usually made to pass over the
intake by a curved drift carried some distance above in the solid
measures, both ways being arched in brickwork, or even in some
cases lined with sheet iron so as to ensure a separation not likely
to be destroyed in case of an explosion (see figs. 5 and 8). The use
of small auxiliary blowing ventilators underground, for carrying
air into workings away from the main circuits, which was largely
advocated at one time, has lost its popularity, but a useful
substitute has been found in the induced draught produced by
jets of compressed air or high-pressure water blowing into ejectors.
With a jet of 7 J* in. area, a pipe discharging 1] gallon of water per
minute at 165 lb pressure per sq. in., a circulation of 850 cub. ft.
of air per minute was produced at the end of a level, or about five
limes that obtained from an equal volumne of air at 60 lb pressure.
The increased resistance, due to the large extension of workings
from single pairs of shafts, the ventilating currents having often
to travel several miles to the upcast, has led to great increase
m the sue and power of ventilating fans, and engines from 350
to 500 H.P. are not uncommonly used for such purposes.
The lighting of underground workings in collieries is closely
connected with the subject of ventilation. In many of the
ffctchii smaller pits in the Midland districts of England, and
generally in South Staffordshire, the coals are suffi-
ciently (tee (rem gas, or rather the gases are not liable to become
explosive when mixed with air, to allow the use of naked lights,
candles being generally used. Oil lamps are employed in many
of the Scotch collieries, and are almost universally used in
Belgium and other European countries. The buildings near the
pit bottom, such as the stables and lamp cabin, and even the
main roads for some distance, are often in large collieries lighted
with gas brought from the surface, or in some cases the gas given
off by the coal is used for the same purpose. Where the gases
are fiery, the use of protected lights or safety lamps (q.v.) becomes
a necessity.
The nature of the gases evolved by coal when freshly exposed
to the atmosphere has been investigated by several chemists,
more particularly by Lyon Playfair and Ernst von rvmfif
Meyer. The latter observer found the gases given off Om o/ja»
by coal from the district of Newcastle and Durham •*•****/
to contain carbonic acid, marsh gas or light carburetted cmm ^
hydrogen (the fire-damp of the miner), oxygen and nitrogen.
A later investigation, by J. W. Thomas, of the gases dissolved or
occluded in coals from South Wales basin shows them to vary
considerably with the class of coal. The results given below,
which are selected from a much larger series published in the
Journal of the Chemical Society, were obtained by heating samples
of the different coals in vacuo for several hours at the tempera-
ture of boiling water. —
Quality.
Colliery.
Volume
per ton
in cub...
ft.
Composition in Volumes per cent.
Carbonic
Acid.
Oxygen.
Marsh
Gas.
Nitro-
gen.
Bituminous
Steam
Anthracite
Cwm Clydach .
Lantwit
Navigation
Bonville's Court
19-72
80-62
19895
5'44
943
13*21
2-62
105
225
o-49
63.70
§195
81-64
9313
29-75
425
In one instance about 1% of hydride of ethyl was found in
the gas from a blower in a pit in the Rhondda district, which was
collected in a tube and brought to the surface to be used in
lighting the engine-room and pit-bank. The gases from the bitu-
minous house coals of South Wales are comparatively free from
marsh gas, as compared with those from the steam coal and
anthracite pits. The latter class of coal contains the largest
proportion of this dangerous gas, but holds it more tenaciously
than do the steam coals, thus rendering the workings com-
paratively safer. It was found that, of the entire volume of
occluded gas in an anthracite, only one-third could be expelled
at the temperature of boiling water, and that the whole quantity,
amounting to 650 cub. ft. per ton, was only to be driven out by
a heat of 300 C. Steam coals being softer and more porous give
off enormous volumes of gas from the working face in most of the
deep pits, many of which have been the scene of disastrous
explosions.
The gases evolved from the sudden outbursts or blowers in
coal, which are often given off at a considerable tension, are the
most dangerous enemy that the collier has to contend with.
They consist almost entirely of marsh gas, with only a small
quantity of carbonic acid, usually under x %, and from z to 4%
of nitrogen.
Fire-damp when mixed with from four to twelve times its
volume of atmospheric air is explosive; but when the proportion
is above, or below these limits it burns quietly with a pale blue
flame.
The danger arising from the presence of coal dust in the air
of dry mines, with or without the addition of fire-damp, has,
since it was first pointed out by Professor W. Galloway, ^^ ^^
been made the subject of special inquiries in the
principal European countries interested in coal mining; and
although certain points are still debatable, the fact is generally
admitted as one calling for special precautions. The conclusions
arrived at by the royal commission of 1891, which may be taken
as generally representative of the views of British colliery
engineers, are as follows:—
1. The danger of explosion when gas exists in very small quantities
is greatly increased by the presence of coal dust.
2. A gat explosion in a fiery mine may be intensified or indefinitely
vpagated by the dust raised by the explosion itself.
3. Coal «' ' -.-.---
I dust alone, without any gas, may cause a dangerous
COAL
S89
explosion if ignited by a blown-out shot; but such cases are likely
to be exceptional.
4. The inflammability of coal dust varies with different coals, but
none can be said to be entirely free from risk.
5. There is no probability of a dangerous explosion being produced
by the ignition of coal dust by a naked light or ordinary flame.
Danger arising from coal dust is best guarded against by
systematically sprinkling or watering the main roads leading
from the working faces to the shaft, where the dust falling from
the trams in transit is liable to accumulate. This may be done
by water-carts or hose and jet, but preferably by finely divided
water and compressed air distributed from a network of pipes
carried through the workings. This is now generally done, and
in some countries is compulsory, when the rocks are deficient
in natural moisture. In one instance the quantity of water
required to keep down the dust in a mine raising 850 tons of
coal in a single shift was 28*8 tons, apart from that required
by the jets and motors. The distributing network extended
to more than 30 m. of pipes, varying from 3} an. to x in. in
diameter.
In all British coal-mines, when gas in dangerous quantities
has appeared within three months, and in all places that are
^^ _ dry and dusty, blasting is prohibited, except with
piniveaf' " permitted " explosives, whose composition and pro-
perties have been examined at the testing station at
the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. A list of those sanctioned is
published by the Home Office. They are mostly distinguished
by special trade names, and are mainly of two classes — those
containing ammonium nitrate and nitrobenzene or nitronaph-
thalene, and those containing nitroglycerin and nitrocellulose,
which are essentially weak dynamites. The safety property
attributed to them is due to the depression of the temperature
of ihe flame or products of explosion to a point below that
necessary to ignite fire-damp or coal dust in air from a blown-out
shot. New explosives that are found to be satisfactory when
tested arc added to the list from time to time, the composition
being stated in all cases.
Methods for enabling miners to penetrate into workings where
the atmosphere is totally irrespirable have come into use for
saving life after explosions and for repairing shafts
and pit-work under water. The aerophore of A.
Galibert was in its earlier form a bag of about 12
cub. ft. capacity containing air at a little above atmospheric
pressure; it was carried on the back like a knapsack and supplied
the means of respiration. The air was continually returned
and circulated until it was too much contaminated with carbonic
add to be further used, a condition which limited the use of the
apparatus to a very short period. A more extended application
of the same principle was made in the apparatus of L. Denayrouze
by which the air, contained in cylinders at a pressure of 300 to
350 lb per sq. in., was supplied for respiration through a reducing
valve which brought it down nearly to atmospheric pressure.
This apparatus was, however, very heavy and became un-
manageable when more than an hour's supply was required.
The newer forms are based upon the principle, first enunciated
by Professor Theodor Schwann in 1854, of carrying compressed
oxygen instead of air, and returning the products of respiration
through a regenerator containing absorptive media for carbonic
acid and water, the purified current being returned to the mouth
with an addition of fresh oxygen. The best-known apparatus
of this class is that developed by G. A. Meyer at the Shamrock
colliery in Westphalia, where a body of men are kept in sys-
tematic training for its use at a special rescue station. This corps
rendered invaluable service at the exploring and rescue operations
after the explosion at Courricrcs in March 1006, the most disas-
trous mining accident on record, when ixoo miners were killed.
A somewhat similar apparatus called the " wcg," after the
initials of the inventor, is due to W. E. Garforth of Wakefield.
In another form of apparatus advantage is taken of the property
possessed by sodium-potassium peroxide of giving off oxygen
when damped; the residue of caustic soda and potash yielded
by the reaction is used to absorb the carbonic acid of the expired
air. Experiments have also been made with a device in which
the air-supply is obtained by the evaporation of liquid air
absorbed in asbestos.
Underground fires are not uncommon accidents in coal-mines;
In the thick coal workings in South Staffordshire the slack
left behind in the sides of work- is especially liable to
fire from so-called spontaneous combustion, due to the rapid
oxidization that is set up when finely divided coal is brought
in contact with air. The best remedy in such cases is to prevent
the air from gaining access to the coal by building a wall round
the burning portion, which can in this way be isolated from
the remainder of the working, and the fire prevented from
spreading, even if it cannot be extinguished. When the coal is
fired by the blast of an explosion it is often necessary to isolate
the mine completely by stopping up the mouths of the pits with
earth, or in extreme cases it must be flooded with water or car-
bonic acid before the fire can be brought under. There have
been several instances of this being done in the fiery pits in the
Barnsley district, notably at the great explosion at the Oaks
colliery in 1866, when 360 lives were lost.
The drawing or winding of the coal from the pit bottom
to the surface is one of the most important operations
in coal mining, and probably the department in which (
mechanical appliances have been brought to the
highest state of development.
The different elements making up the drawing arrangements
of a colliery are — (1) the cage, (2) the shaft or pit fittings, (3) the
drawing-rope, (4) the engine and (5) the surface ^^
arrangements. The cage, as its name implies, consists ^***
of one or more platforms connected by an open framework of
vertical bars of wrought iron or steel, with a top bar to which
the drawing-rope is attached. It is customary to have a curved
sheet iron roof or bonnet when the cage is used for raising or
lowering the miners, to protect them from injury by falling
materials. The number of platforms or decks varies consider-
ably; in small mines only a single one may be used, but in the
larger modern pits two-, three- or even four-decked cages arc used.
The use of several decks is necessary in old pits of small section,
where only a single tram can be carried on each. In the large
shafts of the Northern and VVigan districts the cages are made
about 8 ft. long and 3} ft. broad, being sufficient to carry two
large trams on one deck. These are received upon a railway
made of two strips of angle iron of the proper gauge for the wheels,
and are locked fast by a latch falling over their ends. At Cadcby
Main with four-decked cages the capacity is eight lo-cwt. tubs
or 4 tons of coal.
The guides or conductors in the pit may be constructed of
wood, in which case rectangular fir beams, about 3 by 4 in., are
used, attached at intervals of a few feet to buntons or cross-beams
built into the lining of the pit. Two guides are required for each
cage; they may be placed opposite to each other, either on the
long or short sides— the latter being preferable. The cage is
guided by shoes of wrought iron, a few inches long and bell-
mouthed at the ends, attached to the horizontal bars of the
framing, which pass loosely over the guides on three sides, but
in most new pits rail guides of heavy section arc used. They are
applied on one side of the cage only, forming a complete vertical
railway, carried by iron cross sleepers, with proper scats for the
rails instead of wooden buntons; the cage is guided by curved
shoes of a proper section to cover the heads of the rails. Rigid
guides connected with the walling of the pit are probably the
best and safest, but they have the disadvantage of being liable
to distortion, in case of the pit altering its form, owing to irregular
movements of the ground, or other causes. Wooden guides
being of considerable size, block up a certain portion of the area
of the pit, and thus offer an impediment to the ventilation,
especially in upcast shafts, where the high temperature, when
furnace ventilation is used, is also against their use. In the
Lancashire and the Midland districts wire-rope guides have been
introduced to a very considerable extent, with a view of meet-
ing the above objections. These arc simply wire-ropes, from
I to 1 J in. in diameter, hanging from a cross-bar connected w&t
the pit-head framing at the. wixtant, «xA «n.v&£ds& \» «. ^ass&»
59©
COAL
bar at the bottom, which are kept straight by a stretching
weight of from 30 cwt. to 4 tons attached to the lower bar.
In some cases four guides are used — two to each of the long sides
of the cage; but a more general arrangement is to have three —
two on one side, and the third in an intermediate position on the
opposite side. Many colliery managers, however, prefer to have
only two opposite guides, as being safer. The cage is connected
by tubular dips, made in two pieces and bolted together, which
slide over the ropes. In addition to this it is necessary to have
an extra system of fixed guides at the surface and at the bottom,
where it is necessary to keep the cage steady during the operations
of loading and landing, there being a much greater amount of
oscillation during the passage of the cage than with fixed guides.
For the same reason it is necessary to give a considerable clear-
ance between the two lines of guides, which are kept from 15 to
18 in. apart, to prevent the possibility of the two cages striking
each other in passing. With proper precautions, however, wire
guides are perfectly safe for use at the highest travelling speed.
The cage is connected with the drawing-rope by short lengths
of chain from the corners, known as tackling chains, gathered
into a central ring to which the rope is attached.
1 *" Round steel wire-ropes, about 2 in. in diameter, arc
now commonly used; but in very deep pits they are
sometimes tapered in section to reduce the dead weight lifted.
Flat ropes of steel or iron wire were and are still used to a great
extent, but round ones arc now generally preferred. In Belgium
and the north of France flat ropes of aloe fibre (Manila hemp
or plantain fibre) are in high repute, being considered prefer-
able by many colliery managers to wire, in spite of their great
weight. A rope of this class for a pit 1 200 metres deep, tapered
from 15*6 in. to 9 in. in breadth and from 2 in. to i| in. in
thickness, weighed 143 tons, and another at Anzin, intended to
lift a gross load of 15 tons from 750 metres, is 22} in. broad and
3 in. thick at the drum end, and weighs 18 tons. Tapered round
ropes, although mechanically preferable, are not advantageous
in practice, as the wear being greater at the cage end than on the
drum it i*6 necessary to cut off portions of the former at intervals.
Ultimately also the ropes should be reversed in position, and this
can only be done with a rope of uniform section.
The engines used for winding or hoisting in collieries are
usually direct-acting with a pair of horizontal cylinders coupled
^^ directly to the drum shaft. Steam at high pressure
ugiaS exhausting into the atmosphere is still commonly used,
but the great power required for raising heavy loads
from deep pits at high speeds has brought the question of fuel
economy into prominence, and more economical types of the
two-cylinder tandem compound class with high initial steam
pressure, superheating and condensing, have come in to some
extent where the amount of work to be done is sufficient to
justify their high initial cost. One of the earliest examples was
erected at Llanbradack in South Wales in 1804, and they have
been somewhat extensively used in Westphalia and the north of
France. In a later example at the Bargold pit of the Powell
Duffryn Steam Coal Company a mixed arrangement is adopted
with horizontal high-pressure and vertical low-pressure cylinders.
This engine draws a net load of 5 J tons of coal from a depth
of 625 yds. in 45 seconds, the gross weight of the four trams,
cage and chains, and rope, with the coal, being 20 tons 12 cwt.
The work of the winding engine, being essentially of an inter-
mittent character, can only be done with condensation when
a central condenser keeping a constant vacuum is used, and
even with this the rush of steam during winding may be a cause
of disturbance. This difficulty may be overcome by using
Rateau's arrangement of a low-pressure turbine between the
engine and the condenser. The accumulator, which is similar
in principle to the thermal storage system of Druitt Hal pin, is
a closed vessel completely filled with water, which condenses
the excess of steam during the winding period, and becoming
superheated maintains the supply to the turbine when the
main engine is standing. The power so developed is generally
utilized in the production of electricity, for which there is aa
abundant use about large collieries.
The drum, when round ropes are used, is a plain broad cylinder,
with flanged rims, and cased with soft wood packing, upon
which the rope is coiled; the breadth is made sufficient to take
the whole length of the rope at two laps. One drum is usually
fixed to the shaft, while the other is loose, with a screw lick or
other means of coupling, in order to be able to adjust the two
ropes to exactly the same length, so that one cage may be at ibo
surface when the other is at the bottom, without having to pay
out or take up any slack rope by the engine.
For flat ropes the drum or bobbin consists of a solid disk, of
the width of the rope fixed upon the shaft, With numerous
parallel pairs of arms or horns, arranged radially on both sides,
the space between being just sufficient to allow the rope to enter
and coil regularly upon the preceding lap. This method has the
advantage of equalizing the work of the engine throughout the
journey, for when the load is greatest, with the full cage at the
bottom and the whole length of rope out, the duty required in
the first revolution of the engine is measured by the length of
the smallest circumference; while the assistance derived from
gravitating action of the descending cage in the same period is
equal to the weight of the falling mass through a height corre-
sponding to the length of the Largest lap, and so on, the speed
being increased as the weight diminishes, and vice versa. The
same thing can be effected in a more perfect manner by the use
of spiral or scroll drums, in which the rope is made to coil in a
spiral groove upon the surface of the drum, which is formed by
the frusta of two obtuse cones placed with their smaller diameters
outwards. This plan, though mechanically a very good one,
has certain defects, especially in the possibility of danger resulting
from the rope slipping sideways, if the grooves in the bed arc not
perfectly true. The great size and weight of such drums are
also disadvantages, as giving rather unmanageable dimensions
in a very deep pit. In some cases, therefore, a combined form is
adopted, the body of the drum being cylindrical, and a width
equal to* three or four laps conical on either side.
Counterbalance chains for the winding engines are used in
the collieries of the Midland districts of England. In this method
a third drum is used to receive a heavy flat link chain, shorter
than the main drawing-ropes, the end of which hangs down a
special or balance pit. At starting, when the full load is to be
lifted, the balance chain uncoils, and continues to do so until the
desired equilibrium between the working loads is attained, when
it is coiled up again in the reverse direction, to be again given
out on the return trip.
In Koepe's method the drum is replaced by a disk with a
grooved rim for the rope, which passes from the top of one cage
over the guide pulley, round the disk, and back over the second
guide to the second cage, and a tail rope, passing round a pulley
at the bottom of the shaft, connects the bottoms of the cages,
so that the dead weight of cage, tubs and rope is completely
counterbalanced at all positions of the cages, and the work of the
engine is confined to the useful weight of coal raised. Motion is
communicated to the rope by frictional contact with the drum,
which is covered through about one-half of the circumference.
This system has been used in Nottinghamshire, and at Sneyd,
in North Staffordshire. In Belgium it was tried in a pit 940
metres deep, where it has been replaced by flat hempen ropes,
and is now restricted to shallower workings. In Westphalia it is
applied in about thirty different pits to a maximum depth of
761 metres.
A novelty in winding arrangements is the substitution of
the electromotor for the steam engine, which has been effected
in a few instances. In one of the best-known examples, the
Zollern colliery in Westphalia, the Koepe system is used, the
winding disk being driven by two motors of 1200 H.P. each on
the same shaft. Motion is obtained from a continuous-current
generator driven by an alternating motor with a very heavy
fly-wheel, a combination known as the Hgncr transformer, which
runs continuously with a constant draught on the generating
station, the extremely variable demand of the winding engine
during the acceleration period being met by the energy stored
in the fly-wheel, which runs at a very high speed. This
COAL
S9i
arrangement works admirably as regards smoothness and safety
in running, but the heavy first cost and complication stand in
the way of its general adoption. Nevertheless about 60 electric
winding engines were at work or under construction in May 1906.
The surface arrangements of a modern deep colliery are of
considerable extent and complexity, the central feature being
the head gear or pit frame carrying the guide pulleys
which lead the winding ropes from the axis of the pit
oiotf. to the drum. This is an upright frame, usually made
in wrought iron or steel strutted by diagonal thrust
beams against the engine-house wall or other solid abutments,
the height to the bearings of the guide pulleys being from 80 to
100 ft. or more above the ground level. This great height is
necessary to obtain head-room for the cages, the landing plat-
forms being usually placed at some considerable height above
the natural surface. The pulleys, which are made as large as
possible up to 20 ft. in diameter to diminish the effect of bending
strains in the rope by change in direction, have channelled cast
iron rims with wrought iron arms, a form combining rigidity
with strength, in order to keep down their weight.
To prevent accidents from the breaking of the rope while the
cage is travelling in the shaft, or from over-winding when in
consequence of the engine not being stopped in time the cage
may be drawn up to the head-gear pulleys (both of which are
unhappily not uncommon), various forms of safety catches and
disconnecting hooks have been adopted. The former contriv-
ances consist essentially of levers or cams with toothed surfaces
or gripping shoes mounted upon transverse axes attached to the
sides of the cage, whose function is to take hold of the guides
and support the cage in the event of its becoming detached
from the rope. The opposite axes arc connected with springs
which are kept in compression by tension of the rope in drawing
bnt come into action when the pull is released, the side axes then
biting into wooden guides or gripping those of steel bars or
ropes. The use of these contrivances is more common in
collieries on the continent of Europe, where in some countries
they are obligatory, than in England, where they are not generally
popular owing to their uncertainty in action and the constant
drag on the guides when the rope slacks.
For the prevention of accidents from over-winding, detaching
hooks are used. These consist essentially of links formed of a
pair of parallel plates joined by a central bolt forming a scissors
joint which is connected by chain links to the cage below and
the winding-rope above. The outer sides of the link are shaped
with projecting lugs above. When closed by the load the
width is sufficient to allow it to enter a funnel-shaped guide on a
cross-bar of the frame some distance above the bank level, but
on reaching the narrower portion of the guide at the. top the
plates arc forced apart which releases the ropes and brings the
lugs into contact with the top of the cross-bar which secures
the cage from falling.
Three principal patterns, those of King, Ormerod and Walker,
are in use, and they are generally efficient supposing the speed
of the cage at arrival is not excessive. To guard against this it is
now customary to use some speed -checking appliance, independ-
ent of the engine-man, which reduces or entirely cuts off the
steam supply when the cage arrives at a particular point near the
surface, and applies the brake if the load is travelling too quickly.
Maximum speed controllers in connexion with the winding
indicator, which do not allow the engine to exceed a fixed rate
of speed, are also used in some cases, with recording indicators.
When the cage arrives at the surface, or rather the platform
forming the working top above the mouth of the pit, it is received
upon the keeps, a pair of hinged gratings which are
s ^ lat kept in an inclined position over the pit-top by counter-
aofBtog. balance weights, so that they arc pushed aside to
allow the cage to pass upwards, but fall back and
receive it when the engine is reversed. The tubs are then removed
or struck by the hinders, who pull them forward on to the
platform, which is covered with cast iron plates; at the same
time empty ones are pushed in from the opposite side. The
cage is then lifted by the engine dear of the keeps, which are
opened by a lever worked by hand, and the empty tubs start
on the return trip. When the cage has several decks, it is
necessary to repeat this operation for each, unless there is a
special provision made for loading and discharging the tubs at
different levels. An arrangement of this kind for shifting the
load from a large cage at one operation was introduced by Fowler
at Hucknall, in Leicestershire, where the trains are received
into a framework with a number of platforms corresponding to
those of the cage, carried on the head of a plunger movable by
hydraulic pressure in a vertical cylinder. The empty tubs are
carried by a corresponding arrangement on the opposite side.
By this means the time of stoppage is reduced to a minimum,
8 seconds for a three-decked cage as against 28 seconds, as the
operations of lowering the tubs to the level of the pit-top,
discharging, and replacing them are performed during the time
that the following load is being drawn up the pit.
In the United Kingdom the drawing of coal is generally
confined to the day shift of eight hours, with an output of from
xoo to 150 tons per hour, according to the depth, capacity
of coal tubs, and facilities for landing and changing tubs. With
Fowler's hydraulic arrangement 2000 tons are raised 600 yds.
in eight hours. In the deeper German pits, where great thick-
nesses of water-bearing strata have to be traversed, the first
establishment expenses are so great that in order to increase
output the shaft is sometimes provided with a complete double
equipment of cages and engines. In such cases the engines
may be placed in line on opposite sides of the pit, or at right
angles to each other. It is said that the output of single shafts
has been raised by this method to 3500 and 4500 tons in the
double shift of sixteen hours. It is particularly well suited to
mines where groups of scams at different depths are worked
simultaneously. Some characteristic figures of the yield for
British collieries in 1898 are given below: —
Albion Colliery, South | 551,000 tons in a year for one
Wales . _ J shaft and one engine.
535,000 tons in a year for shaft
580 yds. deep, two engines.
598,798 tons in 279 days, shaft
365 yds. deep.
Colliery, > 629,947 tons in 281 days, maxi-
. . . ) mum per day 2673 tons.
At Cadeby Main colliery near Doncaster in 1006, 3360 tons
were drawn in fourteen hours from one pit 763 yds. deep.
The tub when brought to the surface, after passing over a
weigh-bridge where it is weighed and tallied by a weigher
specially appointed for the purpose by the men and the owner
jointly, is run into a " tippler," a cage turning about a horizontal
axis which discharges the load in the first half of the rotation
and brings the tub back to the original position in the second.
It is then run back to the pit-bank to be loaded into the cage at
the return journey.
Coal as raised from the pit is now generally subjected to some
final process of classification and cleaning before being despatched
to the consumer. The nature and extent of these operations
vary with the character of the coal, which if hard and free from
shale partings may be finished by simple screening into large
and nut sizes and smaller slack or duff, with a final hand-picking
to remove shale and dust from the larger sizes. But when there
is much small duff, with intermixed shale, more elaborate sizing
and washing plant becomes necessary. Where hand-picking is
done, the larger-sized coal, separated by 3-in. bar screens, is
spread out on a travelling band, which may be 300 ft. long and
from 3 to 5 wide, and carried past a line of pickers stationed
along one side, who take out and remove the waste as it passes by,
leaving the dean coal on the belt. The smaller duff is separated
by vibrating or rotating screens into a great number of sizes,
which are deaned by washing in continuous current or pulsating
jigging machines, where the lighter coal rises to the surface and is
removed by a stream of water, while- the heavier waste falls and
is discharged at a lower level, or through a valve at the bottom
of the machine. The larger or " nut " sizes, from } in. upwards,
are washed on plain sieve plates, but for finer-grained duff the
sieve is covered with a bed of broken felspar lumps about & tn~
Silksworth Colliery, North-
umberland ....
Bolsover Colliery, Derby .
Denaby Main
Yoikshire .
592 COAL
thick, forming a kind of filter, through which the fine dirt passes other minerals, is in the proprietor of the soil, and passes with
to the bottom of the hutch. The cleaned coal is carried by a it, except when specially reserved in the sale. Coal
stream of water to a bucket elevator and delivered to the storage lying under the sea below low-water mark belongs to the 2J«J
bunkers, or both water and coal may be lifted by a centrifugal crown, and can only be worked upon payment of m*.
pump into a large cylindrical tank, where the water drains away, royalties, even when it is approached from shafts sunk
leaving the coal sufficiently dry for use. Modern screening and upon land in private ownership. In the Forest of Dean, which is
washing plants, especially when the small coal forms a consider" the property of the crown as a royal forest,there are certain curious
able proportion of the output, are large and costly, requiring rights held by a portion of the inhabitants known as the Free
machinery of a capacity of ioo to 150 tons per hour, which Miners of the Forest, who are entitled to mine for coal and iron
absorbs 350 to 400 H.P. In this, as in many other cases, electric ore, under leases, known as gales, granted by the principal agent
motors supplied from a central station are now preferred to or gavdler representing the crown, in tracts not otherwise
separate steam-engines, occupied. This is the only instance in Great Britain of the custom
Anthracite coal in Pennsylvania is subjected to breaking of free coal-mining under a government grant or concession, which
between toothed rollers and an elaborate system of screening, is the rule in almost every country on the continent of Europe,
before it is fit for sale. The largest or lump coal is that which The working of collieries in the United Kingdom is subject
remains upon a riddle having the bars 4 in. apart; the second, to the provisions of the Coal Mines Regulation Act 2887, as
or steamboat coal, is above 3 in.; broken coal includes sixes amended by several minor acts, administered by in- ro , f
above 2} or af in.; egg coal, pieces above aj in. sq.; large stove spectors appointed by the Home Office, and forming a jn*m
coal, if in.; small stove, 1 to ij or ij in.; chestnut coal, f to f completedisdplinarycodein all matters connected with •«*•
in.; pea coal, i in.; and buckwheat coal, J in. The most valu- coal-mining. An important act was passed in 1008, UoaA£t
able of these are the egg and stove sizes, which are broken to limiting the hours of work below ground of miners. For a
the proper dimensions for household use, the larger lumps being detailed account of these various acts see the article Laboux
unfit for burning in open fire-places. In South Wales a somewhat Legislation.
similar treatment is now adopted in the anthracite districts. Coal-mining is "unfortunately a dangerous occupation, more
With the increased activity of working characteristic of than a thousand deaths from accident being reported
modern coal mining, the depth of the mines has rapidly increased, annually by the inspectors of mines as occurring in the
and at the present time the level of 4000 ft., formerly collieries of the United Kingdom.
JJUt/nf; assumed as the possible limit for working, has been The number of lives lost during the year 1906 was, according to
nearly attained. The following list gives the depths the inspectors' f returns:—
reached in the deepest collieries in Europe in xooo, from which m £tfs3°Sound w
it will be seen that the larger number, as well as the deepest, are \\ other underground accidents '.'.'.'. ytl
in Belgium:— „. accidents in shafts 65
Metres. Ft. „ surface accidents. 135
Saint Hcnriette, C u des Produits, Flenu, Belgium . 1150 3773
VivicrsGilly X143 3750 Total . XI29
MarcineUe. No. 11, Charleroi „ .1075 352; The prmdpd sources of danger to the collier, as distinguished
A^mUont 2 M 1060 3j?a from other inmers, are explosion of fire-damp and falls of roof in
Pendleton dip workings ! ! Lancashire 1059 3-174 getting coal; these together make up about 70% of the whole
Sacre Madame, Charleroi . . Belgium 1055 3461 number of deaths. It will be seen that the former class of ac-
Ashton Moss dip workings . . . Lancashire 1024 3360 cidents, though often attended with great loss of life at one time,
Ronchamb, No. 11 pit . . . .France W153330 are less fatal than the latter.
Viernoy, Anderlues Belgium 1006 3301 »« «» »i« u»u »« mu«
As t ley Pit, Dukinfield, dip workings . Cheshire 960 3 1 50 Authorities.— The most important new publication on British
Saint Andre, Poiricr, Charleroi . . Belgium 950 3117 coa l is that of the royal commission on coal supplies appointed in
1001, whose final report was issued in 1005. A convenient digest
The greatest depth attained in the Westphalian coal is at East « the evidence classified according to subjects was published by the
Recklinghausen, where there are two shafts 841 metres (2750 ft.) «TO' Guardian newspaper in three quarto volumes in 1905-1907.
jc^uusuauacu, wuuc ui««, at* t ww suaiu 041 iu^«w v*/3V » w and the j^^ p^, tearing on the extension and resources of the
ac 5JP* , . . , , , . _ _ different districts were incorporated in the fifth edition (1905) of
The subject of the limiting depth of working has been very Professor Edward Hull's Coal Fields of Great Britain. The Report
fully studied in Belgium by Professor Simon Stassart of Mons of the earlier royal commission (1870), however, still remains of great
("Les Conditions d'expioitation a jrrande profondeur en Bel- value, and must not be considered to have had its conclusions entirely
-.•«,.« » r..//./;.. j. in <£«',«#/ Am vtJa,,,!,;* Lims.nl. , «~ ,«»i superseded. In connexion with the re-survey in greater detail of the
giquc, Bulletin de la SocUU dt I Industrie nuntrale, 3 ser., vol. ^S^a^ b y the Geological Survey a scries of descriptive memoirs
xiv.), who finds that no special difficulty has been met with in were undertaken, those on the North Staffordshire and Leicester-
workings above 1100 metres deep from increased temperature or shire fields, and nine parts dealing with that of South Wales, having
atmospheric pressure. The extreme temperatures in the working appeared by the beginning of 1908.
f a ~« m* „r nm , fM , «*»,. *„• « n A ca« v »t,a »!,.. m3n * m „ m ;„ An independent work on the coal resources of Scotland under the
T^ } X . ,S 5 ^ ™ 1\ !; u the u maxunum m title of tbTCoaffidds of Scotland, by R. W. Dixon, was published in
the end of a drift, 100 ; and these were quite bearable on account j 901.
of the energetic ventilation maintained, and the dryness of the The Rhcm&h- Westphalian coalfield was fully described in all
air. The yield per man on the working faces was 4-5 tons, and Jft»i|*» geoln^ical, technical and economic, in a work called Die
for the whole of the working force underground, 0846 tons, ?1 s ^?]?"*JfL B^^jt? {'¥"^ r ? fi&$!* l<n • *£"
which is not less than that realized in shallower mines. From snor t title of Sammelwrk ) m twelve quarto volumes issued under the
the experience of such workings it is considered that 1500 metres auspices of the West phalian Cou! Trade Syn dieatc( Ber tin ,1902-1905).
would be a possible workable depth, the rock temperature being The S S ftffi Sf the A "***™ TI dominions (exclusive of Hungary)
132°, and those of the intake and return galleries, 92 and 108 ? f * dc «pbed in Die Altwaihvhlpt Qiterrtitkt, published at Vienna
-—--.» ^1 . it j u J*.* 1 u i_ »• 11 "Y " llc Central Union Austrian mincowners. it continues the
respectively. Under such conditions work would be practically taWc of (<Jtmsr ^ ciai pu bi lc aiions in 1*70 and 1S7S, but in much
impossible except with very energetic ventilation and dry air. more dcuit than its predecessor*.
It would be scarcely possible to circulate more than 120,000 to , Systematic detailed descriptions of, the French coalfields appear
130J000 cub. ft. per minute under such conditions, and the K ^'*;^^
„7 '. m 1-1 u*lu . • » j j «■ r^ame I rum the mini&lry of public work? in Paris,
number of working places would thus be restricted, and conse- Much important information on African coals will be found in
quently the output reduced to about 500 tons per shift of 10 the rhme volumes of Report! on the Coat Teiling Phut at the St
hours, which could be raised by a single engine at the surface ^«« Exhibition, published by the United States Geological Survey
without rexniiring any very different appliances from those in \" , ?° 6 ; V 1 ?* *"ik on ihcA nttoaeib Coal Industry cftk* United
Current use Staks, by P, Roberts, was published tn 1901.
r« .v."™ •. j v j lL .. , , ... . , "T" c f" 05 * uieful genera! work on coal mining U the Text Boot
in the United Kingdom the ownership of coal, like that of of Coal Mining, by H. W. Hu E hcs, whkh alio contains detailed
COALBROOKDALE— COALING STATIONS
593
bibliographical lists for each division of the text. The 5th edition
appeared in 1904.
Current progress in mining and other matters connected with coal
can best be followed by consulting the abstracts and bibliographical
lists of memoirs on these subjects that have appeared in the technical
journals of the world contained in the Journal of the Institute of
Mining Engineers and that of the Iron and Steel Institute. The
Utter appears at half-yearly intervals and includes notices of pub-
lications up to about two or three months before the date of its
publication. (H. B.)
COALBROOKDALE, a towa and district in the Wellington
parliamentary division of Shropshire, England. The town has a
station on the Great Western railway, 160 m. N.W. from London.
The district or dale is the narrow and picturesque valley of a
stream rising near the Wrekin and following a course of some
8 m. in a south-easterly direction to the Severn. Great ironworks
occupy it. They were founded in 1 709 by Abraham Darby with
the assistance of Dutch workmen, and continued by his son and
descendants. Father and son had a great share in the discovery
and elaboration of the use of pit-coal for making iron, which
revolutionized and saved the English iron trade. The father
hardly witnessed the benefits of the enterprise, but the son was
fully rewarded. It is recorded that he watched the experimental
filling of the furnace ceaselessly for six days and nights, and that,
just as fatigue was overcoming him, he saw the molten metal
issuing, and knew that the experiment had succeeded.
The third Abraham Darby built the famous Coalbrookdalc
iron bridge over the Severn, which gives name to the neighbouring
town of Iron bridge, which with a portion of Coalbrookdale is
in the parish of Madcley iq.v.). Fine wrought iron work is pro-
duced, and the school of art is well known. There are also
brick and tile works.
COAL-FISH (Cadus virens), also called green cod, black
pollack, saith and sillock, a fish of the family Gadidae. It has a
very wide range, which nearly coincides with that of the cod,
although of a somewhat more southern character, as it extends
to both east and west coasts of the North Atlantic, and is
occasionally found in the Mediterranean. It is especially common
in the north, though rarely entering the Baltic; it becomes
rare south of the English Channel. Unlike the cod and haddock,
the coal-fish is, to a great extent, a surface-swimming fish,
congregating together in large schools, and moving from place to
place in search of food; large specimens (3 to 3) ft. long),
however, prefer deep water, down to 70 fathoms. The flesh
is not so highly valued as that of the cod and haddock. The
lower jaw projects more or less beyond the upper, the mental
barbie is small, sometimes rudimentary, the vent is below the
posterior half of the first dorsal fin, and there is a dark spot in
the axil of the pectoral fin.
COALING STATIONS. Maritime war in all ages has required
that the ships of the belligerents should have the use of sheltered
waters for repairs and for replenishment of supplies. The
operations of commerce from the earliest days demanded natural
harbours, round which, as in the conspicuous instance of Syracuse,
large populations gathered. Such points, where wealth and re-
sources of all kinds accumulated, became objects of attack, and
great efforts were expended upon their capture. As maritime
operations extended, the importance of a seaboard increased,
and the possession of good natural harbours became more and
more advantageous. At the same time, the growing size of ships
and the complexity of fitments caused by the development of the
sailing art Imposed new demands upon the equipment of ports
alike for purposes of construction and for repairs; while the
differentiation between warships and the commercial marine led
to the establishment of naval bases and dockyards provided
with special resources. From the days when the great sailors
of Elizabeth carried war into distant seas, remote harbours began
to assume naval importance. Expeditionary forces required
temporary bases, such as Guantanamo Bay, in Cuba, which was
so utilized by Admiral Vernon in 1 741. As outlying territories
began to be occupied, and jurisdiction to be exercised over their
ports, the harbours available for the free use of a belligerent
were gradually reduced in number, and it became occasionally
r to take them by force. Thus, in 1783, the capture of
Trincomalee was an object of sufficient importance to justify
special effort, and Suffren gained a much-needed refuge for his
ships, at the same time compelling his opponent to depend upon
the open roadstead of Madras, and even to send ships to Bombay.
In this case a distant harbour acquired strategic importance,
mainly because sheltered waters, in the seas where Hughes and
Suffren strove for naval supremacy, were few and far between.
A sailing man-of-war usually carried from five to six months'
provisions and water for 100 to 1 20 days. Other needs required
to be met, and during the wars of the French Revolution it was
usual, when possible, to allow ships engaged in blockade to return
to port every five or six weeks " to refresh." For a sailing fleet
acting on the offensive, a port from which it could easily get to sea
was a great advantage. Thus Raleigh protested against the use of
closely landlocked harbours. " Certain it is/' he wrote, " that
these ships arc purposely to serve His Majesty and to defend the
kingdom from danger, and not to be so penned up from casualitie
as that they should be less able or serviceable in times of need."
Nelson for this reason made great use of Maddalcna Bay, in
Sardinia, and was not greatly impressed with the strategic value
of Malta in spite of its fine natural harbour. The introduction of
steam gave rise to a new naval requirement — coal — which soon
became vital. Commerce under steam quickly settled down
upon fixed routes, and depots of coal were established to meet its
needs. Coaling stations thus came into existence by a natural
process, arising from the exigencies of trade, and began later to
supply the needs of navies.
For many years there was no inquiry into the war requirements
of the British fleet as regards coal, and no attempt to regularize
or to fortify the ports at which it was stored. Sue-
cessful naval war had won for Great Britain many ****
points of vantage throughout the world, and in some
cases the strategic value of ports had been proved by
actual experience. The extreme importance of the Cape of Good
Hope, obscured for a time after the opening of the Suez Canal,
was fully realized in sailing days, and the naval conditions of
those days to some extent determined the choice of islands and
harbours for occupation. There does not, however, appear to
have been any careful study of relative strategic values. Treaties
were occasionally drafted by persons whose geographical know-
ledge was at fault, and positions were, in some cases, abandoned
which ought to have been retained, or tenaciously held when
they might have been abandoned. It was left to the personal
exertions of Sir Stamford Raffles to secure such a supremely
important roadstead as that of Singapore for the empire. Al-
though, therefore, the relative values of positions was not always
recognized, Great Britain obtained as a legacy from sailing days
a large, number of harbours admirably adapted for use as coaling
stations. Since the dawn of the era of steam, she has acquired
Aden, Pcrim, Hong-Kong, North Borneo, Fiji, part of New
Guinea, Fanning Island, and many other islands in the Pacific,
while the striking development of Australia and New Zealand has
added to the long roll of British ports. The coaling stations, 1
actual and potential, of the empire are unrivalled in number, in
convenience of geographical distribution, and in resources. Of
the numerous British ports abroad which contained coal stores,
only the four so-called " fortresses "—Gibraltar, Malta, Halifax
and Bermuda—were at first fortified as naval stations after the
introduction of rifled ordnance. The term fortress is a misnomer
in every case except Gibraltar, which, being a peninsula separated
only by a neck of neutral ground from the territory of a foreign
power, exists under fortress conditions. Large sums were ex-
pended on these places with little regard to principles, and the
defences of Bermuda, which were very slowly constructed, are
monuments of misapplied ingenuity.
In 1878 great alarm arose from strained relations with Russia.
Rumours of the presence of Russian cruisers in many waters, and
of hostile projects, were readily believed, although
the Russian navy, which had just shown itself unable 2JJ2JJ*
to face that of Turkey, would at this period have tt9Mm
been practically powerless. Widespread fears for the
security of coaling stations led to tfe& *v^YoX*cA\jX<Xvitass6^
594
COALITION
royal commission, under the presidency of the earl of Carnarvon,
which was instructed to inquire into and report upon the pro-
tection of British commerce at sea. This was the first attempt
to formulate any principles, or to determine which of the many
ports where coal was stored should be treated as coaling stations
essential for the purposes of war. The terms of the reference to
the commission were ill-conceived. The basis of all defence of
sea-borne commerce is a mobile navy. It is the movement of
commerce upon the sea during war, not its security in port,
that is essential to the British empire, and a navy able to protect
commerce at sea must evidently protect ports andcoalingstations.
The first object of inquiry should, therefore, have been to lay
down the necessary standard of naval force. The vital question
of the navy was not referred to the royal commission, and the four
fortresses were also strangely excluded from its purview. It
followed inevitably that the protection of commerce was ap-
proached at the wrong end, and that the labours of the com-
mission were to a great extent vitiated by the elimination of the
principal factor. Voluminous and important evidence, which has
not been made public; was, however, accumulated, and the final
report was completed in i83x. The commissioners recalled atten-
tion to the extreme importance of the Cape route to the East;
they carefully examined the main maritime communications of
the empire, and the distribution of trade upon each; they selected
certain harbours for defence, and they obtained from the War
Office and endorsed projects of fortification in every case; lastly,
they condemned the great dispersion of troops in the West Indies,
which had arisen in days when it was a political object to keep
the standing army out of sight of the British people, and had
since been maintained by pure inadvertence. Although the
principal outcome of the careful inquiries of the commission
was to initiate a great system of passive defence, the able
reports were a distinct gain. Some principles were at last
formulated by authority, and the information collected, if it had
been rendered accessible to the public, would have exercised
a beneficial influence upon opinion. Moreover, the commis-
sioners, overstepping the bounds of their charter, delivered a
wise and statesmanlike warning as to the position of the navy.
Meanwhile, the impulse of the fears of 1878 caused indifferent
armaments to be sent to Cape Town, Singapore and Hong-Kong,
there to be mounted after much delay in roughly designed
works. At the same time, the great colonics of Australasia began
to set about the defence of their ports with commendable earnest-
ness. There is no machinery for giving effect to the recommenda-
tions of a royal commission, and until 1S87, when extracts
were laid before the first colonial Conference, the valuable report
was veiled in secrecy. After several years, during which Lord
Carnarvon persistently endeavoured to direct attention to the
coaling stations, the work was begun. In 18S5 a fresh panic
arose out of the Panjdeh difficulty, which supplied an impetus
to the belated proceedings. Little had then been accomplished
and the works were scarcely completed before the introduction of
long breech-loading guns rendered their armaments obsolete.
The fortification of the coaling stations for the British empire
is still proceeding on a scale which, in some cases, cannot easily
be reconciled with the principles laid down by the president
of the cabinet committee of defence. At the Guildhall, London,
on the 3rd of December 1896, the duke of Devonshire stated that
" The maintenance of sea supremacy has been assumed as the
basis of the system of imperial defence against attack from over
the sea. This is the determining factor in fixing the whole defen-
sive policy of the empire." It was, however, he added, necessary
to provide against " the predatory raids of cruisers "; but " it
is in the highest degree improbable that this raiding attack would
be made by more than a few ships, nor could it be of any per-
manent effect unless troops were landed. " This is an unexcep-
tionable statement of the requirements of passive defence in the
case of the coaling stations of the British empire. Their protec-
tion must depend primarily on the navy. Their immobile
armaments are needed to ward off a raiding attack, and a few
effective guns, well mounted, manned by well-trained men, and
kept in full readiness, will amply suffice.
If the command of the sea is lost, large expeditionary forces cu
be brought to bear upon coaling stations, and their security «iU
thus depend upon their mobile garrisons, not urxn their passive
defences. In any case, where coal is stored on shore, it cannot
be destroyed by the fire of a ship, and it can only be appropriated
by landing men. A small force, well armed and well handled, cu
effectually prevent a raid of this nature without any assistance
from heavy guns. In war, the possession of secure coal stores ia
distant ports may be a great advantage, but it will rarely suffice
for the needs of a fleet engaged in offensive operations, and
requiring to be accompanied or met at prearranged rendezvous
by colliers from which coal can be transferred in any sheltered
waters. In the British naval ma n an v res of 1892,
Admiral Sir Michael Seymour succeeded in coaling his Jjjjj*
squadron at sea, and by the aid of mechanical appli- thms.
ances this is frequently possible. In the Spanish-
American War of 1898 some coaling was thus accomplished;
but Guantanamo Bay served the purpose of a coaling station
during the operations against Santiago. Watering at sea was
usually carried out by means of casks in sailing days, and must
have been almost as difficult as coaling. As, however, it is
certainty of coaling in a given time that is of primary importance,
the utilization of sheltered waters as improvised coaling stations
is sure to be a marked feature of future naval wars. Although
coaling stations are now eagerly sought for by all powers which
cherish naval ambitions, the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands
by the United States being a case in point, it is probable that they
will play a somewhat less important part than has been assumed.
A fleet which is able to assert and to maintain the command of
the sea, will not find great difficulty in its coal supply. More-
over, the increased coal endurance of ships of war tends to make
their necessary replenishment less frequent On the other hand,
the modern warship, being entirely dependent upon a mass of
complex machinery, requires the assistance of workshops to
maintain her continuous efficiency, and unless docked at intervals
suffers a material reduction of speed. Prolonged operations in
waters far distant from home bases will therefore be greatly
facilitated in the case of the Power which possesses local docks
and means of executing repairs. Injuries received in action,
which might otherwise disable a ship during a campaign, may
thus be remedied. During the hostilities between
France and China in 1884, the French ship "La
Galissonniere " was struck by a shell from one of the
Min forts, which, though failing to burst, inflicted serious damage.
As, by a technical fiction, a state of war was not considered to exist,
the " La Galissonnidre " was repaired at Hong-Kong and enabled
again to take the sea. Local stores of reserve ammunition and of
spare armaments confer evident advantages. Thus, independ-
ently of the question of coal supply, modern fleets employed
at great distances from .heir bases require the assistance of ports
furnished with special resources, and a power like Japan with
well-equipped naval bases in the China Sea, and possessing large
sources of coal, occupies, for that reason, a favoured position in
regard to naval operations in the Far East. As the term " coaling
station " refers only to a naval need which can often be satisfied
without a visit to any port, it appears less suitable to modem
conditions than " secondary base." Secondary bases, or coaling
stations, when associated with a powerful mobile navy, are sources
of maritime strength in proportion to the services they can render,
and to their convenience of geographical position. In the hands
of an inferior naval power, they may be used, as was Mauritius
in 1800-18 10, as points, from which to carry on operations
against commerce; but unless situated near to trade routes,
which must be followed in war, they are probably less useful for
this purpose than in sailing days, since convoys can now be more
effectively protected, and steamers have considerable latitude of
courses. Isolated ports dependent on sea-borne resources, and
without strong bodies of organized fighting men at their backs
are now, as always, hostages offered to the power which obtains
command of the sea. (G. S. C.)
COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalesce*,
to grow together), a combination of bodies or parts into oat
COAL-TAR
595
body or whole. The word is used, especially in a political sense,
of an alliance or temporary union for joint action of various
powers or states, such as the coalition of the European powers
against France, during the wars of the French Revolution; and
also of the union in a single government of distinct parties or
members of distinct parties. Of the various coalition ministries
in English history, those of Fox and North in 1782, of the Whigs
and the Peclitcs, under Lord Aberdeen in 1852-1853, and of the
Liberal Unionists and Conservatives in Lord Salisbury's third
ministry in 1895, may be instanced.
GOAL-TAR* the black, viscous, sometimes semi-solid, fluid of
peculiar smell, which is condensed together with aqueous " gas
liquor " when the volatile products of the destructive distillation
of coal are cooled down. It is also called " gas-tar," because
it was formerly exclusively, and even now is mostly, obtained
as a by-product in the manufacture of coal-gas, but the tar
obtained from the modern coke-ovens, although not entirely
identical with gas-tar, resembles it to such an extent that it is
worked up with the latter, without making any distinction in
practice between the two kinds. Some descriptions of gas-tar
indeed differ very much more than coke-oven tar from pure
coal-tar, via. those which are formed when bituminous shale or
other materials, considerably deviating in their nature from coal,
are mixed with the latter for the purpose of obtaining gas of
higher illuminating power.
It may be generally said that for the purpose of tar-distillers
the tar is all the more valuable the less other materials than real
coal have been used by the gas-maker. All these materials —
bog-head shale, bituminous lignite and so forth — by destructive
distillation yield more or less parafnnoid oils, which render the
purification of the benzols very difficult and sometimes nearly
impossible for the purposes of the manufacturer of coal-tar
colours.
Neither too high nor too low a temperature should have been
observed in gas-making in order to obtain a good quality of tar.
Since in recent times most gas retorts have been provided with
heating arrangements based on the production of gaseous fuel
from coke, which produce higher temperatures than direct firing
and have proved a great economy in the process of gas-making
itself, the tar has become of decidedly inferior quality for the
purposes of the tar-distillers, and in particular yields much less
benzol than formerly.
Entirely different from gas-tar is the tar obtained as a by-
product from those (Scottish) blast furnaces which are worked
with splint-coal. This tar contains very little aromatic hydro-
carbons, and the phenols are of quite a different character from
those obtained in the working of gas-tar. The same holds good
of oil-gas tars and similar substances. These should not be
worked up like gas-tars.
The ordinary yield of tar in the manufacture of coal-gas is
between 4 and 5% of the weight of the coal. Rather more is
obtained when passing the gas through the apparatus of E.
Pelouzc and P. Audouin, where it is exposed to several shocks
against solid surfaces, or by carrying on the process at the lowest
possible temperature, as proposed by H. J. Davis, but this
" carbonizing process " can only pay under special circumstances,
and is probably no longer in practical use.
All coal-tars have a specific gravity above that of water, in
most cases between 1-12 and 1*20, but exceptionally up to 125.
The heavier tars contain less benzol than the lighter tars, and
more " fixed carbon," which remains behind when the tars are
exhausted of benzol and is a decidedly objectionable constituent.
All tars also mechanically retain a certain quantity of water (or
rather gas-liquor), say, 4% on the average, which is very
obnoxious during the process of distillation, as it leads to " bump-
ing." and therefore ought to be previously removed by prolonged
settling, preferably at a slightly elevated temperature, which
makes the tar more fluid. The water then rises to the top, and
is removed in the ordinary way or by special " separators."
The tar itself is a mixture of exceedingly complex character.
The great bulk of its constituents belongs to the class of " aro-
matic " hydrocarbons, of very different composition and degrees
of volatility, beginning with the simplest and most volatile,
benzene (C«H«), and ending with an entirely indistinguishable
mass of non-volatile bodies, which compose the pitch left behind
in the tar-stills. The hydrocarbons mostly belong to the benzene
series CH»»_«, the naphthalene series C«H»»-ia, and the an-
thracene and phenanthrene series C„H„_u. Small quantities of
" fatty " (" aliphatic ") hydrocarbons are never absent, even
in pure tars, and are found in considerable quantities when
shales and similar matters have been mixed with the coal in the
gas-retorts. They belong mostly to the paraffins CHh+t, and
the olefincs CJI*.. The " asphalt " or soluble part of the pitch
is also a mixture of hydrocarbons, of the formula C a H to ; even
the " carbon," left behind after treating the pitch with all
possible solvents is never pure carbon, but contains a certain
quantity of hydrogen, although less than any of the volatile and
soluble constituents of the tar.
Besides the hydrocarbons, coal-tar contains about 2% of the
simpler phenols CHm-tOH, the best known and most valuable
of which is the first of the scries, carbolic acid (q.v.) C«H»OH,
besides another interesting oxygenized substance, cumarone
CfH^O. The phenols, especially the carbolic acid, are among
the more valuable constituents of coal-tar. Numerous sulphur
compounds also occur in coal-tar, some of which impart to it'
their peculiar nauseous smell, but they arc of no technical
importance or value.
Still more numerous are the nitrogenated compounds contained
in coal-tar. Most of these arc of a basic character, and belong
to the pyridine and the quinoline scries. Among these we find
a somewhat considerable quantity of aniline, which, however,
is never obtained from the tar for commercial purposes, as its
isolation in the pure state is too difficult. The pyridines are
now mostly recovered from coal-tar, but only in the shape of a
mixture of all members of the series which is principally employed
for denaturing alcohol. Some of these nitrogenated compounds
possess considerable antiseptic properties, but on the whole
they arc only considered as a contamination of the tar-oils.
Applications of Coal-Tar in the Crude Stale.— Large quantities
of coal-tar arc employed for various purposes without submitting
it to the process of distillation. It is mostly advisable to de-
hydrate the tar as much as possible for any one of its applications,
and in some cases it is previously boiled in order to remove its
more volatile constituents.
No preparation whatever is needed if the tar is to be used as
fuel, cither for heating the gas-retorts or for other purposes.
Its heating-value is equal to the same weight of best coal, but
it is very difficult to burn it completely without producing a
great deal of evil-smelling smoke. This drawback has been
overcome by employing the same means as have been found
suitable for the combustion of the heavy petroleum residues,
called " masut," viz. converting the tar into a fine spray by means
of steam or compressed air. When the gas-maker cannot con-
veniently or profitably dispose of his tar for other purposes, he
burns it by the above means under his retorts.
Several processes have also been patented for producing
illuminating gas .from tar, the most notable of which is the
Dinsmorc process. This process has been adversely criticized
by very competent gas-makers, and no great success can be
expected in this line.
Coal-tar is very much employed for painting wood, iron, brick-
work, or stone, as a preventive against the influence of weather
or the far more potent action of corrosive chemicals. This, of
course, can be done only where appearance is no object, for
instance in chemical works, where all kinds of erections and
apparatus are protected by this cheap kind of paint. Coal-tar
should not be used for tarring the woodwork and ropes of ships,
a purpose for which only wood-tar has been found suitable.
One of the most considerable outlets for crude tar is in
the manufacture of roofing-felt. This industry was introduced
in Germany upwards of a hundred years ago, even before coal-tar
was available, and has reached a very large extension both in
that country and in the United States, where most of the gas-tax
seems to be devoted to this \puvaifc. \x\Vc«>i\iNxk. ,, fcaB^s*^
596
COAL-TAR
it is much leas extensive. For this manufacture a special fabric
is made from pure woollen fibre, on rolls of about 3 ft. width
and of considerable length. The tar must be previously dehy-
drated, and is preferably deprived of its more volatile portions
by heating in a still. It is heated in an iron pan to about 90
or ioo° C; the fabric is drawn through it by means of rollers
which at the same time squeeze out the excess of tar; on coming
out of these, the tarred felt is covered with a layer of sand on
both sides by means of a self-acting apparatus; and is ultimately
wound round wooden rolls, in which state it is sent out into the
trade. This roofing-felt is used as a cheap covering, both by itself
and as a grounding for tiles or slates. In the former case it must
be kept in repair by repainting with tar from time to time, a top
covering of sand or small gravel being put on after every coat of
paint.
Coal-tar is also employed for the manufacture of lamp-black.
This is done by burning the tar in ovens, connected with brick-
chambers in which the large quantity of soot, formed in this
process, deposits before the gases escape through the chimney.
Numerous patents have been taken out for more efficiently
collecting this soot. Most of it is employed without further
manipulation for the manufacture of electric carbons, printing
inks, shoe-blacking, patent leather and so forth. A finer quality
of lamp-black, free from oily and empyrcumatic parts, is obtained
by calcining the soot in closed iron pots at a red heat.
Distillation of Coal-Tar. — Much more important than all appli-
cations of crude coal-tar is the industry of separating its con-
stituents from it in a more or less pure form by fractional dis-
tillat ion, mostly followed by purifying processes. Most naturally
this industry took its rise in Great Britain, where coal-gas was
invented and made on a large scale before any other nation took
it up, and up to this day both the manufacture of coal-gas and
the distillation of the tar, obtained as a by-product thereof,
are carried out on a march larger scale in that than in any other
country. The first attempts in this line were made in 18 15 by
F. C. Accum, and in 1822 by Dr G. D. Longstaff and Dr Dalston.
At first the aim was simply to obtain "naphtha," used in the
manufacture of india-rubber goods, for burning in open lamps
and for some descriptions of varnish; the great bulk of the tar
remained behind and was used as fuel or burned for the purpose
of obtaining lamp-black.
It is not quite certain who first discovered in the coal-naphtha
the presence of benzene (g.v.), which had been isolated from
oil-gas by M. Faraday as far back as 1825. J°hn Leigh claims
to have shown coal-tar benzene and nitro-benzene made from it
at the British Association meeting held at Manchester in 1842,
but the report of the meeting says nothing about it, and the
world in general learned the presence of benzene in coal-tar only
from the independent discovery of A. W. Hofmann, published
in 1845. And it was most assuredly in Hofmann's London
laboratory that Charles Mansfield worked out that method of
fractional distillation of the coal-tar and of isolating the single
hydrocarbons which laid the foundation of that industry. His
patent, numbered 11,960 and dated November nth, 1847, is
the classical land-mark of it. About the same time, in 1846,
Bronncr, at Frankfort, brought his " grease-remover " into the
trade, which consisted of the most volatile coal-tar oils, of course
not separated into the pure hydrocarbons; he also sold water-
white " creosote " and heavy tar-oils for pickling railway
timbers, and used the remainder of the tar for the manufacture
of roofing-felt. The employment of heavy oils for pickling
timber had already been patented in 1838 by John Bcthcll, and
from this time onward the distillation of coal-tar seems to have
been developed in Great Britain on a larger scale, but the utiliza-
tion of the light oils in the present manner naturally took place
only after Sir W. H. Pcrkin, in 1856, discovered the first aniline
colour which suddenly created a demand for benzene and its
homologues. The isolation of carbolic acid from the heavier
oils followed soon after; that of naphthalene, which takes place
almost automatically, went on simultaneously, although the
uses of this hydrocarbon for a long time remained much behind
the quantities which are producible from coal-tar, until the
manufacture of synthetic indigo opened out a wide field for it
The last of the great discoveries in that line was the preparation
of alizarine from anthracene by C. Graebe and C. T. Licbermaoo.
in x868, soon followed by patents for its practical manufacture
by Sir W. H. Perkin in England, and by Graebe, Iicbernuno
and H. Caro in Germany.
The present extension of the industry of coal-tar distuoag
can be only very roughly estimated from the quantity of coal-tar
produced in various countries. Decidedly at the head is Great
Britain, where about 700,000 tons are produced per annum,
most of which probably finds its way into the tar-distillerks,
whilst in Germany and the United Slates much less gas-tar b
produced and a very large proportion of it is used for roofing-feh
and other purposes.
We shall now give an outline of the processes used in the
distillation of tar.
Dehydration. — The first operation in coal-tar distilling » the
removal of the mechanically enclosed water. Some water is chemi-
cally combined with the bases, phenols, &e., and this, of 1
cannot be removed by mechanical means, but splits off only during
the distillation itself, when a certain temperature has been reached
The water mechanically present in the tar is separated by loaf
repose in large reservoirs. Very thick viscous tan are best mixed
with thinner tars, and the whole is gently heated by coil* of pipes
through which the heated water from the oil-condensers is made to
flow. Sometimes special ." tar-separators " are employed,- working
on the centrifugal principle. The water rises to the top and is worked
up like ordinary gas-liquor. More water is again separated during
the hcating-up of the tar in the still itself, and can be removed there
by a special overflow.
Tar-Stills.— The tar is now pumped into the tar-still, fig. 1. Tab
is usually, as shown, an upright wrought-iron cylinder, with aa
arched top, and with a bottom equally vaulted upwards for the
purpose of increasing the heating surface and of raising die level
of the pitch remaining at the end of the operation above die fire-
flues. The fuel is consumed on the fire-grate a, and, after 1
Fig. 1. — Tar-Still (sectional elevation). 1
traversed the holes bb in the annular wall e built below the still, the
furnace gases arc led around the still by means of the flue d, whence
they pass to the chimney. Cast-iron necks arc provided in the top
for the outlet of the vapours, for a man-hole, supply-pipe, ther-
mometer-pipe, safety valve, and for air and steam-pipes reaching
down to the bottom and branching out into a number 01 distributing
1 The illustrations in this article are from Prof. G. Lunge's Coal
Tar and Ammonia, by permission of Fricdrich Yleweg u. Soon.
COAL-TAR
597
amv. NV-.ir f'i> f<>|. fh<-r<- i-. an nvirHow pipe whirh come> into
ani^n on l.lki.; the -till. In the Invent |Kirl of the bottom there is
a running-olf valve or tap. In some cases (but only exceptionally)
dicular •haft is provided, with horizontal anna, and chains
hanging down front these drag along the bottom for the purpose of
keeping it clean and of facilitating the escape of the vapours. This
arrangement b quite unnecessary where the removal of the vapours
■*/tV -•-• --* ---' ' L: ' ' — -
__ ... _.jc injection of steam, but this steam must be care-
fully dried beforehand, or, better, slightly superheated, in order to
prevent explosions, which might be caused by the entry of liquid water
into the tar during the later stages of the work, when the tempera-
ture has arisen far above the boiling-point of water. The steam acts
both by stirring up the tar and by rapidly carrying off
the vapours formed in distillation. The latter object
is even more thoroughly attained by the application
of a vacuum, especially during the later stage of dis-
tillation. For this. purpose the receivers, in which the
liquids condensed in the cooler are collected, arc con-
net ted with an air pump or an ejector, by which a
vacuum of al»out 4 in., say |- atmosphere, is made
whieh lowers the boiling process by about 80 ° C. ; this
not merely hastens the process, but also produces an
improvement of the quality and yield of the products,
cs|x.-ciully of the anthracene, and, moreover, lessens
or altogether prevents the formation of coke on the
still-l'Ottom, which is otherwise very troublesome.
Most manufacturers cm ply ordinary stills as
described. A few of them have introduced continu-
ously acting stills, of which that constructed by
Frederic Lcnnard has probably found a wider appli-
cation than any of the others. They all work on the
principle of gradually heating the tar in several com-
part mcntSj following one after the other. The fresh
tar w run in at one end and the pitch is run out from
the other. The vapours formed in the various
compartments arc separately carried away and con-
densed, yielding at one and the same lime those
products which are obtained in the ordinary stills at
the different periods of the distillation. Although in
theory this continuous process has great advantage's
over the ordinary style of working, the complica-
tion of the apparatus and practical difficulties arising
in the manipulation have deterred most manufac-
turers from introducing it.
The tar-stills arc set in brickwork in such a manner
that there is no over-heating of their contents. For this purpose the
fire-grate is placed at a good distance from the bottom or even covered
by a brick arch so that the flame docs not touch the still-bottom at all
and acts only indirectly, but the sides of the still arc always directly
heated. The fire-flue must not be carried up to a greater height
than is necessary to provide against the overheating of any part
of the still not protected inside by liquid tar, or, at the end of the
operation, by liquid pitch. The outlet pipe is equally protected
against overheating and also against any stoppage by pitch solidi-
fying therein. The capacity of tar-stills ranges from 5 to 50 tons.
They hold usually about 10 tons, in which case they can be worked
off during one day.
The vapours coming from the still arc condensed in coolers of
various shapes, one of which is shown in figs. 2 and 3. The cooling-
pipes arc best made of cast-iron, say 4 in. wide inside and laid so
as to have a continuous fall towards the bottom. A steam -pipe (6)
is provided for heating the cooling water, which is necessary during
the later part of the operation to prevent the stopping up of
the pipes by the solidification of the distillates. A cock (a) allows
and a i-erond fraction as " li.-lif oil." up to 310" f„ but more usually
these two arc not -epaiated 111 the first distillation, and the fir^t or
" light oil " fraction then embraces everything which comes over
until the drops no longer float on, but show the same specific gravity
as water. The specific gravity of this fraction varies from 0-01 to
0-94. The next fraction is the " middle ofl M or " carbolic oil," of
specific gravity i-oi, boiling up to 240* C; it contains most of the
carbolic acid and naphthalene. The next fraction is the " heavy oil "
or " creosote oil," of specific gravity 1-04. Where the nature of the
coals distilled for gas is such that the tar contains too little anthra-
cene to be economically recovered, the creosote-oil fraction is carried
right to the end; but otherwise, that is in most cases, a last fraction
Fie. 2» — Condensing Worm (Plan).
steam to be injected into the condensing worm in order to clear any
obstruction.
The cooling-pipe is at its lower end connected with receivers for
the various distillates in such a manner that by the turning of a cock
the flow of the distillates into the receivers can be changed at will.
In a suitable place provision is made for watching the colour, the
specific gravity, and the general appearance of the distillates. At
the end of the train of apparatus, and behind the vacuum pump
or ejector, when one is provided, there is sometimes a purifier for
the gases which remain after condensation; or these gases arc
carried back into the fire, in which case a water-trap must be inter-
1 to prevent explosions.
% alike Tar. — The number of fractions taken during the
janes from four to six. Sometimes a first fraction is
takes as " first runnings," up to a temperature of 105° C. in the still,
Fie. 3. — Condensing Worm (side elevation),
is made at about the temperature 270* C, above which the
" anthracene oil " or " green oil " is obtained up to the finish of the
distillation.
During the light-oil period the firing must be performed very
cautiously, especially where the water has not been well removed,
to prevent bumping and boiling over. It has been observed that,
apart from the water, those tars incline most to boiling over which
contain an unusual quantity of " fixed carbon." During this period
cold water must be kept running through the cooler. The distillate
at once separates into water (gas-liquor) and light oil, floating at
the top. Towards the end of this fraction the distillation seems to
cease, in spite of increasing the fire.-), and a rattling noise is heard
in the still. This is caused by the combined water splitting off from
the bases and phenols and causing slight explosions in the tar.
As soon as the specific gravity approaches 1 -o, the supply of cold
water to the cooler is at least partly cut off, so that the temperature
of the water rises up to 40 C. This is necessary because otherwise
some naphthalene would crystallize out and plug up the pipes. If
a little steam is injected into the still during this period no stoppage
of the pipes need be feared in any case, but this must
be done cautiously.
When the carbolic oil has passed over and the
temperature in the still has risen to about 240 C,
the distillate can be run freely by always keeping
the temperature in the cooler at least up to 40* C.
The " creosote oil " which now comes over often
separates a good deal of solid naphthalene on
cooling.
The last fraction is made, cither when the ther-
mometer indicates 270° C, or when " green grease "
appears in the distillate, or simply by judging from the quantityof
the distillate. What comes over now is the " anthracene oil." The
firing may cease towards the end as the steam (with the vacuum)
will finish the work by itself. The water in the cooler should now
approach the boiling-point.
The point of finishing the distillation is different in various places
and for various objects. It depends upon the fact whether soft or
hard pitch is wanted. The latter must be made where it has to be
sold at a distance, as soft pitch cannot be easily carried during the
warmer season in railway trucks and not at all in ships, where it would
run into a single lump. Hard pitch is also always made where as
much anthracene as possible is to be obtained. For hard pitch the
distillation is carried on as far as practicable without causing the,
residue in the still to "coke." The ctvd cAT^>o\.\sR."wA.vA.Vsi.^ fc
thermometer, but by Vne, a,TOe9cranc& w<\ qpaxaaauy <». *»» <»»*saaaav
598
COAL-TAR
and itt specific gravity. I f carried too far, not merely is coke formed,
but the pitch is porous and almost useless, and the anthracene oil
b contaminated with high-boiling hydrocarbons which may render
it almost worthless as well. Hard pitch proper should soften at
too* C, or little above.
Where the distillation is to stop at soft pitch it is, of course, not
carried up to the same point, but wherever the pitch can be disposed
of during the colder season or without a long carriage, even the hard
pitch is preferably softened within the still by pumping back a
sufficient quantity of heavy oil, previously deprived of anthracene.
This makes it much easier to discharge the still. When the contents
consist of soft pitch they are run off without much trouble, but hard
pitch not merely emits extremely pungent vapours, but is most I v
at so high a temperature that it takes fire in the air. Hard pitch
must, therefore, always be run into an iron or brick cooler where it
cools down out of contact with air, until it can be drawn out into
the open pots where its solidification is completed.
Most of the pitch is used for the manufacture of " briquettes "
(" patent fuel ), for which purpose it should soften between 55*
and 8o* C. according to the requirements of the buyer. In Germany
upwards of 50,000 tons are used annually in that industry; much
of it is imported from the United Kingdom, whence also France and
Belgium are provided. Apart from the softening point the pitch
is all the more valued the more constituents it contains which arc
soluble in xylene. The portion insoluble in this is denoted as " fixed
carbon." If the briquette manufacturer has bought the pitch in the
hard state he must himself bring it down to the proper softening
point by re-melting it with heavy coal-tar oils.
We now come to the treatment of the various fractions obtained
from the tar-stills. These operations arc frequently not carried
out at the smaller tar-works, which sell their oils in the crude state
to the larger tar-distillers.
Working ut> of th* Light-Oil Fraction.— The greatest portion of
the light-oil traction consists of aromatic hydrocarbons, about one-
fifth being naphthalene, four-fifths benzene and its homologucs,
in the proportion of about 100 benzene, 50 toluene, 15 xylenes, 10
trimcthylbenzenes, 1 tetra methyl benzene. Besides these the light-
oil contains 5-15 % phenols, 1-3% bases, O-i sulphuretted com-
pounds, 0-2-0-3% nitrilcs, Ac. It is usually first submitted to a
preliminary distillation in directly fired stills, similar to the tar-
stills, bat with a dcphlcgmating head. Here we obtain (1) first
runnings (up to 0.89 spec grav.), (2) heavy benzols (up to 0.05), (1)
carbolic oil (up to 1 •00). The residue remaining in the still (chiefly
naphthalene) goes to the middle-oil fraction.
The " first runnings " are now" washed " in various ways, of which
we shall describe one of the best. The oil is mixed with dilute
caustic soda solution, and the solution of phenols thus obtained
is worked up with that obtained from the next fractions. After this
follows a treatment with dilute sulphuric acid (spec. grav. 1-3), to
extract the pyridine bases, and lastly with concentrated sulphuric
acid (1*84), which removes some of the aliphatic hydrocarbons
and " unsaturated " compounds. After this the crude benzol is
thoroughly washed with water and dilute caustic soda solution, until
its reaction is neutral. The mixing of the bask, acid and aqueous
washing-liquids with the oils is performed by compressed air, or
more suitably by mechanical stirrers, arranged on a perpendicular,
or better, a hontontal shaft. Precisely the same treatment takes
place with the next Traction, the " heavy benzols," and the oils left
behind alter the washing operations now go to the steam-stills.
The heaviest hydrocarbons are sometimes twice subjected to the
Operation of washing.
The washed crude benzols are now further fractionated by dis-
tillation with steam. The steam-stills are in nearly all details on
the principle of the " column apparatus " employed in the distillation
of alcoholic liquids, as represented in fig. 4. They are usually made
of cast iron. The still itself is cither an upright or a horizontal
cylinder, heated by a steam-coil, of a capacity of from 1000 to 2000
gallons. The superposed columns contain from 20 to 50 compart-
ments of a width of 2) or 3 ft. The vapours pass into a cooler, and
from this the distillate runs through an apparatus, where the liquor '
can be seen and tested, into the receivers. The latter are so arranged
Chat the water passing over at the same time is automatically re-
moved. This is especially necessary, because the last fraction is
distilled by means of pure steam.
The fractions made in the steam distillation vary at different
works. In some places the pure hydrocarbons are not extracted
and here only the articles called : " 90 per cent, benzol," " 50 per
cent, benzol, " solvent naphtha," " burning naphtha " are made,
or any other commercial articles as they are ordered. The expression
14 per cent." in this case does not signify the percentage of real
benzene, but that portion which distils over up to the temperature
of ioo° C, when a certain quantity of the article is heated in glass
retorts of a definite shape, with the thermometer inserted in the
liquid itself. By the application of well-constructed rectifying-
columns and with proper care it is, however, possible to obtain in
this operation nearly pure benzene, toluene, xylene, and cumene I
(in the two last cases a mixture of the various isomeric hydrocarbons).
These hydrocarbons contain only a slight proportion of thiophene
and its isomers, which can be removed only by a treatment with
fuming- sulphuric acid, but this is only exceptionally done.
Sometimes the pyridine bases arc recovered from the tarry acid
which is obtained in the treatment of the light oil with sulphuric
acid, and which contains from 10 to 30% of bases, chiefly pyridine
and its homologucs with a little aniline, together with resinous
substances. The latter are best removed by a partial precipitation
with ammonia, either in the shape of gas or of concentrated am mon-
acal liquor. This reagent is added until the add reaction has jus:
disappeared and a faint smell of pyridine is perceived. The mixture
is allowed to settle, and it then separates into two layers. The upper
layer, containing the impurities, is run off; the lower layer, contain-
ing the sulphates of ammonia and of the pyridine bases, is treated
with ammonia in excess, where it separates into a lower aqueous
, layer of ammonium sulphate solution and an oil. consisting of crude
pyridine. This is purified by fractionation in iron stills and dis-
tillation over caustic
soda. Most of it is
used for denaturing
spirit of wine in
Germany, for which
purj>ose it is re-
quired to contain
90% of bases boiling
up to 140 C. (sec
Alcohol).
Working ut> of the ■'
Middle-Oil Fraction
(Carbolic Oil Frac-
tion). — Owing to its
great percentage of
naphthalene (about
40%) this fraction
is solid or semi-solid
at ordinary tempera-
tures. Its specific
gravity is about 1*2;
its cofour may vary
from light yellow to
dai k brown or black.
In the latter case it
must be rc-disUilcd
before further treat-
ment. On cooling
down, about four-
fifths of the naph-
thalene crystallizes
I out on standing
from three to ten
I days. The crystals
are freed from the
I mother oils by drain-
ing and cold or hot
pressing; they are
then washed at too*
C. with concentrated
sulphuric acid, after-
wards with water
and re-distilled or '
sublimed. About '
10,000 tons of naph-
thalene are used an-
nually in Germany,
mostly for the manu-
facturc of many azo- I
colours and of syn-
thetic indigo.
The oils drained
from the crude nanb*
thalcne arc re-di* tilled and worked for carbolic acid and its isomers
For this purpose the oil 11 washed with a solution of caustic soda,
of specific gravity t-t ; the solution thus obtained is treated with
sulphuric add or with carbon dioxide, and the crude phenols now
separated arc fractionated in a similar manner as is done in the ca«
of crude benzol* The pure phenol crystallizes out and is again
■ Sl -i iLJcid in iron stills with a silver head and cooling worm; the
remaining oils, consist Jug mainly of crcsols, are sold as " liquid
carbolic add " or under other names.
Most of the oil which pa*ws as the " creosote-oil fraction " is sold
in the crude suite lor the purpose of pickling timber. It is at the
ordinary temperature a semi-solid mixture of about 20% crystallized
hydrocarbons (chiefly naphthalene), and 80% of a dark brown,
nauseous FmMling oil, of 1-04 spec, grav., and boiling between
km" and 300* C. The liquid portion contains phenols, bases, and a
great number of hydrocarbons. Sometimes it is redistilled, when
most of the naphthalene pa^rs over in the first fraction, between
rflo* and sy>* C. H and crystallines out in a nearly pure state. The
city portion remaining behind, about 60% of this distillate, contains
about jn% phenols and 3% bases. It has highly disinfectant
properties and is frequently converted into special disinfectants,
*.$. by mixing it with four times its volume ot slaked lime, which
yields "dUinfccunt powder "for stables, railway cart* Ac Mixtures
Fie. 4.— Benzol Still (elevation),
COALVILLE— COAST DEFENCE
599
of potash soaps (soft soaps) with this oil have the property of yielding
with water emulsions which do not settle for a long tune and are
found in the trade as " creolin," " sapocarbol," " rysol," &c
That description of creosote oil which is sold for the purpose of
pickling railway sleepers, telegraph posts, timber for the erection
of wharves and so forth, must satisfy special requirements which are
laid down in the specifications for tenders to public bodies. These
vary to a considerable extent. They always stipulate (i) a certain
specific gravity (e.g. not below 1*035 an< * not above 1*065); (?)
certain limits of boiling points (e.g. to yield at most 3 % up to 150',
at roost 30% between 15O and 255, and at least 85% between
150* and 355°); (3) a certain percentage of phenols, as shown by
extraction with caustic soda solution, say 8 to 10%.
Much of this creosote oil is obtained by mixing that which has
resulted in the direct distillation of the tar with the liquid portion of
the anthracene oils after separating the crude anthracene (see below).
It is frequently stipulated that the oil should remain clear at the
ordinary temperature, say 15° C, which means that no naphthalene
should crystallize out.
Working *p the Anthracene Oil Fraction. — The crude oil boils
between 280* and 400° C. It is liquid at 60 ° C, but on cooling about
6 to 10% of crude anthracene separates as greenish-yellow, sandy
crystals, containing about 30% of real anthracene, together with
a large percentage of carbazol and phenanthrene. This crystalliza-
tion takes about a week. The crude anthracene is separated from
the mother oils by filter presses, followed by centrifugals or by hot
hydraulic presses. The liquid oils arc redistilled, in order to obtain
more anthracene, and the last oils go back to the creosote oil, or are
employed for softening the, hard pitch (vtdt supra). The crude
anthracene i* brought up to S*l or Oo h some limes to 80 % H by washing
•a'u h solvent na phllia, nr more efficiently with the higher boiling portion
of the pyridine Da vs. The naphtha removes mostly only the phenan-
ttatene, but the tarbafot can be removed only by pyridine, or by *ub-
liming or dividing the anthracene over Canute tiotash. The whole
of the anthracene i* sold [or the manufacture of artificial alianrine.
BinLfDCHAPiiv— The principal work on Coal-tar i* C. Lunee's
Coal-tar and Ammonia fjrd cd., 1 900), Consult also C, P^ SaJuer,
Handbook oj Induxtriat Organic Chemiitry (tltor) 4 and the article
*' Stein kohlentheer/' Kraemer and Spreker, in EntykiopadialtMi
Handbvck dtr Sethnistktit Chimie (4th ed.. 1^03. viii. 1). (Q. L.)
COALVILLE, a town in the Loughborough parliamentary
division of Leicestershire, England, 112 m. N.N.W. from London.
Pop. of urban district (ioox) 15,281. It is served by the Midland
railway, and there is also a station (Coalville East) on the
Nuneaton-Loughborough branch of the London & North-
western railway. This is a town of modern growth, a centre of
the coal-mining district of north Leicestershire. There are also
iron foundries and brick-works. A mile north of Coalville is
Whitwick, with remains of a castle of Norman date, while to
the north again are slight remains of the nunnery of Gracedicu,
founded in 1240, where, after its dissolution, Francis Beaumont,
the poet-colleague of John Fletcher, was born about 1 586. In the
neighbourhood is the Trappist abbey of Mount St Bernard,
founded in 1835, possessing a large domain, with buildings
completed from the designs of A. W. Pugin in 1844.
COAST (from Lat. cos la, a rib, side), the part of the land which
meets the sea in a line of more or less regular form. The word
is sometimes applied to the bank of a river or lake, and
sometimes to a region (cf. Gold Coast, Coromandel Coast)
which may include the hinterland. If the coast-line runs parallel
to a mountain range, such as the Andes, it has usually a more
regular form than when, as in the rias coast of west Brittany,
it crosses the crustal folds. Again, a recently elevated coast is
more regular than one that has been long exposed to wave action.
A recently depressed coast will show the irregularities that were
impressed upon the surface before submergence. Wave erosion
and the action of marine currents arc the chief agents in coast
sculpture. A coast of homogeneous rock exposed to similar action
will present a regular outline, but if exposed to differential
action it will be embayed where that action is greatest. A coast
consisting of rocks of unequal hardness or of unequal structure
will present headlands, " siacks " and " needles " of hard rocks,
and bays of softer or more loosely aggregated rocks, when the
wave and current action is similar throughout. The southern
shore-line of the Isle of Wight and the western coast of Wales
arc simple examples of this differential resistance. In time the
coast becomes " mature " and its outline undergoes little change
as it gradually recedes, for the hard rock being now more exposed
is worn away faster, but the softer rock more slowly because it is
protected in the bays and re-entrants.
COAST DEFENCE; a general term for the military and naval
protection and defence of a coast-line, harbours, dockyards,
coaling-stations, &c, against serious attack by a strong naval
force of the enemy, bombardment, torpedo boat or destroyer
raids, hostile landing parties, or invasion by a large or small
army. The principal means employed. by the defender to cope
with these and other forms of attack which may be expected in
time of war or political crisis are described below. See also for
further details Navy; Army; Fortification and Siege-
craft; Ammunition; Ordnance; Submarine Mines; Tor-
pedo. The following is a general description of modern coast
defences as applied in the British service.
No system of coast defence is of any value which does not
take full account of the general distribution of sea-power and the
resultant strength of the possible hostile forces. By resultant
strength is meant the balance of one side over the other, for it
is now generally regarded as an axiom that two opposing fleets
must make their main effort in seeking one another, and that the
force available for attack on coast defences will be cither com-
posed of such ships as can be spared from the main engagement,
or the remnant of the hostile licet after it has been victorious
in a general action.
Coast defences are thus the complement and to some extent
the measure of naval strength. It is often assumed that this
principle was neglected in the large scheme of fortification
associated in England with the name of Lord Palmerston, but
it is at least arguable that the engineers responsible for the details
of this scheme were dependent then as now on the naval view of
what was a suitable naval strength. Public opinion has since
been educated to a better appreciation of the necessity for a
strong navy, and, as the British navy has increased, the scale
of coast defences required has necessarily waned. Such a change
of opinion is always gradual, and it is difficult to name an exact
date on which it may be said that modern coast defence, as
practised by British engineers, first began.
An approximation may, however, be made by taking the
bombardment of Alexandria (1881) as being the parting of the
ways between the old and the modern school. At that time
the British navy, and in fact all other navies, had not really
emerged from the stage of the wooden battleships. Guns were
still muzzle-loaders, arranged mainly in broadsides, and protected
by heavy armour; sails were still used as means of propulsion;
torpedoes, net defence, signalling, and search-lights quite un-
developed.
At this time coast defences bore a close resemblance to the
ships— the guns were muzzle-loaders, arranged in long batteries
like a broadside, often in two tiers. The improvement of rifled
ordnance had called for increased protection, and this was found
first by solid constructions of granite, and latterly by massive
iron fronts. Examples of these remain in Garrison Fort, Sheer-
ncss, and in Hurst Castle at the west end of the Solent. The
range of guns being then relatively short, it was necessary to
place forts at fairly close intervals, and where the channels to
be defended could not be spanned from the shore, massive
structures with two or even three tiers of guns, placed as close
as on board ship and behind heavy armour, were built up from
the ocean bed. On both sides the calibre and weight of guns
were increasing, till the enormous sizes of 80 and 100 tons were
used both ashore and afloat.
The bombardment of Alexandria established two new
principles, or new applications of old principles, by showing the
value of concealment and dispersion in reducing the effect of the
fire of the fleet. On the old system, two ships firing at one
another or ships firing at an iron-fronted fort shot " mainly
into the brown "; if they missed the gun aimed at, one to the
right or left was likely to be hit; if they missed the water-line,
the upper works were in danger. At Alexandria, however, the
Egyptian guns were scattered over a long line of shore, and it
was soon found that with the guns and gunners available, hits
could only be obtained by running in to short range and dealing
with one gun at a time.
This new principle was not a.t owot xtsa^&ut&x Vk vvfrsaat
6oo
COAST DEFENCE
die hard, and much money and brains were invested in the then
existing system. But a modern school was gradually formed; a
small group of engineer officers under the headship of Sir Andrew
Clarke, the then inspector-general of fortifications, took the
matter up, and by degrees the new views prevailed and the
modern school of coast defence came into being between 1881
and 1885. Meanwhile important changes had been developing
in the gun, the all-important weapon of coast defence, changes
due mainly to the gradual supersession of the muzzle-loader by
the breech-loader. The latter gave the advantages of quicker
loading and more protection for the gun detachment over and
above the technical improvements in the gun itself, which gave
higher muzzle velocity, greater striking effect and longer effective
range.
All this reacted on the general scheme of coast defence by
enabling the number of guns to be reduced and the distance
between forts increased. On the other hand, the ships, too,
gained increased range and increased accuracy of fire, so that it
became necessary in many cases to advance the general line of the
coast defences farther from theharbour or dockyard to be defended,
in order to keep the attackers out of range of the objective.
Another change resulted from an improvement in the method
of mounting. Even in the older days discussion had arisen
freely on the relative merits of barbette and casemate mounting.
In the former the gun fires over a parapet, giving a larger field of
view to the gun-layer, and a larger field of fire for the gun, with,
however, more exposure for the detachment. The latter gives
a restricted view and greater safety to the layer, but unless the
casemate takes the form of a revolving turret, the arc of fire is
very limited.
An important advantage of the barbette system is its cheap-
ness, and thus in order toobtain with it concealment, suggestions
were made for various forms of mounting which would allow of
the gun, under the shock of recoil, disappearing behind the
parapet to emerge only when loaded and ready for the next
round. A mounting of this description for muzzle-loading guns,
designed by Colonel Moncricff , was actually in use in the defences
of Alexandria and in H.M.S. " Temcrairc."
But with the increased charges and length of breech-loading
guns, a further change was desirable, and after some trials a
system of disappearing mountings (see Ordnance: Garrison
Mountings) was adopted into the British service.
A word must be now said on the size of gun finally adopted.
At first muzzle-loaders figured largely in the British defences,
even though these were planned on modern ideas; and even in
1906 muzzle-loading guns still existed and were counted as part
of the defences. The sizes of these guns varied from the 32- or
64-poundcr, of which the nomenclature depends on the weight of
the shell, to the 7-in. , 9 -in.,io-in. , 1 i-in., 1 2- 5- and finally x 7* 25-in.,
the size indicating the calibre. Such a multiplication of sizes
was due to gradual improvements in the science of gun manu-
facture, each advance being hailed as the last word to be said
on the subject, and each in turn being rapidly made obsolete
by something bigger and better. But with the improvements
In gun design which followed the introduction of breech-loaders,
the types used in coast defence were gradually narrowed down
to two, the 92-in. and the 6-in. guns. Of these, the 9«2-in. was
considered powerful enough to attack armour at any practical
range, while the 6-in. gun was introduced to deal with lightly
armed vessels at shorter ranges where 92-in. guns were un-
necessarily powerful.
A few larger guns of 10-in. calibre have actually been used,
but though the British navy has now scaled a 12-in. 50-ton gun
as the stock size for battleships, for the heavy armament of the
oast defences the War Office remain faithful to the 9- a-in. calibre,
preferring to develop improvements rather in the direction of
more rapid fire and higher muzzle velocity.
The 6-in. has also been retained and is extensively used for
V saalbT ports, where attack by powerful vessels is for various
-7-swim nmsi&atd improbable.
Trt :rsign of the forts to contain the guns necessarily varied
•wfc the type of defence adopted, and the duties which the forts
had to fulfil. These duties may be said to be twofold, first to
facilitate the service of the guns, and secondly to protect the
guns and their detachments from damage by fire from ships, or
by close attack from landing parties. The service of the gun is
provided for by a system of cartridge and shell magazines (see
Ammunition), well protected from fire and suitably arranged.
The shelters for the gun detachments must be bomb-proof and
fitted with some arrangements for comfort and sanitation.
Formerly it was the custom to provide living accommodation
for the full garrison in casemates inside each fort, but it is now
considered better to provide barrack accommodation in the
vicinity and to occupy forts in peace only by a few caretakers.
The shelters in the fort itself can thus be kept at the minimum
required when actually manning the guns. The protection 01
the guns and magazines against bombardment is provided, in
the British service, mainly by an earthen parapet over a sub-
stantial roof or wall of concrete, but immediately round the gun
an " apron " of concrete is necessary to withstand the shock of
discharge or " blast."
It has been already mentioned that in the old designs a large
number of guns was put in each fort, but with dispersion and
improved gun power this number was much reduced. At first
the type of fort adopted was for four guns, of which the two
in the centre were heavy and the two on the flank of medium
power. Such a design was good from the point of view of the
engineer; it gave an economical grouping of magazines and
shelters and was easily adapted to varying sites, and the smaller
guns helped the larger by covering their flanks both towards
the sea and also over the land approaches. But from the point
of view of the artillery officer the arrangement was faulty, for
when the guns are too much separated, ranging has to be carried
out separately for each gun. On the other hand, two guns of
the same calibre placed near one another can be fought
simultaneously and form what is known as a " group." In the
typical 4-gun battery described above, the flank guns had to be
fought independently, which was wasteful, of officers and staff.
Further, in a battery of more than two guns the arc of fire of the
centre guns is much restricted by that of the guns on either
flank.
For these reasons it is now generally recognized that new
works should be designed for only two guns of the same calibre,
though 3- or 4-gun batteries are occasionally used in special
circumstances.
Protection of the gun detachments against infantry attack
is best provided by a line of infantry posts outside and on the
flanks of the gun batteries, but as small parties may evade the
outposts, or the latter may be driven in, it is necessary to place
round each fort a line of obstacles sufficient to protect the guns
against a rush and to cover the infantry while it rallies. This
obstacle was formerly a wet or dry ditch, with escarp, counter-
scarp and flanking galleries; but with the new design of parapet
a simpler form of obstacle was adopted. This was obtained by
carrying down and forward the slope of the parapet to a point
well below the level of the surrounding ground, and then placing
a stout fence at the foot of the parapet and concealed from view.
It is in fact the old principle of the sunk fence, and has this
further advantage, that the fence, being visible from the parapet,
can be kept under fire by men posted between the guns without
any special flanking galleries.
Occasionally two or more batteries are placed inside one
line of obstacles, but usually each 2-gun battery is complete
in itself.
Cases arise, e.g. with sites on the top of a cliff, where no
obstacle is required; in such places the parapet merges into the
surrounding ground.
In old days the parapet was shaped with well-defined edges
and slopes. Now the parapet slopes gently down to the front
and is rounded at the sides, so as to present no definite edge or
angle to the enemy, and concealment is furthered by allowing
grass or small scrub to grow over the parapet and round the
guns. In order to obtain complete concealment from view the
background behind the guns must be carefully studied from the
COAST DEFENCE
60 1
point of view of the attack. Sites on the sky-tine, and marked
contrasts of colour or shape, should be avoided. In some cases
extensive planting, amounting to landscape gardening, is justi-
fied. This is most easily arranged in the tropics, where plant
growth is rapid. In all cases the guns and their mountings
should be coloured to blend with the background and thus
avoid hard lines and shadows.
Any change of principle such as that of 1885 involves improve-
ments both in guns and their adjuncts. Of these latter the most
important was the position-finder designed by Colonel Watkin.
This instrument in its simplest form, when the observer is
following a ship through the telescope of the instrument, draws
on a chart the track of the ship, so that the exact bearing and
distance of the latter can be ascertained at any time and com-
municated to the guns by electrical and other dials, &c. The
position-finder may be some distance from the guns it serves,
and connected with them by electric cable. The guns can then
be placed well under cover and in many cases out of sight of the
target, giving a measure of protection which cannot be obtained
with any system of direct laying over sights. This instrument
has been applied on a high site to control guns placed low, or
where guns are so placed as to be liable to obscuration by fog
or mist the position-finder can be placed below the fog-line.
In either case direct laying is provided for as an alternative.
In some defences batteries equipped with old pattern o-in.
muzzle-loading guns, mounted as howitzers for long-range
firing, have been placed in folds in the ground so as to be quite
invisible from the sea and therefore invulnerable. Such batteries
are fought entirely by the position-finder.
The next adjunct to coast defences is the submarine mine.
In Great Britain the first submarine mining company dates
from 1873, and from that date mining defences were gradually
installed both at home and abroad; but the modern system of
mining, which for twenty years was maintained at British
ports, really started into full life under the impetus of Sir A.
Clarke, about the same year (1885) in which wc have dated
the commencement of the modern coast defence system.
With the increased speed of warships, a method of attack
on fortifications was evolved by running past the main defences
and either taking them in reverse, or disregarding them and
attacking the dockyard or other objective at short range. This
was made more possible at most defended ports by the pushing
.forward of the defences which has been already alluded to, and
it is especially dangerous where dockyards or towns are situated
some way up a river or estuary, so that once the defences are
passed there is a large stretch of water (e.g. the Thames, the
Solent, and Cork harbour) in which the enemy can manoeuvre.
In such cases there are two possible forms of defence, first by
arranging for gun-fire behind the main gun position, usually
called the defence of inner waters, and secondly by placing in
the entrance and under the fire of the main gun defence some
form of obstruction to detain ships under fire. This obstruction
can be passive (booms, chains, rows of piles or sunken ships)
or active (mines or torpedoes). Passive obstructions are only
effective against comparatively small craft, and at important
ports mines are the only efficient obstruction which can be used
against large vessels.
After some years of experiment, English engineers adopted
two main classes of mines, called " observation '' and " con-
tact" mines (see Submarine Mikes). Both were fired by
electricity, which was applied only at the moment a hostile
ship was within the dangerous zone of a mine. In the observation
mines the moment of applying the electric current was ascer-
tained by a position-finder, which, tracing a ship's course on a
chart, made an electrical connexion at the moment the ship was
over a mine. These mines were placed so as to be well below the
bottom of any ships afloat and were used in channels which it
was desired to leave open for the entrance of friendly vessels.
Contact mines, which are moored a few feet below the surface
of the water, are fired after certain electrical connexions have
been made in a firing room on shore by the ship itself striking
t the mine. These are used in waters which it is intended
to deny to friend and foe. Except in narrow waters where the
whole width of the channel was required for friendly traffic,
contact mines were generally used to limit the width of the
channel to the minimum consistent with the amount of friendly
traffic which would use the port in war. It will be readily
understood that by bending this channel and disclosing its
exact position only to special pilots, a very complete measure
of security against surprise would be obtained. In English
ports the practical importance of allowing free Ingress for
friendly traffic overruled all other considerations, and the
friendly channels were always straight and coincided with
some part of the usual fairway channel They were also care-
fully marked by lightships and buoys.
A variation of the submarine mine is the Brennan torpedo,
purchased by the British government about 1890. This differs
from the torpedo used on board ship, mainly by the fact that
the engine-power which drives it is on shore and connected with
the torpedo by two strong wires. These wires are wound out of
the torpedo by the engine, and by varying the strain on the two
wires very accurate control of the steering can be obtained.
This torpedo shares with the submarine mine the disadvantages
that it must wait for the enemy to venture within its range, and
with all other forms of defence (except contact mines), that it is
made useless by fog or rain. As compared with a mine it has
the advantage of being unaffected by tide or depth, and of form-
ing no obstruction to traffic, except when actually in action.
It was installed at the principal ports only.
The system of defence hitherto described is thus a main gun
defence of 92-in. and 6-in. guns pushed well forward, assisted
by position-finders, mine-fields and torpedo stations, and with
some gun defence of inner waters. Subject to improvements in
patterns of guns and mountings— of which the most important
has been the substitution of barbette mounting and shield for
the recoil mounting described above — this system held the field
up to 1005, when, partly as a result of the experience of the
Russo-Japanese War, and partly owing to the alteration of the
naval balance of power due to the destruction of the Russian
fleet, both the scale and system of defence were very considerably
modified.
We can now consider another branch of defence, which was
evolved pari passu with the automobile torpedo, and was
therefore almost non-existent in 1885. In this year the boats
specially built for carrying torpedoes were little more than
launches, but in the next five years was developed the type of
first-class torpedo boat. This, while seaworthy, was limited as
to its radius of action by the small amount of coal it would carry.
But with a possibly hostile coast only a few hours' steam
away, and with foreign harbours thronged with torpedo craft,
it became necessary for the British government especially to
consider this form of attack and its antidote. It was obvious
that in daytime and in clear weather such an attack would have
little chance of success, also that in no circumstances would
torpedo boats be able to damage fixed defences. Their best
chance was attack by night, and the only form of attack was
that referred to above as "running past," that is, an attempt
to evade the defences and to attack ships or docks inside. The
light draught of torpedo boats and their comparative invisibility
favoured this form of attack.
To meet it the first requirement was some form of illumination
of the defended channel. Experiments in the attack and defence
of defended harbours took place at Gosport in 1879 and 1880,
at Milford Haven in 1885, at Berehaven (by the royal navy) in
1886, at Langston Harbour in 1887, and a series at the Needles
entrance of the Isle of Wight up to 1802. During the course of
these experiments various methods of illumination were tried,
but by far the best was found to be the light from an electric
arc-lamp of high power projected by powerful reflectors. At
first these were used as concentrated beams forming a pencil of
light with an angular opening of about 2° to 3 . Such a beam
directed at an incoming ship gives effective illumination up to a
mile or more from the source of light, but has the disadvanta^
that it must be moved so %& to V<&ww >&» ^cas?v«»»rew*c&a^
6o2
COASTGUARD
Each beam thus lights only one ship at a time, and the move-
ments of several beams crossing and recrossing have a very
confusing effect, with the consequent risk that a proportion of
the attacking vessels may slip through unnoticed.
An alternative method of using electric lights is to arrange
the projector so that the light comes out in a fan (generally of
30° divergence). Two or three such lights are usually placed
tide by side, forming an illuminated fan of considerable diver-
gence. These fans are now used for the main defence, with in
front of them one or more search lights to warn the defences
of the approach of ships. There is some loss of range when using
these fans as compared with search-lights, but by occupying
both sides of a channel and placing the defences against torpedo
boats at the narrowest point, an effective illumination can be
obtained in moderate weather.
Heavy guns can, of course, be fired against torpedo boats, but
their rate of fire is relatively slow, and at first they had also the
disadvantage of using black powder, the smoke of which obscured
the lights.
A small quick-firing gun using smokeless powder was seen
to be a necessity. At first the 6 -pounder was adopted -as the
stock size supplemented by machine guns for close range, but
soon afterwards it became necessary to reconsider the scale
of anti-torpedo boat defences, owing first to the increased size
of first-class torpedo boats, and secondly to the introduction of
a new type of vessel, the torpedo boat destroyer. The increased
size of torpedo boats, and improved arrangements for the distribu-
tion of coal on board, made these boats practically proof against
6-pounder guns and necessitated the introduction of the im-
pounder. The torpedo boat destroyer, originally introduced to
chase and destroy torpedo boats, not only justified its existence
by checking the construction of more torpedo boats, but in
addition became itself a sea-going torpedo craft, and thus in-
creased the menace to defended ports and also the area over
which this form of attack would be dangerous.
This development was met by an increased number of 12-
pounder guns, assisted in the more important places by 4 7-in.
(and latterly 4-in.) guns, and also by an increased number of
lights, both guns and lights increasing at some places nearly
fourfold. But even with the best possible arrangement of this
form of defence, the possibility of interference by fog, mist or
rain introduces a considerable element of uncertainty.
About the same time, and largely on account of the demand
for better and quicker firing, the " automatic sight " was intro-
duced (see Ordnance : Garrison ; and Sights) . In this, a develop-
ment of the principle of the position-finder, the act of bringing
an object into the field of the auto-sight automatically lays the
gun. In order to take full advantage of this, the ammunition
was made up into a cartridge with powder and shell in one
case to allow of the quickest possible loading. It may be added
that the efficiency of the auto-sight depends on the gun being
a certain height above the water, and that therefore the rise
and fall of tide has to be allowed for in setting the sight.
In view of the possible interference by fog it was thought wise
at an early stage to provide, towards the rear of the defences,
some form of physical obstacle behind which ships could lie in
safety. Such an obstacle had been designed in the early days
by the Royal Engineers and took the form of a " boom " of
baulks of timber secured by chains. Such booms were limited
in size by considerations of expense and were only partially
successful. About 189a the British navy took the matter up
and began experiments on a larger scale, substituting wire
hawsers for chains and using old gunboats to divide the booms
up into sections of convenient length. The result was that booms
were definitely adopted as an adjunct of coast defence. Their
place is behind the lighted area, but within reach of some of the
anti-torpedo boat batteries.
Other forms of obstacle to torpedo boat attack, based on a
modification of contact mines or a combination of mines and
passive obstructions, have been tried but never definitely
adopted, though some form of under- water defence of this
description seems necessary to meet attack by submarines.
We may now summarize the anti-torpedo boat defences
These are, first, an outpost or look-out line of electric search-
lights, then a main lighted area composed of fixed lights *iifa
which there are a considerable number of 12-pounder or 4-in.
Q.F. guns fitted with auto-sights, and behind all this, usually
at the narrowest part of the entrance, the boom.
Once coast defences arc designed and installed, little change
is possible during an attack, so that the operation of fighting 1
system of defence, such as we have considered above, is mainly
a matter of peace training of gun-crews, electric light men and
look-outs, coupled with careful organization. To facilitate the
transmission of order and intelligence, a considerable system of
telephonic and other electrical communication has been estab-
lished. .This may be considered under the three beads of (1)
orders, (2) intelligence, (3) administration.
The communication of orders follows the organization adopted
for the whole fortress. Each fortress is commanded by a fortress
commander, who has a suitable staff This officer sends orders
to commanders of artillery, engineers, and infantry. The
artillery officer in charge of a group of batteries is called a " fire
commander"; his command is generally confined to such
batteries as fire over the same area of water and can mutually
support one another. Thus there may be several fire commanders
at a defended port*. Anti-torpedo boat batteries are not in a
fire command, and are connected to the telephone system for
intelligence only and not for orders. The engineers require
orders for the control of electric lights or Brennan torpedo.
The officer in charge of a group of lights or of a torpedo station
is called a director. Though receiving orders direct from the
fortress commander, he has also to co-operate with the nearest
artillery commander. The infantry are posted on the flanks
of the fixed defences, or on the land front. They are divided
into suitable groups, each under a commanding officer, who
communicates with the fortress commander. In large fortresses
the area is divided into sections, each including some portion
of the artillery, engineers, and infantry defence. In such cases
the section commanders receive orders from the fortress con*
mander and pass them on to their subordinates.
The intelligence system includes communication with the
naval signal stations in the vicinity, one of which is specially
selected for each port as the warning station and is directly
connected to some part of the defences. Another part of the
intelligence system deals with the arrangements for examining
all ships entering a harbour. This is usually effected by posting
in each entrance examination vessels, which are in communica-
tion by signal with a battery or selected post on shore. Any
points on shore which can see the approaches arc connected by a
special alarm circuit, mainly for use in cass of torpedo boat
attack.
The administrative system of telephones is used for daily
routine messages. These usually take the form of telephone
lines radiating from a central exchange. In many stations the
same lines may be used for command and administration, or
intelligence and command, but at the larger stations each class
of line is kept distinct. (W. B. B.)
COASTGUARD, a naval force maintained in Great Britain
and Ireland to suppress smuggling, aid shipwrecked vessels and
serve as a reserve to the navy. The coastguard was originally
designed to prevent smuggling. Before 18x6 this duty was
entrusted to the revenue cutters, and to a body of " riding
officers," mounted men who were frequently supported by
detachments of dragoons. The crews of the cutters and the
riding officers were under the authority of the custom house in
London, and were appointed by the treasury. On the conclusion
of the war with Napoleon in 1815 it was resolved to take stricter
precautions against smuggling. A "coast blockade" was
established in Kent and Sussex. The " Ramillies " (74) was
stationed in the Downs and the " Hyperion " (42) at Newhaven.
A number of half-pay naval lieutenants were appointed to these
vessels, but were stationed with detachments of men and boats
at the Martcllo towers erected along the coast as a defence
against French invasion. They were known as the " preventivt
COASTING— COB
603
water guard u or the u preventive service." The crews of the
boats were partly drawn from the revenue cutters, and partly
hired from among men of all trades. The " coast blockade "
was extended to all parts of the coast. The revenue cutters and
the riding officers continued to be employed, and the whole
force was under the direction of the custom house. The whole
was divided into districts under the command of naval officers.
In 1822 the elements of which the preventive water guard was
composed were consolidated, and in 1829 h was ordered that
only sailors or fishermen should be engaged as boatmen. In
1830 the whole service consisted of 50 revenue cutters, fine
vessels of 150 and 200 tons, of the " preventive boats," and the
riding or&cers. In 1831, during the administration of Sir James
Graham, the service was transferred to the admiralty, though
the custom house dag was used till 1857. After 1840 the men
were drilled " in the common formations/' mainly with a view
to being employed for the maintenance of order and in support
of the police, in case of Chartist or other agitations. But in
1845 the first steps were taken to utilize the coastguard as a
reserve to the navy. The boatmen were required to sign an
engagement to serve in the navy if called upon. In May 1857
the service was transferred entirely to the admiralty, and the
coastguard became a part of the navy, using the navy flag. The
districts were placed under captains of the navy, known as
district captains, in command of ships stationed at points
round the coast. Since that year the coastguard has been
recruited from the navy, and has been required to do regular
periods of drill at sea, on terms laid down by the admiralty from
time to time. It has, in fact, been a form of naval reserve.
The rise and early history of the coastguard are told in Smuggling
Days and Smuggling Ways, by the Hon. Henry N. Shore, K.N.,
(London, 1892). Iu later history must be traced in the Queen's
(and King's) Regulations and Admiralty Instructions of successive
yean. (D. H.)
COASTING, usually called tobogganing (q.v.) in Europe, the
sport of sliding down snow or ice-covered hills or artificial
inclines upon hand-sleds, t)r sledges, provided with runners shod
with iron or steel. It is uncertain whether the first American
sleds were copied from the Indian toboggans, but no sled without
runners was known in the United States before 1870, except
to the woodsmen of Ihe Canadian border. American laws have
greatly restricted, and in most places prohibited, the practice,
once common, of coasting on the highways; and the sport
is mainly confined to open hills and artificial inclines or chutes.
Two forms of hand-sled arc usual in America, the original
" dipper " type, built low with long, pointed sides, originally
shod with iron but since 1850 with round steel runners; and the
light, short " girls' sled," with high skeleton sides, usually flat
shod There is also the " double-runner," or " bob-sled," formed
of two dipper sleds joined by a board and steered by ropes, a
wheel or a cross-bar, and seating from four to ten persons.
In Scandinavia several kinds of sled are common, but that of
the fishermen, by means of which they transport their catch
over the frozen fjords, is the one used in coasting, a sport especi-
ally popular in the neighbourhood of Christiania, where there are
courses nearly 3 m. in length. This sled is from 4 to 6 ft. long,
with skeleton sides about 7 in. high, and generally holds three
persons. It is steered by two long sticks trailing behind. On
the ice the fisherman propels his sled by means of two short
picks. The general Norwegian name for sledge is skijdlkcr, the
primitive form being a kind of toboggan provided with broad
wooden runners resembling the ski (q.v.). In northern Sweden
and Finland the commonest form of single sled is the Spark-
stottinger, built high at the back, the coaster standing up and
steering by means of two handles projecting from the sides.
Coasting in its highest development may be seen in Switzerland,
at the fashionable winter resorts of the Engadine, where it is
called tobogganing. The first regular races there were organized
by John Addington Symonds, who instituted an annual contest
for a challenge cup, open to all comers, over the steep post-road
from Davos to Klosters, the finest natural coast in Switzerland,
the sled used being the primitive native SchliUli or Handschlilten,
a miniature copy of the ancient horse-sledge. Soon afterwards
followed the construction of great artificial runs, the most
famous being the " Cresta " at St Moritx, begun in 1884, which
is about 1350 yds. in length, its dangerous curves banked up
like those of a bicyde track. On this the annual "Grand
National " championship is contested, the winner's time being
the shortest aggregate of three heats. In 1885 and the following
year the native SchliUli remained in use, the rider sitting upright
fadng the goal, and steering either with the heels or with short
picks. In 1887 the first American dipper sled was introduced
by L. P. Child, who easily won the championship for that year
on it The sled now used by the contestants is a development
of the American type, built of sted and skeleton in form. With
it a speed of over 70 m. an hour has been attained. The coaster
lies flat upon it and steers with his feet, shod with spiked shoes,
to render braking easier, and hdped with his gloved hands.
The " double-runner " has also been introduced into Switzerland
under the name of " bob-sleigh."
See Ice Sports, in the Isthmian Library, London (1901) ; Toboggan-
ing at St Moritx, by T. A. Cook (London, 1896).
COATBRIDGE, a munidpal and police burgh, having the privi-
leges of a royal burgh, of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891)
15,212; (1001) 36,091. It is situated on the Monkland Canal,
8 m. E. of Glasgow, with stations on the Caledonian and North
British railways. Until about 182s it was only a village, but
since then its vast stores of coal and iron have been devdoped,
and it is now the centre of the iron trade of Scotland. Its
prosperity was largely due to the ironmaster James Baird (q.v.),
who erected as many as sixteen blast-furnaces in the immediate
neighbourhood between 1830 and 1842. The industries of Coat-
bridge produce malleable iron, boilers, tubes, wire, tinplates and
railway wagons, tiles, fire-bricks and fire-day goods. There are
two public parks in the town, and its public buildings include a
theatre, a technical school and mining college, hospitals, and the
academy and Baird Institute at Gartsherrie. Janet Hamilton,
the poetess (1 795-1873), spent most of her life at Langloan —
now a part of Coatbridge— and a fountain has been erected to her
memory near the cottage in which she lived. For parliamentary
purposes the town, which became a municipal burgh in 1885,
is induded in the north-west division of Lanarkshire. About
4 m. west by south lies the mining town of Baillieston (pop.
3784), with a station on the Caledonian railway. It has numerous
collieries, a nursery and market garden.
COATESVILLE, a borough of Chester county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the west branch of Brandywine Creek, 39 m. W. of
Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 3680; (1900) 5721 (273 foreign-born);
(19x0) 11,084. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the
Philadelphia & Reading railways, and intcrurban electric lines.
For its size the borough ranks high as a manufacturing centre,
iron and steel works, boiler works, brass works, and paper, silk
and woollen mills being among its leading establishments. Its
water-works are owned and operated by the municipality.
Named in honour of Jesse Coates, one of its early settlers, it was
settled about 1800, and was incorporated in 1867.
COATI, or Coati-Mundi, the native name of the members of
the genus Narua, of the mammalian family Prccyonidac. They
arc easily recognized by their long body and tail, and elongated,
upturned snout; from which last feature the Germans call them
Rilssclbiiren or "snouted bears." In the white-nosed coati,
a native of Mexico and Central America, the general hue is
brown, but the snout and upper lip arc white, and the tail is often
banded. In the red coati, ranging from Surinam to Paraguay, the
tail is marked with from seven to nine broad fulvous or rufous
rings, alternating with black ones, and tipped with black. Coatis
are gregarious and arboreal in habit, and feed on birds, eggs,
lizards and insects. They are common pets of the Spaniards in
South America. (Sec Carntvora.)
COB, a word of unknown origin with a variety of meanings,
which the New English Dictionary considers may be traced to the
notions of something stout, big, round, head or top. In " cobble,"
e.g. in the sense of a round stone used in paving, the same word
may be traced. The prindpal uses of " cob " are for a stocky
strongly built horse, from 13 to 14 hands high, a small toukLVsaIx
604
COBALT
a round lump of coal, in which sense " cobble " is also used, the
fruiting spike of the maize plant, and a large nut of the hazel
type, more commonly known as the cob-nut.
" Cobbler," a patcher or mender of boots and shoes, is probably
from a different root. It has nothing* to do with an O. Fr
coubicr, Mod. coupler, to fasten together. In " cobweb," tha
web of the spider, the " cob " represents the older cop, coppe,
spider, cf. Dutch spinnckop.
COBALT (symbol Co, atomic weight 59), one of the metallic
chemical elements. The term " cobalt " is met with in the>
writings of Paracelsus, Agricola and Basil Valentine, being used
to denote substances which, although resembling metallic ores,
gave no metal on smelting At a later date it was the name
given to the mineral used for the production of a blue colour
in glass. In 1735 G. Brandt prepared an impure cobalt metal,
which was magnetic and very infusible. Cobalt is usually found
associated with nickel, and frequently with arsenic, the chief ores
being spciss-cobalt, (Co,Ni,Fe)As : , cobaltite (q.r.) t wad, cobalt
bloom, linnaeite, CbjS<, and skuttemdite, CoAsi. Its presence
has also been detected in the sun and in meteoric iron. For the
technical preparation of cobalt, and its separation from nickel,
see Nickel. The metal is chiefly used, as the oxide, for colouring;
glass and porcelain.
Metallic cobalt may be obtained by reduction of the oxide or
chloride in a current of hydrogen at a red heat, or by heating the
oxalate, under a layer of powdered glass. As prepared by the
reduction of the oxide it is a grey powder. In the massive state it
has a colour resembling polished iron, and is malleable and very
tough. It has a specific gravity of 8*8, and it melts at 1530°
C. (H. Copaux). Its mean specific heat between o° and 97° C.
Cs 0-10674 (H. Kopp). It is permanent in dry air, but in the
finely divided state it rapidly combines with oxygen, the com-
pact metal requiring a strong heating to bring about this com-
bination. It decomposes steam at a red heat, and slowly
dissolves in dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, but more
readily in nitric acid. Cobalt burns in nitric oxide at 150° C.
giving the monoxide. It may be obtained in the pure state,
according to C. Winkler {Zcit.fUr anorg. Ckcm. t 1895, 8, p. 1), by
electrolysing the pure sulphate in the presence of ammonium
sulphate and ammonia, using platinum electrodes, any occluded
oxygen in the deposited metal being removed by heating in a
current of hydrogen.
Three characteristic oxides of cobalt arc known, the mot\Q*idt<
C*/j. the sevjuiuxide. Co ; 0:. and trice ball tetro\id<\ Co^O*; besides
thevc there are probably oxides of composition CoOi, Co#Oi r CoiO»
and Co/)*. Cobalt monoxide. CoO. is prepared by fcrating the
hydroxide or carbonate in a current of air. or by heating the ou'de
Co-.Oi in a current of carbon dioxide. It i» a brown coloured powder
whi'.h i* stable in air, but gi\es a higher oxide wheu heated. On
bea::n; in hydrogen, ammonia or carbon monoxide, or with carbon
or sodum. it i» reduced to the metallic state- It is rtadrly soluble
in warm dilute mineral acids forming cobahous sail*- Cobalrous
hydroxide. It di isolv*-* in acid* forming cobaltous salts, and on
exposure to air it rapidly abv>rbs oxygen, turning brown in colour.
A. de Schuiten f Com^U: Rendui. i&*9. 109, p. 266; has obtained it in
a crystalline form; tr.? '.r. itali have a specific gravity of 3*597. and
are easily snt'ible in warm ammonium chloride solution. Cobalt
Stwjuioxide, Co/)*, remains a* a dark-brown powder when cobalt
nitrate it gently heated. Heated st 190-300" in a current of hydro-
gen it gives the oxide to^S, **;ile at higher temperatures the
monoxide, it formed* and ultimately cobalt is obtained. Cobaltic
hydroxide, Co{OHji, is formed when a cobalt salt is precipitated
by an alkaline hypochlorite, or on pa- sir? chlorine through water
containing uiepended, cobaUous hydroxide or carbonate. It is a
brown-blnck powder soluble in hydrochloric arid, chlorine being
simultaneously liberated- Thin hydroxide is soluble in well cooled
aeidi, (arming solutions which contain cobaltic sal? v one of the most
stable ol which i* the acetate- Cobalt dioxide, C'/>-. has not yet
been isolated in the pure state; it is probably formed when iodine
and caustic soda are added to a solution of a cofaahout salt. By
suspending cobaltous hydroxide in water and adding h>dro?en
peroxide, a strongly acid liquid is obtained (after filtering which
probably contains cobaltous acid, HjCoOj. The barium and n-.ag-
sesiara salts of this acid are formed when baryta and maz^Ta
are fused with cobalt sesquioxide. Tricobalt tetroxide C01O1 i»
produced when the other oxides, or the nitrate, are heated in air.
By heating a mixture of cobalt oxalate and sal-ammoniac in air, it
is obtained in the form of minute hard octahedra. which are act
magnetic, and are only soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid.
The cobaltous sails arc formed when the metal, cobaltous mkx.
hydroxide or carbonate, art- dissolved in acids, or, in the case of the
insoluble ftilts, by precipitation- The insoluble (alts are rose-red
>~t violet in colour The soluble salts are, when in the hydrated
condition, also red, but in the anhydrous condition are blue. They
are precipitated Irom their alkaline solutions as cobalt sulphide by
sulphuretted hydrogen, but this precipitation is prevented by the
presence of citric and tartaric acids; similarly the
ammonium salts hinders their precipitation by caustic alkali
Alkaline carbonates give precipitates of bask carbonates, the forru-
tion of which i* also retarded by the presence of ammonium salts.
For the action of ammonia on the cobaltous salt 1 in the presence of air
see CfUdaJicmmKts i below}. On the addition of potassium cyanide
they give a brown precipitate at cobalt cyanide, CovCN)* waicl
dissolves in excess of potassium cyanide to a green juiut ion.
Cobalt chloride, Cotlt. in the anhydrous staie, h formed by bur -
jng the metal in chlorine or by heating the sulphide in a eums:
of the same gas. It is blue in colour and sublimes readily. It &«
solves easily in water, forming the hydrated chloride. CoClt-6HiC,
which may also be prepared by dissolving the hydroxide or car-
bonate in hydrochloric acid. The hydrated salt forms roae-H
prisms, readily soluble in water to a red solution, and in alcohol to a
blue solution. Other hydrated forma of the chloride, of compositka
CoClr2HsO and CoCI,4H,0 have been described (P. Saba tier, B*U.
Soc. Ckim. 51, p. 88; Bench, Jahrcsb. d: Chtmie. 1867. p. 291). Double
chlorides ofcompoRitionCoClfNH«ClCHfO: CoCI,SaCl«-6H,Oa&4
I CoCli-2CdCIi-12HiO are also known. By the addition of excess cf
ammonia to a cobalt chloride solution in absence of air, a greenish-
blue precipitate is obtained which, on heating, dissolves in the
solution, giving a rose-red liquid. This solution, on standing
deposits octahedra of the composition CoClrGNHs. These crystals
when heated to 120° C. lose ammonia and are converted into the
compound CoCli-2NH» (E. Fremy). The bromide, CoBr,, resembles
the chloride, and may be prepared by similar methods. The
hydrated salt readily loses water on heating, forming at too* C the
hydrate CoBrr2HiO, and at 130° C. passing into the anhydrous faro
The iodide, Col?, is produced by heating cobalt and iodine together,
and forms a greyish-green mass which dissolves readily in water
forming a red solution. On evaporating this solution the hydntwi
salt Col: 6H1O is obtained in hexagonal prisms. It behaves in at
analogous manner to CoBr* GHsO on heating.
Coball fluoride. CoFf2HiO, is formed when cobalt carbonate is
evaporated with an excess of aqueous hydrofluoric acid, separating
in ro*e red crystalline crusts. Electrolysis of a solution in hydro-
fluoric acid gives cobaltic fluoride, CoF».
Sulphides of cobalt of composition CoiSt, CoS, CosS*. C01S1 aai
Co5j are'knnwn. The most common of these sulphides is cobaltous
sulphide. CoS, which occurs naturally as syepoorite, and can be
artificially prepared m heating cobaltous oxide with sulphur, or by
fusing anhydrous rahatt sulphate with barium sulphide and common
$a 1 1. By eit her of t hesc met hods, it is obtained in the form of brow*-
coloured crystals- It may be prepared in the amorphous form by
heating cobalt uiih sulphur dioxide, in a sealed tube, at 200 1 C.
In the nyd rated condition it is formed by the action of alkaline scl-
phidi-? on t.rlMltous silts or by precipitating cobalt acetate with
sulphuretred hydrogen (in the absence of free acetic acid). It iia
black amorphous powder soluble in concentrated sulphuric and
hydrochloric acids, and when in the moist state readily oxidiaesos
exposure.
Cobalt on* sulphate, CoSO^THiO, is found naturallv as the micerjl
bieberite, and is formed when cobalt, cobaltous oxide or carbonic
ace di'VwK'ed in dilute sulphuric acid. It forms dark red crystal*
i^omorphou* wirh ferrous sulphate, and readily soluble in water
By dissolving it in concentrated sulphuric acid and warming the
solutkn n the anhyirnm ialt is obtained- Kydrnied sulpnales d
composition CoSO*-6HA CoS0^4H,0 and CoSO,-Hg0^irV al»
known. Th^ hepti hydrated salt combines with the alkalis* sul-
phates to form double sulpha tea of composition CoSO»'MtSOi 6H1O
(M-K, NH<, &cX
The cobaltic salts corresponding to the oxide Cesd are gtneranv
unstable compounds which wist only in solution. H. JWjH-.iU
{Proi. Roy. Soc. Edit. 59. p. 760) has prepared eofaaJde sulpkate
Co:(50t)i - 1-SHiO, in the form of small needles, by the elecrroiyvs d
cobal t su I pha te. 1 n a &im i Ear way potaiitium and a mtDoni um cobalt
alums have been obtained. A cobolti^ulphurou<s acid, probab'v
Hf f (SOi)*-Coi] has been obtained by E. Berglund {Bcrichte, 1^74. 7,
p. 460J* in aqueous solution^ by disAotvijw afntnonlum cr-bthi*-
cobalt ijulphtte '(NHi)iC'oa |<SOi)i*Coi| *HHjOin dilute hydrochtork
or nitric acids 4 or by decomposition of its silver aa.lt with hydr<>-
chloric acid. The ammonium cobalt o-c&bakisu I phite is prepared
by saturating an air^viijlied simmom'acal so>1ut.kmi 0/ eolsilionf
chloride with sulphur dioxide. The double salts contaiaNi
the metal in the cobaltk fdno are more stable than tbe cone-
sponding single salts, and of these potassium robaJrirtitritf.
CoifXOrJ»-6KKOi 3HiO* is best known. It may be rjr pared b>
the addition of potassium nitrite to an acetic acid solution <d ccbslt
chloride- TV* v^W" ^«euv\vaAK Qbtavucd is w asbed with a sc^utkn
COBALTITE— COBAN
605
of potassium acetate and finally with dilute alcohol. The reaction
proceeds according to the following equation: 2CoCl|+lOKNOi+
WKft-Co,^O,"*0KNOj^Kd+2NO+2H^) (A. Sti
A wwlm, 185*. '&. p. j.'i.i>. This salt may be used for the separation
-of cobalt ana jucictl, since the Utter metal does not form a amilar
double nitrite, but it it necessary that the alkaline earth metals
should be absent, for in their presence nickel forms complex nitrites
containing the alkaline earth metal ond the alkali metal. A sodium
cabal ti nitrite h alto known.,
Cobalt nitrate, Co(NOi)i-0M*O, 11 obtained in dark-red mono-
el in ic tables by the alow evaporation of a solution of the metal, its
hydroxide or carbonate, in nitric acid. It deliquesces in the air and
melts readily on heating. By the addition of excess of ammonia
to- it! aqueous solution, in the complete absence of air, a blue ore-
eipitate of a basic nitrate 01 the composition 6CoO-NiO»-5HgO is
obtained r
By boiling a solution of cobalt carbonate in phosphoric acid,
the acid phosphate CoHPO* 3HgO it obtained, which when heated
with water to 250* C. i* converted into the neutral phosphate
Co 1 (PO*V2H,0 (H. Debray, Ann. dtckimie, 1861, (3] 61, p. 43*)-
CoUlt ammonium phosphate. CoNH«PO«-12HfO, is formed when
a soluble cobalt salt is digested for some time with excess of a warm
solution of ammonium phosphate. It separates in the form of small
rose-red crystals, which decompose on boilinsr with water.
Cobs I toua cyanide, Co{CNjj ■-3HjO, is obtained when the carbonate
is dissolved in h> Jrocyanie acid or when tfic acetate 1- precipitated
by potassium X\ .ini-1-. . Il is insoluble in dilute atid*. but ii readily
soluble in excels of potassium cyanide. The double cyanides of
cobalt are analogous to those- 01 Iron, Hydrrjcobahocyanic acid
is not known 4 but its potassium salt, KjCo(CN i|. is formed when
friHihiy precipitated cobali cyanide is dissolved in an ice-cold solution
of potassium cyanide. The liquid is precipitated by alcohol, and the
washed and dried precipitate is then dissolved in water and allowed
to stand, when the salt separates in dark -coloured crystals. In
alkaline solution it readily takes up oxygen and is converted into
potassium cobalLfcyanide H KjCoiCN), t which may alto be obtained
by evaporating a solution of cobalt cyanide, in c.vccss of potassium
cyanide, in the presence of air &KCN+2Co[CNh+TfiD+0-
2KiCo I C N \. +2 K llO. It forms; monoetin ic crystals w h tch a re very
soluble in water. From its aqueous solution, concentrated hydro-
chloric acid precipitates hydrocobalticyanic acid, rljCo(CN> t , as a
colourless solid which is very deliquescent, and is pot attacked by
conrentrated hydrochloric and nitric acids. For a description of the
variouVtaltf of this acid, see 1*. Wesselsky. BtrUhtc. (869. 2, p, 5S8.
C'loH'T'iiHin^i A large number of cobalt compounds are
known, of »hich the empirical composition represents them as salts
of cobalt to which one or mote molecule* at a mm' mi a have been
added- The** *a I is have been d i vided int the fol luwi rve seriei ; —
Diammine Series; LCo(N Hj)i}XiM. In the* sails X « NO, and
M -one atomic proper lion of a monovalent metal, or the
equivalent quantity of a divalent metal.
Triimmine Scries, [Cc(*H,),|Xi. Here X - CI, NO.. NCV, ISO,,
fa
Tetrammine Series. This group may be divided into the
Praseo-salts |R,Co(NH,),JX, where X -CI.
Croceo-salts [(N(h)iCo(NHa)dX. which may be considered
as a subdivision of the praseo-salts.
Tetrammine purpureo-salts (RCo(NHa)rHjOlX:.
Tetrammine roseo-salts (Co(NHaV(HiO)j]Xj.
Fuseo-ealts fCo(NH»)<]OHX«.
Pentammine Series.
Pentamminc purpureo-salts [R-Co(NHj)»]Xi where X ■
CI, Br, NO,. NO,, ISO,, Ac.
Pentammine roseo-salts [Co(NHi)»-H J 0)X J .
Hexammine or Luteo Series [Co(NH»)«]Xj.
The hexammine salts are formed by the oxidizing action of air
on dilute ammoniacal solutions of cobaltous salts, especially in
presence of a lar^e excess of ammonium chloride. They form
yellow of bronrcscoloured crystals, which decompose on boiling
their a-flucou* -solution. On boiling their solution in caustic alkalis,
ammonia U liberated.. The pentammine purpureo-salts are formed
from the luteo- salt s by loss of ammonia, or from an air slowly
oxidised ammoniacal cobalt salt solution, the precipitated lutco-
salt being filtered off and the nitrate boiled with concentrated, acids.
They are violet-red in colour, and on boiling or Ions; standing with
dilute acids they pass into the corresponding roseo-salts.
"The pentammine nitrito salts are known as the xanthocobalt salts
and have the general formula [NO)-Co+(NMil»]X*. They arc formed
by the action of nitrous fumes on ammoniacal solutions of cobaltous
salts, or purpureo-salts, or by the mutual reaction of thlofpurpureo-
salts and alkaline nitrites. They are soluble in waterand give char-
acteristic precipitates with plat ink and auric chlorides, and with
potassium ierroeyamdc. The pentammine roseo-uUs can be ob-
tained from Lh? action of concentrated acids, in the cold, on atr :
csidiaed solutions of cobalt cms salts. They are of a reddish colour
and usually crystallise well; on heating with concentrated acid-,
are usually transformed into the purpureo-salts. Their alkaline
solution* liberate ammonia on boil inf. They give a characteristic
pole red precipitate with sodium pyrophosphate, solubk- in an excess
of the precipitant; they also form precipitate* on the addition of
platinie chloride and potassium ferrocyanide. For methods of
preparation of the tetrammine and triammine salts, see O. Dammer's
Handbuth der anorfamscktn Chtmu, voL 3 (containing a complete
account of the preparation of the cobahammine salts). The cfianv
mine salts are prepared by the action of alkaline nitrites on cobaltous
salts in the presence of much ammonium chloride or nitrate; they
are yellow or brown crystalline solids, not very soluble in cold water.
The above series of salts show striking differences En their be-
haviour towards reagents; thus* aqueous solutions of the luteo
chlorides are strongly ionized, as is shown by their high electric
conductivity; and all their chlorine is precipitated or. the addition
of silver nitrate solution. The aqueous solution, however, does not
show the ordinary reactions of cobalt or of ammopja, and so it is to
be presumed that the salt ionises into LCa(N Hj; a ] and 3CI'. The
purpureo chloride has only two- thirds of its chlorine precipitated
on the addition of silver nitrate, and the electric conductivity
is much les* than that of the luteo chloride; again in the praseo*
salts only one- third of the chlorine in precipitated by silver nitrate,
the conductivity again falling: while in the [nam mine salts all
ionization has disappeared. For the compilation of these salts
and of the " metal ammonia " compounds generally, see A. Werner,
Zr&fur anerg. Chemitt 1893 et seq., and^ Beric hit, 1S95, et seq.;
and S. Jorge niien, ZeiL fur a huff. Che-mitt l&oa et seq.
The oxycobaitammirtti arc a series of compounds of the general
type (Co^Oi Hi{NHi)te]Xi first observed by L. Gmelin, and subse*
u uvnt I y examined by E. Frecny, W. Gibhsand G. Vortrtunn (Monals-
&rft£ Jtir Cfumic t 1885, 6. p. 404), They result from the cobalt*
am mines by the direct taking up of oxygen and water. On heating,
they decompose, forming bu.sk intammint wits.
The atomic weight of cobalt has beta frequently determined,
the earlier results not being very concordant (see K. Schneider,
Pvg. Ann,, 1857, 10 1 ♦ p. jft?; C. nlarignac, Arch. Fh*i* Nat. [2], I,
P- 37^: W. Gibbs; Amrr. J out. Sd. [j|, 55, p, 4*3 1 X B. Dumas,
Ann. Chi fit. Pkys.. 1S50, hi, JJ, p- 139; W. J, Ruwcir, Jour. Cktm.
Sac. 1S61, io, p. $1). C. Winkler, by the analysis of the chloride,
and by the action 01 iodine on the metal, obtained the values 59*37
and 59-07, whilst W. Hempel and H, Thielc (ZtiLf. anort. Cficm.,
1B00, it. p, 7J). by reducing eobalto-cobaltic oxide, ana by the
analysis of the chloride, have obtained the % jluts S^ - 5o and 58*48*
G, 1'. Baxter and others deduced the value 58-995 (O- 16).
Cobalt salts may be readily detected by the formation of the
black sulphide, in alkaline solution, and by the blue colour they
produce when fused with borax. For the quantitative determination
of cobalt, it is eiiher weighed as the oxide, CoiOi, obtained by
ignition of the precipitated monoxidt t or it h reduced in a current
of h> drofii-n ana weighed as metal For the quantitative separation
of cobalt and nickel, see E. Hint* {Zeit. /. amtt. Chcm., 1 69 1, 30,
p. 227), and also NicttCL.
COBALTITE, a mineral with the composition CoAsS, cobalt
suipharsenide. It is found as granular to compact masses, and
frequently as beautifully developed crystals, which have the same
symmetry as the isomorphous mineral pyrites, being cubic with
parallel hemihedriam. The usual forms are the cube, octahedron
and pentagonal dodecahedron |aio|. The colour is silver-white
with a reddish tinge, and the lustre brilliant and metallic,
hence the old name cobalt-glance; the streak is greyish-black.
The mineral is brittle, and possesses distinct cleavages parallel
to the faces of the cube; hardness 5$; specific gravity 6* a.
The brilliant crystals from Tunaberg in Sodermanland and
Hakansboda in Vestmanland, Sweden, and from Skutterud near
Drammen in Norway are well known in mineral collections.
The cobalt ores at these localities occur with pyrites and chalco-
pyrite as bands in gneiss. Crystals have also been found at
Khetri in Rajputana, and under the name schta the mineral
is used by Indian jewellers for producing a blue enamel on gold
and silver ornaments. Massive cobaltite has been found in small
amount in the Botallack mine, Cornwall. A variety containing
much iron replacing cobalt, and known as ferrocobaltite (Ger.
SlMobalt), occurs at Siegen in Westphalia. (L. J. S.)
COBAN, or Santo Domingo de CobAn, the capital of the
department of Alta Vera Paz in central Guatemala; about
00 m. N. of the city of Guatemala, on the Cojabon, a left-hand
tributary of the Polochic. Pop. (1905) about 31,000. The town
is built in a mountainous and fertile district, and consists chiefly
of adobe Indian cottages, surrounded by gardens of flowering
shrubs. More modern houses have been erected for the foreign
residents, among whom the Germans are numerically pre-
dominant. In the chief square of the town stands a 16th-century
Dominican church, externally plain, but covered internally with
curious Indian decorations. The municipal offices, formerly
a college for priests, are remarkable for their handsanxe, tak
6o6
COBAR— COBBETT
disproportionately large gateway in Renaissance style. Despite
the want f a railway. Cob&n bas a flourishing trade in coffee
and cinchona; cocoa, vanilla and sugar-cane are also cultivated,
and there are manufactures of rum, cotton fabrics, soap and
cigars. The prosperity of the town is largely due to the industry
of the Quecchi, Kacchi or Kakchi Indians who form the majority
of the inhabitants.
Cob&n was founded in the 16th century by Dominican monks
under Fray Pedro de Angulo, whose portrait is preserved in the
church. In honour of the emperor Charles V. (1500-1558).
Cob&n received the name of Ciudad Imperial (which soon became
obsolete), together with a coat of arms and other privileges
belonging to a Spanish city of the first class.
COBAR, a mining town of Robinson county, New South Wales,
Australia, 459 m. N.W. by W. of Sydney by rail. Pop. (1001)
337 x. The district of which Cobar is the centre abounds in
minerals of aU kinds, but copper and gold are those most
extensively worked. The Great Cobar copper-mine is the most
Important in the state, and there are a number of successful gold-
mines. In addition to the mining, the district produces large
quantities of wool. Cobar is a municipality, as also is the
adjacent township of Gladstone, with a mining population.
COBB, HOWELL (1815-1868), American political leader, was
born at Cherry Hill, Jefferson county, Georgia, on the 7th of
September 181 5. He graduated from Franklin College (Univer-
sity of Georgia) in 1834, and two years later was admitted to the
bar. From 1837 to 1840 he was solicitor-general for the western
circuit of his' state; from 1843 to 1851 and from 1855 to 1857
he was a member of the National House of Representatives,
becoming Democratic leader in that body in 1847, and serving
as speaker in 1840*1851; from 1851 to 1853 he was governor
of his state; and from March 1857 to December i860 he was
secretary of the treasury in President Buchanan's cabinet. He
was president of the convention of the seceded states which
drafted a constitution for the Confederacy. In i86z he was
appointed colonel of a regiment and two years later was made
a major-general. He died in New York on the 9th of October
1 868. He sided with President Jackson on the question of nulli-
fication ; was an efficient supporter of President Polk's admini-
stration during the Mexican War; and was an ardent advocate
of slavery extension into the Territories, but when the Com-
promise of 1850 had been agreed upon he became its staunch
supporter as a Union Democrat, and on that issue was elected
governor of Georgia by a large majority. In i860, however,
he ceased to be a Unionist, and became a leader of the secession
movement. From the dose of the war until his death he
vigorously opposed the Reconstruction Acts.
COBBETT, WILLIAM (1766-1835), English politician and
writer, was born near Farnham in Surrc>'i according to his own
statement, on the 9th of March 1766. He was the grandson of
4 farm-labourer, and the son of a small farmer; and during his
early life he worked on his father's farm. At the age of sixteen,
inspired with patriotic feeling by the sight of the men-of-war in
Portsmouth harbour, he thought of becoming a sailor; and in
May 1783, having, while on his way to Guildford fair, met the
London coach, he suddenly resolved to accompany it to its
destination. He arrived at Ludgate Hill with exactly half-a-
crown in his pocket, but an old gentleman who had travelled
with him invited him to his house, and obtained for him the situa-
tion of copying clerk in an attorney's office. He greatly disliked
his new occupation; and rejecting all his father's entreaties that
he would return home, he went down to Chatham early in 1784
with the intention of joining the marines. By some mistake,
however, he was enlisted in a regiment of the line, which rather
more than a year after proceeded to St John's, New Brunswick.
All his leisure time during the months he remained at Chatham
was devoted to reading the contents of the circulating library
of the town, and getting up by heart Lowth's English Grammar.
His uniform good conduct, and the power of writing correctly
which he had acquired, quickly raised him to the rank of corporal,
from which, without passing through the intermediate grade
0/ sagcant, he was promoted to that of sergeant-major. In
November 1791 he was discharged at his own request, sad
received the official thanks of the major and the general who
signed his discharge. In February 179a Cob belt married the
daughter of a sergeant-major of artillery, whom he had met some
years before in New Brunswick. But his liberty was threatened
in consequence of his bringing a charge of peculation against
certain officers in his old regiment, and he went over to France
in March, where he studied the language and literature. In bis
absence, the inquiry into his charges ended in an acquittal.
In September he crossed to the United States, and supported
himself at Wilmington, Delaware, by teaching English to French
emigrants. Among these was Talleyrand, who employed hin,
according to Cobbett's story, not because he was ignorant of
English, but because he wished to purchase his pen. Cobbrtt
made his first literary sensation by his Observations on the
Emigration of a Martyr to the Cause of Liberty, a clever retort 00
Dr Priestley, who had just landed in America complaining of
the treatment he had received in England. This pamphlet was
followed by a number of papers, signed " Peter Porcupine,"
and entitled Prospect from the Congress Gallery, the Political
Censor and the Porcupine's Gazette. In the spring of 1796,
having quarrelled with his publisher, he set up in Philadelphia
as bookseller and publisher of his own works. On the day of
opening, his windows were filled with prints of the most extrava-
gant of the French Revolutionists and of the founders of the
American Republic placed side by side, along With portraits of
George III., the British ministers, and any one else he could find
likely to be obnoxious to the people; and he continued to poor
forth praises of Great Britain and scorn of the institutions of
the United States, with special abuse of the French party. Abuse
and threats were of course in turn showered upon him, and in
August 1797, for one of his attacks on Spain, he was prosecuted,
though unsuccessfully, by the Spanish ambassador. Immediately
on this he was taken up for libels upon American statesmen,
and bound in recognizances to the amount of $4000, and shortly
after he was prosecuted a third time for saying that Dr Benjamin
Rush, who was much addicted to blood-letting, killed nearly
all the patients he attended. The trial was repeatedly deferred,
and was not settled till the end of 1799, when he was fined
$5000. After this last misfortune, for a few months Cobbett
carried on a newspaper called the Rushlight; but in June 1800
he set sail for England.
At home he found himself regarded as the champion of order
and monarchy. Windham invited him to dinner, introduced
him to Pitt, and begged him to accept a share in the True Briton.
He refused the offer and joined an old friend, John Morgan, in
opening a book shop in Pall Mall. For some time he published
the Porcupine's Gazette, which was followed in January 1802 by
the Weekly Political Register. In 1801 appeared his Letters to
Lord Hawkesbury (afterwards earl of Liverpool) and his Letters
to the Rt. Hon. Henry Addington, in opposition to the proposed
peace of Amiens. On the conclusion of the peace (1802) Cobbett
made a still bolder protest; he determined to take no part in
the general illumination, and — assisted by the sympathy of
his wife, who, being in delicate health, removed to the house of
a friend— he carried out his resolve, allowing his windows to be
smashed and his door broken open by the angry mob. The
letters to Addington are among the most polished and dignified
of Cobbett's writings; but by 1803 he was once more revelling
in personalities. The government of Ireland was singled out
for wholesale attack; and a letter published in the Register
remarked of Hardwicke, the lord-lieutenant, that the appoint-
ment was like setting the surgeon's apprentice to bleed the
pauper patients. For this, though not a word had been uttered
against Hardwicke's character, Cobbett was fined £500; and
two days after the conclusion of this trial a second commenced,
at the suit of Plunkett, the solicitor-general for Ireland, which
resulted in a similar fine. About this time he began to write in
support of Radical views; and to cultivate the friendship of
Sir Francis Burdett, from whom he received considerable sums
of money, and other favours, for which he gave no very grateful
return. In 1809 he was once more in the most serious trouble.
COBBOLD— COBDEN
607
He had bitterly commented on the flogging of some militia,
because their mutiny had been repressed and their sentence
carried out by the aid of a body of German troops, and in con-
sequence he was fined £1000 and imprisoned for two years. His
indomitable vigour was never better displayed. He still con-
tinued to publish the Register, and to superintend the affairs of
his farm; a hamper containing specimens of its produce and
other provisions came to him every week; and he amused
himself with the company of some of his children and with
weekly letters from the rest. On his release a public dinner,
presided over by Sir F. Burdett, was held in honour of the event.
He returned to his farm at Botley in Hampshire, and continued
in his old course, extending his influence by the publication of
the Twopenny Trash, which, not being periodical, escaped the
newspaper stamp tax. Meanwhile, however, he had contracted
debts to the amount of £34.000 (for it is said that, notwithstand-
ing the aversion he publicly expressed to paper currency, he
had carried on his business by the aid of accommodation bills
to a very large amount) ; and early in 181 7 he fled to the United
States. But his pen was as active as ever; from Long Island
his MS. for the Register was regularly sent to England; and
it was here that he wrote his clear and interesting English
Grammar, of which 10,000 copies were sold in a month.
His return to England was accompanied by his weakest
exhibition — the exhuming and bringing over of the bones of
Thomas Paine, whom he had once heartily abused, but on whom
be now wrote a panegyrical ode. Nobody paid any attention
to the affair; the relics he offered were not purchased; and the
bones were reinterred.
Cobbett's great aim was now to obtain a seat in the House
of Commons. He calmly suggested that his friends should assist
him by raising the sum of £5000; it would be much better, he
said, than a meeting of 50,000 persons. He first offered himself
for Coventry, but failed; in 1826 he was by a large number of
votes last of the candidates for Preston; and in 1828 he could
find no one to propose him for the office of common councillor.
In 1830, that year of revolutions, he was prosecuted for inciting
to rebellion, but the jury disagreed, and soon after, through
the influence of one of his admirers, Mr Fielden, who was himself
a candidate for Oldham, he was returned for that town. In the
House his speeches were listened to with amused attention.
His position is sufficiently marked by the sneer of Peel that he
would attend to Mr Cobbett's observations exactly as if they
had been those of a " respectable member "; and the only
striking part of his career was his absurd motion that the king
should be prayed to remove Sir Robert Peel's name from the list
of the privy council, because of the change he had proposed
in the currency in 18 19. In 1834 Cobbett was again member
for Oldham, but his health now began to give way, and in June
X835 he left London for his farm, where he died on the 16th of
that month.
Cobbett's account of his home-life makes him appear singularly
happy; his love and admiration of his wife never failed; and
his education of his children seems to have been distinguished
by great kindliness, and by a good deal of healthy wisdom,
mingled with the prejudices due to the peculiarities of his temper
and circumstances. Cobbett's ruling characteristic was a sturdy
egoism, which had in it something of the nobler element of self-
respect. A firm will, a strong brain, feelings not over-sensitive,
an intense love of fighting, a resolve to get on, in the sense of
making himself a power in the world — these are the principal
qualities which account for the success of his career. His
opinions were the fruits of his emotions. It was enough for him
to get a thorough grasp of one side of a question, about the other
side he did not trouble himself; but he always firmly seizes the
facts which make for his view, and expresses them with unfail-
ing clearness. His argument, which is never subtle, has always
the appearance of weight, however flimsy it may be in fact.
His sarcasm is seldom polished or delicate, but usually rough,
and often abusive, while coarse nicknames were his special
delight. His style is admirably correct and always extremely
forcible.
Cobbett's contributions to periodical literature occupy 100
vol 'j me*, twelve of which coniii«t uf I he paper* published at Phila-
delphia between. 1704 and iSoo. and the r^t of the Weekly Political
Rtfisitt, whinh ended only with Cobbett'* death (June 1H35). An
abrnigmerit of these warts, with notes, was published by hi* tana,
John M. Cobbett and James l h . Cobbett. Besides this he published;
An Account vf the Horrors of the French Renolittion t aoa a work
tracing all these horrors to "the licentious politics and infidel
philosophy of the present ngc " <both 1778); A Year's Rtsidenct
ttt the Untied States: Porii^mentory History of Ettrland from the
Norman Canquest ttr i$ao dSoG); Cottage Economy; Roman History i
French Grammar and. English Grammar, both in the form of letters;
Geographical Dictionary of E net and and Wales; History of the
Regency and Reign of Gear ft IV., cam aim rig a defence of yueeo
Caroline, whose cau*t he warmly advotatetf (18JO-1834); Lift of
Andrew Jackson. President of the United States vi^i-l) ', Legacy to
Labourer* ; Legacy to Peel; Legacy la Par son j (1835), an attack on
the secular claims of the Established Church; Doom of Tithes;
Rural Rides (iHto; new ed. 1685). an account of his tours on horse-
hack through England, full of admirable descriptive writ ins;
Advice to Young Men and Women; Cobbett's Can* (iSaSj ; and
History of the Protiit^nt Reformation in England and Inland ((824-
1827), in which he defends the monasteries, yueen Mary and Bonner,
and attacks the Re format ion, Henry VIM., Elizabeth and all who
helped to bring it about, with such vehemence that the work was
[r^n.'Utcd into French and Italian, and extensively circulated
among Roman Catholics.
In 1708 Cobbett published in America an account of his early life,
under the title of The Life and Adventures of Peter Porcupine; and
he left papers relating to his subsequent career. His life baa been
written by R. Hui&h (1835), E. Smith (1878), and E. I. Carlyle (1904).
See also the annotated edition of the Register (1835).
COBBOLD, THOMAS SPENCER (1828-1886), English man of
science, was born at Ipswich in 1828, a son of the Rev. Richard
Cobboldj(i797-i877), the author of the History of Margaret
Catchpole. After graduating in medicine at Edinburgh in 1851,
he was appointed lecturer on botany at St Mary's hospital,
London, in 1857, and also on zoology and comparative anatomy
at Middlesex hospital in 1861. From 1868 he acted as Swiney
lecturer on geology at the British Museum until 1873, when he
became professor of botany at the Royal Veterinary College,
afterwards filling a chair of helminthology which was specially
created for him at that institution. He died in London on the
20th of March 1886. His special subject was helminthology,
particularly the worms parasitic in man and animals, and as a
physician he gained a considerable reputation in the diagnosis
of cases depending on the presence of such organisms. His
numerous writings include Entozoa (1864); Tapeworms (1866);
Parasites (1879); Human Parasites (1882); and Parasites if
Meat and Prepared Flesh Food (1884).
COBDEN, RICHARD (1804-1865), English manufacturer and
Radical politician, was born at a farmhouse called Dunford,
near Midhurst, in Sussex, on the 3rd of June 1804. The family
had been resident in that neighbourhood for many generations,
occupied partly in trade and partly in agriculture. Formerly
there had been in the town of Midhurst a small manufacture of
hosiery with which the Cobdens were connected, though all
trace of it had disappeared before the birth of Richard. His
grandfather was a maltster in that town, an energetic and
prosperous man, almost always the bailiff or chief magistrate,
and taking rather a notable part in county matters. But his
father, forsaking that trade, took to farming at an un propitious
time. He was amiable and kind-hearted, and greatly liked by
his neighbours, but not a man of business habits, and he did not
succeed in his farming enterprise. He died when his son Richard
was a child, and the care of the family devolved upon the mother,
who was a woman of strong sense and of great energy of character,
and who, after her husband's death, left Dunford and returned
to Midhurst.
The educational advantages of Richard Cobden were not
very ample. There was a grammar school at Midhurst, which
at one time had enjoyed considerable reputation, but which had
fallen into decay. It was there that he had to pick up such
rudiments of knowledge as formed his first equipment in life,
but from his earliest years he was indefatigable in the work of
self-cultivation. When fifteen or sixteen years of age he went
to London to the warehouse of Messrs Partridge & Pcvc^vfc.
Easlcheap, one of the oaiUuttt tata%\&& >a»s2wt, **&* x^a&«^
6o8
COBDEN
noting the lad's passionate addiction to study, solemnly warned
him against indulging such a taste, as likely to prove a fatal
obstacle to his success in commercial life. But the admonition
was unheeded, for while unweariedly diligent in business, he
was in his intervals of leisure a most assiduous student. During
his residence in London he found access to the London Institution,
and made ample use of its large and well-selected library.
When he was about twenty years of age he became a com-
mercial traveller, and soon became eminently successful in his
calling. But never content to sink into the mere trader, he
sought to introduce among those he met on the " road " a higher
tone of conversation than usually marks the commercial room,
and there were many of his associates who, when he had attained
eminence, recalled the discussions on political economy and
kindred topics with which he was wont to enliven and elevate
the travellers' table. In 1830 Cobden learnt that Messrs Fort,
calico printers at Sabden, near Clitheroe, were about to retire
from business, and he, with two other young men, Messrs
Sheriff and Gillet, who were engaged in the same commercial
house as himself, determined to make an effort to acquire the
succession. They had, however, very little capital among them.
But it may be taken as an illustration of the instinctive confidence
which Cobden through life inspired in those with whom he came
into contact, that Messrs Fort consented to leave to these untried
young men a large portion of their capital in the business. Nor
was their confidence misplaced. The new firm had soon three
establishments, — one at Sabden, where the printing works were,
one in London and one in Manchester for the sale of their goods.
This last was under the direct management of Cobden, who, in
1830 or 1 83 1, settled in the city with which his name became
afterwards so closely associated. The success of this enterprise
was decisive and rapid, and the " Cobden prints " soon became
known through the country as of rare value both for excellence
of material and beauty of design. There can be no doubt that
if Cobden had been satisfied to devote all his energies to com-
mercial life he might soon have attained to great opulence, for
it is understood that his share in the profits of the business he
had established amounted to from £8000 to £10,000 a year.
But he had other tastes, which impelled him irresistibly to
pursue those studies which, as Bacon says, " serve for delight,
for ornament and for ability." Prentice, the historian of the
Anti-Corn-Law League, who was then editor of the Manchester
Times, describes how, in the year 1835, he received for publica-
tion in his paper a series of admirably written letters, under the
signature of " Libra," discussing commercial and economical
questions with rare ability. After some time he discovered that
the author of these letters was Cobden, whose name was until
then quite unknown to him.
In 1835 he published his first pamphlet, entitled England,
Ireland and A tnerica, by a Manchester Manufacturer. It attracted
great attention, and ran rapidly through several editions. It
was marked by a breadth and boldness of views on political and
social questions which betokened an original mind. In this
production Cobden advocated the same principles of peace, non-
intervention, retrenchment and free trade to which he continued
faithful to the last day of his life. Immediately after the publica-
tion of this pamphlet, he paid a visit to the United States, landing
in New York on the 7th of June 1835. He devoted about three
months to this tour, passing rapidly through the seaboard states
and the adjacent portion of Canada, and collecting as he went
large stores of information respecting the condition, resources
and prospects of the great western republic. Soon after his
return to England he began to prepare another work for the
press, which appeared towards the end of 1836, under the title
of Russia. It was mainly designed to combat a wild outbreak
of Russophobia which, under the inspiration of David Urquhart,
was at that time taking possession of the public mind. But it
contained also a bold indictment of the whole system of foreign
poHcy then in vogue, founded on ideas as to the balance of power
and the necessity of large armaments for the protection of
commerce. While this pamphlet was in the press, delicate health
obliged turn to Jeave Eughnd, and for several months, at the end
of 1836 and the beginning of 1837, he travelled in Spain, Turkey
and Egypt. During his visit to Egypt he had an interview
with Mehemet Ali, of whose character as a reforming monarch
he did not bring away a very favourable impression. He re-
turned to England in April 1 83 7. From that time Cobden became
a conspicuous figure in Manchester, taking a leading part in the
local politics of the town and district. Largely owing to his
exertions, the Manchester Athenaeum was established, at the
opening of which he was chosen to deliver the inaugural address.
He became a member of the chamber of commerce, and soon
infused new life into that body. He threw himself with great
energy into the agitation which led to the incorporation of the
city, and was elected one of its first aldermen. He began also
to take a warm interest in the cause of popular education.
Some of his first attempts in public speaking were at meetings
which he convened at Manchester, Salford, Bolton, Rochdale
and other adjacent towns, to advocate the establishment of
British schools. It was while on a mission for this purpose to
Rochdale that he first formed the acquaintance of John Bright,
who afterwards became his distinguished coadjutor in the free-
trade agitation. Nor was it long before his fitness for parliamen-
tary life was recognized by his friends. In 1837, the death of
William IV. and the accession of Queen Victoria led to a general
election. Cobden was candidate for Stockport, but was defeated,
though not by a large majority.
In 1838 an anti-Corn-Law association was formed at Man-
chester, which, on his suggestion, was afterwards changed into 1
national association, under the title of the Anti-Corn-Law League
(sec Corn Laws). Of that famous association Cobden was from
first to last the presiding genius and the animating soul . During
the seven years between the formation of the league and its
final triumph, he devoted himself wholly to the work of pro-
mulgating his economic doctrines. His labours were as various
as they were incessant — now guiding the councils of the league,
now addressing crowded and enthusiastic meetings of his sup-
porters in London or the large towns of England and Scotland,
now invading the agricultural districts and challenging the
landlords to meet him in the presence of their own farmers, to dis-
cuss the question in dispute, and now encountering the Chartists,
led by Feargus O'Connor. But whatever was the character
of his audience he never failed, by the clearness of his statements,
the force of his reasoning and the felicity of his illustrations,
to make a deep impression on the minds of his bearers.
In 1 841, Sir Robert Peel having defeated the Melbourne
ministry in parliament, there was a general election, when Cobden
was returned for Stockport. His opponents had confidently
predicted that he would fail utterly in the House of Commons.
He did not wait long, after his admission into that assembly,
in bringing their predictions to the test. Parliament met on the
19th of August. On the 24th, in course of the debate on the
Address, Cobden delivered his first speech. " It was remarked,**
says Miss Martineau, in her History of the Peace, " that he wis
not treated in the House with the courtesy usually accorded to
a new member, and it was perceived that he did not need such
observance." With perfect self-possession, which was not dis-
turbed by the jeers that greeted some of his statements, and
with the utmost simplicity, directness and force, he presented
the argument against the corn-laws in such a form as startled
his audience, and also irritated some of them, for it was a style
of eloquence very unlike the conventional style which prevailed
in parliament.
From that day he became an acknowledged power in the House,
and though addressing a most unfriendly audience, he compelled
attention by his thorough mastery of his subject, and by the
courageous boldness with which he charged the ranks of hit
adversaries. He soon came to be recognized as one of the fore-
most debaters on those economical and commercial questions
which at that time so much occupied the attention of parliament;
and the most prejudiced and bitter of his opponents were fain to
acknowledge that they had to deal with a man whom the most
practised and powerful orators of their party found it hard to
cope with, and to whose eloquence, indeed, the great 1
COBDEN
609
in whom they put their trust was obliged ultimately to surrender.
On the 17 th of February 1843 an extraordinary scene took place
in the House of Commons. Cobden had spoken with great
fervour of the deplorable suffering and distress which at that time
prevailed in the country, for which, he added, he held Sir Robert
Peel, as the head of the government, responsible. This remark,
when it was spoken, passed unnoticed, being indeed nothing
more than one of the commonplaces of party warfare. But a
few weeks before, Mr Drummond, who was Sir Robert Peel's
private secretary, had been shot dead in the street by a lunatic.
In consequence of this, and the manifold anxieties of the time
with which he was harassed, the mind of the great statesman
was no doubt in a moody and morbid condition, and when he
arose to speak later in the evening, he referred in excited and
agitated tones to the remark, as an incitement to violence
against his person. Sir Robert Peel's party, catching at this hint,
threw themselves into a frantic state of excitement, and when
Cobden attempted to explain that he meant official, not personal
responsibility, they drowned his voice with clamorous and in-
sulting shouts. But Peel lived to make ample and honourable
amend for this unfortunate ebullition, for not only did he " fully
and unequivocally withdraw the imputation which was thrown out
in the beat of debate under an erroneous impression," but when
the great free-trade battle had been won, he took the wreath of
victory from his own brow, and placed it on that of his old
opponent, in the following graceful words: — " The name which
ought to be, and will be associated with the success of these
measures, is not mine, or that of the noble Lord (Russell), but
the name of one who, acting I believe from pure and disinterested
motives, has, with untiring energy, made appeals to our reason,
and has enforced those appeals with an eloquence the more to
be admired because it was unaffected and unadorned; the
name which ought to be chiefly associated with the success of
these measures is the name of Richard Cobden." Cobden had,
indeed, with unexampled devotion, sacrificed his business, his
domestic comforts and for a time his health to the public
interests. His friends therefore felt, at the close of that long
campaign, that the nation owed him some substantial token of
gratitude and admiration for those sacrifices. No sooner was
the idea of such a tribute started than liberal contributions came
from all quarters, which enabled his friends to present him with
a sum of £80,000. Had he been inspired with personal ambition,
he might have entered upon the race of political advancement
with the prospect of attaining the highest official prizes. Lord
John Russell, who, soon after the repeal of the corn laws, suc-
ceeded Sir Robert Peel as first minister, invited Cobden to join
his government. But he preferred keeping himself at liberty
to serve his countrymen unshackled by official tics, and declined
the invitation. He withdrew for a time from England. His
first intention was to seek complete seclusion in Egypt or Italy,
to recover health and strength after his long and exhausting
labours. But his fame had gone forth throughout Europe,
and intimations reached him from many quarters that his voice
would be listened to everywhere with favour, in advocacy of the
doctrines to the triumph of which he had so much contributed at
home. Writing to a friend in July 1846, he says — " I am going
to tell you of a fresh project that has been brewing in my brain.
I have given up all idea of burying myself in Egypt or Italy. I
am going on an agitating tour through the continent of Europe."
Then, referring to messages he had received from influential
persons in France, Prussia, Austria, Russia and Spain to the
effect mentioned above, he adds:— " Well, I will, with God's
assistance during the next twelve months, visit all the large
states of Europe, see their potentates or statesmen, and endeavour
to enforce those truths which have been irresistible at home. Why
should I rust in inactivity? If the public spirit of my country-
men affords me the means of travelling as their missionary, I
will be the first ambassador from the people of this country to
the nations of the continent I am impelled to this by an
instinctive emotion such as has never deceived me. I feel that
I could succeed in making out a stronger case for the prohibitive
nations of Europe to compel them to adopt a freer system than
I had here to overturn our protection policy/' This programme
he fulfilled. He visited in succession France, Spain, Italy,
Germany and Russia. He was received everywhere with marks
of distinction and honour. In many of the principal capitals
he was invited to public banquets, which afforded him an op-
portunity of propagating those principles of which he was re-
garded as the apostle. But beside these public demonstrations
he sought and found access in private to many of the leading
statesmen, in the various countries he visited, with a view to
indoctrinate them with the same principles. During his absence
there was a general election, and he was returned (1847) for
Stockport and for the West Riding of Yorkshire. He chose to sit
for the latter.
When Cobden returned from the continent he addressed himself
to what seemed to him the logical complement of free trade,
namely, the promotion of peace and the reduction of naval and
military armaments. His abhorrence of war amounted to a
passion. Throughout his long labours in behalf of unrestricted
commerce he never lost sight of this, as being the most precious
result of the work in which he was engaged, — its tendency to
diminish the hazards of war and to bring the nations of the world
into closer and more lasting relations of peace and friendship
with each other. He was not deterred by the fear of ridicule
or the reproach of Utopianism from associating himself openly,
and with all the ardour of his nature, with the peace party in
England. In 1849 he brought forward a proposal in parliament in
favour of international arbitration, and in 1851 a motion for
mutual reduction of armaments. He was not successful in either,
case, not did he expect to be. In pursuance of the same object, he
identified himself with a series of remarkable peace congresses —
international assemblies designed to unite the intelligence and
philanthropy of the nations of Christendom in a league against
war— which from 1848 to 1851 were held successively in Brussels,
Paris, Frankfort, London, Manchester and Edinburgh.
On the establishment of the French empire in 1 8s 1-185 2 »
violent panic took possession of the public mind. The press
promulgated the wildest alarms as to the intentions of Louis
Napoleon, who was represented as contemplating a sudden and
piratical descent upon the English coast without pretext or
provocation. By a series of powerful speeches in and out of
parliament, and by the publication of his masterly pamphlet,
17Q3 and 1853, Cobden sought to calm the passions of his country-
men. By this course he sacrificed the great popularity he had
won as the champion of free trade, and became for a time the
best-abused man in England. Immediately afterwards, owing
to the quarrel about the Holy Places which arose in the east of
Europe, public opinion suddenly veered round, and all the
suspicion and hatred which had been directed against the emperor
of the French were diverted from him to the emperor of Russia.
Louis Napoleon was taken into favour as England's faithful
ally, and in a whirlwind of popular excitement the nation was
swept into the Crimean War. Cobden, who had travelled in
Turkey, and had studied the condition of that country with great
care for many years, discredited the outcry about maintaining the
independence and integrity of the Ottoman empire which was the
battle-cry of the day. He denied that it was possible to maintain
them, and no less strenuously denied that it was desirable even
if it were possible. He believed that the jealousy of Russian
aggrandizement and the dread of Russian power were absurd
exaggerations. He maintained that the future of European
Turkey was in the hands of the Christian population, and that it
would have been wiser for England to ally herself with them
rather than with the doomed and decaying Mahommedan
power. " You must address yourselves/ 1 he said in the House
of Commons, " as men of sense and men of energy, to the
question— what are you to do with the Christian population?
for Mahommedanism cannot be maintained, and I should be
sorry to see this country fighting for the maintenance of Mahom-
medanism. . . . You may keep Turkey on the map of Europe,
you may call the country by the name of Turkey if you like,
but do not think you can keep up the Mahommedan rule in the
country." The torrent of Dooulax ^ecAxcrcox VbAvtoqb. «Sl^k«x
6io
COBDEN
was, however, irresistible; and Cobden and Bright were over-
whelmed with obloquy.
At the beginning of 1857 tidings from China reached England of
a rupture between the British plenipotentiary in that country
and the governor of the Canton provinces in reference to a small
vessel or lorcha called the " Arrow," which had resulted in the
English admiral destroying the river forts, burning 23 ships
belonging to the Chinese navy and bombarding the city of
Canton. After a careful investigation of the official documents,
Cobden became convinced that those were utterly unrighteous
proceedings. He brought forward a motion in parliament
to this effect, which led to a long and memorable debate, lasting
over four nights, in which he was supported by Sydney Herbert,
Sir James Graham, Gladstone, Lord John Russell and Disraeli,
and which ended in the defeat of Lord Palmerston by a majority
of sixteen. But this triumph cost him his seat in parliament.
On the dissolution which followed Lord Palmerston 's defeat,
Cobden became candidate for Huddersfield, but the voters of
that town gave the preference to his opponent, who had supported
the Russian War and approved of the proceedings at Canton.
Cobden was thus relegated to private life, and retiring to his
country house at Dunford, he spent his time in perfect content-
ment in cultivating his land and feeding his pigs.
He took advantage of this season of leisure to pay another visit
to the United Stales. During his absence the general election of
1859 occurred, when he was returned unopposed for Rochdale.
Lord Palmerston was again prime minister, and having discovered
that the advanced liberal party was not so easily " crushed "
as he had apprehended, he made overtures of reconciliation, and
invited Cobden and Milner Gibson to become members of his
government. In a frank, cordial letter which was delivered to
Cobden on his landing in Liverpool, Lord Palmerston offered
him the presidency of the Board of Trade, with a scat in the
Cabinet. Many of his friends urgently pressed him to accept;
but without a moment's hesitation he determined to decline
the proposed honour. On his arrival in London he called on Lord
Palmerston, and with the utmost frankness told him that he had
opposed and denounced him so frequently in public, and that
he still differed so widely from his views, especially on questions
of foreign policy, that he could not, without doing violence
to his own sense of duty and consistency, serve under him as
minister. Lord Palmerston tried good-humouredly to combat
his objections, but without success.
But though he declined to share the responsibility of Lord
Palmerston's administration, he was willing to act as its repre-
sentative in promoting freer commercial intercourse between Eng-
land and France. But the negotiations for this purpose originated
with himself in conjunction with Bright and Michel Chevalier.
Towards the close of 1859 he called upon Lord Palmerston, Lord
John Russell and Gladstone, and signified his intention to visit
France and get into communication with the emperor and his
ministers, with a view to promote this object. These statesmen
expressed in general terms their approval of his purpose, but ho
went entirely on his own account, clothed at first with no official
authority. On his arrival in Paris he had a long audience with
Napoleon, in which he urged many arguments in favour of re-
moving those obstacles which prevented the two countries from
being brought into closer dependence on one another, and he
succeeded in making a considerable inprcssion on his mind in
favour of free trade. He then addressed himself to the French
ministers, and had much earnest conversation, especially with
Rouher, whom be found well inclined to the economical and com-
mercial principles which he advocated. After a good deal of
time spent in these preliminary and unofficial negotiations, the
question of a treaty of commerce between the two countries
having entered into the arena of diplomacy, Cobden was requested
by the British government to act as their plenipotentiary in the
matter in conjunction with Lord Cowley, their ambassador in
France. But it proved a very long and laborious undertaking.
He had to contend with the bitter hostility of the French pro-
tectionists, which occasioned a good deal of vacillation on the
part of the emperor and his miabten. There were also delays,
hesitations and cavils at home, which were more inexplicable.
He was, moreover, assailed with great violence by a powerful
section of the English press, while the large number of minute
details with which he had to deal in connexion with proposed
changes in the French tariff, involved a tax on his patience and
industry which would have daunted a less resolute man But
there was one source of embarrassment greater than all the rest.
One strong motive which had impelled him to engage in this
enterprise was his anxious desire to establish more friendly
relations between England and France, and to dispel those feeling*
of mutual jealousy and alarm which were so frequently breaking
forth and jeopardizing peace between the two countries. This
was the most powerful argument with which he had plied the
emperor and the members of the French government, and which
he had found most efficacious with them. But while he was
in the midst of the negotiations, Lord Palmerston brought
forward in the House of Commons a measure for fortifying the
naval arsenals of England, which he introduced in a warlike
speech pointedly directed against France, as the source of danger
of invasion and attack, against which it was necessary to guard.
This produced irritation and resentment in Paris, and but for
the influence which Cobden had acquired, and the perfect trust
reposed in his sincerity, the negotiations would probably have
been altogether wrecked. At last, however, after nearly twelve
months' incessant labour, the work was completed in November
i860. " Rare," said Mr Gladstone, " is the privilege of any
man who, having fourteen years ago rendered to his country
one signal service, now again, within the same brief span of life,
decorated neither by land nor title, bearing no mark to distin-
guish him from the people he loves, has been permitted to perform
another great and memorable service to his sovereign and his
country."
On the conclusion of this work honours were offered to Cobden
by the governments of both the countries which he had so
greatly benefited. Lord Palmerston offered him a baronetcy
and a scat in the privy council, and the emperor of the French
would gladly have conferred upon him some distinguished mark
of his favour. But with characteristic disinterestedness and
modesty he declined all such honours.
Cobden's efforts in furtherance of free trade were always
subordinated to what he deemed the highest moral purposes—
the promotion of peace on earth and goodwill among men. Tab
was his desire and hope as respects the commercial treaty with
France. He was therefore deeply disappointed and distressed to
find the old feeling of distrust still actively fomented by the press
and some of the leading politicians of the country. In 1862 he
published his pamphlet entitled The Three Panics, the object
of which was to trace the history and expose the folly of those
periodical visitations of alarm as to French designs with which
England had been afflicted for the preceding fifteen or sixteen
years.
When the Civil War threatened to break out in the United
States, Cobden was deeply distressed. But after the conflict
became inevitable his sympathies were wholly with the North,
because the South was fighting for slavery. His great anxiety,
however, was that the British nation should not be committed
to any unworthy course during the progress of that straggle.
And when relations with America were becoming critical and
menacing in consequence of the depredations committed on
American commerce by vessels issuing from British ports, he
brought the question before the House of Commons in a series
of speeches of rare clearness and force.
For several years Cobden had been suffering severely at in-
tervals from bronchial irritation and a difficulty of breathing.
Owing to this he had spent the winter of i860 in Algeria, and
every subsequent winter he had to be very careful and confine
himself to the house, especially in damp and foggy weather.
In November 1864 be went down to Rochdale and delivered a
speech to his constituents — the last he ever delivered. That
effort was followed by great physical prostration, and he deter-
mined not to quit his retirement at Midhurst until spring had
fairly set in. But in the month of March there were c"
COBET
6xi
in the House of Commons on the alleged necessity of constructing
Urge defensive works in Canada. He was deeply impressed with
the folly of such a project, and he was seized with a strong desire
to go up to London and deliver his sentiments on the subject.
He left home on the 21st of March, and caught a chill. He
recovered a little for a few days after his arrival in London;
but on the 29th there was a relapse, and on the and of April
1865 he expired peacefully at his apartments in Suffolk Street
On the following day there was a remarkable scene in the House
of Commons. When the clerk read the orders of the day Lord
Palmerston rose, and in impressive and solemn tones declared
" it was not possible for the House to proceed to business without
every member recalling to his mind the great loss which the
House and country had sustained by the event which took place
yesterday morning." He then paid a generous tribute to the
virtues, the abilities and services of Cobden, and he was followed
by Disraeli, who with great force and felicity of language
delineated the character of the deceased statesman, who, he said,
" was an ornament to the House of Commons and an honour
to England." Bright also attempted to address the House,
but, after a sentence or two delivered in a tremulous voice, he
was overpowered with emotion, and declared he must leave to
a calmer moment what he had to say on the life and character of
the manliest and gentlest spirit that ever quitted or tenanted a
human form.
In the French Corps Legislalif , also, the vice-president, Forcade
la Roquet te, referred to his death, and warm expressions of esteem
were repeated and applauded on every side. " The death of
Richard Cobden," said M. la Koquettc, " is not alone a misfortune
for England, but a cause of mourning for France and humanity."
Drouyn de Lhuys, the French minister of foreign affairs, made his
death the subject of a special despatch, desiring the French
ambassador to express to the government " the mournful
sympathy and truly national regret which the death, as lamented
as premature, of Richard Cobden had excited on that side of the
Channel." " He is above all," he added, " in our eyes the repre-
sentative of those sentiments and those cosmopolitan principles
before which national frontiers and rivalries disappear; whilst
essentially of his country, he was still more of his time; he knew
what mutual relations could accomplish in our day for the
prosperity of peoples. Cobden, if I may be permitted to say so,
was an international man."
He was buried at West Lavington church, on the 7th of April.
His grave was surrounded by a large crowd of mourners, among
whom were Gladstone, Bright, Milner Gibson, Charles Villicrs
and a host besides from all parts of the country. In 1866 the
Cobden Club was founded in London, to promote free-trade
economics, and it became a centre for political propaganda on
those lines; and prizes were instituted in his name at Oxford
and Cambridge.
Cobden had married in 1840 Miss Catherine Anne Williams,
a Welsh lady, and left five surviving daughters, of whom Mrs
Cobden-Unwin (wife of the publisher Mr Fisher Unwin), Mrs
Waller Sickert (wife of the painter) and Mrs Cobdcn-Sandcrson
(wife of the well-known artist in bookbinding), afterwards
became prominent in various spheres, and inherited their father's
political interest. His only son died, to Cobden's inexpressible
grief, at the age of fifteen, in 1856.
The work of Cobden, and what is now called " Cobdcnism,"
has in recent years been subjected to much criticism from the
newer school of English economists who advocate a " national
policy " (on the old lines of Alexander Hamilton and Friedrich
List) as against his cosmopolitan ideals. But it remains the fact
that his success with the free-trade movement was for years
unchallenged, and that the leaps and bounds with which English
commercial prosperity advanced after the repeal of the corn-
laws were naturally associated with the reformed fiscal policy,
so that the very name of protectionism came to be identified with
all that was not merely heterodox but hateful. The tariff reform
movement in England started by Mr Chamberlain (q.v.) had the
result of giving new boldness to the opponents of Mancbestcrism,
and the whole subject once more became controversial (sea
Fkec Tiade; Cour Laws; PioTtcnoir; Taiift; Economics).
Cobden has left a deep mark on English history, but he was
not himself a " scientific economist," and many of his confident
prophecies were completely falsified. As a manufacturer, and
with the circumstances of his own day before him, he considered
that it was " natural " for Great Britain to manufacture for the
world in exchange for ber free admission of the more " natural "
agricultural products of other coun tries. He advocated the repeal
of the corn-laws, not essentially in order to make food cheaper,
but because it would develop industry and enable the manufac-
turers to get labour at low but sufficient wages; and he assumed
that other countries would be unable to compete with England
in manufactures under free trade, at the prices which would be
possible for English manufactured products. " We advocate,"
he said, " nothing but what is agreeable to the highest behests
of Christianity — to buy in the cheapest market, and sell in the
dearest." He believed that the rest of the world must follow
England's example: "if you abolish the corn-laws honestly,
and adopt free trade in its simplicity, there will not be a tariff
in Europe that will not be changed in less than five years "
(January 1846). His cosmopolit anism — which makes him in the
modern Imperialist's eyes a "Little Englandcr" of the straitest
sect — led him to deplore any survival of the colonial system and
to hail the removal of ties which bound the mother country to
remote dependencies; but it was, in its day, a generous and
sincere reaction against popular sentiment, and Cobden was at
all events an outspoken advocate of an irresistible British navy.
There were enough inconsistencies in his creed to enable both
sides in the recent controversies to claim him as one who if be
were still alive would have supported their case in the altered
circumstances; but, from the biographical point of view, these
issues are hardly relevant. Cobden inevitably stands for
" Cobdenism, " which is a creed largely developed by the modern
free-trader in the course of subsequent years. It becomes
equivalent to economic laisser-faire and " Manchesterism," and
as such it must fight its own corner with those who now take
into consideration many national factors which had no place in
the early utilitarian individualistic r6gimc of Cobden's own day.
The standard biography is that by John Morley (1881). Cobden's
speeches were collected and published in 1870. The centenary
of his birth in 1904 was celebrated by a flood of articles in the news-
papers and magazines, naturally coloured by the new controversy in
England over the Tariff Reform movement.
COBET, CAREL GABRIEL (1813-1880), Dutch classical
scholar, was born at Paris on the 28th of November 181 3, and
educated at the Hague Gymnasium and the university of Leiden.
In 1836 he won a gold medal for an essay entitled Prosopograpkia
XcnophonUa, a brilliant characterization of all the persona
introduced into the Memorabilia, Symposium and Oeconomicus
of Xenophon. His Observation** criticae in Ptaionis comici
reliquias (1840) revealed his remarkable critical faculty. The
university conferred on him an honorary degree, and recom-
mended him to the government for a travelling pension. The
ostensible purpose of his journey was to collate the texts of
Simplicius, which, however, engaged but little of his time. He
contrived, however, to make a careful study of almost every
Greek manuscript in the Italian libraries, and returned after
five years with an intimate knowledge of palaeography. In
1846 he married, and in the same year was appointed to an
extraordinary professorship at Leiden. His inaugural address,
Dt Arte interpretandi Crammatices H Criiices Fundamentis
innixa, has been called the most perfect piece of Latin prose
written in the 19th century. The rest of his life was passed
uneventfully at Leiden. In 1S56 he became joint editor of
Mnemosyne, a philological review, which he soon raised to a
leading position among classical journals. He contributed to it
many critical notes and emendations, which were afterwards
collected in book form under the titles Novae Led tones, Variao
Ltdiones and Miscellanea Crilica. In 187s he took a prominent
part at the Leiden Tercentenary, and impressed all his hearers
by his wonderful facility in Latin improvisation. In 1884, when
his health was failing, he retired as emeritus professor. He died
on the 26th of October 1889. Cobet's special weapon, as, %. q&Sk.
COBHAM-COBLENZ
»v .-..*■. »"-r» *.-«.-.*e S »V v " 5-:Srrr.iri Ir the
^w
rtArv Civax*
i^rh v Eariv
*:► "wr-eq?e « ruiiori^T- S=t ie ns no | Coiogne-Mainz railway with the strategical line Metx-Berfin.
: s -i -: -• -'-r»: : arc % k* 's^.-r-jec£- of The Rhine is crossed by a bridge of boats 485 yds. losg, by u
r >■„• .M-* :ee= r^Tfc^ -.v.c r^j^ess ~ ;be | iron bridge built for railway purposes in 1864, and, a mik above
■<._ . .'..vc:.Nr'. v.- r.^.o;i z$ is- c-.\r=ez3 ; the town, by a beautiful bridge of two wide and lofty spam
s •-:: v : - .-e *- T-.iain :.-* lis Oerras carrying the Berlin railway referred to. The Mosel is spanned
.:. -o.- .m: :.v x>: cv.-r ri^iLvc -was Er^Lsh 1 by a Gothic freestone bridge of 14 arches, erected in 1344, and
also by a railway bridge.
The city, down to 1800, consisted of the Altstadt (old city)
and the Neustadt (new city) or Klemenstadt. Of these, the
Aitstad: is closely built and has only a few fine streets and squares,
while the Neustadt possesses numerous broad streets and a
handsome frontage to the Rhine. In the more ancient part cf
Coblenz are several buildings which have an historical interest
Fwminent among these, near the point of confluence of the
race* for ! rivers, is the church of St Castor, with four towers. The church
was originally founded in 836 by Louis the Pious, but the present
Romanesque building was completed in 1208, the Gothic vaulted
rwf dating from 1408. In front of the church of St Castor
stands a fountain, erected by the French in 18x2, with an
inscription to commemorate Napoleon s invasion of Russia.
Not long afier, the Russian troops occupied Coblenz; ar.d St
IVesl. their commander, added in irony these words — " Vu d
j f f*.*xt fvr ncut* Commanded Russe dt la VUIc de Cc£en:i;
.•".■ffrf* ur, XS14." In this quarter of the town, too. is tb-
l.:cb(ra;ur.kirchc. a fine church (nave 1250, choir 1404-143
with lefty ]jt? Romanesque towers; the castle of the elect'
of ruor. riveted in i.*8o, which now contains the munic
puturc gallery; and the family house of the Metteniichs, v
rrincc Mettcrnich, the Austrian statesman, was born in
In the modem part of the town lies the palace (Rcsidenzsc
%ilh one front looking towards the Rhine, the other into the
Neustadt. It was built in 17 78-1 786 by Clement Wenceslaus
the last elector of Trier, and contains among other curiosities
some tine liobcltn tapestries. From it some pretty gardens a.*>d
promenades {Kciscrin Augusta AnJagcn) stretch along the bari
of the Rhine, and in them is a memorial to the poet Max \vn
Schenkendorf. A line statue to the empress Augusta, whose
favourite residence was Coblenz, stands in the Luisen-plati.
Hut of all public memorials the most striking is the colossal
equestrian statue of the emperor William I., erected by the
Rhine provinces in 1807, standing on a lofty and massive pedestal,
at the point where the Rhine and Mosel meet. Coblenz has also
handsome law courts, government buildings, a theatre, a museum
of antiquities, a conservatory of music, two high grade schools,
a hospital and numerous charitable institutions. Coblenz is a
principal seat of the Mosel and Rhenish wine trade, and also does
a large business in t he export of mineral waters. Its manufactures
include pianos, paper, cardboard, machinery, boats and barges.
It is an important transit centre for the Rhine railways and for
the Rhine navigation.
Coblenz (Confluentcs, Covelcnz, Cobelcnz) was one of th:
military posts established by Drusus about 9 b.c. Later it was
frequently the residence of the Frankish kings, and in 860 and
022 was the scene of ecclesiastical synods. At the former of
these, held in the Liebfrauenkirchc, took place the reconciliation
of Louis the German with his half-brother Charles the Bald.
In 10 1 8 the city, after receiving a charter, was given by the
emperor Henry II. to the archbishop of Trier (Treves), and it
remained in the possession of the archbishop-electors till the
close of the x8th century. In 1 240-1 254 it was surrounded with
new walls by Archbishop Arnold II. (of Iscnburg); and it was
partly to overawe the turbulent townsmen that successive arch-
bishops built and strengthened the fortress of Ehrcnbreitstcin
(q.v.) that dominates the city. As a member of the league of the
Rhenish cities which took its rise in the 13 th century, Coblenz
attained to great prosperity; and it continued to advance till
the disasters of the Thirty Years' War occasioned a rapid
decline. After Philip Christopher, elector of Trier, had sur-
rendered Ehrenbreitstein to the French the town received an
imperial garrison (1632), which was soon, however, expelled
by the Swedes. They in their turn handed the city over to the
French, but the imperial forces succeeded in retaking it by
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[m 1 lie 1 Million i.innl> ^v L\rrn.roN. isr
<io 1 \ M\H vilur olliiial title given to it by
itiiuenlV .i JhmI and town ol the i'hile.tn
i;.i«l.i. .iUhii S»s» 111. N. of \.il|vu.iiMV It is
In-, p.iil ol the nMst, and max lor a time the
1 ti Itir.i' u lining ili^liivt. ll was formeily
miii 1lt-p.11 1 nu-ul ol A I. w .una and ihe only
loli\i.i, but ll»e M'imirof that department in
1 1 he louslimtion ol Ihe Antofagasta and
\nl (l ol all linjmHaine, and it* population,
in iHsS, lui« l»illen to less lhan 500. Its
in elv mile but Irti k» landing frtv ilities, Smelt-
g iiiiiu'i i% Ml ill tallied on, and some of its
n«, Iml the gi eater |«rt of it has gone to
lagrt«la. llir U»n « occupies a narrow beach
id MtilU, and «a» greatly dantagetl by an
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• 11I iVtlia- «»rigin. a«wl connectetl with the
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Ml tiwal »if KitghiHl.
titf). a ill v ami lorlrtw of Germany, capital
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rhe old city was
Mr the Rhine and
The last were
1 . , expand in this
Ms lies the new
Junction of the
614
COCA
old, and contains a number of interesting buildings. The ducal
palace, known as the Ehrenburg, is a magnificent building,
originally erected on the site of a convent of bare-footed friars
by Duke John Ernest in 1549, renovated in 1698, and restored
in 18 16 by Duke Ernest I. It contains a vast and richly
decorated hall, the court church and a fine picture gallery. In
the gardens are the mausoleum of Duke Francis (d. 1806) and
his wife, a bronze equestrian statue of Duke Ernest IL and a
fountain in commemoration of Duke Alfred (duke of Edinburgh).
In the market square arc the medieval Rathaus, the government
buildings, and a statue of Prince Albert (consort of Queen
Victoria), by William Theed the younger (1 804-1891). In the
Schloss-platz are the Edinburgh Palace (Palais Edinburg),
built in 1881, the theatre and an equestrian statue of Duke
Ernest I. Among the churches the most remarkable is the
Moritzkirche, with a lofty tower. The educational establish-
ments include a gymnasium, founded in 1604 by Duke John
Casimir (d. 1633) and thus known as the Casimirianum, a com-
mercial, an agricultural and other schools. The Zeughaus
(armoury) contains the ducal library of 100,000 volumes, and
among other public buildings may be mentioned the Augusten-
stift, formerly the scat of the ministerial offices, and the Marstall
(royal mews). On a commanding eminence above the town is
the ancient castle of Coburg, dating from the nth century (see
below). In 1 781 it was turned into a penitentiary and lunatic
asylum, but in 1835-1838 was completely restored, and now
contains a natural history museum. The most interesting room
in this building is that which was occupied by Luther in 1530,
where the surroundings may have inspired, though (as is now
proved) he did not compose, the famous hymn, Ein' feste Burg
isl uHser Gott\ the bed on which he slept, and the pulpit from
which he preached in the old chapel are shown. Coburg is a
place of considerable industry, the chief branches of the latter
being brewing, manufactures of machinery, colours and porcelain,
iron-founding and saw-milling; and there is an important trade
jn the cattle reared in the neighbourhood. Among various
places of interest in the vicinity are the ducal residences of
Callenberg and Rosenau, in the latter of which Albert, Prince
Consort, was born in 18 19; the castle of Lauterburg; and the
village of Ncuses, with the house of the poet J. M. F. Rilckert,
who died here in 1866, and on the other side of the river the
tomb of the poet Moritz August von Thummcl (1738-1817).
The town of Coburg, first mentioned in a record of 1207, owed
its existence and its name to the castle, and in the 1 5th and 16th
centuries was of considerable importance as a halting-place on
the great trade route from Nuremberg via Bamberg to the North.
In 1245 the castle became the seat of the cider branch of the
counts of Henneberg (Coburg-Schmalkaldcn). The countships
of Coburg and Schmalkalden passed by the marriage of Jutta,
daughter of Hermann I. (d. 1200), to Otto V. of Branden-
burg, whose grandson John, however, sold them to Henry VIII.
of Henneberg, his brother-in-law. Henry's daughter Catherine
(d. 1397) married Frederick III. of Meissen, and so brought the
castle, town and countship into the possession of the Saxon
house of Wettin. In 1549 Duke John Ernest of Saxony made
Coburg his residence and turned thcold castle intoafortressstrong
.enough to stand a three years' siege (1632-1635) during the
Thirty Years' War. In 1641 Coburg fell to the dukes of Saxe-
Altenburg. In 1835 it became the residence of the dukes of
Saxe-Coburg. For the princes of the house of Coburg see Wettin
and Saxe-Coburg.
COCA, or Cuca (Eryihroxylon coca), a plant of the natural
order Ery throxylaccae, the leaves of which are used as a stimulant
in the western countries of South America. 1 It resembles a
blackthorn bush, and grows to a heigh t of 6 or 8 ft. The branches
are straight, and the leaves, which have a lively green tint, are
thin, opaque, oval, more or less tapering at the extremities.
> Garcikssp de la Vega, writing of the plant, says that it is called
cuca by the Indians, coca by the Spaniards; and Father Bias Valera
states that the leaves are called cuca both by Indians and Spaniards
(The Royal Commentaries of the Yncas. 1609-1617; trans, by C. R.
Markham, Hakluyt Soc., 1871). See also, on the name cuca, Christi-
soa. Brik Med. J aunt., April 39, 1876, p. 527.
A marked characteristic of the leaf is an areolated portion
bounded by two longitudinal curved lines one on each side 0!
the midrib, and more conspicuous on the under face of the leaf.
Good samples of the dried leaves are uncurled, are of a deep
green on the upper, and a grey-green on the lower surface, ind
have a strong tea-like odour; when chewed they produce a scr.se
of warmth in the mouth, and have a pleasant, pungent taste.
Bad specimens have a camphoraceous smell and a brownish
colour, and lack the pungent taste. The flowers are small, and
disposed in little dusters on short stalks; the corolla is composed
of five yellowish-white petals, the anthers are heart-shaped, and
the pistil consists of three carpels united to form a three-
chambered ovary. The flowers are succeeded by red berries
The seeds are sown in December and January in small plots
(almacigas) sheltered from the sun, and the young plants when
from i§ to 2 ft. in height are placed in holes (aspi), or, if tfat
ground is level, in furrows {uochos) in carefully-weeded soft.
The plants thrive best in hot, damp situations, such as the
clearings of forests; but the leaves most preferred are obtained
in drier localities, on the sides of hills. The leaves are gathered
from plants varying in age from one and a half to upwards of
forty years. They are considered ready for plucking when they
break on being bent The first and most abundant harvest is
in March, after the rains ; the second is at the end of June, the
third in October or November. The green leaves (matu) are
spread in thin layers on coarse woollen cloths and dried in the
sun; they are then packed in sacks, which, in order to preserve
the quality of the leaves, must be kept from damp.
In the Kcw Bulletin for January 1889 is an account of the
history and botany of the plant, which has been so long under
cultivation in South America that its original home is doubtful.
As the result of this cultivation numerous forms have arisen.
The writer distinguishes from the typical Peruvian form with
pointed leaves a variety novo-granatense, from New Granada,
which has smaller leaves with a rounded apex. The plant is now
cultivated in the West Indies, India, Ceylon, Java and elsewhere.
It has been estimated that coca is used by about 8,000,000 of
the human race, being consumed in Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador,
Colombia and Rio Negro. In Peru the Indians carry a leathern
pouch (the chuspa or huaUqut) for the leaves, and a supply of
pulverized unslaked lime, or a preparation of the ashes of ibe
quinoa plant (Chenopodium Quinoo), called ttipta or liuds
Three or four times a day labour is suspended for ckacckar or
acullicar, as the mastication of coca is termed. The leaves,
deprived of their stalks, are chewed and formed into a biB
(acullUo) in the mouth; a small quantity of the lime or Biptt
is then applied to the acullico to give it a proper relish. Two
or three ounces of coca are thus daily consumed by each In d ""
Coca was used by the Peruvian Indians in the most ancient
times. It was employed as an offering to the sun, or to produce
smoke at the great sacrifices; and the priests, it was believed,
must chew it during the performance of religious ceremonies,
otherwise the gods would not be propitiated. Coca is still held
in superstitious veneration among the Peruvians, and is believed
by the miners of Cerro de Pasco to soften the veins of ore, if
masticated and thrown upon them.
The composition of different specimens of coca leaves is very
inconstant. Besides the important alkaloid cocaine (q*\
occurring to the extent of about 0-2% in fresh specimens, there
are several other alkaloids. The preparations of coca leaves are
incompatible with certain drugs which might often be prescribed
in combination with them, such as salts of mercury, menthol
and mineral acids, which latter decompose cocaine into benxok
acid and ecgonine.
Coca leaves and preparations of them have no external action.
Internally their action is similar to that of opium, though some-
what less narcotic, and causing a dilatation of the pupil of the
eye instead of a contraction. When masticated, the leaves first
cause a tingling in the tongue and mucous membrane of Ik
mouth, owing to a stimulation of the nerves of common sensation,
and then abolish taste owing to a paralysis of the terminals of
the gustatory nerves. They have a definite anaesthetic actios
PjJLTE 1.
upon the mucous membrane of the stomach, from %h*_t
come in large part those organic sensations which we uau-lT -
hunger. Hence it is possible, under the influence of oxa ( Z "
without food or consciousness of needing it, for as long a'j*^ ' ••
as three days. The drug is. not a food, however, as iu cow" ,."*"* ^~.
position and history in the body clearly show, and the individuii ""'"«
who comfortably fasts under its influence nevertheless ihowiali\ ^T',
the physical signs of starvation, such as loss of weight. In small \ m.*
doses coca stimulates the intestinal peristalsis and thus a an I to*!,
aperient, but in large doses it paralyses the muscular coat of the " *'*
bowel, causing constipation, such as is constantly seen in coco-
maniacs, and in those inhabitants of Peru and the adjacent
countries who take it in excess or arc markedly susceptible to its
influence.
The injection of coca leaves has a very remarkable effect upon
the higher tracts of the nervous system— an effect curiously
contrary to that produced by their chief ingredient upon the
peripheral parts of the nervous apparatus. The mental power
is, at any rate subjectively, enhanced in marked degree. In the
absence of extended experiments in psychological laboratories,
such as have been conducted with alcohol, it is not possible
to say whether the apparent enhancement of the intellect is
an objectively demonstrable fact. The physical power is un-
questionably increased, such muscular exercises as are involved
in ascending mountains being made much easier after the chewing
of an ounce or so of these leaves. Excess in coca-chewing leads
in many cases to great bodily wasting, mental failure, insomnia,
weakness of the circulation and extreme dyspepsia. For other
pharmacological characters and the therapeutic employments of
coca sec Cocaine.
COCAINE, C17II21KO4, an alkaloid occurring to the extent
of about 1% in the leaves of Erytkroxylon coca (see above).
It is associated with many other alkaloids: cinnamyl
cocaine, Ci*HaNO«; a-truxillinc (CitHsNOOr, 0-truxillinc,
(C»HgNO«)i; bcnzoylecgoninc, CuHuNOj; tropa-cocainc,
CijHwNOj; hygrinc, CiH|$NO; cuscohygrine, CijH»NO t .
These substances, which may be collectively termed " cocaines,"
axe all derivatives of ecgoninc (q.v.). Cocaine is benzoyl methyl
ecgoninc. It crystallizes from alcohol in prisms, which arc
sparingly soluble in water. Its solution has a bitter t^stc,
alkaline reaction, and is lacvorotatory. Its use as a local
anaesthetic (sec Anaesthesia) makes it the most valuable of
the coca alkaloids, and it is much used in ophthalmic practice.
Applied to the conjunctiva it causes anaesthesia, dilatation of
the pupil, diminution of the intraocular tension, and some
interference with accommodation. The conversion of the
mixture obtained by extracting coca-leaves into cocaine is
effected by saponifying the esters into ecgoninc and the respective
acids, and then bcnzoylating and mclhylating the ecgonine.
Homologies of cocaine — cthylbcnzoylccgoninc, &c. — have been
prepared; they closely resemble natural cocaine. Cinnamyl
cocaine is cinnamylmcthylccgonine, i.e. cocaine in which the
benzoyl group is replaced by the cinnamyl group, a- and
^-Lr axil lines, named from their isolation from a coca of Truxillo
(Peru), are two isomeric alkaloids which hydrolysc to ecgonine,
methyl alcohol, and two isomeric acids, the truiillic acids,
Ci«Hi«0«. The alkaloids arc therefore methyl truxillylecgonines.
The truxillic acids have been studied by R. Licbcrmann and his
students (Bcr., vols. 21-27, and 3 X )> and arc diphenyl tctra-
methylene dicarboxylic acids.
COCANADA, or Coconada, a town of British India, in the
Godavari district of Madras, on the coast in the extreme north
of the Godavari delta, about 315 m. N. of Madras. Pop. (1001)
48,096, showing an increase of 18% in the decade. As the
administrative headquarters of the district, and the chief port
on the Coromandcl coast after Madras, Cocanada was formerly
of considerable importance, but its shipping trade has declined,
owing to the silting of the anchorage, and to the construction of
the railway. It is connected by navigable channels with the
canal system of the Godavari delta, and by a branch line with
Samalkot on the East Coast railway. The anchorage is an open
roadstead, with two lighthouses. The chief exports arc rice,
to such *n"ttUnu?' *"
everywhere in the <mL1~ -
nowhere, lfe tauri.i , k ' * -
thereUtionbetwe?; 1 ^-- -1
covenant was a M Cove** '" •■ •
stituled, after the Fall \\L ? k
which the coming of j^ c '"■
millenarian views, and was th« u
who were called after him Coccei'i *'
entirely on the Bible, and he did mu<K !' * '
the study of the original text. In^XV*"" ■ -
that the observance of the Sabbath ti -*/
binding upon Christians, since it was' a 1 **' *"> -
most distinguished pupil was the celebrated"? " ,l ' ' • -
1 1 is most valuable work was his Lexicon 4 Com * U ' 1 *' "■•■.'
llcbraki el Ckaldaki (Leiden, 1669), which hUT"*' '"'-''
republished; bis theology is fully expounded ilV"'* —'•
Dottrinacde Foedere et Tcslamento Dei O648) " : '**J+
1 'An,..,
His collected works were published in 12 folio vol..-
dam. 1673- 1675). See Hcrzog-IIauck, ReaUncM>$£
COCCIDIA, an important order of Sporoxoa Ectospora n»
possessing certain very distinctive characters. With one r *** l ' %
possible exceptions, they arc invariably intracellular during l i£
entire trophic life of the individual. They always attack ti»
cells, usually of an epithelium, and never Wood-corpusc!!*
Correlated with the advanced degree of parasitism, there is \
complete absence of specialisation or differentiation of the cell,
body, and the trophozoite is quite incapable of any kind of
movement. In all cases, so far as known, the life-cycle is di-
genctic, an asexual generation (produced by schizogony) alternat-
ing with a sexual one (gamctogony). After conjugation of two
highly-differentiated gametes has taken place, a resistant oocyst
is formed, which provides for the dispersal of the species; inside
this sporogony (spore- and sporozoitc-formation) goes on.
Hake (1830) was, perhaps, the first to describe a Coccidian,
but he regarded the parasites as pathological cell -products. In
1845 N. Liebcrkiihn pointed out the resemblances ntobry
to Grcgarincs, with which organisms he considered
Coccidia to be allied. A year later, H. Kloss proved the existence
of similar parasites in the snail, and attempted to construct their
life-history; this form was subsequently named Klossia helicina
by A. Schneider. The asexual part of the life-cycle was first
described by Th. Eimer in 1870, for a Coccidian infesting the
mouse, which was afterwards elevated by Schneider into a distinct
genus Eimcrfa. The generic name Coccidium was introduced
by R. Leuckart in 1879, for the parasite of the rabbit. It was
many years, however, before the double character of the life-
cycle was realized, and the ideas of L. and R. Pfciffer, who first
suggested the possibility of an alternation of generations, for a
long time found no favour. In the first decade of the 20th century
great progress was accomplished, thanks largely to the researches
of F. Schaudinn and M. Siedlccki, who first demonstrated the
occurrence of sexual conjugation in the group; and the Coccidian
life-history is now one of the best known among Snorozoa
Coccidia appear to be confined 1 to four great phyla, Vertebrates,
1 A curious organism, parasitic in a gregarinc. has Lttely been
described by Do^icl as a coccidian, and termed Hyalosphncro.*
COCCIDIA
P|,ATE I.
»M
■"S;v
mm J*»,
i?h Rabbit's Liver, in- ^■v.-:",T i ?' ft
Fig. i. — Section through
fected with Coccidium Citniculi. (After
Thoma.)
Kidney
a
Fig. 2. — Klossia Ilelicim, from
Helix Hortcnsis.
a. Portion of a section of the kidney showing normal
epithelial cells containing concretions (c), and enlarged
epithelial cells containing the parasite (k) in various
■Uges; b, cyst of the Klossia containing sporoblasts;
€, cyst with ripe spores, each enclosing four sporozoites
and a patch of residual protoplasm. (From Wasielewski,
after Balbiani.)
ti*
of Caryotroplia Afcsnilii, Siedl.
n olymnia Ncbidosa).
Fig. 3. — The Life-Cycle of Coccidium Schubcrgi, Schaud.
(Par. Lithobius Forficatus). (From Minchin, after
Schaudinn.)
I. -IV represents the schizogony, commencing with infection of an
epithelial cell by u s[>orozoite or mcrozoitc. After stage IV the de-
velopment may start again at stage 1, as indicated by the arrows:
or it may go on to the formation of gametucytes (V). V-VIll
represents the sexual generation. The line of development, hitherto
single (I-IV) becomes split into two lines — male (VI cT 1 , VII tf
VIII cf), and female (VI 9, VII 9 , VIII 9 ). culminating in the highly
differentiated micro- and mega-gametes. Hy conjugation these two
lines are again united. IX. X, show the formation of the zygote by
fusion of the nuclei of the gametes. XI-XV. siiorogony. //.(.'. host-
cell; N, its nucleus; m;, mcrozoitc; szt, schizont; ky, k.iryo.->ome (or
fragments of same); n.n, daughter-nuclei of schizont; pl.Kf, plastinoid
grains; 00c, oocyst; n.zyg, zyKOte-nucleus (segmentation-nucleus);
sp.m, spore-membrane (sporocyst); rp. residual protoplasm of oocyst
("reliouat kystal"); rp.sp, residual protoplasm of spore ("rcliquat
sporal '); 5^.z, sporozoite.
a, Young schizont in a cluster of spermatogonia; the host -cell (rep-
resented granulated ) and two of its neighbours are greatly hypertrophicd,
with very large nuclei, and have fused into a single mass containing
the parasite (represented clear, with a thick outline). The other
spermatogonia are normal, ft. Intracellular schizont divided up
into schizontocytcs (c), each schizontocyte giving rise to a cluster of
merozoites arranged as a ''corps en barillet'"; spR, spermatogonia;
A.c, host-cell; A\ nucleus of host-cell or cells; n. nucleus of parasite;
szc. schizontocyte; «s, merozoites: r.b, residual bodies of the r&&xcrc&nr>
cytes. (From Minchin, alter Sfcdtati&t
Plate II.
COCCIDIA
Fig. 5. — Schizogony of Adclea Ovata, A. Schn.
(Par. Lithobius Forficatus).
a<, 9 generation; d-f, tf generation, a, Full-grown 9
gchizont (mtgosckizant), with a large nucleus in) containing a
conspicuous karyosome (ky). b. Commencement of schizog-
ony; the nucleus has divided up to form a number of daughter-
nuclei (d.n). The karyosome of stage a has broken up into a
great number of daughter-karyosomes. each of which forms
at first the centre of one of the star-shaped daughter-nuclei;
but in a short time the daughter-karyosomes become incon-
spicuous, c, Completion of schizogony; the 9 s>chizont has
broken up into a number of megamcrozoites (9 m -) implanted
on a small quantity of residual protoplasm (r.p.) Each 9
mcrozoite has a chromatic nucleus (n) without a karyosome.
d. Full-grown cP schizont (mitmschiztml). with nucleus (m,
karyosome (Ay), and a numl>er of characteristic pigment-
granules (p.gr). e. Commencement of schizogony. The nu-
cleus is dividing up into a numl>er of daughter-nuclei (d.n),
each with a conspicuous karyosome (ky). /. Completion of
schizogony. The numerous micromerozoitcs f tf mz) have each
a nucleus with a conspicuous karyosome (ky) at one pole, and
the protoplasm contains pigment-granules (p.gr) near the nu-
cleus, on the side farthest from the karyosome. (From Minchin,
after Siedlccki.)
Fig. 7. — Spores of Various Coccidiun Genera.
a, Minchinui chitonis (K.R.L.), (par. Chiton)\ b. Diaspora
hvddtidea. Lc^er (par. Pnlydesmus); c. Echinospora labbti,
Le«er (j >a r. Lithobius mutibiiis); d, Gous\ia moteUat. LabW;
e, Diplospora tllvalokloixia), HfMrkukni (I^ibW), (par. Rana
tuuUnta)\ f. Crv%talhipora cry<lalloides (Thcl), (par. Mntrila
tririmUa). (From Minchin; b and c after Leger, the others
after Labbc.)
Fig. 6. — Association and Conjugation in Adda
Ovata.
a. Young microgametocyte (o* game.) attached to a megap-
metocyte (9 game.). The nucleus of the microgametocyte
gives rise to 4 daughter-nuclei (c) which become (d) 4 micro-
gametes (tf gam.), e. One of the microgametes penetrates tat
megaKamcte. which forms a fertilization-spindle composed of
male and female chromatin (0* and 9 ckr.). The other j
microgametes and the residual protoplasm of the microgaine-
tocyte (r.p.) perish. The karyosome of the mexagamete has
disappeared, as such. /. Union of the chromatin of both
elements, to produce the zygote-nucleua (n.tyg.) m (Fran
Minchin, after Siedlccki.)
Tig. 8. — Sporogony and Spore-
Germination in Burroussia
Ornata, A. Sen., from the
Gut of Nepa Cinera.
a. Oocyst with sporoblasls: b, oocyst with ripe spores; e, a
spore highly magnified, showing the sin«lc sporozoite bent on
itself ; d. the spore has split along its outer coat or epispore. but
the sporozoite is still enclosed in t 1r- cmldsporc; e. the sporozoite
freed from the endospore, is emerging; f. the sporozoite has
straightened itself out and is freed from its envelopes. (From
Wasielewiki, after A. Schneider.)
COCCIDIA
617
digestive juices, which are- thus enabled to reach the spores
and cause the rupture of the sporocysts. As the result of in-
structive experiments, Metzner has shown that it is the pancreatic
and not the gastric juice by which this liberation of the germs
is effected. The liberated sporozoites creep out and proceed
to infect the epithelial cells. The sporozoites (XV.) are from
1 5-20 u long by 4-6 u wide; they are fairly similar to merozoitcs
in form, structure and behaviour, the chief point of distinction
being that they have no karyosome in the nucleus (cf. above).
Comparing the life-cycle of other Coccidia with that just
described, a greater or less degree of modification is frequently
met with. In the process of schizogony two orders of division
sometimes occur; the parent-schizont first divides up into a
varying number of rounded daughter-schizonts (schizontocytcs),
each of which gives rise, jn the usual manner, to a cluster of
merozoites, 1 which thus constitute a second order of cells.
Siedlecki (1902) has found this to be the case in Caryotropha
mesniiii (fig. 4), and Woodcock (1904) has shown that it is most
probably really the same process which Smith and Johnson
(1002) mistook for sporogony when originally describing their
Coccidian of the mouse, Klossiclla. In Caryotropha, a perfectly
similar state of affairs is seen in the formation of microgamctcs
from the microgamctocyte; this is additionally interesting as
showing that this process is neither more nor less than male
schizogony.
Coming to the sexual generation, considerable variation is
met with as regards the period in the life-history when sexual
differentiation first makes its appearance. Sexuality may become
evident at the very beginning of schizogony, as, e.g. in Adelca
ovate (Siedlecki, 1899), where the first-formed schizonts (those
developed from the sporozoites) are differentiated into male and
female (micro- and mega-schizonts) (sec Plate II., fig. 5). Corre-
spondingly, the merozoitcs, to which they give rise, are also
different (micro- and mega-merozoites). In one or two cases
sexuality appears even earlier in the cycle, and has thus been
carried still farther back.
The Coccidia, as a whole, have not developed the phenomenon
of association of the sexual individuals prior to gamete-formation
which is so characteristic of Gregarines. Their method of en-
deavouring to secure successful sporulation, and thus the survival
of the species, has been rather by the extreme specialization
of the sexual process. In place of many female elements, which
the primitive or ancestral forms may be assumed to have had,'
there is always, save possibly for one exception,* only a single
relatively huge megagamete formed, which offers a comparatively
easy goal for one of the many microgamctcs. Nevertheless
in the effort to render fertilization absolutely certain, a few
Coccidia have acquired (secondarily) the power of associating;
a state of things which enables those forms, moreover, to effect
an economy in the number of male gametes, only three or four
being developed. Instances are seen in Adelca mesnili (Perez,
1903), A, ovata (fig. 6), and Klossia helicina (Siedlecki, 1899).
It is very interesting to note that, in the two last cases, unless
this association of the microgamctocyte with the megagaractocyte
occurs, neither can the former produce male elements (micro-
gametes) nor can the female individual maturate and become
ready for fertilization. (Concerning this question of association
see also Gregarines.)
In sporogony, great variation is seen with respect to the
number of spores and sporozoites formed; and, as in Gregarines,
these characters are largely used for purposes of classification,
under which heading they are better considered. Usually, the
spores (fig. 7) are quite simple in outline, and not produced into
1 The merozoites are frequently arranged like the staves of a
barrel— whence the term barilUt, Which is frequently used.
• In Cyclosporin, Schaudinn (1902) has noted certain abnormal
cases of the persistence and further multiplication of the " reduction-
nuclei " of the female element (i.e. the nuclear portions given off
during maturation), followed by multiple fertilization. This occur
ception (ape below).
spines or processes; exceptions are found, however, in a few
instances {eg. Minthinia ckitonis). In one case (Coctidium
mittatium), the oocyst itself, instead of being spherical, it
curiously shaped like a mitre.
The Life-history as a whole is invariably undergone in a single
host, i.e. there is no alternation of true hosts. 4 Schaudinn, in his
work an the Coccidia of Liihobius (iooo), showed that the oocysts
expelled with the faeces may be eaten by wood-lice (Oniscus),
but when this happens they pass through the intestine of the
wood-louse una It (-rv<l r the latter not being an intermediate host
but merely a carrier,
The order Coccidiiriea is divided into four families, characterized
fay the number of sporocysts (if any) found in the oocyst.
Fam. A*FOHOCYSTii>A£ f Legcr. No sporozoites are
formed in the oocyst, the &poroiuites being unenclosed cmtiom.
(gymnospores).
Genus, U$trdla, MerniL Thia genus actually conforms to Aime
Schmittcr's original definition of Enneria, which was founded on
what were really the schiiogonous generations of other forms, then
thought to be iji -tinct. In vitw of the great confusion attending
the uk of this name, however, Mesnil (1000) has suggested the new
one here adopted. Two spec ies fc now n, L. nova and L. Ustiadi, both
from diffcrvnt specks of Ciomttis t a Myriajpod; the former inhabits
thi.- Malpighhn tubule? r the latter the testis.
Fam. DtspoaocY&TioAB. Leger. The oocyst contains 2 spores.
Genus 1, Cyctaiptirq t A. Schneider. Spores dizoic, t\*. with two
sporoioitc*. C gCamericola, from the intestinal epithelium of
Cifxirrif, and £ tQTyalytica f from the intestinal epithelium of the
mole, intranuclear.
Genus 2, Dipfaipora, Labbu. Spores tctrazoic. D. lacasei, from
many bird?, is the Unknown species; and others have been de-
scribed from dilTi: rant Sauropsida. D. lieberkiihni is an interesting
form occurring in the kidneys of the frog, which it reaches by way
of the circulation.
Genua 3. I stupors. Sehn. Spores polyiotc Founded for /. nra,
parasitic in the black fchig (Lintiut ciRem-niter), Many authors
Consider that Schneider wax mistaken in attributing many sporo-
foitcs to this form, and would unite with it the genus Dipioip&r&.
Fam. Tetrad pokoc vsti d a e, Leger. The oocyst contai na 4 spores.
Genus 1. Cottidium^ Lcuckart. The spores are diroic and the
tpomcytts rounded or aval. A very large number of specie* are
known, mostly from Vertebrate hosts. C, cuttxruii { « C jfiri forme)
from the rabbit (intestine and diverticula), but also occurring bornc-
timct in other domestic animals; C, faSciJortxif. from the mouse;
C/rt«fc* irom sheep; and C. iekubnri. from Liikobivt {a centipede),
are among the best -known forma. All of them may cause disastrous
epidemics of cocciojosU.
Genus a, ParacccttAium, La vera n and MtsmL This genus is
distinguished from Coctidium by the fact that the sporocysts become
dissolved up in the oocyst, thus leaving the U spuroiokej unenclosed,
recalling the condition in UgtriUa. P. prtvott, unique species, from
the frog's intestine.
Genus 3. CryilaJlaipora, Labb£. Spores also dizoic, but having
the form, of a double pyramid. C. cryu&IlvitUi from a &§h, Mateifo
triLtrraid.
Genus 4, A nzriocyuit, Brasfl. Apparently 6 sporozoites^ but
the only species, A. axdauiniae, has only been briefly described;
roly
1MB.
Fam. FOl-YSPORQCYSTIDAB,
a).
.Legcr.
The oocyst contains numerous
There are several genera with monosoic spores, characterized by
variations in the form and structure of the sporocysts, e.i. Barroussia*
Schn. (fig. 6). Ethinoipora, Lcger, and Diaspora, Leger; most 01
these forms are from MyrLipods.
Genus Adeiea, Schn. Diioic spores; sporocysts round or oval,
plain. Several spedes are included in this well-known genus, among
them being A. emin, A. mesnili, A. iimidiata; most of them are
parasitic in Insects or Myriapods.
Genus Mirtrklnia, hahhk. Dizoic spores; the sporocysts are
produced at each pole into a long filament. M. ckitonis, from the
liver of Chitam (Mollusca),
Gvnus Kiossia. Sehn. The spores are tetrasoic (or perhaps.
pnlyxoic). K. kxthina Irom the kidney of various land-snails b the
k>t -known form. Usually said to have 5 to 6 spores, but Mesnil
considers that the normal number is 4, as is the case in another
specki, A*, ivtvt.
Gcno!> CaryotToph&, Siedltcki. Many spherical spores (about 20)
* Again with the exception of Eucoccidium.
1 Purists in systematic nomenclature maintain that this name
should be rclinquUhed in favour of Eimeria, since the latter was the
first legit jmatc generic name given to a Coccidian. But one reason
n£-iin*t the nw of Eimrria has been stated already (it should be used
for & (Lfgrrrlia.) nova. »i inywhere); and in addition, the word
CiKitdium and its important derivatives are now so universally
established that it would be little short of ridiculous to displace
thorn.
6i8
COCCULUS INDICUS— COCHABAMBA
each with 12 sporozoites. C. mesnilii, unique species, from the
spermatogonia! (testis) cells of Polymnia (a Polychaete). An inter-
esting point in the schizogony is the formation of schizontocytes
(see above).
A Coccidian parasitic 4n the kidneys of the mouse has been de-
scribed by Smith and Johnson (1902) and named by them Klossiella,
on the ground that it possessed many spores, each with about
20 sporozoites. Woodcock has shown, however, that the authors
were in all probability dealing with a similar modification of schizo-
gony to that which obtains in Caryotropha. The sporogony of this
form (and hence its systematic position) remains at present, there-
fore, quite unknown.
There are several doubtful or insufficiently known genera, e.g.
Bananella, Goussia, HyalokJossia, Gonobia, PfeiffereUa and Rhabdo-
spora, many of which probably represent only schizogonous genera-
tions of other forms. (For information concerning these see Labbe,
Lastly it remains to mention the extremely interesting forms
parasitic in Cephalopoda. For some years these have provided ■
fruitful source of discussion to systernacistSr Here it may be stated
limply that their systematic position and nomenclature were
thought to have been finally settled by the researches of Jaccjjcmet
(looj.) and Lohe fioo?) in the following terms: —
Genua EttcocridiuiH. Luhe (wyn. Lirenno Jatq. ), Coccidia possriv
litg polvsporous oocysts and lacking sen izogony, parasitic in Cephalo-
poda j T wo well ■ Icrto wn spec ies : E, th&ihi ( La blie) , ( ■ Benedeitia seu
Klosiia r. seu Qclepiiwn), parasitic in Sepia* which is tri- or tetnwcjic :
and E. vctopiamtm (5chn.). (syn. Btncdcma seu Klvssi& 0,) from
Octopus, which is polytoic. having 10 to 12 *porcs>oUev In both
forms cysts containing mrgospores and megasporoEoilcs, and others
containing microspores and microsporozoites are found, considered
a* rcprocnting sexual differentiation thrown bade to the very
earliest stages of the Lifc-cycta
Quite recently much additional Light has been thrown upon our
; of these parasites, including a new one. E. jacquemrit.
iwn that not one but many roecagafluMe* are
kn*.*l*t!,
formed! and fertilized by the mjcrogamcte*. For this reason he
lee of these parasi
(lonrtj has shown
Moroff (lonftj has
regard* them a? Gregarines nther than Coccidia* Further, Leger
and Dub»scq ft 906) have found that the characteristic coeloimc
parasites (Attrwt&la} *>l Crustacea, generally regarded as gymno-
sporems Gregarines (i\f. Gregarines in which the sparozoitcs are
naked) constitute in reality nothing more or less than a schizogonous
generation of these Cephalopoda n parasites, which have thus an
alternation of true hosts. The ri|jc sporocyst* from the Ccplwlopwl
are eaten by a particular crab (e.g. Porlunus or Inachus, according
to the parasite), the sporozoites arc liberated and traverse the
mucous membrane of the intestine, coming to rest in the surrounding
lymphatic layer. Here a large " cyst " is formed, projecting into
the body-cavity, the contents of which give rise to a great number
of merozoites. Qn the crab being devoured by the right species
of Cephalopod, the merozoites doubtless give rise to the sexual
generation again.
As the name Aggregata '» much the older, and as, moreover, there
is no longer any reason to retain that of Eucoccidium, these parasites
must in future receive the former generic appellation. With regard
to the various specific names, however, they remain quite unsettled
until the life-history is properly worked out in different cases (see
also Gregarines).
ft seems to the writer a much more open question than Moroff
and Leger and Duboscq apparently suppose, whether these para-
sites are to be relegated to the Gregarines. For undoubtedly they
have many Coccidian features, and on the other hand they differ
in many ways from Gregarines. The chief feature of agreement
with the latter order is the possession of many female gametes.
As already sa*id, there can be little doubt that this was the condition
in the Coccidian ancestor, and it is by no means impossible that one
or two forms existing at the present day remain primitive in that
respect. On the other hand, the advanced character of the parasitism
(the parasites remaining intracellular up to and including gamete-
formation); the entire Lack of the characteristic feature of associa-
tion; the schizogony, which is only a very rare occurrence in
Gregarines, and which* in the present case, strongly suggests the
process in Caryotropha and Klossiella; and, last but not least, the
varying number of the sporozoites (3 in one form, 10-15 ' n others),
which is very different from the almost constant number (8) in
Gregarines, are all characters in which these forms agree with
Coccidia and not with Gregarines. Having regard to these points, the
writer is inclined, for the present, to consider Aggregata mm an off-
shoot rather from the Coccidian than from the Gregarine branch of
the Ectosporan tree.
Bibliography.— The following are some of the important papers
dealing with the order: — G. Bonnet-Eymard, " Sur I'Evolution
de YEimtria nova, Schneider," C.R. Soc. Biol. 52, p. 650, 1900;
L. Brasil, "Sur une Coccidie nouvelle, Ac," C.R.Ae. Set. 139,
p. 645, 1904; L. Cuenot. " LigertUa testiculi n. so., &c," Arch. Zool.
exp. (N. et R.), (3) to, p. 49. 6 figs., 1902; M. Jacquemet, " Sur la
•ystematique des Corcidies des Cephalopodes," Arch. ProtisUnk.
a p., too. 1903; A. Labbe. " Recherches zoologiques, cytoteglqucs et
biologiques sur les Coccidies," Arch. tool. exp. (3), 4, p. 517, 3 pis..
1897; A. Laveran. " Sur leamodesde reproduction d' Isospora lacaui,"
C.R. Soc. Biol. 50, p. 1 139, 1898; A. Laveran and F. Meetul. "Set
deux Coccidies mtcstinales de la Rana esculent*" pp. ciL 54, p. 857.
9 figs., 1902; A. Laveran and F. Mcsnil, " Sur la Coccidie trouvec
dans le rein de la Rana esculenta, &c," C.R.Ac. Set. 135, p. 62, 10
figs., 1902; A. Laveran and F. Mesnil, " Sur quelques Frocozoatrts
parasites d'une tortue, &c." U c. p. 609, 14 figs., 1902; L. Leger,
Sur unc nouvelle Coccidie a microgametcs cities, op. ciL, 127,
p. 418. 1898; L. Leger, " Sur la morphologic et le developpement
des microgametes des Coccidies," Arch. tool. exto. (N. et R.) (3), 6.
1898; L. Leger, " Essai sur la classification dee Coccidies, 4c.."'
Ann. Ifus. Nat. Hist., Marseille (2), Bull. L p. 71. 4 pis., 169s.
L. Leger, " Sur la presence d'une Coccidie coclomique chez Olocratcs,
&c," Arch. tool. exp. (N. et R.) (3), 8, p. i., 1900; L. Leger, "Sur
le genre Eimeria et la classification des Coccidies," CJi. Sot. Bid
5*. p. 575, 1900: L. Leger and O. Duboscq, " Recherches sur k*
Myriapodes de Corse et leurs parasites," Arch. tool. exp. (4). 1.
p. 307, 24 figs., 1903; L. Leger and O. Duboscq, " Sur revolution
des Gregarines gymnosporces des Crustacea," C.R~Ac. Set. 142.
p. 1225, 1906; L. Leger and O Duboscq, " L'Evolution d'une
Aggregata de la seiche chea le Portunus depurator," C.R. Soc. BM.
60. p. 1001, 1906; M. LUhe, " Ober Gcltung und Bedcutung der
Gattungsnamen Eimeria und Coceidiunt," C. B. Bakter (1) 31 Orig.
p. 771, 1902; C. B. Bakter " Die Cuccidien-Literatur dcr letzien
vier Jahre." Zool. Centrlbt. to, 45 pp.. 1903; F. Mesnil, " Sur b
conservation du nom gtnerique Eimeria, &c," CJi. Soc. BM. 52.
S, 603, 1900; F. Mesnil, " Les Travaux recents sur les Coccidies,"
ull. Inst. Pasteur, 1. pp. 473, 505, 1903: R. Metzncr, " Unter-
suchungen an Coccidium cuniculi," Arch. ProHslenh. 2, p. 13, pi. il
1903; G. Moussu and G. Marotel. " La Coccidiose du mouton et son
parasite, n Arch. Parasitoi. 6. p. 82. 10 figs., 1902; T. Moroff. " Sur
1 6voIution des pretend ucs Coccidies des Cephalopodes," CRM.
Set. 142. p. 652, 1906; C. Perez, " Le Cycle 6volutif de l'Adeka
mesnih. &c," Arch. Protislenk. 2, p. t, pi. 1, 1903; F. Schaudina.
" Untersuchungcn uber den Generationswechsel bci Coccidien,"
Zool. JakrbUcher (Anat.) 13, p. 197, 4 pis., 1900 ; F. Schaudina.
" Studien ttber krankheitserregende Protozoen — I. Crclospcn
caryolytica, &c.," Arb. hais. Gesundh.-amte, 18, p. 378, 2 pis., 1902;
M. Sicdlecki, " Reproduction sexuee . . . chez . . . Coccidium
proprium," C.R. Soc. Biol. 50. p. 664, figs., 1898; M. Siedlecki.
" Etude cytologique . . . de la Coccidie de la seiche. Sec." Amu.
Inst. Pasteur, 12. p. 799, 3 pis., 1898; M. Siedlecki, " Etude cytolo-
gique . . . de Adelea ovata." op. ciL 13, p.. 169, 3 ph., 1899:
M. Siedlecki, " Cycle cvolutif dc la Caryotropha mesniiii, &c,"
Bull. Ac. Cracovie, p. 561, 5 figs-. 1902; T. Smith and H. P.
Johnson, " On a Coccidian (KlossieHa muris, grn. et spec, nov.),
&c.." /. exp. Med. 6, p. 303, 3 pis.. 1902; H. M. Woodcock, " Notes
on Sporozoa, I. On Klossieua muris, &c" Q.J. micr. Set. 48,
p. 153. a ngs., 1904. (H. M. Wo.)
COCCULUS INDICUS, the commercial name for the dried
fruits of Anamirta Cocculus (natural order Menispcrmaceae),
a Urge climbing shrub, native to India. It contains a bitter
poisonous principle, picrotoxin, used in small doses to control
the night sweats of phthisis. It was formerly known as Levant
nut and Levant shell, owing to the fact that it was brought to
Europe by way of the Levant!
COCHABAMBA, a central department of Bolivia, occupying
the eastern angle of the great Bolivian plateau, bounded N. by
the department of El Bcni, E. by Santa Cruz, S. by Chuquisaca
and Potosi, and W. by Potosi, Crura and La Paz. Area, 23,328
sq. m.; pop. (1000) 328,163. Its average elevation is between
8000 and 10,000 ft., and its mean temperature ranges from 50"
to 6o° F., making it one of the best climatic regions in South
America. The rainfall is moderate and the seasons are not
strongly marked, the difference being indicated by rainfall
rather than by temperature. The rainy season is from November
to February. Cochabamba is essentially an agricultural depart-
ment, although its mineral resources are good and include
deposits of gold, silver and copper. Its temperate climate
favours the production of wheat, Indian corn, barley and
potatoes, and most of the fruits and vegetables of the temperate
zone. Coca, cacao, tobacco and most of the fruits and vegetables
of the tropics are also produced. Its forest products include
rubber and cinchona. Lack of transportation facilities, however,
have been an insuperable obstacle to the development of any
industry beyond local needs except those of cinchona and rubber.
Sheep and cattle thrive in this region, and an experiment with
silkworms gave highly successful results. The population is
chiefly of the Indian and mestizo types, education is in a back-
ward state, and there are no manufactures other than those of
the domestic stage, the natives making many articles of wearing
apparel and daily use in their own homes. Rough highways ad
COCHABAMBA— COCHIN
619
mule-paths are the only means of communication, hut a pro-
jected railway from Cochabamba (city) to Oruro, 132 m., promises
to bring this isolated region into touch with the commercial
world. The department is divided into nine provinces, but
there is no effective local government outside the municipalities.
The capital is Cochabamba; other important towns are Punata,
Tartu, Totora, Mizque and Sacaba.
COCHABAMBA, a city of Bolivia, capital of the department
of the same name and of the province of Cercado, situated on
the Rocha, a small tributary of the Guapay river, in lat. J7
2-f S.and long. 65 46' W. Pop. (1000) 21,886, mostly Indians
and mestizos. The city stands in a broad valley of the Bolivian
plateau, 8400 ft. above sea-level, overshadowed by the snow-clad
heights of Tunari and La rati, 291 m. north-north-west of Sucre
and 132 m. east-north-east of Oruro, with both of which places it
is connected by rough mountain roads. A subsidized stage-
coach line runs to Oruro. A contract fcr a railway between the
two cities was made in 1906, connecting with the Antofagasta
and Arica lines. The climate is mild and temperate, and the
surrounding country fertile and cultivated. Cochabamba is often
described as the roost progressive city of Bolivia, but it has been
held back by its isolated situation. The warehouses of the city
are well supplied with foreign goods, and trade is active in spite
of high prices. The city is provided with telegraphic com-
munication via Oruro, and enjoys a large part of the Amazon
trade through some small river ports on tributaries of the
Mamore. The city is regularly laid out, and contains many
attractive residences surrounded by gardens. It is an episcopal
city (since 1847), containing many churches, four conventual
establishments, and a missionary college of the " Propaganda
Fide " for the conversion of Indians. The city has a university
and two colleges, but they are poorly equipped and receive very
little support from the government. Cochabamba was founded
in the z6th century, and for a time was called Oropesa. It took
an active part in the " war of independence," the women dis-
tinguishing themselves in an attack on the Spanish camp in 181 5,
and some of them being put to death in 18 18 by the Spanish
forces. In 1874 the city was seized and partly destroyed by
Miguel Aguirre, but in general its isolated situation has been a
protection against the disorders which have convulsed Bolivia
since her independence.
COCHBM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine pro-
vince on the Mosel, and 30 m. W. of Coblenz by the railway
to Trier, which above the town enters the longest tunnel
(2$ m.) in Germany. Pop. 3500. It is romantically situated in
the deep and winding valley of the Mosel, at the foot of a
hill surrounded by a feudal castle dating from 1051, which
has been restored in its former style. There is a considerable
trade in wines.
COCHERY, LOUIS ADOLPHE (1810-1900), French statesman,
was bom at Paris. After studying law he soon entered politics,
and was on the staff of the ministry of justice after the revolution
of February 1848. From the coup d'Hat of 1851 to May 1869
he devoted himself to journalism. Then, elected deputy by
the department of the Loiret, he joined the group of the Left
Centre, and was a supporter of the revolution of the 4th of
September 1870. His talent in finance won him a distinguished
place in the chamber. From 1879 till 1885 he was minister of
posts and telegraphs, and in January 1888 he was elected to the
senate. He died in 1900.
His son, Georges Charles Paul, born in 1855, was in his
father's department from 1879 till 1885, deputy from 1885, five
times president of the Budget Commission, minister of finance
(1895-1898) and vice-president of the chamber (1898-190?), and
again finance minister in the Briand Cabinet, 1909.
COCHIN, DENYS MARIS PIERRE AUGUSTIN (1851- ),
French politician, was born at Paris. He studied law, was
elected to the chamber of deputies in 1893, an <l gradually became
one of the leaders and principal orators of the Conservative
party. He opposed the project of the income-tax in 1894, the
revision of the Dreyfus case in 1899, and the separation of the
cfatrcb and state in 1 905. He is known as an author by his works,
L'£volution de la vie (1895); Le Monde exUrieur (1895); Contre
Us barbarcs (1899); Ententes et ruptures (1905).
COCHIN, a feudatory state of southern India, in political
subordination to Madras, with an area of 1361 sq. m. It is
bounded on the N. by British Malabar, on the E. by British
Malabar, Coimbatore and Travancore, on the S. by Travancore,
and on the W. by British Malabar and the Arabian Sea. Isolated
from the main territory, and situated to the north-east of it,
lies the major portion of the Chittore taluk, entirely surrounded
by British territory. The whole state may be divided into three
well-defined regions or zones: (1) the eastern zone, consisting
of broken forested portions of the Western Ghats, which,
gradually decreasing in height, merge into (2) the central belt,,
comprising the uplands and plains that dip towards the lagoons
or " backwaters " along the coast (see Cochin, town), beyond
which lies (3) the western zone, forming the littoral strip. The
low belt which borders on the seas and the backwaters is by
nature flat and swampy, but has in the course of ages become
enriched by the work of man. On leaving the seaboard, an
undulating country is found, diversified with grassy flats, naked
hills and wooded terraces, intersected by numerous torrents and
rapids, and profusely dotted with homesteads, orchards and
cultivated fields, up to the very foot of the Ghats. Here the
landscape, now on a grander scale, embraces great forests which
form a considerable source of wealth. Of the total area of the
state the forests and lagoons cover nearly 605 and 16 sq. m.
respectively.
In 1901 the population was 812,025, showing an increase of
12% in the decade. More than one-fifth are Christians, mostly
Syrians and Roman Catholics. The revenue is estimated at
£153,000, subject to a tribute of £13,000. . During recent years
the financial condition of the state has been flourishing. The
principal products are rice, cocoanuts, timber, cardamoms,
pepper and a little coffee. Salt is manufactured along the coast.
The capital is Emakulam, but the raja resides at Tripunthora.
The principal commercial centre is Mattancheri, adjoining the
British town of Cochin. The chief means of communication is
by boat along the backwaters; but in 1902 a metre-gauge line
was constructed by the Madras railway at the expense of the
state to connect Ernakulam with Shoranur.
History. — What is now the native state of Cochin formed,
until about the middle of the 9th century ad., part of the ancient
Chera or Kerala kingdom (see Kerala). Its port of Kodungalur
(Kranganur, the ancient Muziris), at the mouth of the Periyar,
was from early times one of the chief centres for the trade between
Europe and India; and it was at Malankara, near Kodungalur,
that the apostle Thomas is traditionally said to have landed.
The history of Cochin is, however, like that of the Kerala king-
dom generally, exceedingly obscure previous to the arrival of the
Portuguese. The rajas of Cochin, who are of pure Kshatriya
blood, claim descent from the Chera king Chcraman Perumal,
the last of his race to rule the vast tract from Gokarn in North
Kanara to Cape Comorin. About the middle of the 9th century
this king, according to tradition, resigned his kingdom, embraced
Islam, and went on pilgrimage to Arabia, where he died. To-
wards the end of the century the Chera kingdom was overrun
and dismembered by the Chobs. It was in 1498 that Vasco da
Gama reached the Malabar coast; and in 1502 the Portuguese
were allowed to settle in the town of Cochin, where they built a
fort and began to organize trade with the surrounding country.
By the end of the century their influence had become firmly
established, largely owing to the effective aid they had given
to the rajas of Cochin in their wars with the Zamorin of Calicut.
The Syrian Christians, forming at that time a large proportion
of the population, now felt the weight of Portuguese ascendancy;
in 1599 Menczes, the archbishop of Goa, held a synod at Uday-
amperur (Diamper), a village 12 m. south-east of Cochin, at
which their tenets were pronounced heretical and their service-
books purged of all Nestorian phrases. In 1663, however,
Portuguese domination came to an end with the capture of
Cochin by the Dutch, whose ascendancy continued for about
a hundred years. In 1776 Hyder Ah* of Mysore invaded the
620
COCHIN— COCHIN-CHINA
state and forced the raja to acknowledge his suzerainty and pay
tribute. In 1791 Tippoo, son of Hyder Ali, ceded the sovereignty
to the British, who entered into a treaty with the raja by which
he became their vassal and paid an annual tribute of a lakh of
rupees. On the 17 th of October 1809, in consequence of an
attempt of the hereditary chief minister Paliyath Achan, in
1808, to raise an insurrection against the British without his
master's knowledge, a fresh treaty was made, by which the
raja undertook to hold no correspondence with any foreign
state and to admit no foreigners to his service without the sanc-
tion of the British government, which, while undertaking to
defend the raja's territories against all enemies, reserved the
right to dismantle or to garrison any of his fortresses. In 1818
the tribute, raised to 2} lakhs in 1808, was permanently fixed
at 2 lakhs. Since then, under the rule of the rajas, the state has
greatly advanced in prosperity, especially under that of H.H.
Sir Sri Rama Varma (b. 1852), who succeeded in 1895, was
made a K.C.S.I. in 1807, and G.C.S.I. in 1003.
COCHIN, a town of British India, in the district of Malabar,
Madras. Pop. (1901) 19,274. The town lies at the northern
extremity of a strip of land about 12 m. in length, but in few
places more than a mile in breadth, which is nearly insulated
by inlets of the sea and estuaries of streams flowing from the
Western Ghats. These form the Cochin backwaters, which
consist of shallow lagoons lying behind the beach-line and below
its level. In the monsoon the Cochin backwaters are broad
navigable channels and lakes; in the hot weather they contract
into shallows in many places not 2 ft. deep. The town of Cochin
is about a mile in length by half a mile in breadth. Its first
European possessors were the Portuguese. Vasco da Gama
founded a factory in 1502, and Albuquerque built a fort, the first
European fort in India, in 1503. The British made a settlement
in 1634, but retired when the Dutch captured the town in 1663.
Under the Dutch the town prospered, and about 1778 an English
traveller described it as a place of great trade, " a harbour filled
with ships, streets crowded with merchants, and warehouses
stored with goods from every part of Asia and Europe, marked
the industry, the commerce, and the wealth of the inhabitants."
In 1795 Cochin was captured from the Dutch by the British, and
in 1806 the fortifications and public buildings were blown up by
order of the authorities. The explosion destroyed much private
property, and for a long time seriously affected the prosperity
of the town. Considerable sea-borne trade is still carried on. A
lighthouse stands on the ruins of the old fort. The chief exports
are cocoanut products, for the preparation of which there are
factories, and tea; and the chief import is rice. Cochin is the
only port south of Bombay in which large ships can be built
COCHIN-CHINA, 1 a French colony in the extreme south of
French Indo-China. The term formerly included the whole
Annamese empire — Tongking, Annam, and Lower Cochin-China,
but it now comprises only the French colony, which corresponds
to Lower Cochin-China, and consists of the six southern provinces
of the Annamese empire annexed by France in 1862 and 1867.
Cochin-China is bounded W. by the Gulf of Siam, N.W. and N.
by Cambodia, E. by Annam, and S.E. by the China Sea. Except
along part of the north-west frontier, where the canal of Vinh-
The divides it from Cambodia, its land-limits are conventional.
Its area is about 22,000 sq. m.
In 1901 the population numbered 2,968,529, of whom 4932
were French (exclusive of French troops, who numbered 2537),
9 >558i3° x Annamese, 231,902 Cambodians, 92,075 Chinese,
42,940 savages (Min Huong), the rest being Asiatics of other
nationalities, together with a few Europeans other than French.
Geography. — Cochin-China consists chiefly of an immense
plain, flat and monotonous, traversed by the Mekong and extend-
ing from Ha-Ticn in the west to Baria in the east, and from
Bien-Hoa in the north-east to the southern point of the peninsula
of Ca-Mau in the south-west. The last spurs of the mountains
of Annam, which come to an end at Cape St Jacques, extend over
parts of the provinces of Tay-Ninh, Bien-Hoa and Baria in the
north-east and east of the colony, but nowhere exceed 2900 ft
1 Sec also Indo-Crina, French; and Annam.
in height; low hills are found in the north-western province
of Chau-Doc. Cochin-China is remarkable for the abundance
of its waterways. The Mekong divides at Pnom-Penh in Cam-
bodia into two arms, the Fleuve superieur and the Fleuve
inferieur, which, pursuing a course roughly parallel from north-
west to south-cast, empty into the China Sea by means of the
numerous channels of its extensive delta. From June to October
the inundations of the Mekong cover most of the country,
portions of which, notably the Plaine des Jones in the north
and a large tract of the peninsula of Ca-Mau, are little else than
marshes. Besides a. great number of small coastal streams
there are four other rivers of secondary importance, all of which
water the east of the colony, viz. the Don-Nai, which rising
in the Annamese mountains flows west, then abruptly south,
reaching the sea to the west of Cape St Jacques; the Saigon
river, which flowing from north-west to south-east passes Saigon,
the capital of the colony, 12 m. below which it unites with the
Don-Nai; and the two Vaicos, which join the Don-Nai close to its
mouth. These rivers flow into the sea through numerous winding
channels, forming a delta united by canals to that of the Mekong.
The waterways of Cochin-China communicate by means of
natural or artificial channels {arroyos), facilitating transport and
aiding in the uniform distribution of the inundation to whkh
the country owes its fertility. Canals from Chau-Doc to Ha-Tien
and from Long Xuyen to Rach-Gia join the Mekong with the
Gulf of Siam. East of Cape St Jacques the mountains of Annam
come down close to the sea; west of that point, as far as the
southern headland of Ca-Mau, the coast-line of Cochin-China runs
north-east to south-west for about 160 m. in a straight fane
broken only by the mouths of the Don-Nai and Mekong. From
Cape Ca-Mau to Rach-Gia it runs north for a distance of 120 m,
then north-west as far as Ha-Tien, where the boundary line
between it and Cambodia meets the sea.
Climate and Tauna. — The climate of the country is warm,
humid, and very trying to Europeans. The wet season, during
which heavy rain falls almost daily, lasts from April to October,
coinciding with the south-west monsoon. The hottest period
lasts from the middle of April to the middle of June, the ther-
mometer during that time often reaching 94 F., and never
descending below 86°. The forest regions of Cochin-Chin*
harbour the tiger, panther, leopard, tiger-cat, ichneumon, wild
boar, deer, buffalo> rhinoceros and elephant, as well as many
varieties of monkeys and rats. Of birds some species of parrakeet,
the " mandarin " blackbird, and the woodcock are not found
in the rest of Indo-China. Duck, teal, cranes and other aquatic
birds abound in the delta. Venomous reptiles are numerous,
and the Mekong contains crocodiles.
Agriculture and Industries.— The cultivation of the rice-fields,
which cover large extents of the plains of Cochin-China, is by far
the chief industry of the colony. Pepper is grown in considerable
quantities in the districts of Ha-Tien and Bien-Hoa, and sugar-
canes, coffee, cotton, tobacco and jute are also produced. The
buffalo, used both for transport and in the rice-fields, and swine,
the flesh of which forms an important element in the native
diet, are the principal domestic animals. Oxen and cows are of
secondary importance and the climate is unsuitable for sheep;
horses of a small breed are used to some extent. The chief
industrial establishments are those for the decortication of rice
at Saigon and Cholon; they arc in the hands of. the Chinese, by
whom most of the trade in the colony is conducted. Sugar-
making, the distillation of rice-spirit, silk-weaving, fishing and
the preparation of a fish-sauce (nuoc-mam) made from decayed
fish, and the manufacture of salt from sea-water and of lime
are carried on in many localities.
Commerce. — Rice is the chief article of export, dried or salted
fish, pepper and cotton ranking next in order of value. Imports
include woven goods, metals, ironware, machinery, tea, wines
and spirits, mineral oils, opium, paper, and arms and powder.
The ports of Saigon and Mytho are accessible to the largest
vessels, and are connected by a railway (see Indo-Cbzma,
French). The roadsteads of Rach-Gia, Ca-Mau, and Ha-Tkn
can accommodate only vessels of low tonnage. In 2905 <
COCHINEAL— COCHLAEUS
6ai
reached a value of £33x6,000, and imports a value of £4,834,000
(not including treasure and transit trade).
Government and Administration. — Cochin-China is administered
by a lieutenant-governor under the authority of the governor-
general of Indo-China. He is assisted by the conscil colonial
numbering sixteen members, six of whom are French citizens
elected by the French, six natives elected by the natives, the
other four being members of the chamber of commerce of
Saigon and the conscil privi. The conscil colonial, besides its
advisory functions, discusses and votes the budget, determines
the nature of the taxes, has supreme control over the tariffs,
and extensive powers in the administration of colonial domains.
The conscil privi is a deliberative body under the presidency
of the lieutenant-governor, composed of colonial officials together
with two native members. The colony is divided into four
circumscriptions (Saigon, My-Tbo, Vinh-Long, Bassac), at the
head of each of which is an inspector of native affairs. These
are subdivided into twenty provinces, each administered by an
administrator of native affairs by whose side is the provincial
council consisting of natives and occupied with the discussion of
ways and means and questions of public works. The provinces
are divided into cantons and subdivided into communes. The
commune forms the basis of the native social system. Its
assembly of notables or municipal council forms a sort of oligarchy,
the members of which themselves elect individuals from among
the more prominent inhabitants to fill vacancies. The notables
elect the provincial councillors in the proportion, usually, of one
to every canton, and their delegates elect the chief of the canton,
who voices the wishes of the natives to the government. Local
administration, e.g. supervision of markets, policing^and-transfer,
&c., are carried on by a mayor and two assistants, to whom the
municipal council delegates its powers. The same body draws
up the list of males liable to the poll-tax and of the lands liable
to land-tax, these being the chief sources of revenue. There
are French tribunals of first instance in nine of the chief towns
of the colony, and in four of these there are criminal courts.
These administer justice in accordance both with French law
and, in the case of natives, with Annamese law, which has been
codified for the purpose. Saigon has two chambers of the court
of appeal of French Indo-China and a tribunal of commerce.
Primary instruction is given i n some six hundred schools. Cochin-
China is represented in the French chamber by a deputy. The
capital is Saigon (q.v.) ; of the other towns, Cholon (q.v.), My-Tho,
Vinh-Long and Chau-Doc are of importance.
In 1004 the budget receipts amounted to £495,241 (as com-
pared with £474*545 in 1899). To this sum the land and poll-tax
and other direct taxes contributed £374,630. The main heads
of expenditure, of which the total was £467,328, were as follows: —
Government £87,271
Administration 62,725
Public Works 40454
Transport v 38,173
Public Instruction 36,009
Topography and Surveying 32,036
History. — The Khmer kingdom (see Cambodia), at its zenith
from the 9th to the 1 2th centuries, included a large portion of the
modern colony of Cochin-China, the coastal portion and perhaps
the eastern region being under the dominion of the empire of
Champa, which broke up during the 1 5U1 century. This eastern
region was occupied in the 17th century by the Annamese, who
in the 18th century absorbed the western provinces. From this
period the history of Cochin-China follows that of Annam (q.v.)
till 1867, when it was entirely occupied by the French and
became a French colony. In 1887 it was united with Cambodia,
Annam and Tongking to form the Indo-Chinese Union (sec
Indo-China, French).
COCHINEAL, a natural dye-stuff used for the production of
scarlet, crimson, orange and other tints, and for the preparation
of lake and carmine. * It consists of the females of Coccus cacti,
an insect of the family Coccidac of the order Hcmiplera, which
feeds upon various species of the Cactaceae, more especially the
•opal plant) Opuntia coccintllifera, a native of Mexico and Peru.
The dye was introduced into Europe from Mexico, where it had
been in use long before the entrance of the Spaniards in the year
1 518, and where it formed one of the staple tributes to the crown
for certain districts. In 1523 Cortes received instructions from
the Spanish court to procure it in as large quantities as possible.
It appears not to have been known in Italy so late as the year
1548, though the act of dyeing then flourished there. Cornelius
van Drebbel, at Alkmaar, first employed cochineal for the
production of scarlet in 1650. Until about 1725 the belief was
very prevalent that cochineal was the seed of a plant, but Dr
Martin Lister in 1672 conjectured it to be a kind of kermes, and
in 1703 Antony van Lccuwenhoek ascertained its true nature by
aid of the microscope. Since its introduction cochineal has sup-
planted kermes (Coccus ilicis) over the greater part of Europe.
The male of the cochineal insect is half the size of the female,
and, unlike it, is devoid of nutritive apparatus; it has long
white wings, and a body of a deep red colour, terminated by two
diverging setae. The female is apterous, and has a dark-brown
plano-convex body; it is found in the proportion of 150 to 200
to one of the male insect. The dead body of the mother insect
serves as a protection for the eggs until they are hatched. Cochi-
neal is now furnished not only by Mexico and Peru, but also by
Algiers and southern Spain. It is collected thrice in the seven
months of the season. The insects are carefully brushed from
the branches of the cactus into bags, and are then killed by
immersion in hot water, or by exposure to the sun, steam, or the
heat of an oven — much of the variety of appearance in the
commercial article being caused by the mode of treatment.
The dried insect has the form of irregular, fluted and concave
grains, of which about 70,000 go to a pound. Cochineal has a
musty and bitterish taste. There are two principal varieties —
silver cochineal, which has a greyish-red colour, and the furrows
of the body covered with a white bloom or fine down; and black
cochineal, which is of a dark reddish brown, and destitute of
bloom. Granilla is an inferior kind, gathered from uncultivated
plants. The best crop is the first of the season, which consists
of the unimprcgnated females; the later crops contain an
admixture of young insects and skins, which contain propor-
tionally little colouring matter.
The black variety of cochineal is sometimes sold for silver
cochineal by shaking it with powdered talc or heavy-spar; but
these adulterations can be readily detected by means of a lens.
The duty in the United Kingdom on imported cochineal was
repealed in 1845.
Cochineal owes its tinctorial power to the presence of a sub-
stance termed cochincalin or carminic acid, CnHuOio, which
may be prepared from the aqueous decoction of cochineal.
Cochineal also contains a fat and wax; cochineal wax or coccerin,
C»H«o(CnH«iOi)s, may be extracted by benzene, the fat is a
glyceryl myristate C,H»(C M H»Oi)a.
COCHLAEUS, JOHANN (1470-1552), German humanist and
controversialist, whose family name was Dobneck, was born of
poor parents in 1479 at Wendclstcin (near Nuremberg), whence
his friends gave him the punning surname Cochlaeus (spiral),
for which he occasionally substituted Wcndclstinus. Having
received some education at Nuremberg from the humanist
Hcinrich Gricninger, he entered (1504) the university of Cologne.
In 1 507 he graduated, and published under the name of Wendcl-
stcin his first piece, In musicam cxhortatorium. He left Cologne
(May 1510) to become schoolmaster at Nuremberg, where he
brought out several school manuals. In 1 5 1 5 he was at Bologna,
hearing (with disgust) Eck's famous disputation against usury,
and associating with Ulrich von Huttcn and humanists. He
took his doctor's degree at Ferrara (1517), and spent some time
in Rome, where he was ordained priest. In 1520 he became dean
of the Liebfrauenkirche at Frankfort, where he first entered the
lists as a controversialist against the party of Luther, developing
that bitter hatred to the Reformation which animated his forceful
but shallow ascription of the movement to the meanest motives,
due to a quarrel between the Dominicans and Augustinians.
Luther would not meet him in discussion at Mainz in 1522.
He was present at the diets of Worms, Regensburg N S^ws. vs*V
622
COCK— COCKATRICE
Augsburg. The peasants' war drove him from Frankfort; he
obtained (1526) a canonry at Mainz; in 1 529 he became secretary
to Duke George of Saxony, at Dresden and Meissen. The death
of his patron (1539) compelled him to take flight. He became
canon (September 1539) at Breslau, where he died on the 10th
of January 1 552. He was a proline writer, largely of overgrown
pamphlets, harsh and furious. His more serious efforts retain
no permanent value. With humanist convictions, he had little
of the humanist spirit. We owe to him one of the few contem-
porary notices of the young Servetus.
See C. Otto, Johannes Cochlaeus, der Humanist (1874); Haas, in
I. Goachler's Lhct. encychped. de la thiol, cath. (1858); Brecher, in
AUgemeine deutsche Biographic (1876); T. Koldc, in A. Hauck's
Realeneyhlopddie fur prot. Theol. u. Kirch* (1898). (A. Go.*)
COCK, EDWARD (1805-1892), British surgeon, was born
in 1805. He was a nephew of Sir Astley Cooper, and through him
became at an early age a member of the staff of the Borough
hospital in London, where he worked in the dissecting room for
thirteen years. Afterwards he became in 1838 assistant surgeon
at Guy's, where from 1849 to 1871 he wassurgeon, and from 1871
to 1892 consulting surgeon. He rose to be president of the
College of Surgeons in 1869. He was an excellent anatomist, a
bold operator, and a clear and incisive writer, and though in
lecturing he was afflicted with a stutter, he frequently utilized
it with humorous effect and emphasis. From 1843 to 1849 he
was editor of Guy's Hospital Reports, which contain many of his
papers, particularly on stricture of the urethra, puncture of the*
bladder, injuries to the head, and hernia. He was the first
English surgeon to perform pharyngotomy with success, and also
one of the first to succeed in trephining for middle meningeal
haemorrhage; but the operation by which his name is known
is that of opening the urethra through the perinaeum (see Guy's
Hospital Reports, 1866). He died at Kingston in 1892.
COCKADE (Fr. cocarde, in 16th century coquarde, from coq,
in allusion probably to the cock's comb), a knot of ribbons or
a rosette worn as a badge, particularly now as part of the livery
of servants. The cockade was at first the button and loop or
clasp which " cocked " up the side of an ordinary slouch hat.
The word first appears in this sense in Rabelais in the phrase
" bonnet a la coquarde," which is explained by Cotgrave (161 1)
as a " Spanish cap or fashion of bonnet used by substantial men
of yore . . . worne proudly or peartly on th* one side." The
bunch of ribbons as a party badge developed from this entirely
utilitarian button and loop. The Stuarts' badge was a white
rose, and the resulting white cockade figured in Jacobite songs
after the downfall of the dynasty. William III.'s cockade was
of yellow, and the House of Hanover introduced theirs of black,
which in its present spiked or circular form of leather is worn in
England to-day by the royal coachmen and grooms, and the I
servants of all officials or members of the services. At the battle I
of Sheriffmuir in the reign of George I. the English soldiers wore
ft black rosette in their hats, and in -a contemporary song are
called " the red-coat lads wi' black cockades." At the outbreak
of the French Revolution of 1789, cockades of green ribbon were
adopted. These afterwards gave place to the tricolour cockade,
which is said to have been a mixture of the traditional colours
of Paris (red and blue) with the white of the Bourbons, the early
Revolutionists being still Royalists. The French army wore the
tricolour cockade until the Restoration. To-day each foreign
nation nas its special coloured cockade. Thus the Austrian is
black and yellow, the Bavarian light blue and white, the Belgian
black, yellow and red, French the tricolour, Prussian black and
white, Russian green and white, and so on, following usually the
national colours. Originally the wearing of a cockade, as soon
as it had developed into a badge, was restricted to soldiers, as
." to mount a cockade " was " to become a soldier." There is still
a trace of the cockade as a badge in certain military headgears
in England and elsewhere. Otherwise it has become entirely
the mark of domestic service. The military cocked hat, the
lineal descendant of the bonnet a la coquarde, became the fashion
in France during the reign of Louis XV.
See Genealogical Magazine, vols, i.-iii. (London. 1897-1899);
Racinct, £a &>s/umt kislorique (6 vols., Paris, 1888).
COCKAIGNE (Cockayne), LAND OP (O. Ft. Coquoitne, mod.
Fr. cocagne, " abundance," from ItaL Cocagna; " as we say
1 Lubberland,' the epicure's or glutton's home, the land of all
delights, so taken in mockerie ": Florio), an imaginary country,
a medieval Utopia where life was a continual round of luxurious
idleness. The origin of the Italian word has been much disputed
It seems safest to connect it, as do Grimm and Littr*, ultimately
with Lat. coquet c, through a word meaning " cake," the literal
sense thus being " The Land of Cakes." In Cockaigne the
rivers were of wine, the houses were built of cake and barley-
sugar, the streets were paved with pastry, and the shops supplied
goods for nothing. Roast geese and fowls wandered about
inviting folks to eat them, and buttered larks fell from the skies
like manna. There is a 13th-century French fabliau, Cocaitn*.
which was possibly intended to ridicule the fable of the mythical
Avalon, " the island of the Blest" The 13th-century English
poem, The Land of Cockaygne, is a satire on monastic life. The
term has been humorously applied to London, and by Boflen
to the Paris of the rich. The word has been frequently confused
with Cockney (q.v.).
See D. M. Meon, Fabliaux el conies (4 vols., 1808), and F. J.
Furnivall, Early English Poems (Berlin, 1862).
COCKATOO (Cacaluidae), a family of parrots characterized
among Old World forms by their usually greater size, by the crest
of feathers on the head, which can be raised or depressed at will,
and by the absence of green in their coloration. They inhabit
the Indian Archipelago, New Guinea and Australia, and are
gregarious, frequenting woods and feeding on seeds, fruits and
the larvae of insects. Their note is generally harsh and un-
musical, and although they are readily tamed when taken young
becoming familiar, and in some species showing remarkable
intelligence, their powers of vocal imitation are usually limited
Of the true cockatoos (Cacatua) the best known is the sulphur-
crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita), of a pure white plumage with
the exception of the crest, which is deep sulphur yellow, and of
the ear and tail coverts, which are slightly tinged with yellow
The crest when erect stands 5 in. high. These birds are found
in Australia in flocks varying from 100 to 1000 in number, and
do great damage to newly-sown grain, for which reason they are
mercilessly destroyed by farmers. They deposit their eggs— two
in number, and of a pure white colour— in the hollows of decayed
trees or in the fissures of rocks, according to the nature of the
locality in which they reside. This is one of the species most
usually kept in Europe as a cage bird. Leadbeater's Cockatoo
{Cacatua Leadbeateri), an inhabitant of South Australia, excels
all others in the beauty of its plumage, which consists in great
part of white, tinged with rose colour, becoming a deep salmon
colour under the wings, while the crest is bright crimson at the
base, with a yellow spot in the centre and white at the tip
It is exceedingly shy and difficult of approach, and its note is
more plaintive while less harsh than that of the preceding species.
In the cockatoos belonging to the genus Calyptorhynchus the
general plumage is black or dark brown, usually with a large spot
or band of red or yellow on the tail. The largest of these is known
as the funereal cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus funcreus), from the
lugubrious note or call which it utters, resembling the two
syllables Wy — la — , the native name of the species. It deposits
its eggs in the hollows of the large gum-trees of Australia,
and feeds largely on the larvae of insects, in search of which it
peels off the bark of trees, and when thus employed it may
be approached closely. The cockateel (CaUpsiltacus nota*-
hoUandiae), the only species in the family smaller than a pigeon,
and with a long pointed tail, is a common aviary bird, and breeds
freely in captivity.
COCKATRICE, a fabulous monster, the existence of which
was firmly believed in throughout ancient and medieval times,—
descriptions and figures of it appearing in the natural history
works of such writers as Pliny and Aldrovandus, those of the
latter published so late as the beginning of the 17th century.
Produced from a cock's egg hatched by a serpent, it was believed
to possess the most deadly powers, plants withering at its touch,
and men and animals dying poisoned by its look. It stood in
COCKBURN, SIR A. J. E.
623
awe, however, of the cock, the sound of whose crowing killed
it, and consequently travelers were wont to take this bird with
them in travelling over regions supposed to abound in cockatrices.
The weasel alone among mammals was unaffected by the glance
of its evil eye, and attacked it at all times successfully; for when
wounded by the monster's teeth it found a ready remedy in rue —
the only plant which the cockatrice could not wither. This myth
reminds one of the real contests between the weasel-like mungoos
of India and the deadly cobra, in which the latter is generally
killed. The term " cockatrice " is employed on four occasions
in the English translation of the Bible, in all of which it denotes
nothing more than an exceedingly venomous reptile; it seems
also to be synonymous with " basilisk/' the mythical king of
serpents.
COCKBURN, SIR ALEXANDER JAMES EDMUND, 10th
Bart. (1802-1880), lord chief justice of England, was born on
the 24th of December f 802, of ancient Scottish stock. He was
the son of Alexander, fourth son of Sir James Cockburn, 6th
baronet, his three uncles, who had successively held the title,
dying without heirs. His father was British envoy extraordinary
and minister plenipotentiary to the state of Columbia, and
married Yolande, daughter of the vicomte de Vignier. Young
Alexander was at one time intended for the diplomatic service,
and frequently during the legal career which he ultimately
adopted he was able to make considerable use of the knowledge
of foreign languages, especially French, with which birth and
early education had equipped him. He was educated at Trinity
Hall, Cambridge, of which he was elected a fellow, and after-
wards an honorary fellow. He entered at the Middle Temple in
1825, and was called to the bar in 1829. He joined the western
circuit, and for some time such practice as he was able to obtain
lay at the Devon sessions, quarter sessions at that time affording
an opening and a school of advocacy to young counsel not to be
found anywhere fifty years later. In London he had so little
to do that only the persuasion of friends induced him to keep
his London chambers open. Three years after his call to the
bar, however, ther Reform Bill was passed, and the petitions
which followed the ensuing general election gave rise to a large
number of new questions for the decision of election committees,
and afforded an opening of which he promptly availed himself.
The decisions of the committees had not been reported since
1821, and with M.C.Rowc, another member of the western circuit,
Cockburn undertook a new series of reports. They only published
one volume, but the work was well done, and in 1833 Cockburn
had his first parliamentary brief.
In 1834 Cockburn was well enough thought of to be matle a
member of the commission to inquire into the state of the cor-
porations of England and Wales. Other parliamentary work
followed; but he had ambition to be more than a parliamentary
counsel, and attended diligently on his circuit, besides appearing
before committees. In 1841 he was made a Q.C., and in that
year a charge of simony, brought against his uncle, William,
dean of York, enabled him to appear conspicuously in a case
which attracted considerable public attention, the proceedings
taking the form of a motion for prohibition duly obtained against
the ecclesiastical court, which had deprived Dr Cockburn of his
office. Not long after this, Sir Robert Peel's secretary, Edward
Drummond, was shot by the crazy Scotsman, Daniel MrJaughten,
and Cockburn, briefed on behalf of the assassin, not only made a
very brilliant speech, which established the defence of insanity,
but also secured the full publicity of a long report in the Morning
Chronicle of the 6th of March 1843. Another well-known trial
in which he appeared a year later was that of Wood v. Peel ( The
Times, 2nd and 3rd of July 1844), the issue being in form to
determine the winner of a bet (the Gaming Act was passed in the
following year) as to the age of the Derby winner Running Rein
—in substance to determine, if possible, the vexed question
whether Running Rein was a four-year-old or a three-year-old
when he was racing as the latter. Running Rein could not be
produced by Mr Wood, r.nd Baron Alderson took a strong view
of this circumstance, so that Cockburn found himself on the
losing side, while his strenuous advocacy of his client's cause had
led him into making, in his opening speech, strictures on Lord
George Bentinck's conduct in the case which had better have
been reserved to a later stage. He was, however, a hard fighter,
but not an unfair one— a little irritable at times, but on the
whole a courteous gentleman, and his practice went on Increasing.
In 1847 he decided to stand for parliament, and was elected
without a contest Liberal M.P. for Southampton. His speech
in the House of Commons on behalf of the government in the
Don Pacifico dispute with Greece commended him to Lord John
Russell, who appointed him solicitor-general in 1850 and
attorney-general in 185 1, a post which he held till the resignation
of the ministry in February. 1852. During the short administra-
tion of Lord Derby which followed, Sir Frederic Thesiger was
attorney-general, and Cockburn was engaged against him in the
case of R. v. Newman, on the prosecution of Achilli. This was the
trial of a criminal information for libel filed against John Henry
Newman, who had denounced a scandalous and profligate friar
named Achilli, then lecturing on Roman Catholicism in England.
Newman pleaded justification; but the jury who heard the case
in the Queen's Bench, with Lord Campbell presiding, found that
the justification was not proved except in one particular: a
verdict which, together with the methods of the judge and the
conduct of the audience, attracted considerable comment. The
verdict was set aside, and a new trial ordered, but none ever took
place. In December 1852, under Lord Aberdeen's ministry,
Cockburn became again attorney-general, and so remained until
1856, taking part in many celebrated trials, such as the Hopwood
Will Case in 1855, and the Swynfen Will Case, but notably
leading for the crown in the trial of William Palmer of Rugeley
in Staffordshire — an ex-medical man who had taken to the turf,
and who had poisoned a friend of similar pursuits narned Cook
with strychnine, in order to obtain money from his estate by
forgery and otherwise. Cockburn made an exhaustive study
of the medical aspects of the case, and the prisoner's comment
when convicted after a twelve days' trial was, alluding to the
attorney-general's advocacy, " It was the riding that did it."
In 1854 Cockburn was made recorder of Bristol. In 1856 he
became chief justice of the common pleas. He inherited the
baronetcy in 1858. In 1859 Lord Campbell became chancellor,
and Cockburn became chief justice of the Queen's Bench, con-
tinuing as a judge for twenty-four years and dying in harness*
On Friday, the 19th of November 1880, he tried causes with
special juries at Westminster; on Saturday, the 20th, he pre-
sided over a court for the consideration of crown cases reserved;
he walked home, and on that night he died of angina pectoris at
his house in Hertford Street.
Sir Alexander Cockburn earned and deserved a high reputation
as a judge. He was a man of brilliant cleverness and rapid
intuition rather than of profound and laboriously cultivated
intellect. He had been a great advocate at the bar, with a
charm of voice and manner, fluent and persuasive rather than
learned; but before he died he was considered a good lawyer,
some assigning his unquestioned improvement in this respect
to his frequent association on the bench with Blackburn. He
had notoriously little sympathy with the Judicature Acts.
Many were of opinion that he was inclined to take an advocate's
view of the cases before him, making up his mind as to their
merits prematurely and, in consequence, wrongly, as well as
giving undue prominence to the views which he so formed; but
he was beyond doubt always in intention, and generally in fact,
scrupulously fair. It is not necessary to enumerate the many
causes c&ebres at which Sir Alexander Cockburn presided as a
judge. It was thought that he went out of his way to arrange
that they should come before him, and his successor, Lord
Coleridge, writing in 1881 to Lord Bramwell, to make the offer
that he should try the murderer Lefroy as a last judicial act
before retiring, added, " Poor dear Cockburn would hardly have
given you such a chance." Be this as it may, Cockburn tried
all cases which came before him, whether great or small, with
the same thoroughness, courtesy and dignity, so that no counsel
or suitor could complain that he had not been fully heard in a
matter in which the issues were seemingly trivial-; <«fc&ft. V*>
624
COCKBURN, A.— COCKBURN, H. T.
certainly gave great attention to the elaboration of his judgments
and charges to juries. He presided at the Tichborne trial at
Bar, lasting 188 days, of which his summing-up occupied
eighteen.
The greatest public occasion on which Sir Alexander Cockburn
acted, outside his usual judicial functions, was that of the
" Alabama " arbitration, held at Geneva in 187a, in which he
represented the British government, and dissented from the view
taken by the majority of the arbitrators, without being able to
convince them. He prepared, with Mr C. F. Adams, the repre-
sentative of the United States, the English translation of the
award of the arbitrators, and published his reasons for dissenting
In a vigorously worded document which did not meet with
universal commendation. He admitted in substance the liability
of England for the acts of the "Alabama," but not on the
grounds on which the decision of the majority was based, and
he held England not liable in respect of the " Florida " and the
" Shenandoah."
In personal appearance Sir Alexander Cockburn was of small
stature, but great dignity of deportment. He was fond of
yachting and sport, and was engaged in writing a series of
articles on the " History of the Chase in the Nineteenth Century "
at the time of his death. He was fond, too, of society, and was
also throughout his life addicted to frivolities not altogether
consistent with advancement in a learned profession, or with
the positions of dignity which he successively occupied. At the
same time he had a high sense of what was due to and expected
from his profession; and his utterance upon the limitations of
advocacy, in his speech at the banquet given in the Middle
Temple Hall to M. Berryer, the celebrated French advocate,
may be called the classical authority on the subject. Lord
Brougham, replying for the guests other than Berryer, had
spoken of " the first great duty of an advocate to reckon every-
thing subordinate to the interests of his client." The lord chief
justice, replying to the toast of " the judges of England,"
dissented from this sweeping statement, saying, amid loud cheers
from a distinguished assembly of lawyers, " The arms which an
advocate wields he ought to use as a warrior, not as an assassin.
He ought to uphold the interests of his clients per fas, not per
tufas. He ought to know how to reconcile the interests of his
clients with the eternal interests of truth and justice " (The
Times, 9th of November 1864). Sir Alexander Cockburn was
never married, and the baronetcy became extinct at his death.
Authorities.— rte Times, 22nd of November i8&o;Xa"jf Journal;
Lav Time**, Solicitors' JournaL 27th of November iStio; Low Ha£o-
wine. new »no, vol, xv b p. 19J, 18517 Ashley 1 ! Life of Lord PaJmrr-
jflra; Nash'* Lift of Lord Wtitbury*, h * Remimweocw of Lord Chief
Jueiice Coleridge, by Lord Kuttcll of KiJlowcn, in the Nartk
American Rtview, September ifl^-t; The Crmti* Memoir s\ CrokcrV
Cwretpondence and Diorin; Justin M'Carthy'* Msiory 0/ Our Own
Times: Serjeant BaJlantine a ExperitvutJi Bench and Bar, by
Serjeant Robinson; Falrcliitda Lift of Lord Branv&etl ; Mgftson 5
Builders of Our Law. Burke.' s Ff£ragt t cd, J 879; Foster's Peerage t
•I880.
COCKBURN, ALICIA, or Alison (1713-1794), Scottish poet,
authoress of one of the most exquisite of Scottish ballads, the
" Flowers of the Forest," was the daughter of Robert Ruthcrf urd
of Fairnalee, Selkirkshire, and was born on the 8th of October
1713. There are two versions of this song, — the one by Mrs
Cockburn, the other by Jean Elliot (17 27-1805) of Minto. Both
were founded on the remains of an ancient Border ballad. Mrs
Cockburn's — that beginning " I've seen the smiling of Fortune
beguiling " — is said to have been written before her marriage
in. 1731, though not published till 1765. Anyhow, it was com-
posed many years before Jean Elliot's sister verses, written in
1756, beginning, " I've heard them liltin' at our ewe-milkin'."
Robert Chambers states that the ballad was written on the
occasion of a great commerical disaster which ruined the fortunes
of some Selkirkshire lairds. Later biographers, however, think
it probable that it was written on the departure to London of a
certain John Aikman, between whom and Alison there appears
to have been an early attachment. In 1731 Alison Ruthcrf urd
was married to Patrick Cockburn of Ormiston. After her
marriage she knew all the intellectual and aristocratic celebrities
of her day. In the memorable year x 745 she vented bee Wttggtsn
in a squib upon Prince Charlie, and narrowly escaped being takes
by. the Highland guard as she was driving through Edinburgh
in the family coach of the Keiths of Ravelston, with the parody
in her pocket. Mrs Cockburn was an indefatigable letter-writer
and a composer of parodies, squibs, toasts and " character-
sketches "—then a favourite form of composition — like other
wits of her day; but the " Flowers of the Forest ** is the only
thing she wrote that possesses great literary merit. At her house
on Castle-hill, and afterwards in Crichton Street, she received
many illustrious friends, among whom were Mackenzie, Robert-
son, Hume, Home, Monboddo, the Keiths of Ravelston, the
Balcarres family and Lady Anne Barnard, the authoress of
" Auld Robin Gray." As a Rutherf urd she was a connexion of
Sir Walter Scott's mother, and was her intimate friend. Lockhart
quotes a letter written by Mrs Cockburn in 1777, describing the
conduct of little Walter Scott, then scarcely* six years old, during
a visit which she paid to his mother, when the child gave as s
reason for his liking for Mrs Cockburn that she was a " virtuoso
like himself." Mrs Cockburn died on the 22nd of November
1794.
See her Letters and Memorials . . . , with notes by T. Craig Brown
(1900).
COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE, Bart. (1772-1853), British
admiral, second son of Sir James Cockburn, Bart., and uncle of
Lord Chief Justice Cockburn, was born in London. He entered
the navy in his ninth year. After serving on the home station,
and in the East Indies and the Mediterranean, he assisted, at
captain of the " Minerve " (38) at the blockade of Leghorn in
1706, and fought a gallant action with the Spanish frigate
" Sabina " (40) which he took. He was present at the battle of
Cape St Vincent. In 1809, in command of the naval force on
shore, he contributed greatly to the reduction of Martinique,
and signed the capitulation by which that island was handed
over to the English; for his services on this occasion he received
the thanks of the House of Commons. After service in the
Scheldt and at the defence of Cadiz he was sent in 18x1 on an
unsuccessful mission for the reconciliation of Spain and her
American colonies. He was made rear-admiral in 1812, and in
1813-24, as second in command to Warren, he took a prominent
part in the American War, especially in the capture of Washington,
Early in 181 5 he received the order of the Bath, and in the
autumn of the. same year he carried out, in the " Northumber-
land " (74), the sentence of deportation to St Helena which had
been passed upon Bonaparte. In 181 8 he received the Grand
Cross of his order, and was made a lord of the admiralty; and
the same year he was returned to parliament for Portsmouth.
He was promoted to the rank of vice-admiral in 1819, and to
that of admiral in 2837; he became senior naval lord in 1841,
and held office in that capacity till 1846. From 1827 he was a
privy councillor. In 185 1 he was made admiral of the fleet, and
in 1852, a year before his death, inherited the family baronetcy
from his elder brother, being himself succeeded by his brother
William, dean of York, who died in 1858.
See O'Byrne, Naval Biography; W. James, Naval History;
Gentleman's Magazine for 1853.
COCKBURN, HENRY THOMAS (1 770-1854), Scottish judge,
with the style of Lord Cockburn, was born in Edinburgh on the
26th of October 1779. His father, a keen Tory, was a baron of
the Scottish court of exchequer, and his mother was connected
by marriage with Lord Melville. He was educated at the high
school and the university of Edinburgh; and he was a member
of the famous Speculative Society, to which Sir Walter Scott,
Brougham and Jeffrey belonged. He entered the faculty of
advocates in 1800, and attached himself, not to the party of
his relatives, who could have afforded him most valuable patron-
age, but to the Whig or Liberal party, and that at a time when it
held out few inducements to men ambitious of success in life.
On the accession of Earl Grey's ministry in 1830 he became
solicitor-general for Scotland. In 1834 he was raised to the
bench, and on taking his seat as a judge in the court of session he
adopted the title of Lord Cockburn. Cockburn's forensic style
COCKER— COCK-FIGHTING
625
was remarkable for its clearness, pathos tnd simplicity; and
bis conversational -powers were unrivalled among his contem-
poraries. The extent of his literary ability only became known
after he had parked his seventieth year, on the publication of his
biography of Lord Jeffrey in 185 a, and from the Memorials of his
Time, which appeared posthumously in 1856. He died on the
a6th of April 1854, at his mansion of Bonaly, near Edinburgh.
COCKER. EDWARD (1631-1675), the reputed author of the
famous Arithmetick, the popularity of which has added a phrase
(" according to Cocker ") to the list of English provcrbialisms,
was an English engraver, who also taught writing and arithmetic.
He is credited with the authorship and execution of some fourteen
sets of copy slips, one of which, DanieTs Copy- Book, in graven
ky Edward Cocker, Philomath (1664), is preserved in the British
Museum. Pepys, in his Diary, makes very favourable mention
of Cocker, who appears to have displayed great sjkiil in his art.
Cocker's Arithmetick, the fifty-second edition of which appeared
in 1748, and which has passed through about 112 editions in all,
was not published during the lifetime of its reputed author, the
first impression bearing date of 1678. Augustus de Morgan in
his Arithmetical Books (1847) adduces proofs, which may be
held to be conclusive, that the work was a forgery of the editor
and publisher, John Hawkins; and there appears to be no
doubt that the Decimal Arithmetic (1684), and the English
Dictionary (second edition, 17 15), issued by Hawkins under
Cocker's name, are forgeries also. De Morgan condemns the
Arithmetick as a diffuse compilation from older and better works,
and dates " a very great deterioration in elementary works on
arithmetic " from the appearance of the book, which owed its
celebrity far more to persistent puffing than to its merits. He
pertinently adds, — " This same Edward Cocker must have had
great reputation, since a bad book under his name pushed out
the good ones."
COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT (1 788-1863), British
architect, was born in London on the »8th of April 1 788. After
a preliminary training in his profession, he went abroad in 18x0
and studied the great architectural remains of Greece, Italy and
Asia Minor. At Aegina, Phigalia and other places ot interest,
he conducted excavations on a large scale, enriching the British
Museum with many fine fragments, and adding several valuable
monographs to the literature of archaeology. Elected in 1829
an associate of the Royal Academy, he became a full member
in 1836, and in 1839 he was appointed professor of architecture.
Oo Sir John Soane's death in 1837 Cockerell was appointed
architect of the Bank of England, and carried out the alterations
that were judged to be necessary in that building. In addition
to branch banks at Liverpool and Manchester he erected in 1840
the new library at Cambridge, and in 1845 the university galleries
at Oxford, as well as the Sun and the Westminster Fire Offices
in Bartholomew Lane and in the Strand; and he was joint
architect of the London & Westminster Bank, Lothbury, with
Sir W. Tite. On the death of Henry Lonsdale Elmes in 1847,
Cockerell was selected to finish the St George's Hall, Liverpool.
Cockerell's best conceptions were those inspired by classic
models; his essays in the Gothic — the college at Lampeter, for
instance, and the chapel at Harrow— are by no means so
successful. His thorough knowledge of Gothic art, however,
can be seen from his writings, On the Iconography 0/ Wells
Cathedral, and On the Sculptures of Lincoln and Exeter Cathedrals.
In his Tribute to the Memory of Sir Christopher Wren (1838) be
published an interesting collection of the whole of Wren's works
draw n to o ne scale.
COCKERILL, WILLIAM (1759-1832), Anglo-French inventor
and machinist, was born in England in 1759. He went to Belgium
as a simple mechanic, and in 1799 constructed at Verviers the
first wool-carding and wool-spinning machines on the continent.
In 1807 he established a large machine workshop at Liege.
Orders soon poured in on him from all over Europe, and he
amassed a large fortune. In 1810 he was granted the rights of
naturalisation by Napoleon I., and in 18 is handed over the
management of his business to his youngest son, John Cockkkju.
(1790M840)
VI. 11
Thanks to his own energy and ability, aided by the influence
of King William I. of the Netherlands, John CbckerOl largely
extended his father's business. King William secured him a site
at Seraing, where he built large works, including an iron-foundry
and blast furnace. The construction of the Belgian railways
in 1834 gave a great impetus to these works, branches of which
had already been opened in France, Germany and Poland. In
1838 Cockerill met with a carriage accident which nearly proved
fatal, and the prospect of his loss resulted in the credit of the firm
being so badly shaken that in 1839 it was compelled to go into
liquidation, the liabilities being estimated at 26 millions of
francs, the assets at 18 millions. This reverse, however, was only
temporary. John Cockerill had practically concluded negotia-
tions to construct the Russian government railways, when his
constitution, undermined by overwork, broke down. He died
at Warsaw on the 19th of June 184a The iron works, among
the largest in Europe, are still carried on under the name of La
Sociitt Cockerill at Seraing (q.v.).
COCKERMOUTH, a market town in the Cockermouth parlia-
mentary division of Cumberland, England, 27 m. S. W. of Carlisle,
on the Cockermouth, Keswick & Penrith, the London & North
Western, and the Maryport & Carlisle railways. Pop. of urban
district (1001) 5355. It is pleasantly situated on the river
Derwent, at the junction of the Cocker, outlying hills of the Lake
District sheltering it on the north, east and south. The castle
has remains of Norman work in the keep, and other ancient
portions (including the gateway) of later date, but is in part
modernized as a residence. The grammar school was founded
in 1676. The county industrial school is established in the
town. The industries include the manufacture of woollens and
confectionery, tanning and engineering, and there is a consider-
able agricultural trade. There are coal mines in the neighbour-
hood. A statue was erected in 187$ to the sixth earl of Mayo,
who represented the borough (abolished In 1885) from 1857 to
1868. There is a Roman fort a mile west of the town, at
Papcastle.
Cockermouth (Cokermuih, Cokermue) was made the head of the
honour or barony of Allerdale when that barony was created
and granted to Walthcof in the early part of the 12th century.
At a later date the honour of Allerdale was frequently called the
honour of Cockermouth. Waltheof probably built the castle,
under the shelter of which the town grew up. Although it never
received any royal charter, the earliest records relating to
Cockermouth mention it as a borough. In 1295 it returned two
members to parliament and then not again until 1640. By the
Representation of the People Act of 1S67 the representation was
reduced to one member, and by the Redistribution Act of 1885
it was disfranchised. In 1221 William de Fortibus, carl of
Albemarle, was granted a Saturday market, which later in the
year was transferred to Monday, the day on which it has con-
tinued to be held ever since. The Michaelmas Fair existed In
i343> and an inquisition dated 1374 mentions two horse-fairs on
Whit- Monday and at Michaelmas. In 1638 Algernon Percy, earl
of Northumberland, obtained a grant of a fair every Wednesday
from the first week in May till Michaelmas. The chief sources
of revenue in Norman times were the valuable fisheries and
numerous mills.
COCK-FIGHTING, or Cocking, the sport of pitting game-cocks
to fight, and breeding and training them for the purpose. The
game-fowl is now probably the nearest to the Indian jungle-fowl
(Gallusferrugincus), from which all domestic fowls are believed
to be descended. The sport was popular in ancient times In
India, China, Persia and other eastern countries, and was intro-
duced into Greece in the time of Thcmistocles. The latter, while
moving with his army against the Persians, observed two cocks
fighting desperately, .and, stopping his troops, inspired them by
calling their attention to the valour and obstinacy of the feathered
warriors. In honour of the ensuing victory of the Greeks cock-
fights were thenceforth held annually at Athens, at first in *
patriotic and religious spirit, but afterwards purely for the love
of the sport Ludan makes Solon speak of quail-fighting and
cocking, but be is evidently referring to a time later than, Uu*.
1*k
626
COCK LANE GHOST
of Themistocles. From Athens the sport spread throughout
Greece, Asia Minor and Sicily, the best cocks being bred in
Alexandria, Deios, Rhodes and Tanagra. For a long time the
Romans affected to despise this " Greek diversion," but ended
by adopting it so enthusiastically that Columella (ist century
a.d) complained that its devotees often spent their whole
patrimony in betting at the pit -side. The cocks were provided
with iron spurs (Ida), as in the East, and were often dosed with
stimulants to make them fight more savagely.
From Rome cocking spread northwards, and, although
opposed by the Christian church, nevertheless became popular in
Great Britain, the Low Countries, Italy, Germany, Spain and
her colonies. On account of adverse legislation cocking has
practically died out everywhere excepting in Spain, countries of
Spanish origin and the Orient, where it is still legal and extremely
popular. It was probably introduced into England by the
Romans before Caesar's time. William Fits-Stephen first speaks
of it in the time of Henry IL as a sport for school-boys on
holidays, and particularly on Shrove Tuesday, the masters them-
selves directing the fights, or mains, from which they derived a.
material advantage, as the dead birds fell to them. It became
very popular throughout England and Wales, as well as in
Scotland, where it was introduced in 1681 Occasionally the
authorities tried to repress it, especially Cromwell, who put an
almost complete stop to it for a brief period, but the Restoration
re-established it among the national pastimes. Contemporary
apologists do not, in the 17th century, consider its cruelty at all,
but concern themselves solely with its justification as a source of
pleasure. " If Leviathan took his sport in the waters, how much
more may Man take his sport upon the land? " From the time
of Henry VIIL, who added the famous Royal Cock-pit to his
palace of Whitehall, cocking was called the " royal diversion/'
and the Stuarts, particularly James I. and Charles II , were
among its most enthusiastic devotees, their example being
followed by the gentry down to the 29th century. Gervase
Markham in his Pleasures of Princes (16x4) wrote "Of the
Choyce, Ordring, Breeding and Dyeting of the fighting-Cocke
for Battell," his quaint directions being of the most explicit
nature. When a cock is to be trained for the pit he must be fed
" three or foure dales only with old Maunchet (fine white bread)
and spring water." He is then set to spar with another cock,
" putting a payre of hots upon each of their heeles, which Hots
are soft, bumbasted rouks of Leather, covering their spurs, so
that they cannot hurt each other. ... Let them fight and buffet
one another a good space. " After exercise the bird must be put
into a basket, covered with hay and set near the fire. " Then let
him sweate, for the nature pf this scowring is to bring away his
grease, and to breed breath, and strength." If not killed in the
fight, " the first thing you doe, you shall search his wounds, and
as many as you can find you shall with your mouth sucke the
blood out of them, then wash them with warm salt water, . . .
give him a roule or two, and so stove him up as hot as you can."
Cocking-mains usually consisted of fights between an agreed
number of pairs of birds, the majority of victories deciding the
main; but there were two other varieties that aroused the
particular ire of moralists. These were the " battle royal," in
which a number of birds were " set," i.e. placed in the pit, at the
same time, and allowed to remain until all but one, the victor,
were killed or disabled, and the " Welsh main," in which eight
pairs were matched, the eight victors being again paired, then
four, and finally the last surviving pair. Among London cock-
pits were those at Westminster, in Drury Lane, Jewin Street
and Birdcage Walk (depicted by Hogarth). Over the royal pit
at Whitehall presided the king's cockmaster. The pits were
circular in shape with a matted stage about 20 ft. in diameter
and surrounded by a barrier to keep the birds from falling off.
Upon this barrier the first row of the audience leaned. Hardly a
town in the kingdom was without its cockpit, which offered the
sporting classes opportunities (or betting not as yet sufficiently
supplied by horse-racing With the growth of the latter sport
and the increased facilities for reaching the racing centres,
cocking gradually declined, especially after parliament passed
laws against it, so that gentlemen risked arrest by attending a
main.
Among the best-known devotees of the sport was a Colonel
Mordaunt, who, about 1780, took a number of the best English
game-cocks to India. There he found the sport in high favour
with the native rulers and his birds were beaten. Perhaps the
most famous main in England took place at Lincoln in 1830
between the birds of Joseph GiUivcr, the most celebrated breeder,
or " feeder," of his day, and those of the earl of Derby. The
conditions called for seven birds a side, and the stakes were
5000 guineas the main and 1000 guineas each match. The main
was won by Gilliver by five matches to two. His grandson was
also a breeder, and the blood of his cocks still runs in the best
breeds of Great Britain and America. Another famous breeder
was Dr Bellyse of Audlem, the principal figure in the great
mains fought at Chester during race-week at the beginning of the
19th century. His favourite breed was the white pile, and
" Cheshire piles " are still much-fancied birds. Others wert
Irish brown-reds, Lancashire black-reds and Staffordshire duns.
In Wales, as well as some parts of England, cocking-mains took
place regularly in churchyards, and in many instances even
inside the churches themselves. Sundays, wakes and church
festivals were favourite occasions for them. The habit of holding
mains in schools was common from the 12th to about the nriddk
of the 19th century. When cocking was at its height, the pupfls
of many schools were made a special allowance for purchasing
fighting-cocks, and parents were expected to contribute to tht
expenses of the annual main on Shrove Tuesday, this money
being called " cockpence." Cock-fighting was prohibited by kw
in Great Britain in 1849.
Cocking was early introduced into America, though it was
always frowned upon in New England. Some of the older states,
as Massachusetts, forbade it by passing laws against cruelty at
early as 1836, and it is now expressly prohibited in Omadi and
in most states of the Union, or is repressed by general laws for
the prevention of cruelty to animals.
Cocks are fought a tan age of from one to two years. "Heel-
ing," or the proper fastening of the spurs, and M cutting out,"
trimming the wings at a slope, and cutting the Ufl down by one-
third of its length and shortening the hackle and rump feathers,
are arts acquired by experience. The comb is cut down close,
so as to offer the least possible mark for the hostile bird's bffl.
The cock is then provided with either '* short heels," spurs 1) in.
or less in length, or with M long heels," from a to 2} in. in length.
The training of a cock for the pit lasts from ten days to a month
or more, during which time the bud is subjected to a rigid diet
and exercise in running and sparring. The birds may not be
touched after being set down in the pit, unless to extricate
them from the matting. Whenever a bird refuses to fight longer
he is set breast to breast with his adversary in the middle of the
pit, and if he then still refuses to fight he fs regarded as defeated.
Among the favourite breeds may be mentioned the "Irish
gilders," " Irish Grays," " Shawlnecks," " Gordons," '« Eslin
Red-Quills," "Baltimore Topknots," " Dominiques," ° War-
horses " and " Claibornes."
Cock-fiefitlnr possesses an extensive literature of its own. Set
Gervase Markham. Pleasures of Princes (London. 1614); Blaia,
Rural Sports (London, 1853); " Game Cocks and Cock-Fighting.*
Outing, vol. 39; "A Modest Commendation of Cock-Fightiac."
Blackwood's Magazine, vol. aa; "Cock-Fighting in Schools/'
Chambers' Magamne, vol. 65.
COCK LAKE GHOST, a supposed apparition, the vagaries
of which attracted extraordinary public attention in *^n<W
during 1762. At a house in Cock Lane, Smithfield, tenanted
by one Parsons, knocking* and other noises were said to occur
at night varied by the appearance of a luminous figure, alleged
to be the ghost of a Mrs Kent who had died in the house some
two years before. A thorough investigation revealed that
Parsons' daughter, a child of eleven, was the source of the
disturbance. The object of the Parsons family seems to have
been to accuse the husband of the deceased woman of murdering
her. with a view to blackmail Parsons was prosecuted and
condemned to the pillory Among the crowds who visited the
COCKLE— COCKNEY
627
hotse was Dr Johnson, who wis in consequence made the
object of a scurrilous attack by the poet Charles Churchill in
•' The Ghost."
See A. Lang, Cock Lane and Common Sense (1804).
COCKLB, SIR JAMBS (1810-1895)1 English lawyer and
mathematician, was born on the 14th of January 1819. He was
the second son of James Cockle, a surgeon, of Great Oakley,
Essex. Educated at Charterhouse and Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, he entered the Middle Temple in 1838, practising as a
special pleader in 1845 and being called in 1846. Joining the
midland circuit, he acquired a good practice, and on the recom-
mendation of Chief Justice Sir William Erie he was appointed
chief justice of Queensland in 1863. He received the honour
of knighthood in 1869, retired from the bench, and returned
to England in 1879.
Cockle is more remembered for his mathematical and scientific
investigations than as a lawyer. Like many young mathe-
maticians he attacked the problem of resolving the higher
algebraic equations, notwithstanding Abel's proof that a solution
by radicles was impossible. In this field Cockle achieved some
notable results, amongst which is his reproduction of Sir William
R. Hamilton's modification of Abel's theorem. Algebraic forms
were a favourite object of his studies, and he discovered and
developed the theory of criticoids, or differential invariants; he
also made contributions to the theory of differential equations.
He displayed a keen interest in scientific societies. From 1863
to 1879 he was president of the Queensland Philosophical Society
(now incorporated in the Royal Society of Queensland); on his
return to England he became associated with the London
Mathematical Society, of which he was president from 1886
to z888, and the Royal Astronomical Society, serving as a
member of the council from z888 to 1892. He died in London
on the 27th of January 1895.
A volume containing his scientific and mathematical researches
made during the years 1864-1877 was presented to the British
Museum in 1897 by his widow. Sec the obituary notice by the
Rev. R. Harlcy in Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. 59.
COCKLE, in zoology, a mollusc {Card turn) of the class Lamelli-
branchia (q.v.). A very large number of species of Cardium have
been distinguished by conchologists. Besides the common
species Cardium cdulc, two others occur in Britain, but are not
sufficiently common to be of commercial importance. One of
these is C. echinatum, which is larger than the common species,
reaching 3 in. in diameter, and distinguished by the presence
of spines along the ribs of the shell. The other is C. nonegicum,
which is also somewhat larger than C. cdulc, is longer dorso-
vcntrally than broad, and is only faintly ribbed.
The two valves of the shell of the common cockle are similar
to each other, and somewhat circular in outline. The beak or
umbo of each valve is prominent and rounded, and a number of
sharp ridges and furrows radiate from the apex to the free edge
of the shell, which is crcnated. The ligament is external, and the
hinge carries cardinal teeth in each valve. The interior of the
shell is remarkable for the absence of pearly lustre on its interior
surface. The colour externally is reddish or yellowish. The
pallial line, which is the line of attachment of the mantle parallel
to the edge of the shell, is not indented by a sinus at the posterior
end. In the entire animal the posterior end projects slightly
more than the anterior from the region of the umbones.
The animal possesses two nearly equal adductor muscles.
The edges of the mantle are united posteriorly except at the anal
and branchial apertures, which are placed at the ends of two
very short siphons or tubular prolongations of the mantle; the
siphons bear a number of short tentacles, and many of these are
furnished with eye-spots. The foot is very large and powerful;
it can be protruded from the anterior aperture between the mantle
edges, and its outer part is bent sharply forwards and terminates
in a point. By means of this muscular foot the cockle burrows
rapidly in the muddy sand of the sea-shore, and it can also when
it 14 not buried perform considerable leaps by suddenly bending
the foot. The foot has a byssus gland on its posterior surface.
On either side of the body between the mantle and the foot
axe two fiat gills each composed of two lamellar Cardium
belongs to the order of Lamellibranchia in which the gills present
the maximum of complexity, the original vertical filaments of
which they are composed being united by intcrfilamcntar and
intcrlamellar junctions. In other respects the anatomy of the
cockle presents no important differences from that of a typical
Lamellibranch. .The sexes are distinct, and the generative
opening is on the side of the body above the edge of the inner
lamella of the inner gill. The eggs are minute, and pass out
into the sea- water through the dorsal or exhalent siphon. The
breeding season is April, May and June. The larva for a time
swims freely in the sca-waler, having a circlet of alia round the
body in front of the mouth, forming the velum. The shell is
developed on the dorsal surface behind the velum, the foot on the
opposite or ventral surface behind the mouth. After a few days,
when the mantle bearing the shell valves has developed so much
as to enclose the whole body, the young cockle sinks to the bottom
and commences to follow the habits of the adult The usual
size of the cockle in its shell is from x to 2 in. in breadth.
The common cockle is regularly used as food by the poorer
classes. It occurs in abundance on sandy shores in all estuaries.
At the mouth of the Thames the gathering of cockles forms a
considerable industry, especially at Leigh. On the coast of
Lancashire also the fishery, if it may be so called, is of consider-
able importance. The cockles are gathered by the simple process
of raking them from the sand, and they arc usually boiled and
extracted from their shells before being sent to market. The
cockle is liable to the same suspicion as the oyster of conveying
the contamination of typhoid fever where the shores are pol-
luted, but as it is boiled before being eaten it is probably less
dangerous. (J. T. C.)
COCKNEY, a colloquial name applied to Londoners generally,
but more properly confined to those born in London, or more
strictly still to those born within the sound of the bells of St
Mary-le-Bow church. The origin of the word has been the
subject of many guesses, from that in John Minshcu's lexicon,
Ductor in lingua* (1617), which gives the talc of the town-bred
child who, on hearing a horse neigh, asked whether a " cock
neighed " too, to the confusion of the word with the name of the
Utopia, the land of Cockaigne (qv.). The historical examination
of the various uses of " Cockney," by Sir James Murray (see
Academy, loth of May iSoo, and the New English Dictionary, s.v.)
clearly shows the true derivation. The earliest form of the word
is cokenay or cokeucy, i.e. the ey or egg, and coken, genitive plural
of " cock," " cocks' eggs " being the name given to the small
and malformed eggs sometimes laid by young hens, known in
German as Hakncneicr. An early quotation, in Langland's Piers
Plowman, A. vii. 272, gives the combination of " cokencyes "
and bacon to make a " coilop," or dish of eggs and bacon. The
word then applied to a child ovcrlong nursed by its mother,
hence to a simpleton or milksop. Thus in Chaucer, Reeve's Tale,
the word is used with daf, i.e. a fool. The particular application
of the name as a term of contempt given by country folk to
town-bred people, with their dandified airs and ignorance of
country ways and country objects, is easy. Thus Robert
Whiltingtonor Whitinton (/?. 1520), speaks of the " cokneys " in
such " great cytees as London, York, Pcrusy " (Perugia), show-
ing the general use of the word. It was not till the beginning
of the 17th century that " cockney " appears to be confined to
the inhabitants of London.
The so-called " Cockney " accent or pronunciation has varied
in type. In the first part of the 19th century, it was chiefly
characterized by the substitution of a p for a v, or vice versa.
This has almost entirely disappeared, and the chief consonantal
variation which exists is perhaps the change of Ik to /or t, as in
" ring " for thing, or " fawer " for father. This and the vowel-
sound change from ou to ah, as in " abaht " for " about," are
only heard among the uneducated classes, and, together with
other characteristic pronunciations, phrases and words, have
been well illustrated in the so-called " coster " songs of Albert
Chevalier. The most marked and widely-prevalent change of
vowel sound is that of ei for ai, so that " daily " becomes " dyly "
and " may n becomes " my." ThU >& vmsdetauei v* -\s*£ts&.
628
COCK-OF-THE-ROCK— COCOA
that it almost amounts to incapacity to distinguish the vowels
a and i, and is almost universal in large classes of the population
of London. The name of the " Cockney School of Poetry H was
applied in 1817 to the literary circle of which Leigh Hunt was
the principal representative, though Keats also was aimed at.
The articles in Blackwood's Magazine, in which the name ap-
peared, have generally, but probably wrongly, been attributed to
John Gibson Lockhart.
COCK-OF-THE-ROCK, the familiar name of the birds of the
genus Rupicola (subfamily Rupicolinae) of the Cotingas (allied
to the Manakins, q.v.), found in the Amazon valley. They
are about the size of a pigeon, with orange-coloured plumage,
a pronounced crest, and orange-red flesh, and build their
nests on rock. The skins and feathers are highly valued for
decoration.
COCKPIT, the term originally for an enclosed place in which
the sport of cock-fighting (q.v.) was carried on. On the site of
an old cockpit opposite Whitehall in London was a block of
buildings used from the 17th century as offices by the treasury
and the privy council, for which the old name survived till the
early 10th century. The name was given also to a theatre in
London, built in the early part of the 17th century on the site
of Drury Lane theatre. As the place where the wounded in
battle were tended, or where the junior officers consorted, the
term was also formerly applied to a cabin used for these purposes
on the lower deck of a man-of-war.
COCKROACH » (Blattidac), a family of orthopterous insects,
m distinguished by their flattened bodies, long thread-like antennae,
and shining leathery integuments. Cockroaches are nocturnal
creatures, secreting themselves in chinks and crevices about
houses, issuing from their retreats when the lights are extin-
guished, and moving about with extraordinary rapidity in
search of food. They are voracious and omnivorous, devouring,
or at least damaging, whatever comes in their way, for all the
species emit a disagreeable odour, which they communicate to
whatever article of food or clothing they may touch.
The common cockroach (Stilopyga orientalis) is not indigenous
to Europe, but is believed to have been introduced from the
Levant in the cargoes of trading vessels. The wings in the male
are shorter than the body; in the female they are rudimentary.
The eggs, which are 16 in number, are deposited in a leathery
capsule fixed by a gum-like substance to the abdomen of the
female, and thus carried about till the young are ready to escape,
when the capsule becomes softened by the emission of a fluid
substance. The larvae are perfectly white at first and wingless,
although in other respects not unlike their parents, but they are
not mature insects until after the sixth casting of the skin.
The American cockroach (Pcriplaneta americana) is larger
than the former, and is not uncommon in European seaports
trading with America, being conveyed in cargoes of grain and |
other food produce. It is very abundant in the Zoological'
Gardens in London, where it occurs in conjunction with a much
smaller imported species Phyllodromia germanica, which may
also be seen in some of the cheaper restaurants.
In both of these species the females, as well as the males,
are winged.
In addition' to these noxious and obtrusive forms, England
has a few indigenous species belonging to the genus Ectobia,
which live under stones or fallen trees in fields and woods. The
largest known species is the drummer of the West Indies (Btabcra
gigantca), so called from the tapping noise it makes on wood,
sufficient, when joined in by several individuals, as usually
happens, to break the slumbers of a household. It is about
2 in. long, with wings 3 in. in expanse, and forms one of the
most noisome and injurious of insect pests. Wingless females
of many tropical species present a close superficial resem-
blance to woodlice; and one interesting apterous form known
as Pseudoglomeris, from the East Indies, is able to roO up like
a millipede.
The best mode of destroying cockroaches is, when the fire and
1 The word is a corruption of Sp. c u cara c ha. In America it is
co m moaJy abbreviated to "roach. "
lights are extinguished at night, to lay some treacle on a piect
of wood afloat on a broad basin of water. This proves a tempta-
tion to the vermin too great to be resisted. The chinks and holes
from which they issue should also be filled up with unslaked
lime, or painted with a mixture of borax and heated turpentine.
See generally Miall and Denny, The Structure and Life History tf
the Cockroach (1887); G. H. Carpenter, Insects: their Structure ami
Life (1890) : Charles Lester Marlatt, Household Insects (U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, revised edition, 1902) : Leland Ossian Howard.
The Insect Booh (1902).
COCK'S-COMB, in botany, a cultivated form of Celesta cristate
(natural order Amarantaceae), in which the inflorescence b
monstrous, forming a flat " fasciated " axis bearing numerous
small flowers. The plant is a low-growing herbaceous annual,
bearing a large, comb-like, dark red, scarlet or purplish mass of
flowers. Seeds are sown in March or April in pans of rich, well-
drained sandy soil, which are placed in a hot-bed at 65* to 70*
in a moist atmosphere. The seedlings require plenty of light,
and when large enough to handle are potted off and placed dose
to the glass in a frame under similar conditions. When the heads
show they are shifted into 5-1'n. pots, which are plunged to
their rims in ashes or coco-nut fibre refuse, in a hot-bed, as before,
close to the glass; they are sparingly watered and more air
admitted The soil recommended is a half-rich sandy loam and
half-rotten cow and stable manure muted with a dash of silver
sand. The other species of Cclosia cultivated are C. pyramUalu,
with a pyramidal inflorescence, varying in colour in the great
number of varieties, and C. argentea, with a dense white in-
florescence. They require a similar cultural treatment to that
given for C. cristata.
COCKTON, HENRY (1807-1853), English humorous novelist,
was born in London on the 7th of December 1807. He published
a number of volumes, but is best known as the author of Valentine
Vox, the Ventriloquist (1840) and Sylvester Sound, the Somnambu-
list (1844). He died at Bury St Edmunds on the 26th of June
i»S3.
COCKZ (or Cock), HIERONYMUS Qekoue] (1510-1570),
Flemish painter and engraver, was born at Antwerp, and ia
1 545 was admitted to the Gild of St Luke as a painter. It is at
an engraver, however, that he is famous, a number of portraits
and subject-pictures by him, and reproductions of Flemish
masters, being well known. His brother Matthys (1505-1552)
was also a painter.
COCOA, 1 more properly Cacao, a valuable dietary substance
yielded by the seeds of several small trees belonging to the genus
Theobroma, of the natural order Sterculiaceae. The whole genus,
which comprises twelve species, belongs to the tropical parts of
the American continent; and although the cocoa of commerce
is probably the produce of more than one species, by far the
greatest and most valuable portion is obtained from Tktobroeu
Cacao. The generic name is derived from 0c6t (god) and frfipa
(food), and was bestowed by Linnaeus as an indication of the
high appreciation in which he held the beverage prepared from
the seeds, which he considered to be a food fit for the gods.
The common cacao tree is of low stature, seldom exceeding
25 ft. in height, but it is taller in its native forests than it is ia
cultivated plantations. The leaves are large, smooth, and glossy,
elliptic-oblong and tapering in form, growing principally at the
ends of branches, but sometimes springing directly from the
main trunk. The flowers are small, and occur in numerous
clusters on the main branches and the trunk, a very marked
peculiarity which gives the matured fruit the appearance of being
artificially attached to the tree. Generally only a single fruit b
matured from each cluster of flowers. When ripe the fruit or
" pod " is elliptical-ovoid in form, from 7 to xo in. In length
and from 3 to 4} in. in diameter. It has a hard, thick, leathery
rind of a rich purplish-yellow colour, externally rough and marked
with ten very distinct longitudinal ribs or elevations. The
As a matter of nomenclature it is unfortunate chat the corrupt
form " cocoa," from a confusion with the coco-nut (?.»-), has become
stereotyped. When introduced early in the 18th century it was as a
trisyllable to-co-a, a mispronunciation of cacao or cocoa, the Spanish
adaptation from the Mexican caeaneJL
COCOA
629
Branch of Cocoa Tree, with Fruit in
section, much reduced.
interior of the fruit has five cells, in each of which is a row of
from 5 to 1 a seeds embedded in a soft delicately pink add pulp.
Each fruit thus contains from 20 to 50 or more seeds, which
constitute the raw cacao or " cacao beans " of commerce.
The tree appears to have been originally a native of the coast
lands of the Gulf of Mexico and tropical South America as far
south as the basin of j
the Amazon; but it
can be cultivated in
suitable situations!
within the a 5th par-
allels of latitude. It
flourishes best within
the 15th parallels, at
elevations ranging
from near the sea-
level up to about 2000
ft. in height. It is now
cultivated in Mexico,
Honduras, Guate-
mala, Nicaragua,j
Brazil, Peru, Ecuador,
New Granada, Venez-
uela, Surinam, Guiana,
and in many of the
West Indian islands,!
particularly in Trini-
dad, San Domingo,
Grenada, Cuba, Porto
Rico and Jamaica.
Away from America
it has been introduced,
and is cultivated on a large scale in West Africa, Ceylon and
the Dutch East Indies.
History. — The value of cacao was appreciated in its native
country before the discovery of America by Europeans. The
Spaniards found in use in Mexico a beverage known by the Aztec
name of chocolalk, from choco (cacao) and lath (water). W. H.
Prescott records that the emperor Montezuma of Mexico was 1
" exceedingly fond of it ... no less than 50 jars or pitchers
being prepared for his own daily consumption; 2000 more were
allowed for that of his household." Bags of cacao containing a
specified number of beans were also a recognized form of currency
in the country. The product was early introduced into Spain,
and thence to other parts of Europe. The Public Advertiser]
(London) of June 16, 1657, contains an announcement that
" In Bishopgatc St., in Queen's Head Alley, at a Frenchman's
house, is an excellent West India drink, called chocolate, to be
sold, where you may have it ready at any time, and also unmade
at reasonable rates." Chocolate was a \ciy fashionable beverage
in the early part of the 18th century.
Cultivated Varieties. — Numerous varieties of the cacao, i.e. of
Tkeobroma Cacao, arc recognized in cultivation. According to
Dr P. Preuss, who has travelled extensively in the cacao pro-
ducing countries of the world studying this crop, it is impossible
to embody in a single table the characteristics of the world's
varieties. A separate classification is needed for almost each
country. In 1882 the Trinidad forms were classified by Sir D.
Morris. This table was later revised by Mr J. H.Hart, and more
recently Mr R. H. Lock studied the Ceylon varieties. As the
Ceylon cacaos were obtained mainly from Trinidad, and as Mr
Lock's results agree substantially with those of Sir D.Morris, they
serve to illustrate the distinguishing characteristics of the West
Indian and Ceylon forms. The main divisions arc as follows: —
1. CrioUo. — Pods relatively thin-walled and soft, rough, pointed
at apex. The seeds or beans arc plump and of pale colour. The
ripe pods may be either red (Colorado) or yellow (aroarillo).
2. ForasUro. — Pods relatively thick- walled and hard. The seeds'
vary in colour from pale to deep purple. Various varieties are
recognized, such as cundeamor, amelonado, Kso, calabaciUo, differing
in shape, colour and character of beans, Ac, and of each of theseagain
there may be a Colorado and amarillo sub-variety. Of special
interest is calabaciUo, a variety with a smooth, small pod, ana deep
calabaciUo is the hardiest and vtelds the least valuable beans;
criollo is the most delicate and yields beans of the highest value
whilst forastero is intermediate in both respe cts . In general pale
coloured beans are less bitter and more valuable than purple beans.
Both, however, may occur in the same pod.
Alligator, or lagarto cacao, is the common name of a variety
cultivated in Nicaragua, Guatemala, &c Its pods are distinctly
five-angled and beset with irregular, warty protuberances. Some
regard it as a distinct species, T. pentagon*, but others om>
as a variety of T. Cacao. Its produce is of high value.
T. bicolor, indigenous to Central America, is another species
of some interest. It bears small, hard woody pods about 6 in.
long and 3 in. in diameter, with curious surface markings. The
beans possess a fetid odour and a bitter flavour and are knows
as " tiger cacao." It is not likely to become of great commercial
importance, although consumed locally where found. " Cacao
bianco " and " pataste " are other names for this species.
Cultivation and Preparation.— Cacao requires for its successful
cultivation a deep, well-watered and yet well-drained soil,
shelter from strong winds, and a thoroughly tropical climate,
with a mean annual temperature of about 8o° F., a rainfall
of from 50 to 100 or more in., and freedom from long droughts.
Young plants are grown from seed, which may either be sown
directly in the positions the future trees arc to occupy, varying
according to local circumstances from 6 to as ft. apart in all
directions, or raised in nurseries and transplanted later. The
latter course is desirable when it is necessary to water and other-
wise tend the seedlings. However raised, the young plants
require to be shaded, and this is usually done by planting bananas,
cassava or other useful crops between the rows of cacao. In some
countries, but not in all, permanent shade trees are planted
amongst the cacao. Various leguminous trees are commonly
used, e.g. the coral tree (Erytkrina spp.) sometimes known as
bois immortel and madre del cacao or mother of cocoa, Albinia
Lebbek, Pithecolobium Saman, &c The various rubber trees
have been employed with success. Wind belts are also necessary
in exposed situations.
Cacao comes into bearing when about five years old, the small
pink flowers and the succeeding large pods being borne directly
on the trunk and main branches. The pods are carefully picked
when ripe, broken open, and the slimy mass of contained seeds
and their enveloping mucilaginous pulp extracted. The " beans "
are next fermented or " sweated," often in special houses con-
structed for the purpose, or by placing them in heaps and
covering with leaves or earth, or in baskets, barrels, &c, lined
with banana leaves. During fermentation the beans should be
stirred once daily or of tcner. The time of fermentation varies
from one to twelve or even more days. Pale-coloured beans
usually require less time than the deep purple and bitter kinds.
The method adopted also considerably modifies the time required.
The process of fermenting destroys the mucilage; the seeds
lose to some degree their bitter flavour and their colour also
changes: the pale criollo seeds, for example, developing a
cinnamon-brown colour. The "fracture" of the beans also
characteristically alters. Fermentation is not universally
practised; the purple colour and bitter taste of unfermented
cacao being wanted in some markets.
After the fermentation is completed the beans may or may
not be washed, opinion as to the desirability of this process
varying in different countries. In any case, however, they have
to be dried and cured. When climatic conditions are favourable
this is commonly done by spreading the beans in thin layers on
1 barbecues, or stone drying floors, or otherwise exposing them
, to the sun. Sliding roofs or other means of rapidly affording
j shelter are desirable in case of showers, excessive heat, and also
I for protection at night. Artificial drying is now often resorted
to and various patterns of drying houses are in use.
The appearance of the beans may often be improved by
" claying," a very slight coating of red earth or clay being added,
I Polishing the beans also gives them a brighter 'appearaacct
63Q
COCOA
removes mildew, and remnants of dried mucilage, &c This may
be done by " dancing the cacao," t\r. treading a heap with the
bare feet, or by the use of special polishing machines. The cacao
is now ready for shipment, and is usually packed in bags. Ham-
burg is the chief port in the world for cacao. Until quite recently,
however, this position was held by Havre, which is now second
in Europe. New York imports about the same amount as Havre.,
London follows next in importance.
Cacao-producing Countries. — In the following table the pro-
duction fat tons (of 1000 kilos -7205 lb) of the principal 1
producing countries, arranged under continents, is given for 1005 1
and 1901. During this period the total world's production
has increased by about 40%, as indicated in the summary below. I
Study of the table will show where the increase has taken place,
but attention is directed especially to the rapid development
In West Africa.
America.
1905 (tons)* 1901 (tons). I
Ecuador 21,128 22.896
Braril 21,091 18,324
Trinidad 20,018 1 1,943
San Domingo 12,785 6.850
Venezuela 11.700 7,860
Grenada 5.456 4.865
Cuba and Porto Rico .... 3,000 1,750
Haiti 2 343 >.95<>
Surinam 1,612 3.163
Jamaica .- 1484 1.35°
French West Indies .... 1,200 825
St. Lucia 700 765
Dominica 597
Total. America
Africa.
103.114
32.54*
1905 (tons). 1901 (tons).
San Thome 25379 16,983
Gold Coast and Lagos .... 5.666 997
Cameroons 1.185 528
Congo Free State 195
Total. Africa .
Asia.
32425
18.508
Ceylon .
Dutch East Indies.
Other countries
Total. Asia
1905 (tons). 1901 (tons).
3543 2697
1492 1277
5035
800
3974
700
World's Production.
1005 (tons). 1901 (tons).
Tropical America and West I ndics . 1 03. 1 1 4 82 .54 1
West Africa 32.425 18.508
Asia , . 5.035 3.974
Other countries . . . . . 800 700
Total
141 .374 105.723
Composition. — The relative weights of the various parts of
a whole cacao pod arc given thus by Prof. J. B. Harrison for
British Guiana specimens: —
Husk . . .
Pulp ...
Cuticles of the beans
Kernels of the beans
Calabacillo. Forastero.
. . 8059 8987
. . 761 423
. . 1-77 °-50
10-03 5-40
1 0000 10000
The husk is composed mainly of water and cellulose woody tissue,
with their usual mineral constituents, and has a low manurial
value. The pulp contains sugars which become converted into
alcohol during fermentation. Fibrous elements and water
compose about six-tenths of the cuticles, which also contain
approximately: albuminoids (6%), alkaloids (2%), fat (2%).
sugars (6%), starch (7%). colouring matter (4%), tartaric
*dd (3%) and small quantities of various mineral con-
stituents. The average composition of the kernels, according
to Payen, iss—
Pere
Fat (cacao butter) 50
Starch 10
Albuminoids 30
Water 12
Cellulose 2
Mineral matter 4
Theobromine 2
Colouring matter (cacao-red) » » trace
100-00
Manufacture of Cocoa and Chocolate.— the beans are cleaned
and sorted to remove foreign bodies of all kinds and also graded
into sixes to secure uniformity in roasting. The latter process
is carried out in rotating iron drums in which the beans are heated
to a temperature of about 260° to 280* F., and results in develop-
ing the aroma, partially converting the starch into dextrin, and
eliminating bitter constituents. The beans also dry and their
shells become crisp. In the next process die beans are gently
crushed and winnowed, whereby the light shells are removed,
and after removal by sifting of the " germs M the beans are left
in the form of the irregular cocoa-nibs occasionally seen in shops.
Cocoa-nibs may be infused with water and drunk, but for most
people the beverage is too rich, containing the whole of the cacao-
fat or cacao-butter. This fat is extracted from the carefully
ground nibs by employing great hydraulic pressure in heated
presses. The fat exudes and solidifies. When fresh it is yellowish-
white, but becomes quite white on keeping. It is very valuable
for pharmaceutical purposes and is a constituent of many
pomades. With care it can be kept for a long time without
going rancid.
After the extraction of the fat the resulting mass is ground
to a fine powder when it is ready for use in the ordinary way.
Many preparations on the market are of course not pure cocoi
but contain admixtures of various starchy and other bodies.
The shells of the beans separated by the winnowing process
contain theobromine, and their infusion with water is sometimes
used as a substitute for coffee, under the name " miserable."
More recently they have been put to good account as a cattle food.
In the preparation of chocolate the preliminary processes
of cleaning, sorting, roasting and removing the shells, and
grinding the nibs, are followed as for cocoa. The fat, however,
is not extracted, but sugar, and sometimes other materials also,
are added to the ground pasty mass, together with suitable
flavouring materials, as for example vanilla. The greatest care is
taken in the process and elaborate grinding and mixing machinery
employed. The final result is a semi-liquid mass which is
moulded into the familiar tablets or other forms in which choco-
late comes on the market.
Cocoa as a beverage has a similar action to tea and coffee,
inasmuch as the physiological properties of all three are due to
the alkaloids and volatile oils they contain. Tea and coffee
both contain the alkaloid caffeine, whilst cocoa contains theo-
bromine. In tea and coffee, however, we only drink an infusion
of the leaves or seeds, whilst in cocoa the whole material is taken
in a state of very fine suspension, and as the preceding analysis
indicates, the cocoa bean, even with the fat extracted, is of high
nutritive value.
Cacao-consuming Countries. — The principal cacao-consuming
countries are indicated below, which gives the imports into the
countries named for 1005. These figures, as also those oa
production, are taken from Der Cordian.
Tons (1000 kilos).
United States of America 34.958
Germany 29,661
France 21.748
United Kingdom 21,106
Holland 19.295
Spain 6,102
Switzerland 5.218
Belgium 3« 0, 9
Austria Hungary
Russia
Denmark
2,230
1.125
Carry for sratd
M7.I32
COCO DE MER— COCYTUS 631
-1. Tons (1000 kilos.) end of the hard nut. The fruits dropping into the wa from trees
Iul # Brought forward ;*47.'J* growing on any shores would be carried by tides and currents
Sweden .. \ ..... . 900 t0 ^ cast U P and to vegetate on distant coasts.
Canada . 700 The coco-nut palm, being the most useful of its entire tribe
Australia . . . . 600 to the natives of the regions in which it grows, and furnishing
Norway. Portugal and Finland . . . . 692 many valuable and important commercial products, is the subject
Total 150 995 °f careful cultivation in many countries. On the Malabar and
During recent years the use of cocoa has increased rapidly C T m ?* i !* «*???! Ind * tbe i"? 5 £", **?!* ??*?*'>
in some countries. The following table gives the increase per *"? » ^n^^ » pea^
cent in consumption in 1905 over that in 1901 for the five chief ,l fc . ***** )*»* twenty miUioas of the trees flourish. 1 be
consumers: wealth of a native in Ceylon is estimated by his property in
Per cent coco-nut trees, and Sir J. Emerson Tcnnent noted a law case in s
United States 70 district court in which the subject in dispute was a claim to the
Germany ......... 61 3520th part of ten of the precious palms. The cultivation of
franc* /• « coco-nut plantations in Ceylon was thus described by Sir J. E.
Uwttd Kingdom 11 Tennent. * The first operation in coco-nut planting is the fonna-
(A. B R • W C F ) tiaa °* * nursery, for which purpose the ripe nuts are placed ia
COCO DE MER. or Double Coco-nut, a ' palm, ' Lodokea fquares containing about 400 each; these are covered an inch
Stckdlarum, which is a native of the Seychelles Islands. The *? *| tb *?*•££ ***** °! **** (nm ** beach, and
flowers are borne in enormous fleshy spadices, the male and ****** ***y till they germinate. The nuts put down in Apr!
female on distinct plants. The fruits, which are among the ™ "***** *? wn t0 * P 1 ™ 1 " 1 •"'J* 10 ™ J*/"" °J
largest known, take ten years to ripen; they have a fleshy and September and they are then set out in boles 3 ft. deep and
fibrous envelope surrounding a hard nut-like portion which is *° * 3° ^ *S^''** foTc t P utlm « «n the young plant it is
generally two-lobcd, suggesting a large double coco-nut. The ^TY* to *** thc u roots " ith »" mud and seaweed, and for
contents of the nut are edible as in the coco-nut. The empty tbe *P l two J*™ th *Y must be watered and protected from
fruits (after germination of the seed) are found floating in the * e ^ of *he sun under shades made of the plaited irondsof
Indian Ocean, and were known long before the palm was ^ cobnut palm, or the fan-h^ leaves of the palmyra." The
discovered, giving rise to various stories as to their origin. P* 1 ™ ***** u> v bcar f ? lt *?»* the ttlh to *"* * vcnth **" <*}**
COCOMA. or Cucaiias, a tribe of South American Indians ««* etch «oc* carrying ^m 5 to 30 nuts, the tree maturing
living on the Marafion and lower HuaUaga rivers, Peru. In 1681, ^i* average 00 .nuts yearly.
at the time of the Jesuit missionaries' first visit, they had the ™Vf* i° wlu 5 h ** "T 1 ™* **«? of th 5 coco * n ^ P* 1 " 8 "•
custom of eating their dead and grinding the bones to a powder, *PP u<d ln ** "P ™ ?' **"[ ^° wth are a,fno8 5 end,ess * , **•
which was mixed with a fermented liquor and drunk. When ex- ""J? "PP 1 / ?° wconsiderable Portion <* ** 'ood of the
postulated with by the Jesuits they said " it was better to be M ^'* n ^ ! thc mi . lk L y J^*"? 1 ?*^ within them forms a pleasant
inside a friend than to be swallowed up by the cold earth." J** "tresbkig dnnk. The juice drawn from the unexpanded
They are a provident, hard-working people, partly Christianized, ^^ , P albe> J ™ t( * d y " whl <* "?* ^^l^ *"■?'•
and bolder than most of the civilized Indians. Their languages su *y» or * *■ ^* to fc™«t »nd b * 5tn J cd » " hcn ,l y* 1 *
show affinity to the Tupi-Guarani stock. a *P |nt whld, J » ln common with a like product from other sources,
COCO-HUT> PALM {Cocos nucifera), a very beautiful and lofty tt *»™ ** ™*; *» in «*" P* 11 ? 8 ' the voun f bud ™ l
palm-tree, growing to a height of from 60 to 100 ft., with a ou '* tb f % of lhe . twe . ^ rms an """""I 1 vcftUble, palm
cylindrical stem which attains a thickness of a ft. The tree «**■**• The trunk yields » timber (known in European
terminates in a crown of graceful waving pinnate leaves. The commercejisjxMrcupine wood) which is used for building, furni-
leaf, which may attain to ao ft. in length, consists of a strong £"*• firewood, Ac ; the leaves are plaited into cajar .fans and
mid-rib, whence numerous long acute leaflets spring, giving the ^cte, and used for thatching the roofs of houses; the shen of
whole the appearance of a gigantic feather. The flowers arc H* """J T , iffu UI J ,, ! ,C S? tI; ? I ! d . lh * T*™* hu ^ k "
arranged in branching spikes 5 or 6 ft. long, enclosed in a tough " nd J^ 8 *■* £* r fibre - ** wb,ch f K Jabncated ropes, cordage,
spathc, and the fruits mature in bunches of from 10 to 20. The brushes, &c The coco-nut palm also furnishes very important
fruits when mature are oblong, and triangular in cross section, artld ? !* «*"»»] commerce, of which the principal is coco-nut
measuring from 1 a to 18 in. in length and 6 to 8 in. in diameter. olL J 1 "obtained by pressure or boiling from the kernels, whub
The fruit consists of a thick external husk or rind of a fibrous a " first brokcn U P ,nt0 sm u aU P ,cces and d . ncd » n the 1 Bu t n » wbf ■
structure, within which is the ordinary coco-nut of commerce. J 1 "* ."« known «f «>pperah on copra. It is est.mated that 1000
The nut has a very hard, woody shcU, enclosing the nucleus or fu "-«;* d n «<J will yield upwards of 500 tt^of copra, from which
kernel, the true seed, within which again is a milky liquid called a 5 gallons of od should be obtained. Tne oil is a white solid
coco-nut milk. The palm is so widely disseminated throughout "b^ce at ordinary temperatures, with a peculiar, rather dis-
tropical countries that it is impossible to distinguish its original a «"**°k odour Crom the volatile fatty acids it contains, and a
habitat. It flourishes with equal vigour on the coast of the ■"!* *****' Unde f r *™* UK !t "'P 3 ™ 1 ? int0 a bq™« » nd . a
East Indies, throughout the tropical islands of the Pacific, and in 5 ? bd P ^ "' the , Ut|cr ' coco;*tcann, Uing extensively used in
the West Indies and tropical America. It, however, attains its Jhc manufacture of candles. Coco- nut od is also used in the manu-
greatest luxuriance and vigour on the sea shore, and it is most ^. tu ^ °f "^"r «»P» wh,ch . J onns a Ulhcr "** sca-watcr.
at home in the innumerable small islands of the Pacific seas, £° ,r "^ ? ""P ^ 1 art, J Ic ^ commerce, being m Urge
of the vegetation of which it is eminently characteristic Its dcmand foT ** »anjif.cture of coarse brushes, door mats and
wide distribution, and its existence in even the smallest coral wovcn . coir-matting for lobbies and passages. A considerable
islets of the Pacific, are due to the character of the fruit, which is *»ntiiy of fresh nuts is imported, chiefly from the West Indies,
eminently adapted for distribution by sea. The fibrous husk wU> 5"^? and f" ! «wi»ncs; they are familiar as the
fenders the fruit light and the leathery skin prevents water- reward <* £* P°P" laf En 8 ,,sh >musemcnt of "throwing at the
logging. The seed will germinate readily on the sea-shore, the «oco-nuts ; and the contents are either eaten raw or used as
seedling growing out through the soft germ-pore on the upper "^^ST 5 a *?' **»* ^weetmeau (" cokcrnul ').
» i~ kk- COCYTUS (mod. Vuvo), a tributary of the Acheron, a river of
•The spelling " cocna-nut," which introduces a confusion with Thcsprotia (mod. pashalik of lannina), *hich flows into the
^X%i;?^ Ioni«,&,.bo.,» m .N.o(,hcCuUo(Ar, 1 ^ |WiU
" cwker-nut," introduced to avoid the same ambiguity, is common «PP»cd in Greek mythology to a tnbutary of the Acheron or of
ia England. the Styx, a river in Hades. The etymology uuvsjntoA'fw'uww*
63a
COD— CODE
saanW, to wail, in allusion to the cries of the dead. Virgil
describes it as the river which surrounds the underworld (Aen,
vL 13a).
COD, the name given to the typical fish of the family Gadidae,
of the Teleostean suborder Anacanthini, the position of which has
much varied in our classifications. Having no spines to their fins,
the Gadids used, in Cuvierian days, to be associated with the
herrings, Salmonids, pike, &c, in the artificially-conceived order
of Malacopterygians, or soft-finned bony fishes. But, on the
ground of their air-bladder being closed, or deprived of a pneu-
matic duct communicating with the digestive canal, such as is
characteristic of the Malacopterygians, they were removed from
them and placed with the fiat-fishes, or PUuronectidae, in a
suborder Anacanthini, regarded as intermediate in position
between the Acanthopterygians, or spiny-finned fishes, and the
Malacopterygians. It has, however, been shown that the fiat-
fishes bear no relationship to the Gadids, but are most nearly
akin to the John Dorics (see Dory).
The suborder Anacanthini is, nevertheless, maintained for the
UwaencUpididae Gadids and two related families, Macntrida*
and Muraenolepididae, and may be thus defined^— Air-bladder
without open duct. Parietal bones separated by the supra-
ocdpital; prootic and exoccipital separated by the enlarged
opisthotic Pectoral arch suspended from the skull; no meso-
coracoid arch. Ventral fins below or in front of the pectorals,
the pelvic bones posterior to the clavicular symphysis and only
loosely attached to it by ligament Fins without spines; caudal
fin, if present, without expanded hypural, perfectly symmetrical,
and supported by the neural and haemal spines of the posterior
vertebrae, and by basal bones similar to those supporting the
dorsal and anal rays. This type of caudal fin must be regarded as
secondary, the Gadidae being, no doubt, derived from fishes in
which the homocercal fin of the typical Teleostean had been lost.
About iao specks of Gadids are distinguished, mostly marine,
many being adapted to life at great depths; all are carnivorous.
They inhabit chiefly the northern seas, but many abyssal forms
occur between the tropics and in the southern parts of the Atlantic
and Pacific. They are represented in British waters by eight
genera, and about twenty species,.only one of which, the burbot
(Lota vulgaris), is an inhabitant of fresh waters. Several of the
marine species are of first-rate economic importance. . The genus
Gadut is characterized by having three dorsal and two anal fins,
and a truncated or notched caudal fin. In the cod and haddock
the base of the first anal fin is not, or but slightly, longer than
that of the second dorsal fin; in the whiting, pout, coal-fish,
pollack, hake, ling and burbot, the former is considerably longer
than the latter.
The cod, Gadus morrhua, possesses, in common with the other
members of the genus, three dorsal and two anal fins, and a single
barbel, at least half as long as the eye, at the chin. It is a widely-
distributed species, being found throughout the northern and
.temperate seas of Europe, Asia and America, extending as far
south as Gibraltar, but not entering the Mediterranean, and
inhabits water from 25 to 50 fathoms deep, where it always 1 feeds
close to the bottom. It is exceedingly voracious, feeding on the
smaller denizens of the ocean — fish, crustaceans, worms and
molluscs, and greedily taking almost any bait the fisherman
chooses to employ. The cod spawns in February, and is exceed-
ingly prolific, the roe of a single female having been known to
contain upwards of eight millions of ova, and to form more than
half the weight of the entire fish. Only a small proportion of
these get fertilized, and still fewer ever emerge from the egg.
The number of cod is still further reduced by the trade carried
on in roe, large quantities of which are used in France as ground-
bait in the sardine fishery, while it also forms an article of human
food. The young are about an inch in length by the end of spring,
but are not fit for the market till the second year, and it has
been stated that they do not reach maturity, as shown by the
power of reproduction, till the end of their third year. They
usually measure about 3 ft. in length, and weigh from 12 to 20 lb,
but specimens have been taken from 50 to 70 ro in weight.
As an article of food the cod-fish is in greatest perfection during
the three months preceding Christmas. It is caught on all parts
of the British and Irish coasts, but the Dogger Bank, and RockaU,
off the Outer Hebrides, have been specially noted for their cod-
fisheries. The fishery is also carried on along the coast of Norfolk
and Suffolk, where great quantities of the fish are caught with
hook and line, and conveyed to market alive in " well-boats "
specially built for this traffic Such boats have been in use since
the beginning of the 18th century. The most important cod-
fishery in the world is that which has been prosecuted for centuries
on the Newfoundland banks, where it is not uncommon for s
single fisherman to take over 500 of these fish in ten or eleven
hours. These, salted and dried, are exported to all parts of the
world, and form, when taken in connexion with the enormous
quantity of fresh cod consumed, a valuable addition to the food
resources of the human race.
The air-bladder of this fish furnishes isinglass, little, if at all,
inferior to that obtained from the sturgeon, while from the liver a
obtained cod-liver oil, largely used in medicine as a remedy ia
scrofulous complaints and pulmonary consumption (see Coo-
liver Oil). " The Norwegians," says Cuvier, " give cod-heads
with marine plants to their cows for the purpose of producing s
greater proportion of milk. The vertebrae, the ribs, and the bona
in general, are given to their cattle by the Icelanders, and by the
Kaxntchatdales to their dogs. These same parts, properly dried,
are also employed as fuel in the desolate steppes of the Icy Sea."
At Port Logan in Wigtonshire cod-fish are kept in a large
reservoir, scooped out of the solid rock by the action of the set,
egress from which is prevented by a barrier of stones, which does
not prevent the free access of the water. These cod are fed
chiefly on mussels, and when the keeper approaches to feed then
they may be seen rising to the surface in hundreds and eagerly
seeking the edge. They have become comparatively tame aad
familiar. Frank Buckland, who visited the place, states that
after a little while they allowed him to take hold of them, scratch
them on the back, and play with them in various ways. Their
flavour is considered superior to that of the cod taken in the opea
sea. (G. A. BJ
CODA (Ital. for " tail "; from the Lat. cauda), in musk, s
term for a passage which brings a movement or a separata piece
to a conclusion. This developed from the simple chords of I
cadence into an elaborate and independent form. In a series
of variations on a theme or in a composition with a fixed order
of subjects, the " coda " is a passage sufficiently contrasted with
the conclusions of the separate variations or subjects, added to
form a complete conclusion to the whole. Beethoven raised the
" coda " to a feature of the highest importance.
CODE (Lat. codex), the term for a complete and systematic
body of law, or a complete and exclusive statement of some
portion of the law; and so by analogy for any system of rules
or doctrine; also for. an arrangement in telegraphy, signalling,
&c, by which communications may be made according to rules
adopted for brevity or secrecy.
In jurisprudence the question of the reduction of laws to
written codes, representing a complete and readily accessible
system, is a matter of great historical and practical interest.
Many collections of laws, however, which are commonly knows
as codes, 1 would not correspond to the definition given above.
The Code of Justinian (see Justinian I.; Roman Law), the
most celebrated of all, is not in itself a complete and exclusive
system of law. It is a collection of imperial constitutions, just
as the Pandects are a collection of the opinions of jurisconsults.
The Code and the Pandects together being, as Austin says,
" digests of Roman law in force at the time of their conception,"
would, if properly arranged, constitute a code. Codification in
this sense is merely a question of the form of the laws, and has
nothing to do with their goodness or badness from an ethical or
political point of view. Sometimes codification only means the
changing of unwritten into written law; in the stricter sense
it means the changing of unwritten or badly-written law into
law well written.
* The most ancient code known, that of Knammurabi, Is dealt
with in the article Babylonian Law.
CODE
633
The same causes wHch made collections of laws necessary
In the time of Justinian have led to similar undertakings among
modern peoples. The actual condition of laws until the period
when they are consciously remodelled is one of confusion,
contradiction, repetition and disorder; and to these evils the
progress of society adds the burden of perpetually increasing
legislation. Some attempt must be made to simplify the task
of learning the laws by improving their expression and arrange-
ment. This is by no means an easy task in any country, but in
England it is surrounded with peculiar difficulties. The inde-
pendent character of English law has prevented an attempt to
do what has already been done for other systems which have the
basis of the Roman law to fall back upon.
The most celebrated modern code is the French. The necessity
of a code in France was mainly caused by the immense number
of separate systems of jurisprudence existing in that country
before 17S9, justifying Voltaire's sarcasm that a traveller in
France had to change laws about as often as he changed horses.
At first published under the title of Code Chit des FranQais, it
was afterwards entitled the Code Napolton (q.v.)— the emperor
Napoleon wishing to attach his name to a work which he regarded
as the greatest glory of his reign. The code, it has been said,
b the product of Roman and customary law, together with the
ordinances of the kings and the laws of the Revolution. Inform
it has passed through several changes caused by the political
vicissitudes of the country, and it has of course suffered from
time to time important alterations in substance, but it still
remains virtually the same in principle as it left the hands of
its framers. The code has produced a vast number of com-
mentaries, among which may be named those of A. Duranton,
R. T. Troplong and J. C. F. Demolombe. The remaining French
codes are the Code de procedure chile, the Code de commerce, the
Code d' instruction criminclle and the Code penal. The merits of
the French code have entered into the discussion on the general
question of codification. Austin agrees with Savigny in con-
demning the ignorance and haste with which it was compiled.
" It contains," says Austin, " no definitions of technical terms
(even the most leading), no exposition of the rationale of dis-
tinctions (even the most leading), no exposition of the broad
principles and rules to which the narrower provisions expressed
in the code are subordinate; hence its fallacious brevity."
Codes modelled on the French code have, however, taken firm
root in most of the countries of continental Europe and in other
parts of the world as well, such as Latin America and several
of the British colonies.
The Prussian code {Code Fridirk) was published by Frederick
the Great in 1751. It was intended to take the place of " Roman,
common Saxon and other foreign subsidiary laws and statutes,"
the provincial laws remaining in force as before. One of the
objects of the king was to destroy the power of the advocates,
whom he hoped to render useless. This, with other systems of
law existing in Germany, has been replaced by the Civil Code
of 1000 (see Germany).
The object of all these codes has been to frame a common
system to take the place of several systems of law, rather than
to restate in an exact and exhaustive form the whole laws of
a nation, which is the problem of English codification. The
French and Prussian codes, although they have been of great
service in simplifying the law, have failed to prevent outside
themselves that accumulation of judiciary and statute law
which in England has been the chief motive for codification.
A more exact parallel to the English problem may be found in
the Code 0/ Ike Stale of New York. The revised constitution of
the state, as adopted in 1S46, " ordered the appointment of two
commissions, one to reduce into a written and a systematic
code the whole body of the law of the state, and the other to
revise, reform, simplify and abridge the rules and practice,
pleadings, &c, of the courts of record." By an act of 1847,
the state legislature declared that the body of substantive law
should be contained in three codes— the Political, the Civil
and the Penal. The works of both commissions, completed in
1865, filled six volumes, containing the Code of Civil Procedure
(including the law of evidence), the Book of Forms, the Code of
Criminal Procedure, the Political Code, the Pcn.nl Code and the
Civil Code. In the introduction to the Civil Code it was claimed
that in many departments of the law the codes " provided for
every possible case, so that when a new case arises it is better
that it should be provided for by new legislation." The New
York code was defective in the important points of definition
and arrangement. It formed the basis, however, of the present
codes of civil and criminal procedure in the state of New York.
Much interest has attached to the Penal Code drawn up by
Edward Livingston (q.v.) for the state of Louisiana. The
system consists of a Code of Crime and Punishments, a Code of
Procedure, a Code of Evidence, a Code of Reform and Prison
Discipline, and a Book of Definitions. " Though the state for
which the codes were prepared," said Chief Justice Chase,
" neglected to avail itself of the labours assigned and solicited
by itself, they have proved, together with their introductions,
a treasure of suggestions to which many states are indebted for
useful legislation." Most of the other states in the United
States have codes stating the law of pleading in civil actions,
and such states are often described as code states to distinguish
them from those adhering to the older forms of action, divided
between those at law and those at equity. A few states have
general codes of political and civil rights. The general drift
of legislation and of public sentiment in the United States is
towards the extension of the principle of codification, but Use
contrary view has been ably maintained (see J. C. Carter,
Provinces of the Written and Ike UnxriUen Law, New York, 1889).
Since the time of Bentham, the codification of the law of
England has been the dream of the most enlightened jurists
and statesmen. In the interval between Bentham and our
own time there has been an immense advance in the scientific
study of law, but it may be doubted whether the problem of
codification is at all nearer solution. Interest has mainly been
directed to the historical side of legal science, to the phenomena
of the evolution of laws as part of the development of society,
and from this point of view the question of remodelling the
law is one of minor interest. To Bentham the problem presented
itself in the simplest and most direct form possible. What he
proposed to do was to set forth a body of laws, clearly expressed,
arranged in the order of their logical connexion, exhibiting their
own rationale and excluding all other law. On the other hand
the problem has in some respects become easier since the time
of Bentham. With the Benthamite codification the conception
of reform in the substantive law is more or less mixed up. If
codification had been possible in his day, it would, unless it had
been accompanied by the searching reforms which have been
effected since, and mainly through his influence, perhaps have
been more of an evil than a good. The mere dread that, under
the guise of codification or improvement in form, some change
in substance may secretly be effected has long been a practical
obstacle in the way of legal reform. But the law has now been
brought into a state of which it may be said that, if it is not the
best in all respects that might be desired, it is at least in most
respects as good as the conditions of legislation will permit It
to be. Codification, in fact, may now be treated purely as a
question of form. What is proposed is that the law, being, as
we assume, in substance what the nation wishes it to be, should
be made as accessible as possible, and as intelligible as possible.
These two essential conditions of a sound system of law are,
we need hardly say, far from being fulfilled in- England. The
law of the land is embodied in thousands of statutes and tens of
thousands of reports. It is expressed in language which has
never been fixed by a controlling authority, and which has
swayed about with every change of time, place and circumstance.
It has no definitions, no rational distinctions, no connexion of
parts. Until the passing of the Judicature Act of 1873 it was
pervaded throughout its entire sphere by the flagrant antinomy
of law and equity, and that act has only ordered, not executed,
its consolidation. No lawyer pretends to know more than s
fragment of it. Few practical questions can be answered by a
lawyer without a search. iatfttMBfowNss* vcv^ofi ^vftMre » T>x-»s>fr>
*34
CODE NAPOLEON
reported uses. To laymen, of course, the whole law is a sealed
book. As there are no authoritative general principles, it
happens that the few legal maxims known to the public, being
apprehended out of relation to their authorities, are as often
likely to be wrong as to be right. It is hopeless to think of
making it possible for every man to be his own lawyer, but wc
can at least try to make it possible for a lawyer to know the
whole law. The earlier advocates of codification founded their
case mainly on the evils of judiciary law, Lt. the law contained
in the reported decisions of the judges. Bent ham's bitter
antipathy to judicial legislation is well known. Austin's thirty-
ninth lecture (Lectures, ed. 1869) contains an exhaustive criticism
of the tenable objections to judiciary law. All such law is
embedded in decisions on particular cases, from which it must
be extracted by a tedious and difficult process of induction.
Being created for particular cases it is necessarily uncompre-
hensive, imperfect, uncertain and bulky. These are evils which
are incident to the nature of judiciary laws. The defective
farm of the existing statute law, moreover, has also given rise
to loud complaints. Year by year the mass of legislation grows
larger, and as long as the basis of a system is judiciary law, it is
irnpoasible that the new statutes can be completely integrated
therewith. The mode of framing acts of parliament, and
especially the practice of legislating by reference to previous
acts, likewise produce much uncertainty and disorder. Some
progress has, however,, been made by the passing from time to
time of various acta codifying branches of law, such as the Bills
of Exchange Act 1882, the Partnership Act 1890, the Trusts
Act 1803, and the Interpretation Act 1889.
The Statute Law Revision Committee also perform a useful
.work in excising dead law from the statute-book, partly by repeal
of obsolete and spent acts and parts of acts, and partly by
pruning redundant preambles and words. The construction of
a section of an act may depend on the preamble and the context,
and the repeal of the preamble and certain parts of the act may
therefore affect the construction of what is left. This is provided
for by a clause which is said to have been settled by Lord West-
bury. It provides (in effect) that the repeal of any words or
expressions of enactment shall not affect the construction of any
statute or part of a statute. The lawyer, therefore, cannot rely
on the revised edition of the statutes alone, and it is still necessary
for him to consult the complete act as it was originally enacted.
The process of gradual codification adopted in India has been
recommended for imitation in England by those who have had
some experience of its working. The first of the Indian codes
was the Penal Code (see Criminal Law), and there are also codes
of civil and criminal procedure.
Whether any attempt will ever be made to supersede this vast
and unarranged mass by a complete code seems very doubtful.
Writers on codification have for the roost part insisted that the
work should be undertaken as a whole, and that the parts should
have relation to some general scheme of the law which should
be settled first. The practical difficulties in the way of an
undertaking so stupendous as the codification uno co&u of the
whole mass of the law hardly require to be stated.
In discussions on codification two difficulties are insisted on
by its opponents, which have some practical interest — (1) What
is to be done in those cases for which the code has not provided?
and (a) How is new law to be incorporated with the. code? The
objection that a code will hamper the opinions of the court,
destroy the flexibility and elasticity of the common law, &c,
disappears when it is stated in the form of a proposition, that law
codified will cover a smaller number of cases, or will be less easily
adapted to new cases, than law uncodified. The French system
ordered the judges, under a penalty, to give a decision on all cases,
whether contemplated or not by the code, and referred them
generally to the following sources :— (x) Equite naturelle, loi
naturelle; (a) loi remain; (3) loi coutumier; (4) usages,
exemples, jugements, jurisprudence; (5) droit commun; (6)
prindpes generaux, maximes, doctrine, science. The Prussian
code, on the other hand, required the judges to report new cases
to the bead o/UxejudkUl department, and they were decided by I
the legislative commission. No provision was made in either esse
for incorporating the new law with the code, an omission which
Austin justly considers fatal to the usefulness of codificatioa.
It is absurd to suppose that any code can remain long without
requiring substantial alteration. Cases will arise when its mess-
ing must be extended and modified by judges, and every year
will produce its quota of new legislation by the state. The courts
should be left to interpret a code as they now interpret statutes,
and provision should be made for the continual revision of
the code, so that the new law created by judgea or directly by the
state may from time to time be worked into the code.
CODE NAPOLEON, the first code of the French civil law,
known at first as the Cede civil des Francois, waa promulgated
in its entirety by a law of the 30th Ventoee in the year XIL
(3 1st of March 1804). On the 3rd of September 1807 it received
the official name of Code Napoleon, although the part that
Napoleon took in framing it was not very important. A law ef
1818 restored to.it its former name, but a decree of the 17th ef
March 1852 re-established the title of Code Napoleon. State
the 4th of September 1870 the laws have quoted it only under
the name of the Code Civil.
Never has a work of legislation been more national in Che
exact sense of the word. Desired for centuries by the France ef
the aneien rigime, and demanded by the cottiers of 1780, taw
" code of civil laws common to the whole realm " 1
by the constitution of 1791. However, the two first 1
of the Revolution were able to prepare only a few ]
of it. The preparation of a coherent plan began with the Con-
vention. The aneien rigime had collected and adjusted some ef
the material. There was, on the one hand, a vast juridical
literature which by eliminating differences of detail, had dis-
engaged from the various French " customs " the essential part
which they had in common, under the name of "comnwa
customary law "; on the other hand, the Roman law current si
France had in like manner undergone a process of aimplificattoa
in numerous works, the chief of which waa that of Domst;
while certain parts had already been codified in the Grmda
Ordonnances, which were the work of d'Aguesseau. This legacy
from the past, which it was desired to preserve within reason,
had to be combined and blended with the laws of the Revolution,
which had wrought radical reforms in the conditions affectiaf
the individual, the tenure of real property, the order of inherit-
ance and the system of mortgages. Cambaceres, aa the repre*
sentativc of a commission of the Convention, brought forward
two successive schemes for the Code Civil. As a member of eat
of the councils, he drew up a third under the Directory, and
these projected forms came in turn nearer and nearer to what
was to be the ultimate form of the code. So great was tht
interest centred in this work, that the law of the 19th Bnnnairt,
year VIIL, which, in ratification of the previous days tenp
d'itot nominated provisional consuls and two legislative cosv
missions, gave injunctions to the latter to draw up a scheme for
the Code Civil. This was done in part by one of the members,
Jacqueminot, and finally under the constitution of the year
VIIL, the completion of the work was taken in hand. The
legislative machinery established by this constitution, defective
as it was in other respects, was eminently suited for this task.
Indeed, all projected laws emanated from the government and
were prepared by the newly established council of state, which
was so well recruited that it easily furnished qualified mem
mostly veterans of the revolution, to prepare the final scheme.
The council of state naturally possessed in its legislative section
and its general assembly bodies both competent and sufficiently
limited to discuss the texts efficiently. The cerps Ugistatif had
not the right of amendment, so could not disturb the harmony
of the scheme. It was in the discussions of the general assembly
of the council of state that Napoleon took part, in 97 cases out of
102 in the capacity of chairman, but, interesting as his observa-
tions occasionally are, he cannot be considered as a serious
collaborator in this great work.
Those responsible for the scheme have in the main been very
successful in their work; they have generally succeeded is fustef,
CODIAEUM— COD-LIVER OIL
*35
the two elements which they had to deal with, namely ancient
French law, and that of the Revolution. The point in which
their work is comparatively weak is the system of hypothec (q.v.) f
because they did not succeed In steering a middle course between
two opposite systems, and the law of the 23rd of March 1855
(sur la transcription en matihe hypothicaire) was necessary to
make good the deficiency. A fault frequently found with the
Code Civil is that its general divisions show a lack of logic and
method, but the division is practically that of the Institutes
of Justinian, and is about as good as any other: persons, things,
inheritance, contracts and obligations, and finally, in place of
actions, which have no importance for French law except from
the point of view of procedure, privileges and hypothecs, as in
the andent coutumts of France, and prescription. It is, mutatis
mutandis, practically the same division as that of Blackstone's
Commentaries.
Of late years other objections have been expressed; serious
omissions have been pointed out in the Code; it has not given
to personal property the Importance which it has acquired in
the course of the 19th century; it makes no provision for
dealing with the legal relations between employers and employed
which modern complex undertakings involve; it docs not treat
of life insurance, &c But this only proves that it could not fore
tell the future, for most of these questions are concerned with
economic phenomena and social relations which did not exist at
the time when it was framed. The Code needed revising and
completing, and this was carried out by degrees by means of
numerous important laws. In 1004, after the celebration of the
centenary of the Code Civil, an extra-parliamentary commission
was nominated to prepare a revision of it, and at once began the
work.
The influence of the Code Civil has been very great, not only
in France but also abroad. Belgium has preserved it, and the
Rhine provinces only ceased to be subject to it on the promulga-
tion of the civil code of the German empire. Its ascendancy has
been due chiefly to the clearness of its provisions, and to the
spirit of equity and equality which inspires them. Numerous
more recent codes have also taken it as a model: the Dutch code,
the Italian, and the code of Portugal; and, more remotely, the
Spanish code, and those of the Central and South American
republics. In the present day it is rivalled by the German civil
code, which, having been drawn up at the end of the 19th
century, naturally does not show the same lacunae or omissions.
It is inspired, however, by a very different spirit, and the French
code does not suffer altogether by comparison with it either in
substance or in form.
See Lt Code Ckil, Iwre du caUenaire (Paris, 1904), a collection of
essays by French and foreign lawyers. (J. P. £.)
CODIAEUM, a small genus of plants belonging to the natural
order Euphorbiaceae. One species, C. variegatum, a native of
Polynesia, is cultivated in greenhouses, under the name of
croton, for the sake of its leaves, which are generally variegated
with yellow, and are often twisted or have the blades separated
into distinct portions.
CODICIL (Lat codieillus, a little book or tablet, diminutive
of codex), a supplement to a will (q.v.), containing anything which
a testator desires to add, or which he wishes to retract, to explain
or to alter. In English law a codicil requires to be executed with
the same formalities as a will under the Wills Act 1837.
CODILLA, the name given to the broken fibres which are
separated from the flax during the scutching process. On this
account it is sometimes termed scutching tow. Quantities of this
material are used along with heckled tow in the production of
tow yarns.
CODINUS, GEORGE [Gsokgios Kcomos], the reputed author
of three extant works in Byzantine literature. Their attribution
to him is merely a matter of convenience, two of them being
anonymous in the MSS. Of Codinus himself nothing is known;
it is supposed that he lived towards the end of the 15th century.
The works referred to are the following :—
1. Patria (To Uarpta r$t KaMvramvowoXcait), treating
of the history, topography, and monu m ents of Constantinople.
It is divided into five sections: (a) the foundation of the city;
(ft) its situation, limits and topography, (e) its statues, works
of art, and other notable sights; (rf) its buildings; (e) the con-
struction of the church of St Sophia. It was written in the reign
of Basil II. (970-1025), revised and rearranged under Alexius L
Comnenus (1081-11x8), and perhaps copied by Codinus, whose
name it bears in some (later) MSS. The chief sources are: the
Patria of Hesychhis Ulustrius of Miletus, an anonymous (c. 750)
brief chronological record (UapaarhrHt aianoun. xpomiul),
and an anonymous account {Wryrpis) of St Sophia (ed. T.
Pregcr in Scriptores originum Constantino politanarum, fasc. I.,
1901, to be followed by the Patria of Codinus). Procopius,
Dt Atdificiis and the poem of Paulus Silentiarius on the dedica-
tion of St Sophia should be read in connexion with this subject.
2. Dt Officii* {Utpl tCjv '0<t><t>uiur), a sketch, written in an
unattractive style, of court and higher ecclesiastical dignities
and of the ceremonies proper to different occasions. It should
be compared with the Dt Ctrimoniis of Constantxne Porphyro*
genitus.
3. A chronological outline of events from the beginning of
the world to the taking of Constantinople by the Turks (called
Agarenes in the MS. title). It is of little value.
Complete editions are (by I. Bckker) in the Bonn Corpus scrip*
torum Hist. tys. (1839*1841, where, however, some sections of tht
Patria are omitted), and in J. P. Miene, Patrobgia graeea, dvii.; see
also C Krurabacher, GesckickU der oysautmisclun Ltilcratur (1897).
COD-UVER OIL {Oleum Morrhuae, or Oleum Jecoris Aselti),
the oil obtained from the liver of the common cod (Cadus
mot r hue). In the early process for extracting the oil the livers
were allowed to putrefy in wooden tubs, when oils of two qualities,
one called " pale oil," and the other " light brown oil," succes-
sively rose to the surface and were drawn off. A third oil was
obtained by heating the liver-residues to above the boiling-point
of water, whereupon a black product, technically called " brown
oil," separated. The modern practice consists in heating the
perfectly fresh, cleaned livers by steam to a temperature above
that of boiling water, or, in more recent practice, to a lower
temperature, the livers being kept as far as possible from contact
with air. The oils so obtained are termed " steamcd-Iivcr oils."
The " pale " and " light brown " oils are used in pharmacy;
the " brown " oil, the cod oil of commerce, being obtained from
putrid and decomposing livers, has an objectionable taste and
odour and is largely employed by tanners. By boiling the livers
at a somewhat high temperature, " unracked " cod oil U obtained,
containing a considerable quantity of " stcarinc "; this fat,
which separates on cooling, is sold as " fish stcarinc " for soap-
making, or as " fish-tallow " for currying. The oil when freed
from the stcarine is known as " racked oil." " Coast cod oil *
is the commercial name for the oil obtained from the livers of
various kinds of fish, t.g. hake, ling, haddock, &c. The most
important centres of the cod-liver oil industry arc Lofoten and
Romsdal in Norway; the oil is also prepared in the United
States, Canada, Newfoundland, Iceland and Russia; and at
one time a considerable quantity was prepared in the Shetland
Islands and along the cast coast of Scotland.
Cod-liver oil contains palmitin, stearin and other more complex
glycerides; the " stcarine " mentioned above, however, contains
very little palmitin and stearin. Several other adds have been
identified: P. M. Mcycrdahl obtained 4% of palmitic add,
20% of jecoleic acid, C»H»Oi, and 20% of thcrapic add,
CuHmOi; other investigators have recognized jecoric acid,
CiiH»Oi, asellic add, CuHoOi, and physctoleic acid, C u H»0,,
but some uncertainty attends these last three adds. Thcrapic
and jecoleic adds apparently do not occur elsewhere in the
animal kingdom, and it is probable that the therapeutic
properties of the oil are associated with the presence of these
acids, and not with the small amount of iodine present as was at
one time supposed. Other constituents are cholesterol (0-46-
1-32%), traces of calcium, magnesium, sodium, chlorine and
bromine, and various aliphatic amines which are really secondary
products, bdng formed by the decomposition of the cellular tissue.
Cod-liver oU is used estera&) Vk taw&sucfift. , *fcM^fcaoaoiNraMfik>
6 3 6
CODRINGTON, C— CODRINGTON, SIR E.
administration is rendered impossible by idiosyncrasy or the
state of the patient's digestion. The oil is very readily absorbed
from the skin and exerts all its therapeutic actions when thus
exhibited. This method is often resorted to in the case of infants
or young children suffering from abdominal or other forms of
tuberculosis. Its only objection is the odour which the patient
exhales. When taken by the mouth, cod-liver oil shares with
other liver-oils the property of ready absorption. It often causes
unpleasant symptoms, which must always be dealt with and not
disregarded, more harm than good being done if this course is
not followed. Fortunately a tolerance is soon established in
the majority of cases. It has been experimentally proved that
this is more readily absorbed than any other oil— including other
liver-oils. Much attention has been paid to the explanation of
this fact, since knowledge on this point might enable an artificial
product, without the disadvantages of this oil, to be substituted
for it. Very good results have been obtained from a preparation
named u lipanin," which consists of six parts of oleic acid and
ninety-four of pure olein. Cod-liver oil has the further peculiarity
of being more readily oxidizablc than any other oil; an obviously
valuable property when it is remembered that the entire food-
value of oils depends on their oxidation.
Cod-liver oil may be given in all wasting diseases, and is
occasionally valuable in cases of chronic rheumatoid arthritis;
but its great therapeutic value is in cases of tuberculosis of
whatever kind, and notably in pulmonary tuberculosis or
consumption. Its reputation in this is quite inexpugnable. It
is essential to remember that " in phthisis the key of the situation
is the state of the alimentary tract," and the utmost care must
be taken to obviate the nausea, loss of appetite and diarrhoea,
only too easily induced by this oil. It is best to begin with only
one dose in the twenty-four hours, to be taken just before going
to sleep, so that the patient is saved its unpleasant " repetition "
from an unaccustomed stomach. In general, it is therefore wise
to order a double dose at bedtime. The oil may be given in
capsules, or in the form of an emulsion, with or without malt-
extract, or success may be obtained by adding, to every two
drachms of the oil, ten minims of pure ether and a drop of
peppermint oil. The usual dose, at starting, is one or two
drachms, but the oil should be given eventually in the largest
quantities that the patient can tolerate.
CODRINGTON. CHRISTOPHER (i66$m 7 io), British soldier
and colonial governor, whose father was captain-general of the
Leeward Isles, was born in the island of Barbados, West Indies,
in 1668. Educated at Christ Church, Oxford, he was elected a
fellow of All Souls, and subsequently served with the British
forces in Flanders, being rewarded in 1695 with a captaincy
in the Guards. In the same year he attended King William III.
on his visit to Oxford, and, in the absence of the public orator,
was chosen to deliver the University oration. In 1697, on the
death of his father, he was appointed captain-general and com-
mander-in-chief of the Leeward Isles. In 1 703 he commanded the
unsuccessful British expedition against Guadeloupe. After this
he resigned his governorship, and spent the rest of his life in
retirement and study on his Barbados estates. He died on the
7th of April 17 10, bequeathing these estates to the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts for the foundation
of a college in Barbados. This college, known as the Codrington
college, was built in 1714-1742. To All Souls College, Oxford,
he bequeathed books worth £6000 and £10,000 in money, out
of which was built and endowed the Codrington library there.
CODRINGTON. SIR EDWARD (1770-1851), British admiral,
belonged to a family long settled at Dodington in Gloucester-
shire. He was the youngest of three brothers, who were left
orphans at an early age, and were educated by an uncle, Mr
BetheH. Edward Codrington was sent for a short time to Harrow,
and entered the navy in July 1 783. He served on the American
station, in the Mediterranean and at home, till he was promoted
lieutenant on the 28th of May 1783. Lord Howe selected him
to be signal lieutenant on the flagship of the Channel fleet at
the beginning of the revolutionary war with France. In that
capacity he served in the " Queen Charlotte " (100) during the
operations which culminated in the battle of the 1st of June 1794
The notes he wrote on Barrow's account of the battle in his Ii/>
of Howe, and the reminiscences he dictated to his daughur.
which are to be found in her memoir of him, are of great value Ici
the history of the action. On the 7th of October 1704 he »as
promoted commander, and on the 6th of April 1 795 attained the
rank of post-captain and the command of the " Babet " (22).
He continued to serve in the Channel, and was present at the
action off L'Orient on the 23rd of June 1 795. Codrington wrote
notes on this encounter also, which are to be found in the memoir.
They are able and valuable, but, like all his correspondence
throughout his life, show that he was of a somewhat censorious
disposition, was apt to take the worst view of the conduct oi
others, and was liable to be querulous. He next commanded the
" Druid " (32) in the Channel and on the coast of Portugal ti*J
she was paid off in 1 797. Codrington now remained on shore and
on half-pay for some years. In December 1802 he married Jaix,
daughter of Jasper Hall oi Kingston, Jamaica.
On the renewal of the war after the breach of the peace of
Amiens he was appointed (May 1805) to the command of ik
" Orion " (74) and was attached to the fleet on the coast d
Spain, then blockading Villcneuve in Cadiz. The "Orion"
took a conspicuous part in the battle of Trafalgar. Codringloc's
correspondence contains much illuminative evidence as to tfce
preliminaries and the events of the victory. From 1805 131 lil i
he continued to serve first in the " Orion " and then (180S) is
the " Blake " (74) in European waters. He was present oq
the Walchcren expedition, and was very actively employed 00
the Mediterranean coast of Spain in co-operating with tie
Spaniards against the French. In 18 14 he was promoted rear-
admiral, at which time he was serving on the coast of North
America as captain of the fleet to Sir Alexander Cochrane during
the operations against Washington, Baltimore and New Ortaas,
In 1815 he was made K.C.B., and was promoted vice-admiral oo
the 10th of July 1821. In December 1826 he was appointed to
the Mediterranean command, and sailed on the 1st of February
1827. From that date until his recall on the 2 1st of June 18:8 hi
was engaged in the arduous duties imposed on him by the Greek
War of Independence, which had led to anarchy and much
piracy in the Levant.^ On the 20th of October 1827 he destroyed
the Turkish and Egyptian naval forces at Navarino (?.».), while
in command of a combined British, French and Russian fleet As
the battle had been unforeseen in England, and its result was un-
welcome to the ministry of the day, Codrington was entangled in A
correspondence to prove that he had not gone beyond his instruc-
tions, and he was recalled by a despatch, dated the 4th of June.
After the battle Codrington went to Malta to refit his shins.
He remained there till May 1828, when he sailed to join his French
and Russian colleagues on the coast of the Morca. They en-
deavoured to enforce the evacuation of the peninsula by Ibrahim
peacefully. The Pasha made diplomatic difficulties, and on the
25th of July the three admirals agreed that Codrington should
go to Alexandria to obtain Ibrahim's recall by his father Mehcmet
Ali. Codrington had heard on the 22nd of June of his own
supersession, but, as his successor had not arrived, he carried out
the arrangement made on the 25th of July, and his presence at
Alexandria led to the treaty of the 6th of August 1828, by which
the evacuation of the Morca was settled. His services were
recognized by the grant of the grand cross of the Bath, but there
is no doubt that he was treated as a scape-goat at least to some
extent. After his return home he was occupied for a time in
defending himself, and then in leisure abroad. He commanded t
training squadron in the Channel in 1831 and became admiral
on the 10th of January 1837. From November 1830 to December
•1842 he was commander-in-chief at Portsmouth. He died on the
28th of April 1 85 1.
Sir Edward Codrington left two sons, Sir William (1804-1884),
a soldier who commanded in the Crimea, and Sir John Henry*
(1808-1877), a naval officer, who died an admiral of the fleet
See Memoir of the Life of Admiral Sir Edwcrd i
daughter Jane, Lady Bourchicr, wife of §»r T, Boun
(London, 1873).
CODRUS— CO-EDUCATION
637
CODRUS, in Greek legend, the last lung of Athens. According
to the story, it was prophesied at the time of the Dorian invasion
of Peloponnesus (c 1068 B.C.) that only the death of their king at
the enemy's hands could ensure victory to the Athenian*. De-
voting himself to his country, Codrus, in the disguise of a peasant,
made his way into the enemy's camp, and provoked a quarrel with
some Dorian soldier*. He tell, and the Dorians, on discovering that
Codrus had been slain, retreated homeward, despairing of success.
No one being thought worthy to succeed Codrus, the title of king
mas abolished, and that of archon (g.v.) substituted for it.
See Lycurgus. Lcocr. xx. (-84-871; Justin ii. 6; Veil. Tat. i. 2;
Grote, //&. of Greece, pt. i. ch. 18; Busolt, Gricchisckt Geschichte, I
CODY, WILLIAM FREDERICK (1846- ), American scout
and showman,-known under the name of " Buffalo Bill," was born
in 1846 in Scott county, Iowa. He first became known as one of
the riders of the " Pony Express," a mafl service established in
the spring of i860 by the Central Overland California and Pike's
Peak Express Company to carry the mails overland from Saint
Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, a distance of 1950 m.,
by means of relays of ponies, each rider being expected to cover
about 75 m. daily. Owing to the wildness of the country and the
hostility of the Indians, both the riders and the station-keepers
led lives of great hardship and danger. The " Pony Express "
was discontinued in 1S61 upon the completion of the Pacific
Telegraph company's line, and young Cody became a scout and
guide for the United States army. In 1863 he formally enlisted
in the 7th regiment of Kansas cavalry, in which he served until
the dose of the Civil War. In 1867 he made a contract with the
Kansas Pacific railway to furnish its employees with buffalo
meat whue the line was being extended through the wilderness,
and his name of " Buffalo Bill " was given him from this circum-
stance. In 1868-1872 he was again an army scout and guide,
serving against the Sioux and Cheycnncs; and in 1872 was a
member of the Nebraska house of representatives. During the
Sioux-Cheyenne War of 1876 he served in the 5th United States
Cavalry, and at the battle of Indian Creek killed the Cheyenne
chief Yellow Hand in single combat. T n 1883 he organized his
" Wild West Show," a spectacular performance on a large scale,
bis first European tour taking place in 1887. In the Nebraska
national guard he again served against the Sioux in 1890-1 891.
CO-EDUCATION, the term applied to the instruction and
training of boys and girls, or of young people of both sexes, in
the same school or institution, in the same classes and through
the same courses of study. Examples of the thoroughgoing
application of this principle can be found in every grade of
education from the elementary school to the university. But
the term " Co-education " is sometimes used in a wider sense,
in order to include cases in which boys and girls, or young men
and young women of university age, are admitted to membership
of the same school or college but receive instruction wholly or in
part in separate classes and in different subjects. Other variable
factors in co-educational systems arc the extent to which men
and women arc mixed on the teaching staff, and the freedom of
intercourse permitted between pupils of the two sexes in class,
in games and in other activities of school life. In another form
of combined education (preferred by Comte, Sysftmt de politique
positive, iv. 266), pupils of the two sexes are taught successively
by the same teacher. By the English Board of Education, a
distinction is drawn between mixed schools and dual schools.
** Mixed schools " are those in which, for most subjects of the
curriculum, boys and girls are taught together by the same
teachers: in " dual schools " there are separate boys' and girls'
departments under a single principal, but with separate entrances,
classrooms and playgrounds for the two sexes.
History. — Co-education in early times was occasional and
sporadic. For example, women were admitted by Plato to the
inner circle of the Academy on terms of equality with men.
The educational endowments of Teos provided that the professors
of literature should teach both boys and girls. It is uncertain
whether the Roman schools in classical times were attended by
both sexes. A tombstone found at Capua represents a school-
master with a boy on one side and a girl on the ot her. Probably
co-education was practised in country districts for economical
reasons; and also in the home schools organized by wealthier
families (Wilkint, Rama* Education, pp. 42-43)* At Charles the
Great's Palace School at Aachen (a.d. 782 onwards), Alalia
taught together the young princes and their sisters, as well as
grown men and women. The Humanists of the Renaissance
made the full developmcntof personality a chief aim of education,'
and held up literary accomplishment as a desirable mark of
personal distinction both for men and women. This led to the
scholarly education of girls along with boys in the home schools
of some great families. Thus, at Mantua (1423 onwards),
Viltorino da Feltre taught Cecilia Gonzaga with her brothers
and the other boy pupils at his boarding-school; but there is no
evidence that the latter was otherwise co-educational Luther
and other Reformers urged that girls as well as boys should be
taught to read the Bible. Hence came the tendency to co-educa-
tion of boys and girls in some elementary schools in Protestant
lands. This tendency can be traced both in Scotland and in the
northern parts of England. It is believed that, in the early days
of New England, district schools in smaller American towns were
open to boys and girls alike, but that few girls advanced beyond
reading and writing (Martin, Massachusetts Public School System,
p. 130). At Dorchester, Mass., it was left to the discretion
of the ciders and schoolmen whether maids should be taught with
the boys or not; but in practice the girls seem to have been
educated apart In 1602 the council of Ayr, Scotland, ordained
that the girls who were lea rning to read and write at the Grammar
School should be sent to the master of the Song School, " because
it is not seemly that sic lasses should be among the lads " (Grant,
History of the Burgh and Parish Schools of Scotland, p. 526 ff.).
Meriden, Connecticut, seems to have made common provision
for the elementary education of boys and girls in 1678. North-
ampton, Mass., did the same in 1680. Dcerficld, Mass., in 1698
voted that " all families having children either male or female
between the ages of six and ten years shall pay by the poll for
their schooling " — presumably in the common school
Thus the beginnings of co-education in its modern organized
form may be traced back partly to Scotland and partly to the
United States. The co-education of boys and girls, carried
through in varying degrees of completeness, was not uncommon
in the old Endowed Schools of Scotland, and became more
frequent as increasing attention was given to the education of
girls. At the Dollar Institution, founded by John McNabb for
the benefit of the poor of the parish of Dollar and shire of Clack-
mannan (date of will, 1800), boys and girls have been educated
together in certain classes since the beginning of the school in
1S18. In the eastern parts of the United States, where the Puritan
tradition also prevailed, co-education struck firm root, and spread
chiefly for reasons of convenience and economy (Dexter, History
of Education in United States, p. 430). But throughout the west,
co-education was strongly preferred in elementary and secondary
schools and in universities on the further ground that it was
believed to be more in accordance with the democratic principle
of equal educational opportunity for the two sexes.
It should be added, however, that the leaven of Pcstalozzft
thought has worked powerfully both in Europe and America in
favour of the idea of co-education. His view was that all
educational institutions should, as far as possible, be modelled
upon the analogy of the family and of the home. At Stanz
(1798- 1 709) he educated together in one household boys and
girls ranging In age from five to fifteen. At Burgdorf (1709-
1804) his work was in part co-educational. At Yverdun (1804-
1825) PcstaloTzi established a school for girls close to his school
for boys. The girls received instruction from some of the
masters of the boys' school, and girls and boys met at evening
worship, in short excursions and at other times.
In England, the Society of Friends have been the pioneers of
co-education in boarding schools, both for younger children
and for pupils up to fifteen or sixteen years of age. The practice
of the society, though not exclusively co-educational, has long
been favourable to co-education, either in its complete or
restricted form, as being more in harmony with the conditions
6 3 8
CO-EDUCATION
of family life. Ackworth school was established by the London
Yearly Meeting in 1779 for the education of boys and girls;
but the school has never been fully co-educational, the boys and
girls being taught separately except in a few classes. At Sidcot
school, which was founded in 1808 by the Associated Quarterly
Meetings in the west of England for the education of children of
Friends, boys and girls are taught together, except in certain
handicraft subjects. Several other co-educational schools were
founded by the Society of Friends during the first half of the 19th
century.
Since that time the movement towards co-education in
secondary schools and universities has steadily gained strength
in England. It has been furthered by the diffusion of Pesta-
lozzian ideas and also by the influence of American example.
In England, private schools have made some of the most- valu-
able co-educational experiments. A private boarding and day
secondary school on co-educational lines was instituted by Mr
W. A. Case in Hampstead in 1865. A co-educational boarding-
school was founded in 1869 by Miss Lushington at Klngsley near
Alton, Hants. In 1873 Mr W. H. Herford began the Ladybarn
school for boys and girls at Withington in the suburbs of Man-
chester. The passing of the Welsh Intermediate Education Act
1889 led to the establishment of a considerable number of new
mixed or dual secondary day-schools in Wales. Many English
teachers gained experience in these schools and subsequently
influenced English education. The work and writings of Mr
J. H. Badley at Bedales, Petcrsfield, a co-educational boarding-
school of the first grade, gave greatly increased weight to the
principle of co-education. Important additions have also been
made to the fund of co-educational experience by the King
Alfred's school (Hampstead), Keswick school, and West Heath
school (Hampstead). In 1907 a Public Co-educational Boarding
School was opened at Harpendcn.
Since the Education Act 1902 became law,' there has been a
rapid increase of co-educational secondary day-schools of the
lower grade, under county or borough education authorities,
In all parts of England. This increase is due to two chief causes,
viz. (x) The co-educational tradition of some of the higher
grade board schools, many of which have become secondary
schools; and (2) the economy effected by establishing one co-
educational secondary school, in place of two smaller schools for
boys and girls separately.
The idea of co-education in secondary schools has spread in
several other European countries, especially in Holland, Norway,
Sweden and Denmark. In Scandinavia, the new practice
appears to have begun with the establishment of a private higher
secondary school, the Palmgremska Samskolan, in Stockholm,
in 1 876. A similar school, Nya Svcnska L&roverket, was founded
upon the same model in Helsingfors, Finland, in 1880. In
Norway, the law of 1806 introduced co-education in all state
schools. In Denmark, as in Norway, co-education was begun in
private schools; on its proving a success there, it was intro-
duced into the state schools, with two exceptions; and it is now
obligatory in most state schools but optional in private schools
(J. S. Thornton, Schools Public and Private in the North 0/ Europe,
1007. P- 97)* In Holland, there is now a good deal of co-education
in lower secondary schools of the modern type. For example,
at Utrecht, the state higher burgher school provides the same
course of instruction, except in gymnastics, for boys and girls.
At Almeloo, the municipal higher burgher school, though co-
educational, differentiates the classes in several subjects. In
Belgium, France, Germany and Austria, co-education, though
frequent in elementary schools, is regarded as undesirable in
secondary; but the movement in its favour in many parts of
Germany seems to be gathering strength. All over Europe
the Roman Catholic populations prefer the older ideal of separate
schools for boys and girls.
Co-education in colleges and universities, which began at
Oberlin, Ohio, in 1853, was adopted almost without exception
by the state universities throughout the west of America from
1862 onwards. Since that time the idea has spread rapidly
throughout Europe, and the presence of women student* at
universities originally confined to men h one of the most striking
educational facts of the age.
Co-education in the United Kingdom, (a) England ami ITsies.—
The Board of Education does not possess any summary showing
the number of pupils in mixed public elementary schools or m
mixed departments of such schools. In 1901, out of 3»,5W
departments of public elementary schools in England and Waks,
nearly half (15,504) were mixed departments, in which boys and
girls were educated together. But as the departments were of
unequal size, it must not be inferred from this that half the
children in public elementary schools in that year (5,883,762)
were receiving co-education. Of the total number of departments
in public elementary schools in England and Wales, the per-
centage of mixed schools fell from 51 -6 in i88x to 49-4 in 1891
and 49-2 in 1901. But these percentages must not be taken to
prove an absolute decline in the number of children in mixed
departments.
In England, out of 492 public secondary schools which were
recognized by the Board of Education for the receipt of govern-
ment grant for the school year ending July 31, 1905, and which
contained 85,358 pupils, 108 schools, 'with 21,720 pupils, were
mixed; and 20 schools, with 8980 pupils, were dual schools.
Thus, of the total number of pupils in the secondary ache
referred to above, a little over 25% were in mixed schools, 1
about 10% were in dual schools. It is not safe to assume,
however, that all the mixed schools were completely co-educa-
tional in their work, or that the dual schools were not co-
educational in respect of certain subjects or parts of the course.
It should also be remembered that, besides the secondary
schools recognized by the Board of Education for the receipt
of government grant, there is a considerable number of great
endowed secondary boarding-schools (" public schools " in the
English use of that expression) which are for boys only. There
are also at least 5000 private secondary schools, of which, is
1897 (since when no comprehensive statistical inquiry has bees
made) , 970, with 26,02 7 pupils, were mixed schools. But the great
majority of the children in these mixed schools were under
twelve years of age. The number of boys and girls over
twelve years of age, in the mixed private secondary schools
which were included in the 1897 return, was only 54S&.
In Wales, for the school year ending July 31, 1905, out of
84 state-aided public secondary schools, xi were mixed and 44
were dual schools. The number of scholars in the Welsh schools
referred to above was 9340. Of these, 1457, or *5%, were in
mixed schools, and 5085, or 54%, were in dual schools. The
managers of dual schools in Wales have the power to arrange
that boys and girls shall be taught together in any or all the
classes; and, as a matter of fact, nearly all the dual schools
are worked as mixed schools, though they appear in these
figures under dual;
(b) Scotland.— In the public elementary schools, including
the higher grade schools of Scotland, co-education is the almost
universal rule. The exceptions, which for the most part are
Roman Catholic or Episcopal Church schools, tend to Himini^
year by year. In 1905, out of 3843 departments in the Scotch
public elementary and higher grade schools, 3783 were mixed.
These include the infant departments. Out of the total number of
children in the public elementary and higher grade schools, includ-
ing infants' departments, 98-43% were receiving co-education.
In the secondary schools of Scotland there has been in recent
years little perceptible movement either towards co-educatioa
or away from it What movement there is, favours the establish*
ment of separate secondary schools for girls in the large centres
of population. Qut of 109 public secondary schools in Scotland
in 1 905-1 906, 29 schools were for boys only and 40 schools for
girls only. One school bad boys and girls in separate depart-
ments. In the remaining 39 schools, boys and girls were taken
together to an extent which varied with the subjects taken;
but there was nothing of the nature of a strict separation of the
sexes as regards the ordinary work of the school.
(c) Ireland.— In Ireland, the percentage of pupils on the
rolls of mixed national schools (Le. schools attended by boys and
CO-EDUCATION
639
girls), to the total number of pupfli on the rolls of all national
schools, has slowly increased. In 1880 the percentage was
57- 5 ; in 1808, 594; in 1005, 609.
The Commissioners of Intermediate Education in Ireland had
on their lbt in 1006, 38 secondary schools which were classified
by them as mixed schools. These schools were attended by
640 boys and 413 girls between 13 and 19 years of age. The
commissioners do not know to what extent the boys and girls
in these schools received instruction in the same classes. As,
however, the schools are small, they believe that in the great
majority of cases the boys and girls were taught together. In
one large school not classified as mixed, the boys (117) and girls
(60) were taught in the same classes.
Universities and University Colleges in the Untied Kingdom. —
Women are admitted as members of the universities of London,
Durham, Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield,
Wales, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, St Andrews, Glasgow, Dublin
and the Royal University of Ireland. At Oxford and Cambridge
women are not admitted as members of the university, but by
courtesy enjoy entrance to practically all university lectures and
examinations. The social life of the men and women students
is more separate in the old than in the new universities. In no
grade of education in the United Kingdom has the principle of
co-education made more rapid advance than in the universities.
The university education of women began in London (Queen's
College 1848, Bedford College 1849, both being preceded by
classes in earlier years). The University of London in 1878
decided to accept from the crown a supplemental charter
making every degree, honour and prize awarded by the university
Accessible to students of both sexes on perfectly equal terms.
By charter in 1880, the Victoria University (now broken up into
the universities of Manchester, Liverpool and Leeds) received
power to grant degrees to women as well as to men. The charter
of the university of Wales (1893) provides that " Women shall
be eligible equally with men for admittance to any degree which
our university is authorised to confer; every office created in
the university, and the membership of every authority con*
stituted by the charter shall be open to women equally with men."
In 1889 the Universities (Scotland) Act empowered the com-
missioners to make ordinances, enabling each university to admit
women in graduation in one or more faculties and to provide
for their instruction. At all the university colleges in the United
Kingdom women are educated as well as men.
United States. — Co-education is a characteristic feature of the
educational system of the different states of the American Union.
Of elementary school pupils at least 06% and of secondary
school pupils 95%, are in mixed schools. In 1903, out of a total
enrolment of 15,990,803 pupils in public elementary and second-
ary schools and training colleges, 15,387,734 were in schools
attended by pupils of both sexes. Out of 550,000 pupils on the
rolls of public secondary schools (high schools) in 190s, 533,300
were in co-educational schools. The same was true of 43%
of the pupils (numbering over 100,000) in private secondary
schools. In colleges and universities 62 % of all undergraduates
were in co-educational institutions, to which category thirty-four
American universities belong (U.S. Commissioner of Education,
Report for 1903, p. 2454)* In America opinion is thus pre-
dominantly in favour of co-education, but there is a current of
adverse criticism, especially among some who have had experience
of school conditions in large cities.
General Review of Ike Question. — In schools for infants and
younger children co-education is approved by all authorities.
It is increasingly favoured on educational grounds in smaller
schools for children up to 12 or 13 years of age or thereabouts.
But where elementary schools have to be large, separate depart-
ment! for boys and girls are generally preferable, though mixed
schools are often established for reasons of economy At
the other end of the educational scale, viz. in the universities,
the co-education of men and women in the same institution is
fast becoming the rule. This is due partly to the prohibitive cost
of duplicating teaching staff, laboratories, libraries and other
equipment, partly to the desire of women to qualify themselves
for professional life by passing through the same courses; of
training as are prescribed for men. The degree, however, to
which social intercourse is carried on between men and women
students differs widely in the different co-educational univer-
sities. There are occasional signs, e.g. at Chicago, of a reaction
against the fullest form of academic co-education. And it is
probable that the universities will provide, among many courses
common to men and women, some (like engineering) suitable
for men only, and others (like advanced instruction in home-
science, or certain courses of professional preparation for teachers
of young children) which will rarely be attended by any but
women. Common use of the same university institutions is
compatible with much differentiation in courses of study and
with separately organized forms of collegiate life. It is with
regard to the part of education which lies between the elementary
schools and the universities that the sharpest division of opinion
upon the principle of co-education now exists. In Europe,
with the exception of Scandinavia, those who advocate co-
education of the sexes in secondary schools up to 18 or 19 years
of age are at present in a distinct minority, even as regards day
schools, and still more when they propose to apply the same
principle to boarding schools. But the application of the co-
educational principle to all schools alike is favoured by an
apparently increasing number of men and women. This move-
ment in opinion is connected with the increase in the number
of girls desiring access to secondary schools, a demand which
can most easily and economically be met by granting to girls
access to some of the existing schools for boys. The co-educa-
tional movement is also connected with a strong view of sex
equality. It is furthered by the rapidly increasing number of
women teachers who are available for higher educational work.
Mixed secondary schools with mixed staffs are spreading for
reasons of economy in smaller towns and rural districts. In
large towns separate schools are usually recommended in pre-
ference, but much depends upon the social tradition of the
neighbourhood. Those who advocate co-education for boys
and girls in secondary schools urge it mainly on the ground of
its naturalness and closer conformity to the conditions of healthy,
unselfconsdous home life. They believe it to be a protective
against undeanness of talk and school immorality. They point
to its convenience and economy. They welcome co-education
as likely to bring with it a healthy radicalism in regard to the
older tradition of studies in boys' secondary schools. They
approve it as leading to mixed staffs of men and women teachers,
and as the most effectual way of putting girls in a position of
reasonable equality with boys in respect of intellectual and civic
opportunity. On the other hand, those who oppose co-education
in secondary schools rest their case upon the danger of the
intellectual or physical overstrain of girls during adolescence;
and upon the unequal rate of development of boys and girls
during the secondary school period, the girls being more forward
than the boys at first, but as a rule less able to work as hard
at a somewhat later stage. The critics further complain that
co-education is generally so organized that the girls' course of
study is more or less assimilated to that of the boys, with the
result that it cannot have the artistic and domestic character
which is suitable for the majority of girls. Complaint is also
made that the head of a co-educational school for pupils over
the age of xo is usually a man, though the health and character
of girls need the care and control of a woman vested with complete
authority and responsibility. While demurring to the view that
co-education of the sexes would be a moral panacea, the critics
of the system admit that the presence of the girls would exert
a refining influence, but they believe that on the whole the boys
are likely to gain less from co-education than the girls are likely
to lose by it. In all these matters carefully recorded observation
and experiment are needed, and it may well be found that co-
education is best for some boys and for some girls, though not
for all. Temperaments and dispositions differ. Some boys seem
by nature more fitted for the kind of training generally given
to girls, some girls are by nature fitted for the kind of training
generally given to boys. The «ta dswstab. toe* t*a. too**. *&.
640
COEFFETEAU— COELENTERA
temperaments into two sharply contrasted groups. The intro-
duction of girls into boys' secondary schools may remove or
mitigate coarse traditions of speech and conduct where such
persist But it would be unfortunate if stiff and pedantic
traditions of secondary education were now fixed upon girls
instead of being reconsidered and modified in the interests. of
boys also. In any case, if co-education in secondary schools is
to yield the benefits which some anticipate from it, great vigil-
ance, careful selection of pupils and very liberal staffing will be
necessary. Without these securities the results of co-education
in secondary schools might be disappointing, disquieting or
even disastrous.
Bibliography.— Plato in the Republic (v. 452-456) and Laws (vit.
804-80^) argues that women should share an far as possible in educa-
tion with men. Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights tf
Women (1792), contends that " both sexes ought, not only in private
families but in public schools, to be educated together.'* J< G.
Spurzheim, Principles of Edu c ation, pp. ;7?-2&f (Edinburgh, iSji)
replies to this argument. In the Board of Kd ucation Spec j a/ Report*
en Educational S " ' ' ""
writing on The
on Educational Subjects, vol. vi. QVyman & Sons, 1 oon) , j. H. Ra die y .
writing on The Possibility of Coeducation in Entfith Preparatory
and other Secondary Schools, is strongly in fa vo ur. "In co-ed uca 1 ion
. . half-hcartedncss means failure. The more completely both
sexes can be brought together upon an equal and natural footing the
less the difficulties grow." In the Board of Education Special
Reports, vol. xi. (Wyman & Sons, 1902), Rev. Cecil Grant, writing on
Can American Education be grafted upon the English Public School
Syiitm ? answer* strongly iri the affirmative: co-education il
recomrntnded on right ("rounds;— (r) Vast ccjnumy t4 expenditure;
(t) ittum 10 the natural system ; (3) discipline made easier; (4)
intellectual stimulus; (5) a better balance in instruction; (ft) im-
proved manners; (7) prevention of entremes of masculinity or
femininity; (S) a lafcgLiard against the moral danger.
Co-education: a scries of Esttys (London, 1003), edited by Alice
Woods* 19 in favour of co-education, nine prnctkal workers recording
iheir experience; thi* i$ one of the best books on the subject,
J. H, Had leys Go-education after Fifteen: its Value and Difficulties,
Ckitd Lift (Landnri h January, 1906), is candid, judiciousand practical^
M, E. Sadler in Reports on Secondary Education in Hampshire. Derby-
shift and Essex (1^04, 1905 and (906 respectively) givers details
ot the curriculum of many co-educational secondary schools. In
the U.5- Commissioner of bducation Report for tQflj.vdl. f. pp. 1047*
1078, Anna Totman Smith H writing on Co-education in the Schools
and Colleges of the United States, gives an historical review of the
subject with bibliography (compare bibliography in Report of U.S.
Qrmtniisipner of Education j#ri$oo-iQOt, pp. 1310-13*5). 6* Stanley
Kail on Adaltstttut, Hi Psychology and its Relations to Physiology*
Antkropotogy t Sociology. Sex, Crime, Religion and Education . vol. ji>
chap, xvii,, on Adolescent Girls and their education (New York, D.
Appleton fit Co-, lQ04)ji*Strmdg}y against co-education during adoles-
ce nee. 1 n W. Rein's Encyhlopddisches Handbuch dcr Padagorih {La n -
ftnsalaa, Beyer), art* *' Gcmcinsame E ranch ung fur Knaben und
i;"idchcn," K- fc- Patm^Tcn is in favour o\ co-education (vol. in- of
anrJ cd, IQ05), See also W, Rein, liber gemciniame Etzuhunt. rnrt
Knabm und Madcken (Freiburg, 199,3), and Bericht uber den h
Jntemaiionaten Kongress fir Schulhygicne (NQrnbcrg, 1004), vol. it.
pp. 140 ff., " Co-education in dcr hobcren Schulen. (M. E« S.)
COEFFETEAU, NICOLAS (1574-1623), French theologian,
poet and historian, was born at Saint-Calais. He entered the
Dominican order and lectured on philosophy at Paris, being also
" ordinary preacher " to Henry IV., and afterwards ambassador
at Rome. In 1606 he was vicar-gcneral of the congregation of
France, and received from Marie dc' Medici the revenues of the
sees of Lorabez and Saintes. He also administered the diocese of
Metz, and was nominated to that of Marseilles in 1621, but ill-
health obliged him here to take a coadjutor. Coeffctcau won
considerable distinction in the controversy against the Protestant
reformers and also wrote a History of Rome from Augustus to
Conslantine. Many of his theological writings were collected in
one volume (Paris, 1622), and at the time of his death in 1623 he
was engaged on a translation of the New Testament which is
still in manuscript.
COEHOORN, MENNO, Bason van (1641-1704), Dutch
soldier and military engineer, of Swedish extraction, was born at
Lecuwarden in Friesland. He received an excellent military
and general education, aud at the age of sixteen became a captain
in the Dutch army. He took part in the defence of Maastricht
in 1673 and in the siege of Grave in the same year, where the small
mortars (called coehorns) invented by him caused the French
garrison considerable trouble (Scydel, Nachrichten uber Fcstungs*
Arvge, Leipzig, i$xb% He was made a colonel for his gallant
conduct at the battle of Seneff (1674), and was present also it
the battles of Cassd (1677) and Saint Denis (1678).
The circumstances of the time and the country tamed
Coehoorn *s attention to the art of fortification, sad the events of
the late war showed him that existing methods could no longer
be relied upon. His first published work, Vtrsscrckingt is
Vijf hocks ma alle syne Buyiemvcrkcn (Leeuwarden, 168s), at osce
aroused attention, and involved the author in a lively controversy
with a rival engineer, Louys Paan (Leeu war den, 1682, i6Sj;
copies are in the library of the Dutch ministry of war). The
military authorities were much interested in this, and entrusted
Cochoom with the reconstruction of several fortresses is tat
Netherlands. This task he continued throughout Ins carter;
and his experience in the work made him the worthy rival of be
great contemporary Vauban. He formulated his ideas a little
later in bis chief work, Nieuwe Vestingbotno op en nctte of lagt
korixont, &c. (Leeuwarden, 1685), in which he laid down three
" systems/' the characteristic feature of which was the srahi-
plicity and great saliency of the works, which were calculated sad
in principle are still eminently suited for fiat and almost marshy
sites such as those of the Low Countries. He borrowed nuny
of the details from the works of his Dutch predecessor Freytag, of
Albrecht Dilrer, and of the German engineer Speckle, and a
general he aimed rather at the adaptation of his principles to the
requirements of individual sites than at producing a geometrically
and theoretically perfect fortress; and throughout his career he
never hesitated to depart from his own rules in dealing srith
exceptional cases, such as that of Groningen. Subsequent
editions of Nieuwe Vestingbouw appeared in Dutch (1702, and
frequently afterwards), English (London, 1705), French (Wad,
1705), and German (Dusseldorf, 1709).
From 1688 to the treaty of Ryswick Coehoorn served as t
brigadier. At the battle of Fleurus he greatly ifitmgimhi 1
himself, and in 1692 he defended Nanrar, a fortress of his own
creation. Namur was taken by Vauban ; but the Dutch engineer
had his revenge three years later, when the place, on which in the
meantime Vauban had lavished his skill, fell to his attack
Coehoorn became lieutenant-general and inspector-general of
the Netherlands fortresses, and the high-German peoples as stei
as his own countrymen honoured him. He commanded a corps
in the army of the duke of Marlborough from 1701 to 1703, and
in the constant siege warfare of these campaigns in the Low
Countries his technical skill was of the highest value. The swift
reduction of the fortress of Bonn and the siege of Huy in 1703
were his crowning successes. At the opening of his following
campaign he was on his way to confer with Marlborough when
he died of apoplexy at Wijkel on the 17th of March 1704.
His" first system " was applied to numerous places in Holland,
notably Nijmwegen, Breda and Bergcn-op-Zoom. Mannheim ia
Germany was also fortified in this way, while the" secondsystem "
was applied to Belgrade and Temcs vir in eastern Europe.
His son, Gosewijn Theodor van Cothoonv wrote hii life (re-edited
Sypcrstein, Leeuwarden, 1660), See also v. ZaMrow, GtuAichtr det
bestdndigen Befcstigung (Leipxig, i&ih): von Btesc-Winiari. L'l*t
~ - • yd Wesen dct nruen
iy, Essai kistanqt*
Mandar, Architecture Act fortresses (tBa\); Krayenhofl, I'erhandr-
Entstehen urn
Cosieran dc ViIlenoi-.> , Essoi kisiorique stir la fortificat
Vim dee nevcrcn Befestintngsmtihade (18.1,4 1;
" ion (t»6gj;
ling over dc erste veritfTkinesTnanier ran Cockoom (Hague, ifojj;
Bosscha, Ncderlandsche hddrnd U Land (Amsterdam. tfljBk Devii.
Histoire de Betgique (ilnivwh, 1823); Vpcy* Narraiio. d* rebus gcitis
■'—- — '- ^okornr *•
kunst (1776); Axtomatai pf clipnteene betrntnistt over de Vestinrk*
bouw door Menno Baron t'dn Car k --
Mennonis Cohomi (1771); Hetinert. Dissertation mr la for ti fasti *n
permanente (1705); iVfhrni. Crumdlkhe Anteitung zur Kneifbcu*
'""' *~~~* x - --'— '- tint**
.Bert
. . gtntrai de forts,
ficatton (1797); also the article Foktihcation and SitcECSAFr
t'dn Cochoom, Uyieewerkl door £ b W. Bert
jf Warl : Dou^mard. Essai gtnfrot rfc forU*
(MS in Dutch Mini
'■ation (1797); also the 1
COELENTERA, a group or grade of the animal kingdom, the
zoological importance of which has risen considerably since the
time (1887) of the publication of the first article under that
heading in the Ency. Brit. (9th edit.), even though their numbers
have been reduced by the elevation of the Sponges or Porifera to
the rank of an independent Phylum under the title Paraxoa
(W. J. Sollas, 1884). For the Coclcntcra thus restricted, the
term Enterocoela, in contrast to Cbelomocoela (the old Code*
mata), was suggested by £. R. Lankester (1900).
COELENTERA
641
From the more complex colonial Protozoa the Coelentera are
readily separated by their possession of two distinct sets of cells,
with diverse functions, arranged in two definite layers,— a
condition found in no Protozoan. The old criterion by which
they and other Metazoa were once distinguished from Protozoa,
namely, the differentiation of large and small sexual cells from
each other and from the remaining cells of the body, has been
broken down by the discovery of numerous cases of such
differentiation among Protozoa. The Coclcntera, as contrasted
with other Metazoa (but not Parazoa), consist of two layers
of cells only, an outer layer or ectoderm, an inner layer or
endoderm. They have hence been described as Diploblastica.
In the remaining Metazoa certain cells are budded off at an
early stage of development from one or both of the two original
layers, to form later a third layer, the mesoderm, which lies
between the ectoderm and endoderm; such forms have therefore
received the name Triploblastica. At the same time it is necessary
to observe that it is by no means certain that the mesoderm found
In various groups of Metazoa is a similar or homologous formation
In all cases. A second essential difference between Coelentera
and other Metazoa (except Parazoa) is that in the former all
■paces in the interior of the body are referable to a single cavity
of endodermal origin, the " gastro-vascular cavity,** often termed
the coelenteron: the spaces are always originally continuous
with one another, and are in almost every case permanently so.
This single cavity and its. lining serve apparently for all those
functions (digestion, excretion, circulation and often repro-
duction) which in more complex organisms are distributed
among various cavities of independent and often very diverse
origin.
In the Coelentera the ectoderm and endoderm are set apart
from one another at a very early period in the life-history;
generally either by dclamination or invagination, processes
described in the article Embryology. Between these two cell-
layers a mesogloca (G. C. Bourne, 1887) is always intercalated
as a secretion by one or both of them; this is a gelatinoid, primi-
tively structureless lamella, which in the first instance serves
merely as a basal support for the cells. In many cases, as, for
example, in the Medusae or jelly-fish, the mesogloea may be so
thick as to constitute the chief part of the body in bulk and
weight The ectoderm rarely consists of more than one layer
of cells: these are divisible by structure and function into
nervous, muscular and secretory cells, supported by interstitial
cells. The endoderm is generally also an epithelium one cell in
thickness, the cells being digestive, secretory and sometimes
muscular. Reproductive sexual cells may be found in either of
these two layers, according to the class and sub-class in question.
The mesogloea is in itself an inert non-cellular secretion, but the
Immigration of muscular and other cells into its substance,
from both ectoderm and endoderm, gives it in many cases a
strong resemblance to the mesoderm of Triploblastica, — a
resemblance which, while probably superficial, may yet serve to
indicate the path of evolution of the mesoderm.
The Coelentera may thus be briefly defined as Metazoa which
exhibit two embryonic cell-layers only, — the ectoderm and
endoderm,— their body-cavities being referable to a single cavity
or coelenteron in the endoderm. Their position in the animal
kingdom and their main subdivisions may be expressed in the
following table:—
I. Protozoa.
II. Parazoa or PouraaA.
HI. Metazoa.
I
Ceolentera
» Diploblastica.
Triploblastica
(including Coclomata).
Hydromedusae, Scypnozoa,
Ctcnophora.
Scyphomedusae.
Anthozoa.
In the above-given classification, the Scyphomedusae, formerly
included with the Hydromedusae as Hydrozoa, are placed
nearer the Anthozoa. The reasons for this may be stated
briefly.
The Hydromedusae are distinguished from the Scyphozoa
chiefly by negative characters; they have no stomodacum,
that is, no ingrowth of ectoderm at the mouth to form an oeso-
phagus; they have no mesenteries (radiating partitions) which
incompletely subdivide the coelenteron; and they have no
concentration of digestive cells into special organs. Their
ectodermal muscles are mainly longitudinal, their endodermal
muscles arc circularly arranged on the body-wall. Their sexual
cells are (probably in all cases) produced from the ectoderm,
and lie in those radii which are first accentuated in development
They typically present two structural forms, the non-sexual
hydroid and the sexual medusoid; in such a case there is an
alternation of generations (metagenesis), the hydroid giving rise
to the medusoid by a sexual gemmation, the medusoid bearing
sexual cells which develop into a hydroid. In some other cases
medusoid develops directly from medusoid (hypogencsis),
whether by sexual cells or by gemmation. The medusoids have
a muscular velum of ectoderm and mesogloea only.
The Scyphozoa have the following features in common: —
They typically exhibit an ectodermal stomodacum; partitions
or mesenteries project into their coelenteron from the body-wall,
and on these are generally concentrated digestive cells (to form
mesenterial filaments, phacellae or gastric filaments, &c.); the
external musculature of the body-wall is circular (except in
Ccrianlkus); the internal, longitudinal; and the sexual celb
probably always arise in the endoderm.
The Scyphomedusae, like the Hydromedusae, typically
present a metagenesis, the non-sexual scyphistomoid (corre-
sponding to the hydroid) alternating with the sexual medusoid.
In other cases the medusoid is hypogenetie, medusoid producing
medusoid. The sexual cells of the medusoid lie in the endoderm
on interradii, that is, on the second set of radii accentuated in
the course of development. The medusoids have no true velum;
in some cases a structure more or less resembling this organ,
termed a velarium, is present, permeated by endodermal canals.
The Anthozoa differ from the Scyphomedusae in having
no medusoid form; they all more or less resemble a sea-anemone,
and may be termed actinioid. They are (with rare excep-
tions, probably secondarily acquired) hypogenetie, the offspring
resembling the parent, and both being sexual The sexual cells
are borne on the mesenteries in positions irrespective of obvious
developmental radii.
The Ctenophosa are so aberrant in structure that it has been
proposed to separate them from the Coelentera altogether:
they are, however, theoretically deducible from an ancestor
common to other Coelentera, but their extreme specialization
precludes the idea of any close relationship with the rest.
As regards the other three groups, however, it is easy to
conceive of them as derived from an ancestor, represented to-day
to some extent by the planula-Jarva, which was Coelcnterate in
so far as it was composed of an ectoderm and endoderm, and
had an internal digestive cavity (I. of the table).
At the point of divergence between Scyphozoa and Hydro-
medusae (II. of the table of hypothetical descent), wc may
conceive of its descendant as tentaculate, capable of either
floating (swimming) or fixation at will like Lucernaria to-day;
and exhibiting incipient differentiation of myoepithelial cells
(formerly termed neuro-muscular cells). At the parting of the
ways which led, on the one hand, to modern Scyphomedusae, on
the other to Anthozoa (III.), it is probable that the common
ancestor was marked by incipient mesenteries and by the limita-
tion of the sexual cells to endoderm. The lines of descent— II.
to Hydromedusae, and HI. to Scyphomedusae— represent periods
during which the hypothetical ancestors IX and III., capable of
either locomotion or fixation at will, were either differentiated
into alternating generations of fixed sterile nutritive hydroids
(scyphistomoids) and locomotor sexual medusoids, or abandoned
the power of fixation in hypogenetie cases. TtaxuNOtat^fstafe.
642
COELLO— COELOM
represented by the line of descent— III. to Anthosoa— this group
abandoned its power of adult locomotion by swimming. During
Anthozoa.
Hydromcdusae.
Scyphomcdusae.
these periods were also attained those less important structural
characters which these three groups present to-day. (G.H.Fo.)
COELLO, ALOMSO SANCHEZ (1515-1500), Spanish painter,
according to some authorities a native of Portugal, was born,
according to others, at Benifacio, near the city of Valencia.
He studied many years in Italy; and returning to Spain in 1541
he settled at Madrid, and worked on religious themes for most
of the palaces and larger churches. He was a follower of Titian,
and, like him, excelled in portraits and single figures, elaborating
the textures of his armours, draperies, and such accessories in a
manner so masterly as strongly to influence Velasquez in his
treatment of like objects. Many of his pictures were destroyed
in the fires that consumed the Madrid and Prado palaces, but
many good examples are yet extant, among which may be noted
the portraits of the infantes Carlos and Isabella, now in the
Madrid gallery, and the St Sebastian painted in the church of
San Geronimo, also in Madrid. Coello left a daughter, Isabella
Sanchez, who studied under him, and painted excellent portraits.
008LL0, ANTONIO (i6ao?-i6sa), Spanish dramatist and
poet, was born at Madrid about the beginning of the 1 7th century.
He entered the household of the duke de Albuquerque, and after
some years of service in the army received the order of Santiago
in 1648. He was a favourite of Philip IV., who is reported to
have collaborated with him; this rumour is not confirmed, but
there is ample proof of Coello's collaboration with Calderon,
Rojas Zorrilla, Soils and Velez de Guevara, the most dis-
tinguished dramatists of the age. The best of his original
pbys, Los Empenos de sets koras, has been wrongly ascribed
to Calderon; it was adapted by Samuel Tuke, under the title of
The Adventures of five Hows, and was described by Pepys as
superior to Othello. It is an excellent example of stagecraft
and animated dialogue. Coello died on the 20th of October
165a, shortly after his nomination to a post in the household
of Philip IV.
COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES. In human anatomy
the body-cavity or coelom (Gr. wnXot, hollow) is divided into the
pericardium, the two pleurae, the peritoneum and the two tunica*
vaginaUs.
The pericardium fs a dosed sac which occupies the central
part of the thorax and contains the heart. Like all the serous
membranes it has a visceral and a parietal layer, the former of
which is closely applied to the heart and consists of endothelial
ceus with a slight fibrous backing: to ft is due the glossy appear-
ance of a freshly removed heart. The parietal layer is double;
Externally there is a strong fibrous protective coat which is con-
tinuous with the other fibrous structures in the neighbourhood,
especially with the sheaths of the great vessels at the root of the
heart, with prolongations of the fascia of the neck, and with the
central tendon of the diaphragm, while internally is the serous
layer which is rejected from the surface of the heart, where the
great vessels enter, so that everywhere the two layers of the
serous membrane are in contact, and the only thing within the
cavity is a drop or two of the fluid secreted by the serous watts.
When the parietal layer is laid open and the heart removed by
cutting through the great vessels, it will be seen that there are
two lines of reflection of the serous layer, one common to the aorta
and pulmonary artery, the other to all the pulmonary veins aad
the two venae cavae.
The pleurae very closely resemble the pericardium except thu
the fibrous outer coat of the parietal layer is not nearly as strong;
it is closely attached to the inner surface of the chest walk and
mesially to the outer layer of the pericardium; above it is
thickened by a fibrous contribution from the scalene muscks,
and this forms the dome of the pleura which fits into the concavity
of the first rib and contains the apex of the lung. The refleaka
of the serous layer of the pleura, from the parietal to the visceral
part, takes place at the root of the lung, where the great vessels
enter, and continues for some distance below this as the li§t-
menium latum pulmonis. The upper limit of the pleural cavfcjr
reaches about half an inch above the inner third of the davide,
while, below, it may be marked out by a line drawn from tk
twelfth thoracic spine to the tenth rib in the mid axillary list
the eighth rib in the nipple line, and the sixth rib at its juncuoo
with the sternum. There is probably very little difference in
the lower level of the pleurae on the two aides.
The peritoneum b a more extensive and complicated membrxoe
than either the pericardium or pleura; it surrounds the abdomioal
and pelvic viscera, and, like the other sacs, has a parietal aod
visceral layer. The line of reflection of these, though a con-
tinuous- one, is very tortuous. The peritoneum consists of »
greater and lesser sac which communicate through an opening
known as the foramen of Win slow, and the most satisfactory ny
of understanding these is to follow the reflections first in a vertical
median (sagittal) section and then
in a horizontal one, the body
being supposed to be in the up-
right position. If a median
sagittal section be studied first,
and a suit be made at the
umbilicus (see fig. 1), the parietal
peritoneum is seen to run upward,
lining the anterior abdominal
wall, and then to pass along the
under surface of the diaphragm
till its posterior third is reached;
here there is a reflection on to
the liver (L), forming the anterior
layer of the coronary ligament
of that viscus, while the mem-
brane now becomes visceral and
envelops the front of the liver I
as far back as the transverse I
fissure on its lower surface; here *
it is reflected on to the stomach
(St) forming the anterior layer
of the gostro-kepotic or lesser
omentum. It now covers the
front of the stomach, and at the
lower border runs down as the A, Aorta. D, _ —
anterior layer of an^ron-like f/ SteHhS S^IJomlS.
fold, the great omentum, which- r, Rectum. C. ColonT^
in some cases reaches as low as L, Liver. V, Vagina,
the pubes; then it turns up again (The fine dots represent the
as the posterior or fourth layer of greatsacof the peritoneum, the
thegreat omentum until the trans- coa^ dots the leaser sac.)
verse colon (C) is reached, the posterior surface of which it covers
and is reflected, as the posterior layer of the transverse nuso-cotcn,
to the lower part of the pancreas (P); after this it turns down and
covers the anterior surface of the third part of the duodenum
(D) till the posterior wall of the abdomen is reached, from
which it is reflected on to the small intestine (I) as the anterior
layer of the mesentery, a fold varying from 5 to 8 in. between its
Flc. r.— Diagram of vertical
median section of Abdomen.
COELOM
6+3
attachment*. After surrounding the snail intestine it becomes
the posterior layer of the mesentery and so again reaches the
posterior abdominal wall, down which it runs until the rectum
(R) is reached. The anterior surface of this tube is covered by
peritoneum to a point about 3 in. from the anus, where it is
reflected on to the uterus and vagina (V) in the female and then
on to the bladder (B); in the male, on the other hand, the
reflection is directly from the rectum to the bladder. At the apex
of the bladder, after covering the upper surface of that organ,
it is lifted off by the urachus and runs up the anterior abdominal
wall to the umbilicus, from which the start was made. All this
is the greater sac. The tracing of the lesser sac may be con-
veniently started at the transverse fissure of the liver, whence
the membrane runs down to the stomach (St) as the posterior
layer of the lesser omentum, lines the posterior surface of the
stomach, passes down as the second layer of the great omentum
and up again as the third layer, covers the anterior surface of the
transverse colon (C) and then reaches the pancreas (P) as- the
anterior layer of the transverse mesocolon. After this it covers
the front of the pancreas and in the middle line of the body
runs up below the diaphragm to within an inch of the anterior
layer of the coronary ligament of the liver; here it is reflected
on to the top of the Spigelian lobe of the liver to form the posterior
p. v. B.D. layer of the coronary liga-
ment, covers the whole
Spigelian lobe, and so
reaches the transverse
fissure, the starting-point.
This section, therefore,
shows two completely
closed sacs without any
visible communication. In
the female, however, the
great sac is not absolutely
closed, for the Fallopian
tubes open into it by their
Fio. 2.— Diagram of Horizontal minute ostia obdominalia,
Section through upper part of. lit while at the other ends
Lumbar Vertebra. they communicate with
A. Aorta. H^, Heoatic Artery. tne cavity of the uterus
1Tb, Suet. L,' SS7' «j *> «* the vagina
V.C, Vena Cava. St, Stomach. *nd exterior.
P, Pancreas. P.V. Portal Vein. A horizontal section
The dotting of the peritoneum is through the upper part of
• s IO ** '• the first lumbar vertebra
will, if a fortunate one (see fig. s), pass through the foramen
of Winslow and show the communication of the two sacs.
A starting-point may be made from the mid-ventral line and the
parietal peritoneum traced round the left side of the body wall
until the outer edge of the left kidney (K) is reached; here it
passes in front of the kidney and is soon reflected off on to the
spleen, which it nearly surrounds; just before it reaches the
hilum of that organ, where the vessels enter, It is reflected on to
the front of the stomach (St), forming the anterior layer of the
gastrospUnic omentum; it soon reaches the lesser curvature of
the stomach and then becomes the anterior layer of the lesser
omentum, which continues until the bile duct (B.D) and portal
vein (P.V) are reached at its right free extremity; here it turns
completely round these structures and runs to the left again, as
the posterior layer of the lesser omentum, behind the stomach
(St) and then to the spleen (Sp) as the posterior layer of the
gastro-splenk omentum. From the spleen it runs to the right
once more, in front of the pancreas (P), until the inferior vena
cava (V.C) is reached, and this point is just behind the portal vein
and is the place where the lesser and greater sacs communicate,
known as the foramen of Winslow. From this opening the lesser
sac runs to the left, while all the rest of the peritoneal cavity in the
section is greater sac. From the front of the vena cava the
parietal peritoneum passes in front of the right kidney (K) and
sound the right abdominal wall to the mid-ventral line. The right
part of this section is filled by the liver (L), which is completely
surrounded by a visceral layer of peritoneum, and no reflection
v,c.
is usually seen at this level between it and the parietal layer.
Some of the viscera, such as the kidneys and pancreas, are
retro-peritoneal; others, such as the small intestines and trans-
verse colon, are surrounded, except at one point where they are
attached to the dorsal wall by a mesentery or mesocolon as the
reflections are called; others again are completely surrounded,
and of these the caecum is an example; while some, like the liver
and bladder, have large uncovered areas, and the reflections of the
membrane form ligaments which allow considerable freedom of
movement.
The tunica vaginalis Is the remains of a process of the peritoneum
(protessus vaginalis) which descends into the scrotum during
foetal life some little time before the testis itself descends.
After the descent of the testis the upper part usually becomes
obliterated, while the lower part forms a serous sac which nearly
surrounds the testis, but does not quite do so. Posteriorly the
epididymis is in close contact with the testis, and here the visceral
layer is not in contact; there fa, however, a pocket called the
digital fossa which squeezes in from the outer side between the
testis and epididymis. The parietal layer lines the inner wall
of its own side of the scrotum.
For a full inscription of tbe topography of the scroiii membranes
see any <d the standard text- books oJ anatomy, by Gray. Qua in,
Cunningham or Macjli & tci\ Special detail* will be found in Sir F.
Treves' Anatomy of the Inttitinal Canat and I'rriifmtum (London,
1885); C. B* LocWood, Hnnirrian L/eelurt$ on Hernia (London,
1889); C* Adduon. "Topographical Anatomy of the Abdominal
Viscera inMan," Jour. An^L, vulvj*, js; F. Dixon and A. Birming-
ham, " Peritoneum of the Pelvic Cavity, Jeur.Aruii. vol h ia P- 1*1 ;
W. waldcycr, *' L>as Bocken " (iSgg), and " Topographical Sketch
of the Lateral Wall of the Pelvic Cavity," Jour. Attat. vol. jj;'
B. Moyrrihan. Retroperitoneal U*m%& (London, 1890). A complete
bibliography of the subject up to 1805 will be found in Qwut's
Anatomy, voL j, part 4. p 69.
Embryology— A% the mesoderm is gradually spreading over
the embryo it splits into two layers, the outer of which is known
as the somatopleurt and lines the parietal or ectodermal wall,
Mm Toot Mi Rofafaft*. Qaofachun Fcrf Bmk rfAm+m*
Fio. 3.— Diagram of Longitudinal Section, showing the different
areas of the Blastodermic Vesicle.
a, Pericardium. c. Ectoderm. a, Placental area.
b, Bucco-pharyngcal area. d, Entoderm.
while the inner lines the entoderm and is called the splanckno-
plcure; between the two is the coclom. The pericardial area
is early differentiated from the rest of the coelom and at first
lies in front of the neural and bucco-pharyngcal area; here the
After Y«Ntf tad Robinson, CunnfoglLiin's Ttxt B»ak ff Atultmy.
Fio. 4.— Diagram of a DcvclopingCKnim.sc^n in Longitudinal Sectioo.
/, Spinal cord. I, Brain.
{, Notochord. k, Extra embryonic coelom.
, Dorsal wall of alimentary canal. Other numbers as in fig. 3.
mesoderm stretches right across the mid-line, which it does not
in front and behind. As the head fold of the embryo is formed
the pericardium is gradually turned right over, so that the dorsal
side becomes the ventral and the anterior limit the posterior;
this will be evident on referring to the two accompanying
diagrams.
The two primitive SMUfc u* *X toXWaMfcH^tofc.'wfc^^*
644
COEN— COENACULUM
pericardium, but with the folding over they come to lie in
the dorsal wall and gradually bulge into the cavity as they
coalesce to form the heart, so that the heart drops into the dorsal
side of the pericardium and draws down a fold of the membrane
called the dorsal myocardium. In mammals A. Robinson
{Jour. Anat. and Pkys., xxxvii. i) has shown that no ventral
mesocardium exists, though in more lowly vertebrates it is
present. Laterally the pericardial cavity communicates with
the general cavity of the codom, but with the growth of the
Cuvicrian ducts (see development of veins) these communica-
tions disappear. Originally the mesocardium runs the whole
length of the pericardium from before backward, but later on
the middle part becomes obliterated, and so the two separate
reflections from the parietal to the visceral layer, already noticed,
are accounted for.
Just behind the pericardium and in front of the umbilicus,
which at first are dose together, the mesoderm forms a mass
which is called the septum transversum t and into this the develop-
ing lungs push bag-like protrusions of the coelom, consisting of
visceral and parietal layers, and these eventually lose their
connexion with the rest of the coelom, as the diaphragm develops,
and become the pleural cavities. After the pericardium and
pleurae have been separated off the remainder of the coelom
becomes the peritoneum. At first the stomach and intestine
form a straight tube, which is connected to the dorsum of the
embryo by a dorsal mesentery and to the mid-ventral wall in
front of the umbilicus by a ventral mesentery. Into the ventral
mesentery the liver grows as diverticula from the duodenum,
so that some of the mesentery remains as the falciform ligament
of the liver and some as the lesser omentum. Into the dorsal
mesentery the pancreas grows, also as diverticula, from the
duodenum, while the spleen is developed from the mesoderm
contained in the same fold. As the stomach turns over so that
its left side becomes ventral, the dorsal mesentery attached to
it becomes pulled out, in such a way that part of it forms the
great omentum and part the gastro-splenic omentum. After
the caecum is formed as a diverticulum from the intestine it is
situated dose to the liver and gradually travels down into the
right iliac fossa. This passage to the right is accompanied by a
throwing over of the duodenal loop to the right, so that the right
side of its mesentery becomes pressed against the dorsal wall of
the abdomen and obliterated. This accounts for the fact that
the pancreas and duodenum are only covered by peritoneum
on their anterior surfaces in man. The formation of the lesser
sac is due to the turning over of the stomach to the right, with
the result that a cave, known sometimes as the bursa omenta I is,
is formed behind it. Originally, of course, the whole colon had a
dorsal mesocolon continuous with the mesentery, but in the
region of the ascending and descending colon this usually dis-
appears and these parts of the gut are uncovered by peritoneum
posteriorly. The transverse mesocolon persists and at first
is quite free from the great omentum, but later, in man, the two
structures fuse 1 and the fourth layer of the great omentum
becomes continuous with the posterior layer of the transverse
mesocolon.
For further details see Quain's Anatomy (London, 1908).
Comparative Anatomy.— In the Amphioxus the coelom is
developed in the embryo as a scries of bilateral pouches, called
enterocodts, from the sides of the alimentary canal; these are
therefore entodcrmal in their origin, as in Sagitta and the Echino-
dcrmata among the invertebrates. In the adult the devdopment
of the atrium causes a considerable reduction of the codom,
represented by two dorsal coelomic canals communicating with
a ventral canal by means of branchial canals which run down
the outer side of the primary gill bars. Into the dorsal canals
the nephridia open. In the intestinal region the codom is only
present on the left side.
In the higher vertebrates (Craniata) the codom is developed
by a splitting of the mesoderm into two layers, and a peri-
1 Some authorities hold that this alteration is not brought about
by fusion, but by a dragging away of the posterior layer of tne great
omentum from the dotal w*U of toe abdomen.
cardium is constricted off from the general cavity. In all casts
the ova burst into the coelom before making their way to the
exterior, and in some cases, e.g. amphioxus, lamprey (Cydo-
stomata), eels and mud-fish (Dipnoi), the sperm cells do so too.
The Cyclostomata have a pair of genital ports which lead
from the codom into the urino-genital sinus, and so to the
exterior.
In the Elasmobranch fish there is a pericardia-peritoneal tend
forming a communication between these two parts of the codom;
also a large common opening for the two oviducts in the repot
of the liver, and two openings, called abdominal pores, on to the
surface dose to the cloacal aperture. In the Tcleostomi (Teko-
stean and Ganoid fish) abdominal pores are rare, but in asott
Teleostei (bony fish) the ova pass directly down oviducts, at
they do in Arthropods, without entering the peritoneal cavity;
there is little doubt, however, that these oviducts are originally
coelomic in origin. In the Dipnoi (mud-fish) abdominal pons
are found, and probably serve as a passage for the sperm cells,
since there are no vasa deferentia. In fishes a complete doml
mesentery is seldom found in the adult; in many cases it only
remains as a tube surrounding the vessels passing to the aliment-
ary canal.
In the Amphibia, Reptilia and Aves, one cavity acts as plana
and peritoneum, though in the latter the lungs are not com-
pletely surrounded by a serous membrane. In many lizards
the comparatively straight intestine, with its continuous dorsal
mesentery and ventral mesentery in the anterior part of the
abdomen, is very like a stage in the development of the human
and other mammalian embryos. In the mammalia the dia-
phragm is complete (see Diaphragm) and divides the ptano-
peritoneal cavity into its two constituent parts. la the
lower mammals. the derivatives of the original dorsal mesentery
do not undergo as much fusion and obliteration as they ds is
adult man; the ascending and descending mesocolon is retained,
and the transverse mesocolon contracts no adhesion to the great
omentum. It is a common thing, however, to find a fenestrated
arrangement of the great omentum which shows that its layers
have been completdy obliterated in many places.
In those animals, such as the rabbit, in which the tests are
sometimes in the scrotum and sometimes in the abdomen, the
communication between the peritoneum and the tunica vaginalis
remains throughout life.
For further details and literature uri to 1002, see R. Wiedersfceun'i
Vergleicktnde Anatomic dcr WirbeUiere (Jena, 1903). (F. C. P.)
COEN, JAN PIBTBRSZOON (1587-1630), fourth governor,
general of the Dutch East Indies, was born at Hoorn, and spent
his youth at Rome in the house of the famous merchants the
Piscatori. In 1607 he sailed from Amsterdam to the Indies as
second commercial agent, and remained away four years. Hehad
proved so capable that in 16x2 he was sent out a second time at
the head of a trading expedition. In the following year he was
made a councillor and director-general of the East Indian trade.
Afterwards he became president at Bantam, and on the 31st of
October 161 7 he was promoted in succession to Laurens Reaal
to the post of governor-general. To his vigour and intrepidity
the Dutch in no small measure owed the preservation and estab-
lishment of their empire in the East He took and des t ro y ed
Jacatra, and founded on its ruins the capital of the Dutch East
Indies, to which he gave the name of Batavia. In 1621 Coea
obtained leave to resign his post and return to Holland, but in his
absence great difficulties had arisen with the English at Amboins
(the so-called massacre of Amboina), and in 1627 under pressure
from the directors of the East India Company he again returned
as governor-general to Batavia. In 1629 he was able to beat off
a formidable attack of the sultan of Mataram, sometimes styled
emperor of Java, upon Batavia. He died the following year.
COENACULUM, the term applied to the eating-room of a
Roman house in which the supper (cecna) or latest meal was
taken. It was sometimes placed in an upper storey and reached
by a n external staircase. The Last Supper in the New Testament
was taken in the Coenaculum, the " large upper room " cited
St Mark (xiv. is) and St Luke (xxii. 12).
CCENWULF— CCEUR
64.5
CONWULF (d. 821), king of Merria, succeeded to the throne
In 796, on the death of Ecgfrith, ton of Offa. His succession is
somewhat remarkable, as his direct ancestors do not seem to have
held the throne for six generations. In 798 he invaded Kent,
deposed and imprisoned Eadberht Pram, and made his own
brother Cuthred king. Cuthred reigned in Kent from 708 to 807,
when he died, and Ccenwulf seems to have taken Kent into his
own hands. It was during this reign that the archbishopric erf
Lichfield was abolished, probably before 803, as the Hygeberht
who signed as an abbot at the council of Cloveshoe in that year
was presumably the former archbishop. Ccenwulf appears from
the charters- to have quarrelled with Wulfred of Canterbury, who
was consecrated in 806, and the dispute continued for several
years. It was probably only settled at Cloveshoe in 815, when the
lawsuit of Cwoenthryth, daughter and heiress of Ccenwulf, with
Wulfred was terminated. Grnwulf may have instigated the
raid of A£thelmund, earl of the Hwiccc, upon the accession of
Ecgberht. He died in 821, and was succeeded by his brother
CeolwulfL
See Carle and Plummet's edition of the AntUhSaxcn Ckrmiek,
706, 819 (Oxford, 189a): W. de C. Birch, CarttUarium Saxcnicum,
378 (London, 1 885-1 893). (F. G. M. B.)
COERCION (from Lat. coercere, to restrain), an application of
moral or physical compulsion by which a person is forced to do or
refrain from doing some act or set of acts apart from his own
voluntary motion. Where the coercion is direct or positive, ix.
where the person is compelled by physical force to do an act
contrary to his will, — for example, when a man is compelled to
join a rebel army, and to serve as a soldier under threats of
death,— his act is not legally a crime. Where the coercion is
implied, as when a person is legally under subjection to another,
the person coerced, having no will on the subject, is not responsible.
But this principle is applied only within narrow limits, and
does not extend to the command of a superior to an inferior;
of a parent to a child; of a master to his servant or a principal
to his agent. Where, however, a married woman commits a
crime in the presence of her husband, she is generally presumed
to have acted by his coercion, and to be entitled to acquittal,
but this presumption does not extend to grave crimes, nor to
those in which the principal part may be supposed to be taken by
the woman, such as keeping a brothel. In civil matters, such as
the making of a contract, where the law requires the free assent
of the oerson who undertakes the obligation, coercion is a ground
for invalidating the instrument.
The term " coercion " is inevitably somewhat ambiguous, and
depends on the circumstances of the case. In a political sense,
the application of the Crimes Act of 1887 to Ireland was called
" coercion " by those opposed to the English Unionist party and
government, as being special legislation differing from the
ordinary law applicable in the United Kingdom.
CCEUR, JACQUES (c. 1 395-1456), founder of the trade between
France and the Levant, was born at Bourgcs, in which city his
father, Pierre Cocur, was a rich merchant. Jacques is first heard
of about 14 1 8, when he married Macee dc Leodepart, daughter
of Lambert de Leodepart, an influential citizen, provost of
Bourges, and a former valet of John, duke of Berry. About 1429
he formed a commercial partnership with two brothers named
Godard; and in 143 a he was at Damascus, buying and bartering,
and transporting the wares of the Levant— gall-nuts, wools and
silks, goats' hair, brocades and carpets — to the interior of France
by way of Narbonne. In the same year he established himself
at Montpellier, and there began those gigantic operations which
have made him illustrious among financiers. Details are wan ting ;
but it is certain that in a few years he placed his country in a
position to contend not unsuccessfully with the great trading
republics of Italy, and acquired such reputation as to be able,
mere trader as he was, to render material assistance to the
knights of Rhodes and to Venice herself.
In 1436 Cceur was summoned to Paris by Charles VII., and
made master of the mint that had been established in that city.
The post was of vast importance, and the duties onerous. The
country was deluged with the base moneys of three reigns, charged
with superscriptions both French and English, and Charles had
determined on a sweeping reform. In this design he was ably
seconded by the merchant, who, in fact, inspired or prepared
all the- ordinances concerning the coinage of France issued
between 1435 and 1451. In 1438 he was made steward of the
royal expenditure; in 1441 he and his family were ennobled by
letters patent In 1444 he was sent as one of the royal com*
missioners to preside over the new parlement of Languedoc,
a dignity he bore till the day of his disgrace. In 1445 his agents
in the East negotiated a treaty between the sultan of Egypt and
the knights of Rhodes; and in 1447, at his instance, Jean de
Village, his nephew by marriage, was charged with a mission
to Egypt. The results were most important; concessions wen
obtained which greatly improved the position of the French
consuls in the Levant, and that influence in the East was thereby
founded which, though often interrupted, was for several
centuries a chief commercial glory of France. In the same year
Ccfcur assisted in an embassy to Amadeus VIII., former duke of
Savoy, who had been chosen pope as Felix V. by the council of
Basel; and in 1448 he represented the French king at the court
of Pope Nicholas V., and was able to arrange an agreement
b etwe e n Nicholas and Amadeus, and so to end the papal schism.
Nicholas treated him with the utmost distinction, lodged him In
the papal palace, and gave him a special licence to traffic with the
infidels. From about this time he made large advances to Charles
for carrying on his wars; and in 1449, after fighting at the
king's side through the campaign, he entered Rouen in his train.
At this moment the great trader's glory was at its height.
He had represented France in three embassies, and had supplied
the sinews of that war which had ousted the English from
Normandy. He was invested with various offices of dignity,
and possessed the most colossal fortune that had ever been
amassed by a private Frenchman. The sea was covered with his
ships; he had 300 factors in his employ, and houses of business
in all the chief cities of France. He had built houses and chapels,
and had founded colleges in Paris, at Montpellier and at Bourges.
The house at Bourges (see House, Plate II. figs. 7 and 8) was of
exceptional magnificence, and remains to-day one of the finest
monuments of the middle ages in France. He also built there
the sacristy of the cathedral and a sepulchral chapel for his
family. His brother Nicholas was made bishop of Lucon, his
sister married Jean Bochctel, the king's secretary, his daughter
married the son of the viscount of Bourges, and his son Jean
became archbishop of Bourges. But Coeur's gigantic monopoly
caused his ruin. Dealing in everything, money and arms,
peltry and jewels, brocades and woollens — a broker, a banker,
a farmer — he had absorbed the trade of the country, and
merchants complained they could make no gains on account of
" that Jacquct." He had lent money to needy courtiers, to
members of the royal family, and to the king himself, and his
debtors, jealous of his wealth, were eager for a chance to cause
his overthrow.
In February 1450 Agnes Sorcl, the king's mistress, suddenly
died. Eighteen months later it was rumoured that she had been
poisoned, and a lady of the court who owed money to Jacques
Cceur, Jeanne de Vendomc, wife of Francois dc Montbcron, and
an Italian, Jacques Colonna, formally accused him of having
poisoned her. There was not even a pretext for such a charge,
but for this and other alleged crimes the king, on the 31st of July
1451, gave orders for his arrest and for the seizure of his goods,
reserving to himself a large sum of money for the war in Guicnne.
Commissioners extraordinary, the merchant's declared enemies,
were chosen to conduct the trial, and an inquiry began, the judges
in which were cither the prisoner's debtors or the holders of his
forfeited estates. He was accused of having paid French gold
and ingots to the infidels, of coining light money, of kidnapping
oarsmen for his galleys, of sending back a Christian slave who
had taken sanctuary on board one of his ships, and of committing
frauds and exactions in Languedoc to the king's prejudice. He
defended himself with all the energy of his nature. His innocence
was manifest; but a conviction was necessary, and in spile oi
strenuous efforts on the, uaxV *l Vas, VoK*&a>, i&nxx Wt^a**
646
CCEUR D'ALfeNE— COFFEE
months of . confinement in five prisons, he was condemned to
do public penance for his fault, to pay the king a sum equal to
•bout £1,000,000 of modern money, and to remain a prisoner till
full satisfaction had been obtained; his sentence also embraced
confiscation of all his property, and exile during royal pleasure.
On the 5th of June 1453 the sentence took elect; at Poitiers
the shameful form of making honourable amends was gone
through; and for nearly three years nothing is known of him.
It is probable that he remained in prison; it is certain that his
vast possessions were distributed among the intimates of Charles.
I* M55 Jacques Cceur, wherever confined, contrived to escape
into Provence. He was pursued; but a party, headed by Jean
de Village and two of his old factors, carried him off to Tarascon,
whence, by way of Marseilles, Nice and Pisa, he managed to reach
Rome. He was honourably and joyfully received by Nicholas V.,
who was fitting out an expedition against the Turks. On the
death of Nicholas, Calixtus III. continued his work, and named
bis guest captain of a fleet of sixteen galleys sent to the relief
of Rhodes. Cccur set out on this expedition, but was taken
ill at Chios, and died there on the 85th of November 1456.
After his death Charles VII. showed himself well disposed to the
family, and allowed Jacques Coeur's sons to come into possession
of whatever was left of their father's wealth.
See the admirable monograph of Pierre Clement, Jaconet Cteur
H Charles VII (1858, and ed. 1874): A. Valet de Virivifle, Charles
Sept et son Ipoque (3 vols., 1862-1865); and Louisa Costdlo, Jacques
Gear, the French Argonaut (London, 1847).
(XBUR D'ALftNE ("awl-heart," the French translation of
the native name skilswish), a tribe of North American Indians
of Salishan stock. The name is said to have been originally that
of a chief noted for his cruelty. The tribe has given its name
to a lake, river and range of mountains in Idaho, where on a
reserv ation the survivors, some 400, are settled.
COFFEE (Fr. cafi, Gcr. Kaffee). This important and valu-
able, article of food is the produce chiefly of Coffea arabica,
a Rubiaceous plsnt indigenous
to Abyssinia, which, however,
as cultivated originally, spread
outwards from the southern
parts of Arabia. The name is
probably derived from the Arabic
K'hawah, although by some it
has been traced to Kaffa, a
province in Abyssinia, in which
the tree grows wild.
The genus Coffea, to which
the common coffee tree belongs,
contains about 35 species in the
tropics of the Old World, mainly
African. Besides being found
wild in Abyssinia, the common
coffee plant appears to be widely
disseminated in Africa, occurring
wild in the Mozambique district,
on the shores of the Victoria
Nyanza, and in Angola on the
west coast. The coffee leaf
disease in Ceylon brought into
prominence Liberian coffee (C.
libcrica), a native of the west
coast of Africa, now extensively
grown in several, parts of the
world. Other species of economic
importance arc Sierra Leone
coffee (C. stenopkylla) and Congo coffee (C. robust a), both of
which have been introduced into and are cultivated on a small
scale in various parts of the tropics. C. cxcclsa is another species
Of considerable promise.
The common Arabian coffee shrub is an evergreen plant,
which under natural conditions grows to a height of from 18 to
to ft., with oblong-ovate, acuminate, smooth and shining leaves,
****surktf abont 6 to. in length by rj wide. Its flowers, which
FlG. I.— Branch of Coffea
arabica.
are produced in dense clusters in the ax3s of the leaves, hare t
five-toothed calyx, a tubular five-parted corolla, five stamen
and a single bifid style. The flowers are pore white in colour,
with a rich fragrant odour, and the plants in blossom have a
lovely and attractive appearance, but the bloom is very evan-
escent. The fruit is a fleshy berry, having the appearance and
size of a small cherry, and as it ripens it assumes a dark red
colour* Each fruit contains two seeds embedded in a yellowish
pulp, and the seeds are enclosed in a thin membranous endocarp
(the "parchment"). Between each seed and the parchment
is a delicate covering called the " silver skin." The seeds watch
constitute the raw coffee " beans " of commerce are plano-convex
in form, the flat surfaces which are laid against each other
within the berry having a longitudinal furrow or groove. When
only one seed is developed in a fruit it is not flattened on one side,
but circular in cross section. Such seeds form M pea-berry "
coffee.
The seeds are of a soft, semi-translucent, bluish or greenish
colour, hard and tough in texture. The regions best adapted
for the cultivation of coffee are well-watered mountain slopei
at an elevation ranging from xooo to. 4000 ft. above sea-levd,
within the tropics, and possessing a mean annual temperature
of about 65* to 70 F.
The Liberian coffee plant (C. libcrica) has larger leaves, flowers
and fruits, and is of a more robust and hardy constitution, than
Arabian coffee. The seeds yield a highly aromatic and weS-
flavoured coffee (but by no means equal to Arabian), and the
plant is very prolific and yields heavy crops. Liberian coffee
grows, moreover, at low altitudes, and flourishes in many situa-
tions unsuitable to the Arabian coffee. It grows wild in great
abundance along the whole of the Guinea coast.
History. — The early history of coffee as an economic product
is involved in considerable obscurity, the absence of fact being
compensated for by a profusion of conjectural statements and
mythical stories. The use of coffee (C. arabica) in Abyssinia was
recorded in the 15th century, and was then stated to have been
practised from time immemorial Neighbouring countries, how-
ever, appear to have been quite ignorant of its value. Various
legendary accounts are given of the discovery of the beneficial
properties of the plant, one ascribing it to a flock of sheep
accidentally browsing on the wild shrubs, with the result that
they became elated and sleepless at night! Its physiological
action in dissipating drowsiness and preventing sleep was taken
advantage of in connexion with the prolonged religious service
of the Mahommedans, and its use as a devotional antisoporific
stirred up fierce opposition on the part of the strictly orthodox
and conservative section of the priests. Coffee by them was
held to be an intoxicating beverage, and therefore prohibited
by the Koran, and severe penalties were threatened to those
addicted to its use. Notwithstanding threats of divine retribu-
tion and other devices, the coffee-drinking habit spread rapidly
among the Arabian Mahommedans, and the growth of coffee and
its use as a national beverage became as inseparably connected
with Arabia as tea is with China.
Towards the dose of the x6th century the use of coffee was
recorded by a European resident in Egypt, and about this epoch
it came into general use in the near East. The appreciation of
coffee as a beverage in Europe dates from the 17th century.
" Coffee-houses " were soon instituted, the first being opened
in Constantinople and Venice. In London coffee-houses date
from 1652, when one was opened in St Michael's Alley, CornhilL
They soon became popular, and the role played by them in the
social life of the 1 7th and 18th centuries is well known. Germany,
France, Sweden and other countries adopted them at about the
same time as Great Britain. Jn Europe, as in Arabia, coffee at
first made its way into favour in the face of various adverse and
even prohibitive restrictions. Thus at one time in Germany
it was necessary to obtain a licence to roast coffee. In England
Charles II. endeavoured to suppress coffee-houses on the ground
that they were centres of political agitation, his royal pro-
clamation stating that they were the resort of disaffected persons
" who devised and spread abroad divers false, malicious and
COFFEE
647
scandalous reports, to the defamation of His Majesty's govern-
ment, and. to tbe disturbance of the peace and quiet of the
nation."
Up to tbe alose of the 17th century the world's entire, although
limited, supply of coffee was obtained from the province of Yemen
in south Arabia, where the true celebrated Mocha or Mokka
coffee is still produced. At this time, however, plants were
successfully introduced from Arabia to Java, where the cultiva-
tion was immediately taken np. The government of Java
distributed plants to various places, including the botanic garden
of Amsterdam. The Portuguese introduced coffee into Ceylon.
From Amsterdam the Dutch sent the plant to Surinam in 17 18,
and in the same year Jamaica received it through the governor
Sir Nicholas Lawes. Within a Tew years coffee reached the other
West Indian islands, and spread generally through the tropics
of the New World, which now produce by far the greater portion
of the world's supply.
Cultivation and Preparation for Market.— Coffee plants are
grown from seeds, which, as in the case of other crops, should be
obtained from selected trees of desirable characteristics. The
seeds may be sown " at stake," i.e. in the actual positions the
mature plants are to occupy, or raised in a nursery and after-
wards transplanted. The choice of methods is usually determined
by various local considerations. Nurseries are desirable where
there is risk of drought killing seedlings in the open. Whilst
young the plants usually require to be shaded, and this may be
done by growing castor oil plants, cassava (Manikot), maize or
Indian corn, bananas, or various other useful crops between
the coffee, until the latter develop and occupy the ground.
Sometimes, but by no means always, permanent shading is
afforded by special shade trees, such as spedes of the coral tree
(Erytkrina) and other leguminous trees. Opinions as to the
necessity of shade trees varies in different countries; e.g. in
Brazil and at high elevations in Jamaica they are not employed,
whereas in Porto Rico many look on them as absolutely essential.
It is probable that in many cases where shade trees are of ad-
vantage their beneficial action may be indirect, in affording
protection from wind, drought or soil erosion, and, when
leguminous plants are employed, in enriching the soil in nitrogen.
The plants begin to come into bearing in their second or third
year, but on the average the fifth is the first year of considerable
yield. There may be two, three, or even more " flushes " of
blossom in one year, and flowers and fruits in all stages may
thus be scon on one plant. The fruits are fully ripe about seven
months after the flowers open; the ripe fruits are fleshy, and of
a deep red colour, whence the name of " cherry." When mature
the fruits are picked by hand, or allowed to fall of their own
accord or by shaking the plant. The subsequent preparation
may be according to (1) the dry or (2) the wet method.
In the dry method the cherries are spread In a thin layer, often
on a stone drying floor, or barbecue, and exposed to the sun.
Protection is necessary against heavy dew or rain. The dried
cherries can be stored for any length of time, and later the dried
pulp and the parchment are removed, setting free the two beans
contained in each cherry. This primitive and simple method is
employed in Arabia, in Brazil and other countries. In Brazil
it is giving place to the more modern method described below.
In the wet, or as it is sometimes called, West Indian method,
the cherries are put in a tank of water. On large estates galvan-
ized spouting is often employed to convey the beans by the help
of running water from the fields to the tank. The mature cherries
sink, and arc drawn off from the tank through pipes to the pulping
machines. Here they are subjected to the action of a roughened
cylinder revolving closely against a curved iron plate. The
fleshy portion is reduced to a pulp, and the mixture of pulp and
liberated seeds (each still enclosed in its parchment) is carried
away to a second tank of water and stirred. The light pulp is
removed by a stream of water and the seeds allowed to settle.
Slight fermentation and subsequent washings, accompanied
by trampling with bare feet and stirring by rakes or special
machinery, result in the parchment coverings being left quite
dean. The beans are now dried on barbecues, in trays, &c~,
or by artificial heat if climatic conditions render this necessary.
Recent experiments in Porto Rico tend to show that if the
weather is unfavourable during the crop period the pulped coffee
can be allowed to remain moist and even to malt or sprout
without injury to the final value of the product when dried
later. The product is now in the state known as parchment
coffee, and may be exported. Before use, however, the parch-
ment must be removed. This may be done on the estate, at the
port of shipment, or in the country where imported. The coffee
is thoroughly dried, the parchment broken by a roller, and re-
moved by winnowing. Further rubbing and winnowing removes
the silver skin, and the beans are left in the condition of ordinary
unroasted coffee. Grading into large, medium and small beans,
to secure the uniformity desirable in roasting, is effected by
the use of a cylindrical or other pattern sieve, along which the
beans are made to travel, encountering first small, then medium,
and finally large apertures or meshes. Damaged beans and
foreign matter are removed by hand picking An average yield
of cleaned coffee is from ii to 2 lb per tree, but much greater
crops are obtained on new rich lands, and under special conditions.
Production. — The centre of production has shifted greatly since
coffee first came into use in Europe. Arabia formerly supplied the
world; later the West Indies and then Java took the lead, to be
supplanted in turn by Brazil, which now produces about three-
quarters of the world's supply and controls the market.
Bratil. — Coffee planting is the chief industry of Brazil, and coffee
the principal export. The states of Sao Paulo, Rio dc Janeiro, Minaa
GeraesandSantos.containthechicfcoffee-producinglands. Theannua]
output ranges from about 10,000,000 to 16,000.000 bags (of 120 lb
each), whilst the world's annual consumption is more or less station-
ary at about 16,000,000 bags. The overwhelming importance of the
Brazilian output is thus evident. Recently efforts have been made
to restrict production to maintain prices, and the Coffee Convention
scheme came into force in Sao Paulo on December 1 , 1906, and in Rio
de Janeiro and Minas Geraes on January 1, 1907. The cultivation
in general is very primitive in character, periodical weeding being
almost all the attention the plants receive. Manuring is commonly
confined to mulches of the cut weeds and addition of the coffee husks.
New lands in Sao Paulo yield from 80 cwt. to 100 cwt. of cleaned
coffee per loco trees (700 go to the acre) ; the average yield, however,
is not more than 15 cwt. The plants are at their best when from
10 to 15 years old, but continue yielding for 30 years or even more.
Other South American Countries. — Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador,
Peru, and to a much less degree Bolivia and Paraguay, produce
coffee, the annual crops of the two former countries being each of
about £1,500,000 in value.
Central America.— Guatemala produces the most in this region;
the coffee estates are mainly controlled by Germans, who have
brought them to a high pitch of perfection. The crop ranges in
value from about £1,000,000 to £1,500,000 per annum. Costa Rica
and San Salvador produce about half this amount In Nicaragua,
Honduras and Panama, coffee is extensively cultivated, and all
export the product.
West Indies.— Coffee is grown in most of the islands, often only
for local use. Haiti produce* the largest amount, the annual value
of the crop being about £500,000. Porto Rico formerly had a
nourishing industry, but it has declined owing to various causes.
The interior is still expected to be devoted largely to coffee, and
the U.S. Department of Agriculture has carried out experiments
to improve methods and ensure the cultivation of better varieties.
Jamaica produces the famous Blue Mountain Coffee, which com-
pares favourably with the best coffees of the world, and also ordinary
or " plain grown ": the Blue Mountain is cultivated at elevations
of frT>m 3000 to 4500 ft C'-r > ially ranks third or fourth in value
amongst the exports of tlic island.
AJrim, the rujive country of the coffees, does not now contribute
Any important amount 10 the world's output. In Liberia, the Gold
Coatf and efoewhrre on the West Coast are many plantations, but
the low price* mlingol recent year* have caused coffee to be neglected
for more remunerative cnor». Coffee is, however, still the pnnripal
export of Nyasaland (UriUsh Central Africa), where it was intro-
duced a* recently a* *Bq^ The area under coffee has been greatly
reduced, owing partly to ufate attention being paid to cotton,
partly to drought* and other causes. In Somaliland and Abyssinia
cotfec cultivation h ul very i™ ienl date. Two kinds are exported,
Harmriand Ha bath L The former compares favourably with Mocha
coffee- The Indoairy coy Id be very considerably extended. In
Kittal, Rhodesia, Ac. coffee is grown, but not in sufficient quantity
to supply the local demand.
AfAbiti— The name "Mocha" b applied generally to coffee
produced m Arabia- Turkey and Egypt obtain the best grades.
Trader! from the*e countries go to Arabia, buy the crops on the
trees, and supervise its picking and preparation themselves. Th*
coffee is prepared by the " dry. cm&tocL"
6+8
COFFEE
India is the principal coffee-growing region in the British empire,
and produces about one-fifth of the total supply or the United
Kingdom. There are some 213,000 acres under coffee, mostly in
southern India. The official report states that the production of
coffee is restricted for the most part to a limited area in the elevated
region above the south-western coast, the coffee lands of Mysore,
Coorg,and the Madrasdistricts of Malabar and the Nilgiris, comprising
86% of the whole area under the plant in India. About one-half of
the whole coffee-producing area is in Mysore. In Burma, Assam
and Bombay, coffee is of minor importance. During 1004-1906
there was a reduction of the area under coffee in India by 21,554
acres.
Ceylon,— The history of coffee in Ceylon is practically that of the
coffee-leaf disease (see below). The Dutch introduced Arabian
coffee in 1720, but abandoned its cultivation later. It was revived
by the British, and developed very rapidly between 1836 and 1 845,
when there was a temporary collapse owing to financial crisis in the
United Kingdom. In 1880 the exports 01 coffee were of the value
of about £2,784,163. Ten years later they had fallen to £430.633.
owing to the ravages of the coffee-leaf disease. The output continued
to decrease, and the value of the crop in 1906 was only £17.258.
Libcrian coffee, which is hardier and more resistant to disease, was
introduced, but met with only partial success.
Dutch East Indies.— Coffee from this source passes under the
general name of " Java," that island producing the greatest amount ;
Sumatra, Borneo and the Celebes, &c. however, also contribute.
The Java plantations are largely owned by the government. Much
of the coffee from these islands b of a high quality.
Australasia.— Coffee can be cultivated in the northern territories
of Australia, but comparatively little is done with this crop; Queens-
land produces the largest amount.
Hawaii, &c— In all the islands of the Hawaiian group coffee is
grown, but nine-tenths or more b raised in Hawaii itself, the Kona
district being the chief scat of production. The exports go mostly
to the United States, and there is also a large local consumption.
Coffee thrives well also in the Philippines and Guam.
The World's Trade.— The following figures, from the Year-booh of
the U. 5. Department of Agriculture, indicate the relative importance
of the coffee-exporting countries.
Country.
America —
Brazil ..
Colombia
Venezuela .
Haiti . . .
Salvador
Guatemala .
Mexico .
Costa Rica .
Nicaragua .
Porto Rico .
Jamaica
Asia —
Dutch East Indies
British India
Singapore (port of export)
Other countries .
Total . 2,268,109,976 2,238,581412
In 1906 there was an increased total of 2,680, 855, 878 lb. due to
the Brazil export rising to 1 347,367 .771 lb. The aggregate value of
the coffee annually entering the world's markets is about £40,000,000.
Coffee Consumption.— The United States of America consume
nearly one half of all the coffee exported from the producing
countries of the world. This might of course be due merely to
the States containing more coffee-drinkers than other countries,
but the average consumption per head in the country is about
ix to x 2 lb per annum, an amount equalled or excelled only in
Norway, Sweden and Holland. Whilst one great branch of the
Anglo-Saxon stock b near the head of the list, it b interesting
to note that the United Kingdom and also Canada and Australia
are almost at the foot, using only about 1 lb of coffee per head
each year. Germany, with a consumption of about 6 to 7 lb per
person per annum uses considerably less than a quarter of the
world's commercial crop. France, about 5 lb per head, takes
about one eighth; and Austria-Hungary, about 2 lb, uses some
one-sixteenth. Holland consumes approximately as much, but
with a much smaller population, the Dutch using more per head
than any other people — 14 lb to 15 lb per annum. Their taste
is seen abo in the relatively high consumption in South Africa.
Sweden, Belgium and the United Kingdom, follow next in order
oi total amount used.
1904.
« 100S . _
Exports coffee
Exports coffee
in lb.
in lb.
1,3*6.027.795
1431.3*8,038
130,000,000
(est.) 70,000,000
128,000,000
.,• 94.370,090
81407,346
45.244,23a
61,822,223
75.314.003
71,653,700
81,081,600
41.855,368
27.730,672
42456491
39,788,002
21,661,621
18,171,515
15.330,590
5,781440
9,046464
77,168,254
72,864,649
40.340.384
36,920464
t) 12,367,156
216,891.567
".935.034
220,132,690
In many tropical countries much coffee is drunk, but as it ft
often produced locally exact figures are not available. The
average consumption in the United Kingdom is about 50,000,000
lb per annum; about one-fifth only b produced in the British
empire, and of this about nineteen-twentieths come from India
and one-twentieth from the British West Indies.
.Coffee-Uaf Disease.— -The coffee industry in Ceylon was mined
by the attack of a fungoid disease (HemSesa wtairix) known as
the Ceylon coffee-leaf disease. This has since extended ita ravage*
into every coffee-producing country in the Old World, end added
greatly to the difficulties of successful cultivation. Tie fangs*
is a microscopic one, the minute spores of which, carried by the
wind, settle and germinate upon the leaves of the plant. The
Fig. 2.— Coffee-leaf Disease, Hemileia vastatrix*
1, Part of leaf showing diseased
patches,
a, Cluster of uredospore*
3, Transverse section of a
diseased patch in the leaf
showing the hyphat
fungus pushing betm
leaf-cells and tappin
i hyphae of the
* ween the
1 tapping them
tor nourishment. The hy-
phae have broken through
in the upper face and
are forming a duster of
spores.
4, Ripe uredosporea.
5, A teleutospore.
0, A uredospore germinating,
the germ-tube is penetrating
7, Uredospore germinating.
u, Uredospore.
1, Teleutospore.
2-7, Highly magnified.
fungal growth spreads through the substance to the leaf, robbing
the leaf of its nourishment and causing it to wither and falL
An infected plantation may be cleansed, and the fungus in its
nascent state destroyed, by powdering the trees with a mixture
of lime and sulphur, but, unless the access of fresh spores brought
by the wind can be arrested, the plantations may be readily
reinfected when the lime and sulphur are washed off by rain.
The separation of plantations by belts of trees to windward it
suggested as a check to the spread of the disease.
Microscopic Structure. — Raw coffee seeds are tough and horny
in structure, and are devoid of the peculiar aroma and taste which
are so characteristic of the roasted seeds. The minute structure
of coffee allows it to be readily recognised by means of the
microscope, and as roasting does not destroy its dwtinguishing
peculiarities, microscopic examination forms the readiest means
of determining the genuineness of any sample. The substance
oi the wed, according to Dr Hassall, consists " of an assemblage
COFFER— COFFEYVILLE
649
of vesicles or cells of an angular form, which adhere so irmly to-
gether that they break up into pieces rather than separate into
distinct and perfect cells. The cavities of the cells include, in the
form of little drops, a considerable quantity of aromatic volatile
oil, on the presence of
which the fragrance and
many of the active prin-
ciples of the berry depend "
(see fig. 3).
Physiological Actum. —
Coffee belongs to the medi-
cinal or auxiliary class of
food substances, being
solely valuable for its
stimulant effect upon the
nervous and vascular sys-
tem. It produces a feeling
of buoyancy and exhilara-
tion comparable to a
certain stage of alcoholic
intoxication, but which
does not end in depression
Flo. 3.— Microscopic structure of
Coffee.
or collapse. It increases the frequency of the pulse, lightens the
sensation of fatigue, and it sustains the strength under prolonged
and severe muscular exertion. The value of its hot infusion under
the rigours of Arc tic "cold has been demonstrated in the experience
of all Arctic explorers, and it is scarcely less useful in tropical
regions, where it beneficially stimulates the action of the skin.
The physiological action of coffee mainly depends on the pre-
sence of the alkaloid caffeine, which occurs also in tea, Paraguay
tea, and cola nuts, and is very similar to theobromine, the active
principle in cocoa. The percentage of caffeine present varies
In the different species of Coffee. In Arabian coffee it ranges
from about 0-7 to i-6%; in Liberian coffee from i-o to 1-5%
Sierra Leone coffee (C. sUnopkylla) contains from 1*52 to 1*70%;
fn C. excelsa 1*89% is recorded, and as much as 1-97% in C.
canefhora. Four species have been shown by M. G. Bertrand
to contain no caffeine at all, but instead a considerable quantity
of a bitter principle. All these four species are found only in
Madagascar or the neighbouring islands. Other coffees grown
there contain caffeine as usual Coffee, with the caffeine ex-
tracted, has also been recently prepared for the market. The
commercial value of coffee is determined by the amount of the
aromatic oil, caffeone, which develops in it by the process of
roasting. By prolonged keeping it is found that the richness of
any seeds in this peculiar oil is increased, and with increased
aroma the coffee also yields a blander and more mellow beverage.
Stored coffee loses weight at first with great rapidity, as much as
8% having been found to dissipate in the first year of keeping,
5% in the second, and a % in the third; but such loss of weight
is more than compensated by improvement in quality and con-
sequent enhancement of value.
Roasting.— In the process of roasting, coffee seeds swell up by
the liberation of gases within their substance,— their weight
decreasing in proportion to the extent to which the operation
is carried. Roasting also develops with the aromatic caffeone
above alluded to a bitter soluble principle, and it liberates a
portion of the caffeine from its combination with the caffetannic
acid. Roasting is an operation of the greatest nicety, and one,
moreover, of a crucial nature, for equally by insufficient and by
excessive roasting much of the aroma of the coffee is lost; and
its infusion is neither agreeable to the palate nor exhilarating
in its influence. The roaster must judge of the amount of heat
required for the adequate roasting of different qualities, and while
that is variable, the range of roasting temperature proper for
Individual kinds is only narrow. In continental countries it is
the practice to roast in small quantities, and thus the whole
charge is well under the control of the roaster; but in Britain
large roasts are the rule, in dealing with which much difficulty
is experienced in producing uniform torrefaction, and in stopping
the process at the proper moment. The coffee-roasting apparatus
U usually a malleable iron cylinder mounted to revolve over the
fire on a hollow axle which allows the escape of gases generated
during torrefaction. The roasting of coffee should be done as short
a time as practicable before the grinding for use, and as ground
coffee especially parts rapidly with its aroma, the grinding should
only be done when coffee is about to be prepared.
Adulteration.— Although by microscopic, physical and chemical
tests the purity of coffee can be determined with perfect certainty,
yet ground coffee is subjected to many and extensive adultera-
tions (see also Adulteration). Chief among the adulterant
substances, if it can be so called, is chicory; but it occupies a
peculiar position, since very many people on the European
continent as well as in Great Britain deliberately prefer a mixture
of chicory with coffee to pure coffee. Chicory is indeed destitute
of the stimulant alkaloid and essential oil for which coffee la
valued; but the facts that it has stood the test of prolonged and
extended use, and that its infusion is, in some localities, used
alone, indicate that it performs some useful function in connexion
with coffee, as used at least by Western communities. For one
thing, it yields a copious amount of soluble matter in Infusion
with hot water, and thus gives a specious appearance of strength
and substance to what maybe really only a very weak preparation
of coffee. The mixture of chicory with coffee is easily detected
by the microscope, the structure of both, which they retain
after torrefaction, being very characteristic and distinct. The
granules of coffee, moreover, remain hard and angular when mixed
with water, to which they communicate but little colour; chicory,
on the other hand, swelling up and softening, yields a deep brown
colour to water in which it is thrown. The specific gravity of
an infusion of chicory Is also much higher than that of coffee,
Among the numerous other substances used to adulterate coffee
are roasted and ground roots of the dandelion, carrot, parsnip
and beet; beans, lupins and other leguminous seeds; wheat,
rice and various cereal grains; the seeds of the broom, fenugreek
and iris; acorns; " negro coffee," the seeds of Cassia occidentals,
the seeds of the ochro (Hibiscus escukntus) % and also the soja
or soy bean (Glycine Soya). Not only have these with many
more similar substances been used as adulterants, but under
various high-sounding names several of them have been introduced
as substitutes for coffee; but they have neither merited nor
obtained any success, and their sole effect has been to bring
coffee into undeserved disrepute with the public.
Not only is ground coffee adulterated, but such mixtures as
flour, chicory and coffee, or even bran and molasses, have been
made up to simulate coffee beans and sold as such.
The leaves of the coffee tree contain caffeine in larger propor-
tion than the seeds themselves, and their use as a substitute for
tea has frequently been suggested. The leaves arc actually so
used in Sumatra, but being destitute of any attractive aroma
such as Is possessed by both tea and coffee, the infusion is not
palatable. It is, moreover, not practicable to obtain both seeds
and leaves from the same plant, and as the commercial demand
is for the seed alone, no consideration either of profit or of any
dietetic or economic advantage Is likely to lead to the growth of
coffee trees on account of their leaves. (A. B. R. ; W. G. F.)
COFFER (Fr. coffre, O. Fr. cofre or cofne, Lat. cophinus, cf.
" coffin "), in architecture, a sunk panel in a ceiling or vault;
also a casket or chest in which jewels or precious goods were kept,
and, if of large dimensions, clothes. The marriage coffers in Italy
were of exceptional richness in their carving and gilding and
were sometimes painted by great artists.
COFFERDAM, In engineering. To enable foundations (?.«.)
to be laid in a site which is under water, the engineer sometimes
surrounds it with an embankment or dam, known as a cofferdam,
to form an enclosure from which the water is excluded. Where
the depth of water is small and the current slight, simple clay
dams may be used, but in general cofferdams consist of two rows
of piles, the space between which is packed with clay puddle.
The dam must be sufficiently strong to withstand the exterior
pressure to which it is exposed when the enclosed space is
pump ed dry .
COFFETVILLE, a city of Montgomery county, Kansas, U.S.A. x
on the Verdigris river, about 13a m. £. *S^<s^$sx«k.T«». , S**
650
COFFIN— COGERS HALL
southern boundary of the state. Pop. (1890) 3281; (1000)
4953* of whom 803 were negroes; (1005) 13,196; (1010) 12,687.
Coffeyville is served by the Missouri Pacific, the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa F6, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the
Saint Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways, and by inter-
urban electric railway to Independence. It is* in the Kansas
natural-gas field, ships large quantities of grain, and has a large
zinc oxide smelter and a large oil refinery, and various manu-
factures, including vitrified brick and tile, flour, lumber,
chemicals, window glass, bottles, pottery and straw boards.
The municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric
lighting plant. Coffeyville, named in honour of A. M. Coffey,
who was a member of the first legislature of the territory of
Kansas, was founded in 1869, but in 187 1 it was removed about
1 m. from its original site, now known as " old town." It was
incorporated as a city of the third class in 1872 and received
a new charter in 1887. Coffeyville became a station on the
Leavenworth, Lawrence & Galveston railway (now part of the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6), and for several years large
numbers of cattle were driven here from Indian Territory and
Texas for shipment; In fact, the city's chief importance was
as a trade centre for the north part of Indian Territory until
natural gas was found here in large quantities in 1892.
COFFIN (from Lat. cophinus, Cr. k6$ipos, a coffer, chest or*
basket, but never meaning " coffin " in its present sense), the
receptacle in which a corpse is confined. The Greeks and Romans
disposed of their dead both by burial and by cremation. Greek
coffins varied in shape, being in the form of an urn, or like the
modern coffins, or triangular, the body being in a sitting posture.
The material used was generally burnt clay, and in some cases
this had obviously been first moulded round the body, and so
baked. Cremation was the commonest method of disposing of
the dead among the Romans, until the Christian era, when stone
coffins came into use. Examples of these have been frequently
dug up in England. In 1853, during excavations for the founda-
tions of some warehouses in Hayden Square, Minories, London,
a Roman stone coffin was found within which was a leaden
shell. Others have been found at Whitechapel, Stratford-le-Bow,
Old Kent Road and Battersea Fields, and in great numbers at
Colchester, York, South fleet and Kingsholme near Gloucester.
In early England stone coffins were only used by the nobles and
the wealthy. Those of the Romans who were rich enough had
their coffins made of a limestone brought from Assos in Troas,
which it was commonly believed " ate the body "; hence arose
the name sarcophagus (q.v.).
The coffins of the Chaldaeans were generally clay urns with the
top left open, resembling immense jars. These, too, must have
been moulded round the body, as the size of the mouth would not
admit of its introduction after the clay was baked. The Egyptian
coffins, or sarcophagi, as they have been improperly called, are
the largest stone coffins known and are generally highly polished
and covered with hieroglyphics, usually a history of the deceased.
Mummy chests shaped to the form of the body were also used.
These were made of hard wood or papier m&chl painted, and like
the stone coffins bore hieroglyphics. The Persians, Partbians,
Medes and peoples of the Caspian are not known to have had any
coffins, their usual custom being to expose the body to be devoured
by beasts and birds of prey. Unhewn fiat stones were sometimes
used by the ancient European peoples to line the grave. One
was placed at the bottom, others stood on their edges to form
the sides, and a large slab was put on top, thus forming a rude
cist. In England after the Roman invasion these rude cists
gave place to the stone coffin, and this, though varying much in
shape, continued in use until the 16th century.
The most primitive wooden coffin was formed of a tree-trunk
split down the centre, and hollowed out. The earliest specimen
of this type is in the Copenhagen museum, the implements found
in it proving that it belonged to the Bronze Age. This type of
coffin, more or less modified by planing, was used in medieval
Britain by those of the better classes who could not afford stone,
tat the poor were buried without coffins, wrapped simply in
doth or even covered aaly with hay and flowers. Towards the
end of the 17th century, coffins became usual for all classes. It
is worth noting that in the Burial Service in the Book of fynrri
Prayer the word " coffin " is not used.
Among the American Indians some tribes, e.g. the Sacs, Foxa
and Sioux, used rough hewn wooden coffins; others, such as the
Seris, sometimes enclosed the corpse between the carapace and
plastron of a turtle. The Scminoles of Florida used no coffins,
while at Santa Barbara, California, canoes containing: corpses
have been found buried though they may have been intended
for the dead warrior's use in the next world. Rough stone cists,
too, have been found, especially in Illinois and Kentucky. In
their tree and scaffold burial the Indians sometimes used wooden
coffins, but oftener the bodies were simply wrapped in blankets.
Canoes mounted on a scaffold near a river were used as comas
by some tribes, while others placed the corpse in a canoe or
wicker basket and floated them out into the stream or lake
(see Funeral Rites). The aborigines of Australia generally
used coffins of bark, but some tribes employed baskets of wicker*
work.
Lead coffins were used in Europe in the middle ages, shaped
like the mummy chests of ancient Egypt Iron coffins were
more rare, but they were certainly used in England and Scotland
as late as the 17th century, when an order was made that upon
bodies so buried a heavier burial fee should be levied. The
coffins used in England to-day are generally of elm or oak lined
with lead, or with a leaden shell so as to delay as far as possible
the process of disintegration and decomposition. In America
glass is sometimes used for the lids, and the inside is lined with
copper or zinc. The coffins of France and Germany and the
continent generally, usually differ from those of England in not
being of the ordinary hexagonal shape but having sides and ends
parallel. Coffins used in cremation throughout the civilized
world are of some light material easily consumed and yielding
little ash. Ordinary thin deal and papier mSchi arc the favourite
materials. Coffins for what is known as Earth to Earth Burial
are made of wicker-work covered with a thin layer of papier
m&cht over doth.
See also Funeral Rites; Cremation; Burial and Burial
Acts; Embalming; Mummy. &c.
Bibliography.— Dr H. C. Yarrow, "Study of the Mortuary
Customs of the North American Indians." Report of Bureau of
Amer. Ethnol. vol. i. (Washington,U.S.A., 1881) ; Rev. Thomas Hugo.
"On the Hayden So.ua re Sarcophagus." Journ. of Arckaeol. Soc.
vol. ix. (London. 1854); C. V. Creagh, " On Unusual Forms of Burial
by People of the East Coast of Borneo," J.A.I, vol. xxvi. (London,
1896-1897); Rev. J. Edward Vaux, Church Folk-lore (1894).
COO. (1) (From an older cogge, a word which appears in
various forms in Teutonic languages, as in O. Ger. koggt or
kockc, and also in Romanic, as in O. Fr. cogue, or coqnc, from
which the Eng. " cock-boat " is derived; the connexion between
the Teutonic and the Romanic forms is obscure), a broadly built,
round-shaped ship, used as a trader and also as a ship of war
till the 15th century. (2) (A word of obscure origin, possibly
connected with Fr. coche, and Ital. cocca, a notch; the Celtic
forms cog and cocas come from the English), a tooth in a series
of teeth, morticed on to, or cut out of the circumference of a
wheel, which works with the tooth in a corresponding series
on another wheel (see Mechanics). (3) (Also of quite obscure
origin), a slang term for a form of cheating at dice. The early
uses of the word show that this was done not by " loading "
the dice, as the modern use of the expression of " cogged dice "
seems to imply, but by sleight of hand in directing the fall or in
changing the dice.
COGERS HALL, a London tavern debating society. It was
instituted in 1 755 at the White Bear Inn (now St Bride's Tavern),
Fleet Street, moved about i8$o to Discussion Hall, Shoe Lane,
and in 187 1 finally migrated to the Barley Mow Inn, Salisbury
Square, E.C., its present quarters. The name is often wrongly
spelt Codgers and Coggers; the " o " is really long, the accepted
derivation being from Descartes' Cogilo, ergo sum, and thus
meaning " The society of thinkers." The aims of the Cogers
were " the promotion of the liberty of the subject and the
freedom o( the Press, the maintenance of loyalty to the laws,
COGHLAN— COHN, F. J.
6 5 i
the rights and claims of humanity and the practice of public
and private virtue." Among its early members COgers Hall
reckoned John Wilkes, one of its first presidents, and Curran, who
in 1773 writes to a friend that he spent a couple of hours every
night at the Hall. Later Dickens was a prominent member.
See Peter Rayleigh, History of Ye Antient Society of Cogers
(London, 1904).
COGHLAN, CHARLES FRANCIS (1841-1899), Irish actor,
was born in Paris, and was educated for the law. He made his
first London appearance in i860, and became the leading actor
at the Prince of Wales's. He went to America in 1876, where
he remained for the rest of his life, playing first in August in
Daly's company and then m the Union Square stock company,
during the long run of The Celebrated Case. He also played with
his sister, and in support of Mrs Langtry and Mrs Fiske, and in
1808 produced a version of Dumas' Kean, called The Royal Box,
in which he successfully starred during the last years of his life.
He died in Galveston, Texas, on the 27th of November 1699.
His sister, the actress Rose Cochlan (1853- )» went to
America in 1871, was again in England from 1873 to 1877,
playing with Barry Sullivan, and then returned to America,
where she became prominent as Countess Zicka in Diplomacy,
and Stephanie in Forget-me-not. She was at Wullack's almost
continuously until 1888, and subsequently appeared in melo-
drama in parts like the title-role of The Sporting Duchess,
COGNAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Charcntc, on the left
bank of the river Charente, 32 m. W. of Angouleme on the
Ouest-£tat railway, between Angouleme and Saintes. Pop. (1906)
18,389. The streets of the old town— which borders the river-
are narrow and tortuous, but the newer parts are well provided
with open spaces. The chief of these is the beautiful Pare
Francois I" overlooking the Charente. In one of the squares
there is a statue of Francis I., who was bom here. The chief
building is a church of the 12th century dedicated to St Leger,
which preserves a fine Romanesque facade and a tower of the
15th century. A castle of the 15th and x6th centuries, once the
residence of the counts of Angouleme, now a storehouse for
brandy, and a medieval gate stand in the older part of the
town. Cognac is the seat of a subprefect and has tribunals of
first instance and of commerce, a council of trade arbitrators,
a chamber of commerce, and consulates of the United States,
Spain and Portugal. Its most important industry is the distil-
lation of the brandy (q.v.) to which the town gives its name.
Large quantities are carried, by way of the river, to the neigh-
bouring port of Tonnay-Charcnte. The industries subsidiary
to the brandy trade, such as the making of cases and bottles,
occupy many hands. Ironware is also manufactured, and a
considerable trade is maintained in grain and cattle. In 2526
Cognac gave its name to a treaty concluded against Charles V.
by Francis I., the pope, Venice and Milan. Its possession was
contested during the wars of religion, and in 1570 it became one
of the Huguenot strongholds. In 1651 it successfully sustained
a siege against Louis II., prince of Condi, leader of the Fronde.
See Le Pays du Cognac, by L. Ravaz, for a description of the
district and its viticulture.
COGNITION (Latin cognifio, from cognosccre, to become
acquainted with), in psychology, a term used in its most general
sense for all modes of being conscious or aware of an object,
whether material or intellectual. It is an ultimate mode of
consciousness, strictly the presentation (through sensation or
otherwise) of an object to consciousness; in its complete form,
however, it seems to involve a judgment, i.e. the separation
from other objects of the object presented. The psychological
theory of cognition takes for granted the dualism of the mind
that knows and the object known; it takes no account of the
metaphysical problem as to the possibility of a relation between
the ego and the non-ego, but assumes that such a relation docs
eiist. Cognition is therefore distinct from emotion and conation ;
it has no psychological connexion with feelings of pleasure and
pain, nor does it tend as such to issue in action.
For the analysis of cognitiasvreactioas see O..K0lpe, Outlines •/
Psychology (En*, trans., 1895), pp. 411 foil.; E. B. Tilchcncr,
Experimental Psychology (1905), h. 1 87 foil. On cognition gencr
ally. G. F. Stout's Analytic Psychology and Manual of Psychology,
W. James's Principles of Psychology (1890), L 2 id folC; also article
Psychology.
COGNIZANCE (Lat. cognosccre, to know), knowledge, notice,
especially judicial notice, the right of trying or considering a
case judicially, the exercise of jurisdiction by a court of law.
In heraldry a " cognizance " is an emblem, badge or device,
used as a distinguishing mark by the body of retainers of a
royal or noble house.
COHEN (Hebrew for " priest ,v ), a Jewish family name,
implying descent from the ancient Hebrew priests. Many
families chiming such descent are, however, not named Cohen.
Other forms of the name are Colin, Co wen, Kahn.
See J. Jacobs, Jewish Encyclopedia, iv. 144.
COHN, FERDINAND JULIUS (1828-1898), German botanist,
was born on the 24th of January 1828 at Brcslau. He was
educated at Brcslau and Berlin, and in 1859 became extra-
ordinary, and in 1871 ordinary, professor of botany at Brcslau
University. He had a remarkable career, owing to his Jewish
origin. He was contemporary with N. Pringsheim, and worked
with H. R. Gocppcrt, C. G. Nees von Escnbcck, C. G. Ehrenberg
and Johannes Mullcr. At an early date he exhibited astonishing
ability with the microscope, which he did much to improve, and
his researches on cell-walls and the growth and contents of
plant-cells soon attracted attention, especially as he made
remarkable advances in the establishment of an improved cell-
theory, discovered the cilia in, and analysed the movements of,
zoospores, and pointed out that the protoplasm of the plant-cell
and the sarcodc of the zoologists were one and the same physical
vehicle of life. Although these early researches were especially
on the Algae, in which group he instituted marked reforms of the
rigid system due to F. T. Kutzing, Cohn had already displayed
that activity in various departments which made him so famous
as an all-round naturalist, his attention at various times being
turned to such varied subjects as Aldorovanda, torsion in trees,
the nature of waterspouts, the effects of lightning, physiology
of seeds, the protcid crystals in the potato, which he discovered,
the formation of travertin, the rotatoria, luminous worms, &c
It is, however, in the introduction of the strict biological and
philosophical analysis of the life-histories of the lower and most
minute forms of life that Cohn's greatest achievements consist,
for he applied to these organisms the principle that we can only
know the phases of growth of microscopic plants by watching
every stage of development under the microscope, just as we
learn how different arc the youthful and adult appearances of
an oak or a fern by direct observation. The success with which
he attempted and carried out the application of cultural and
developmental methods on the Algae, Fungi and Bacteria can
only be fully appreciated by those familiar with the minute size
and elusive evolutions of these organisms, and with the limited
appliances at Cohn's command. Nevertheless his account of
the life-histories of Prolococcus (1850), Stephanos pkacra (1852),
Volvox (1856 and 1875), Hydrodiclyon (1861), and Spliacroplea
(1855-1857) among the Algae have never been put aside. The
first is a model of what a study in development should be; the
last shares with G. Thuret's studies on Fucus and Pringsheim's
on Vaucheria the merit of establishing the existence of a sexual
process in Algae. Among the Fungi Cohn contributed important
researches on PilobolMs(iSsi), Empusa (1855), Tarichinm (1869),
as well as valuable work on the nature of parasitism of Algae
and Fungi.
It is as the founder of bacteriology that Cohn's most striking
claims to recognition will be established. He seems to have
been always attracted particularly by curious problems of
fermentation and coloration due to the most minute forms of
life, as evinced by his papers on lionas prodigiosa (1850) and
" Cbcr blutahnliche Firbungen " (1850), on infusoria (1851
and 185a), on organisms in drinking-water (1853), "Die Wunder
des Blutes " (1854). and had already published several works on
insect epidemics (1869-2870) and on plant diseases, when bis
first specially bacteriological memouc <£*tYu*iv*vL\ «^>vs"*&^
652
COHN, G.— COIMBATORE
the Journal, Beitr&ge tur Bidogie, which be then started (1870-
187 1), and which has since become so renowned. Investigations
en other branches of bacteriology soon followed, among which
M Organismen der Pockenlymphe " (1872) and " Untersuchungen
Ubcr Bacterien " (1872-1875) are most important, and laid the
foundations of the new department of science which has now
its own laboratories, literature and workers specially devoted
to its extension in all directions. When it is remembered that
Cohn brought out and helped R. Koch in publishing his celebrated
paper on' Anthrax (1876), the first clearly worked out case of a
bacterial disease, the significance of his influence on bacteriology
becomes apparent.
Among his most striking discoveries during his studies of the
forms and movements of the Bacteria may be mentioned the
nature of Zoogloca, the formation and germination of true spores
— which he observed for the first time, and which he himself
discovered in Bacillus sublilis — and their resistance to high
temperatures, and the bearing of this on the fallacious experi-
ments supposed to support abiogenesis; as well as works on
the bacteria of air and water, the significance of the bright
sulphur granules in sulphur bacteria, and of the iron oxide
deposited in the walls of Crenotkrix. His discoveries in these and
in other departments all stand forth as mementoes of his acute
observation and reasoning powers, and the thoughtful (in every
sense of the word) consideration of the work of others, and
suggestive ideas attached to bis principal papers, bear the same
characteristics. If we overcome the always difficult task of
bridging in imagination the interval between our present plat-
form of knowledge and that on which bacteriologists stood in,
say, 1870, we shall not undervalue the important contributions
of Cohn to the overthrow of the then formidable bugbear known
is the doctrine of " spontaneous generation," a dogma of despair
calculated to impede progress as much in its day as that of
" vitalism " did in other periods. Cohn had also clear percep-
tions of the important bearings of Mycology and Bacteriology
in infective diseases, as shown by his studies in insect-killing
fungi, microscopic analysis of water, &c. He was a foreign
member of the Royal Society and of the Linnean Society, and
received the gold medal of the latter in 1895. .He died at Breslau
on the 25th of June 1898.
Lists of his papers will be found in the Catalogue of Scientific
Papers of Ike Royal Society, and in Ber. d. d. bat. GeseUsch., 1899,
vol. xvii. p. (196). The latter abo contains (p. (172)) a full memoir by
F. Rbicn. (H. M. W.)
COHN, OUSTAV (1840- ), German economist, was born
on the 1 2 th of December 1840 at Marienwerder, in West Prussia.
He was educated at Berlin and Jena universities. In 1869 he
obtained a post at the polytechnic in Riga, and in 1875 was
elected a professor at the polytechnic at Zurich. In 1873 he
went to England for a period of study, and as a result published
his Untersuchungen fiber die engiiscke EisenbaknpoiUik (Leipzig,
1874-1875). In 1884 he was appointed professor of political
science at GOttingen. Cohn's best-known works are System der
Nationaldkonomie (Stuttgart, 1885); Finanswissensckafl (1889);
NalicnaUkonomische Sludien (1886), and Zur CeschichU und
Pditih des Verkekrswesens (1900).
COHOES, a city of Albany county, New York, U.S.A., about
m. N. of Albany, at the confluence of the Mohawk and Hudson
rivers. Pop. (1890) 22,509; (1000) 23,910, of whom 7303
were foreign-born; (1010) ^4,709. It is served by the New
York Central & Hudson River and the Delaware & Hudson
railways, by electric lines to Troy and Albany, and by the Erie
tad Champlain canals. It is primarily a manufacturing city.
Hosiery and knit goods, cotton doth, cotton batting, shoddy,
uderwear and shirts and collars are the principal products,
but there ire also extensive valve works and manufactories of
pulp, paper and paper boxes, beer, pins and needles, tools and
■art i mrij , and sash, doors and blinds. The value of the factory
pradudsm 190$ was $10,289,822, of which $4,126,873, or 40-1 %,
m the -value of hosiery and knit goods, Cohoes ranking fifth
mtm% Ifcr dtks of the United States (of 20,000 inhabitants or
mm*)* Ambdmby, and showing a higher degree of spedaliza-
tion in it than any other city in the United States except Little
Falls, N. Y. The Falls of the Mohawk, which furnish power lot
the majority of the manufacturing establishments, are 75 ft
high and 000 ft. broad, a large dam above the falls storing the
water, which is conveyed through canals to the mills. Below toe
falls the river is crossed by two fine iron bridges. The city has
a public library, a normal training school and the St Bernard's
(Roman Catholic) Academy. Cohoes was a part of the extensive
manorial grant made to Killian Van Rensselaer in 1629 and it
was probably settled very soon afterwards. It was incorporated
as a village in 1848 and was chartered as a city in 1870.
COHORT (Lat. cokcrs), originally a place enclosed: in the
Roman army, the name of a unit of infantry. The troops of
the first grade, the legions, were divided into cohorts, of which
there were ten in each legion: the cohort thus contained 600
men. Among the troops of the second grade (the auxilia) the
cohorts were independent foot regiments 500 or xooo strong,
corresponding to the aloe, which were similar regiments of
cavalry; they were generally posted on the frontiers of the
Empire in small forts of four to eight acres, each holding oae
cohort or ala. The special troops of Rome itself, the Praetorian
Guard, the Urbanae Cohortcs, and the Vigiles (fire brigade),
were divided into cohorts (see further Roman Army). The
phrase cohort praetcria or cokcrs amkorum was sometimes used,
especially during the Roman republic, to denote the suite of ifc
governor of a province; hence developed the Praetorian cohorts
which formed the emperor's bodyguard.
In biology, " cohort " is a term for a group of allied orders or
families of plants or animals.
COIF (from Fr. coiffc, Ital. cuffia, a cap), a dose-fitting covering
for the head. Originally it was the name given to a head-cover-
ing worn in the- middle ages, tied like a night-cap under the dun,
and worn out of doors by both sexes; this was later worn by
men as a kind of night-cap or skull-cap. The coif was also a
dose-fitting cap of white lawn or silk, worn by English serjeants-
at-law as a distinguishing mark of their profession. It became
the fashion to wear on the top of the white coif a small skull-cap
of black silk or velvet; and on the introduction of wigs at the
end of the 17th century a round space was left on the top of the
wig for the display of the coif, which was afterwards covered
by a small patch of black silk edged with white (see A. Pulling,
Order of the Coif, 1897). The random conjecture of Sir H.
SpeJman (Glossarium arckaiologkum) that the coif was originally
designed to conceal the ccdesiastical tonsure has unfortunately
been quoted by annotators of Blackstone's Commentaries as
well as by Lord Campbell in bis Lives of the Chief Justices. It
may be classed with the curious conceit, recorded in Brand's
Popular Antiquities, that tne coif was derived from the child's
caul, and was worn on the advocates head for luck.
COIMBATORE, a dty and district of British India, in the
Madras presidency. The dty is situated on the left bank of the
Noyil river, 305 m. from Madras by the Madras railway. la
1001 it had a population of 53,080, showing an increase of 14%
in the decade. The dty stands 1437 ft. above sea-level, is wel
laid out and healthy, and is rendered additionally attractive
to European residents by its picturesque position on the slopes
of the Nilgiri hills. It is an important industrial centre, carrying
on cotton weaving and spinning, tanning, distilling, and the
manufacture of coffee, sugar, manure and saltpetre. It has
two second-grade colleges, a college of agriculture, and a school
of forestry.
The District of Coimbatoke has an area of 7860 sq. m. It
may be described as a flat, open country, hemmed in by moun-
tains on the north, west and south, but opening eastwards oa
to the great plain of the Carnatic; the average height of the plaia
above sea-level is about 000 ft. The prindpal mountains are the
Anamalai Hills, in the south of the district, rising at places to a
height of between 8000 and 0000 ft. In the west the frjghat
and Vallagiri Hills form a connecting link between the Aaamald
range and the Ntlgiris, with the exception of a ranarkable gap
known as the Palghat Pass. This gap, which completer/ inter-
sects the Ghats, is about so m. wide. In the north b a 1
COIMBRA— COINAGE OFFENCES
653
of primitive trap-mils known as the Ctuvcry chain, extending
eastwards from the Nilgirls, and rising in places to a height of
4000 ft The principal rivers are the Cauvery, Bhavani, Noyil,
and Amravati. Numerous canals are cut from the riven for
the purpose of affording artificial irrigation, which has proved
of immense benefit to the country. Well and tank water is also
largely used for irrigation purposes. Coimbatore district was
acquired by the British in 1700 at the dose of the war which
ended with the death of Uppoo. In ioox the population was
9,201,783, showing an increase of 10% in the preceding decade.
The principal crops are millet, rice, other food grains, pulse,
oilseeds, cotton and tobacco, with a little coffee. Forests cover
nearly 1} million acres, yielding valuable timber (teak, sandal-
wood, &c.), and affording grazing-ground for cattle. There are
aeveral factories for pressing cotton, and for cleaning coffee, oil-
cake presses, tanneries and saltpetre refineries. Cereals, cotton,
forest products, cattle and hides, and brass and copper vessels
are the chief exports from the district. The south-west line of
the Madras railway runs through the district, and the South
Indian railway (of metre gauge) joins this at Erode.
COIMBRA, the capital of an administrative district formerly
included in the province of Beira, Portugal; on the north bank
of the river liondego, 1x5 m. N.N.E. of Lisbon, on the Lisbon-
Oporto railway. Fop. (1900) 18,144. Coimbra is built for the
most part on rising ground, and presents from the other side
of the river a picturesque and imposing appearance; though in
reality its houses have individually but little pretension, and its
streets are, almost without exception, narrow and mean. It
derives its present importance from being the seat of the
only university in the kingdom— an institution which was
originally established at Lisbon in x*oi, was transferred to
Coimbra in 1306, was again removed to Lisbon, and was finally
fixed at Coimbra in 1527. There are five faculties— theology,
law, medicine, mathematics and philosophy— with more than
1500 students. The library contains about 150,000 volumes,
and the museums and laboratories are on an extensive scale.
In connexion with the medical faculty there are regular hospitals;
the mathematical faculty maintains an observatory from which
an excellent view can be obtained of the whole valley of the
liondego; and outside the town there is a botanic garden
(especially rich in the flora of Brazil), which also serves as a
public promenade. Among the other educational establishments
are a military college, a royal college of arts, a scientific and
literary institute, and an episcopal seminary.
The city is the seat of a bishop, suffragan to the archbishop
of Braga; its new cathedral, founded in 1580, is of little interest;
but the old is a fine specimen of 12th-century Romanesque, and
retains portions of the mosque which it replaced. The principal
churches are Santa Crux, of the 16th century, and San Salvador,
founded in n 69. On the north bank of the Mondcgo stand the
ruins of the once splendid monastery of Santa Clara, established
in 1286; and on the south bank is the celebrated Quinta das
tagrimas, or Villa of Tears, where Inez dc Castro (q.v.) is believed
to have been murdered in 1355. The town is supplied with
water by means of an aqueduct of so arches. The Mondcgo
is only navigable in flood, and the port of Figueira da Foz is
so m. W. by S., so that the trade of Cohnbra is mainly local;
but there are important lamprey fisheries and manufactures of
pottery, leather and hats.
A Latin inscription of the 4th century identifies Coimbra
with the ancient Aeminium; while Condeixa (3613), 8 m. S.S.W.,
represents the ancient Conimbriga or Conembrica. In the 9th
century, however, when the bishopric of Conimbriga was re-
moved hither, its old title was transferred to the new see, and
hence arose the modern name Coimbra. The dty was for a
long time a Moorish stronghold, but in 1064 it was captured by
Ferdinand I. of Castile and the Cid. Until 1 260 it was the capital
of the country, and no fewer than six kings— Sancho I. and II.,
Alphonso U. and III., Pedro and Ferdinand — were born within
its walls. It was also the birthplace of the poet Francisco Sa
de Miranda (1495-1558), and, according to one tradition, of the
more famous Luia dc Camoena (1524-1580), who was a student
at the university be t we en 1537 and 154s. In 1755 Coimbra
suffered considerably from the earthquake. In 1810 it was
sacked by the French under Marshal Massena. In 1834 D° m
Miguel made the city his headquarters; and in 1846 it was the
scene of a Migue&t insurrection.
The administrative district of Coimbra coincides with the
south-western part of Beira; pop. (xooo) 332,168; area 1508
sq. m.
COIR, a town of southern Spain in the province of Malaga;
18 m. W.S. W. of the dty of Malaga. Pop. (1900) x 2,326. Colo
is finely situated on the northern slope of the Sierra de Mijas,
overlooking the small river Seco and surrounded by vineyards
and plantations of oranges and lemons. There are marble
quarries in the neighbourhood, and, despite the lack of a railway,
Coin has a thriving agricultural trade. The population increased
by more than half between 1880 and 1000.
COIH (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign,
all derived through the O. Ft. eoing, and cuigne from Lat. cuncus,
a wedge), properly the term for a wedge-shaped die used for
stamping money, and so transferred to the money so stamped;
hence a piece of money. The form "quoin" is used for the
external angle of a building (see Quoiks), and " coign," also a
projecting angle, survives in the Shakespearean phrase " a coign
of vantage."
COINAGE OFFENCES. The coinage of money is In all states
a prerogative of the sovereign power; consequently any in-
fringement of that prerogative is always severely punished, as
being an offence likely to interfere with the well-being of the
state.
In the United Kingdom the statute law against offences re-
lating to the coin was codified by an act of 1861. The statute
provides that whoever falsely makes or counterfeits any coin
resembling or apparently intended to resemble or pass for any
current gold or silver coin of the realm (s. 2), or gilds, silvers,
washes, cases over or colours with materials capable of producing
the appearance of gold or silver a coin or a piece of any metal or
mixture of metals, or files or alters it, with intent to make it
resemble or pass for any current gold or silver coin (s. 3), or who
buys, sells, receives or pays a false gold or silver coin at a lower
rate than its denomination imports, or who receives into the
United Kingdom any false coin knowing it to be counterfeit
(as. 6, 7), or who, without lawful authority or excuse, knowingly
makes or mends, buys or sells, or has in his custody or possession,
or conveys out of the Royal Mint any coining moulds, machines
or tools, is guilty of felony (ss. 24, 15). The punishment for
such offences is either penal servitude for life or for not less than
three years, or imprisonment for not more than two years, with
or without hard labour. Whoever impairs, diminishes or
lightens current gold or silver coin, with intent to pass same, is
liable to penal servitude for from three to fourteen years (s. 4),
and whoever has in his possession filings or clippings obtained
by impairing or lightening current coin is liable to the same
punishment, or to penal servitude for from three to seven years.
The statute also makes provision against tendering or uttering
false gold or silver coin, which is a misdemeanour, punishable by
imprisonment with or without hard labour. Provision is also
made with respect to falsely making, counterfeiting, tendering
or uttering copper coin, exporting false coin, or defadng current
coin by stamping names or words on it, and counterfriting,
tendering or uttering coin resembling or meant to pass as that
of some foreign state. The act of 1801 applies to offences
with respect to colonial coins as well as to those of the United
Kingdom.
By the constitution of the United States, Congress has the
power of coining money, regulating the value thereof and of
foreign coin (Art. i. s. viil.), and the states are prohibited from
coining money, or making anything but gold and silver money
a tender in payment of debts (Art. i. s. x.). The counterfeiting
coin or money, uttering the same, or mutilating or defacing it,
is an offence against the United States, and is punishable by fine
and imprisonment with hard labour for from two to ten years,
It has also been made punishable by itxv\*.\fc^a^*su.
654
COIR— COKE, SIR E.
COIR (from Malay K&yar, cord, K&yaru, to be twisted), a
rough, strong, fibrous substance obtained from the outer husk
of the coco-nut. (See Coco-Nut Paul)
COIRE (Ccr. Chur or Cur, Ital. Coira, Lat. Curia Radorum,
Romonsch Cuera), the capital of the Swiss canton of the Grisons.
It is built, at a height of 1049 ft- above the sea-level, on the right
bank of the Plcssur torrent, just as it issues from the Schanfigg
valley, and about a mile above its junction with the Rhine. It
is overshadowed by the Mittenberg (cast) and Pizokel (south),
mils that guard the entrance to the deep-cut Schanfigg valley.
In 1900 it contained 11,532 inhabitants, of whom 9288 were
German-speaking, 1466 Romonsch-spcaking, and 677 Italian-
speaking; while 7561 were Protestants, 3962 Romanists and
one a Jew. The modern part of the city is to the west, but the
old portion, with all the historical buildings, is to the cast Here
is the cathedral church of St Lucius (who is the patron of Coire,
and is supposed to be a 2nd-ccntury British lung, though really
the name has probably arisen from a confusion between Lucius
of Cyrcne — miswritten " curiensis "—with the Roman general
Lucius Munatius Plancus, who conquered Ractia). Built between
1 1 78 and 1282, on the site of an older church, it contains many
curious medieval antiquities (especially in the sacristy), as well
as a picture by Angelica Kaufmann, and the tomb of the great
Grisons political leader (d. 1637) Jcnatsch (q.v.). Opposite is
the Bishop's Palace, and not far off is the Episcopal Seminary
(built on the ruins of a 6th-ccntury monastic foundation). Not
far from these ancient monuments is the new Ractian Museum,
which contains a great collection of objects relating to Ractia
(including the geological collections of the Benedictine monk of
Disentis, Placidus a Spescha (1752-1833), who explored the high
snowy regions around the sources of the Rhine). One of the
hospitals was founded by the famous Capuchin philanthropist,
Father Theodosius Florentine (2808-1865), who was long the
Romanist curt of Coire, and whose remains were in 1906 trans*
ferred from the cathedral here to Ingcnbohl (near Schwyz), his
chief foundation. Coire is 74 m. by rail from Zurich, and is the
meeting-point of the routes from Italy over many Alpine passes
(the Lukmanier, the SplUgen, the San Bernardino) as well as
from the Engadine (Albula, Julier), so that it is the centre of an
active trade (particularly in wine from the Valtelline), though
it possesses also a few local factories.
The episcopal sec is first mentioned in 452, but probably
existed a century earlier. The bishop soon acquired great
temporal powers, especially after his dominions were made, in
831, dependent on the Empire alone, of which he became a prince
in 1170. In 1392 he became head of the league of God's House
(originally formed against him in 1367), one of the three Raetian
leagues, but, in 1526, after the Reformation, lost his temporal
powers, having fulfilled his historical mission (see Grisons).
The bishopric still exists, with jurisdiction over the Cantons of
the Grisons, Glarus, Zurich, and the three Forest Cantons, as well
as the Austrian principality of Liechtenstein. The gild con-
stitution of the city of Chur lasted from 1465 to 1839, while in
1874 the burgcTgtmcindt wis replaced by an Eim/ehttcrtfiiuinde.
Authorities. — A. Lichhom, Epiiwpatui Cunenm <5t Blasien.
1797); W. von Juvalt. Foruhunztn ubtr die FtHd&lzril in Curiuhen
Raetien, 2 parts (Zurich, iH;ijl C. Kind, Du Rsjvrip alien in den
Butk&mern Chur und Ctimo (Coirr. t$$6) , Conrad in von Moor,
GtukUkU von Curraeiicn {1 voU. T Coire, 1870-1*74); p. C. von
Plants. Das alie Raeiirn (Berlin, lSj*h Idtm, Dit CurraeHschen
HtrrschaJUn in der Feudalitil (Bern, iSSl); Mem, IW.j«wim.
teschichU der Stadt Ckmj* SSiittlalur (Coire, *S?a); Mtm, CtschUhte
dm Grmubtnden (Bern, m*). (W. A. B. C.)
COKE, SIR EDWARD (1 552-1634), English lawyer, was bora
at Mileham, in Norfolk, on the xst of February 1552. From the
grammar school of Norwich he passed to Trinity College, Cam-
bridge; and in 1572 he entered Lincoln's Inn. In 1578 he was
called to the bar, and in the next year he was chosen reader at
Lyon's Inn. His extensive and exact legal erudition, and the
skill with which he argued the intricate libel case of Lord Crom-
well (4 Rep. 13), and the celebrated real property case of Shelley
(1 Rep. 94, 104), soon brought him a practice never before
omialled, and caused him to be universally recognized as the
greatest lawyer of his day. In 1586 he was made recorder el
Norwich, and in 1592 recorder of London, solicitor-general, and
reader in the Inner Temple. In 1 593 he was returned as menbtr
of parliament for his native county, and also chosen speaker
of the House of Commons. In 1594 he was promoted to the
office of attorney-general, despite the claims of Bacon* who was
warmly supported by the earl of Essex. As crown lawyer sis
treatment of the accused was marked by more than the ^ n ^ T"
and violence common in his time; and the fame of the viciiu
has caused his behaviour in the trial of Raleigh to be lastingly
remembered against him. While the prisoner defended hieudf
with the calmest dignity and self-possession, Coke burst into the
bitterest invective, brutally addressing the great courtier ss
if he had been a servant, in the phrase, long remembered for its
insolence and its utter injustice—" Thou hast an English face,
but a Spanish heart!"
In 1582 Coke married the daughter of John Paston, a gentle-
man of Suffolk, receiving with her a fortune of £30,000; but ■
six months he was left a widower. Shortly after he sought the
hand of Lady Elisabeth Hatton, daughter of Thomas, second
Lord Burghley, and granddaughter of the great Cecil. Bacoa
was again his rival, and again unsuccessfully; the wealthy yoosg
widow became— not, it is said, to his future comfort--Cokc'i
second wife.
In 1606 Coke was made chief justice of the common pkss,
but in 1613 he was removed to the office of chief justice of the
king's bench, which gave him less opportunity of interferias
with the court. The change, though it brought promotion is
dignity, caused a diminution of income aa well as of power;
but Coke received some compensation in being appointed s
member of the privy council. The independence of his conduct
as a judge, though not unmixed with the baser elements of
prejudice and vulgar love of authority, has partly earned for-
giveness for the harshness which was so prominent in bis sturdy
character. Full of an extreme reverence for the common Isv
which he knew so well, he defended it alike against the court
of chancery, the ecclesiastical courts, and the royal prerogative.
In a narrow spirit, and strongly influenced, no doubt, by ha
enmity to the chancellor, Thomas Egerton (Lord Brackley), be
sought to prevent the interference of the court of chancery with
even the unjust decisions of the other courts. In the case of as
appeal from a sentence given in the king's bench, he advised the
victorious, but guilty, party to bring an action of praemunire
against all those who had been concerned in the appeal, and his
authority was stretched to the utmost to obtain the verdict be
desired. On the other hand, Coke has the credit of having
repeatedly braved the anger of the king. He freely gave his
opinion that the royal proclamation cannot make that an offence
which was not an offence before. An equally famous but less
satisfactory instance occurred during the trial of Edmund
Peacham, a divine in whose study a sermon had been found
containing libellous accusations against the king and the govern-
ment. There was nothing to give colour to the charge of high
treason with which he was charged, and the sermon had never
been preached or published; yet Peacham was put to the
torture, and Bacon was ordered to confer with the judges
individually concerning the matter. Coke declared 6uch con-
ference to be illegal, and refused to give an opinion, except in
writing, and even then he seems to have said nothing decided
But the most remarkable case of all occurred in the next year
(16x6). A trial was held before Coke in which one of the counsel
denied the validity of a grant made by the king to the bishop of
Lichfield of a benefice to be held in commendanu James, through
Bacon, who was then attorney-general, commanded the chief
justice to delay judgment till he himself should discuss the
question with the judges. At Coke's request Bacon sent a letter
containing the same command to each of the judges, and Coke
then obtained their signatures to a paper declaring that the
attorney-general's instructions were illegal, and that they were
bound to proceed with the case. His Majesty expressed his
displeasure, and summoned them before him in the council*
chamber, where he insisted on his supreme prerogative, which,
COKE, SIR J.— COKE
655
he said, ought not to be discussed in ordinary argument. l r p<>n
this all the judges fell 011 their knees, seeking pardon for the form
of their letter; but Coke ventured to declare his continued belief
in the loyalty of itt substance, and when asked if be would In the
future delay a case at the king's order, the only reply he would
vouchsafe was that he would do what became him as a judge.
Soon after he was dismissed from all his offices on the following
charges,— the concealment, as attorney-general, of a bond
belonging to the king, a charge which could not be proved,
illegal interference with the court of chancery and disrespect
to the king in the case of commendams. He was also ordered
by the council to revise his book of reports, which was said to
contain many extravagant opinions (June 16 16).
Coke did not suffer these losses with patience. He offered
his daughter Frances, then little more than a child, in marriage
to Sir John Villiers, brother of the favourite Buckingham. Her
mother, supported at first by her husband's great rival and her
own former suitor, Bacon, objected to the match, and placed her
in concealment. But Coke discovered her hiding-place; and
she was forced to wed the man whom she declared that of all
others she abhorred. The result was the desertion of the husband
and the fall of the wife. It is said, however, that after his
daughter's public penance in the Savoy church, Coke had heart
enough to receive her back to the home which he had forced her
to leave. Almost all that be gained by his heartless diplomacy
was a seat in the council and in the star-chamber.
In 1620 a new and more honourable career opened for him.
He was elected member of parliament for Liskeard; and hence-
forth he was one of the most prominent of the constitutional
party. It was he who proposed a remonstrance against the
growth of popery and the marriage of Prince Charles to the
infanta of Spain, and who led the Commons in the decisive step
of entering on the journal of the House the famous petition of
the 18th of December 1621, insisting on the freedom of parlia-
mentary discussion, and the liberty of speech of every individual
member. In consequence, together with Pym and Sir Robert
Philips, he was thrown into confinement; and, when in the
August of the next year he was released, he was commanded to
remain in his house at Stoke Poges during his Majesty's pleasure.
Of the first and second parliaments of Charles I. Coke was again
• member. From the second he was excluded by being appointed
sheriff of Buckinghamshire. In 1628 he was at once returned
for both Buckinghamshire and Suffolk, and he took his seat for
the former county. After rendering other valuable support to
the popular cause, he took a most important part in drawing
up the great Petition of Right The last act of his public career
was to bewail with tears the ruin which he declared the duke
of Buckingham was bringing upon the country. At the dose of
the session he retired into private life; and the six years that
remained to him were spent in revising and improving the works
upon which, at least as much as upon his public career, his fame
now rests. He died at Stoke Poges on the 3rd of September 1634.
Coke published Institutes (1628), of which the first is also
known as Coke upon Littleton; Reports (1600-1615), in thirteen
parts; A Treatise of Bail and Main prize (1635); The Compute
Copyholder (1630); A Reading on Fines and Recoveries (1684).
See Johnson, Life of Sir Edward Coke (1837}; H. W. Woolrych,
The Life of Sir Edward Coke (182$); Foss, Lives of the Judges;
Campbell. Lives of the Chief Justices; also English Law.
COKE, SIR JOHN (1 563-1644), English politician, was born
on the 5th of March 1563, and was educated at Trinity College,
Cambridge. After leaving the university he entered public life
as a servant of William Cecil, Lord Burghley, afterwards
becoming deputy-treasurer of the navy and then a commissioner
of the navy, and being specially commended for his labours on
behalf of naval administration. He became member of parlia-
ment for Warwick in 162 1 and was knighted in 1624, afterwards
representing the university of Cambridge. In the parliament
of 1625 Coke acted as a secretary of state; in this and later
parliaments he introduced the royal requests for money, and
defended the foreign policy of Charles I. and Buckingham, and
afterwards the actions of the king. His actual appointment as
secretary »lat«-* from September i6iv Disliked by the ka<L i rs
of the popular party, his speeches in the House of Commons did
not improve the king's position, but when Charles ruled without
a parliament he found Coke's industry very useful to him. The
secretary retained his post until 1639, when a scap egoat was
required to expiate the humiliating treaty of Berwick with the
Scots, and the scapegoat was Coke. Dismissed from office, he
retired to bis estate at Melbourne in Derbyshire, and then resided
in London, dying at Tottenham on the 8th of September 1644.
Coke's son, Sir John Coke, sided with the parliament in its
struggle with the king, and it is possible that in later life Coke's
own sympathies were with this party, although in his earlier
years he had been a defender of absolute monarchy. Coke, who
greatly disliked the papacy, is described by Clarendon is"t
man of very narrow education and a narrower mind"; and
again he says, " his cardinal perfection was industry and his
most eminent infirmity covetousness."
COKE, THOMAS (1747-1814), English divine, the first
Methodist bishop, was born at Brecon, where his father was
a well-to-do apothecary. He was educated at Jesus College,
Oxford, taking the degree of M.A. in 1770 and that of D.C.L. in
1775- From 1772 to 1776 he was curate at South Petherton in
Somerset, whence his rector dismissed him for adopting the
open-air and cottage services introduced by John Wesley, with
whom he had become acquainted. After serving on the London
Wesleyan circuit he was in 1782 appointed president of the con-
ference fn Ireland, a position which he frequently held, in the
intervals of his many voyages to America. He first visited that
country in 1784, going to Baltimore as " superintendent " of the
Methodist societies in the new world and, in 1787 the American
conference changed his title to " bishop," a nomenclature which
he tried in vain to introduce into the English conference, of
which he was president in 1797 and 1805. Failing this, he asked
Lord Liverpool to make him a bishop in India, and he was
voyaging to Ceylon when he died on the 3rd of May 18x4. Coke
had always been a missionary enthusiast, and was the pioneer
of such enterprise in his connexion. He was an ardent opponent
of slavery, and endeavoured also to heal the breach between the
Methodist and Anglican communions. He published a History
of the West Indies (3 vols., 1808-181 1), several volumes of sermons,
and, with Henry Moore, a Life of Wesley (1792).
COKE (a northern English word, possibly connected with
" colk," core), the product obtained by strongly heating coal
out of contact with the air until the volatile constituents are
driven off; it consists essentially of carbon, the so-called " fixed
carbon," together with the incombustible matters or ash con-
tained in the coal from which it is derived. In addition to these
it almost invariably contains small quantities of hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen, the whole, however, not exceeding a or
3%. It also contains water, the amount of which may vary
considerably according to the method of manufacture. When
produced rapidly and at a low heat, as in gas-making, it is of a
dull black colour, and a loose spongy or pumicc-likc texture,
and ignites with comparative ease, though less readily than
bituminous coal, so that it may be burnt in open fire-places;
but when a long-continued heat is used, as in the preparation of
coke for iron and steel melting, the product is hard and dense,
is often prismatic in structure, has a brilliant semi-metallic lustre
and silvery-grey colour, is a conductor of heat and electricity,
and can only be burnt in furnaces provided with a strong chimney
draught or an artificial blast. The strength and cohesive
properties are also intimately related to the nature and com-
position of the coals employed, which are said to be caking or
non-caking according to the compact or fragmentary character
of the coke produced.
Formerly coke was made from large coal piled in heaps with
centra] chimneys like those of the charcoal burner, or in open
rectangular clamps or kilns with air flues in the enclosing walls;
but these methods are now practically obsolete, closed chambers
or ovens being generally used. These vary considerably in
construction, but may be classified into three principal types:—
(1) direct heated ovens, (t) flue-heated ovens, (^\ <
656
COKE
In the first dan the heating ii done by direct contact
or by burning the gases given off in coking within the oven, while ]
in the other two the heating is indirect, the gas being burned
in cellular passages or flues provided in the walls dividing the 1
coking chambers, and the heat transmitted through the sides
of the latter which are comparatively thin. The arrangement
is somewhat similar to that of a gas-works retort, whence the I
name of " retort ovens " is sometimes applied to them. The
difference between the second and third classes is founded on the
treatment of the gases. In the former the gas is fired in the side
flues immediately upon issuing from the oven, while in the latter
the gases are first subjected to a systematic treatment in con-
densers, similar to those used in gas-works, to remove tar,
ammonia and condensable hydrocarbons, the incondensable
gases being returned to the oven and burned in the heating flues.
These are generally known as " by-product ovens."
The simplest form of coke oven, and probably that still most
largely used, is the so-called " beehive oven." This is circular in
*»»*_ P**"* ' rom 7 to ,a fc* m diameter, with a cylindrical wall
«•*■*» about si ft. high and a nearly hemispherical roof with a
•*•* circular hole at the top. The floor, made of refractory
bricks or slabs, is laid with a slight slope towards an arched opening
in the ring wall, which is stopped with brickwork during the coking
but opened for drawing the finished charge. The ovens are usually
arranged in rows or banks of ao to 30 or more, with their doors
outwards, two rows being often placed with a longitudinal flue
between them connected by uptakes with the individual ovens on
either side. A railway along the top of the b&ul£ brin^t the coal from
the screens or washery. The largest oven* take a charge of about
5 tons, which is introduced through the hole in the roof the brick-
work of the empty oven being trill red hot from the preceding charge,
and when levelled fills the cylindrical part nearly to the springing
of the roof. The gas fire* u it U given off and fills the dome with
flame, and the burning is regulated bv air admitted through holes
in the upper part of the door stopping;. The temperature being
very high, a proportion of the volatile hydrocarbons is decomposed,
and arum ot graphitic carbon is deposited on the coke, giving it a
semi-metallic lustre and silvery grey colour. When the gas is burned
off, the upper part of the door is opened and the glowing charge
cooled by jets of water thrown directly upon it from a ho&e, and it
is subsequently drawn out through the open door, The charge
breaks up into prisms or columns whose length corresponds to the
depth of the charge, and at a rule U uniform in character and free
from dull black patches or " black ends." The time of burning is
either 48 or 72 hours, the turns being so arranged as to avoid the
necessity of drawing the ovens on Sunday. The longer the heat
is continued the denser the product becomes, but the yield also
diminishes, as a portion of the finished coke necessarily bums to waste
when the gas is exhausted, For this reason the yield on the coal
charged is usually less than that obtained in retort ovens, although
the quality may be better. Coals containing at most about 35 % of
volatile matter are best suited for the beehive oven. With less than
as % the gas is not sufficient to effect the coking completely, and
when there is a higher percentage the coke is brittle and spongy and
unsuited for blastfurnace or foundry use. The spent flame from the
ovens passes to a range of steam boilers before escaping by the
chimney.
The retort oven, which is now generally displacing the beehive
form in new installations, is made in a great variety of forms, the
differences being mainly in the arrangement of the 1
Retort heating flues, but all have the central feature, the coking
orM * chamber, in common. This is a tubular chamber with
vertical sides and cylindrical roof, about 30 ft. long, from 1 7 to 20 in. 1
wide, and 6 or 7 ft. high, and closed at ooth ends by sliding doors
which are raised by crab winches when the charge is to be drawn.
The general arrangements of such an oven are shown in fig. 1, which
represents one of the earliest and most popular forms, that of Evence
Coppee of Brussels. The coking chambers A B connect by rect-
angular posts at the springing of the roof, where the gas given off
from the top of the charge is fired by air introduced through c c*
The flames pass downwards through the parallel flues// along the
bottom flue of one oven, and return in the opposite direction under'
the next to the chimney flue, a further part of the heat being inter-,
cepted by placing a range of steam boilers between the ovens and
the chimney stack. The charging of the oven is done through the
passages D D in the roof from small wagons on transverse lines of
rails, the surface being raked level before the doors arc closed and
luted up. The time of coking is much less than in the beehive
ovens and may be from 24 to 36 hours, according to the proportion 1
of volatile matter present. When the gas U completely given off
the doors are lifted and the charge is pushed out by the ram — a
cast-iron plate of the shape of the cross section of the oven, at the
end of a long horizontal bar, which is driven by a rack and pinion
movement and pushes the block of coke out of the oven on to the
wharf or bank in front where it falls to pieces and is immediately
quenched by jets of water from a hose paps. . .. .
cooled it is loaded into railway wagons or other conveyance* lor
removal. The ram, together with its motor, and beater waea steaa
is used, is mounted upon a carriage running npoa a Una of rail of
about 2 ft. gauge along the back of the range of ovens, so that it as
be brought up to any one of them in su cce s sion .
In some cases, instead of the small coal being charged thrones the
roof of the oven and levelled by hand, it la formed Into blocks by
Fio. I.— Coppee's Coke Oven.
being stamped in a slightly moistened condition in a mould consists*
of a bottom plate or peel on a racked rod like that of the ram, with
movable sides and ends. This, when the ends are removed, is poshed
forward into the oven, and the bottom plate is withdrawn by revert-
ing the rack motion. The moulding box is mounted on a earriste
like that of the ram, the two being sometimes carried on the saas
framing. The moulding is done at a fixed station in the centre of the
range 01 ovens by a series of cast-iron stampers driven by an electric
motor. This system is useful for coals low in volatile matter, whkt
do not give a coherent coke under ordinary conditions.
In the distilling or by-product ovens the gases, instead of boat
burned at the point of origin, pass by an uptake pipe in the roof
about the centre of the oven into a water-sealed collecting ^ . ^ _.
trough or hydraulic main, whence they are drawn by ^**T_
exhausters through a series of ah* and water cooled con- *■*" t,wm
densers and scrubbers. In the first or atmospheric condensers the
tar is removed, and in the second ammontacal water, which; is
further enriched by a graduated system of scrubbing with weak
ammoniacal liquor until it is sufficiently concentrated to be seat
to the ammonia stills. The first treatment by scrubbing with cr eosote
or heavy tar oil removes benzene, after which the permanent gaseoss
residue consisting chiefly of hydrogen and marsh gas is returned
to the ovens as fuel.
In the Otto-Hoffmann oven, one of the most generally used forms,
vertical side flues like those of Coppee are adopted. The returned
gas enters by a horizontal flue along the bottom of the cobae
chamber, divided into two parts by a mid-feather wall, and is bred
by heated air from a Siemens regenerator on the substructure at one
end, and the flame rising through one half of the side floes to a
parallel collector at the top returns downwards through the flues
of the other half and passes out to the chimney through a riraSar
regenerator at the other end. The course of the gases is reversed
at intervals of about an hour, as in the ordinary Siemens furnace,
each end of the oven having its own gas supply. In' the later modi-
fication known as the Otto-Hilgenstock, the regenerators are aban-
doned, but provision is made for more perfect distribution of the
heat by a line of sixteen Bunscn burners in each wall ; each of these
serves two flues, the course of the flame being continuously upwards
without reversal. In the newest Otto ovens the same system of
burners is combined with regenerators. In the Bauer system,
another vertical flue oven, each flue has its own burner, which is of
a simplified construction.
In 1 he Carves oven, the earliest or the by*pfodiict ovens, the
heating Hues are arranged horizontally in parallel series along the
entire length of the side walls, ihe gas being introduced from both
ends but at different level*. This system was further developed by
H. Simon of Manchester, who added a continuous air '* recuperator
heated by the spent flame; this Simnn-Carvts system has been
extensively adopted in Great Britain, Another horizontal flue oven,
the Setnet-Solvay, is distinguished by the structure of the flues,
which are independent of the dividing wails of the ovens to that
the latter can be made with thinner tides than those of the earlier
systems, and are more readily repaired. In the horizontal ovens
it is sometime! difficult to maintain the heat when the flues are
continuous along the whole length of the wall, especially when the
heat ins value of the gas is reduced by the removal of the heavy
hydrocarbons. This difficulty is met by dividing the flues in the
middle so as to shorten the length of travel of the flame, and v, ■ ■ long
each end independently. The H<b*sener and rCoppcri systems are
two of the best-known example*- of this modification.
Coke from retort ovens t* not so dense or brilliant as that 1
COL— COLBERT
657
us beehive ovens, but the watte being less there is 1 decided living,
apart from the value of the condensed products, In one instance
the coke was found to be about 5 % les* efficient in the blast furnace,
while the yield on the coal charged was increased 10%, In the
further treatment of the condensed products by distillation the tar
gives burning oil and pitch, the benzene is separated from (he creosote
oil by steam-heated stills, and the am maniacal Jiguor, after some
lime has been added to decompose fixed ammonium compounds,
is heated to vaporize the ammonia, which H condensed En lead w
copper-lined tanks containing strong sulphuric add to produce a
crystalline powder of ammonium sulphate, which accumulate*
in the receiver and is fished out from time to time. The yield of
by-products averages about I % of ammonium sulphate, about
3f% of tar, and 0-6 to 0-9% of benzene, of the weight of the coal
carbonized. After the ovens have been heated and steam supplied
for the machinery of the condensing plant and the coke ovmis there
is usually a surplus of gas, which may I -.■ u&ed fur lighting of driving
gas-engines. For the latter purpose, however, it is necessary to
remove the last traces of tar, which acts very prejudicially in fouling
the valves when the gas is not completely purified. The gas given *
off during the earlier part of the coking process is richer in heavy
hydrocarbons and of a higher illuminating value than that of the,
later period when the temperature is higher. This property is
utilized in several large coking plants in America, where the gas 1
from the first ten hours' working ss drawn off by a second hydraulic
main and sent directly to town gas-works, where it passes through }
the ordinary purifying treatment, the gas from the second period
being alone used for heating the ovens.
Coke is essentially a partially graphitized carbon, its density
being about midway between that of coal and graphite, and it j
should therefore occupy less space than the original coal; but'
owing to the softening of the charge a spongy structure is set ■
up by the escaping gases, which acts in the other direction, so
that for equal bulk coke is somewhat lighter than coal. It Is
this combination of properties that gives it its chief value in
iron smelting, the substance being sufficiently dense to resist 1
oxidation by carbon dioxide in the higher regions of the furnace, '
while the vesicular structure gives an extended surface for the '
action of heated air and facilitates rapid consumption at the
tuyeres. Compact coke, such as that formed on the inner sides '
of gas retorts (retort carbon), can only be burned with great 1
difficulty in small furnaces of special construction, but it gives
out a great amount of heat.
The most deleterious constituents of coke are ash, sulphur
and volatile constituents including water. As the coke yield
is only from two-thirds to three-quarters of that of the coal, 1
the original proportion of ash is augmented by one-third or one-
half in the product. For this reason it is now customary to
crush and wash the coal carefully to remove intermingled 1
patches of shale and dirt before coking, so that the ash may not
if possible exceed 10% in the coke. About one-half of the,
sulphur in the coal is eliminated in coking, so that the percentage
in the coke is about the same. It should not be much above 1 %.
According to the researches of F. Wuest (Journ. Iron and Sleet*
Inst., 1906) the sulphur is retained in a complex carbon compound
which is not destroyed until the coke is actually consumed.
The older methods of coking and the earlier forms of retort ovens
are described in I. Percy, Metallurgy, Jordan, Album du tours de
tnetoJlurgie: Phillips and Bauerman. Handbook of Metallurgy, and
other text-books. A systematic series of articles on the newer forms;
will be found in The Engineer, vol. 82, pp. 205-303 and vol. 83, pp. 207- '
231; see also Dilrrc, Die neutrn Koksdfen (Leipzig, 1892); D. A.
Louis, " Von Bauer and Brunck Ovens, Journ. Iron and Steel Inst.,'
1904. it. p. 293; C. L. Bell, " Httssener Oven," id., 1904, L p. 188;
Hurez, " A Comparison of Different Systems of Vertical and Hori-
zontal Flue Ovens," Bull. soc. industrie mintraU, 1903, p. 777. A
well-illustrated description of the Otto system in its American
modification was issued by the United Gas & Coke Company of
New York, in 1906. (HTb.)
COL (Fr. for "neck," Lat. eollum), in physical geography,
generally any marked depression upon a high and rugged water-
parting over which passage is easy from one valley to another.]
Such is the Col de Balme between the Trient and Chamounix
valleys, where the great inaccessible wall crowned with aiguilles
running to the massif of Mt. Blanc is broken by a gentle down-'
ward curve with smooth upland slopes, over which a footpath
gives easy passage. The col is usually formed by the head-waters
of a stream eating backward and lowering the water-parting-
at the head of its valley. In early military operations, the march,
of an army was always over a col, which has at all times con-
vi. n*
siderable commercial importance in relation to roads in high
mountain regions.
COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTS (1610-1683), French statesman,
was bom at Reims, where his father and grandfather were
merchants. He claimed to be the descendant of a noble Scottish
family, but the evidence for this is lacking. His youth is said
to have been spent in a Jesuit college, in the office of a Parisian
banker, and in that of a Parisian notary, Chapdain, the father
of the poet But the first fact on which we can rely with confidence
is that, when not yet twenty, lie obtained a post in the war-office,
by means of the influence that he possessed through the marriage
of one of his uncles to the sister of Michel Le Tcllicr, the secretary
of state for war. During some years he was employed in the
inspection of troops and other work of the kind, but at length
his ability, his extraordinary energy and his untiring laboriousnesi
induced Le Tcllier to make him his private secretary. These
qualities, combined, it must be confessed, with a readiness to
seize every opportunity of advancement, soon brought Colbert
both wealth and influence. In 1647 we find him receiving the
confiscated goods of his uncle Pussort, in 1648 obtaining ao>ooo
crowns with his wife Marie Charron, in 1649 appointed councillor
of slate.
It was the period of the wars of the Fronde; and in 1651 the
triumph of the Condi family drove Cardinal Mazarin from Paris.
Colbert, now aged thirty-two, was engaged to keep him acquainted
with what should happen in the capital during his absence. At
first Colbert's position was far from satisfactory; for the close
wary Italian treated him merely as an ordinary agent. On one
occasion, for example, he offered him 1000 crowns. The gift was
refused somewhat indignantly; and by giving proof of the
immense value of bis services, Colbert gained all that he desired.
His demands were not small; for, with an ambition mingled, as
lus letters show, with strong family affection, he aimed at placing
all his relatives in positions of affluence and dignity; and many
a rich benefice and important public office was appropriated by
him to that purpose. For these favours, conferred upon him
by his patron with no stinted hand, his thanks were expressed in
a most remarkable manner; he published a letter defending the
cardinal from the charge of ingratitude which was often brought
against him, by enumerating the benefits that he and his family
had received from him (April 1655). Colbert obtained, besides,
the higher object of his ambition; the confidence of Mazarin, so
far as it was granted to any one, became his, and he was entrusted
with matters of the gravest importance. In 1659 he was giving
directions as to the suppression of the revolt of the gentry
which threatened in Normandy, Anjou and Poitou, with
characteristic decision arresting those whom he suspected and
arranging every detail of their trial, the immediate and arbitrary
destruction of their castles and woods, and the execution of
their chief, Bonnesson. In the same year we have evidence that
he was already planning his great attempt at financial reform.
His earliest tentative was the drawing up of a mimoire to Mazarin,
showing that of the taxes paid by the people not one-half reached
the king. The paper also contained an attack upon the super-
intendent Nicholas Fouquet (?.*.)» and being opened by the
postmaster of Paris, who happened to be a spy of Fouquet's, it
gave rise to a bitter quarrel, which, however, Mazarin repressed
during his lifetime.
In 1661 the death of Mazarin allowed Colbert to take the first
place in the administration, and he made sure of the king's
favour by revealing to him some of Mazarin's hidden wealth. It
was some time before he assumed official dignities; but in
January 1664 he obtained the post of superintendent of buildings;
in 1665 he was made controller-general; in 1669 he became
minister of the marine; and he was also appointed minister of
commerce, the colonics and the king's palace. In short, he soon
acquired power in every department except that of war.
A great financial and fiscal reform at once claimed all his
energies. Not only the nobility, but many others who had no
legal daim to exemption, paid no taxes; the weight of the burden
fell on the wretched country-folk. Colbert sternly and teaxfoebf
set about bis task. Su^mVed V5 <s» ^<s^\>^V*-»** ,w ^ -
6 5 8
COLBERT
be aimed the first blow at the greatest of the extortioners— the
bold and powerful superintendent, Fouquet; whose faD, in
addition, secured his own advancement
The office of superintendent and many others dependent upon
it being abolished the supreme control of the finances was vested
in a royal council. The sovereign was its president; but Colbert,
though for four years he only possessed the title of intendant,
was its ruling spirit, great personal authority being conferred
upon him by the king. The career on which Colbert now entered
must not be judged without constant remembrance of the utter
rottenness of the previous financial administration. His ruth-
lessness in this case, dangerous precedent as it was, wo perhaps
necessary; individual interests could not be respected. Guilty
officials having been severely punished, the fraudulent creditors
of the government remained to be dealt with. Colbert's method
was simple. Some of the public loans were totally repudiated,
and from others a percentage was cut off, which varied, at first
according to his own decision, and afterwards according to that
of the council which he established to examine all claims against
the state.
Much more serious difficulties met his attempts to introduce
equality in the pressure of the taxes on the various classes. To
diminish the number of the privileged was impossible, bat false
claims to exemption were firmly resisted, and the unjust direct
taxation was lightened by an increase of the indirect taxes, from
which the privileged could not escape. The mode of collection
was at the same time immensely improved.
Order and economy being thus introduced into the working
of the government, the country, according to Colbert's vast yet
detailed plan, was to be enriched by commerce. Manufactures
were fostered in every way he could devise. New industries
were established, inventors protected, workmen invited from
foreign countries, French workmen absolutely prohibited to
emigrate. To maintain the character of French goods in
foreign markets, as well as to afford a guarantee to the home
consumer, the quality and measure of each article were fixed
by law, breach of the regulations being punished by public
exposure of the delinquent and destruction of the goods, and, on
the third offence, by the pillory. But whatever advantage re-
sulted from this rule was more than compensated by the dis-
advantages it entailed. The production of qualities which would
have suited many purposes of consumption was prohibited, and
the odious supervision which became necessary involved great
waste of time and a stereotyped regularity which resisted all
improvements. And other parts of Colbert's schemes deserve
stiU less equivocal condemnation. By his firm maintenance of
the corporation system, each industry remained in the hands of
certain privileged bourgeois; in this way, too, improvement was
greatly discouraged; while to the lower classes opportunities of
advancement weredosed. With regard tointerrutional commerce
Colbert was equally unfortunate in not being in advance of bis
age; the tariffs he published were protective to an extreme.
The interests of internal commerce were, however, wisely
consulted. Unable to abolish the duties on the passage of goods
from province to province, he did what he could to induce the
provinces to equalize them. The roads and canals were improved.
The great canal of Languedoc was planned and constructed by
Pierre Paul Riquet (1604-1680) under his patronage. To
encourage trade with the Levant, Senegal, Guinea and other
places, privileges were granted to companies; but, like the more
important East India Company, all were unsuccessful. The
chief cause of this failure, as well as of the failure of the colonies,
on which he bestowed so much watchful care, was the narrowness
and rigidity of the government regulations.
The greatest and most lasting of Colbert's achievements was
the establishment of the French marine. The royal navy owed
all to him, for the king thought only of military exploits. For
its use, Colbert reconstructed the works and arsenal of Toulon,
founded the port and arsenal of Rochefort, and the naval schools
of Rochefort, Dieppe and Saint-M&lo, and fortified, with some
Assistance from Vauban (who, however, belonged to the party
at Jus rival Louvois), tmong ether ports (hose of Calais, Dunkirk,
Brest and Havre. To supply it with recruits he invented Us
famous system of classes, by which each seaman, according to
the class in which he was placed, gave six months' service every
three or four or five years. For three months after his term of
service he was to receive half-pay; pensions were promised;
and, in short, everything was done to make the navy popular.
There was one department, however, that was supplied with
men on a very different principle. Letters exist written by
Colbert to the judges requiring them to sentence to the oar as
many criminals as possible, including all those who had been
condemned to death; and the convict once chained to the bench,
the expiration of his sentence was seldom allowed to bring him
release. Mendicants also, against whom no crime had been
proved, contraband dealers, those who had been engaged in
insurrections, and others immeasurably superior to the criminal
class, nay, innocent men— Turkish, Russian and negro slaves,
and poor Iroquois Indians, whom the Canadians were ordered
to entrap— were pressed into that terrible service. By these
means the benches of the galleys were filled, and Colbert took
no thought of the long unrelieved agony borne by those who
filled them.
Nor was the mercantile marine forgotten. Encouragement
was given to the building of ships in France by allowing, a
premium on those built at home, and imposing a duty on those
brought from abroad; and as French workmen were forbidden
to emigrate, so French seamen were forbidden to serve foreigners
on pain of death.
Even ecclesiastical affairs, though with these he had no official
concern, did not altogether escape Colbert's attention. He took
a subordinate part in the struggle between the king and Rome
as to the royal rights over vacant bishoprics; and he seems
to have sympathised with the proposal that was made to seize
part of the wealth of the clergy. In his hatred of idleness, he
ventured to suppress no less than seventeen felcs, and he had
a project for lessening the number of those devoted to clerical
and monastic life, by fixing the age for taking the vows some
years later than was then customary. With heresy he was at
first unwilling to interfere, for he was aware of the commercial
value of the Huguenots; but when the king resolved to make
all France Roman Catholic, he followed him and urged Ins
subordinates to do all that they could to promote conversions.
In art and literature Colbert took much interest He possessed
a remarkably fine private library, which he delighted to fill with
valuable manuscripts from every part of Europe where France
had placed a consul. He has the honour of having founded the
Academy of Sciences (now called the Institut de France), the
Observatory, which he employed Claude Perrault to build and
brought G. D. Cassini (1625-17x2) from Italy to superintend,
the Academies of Inscriptions and Medals, of Architecture and
of Music, the French Academy at Rome, and Academies at
Aries, Soissons, Nlmes and many other towns, and he reorganized
the Academy of Painting and Sculpture which Richelieu had
established. He was a member of the French Academy; and
one very characteristic rule, recorded to have been proposed
by him with the intention of expediting the great Dictionary, in
which he was much interested, was that no one should be
accounted present at any meeting unless he arrived before the
hour of commencement and remained till the hour for leaving.
In 1673 he presided over the first exhibition of the works of
living painters; and he enriched the Louvre with hundreds of
pictures and statues. He gave many pensions to men of letters,
among whom we find Moliere, CorneUle, Racine, Boileau, P. D.
Huet (1630-1721) and Antoine Varillas (1626-1696), and even
foreigners, as Huyghens, Vossius the geographer, Carlo Dati the
Dellacruscan, and Heinsius the great Dutch scholar. There is
evidence to show that by this munificence he hoped to draw out
praises of his sovereign and himself; but this motive certainly
is far from accounting for all the splendid, if in some cases
specious, services that he rendered to literature, science and
art
Indeed to everything that concerned the interests of France
Colbert devoted unsparing thought and toil. Besides all that
COLBERT DE CROISSY— COLBURN, H.
659
has been, mentioned, he found time to do something for the
better administration of justice (the codification of ordinances,
the diminishing of the number of judges, the reduction of the
expense and length of trials for the establishment of a superior
system of police) and even for the improvement of the breed of
horses and the increase of cattle. As superintendent of public
buildings he enriched Paris with boulevards, quays and
triumphal arches; he relaid the foundation-stone of the Louvre,
and brought Bernin from Rome to be its architect; and he
erected its splendid colonnade upon the plan of Claude Pcrrault,
by whom Bernin had been replaced. He was not permitted,
however, to complete the work, being compelled to yield to the
king's preference for residences outside Paris, and to devote
himself to Marly and Versailles.
Amid all these public labours his private fortune was never
neglected. While he was reforming the finances of the nation,
and organizing its navy, he always found time to direct the
management of his smallest farm. He died extremely rich, and
left fine estates all over France. He had been created marquis
de Seignelay, and for his eldest son he obtained the reversion of
the office of minister of marine; his second son became arch-
bishop of Rouen; and a third son, the marquis d'Ormoy, became
superintendent of buildings.
To carry out his reforms, Colbert needed peace; but the war
department was in the hands of his great rival Louvois, whose
influence gradually supplanted that of Colbert with the king.
Louis decided on a policy of conquest. He was deaf also to all
the appeals against the other forms of his boundless extravagance
which Colbert, with all his deference towards his sovereign,
bravely ventured to make. 1 Thus it came about that, only a
few years after he had commenced to free the country from the
weight of the loans and taxes which crushed her to the dust,
Colbert was forced to heap upon her a new load of loans and taxes
more heavy than the last. Henceforth his life was a hopeless
struggle, and the financial and fiscal reform which, with the
great exception of the establishment of the navy, was the most
valuable service to France contemplated by him, came to nought.
Depressed by his failure, deeply wounded by the king's favour
for Louvois, and worn out by overwork, Colbert's strength gave
way at a comparatively early age. In 1680 be was the constant
victim of severe fevers, from which he recovered for a time
through the use of quinine prescribed by an English physician.
But in z68j, at the age of sixty-four, he was seized with a fatal
illness, and on the 6th of September he expired. It was said
that he died of a broken heart, and a conversation with the king
b reported in which Louis disparagingly compared the buildings
of Versailles, which Colbert was superintending, with the works
constructed by Louvois in Flanders. He took to bed, it is true,
immediately afterwards, refusing to receive all messages from
the king; but his constitution was utterly broken before, and a
post-mortem examination proved that he had been suffering
from stone. His body was interred in the secrecy of night, for
fear of outrage from the Parisians, by whom his name was
cordially detested.
Colbert was a great statesman, who did much for France.
Yet his insight into political science was not deeper than that of
his age; nor did he possess any superiority in moral qualities.
His rule was a very bad example of over-government. He did
not believe in popular liberty; the parlements and the states-
general received no support from him. The technicalities of
justice he never allowed to interfere with his plans; but he did
not hesitate to shield his friends. He trafficked in public offices
for the profit of Mazarin and in his own behalf. He caused the
suffering of thousands in the galleys; be had no ear, it is said,
for the cry of the suppliant. There was indeed a more human
side to his character, as is shown in his letters, full of wise advice
and affectionate care, to his children, his brothers, his cousins
even. Yet to all outside he was " the man of marble." Madame
de Sevigne called him " the North." To diplomacy he never
pretended; persuasion and deceit were not the weapons he
1 See especially a Mi moire presented to the king in 1666, pub-
lished in the LeUres, &c, do Colbert, vol. ii.
employed; all hit work was carried out by the iron hand of
authority. He was a great statesman in that he conceived a
magnificent yet practicable scheme for making France first
among nations, and in that he possessed a matchless faculty for
work, neither shrinking from the vastest undertakings nor
scorning the most trivial details.
Numerous vies and ilogcs of Colbert have been published; but
the most thorough student of his life and administration was Pierre
Clement, member of the Institute, who in 1846 published his Vie
do Colbert, and in 1861 the first of the 9 vols, of the Leltres, instmc-
lions, et mimoites do Colbert. The historical introduction* prefixed
'..'.. 1 published by Mmc. Clem
under the title of the Hlstoire de Colbert et de son administration
to each of these volumes have been published by Mmc. Clement
(3rd ed., 1892}. The best short account of Colbert as a statesman
is that in Lavisse, Hisloire de France (190*), which gives a thorough
study of the administration. Among Colbert's papers arc Memoires
snr fes affaires de finance do France (written about 1663), a fragment
entitled Particularity seethes de la vie du Roy, and other accounts
of the earlier part of the reign of Louis XIV. (J* T. S.)
COLBERT DB CROISSY, CHARLES, Marquis (1625-1696),
French diplomatist, like his elder brother Jean Baptiste Colbert,
began his career in the office of the minister of war Lc Tcllicr.
In 1656 he bought a connsellorship at the parlcmcnt of Mctz,
and in 1658 was appointed Intendant of Alsace and president of
%he newly-created sovereign council of Alsace. In this position
he had to re-organize the territory recently annexed to France.
The steady support of his brother at court gained for him several
diplomatic missions— to Germany and Italy (1 659-1661). In
1602 he became marquis de Croissy and president a mortier of
the parlcmcnt of Mctz. After various intendancics, at Soissons
(1665), at Amiens (1666), and at Paris (1667), he turned definitely
to diplomacy. In 1668 he represented France at the conference
of Aix-Ia-Chapellc; and in August of the same year was sent as
ambassador to London, where he was to negotiate the definite
treaty of alliance with Charles II. He arranged the interview
at Dover between Charles and his sister Henrietta of Orleans,
gained the king's personal favour by finding a mistress for him,
Louise de Kirouallc, maid of honour to Madame, and persuaded
him to declare war against Holland. The negotiation of the
treaty of Nijmwegcn (1676-1678) still further increased his
reputation as a diplomatist and Louis XIV. made him secretary
of state for foreign affairs after the disgrace of Arnauld de
Pomponnc, brought about by his brother, 1679. He at once
assumed the entire direction of French diplomacy. Foreign
ambassadors were no longer received and diplomatic instructions
were no longer given by other secretaries of state. It was he,
not Louvois, who formed the idea of annexation during a time of
peace, by means of the chambers of reunion. He had outlined
this plan as early as 1658 with regard to Alsace. His policy at
first was to retain the territory annexed by the chambers of
reunion without declaring war, and for this purpose he signed
treaties of alliance with the elector of Brandenburg (16S1), and
with Denmark (1683); but the troubles following upon the
revocation of the edict of Nantes (16S5) forced him to give up
his scheme and to prepare for war with Germany (1688). The
negotiations for peace had been begun again when he died, on
the 28th of July 1696. His clerk, Bcrgcrct, was his invaluable
assistant.
Ribliogka TOY.— His papers, preserved in the A rehtves des affaires
ttrangeres at Paris, have bi-en partially published in the Rctueil des
instructions donnies aux ambassadcurs et ntinistres de France (since
1884). See especially the volumes. — AutrUhe (t. i.). Suede (t. ii.),
Rome (t. vi.). Bavicre (t. viii.). Savoie (t. xiv.), Prusse (t. xvi.). Other
documents have been published in Mignct's Ntgpciations relatives d
la succession d'Espagne, vol. iv., and in the collection of Letlres et
negotiations .... pour la paix do Nimcgue, 1676-1677 (La Hayc,
1710). In addition to the Af {moires of the time, sec Spanheim,
Relation de la cour de France en 1C00, ed. E. Bourgeois (Paris and
Lyons, 1900); Baschet, Hisloire du depSt des affaires (trangcrcs;
C. Rousset. Hisloire de Louvois U vols., Paris, 1863); E. Bourgeois,
" Louvois, et Colbert de Croissy, in the Rente kistorique, vol. xxxiv.
(1887); A. Waddincton, Le Grand Electcur et Louis XIV (Paris,
1905) ; G. Pagis. Le Crand Eletteur et Louis XIV (Paris, 1905).
COLBURN, HENRY (d. 1855), British publisher, obtained his
earliest experience of bookselling in London at the establishment
of W. Earle, Albemarle Street, and afterwards as an assisted ife.
Morgan's Library. Cantata. ^vraX, <& Vb*Skl\». >»»fe\».\#*»s*
66o
COLBURN, Z.— COLCHESTER
proprietor. He afterwards removed to New Burlington Street,
where he established himself as a publisher, resigning the Conduit
Street Library to Messrs Saunders &Otley. In i8i4heoriginated
the New Monthly Magazine, of which at various times Thomas
Campbell, Bulwer Lytton, Theodore Hook and Harrison
Ainsworth were editors. Colburn published in z8i8 Evelyn's
Diary \ and in 1825 the Diary of Pepys, edited by Lord Bray-
brooke, paying £2 200 for the copyright He also issued Disraeli's
first novel, Vivian Grey, and a large number of other works by
Theodore Hook, G. P. R. James, Marryat and Bulwer Lytton.
In 1829 Richard Bcntley (q.v.) was taken into partnership; and
in 1832 Colburn retired, but set up again soon afterwards in-
dependently in Great Marlborough Street; his business was
taken over in 184 1 by Messrs Hurst & Blackett. Henry Colburn
died on the 16th of August 1855, leaving property to the value
of £35*000.
COLBURN, ZERAH (1804-1840), American mathematical
prodigy, was born at Cabot, Vermont, on the zst of September
1804. At a very earty age he developed remarkable powers of
calculating with extreme rapidity, and in 18 10 his father began
to exhibit him. As a performing prodigy he visited Great Britain
and France. From 1816 to 1819 he studied in Westminster
school, London. After the death of his father in 1824 he returned
to America, and from 1825 to 1834 he was a Methodist preacher.
As he grew older his extraordinary calculating powers diminished.
From 1835 until his death, on the 2nd of March 1840, he was
professor of languages at the Norwich University in Vermont.
He published a Memoir of his life in 1833.
His nephew, also named Zerah Colburn (1832-1870), was a
well-known mechanical engineer; the editor successively of the
Railroad Advocate, in New York, The Engineer, in London, and
Engineering, in London; and the author of a work entitled The
Locomotive Engine (185 1).
COLBY. THOMAS FREDERICK (1784-1852), British major-
general and directorof ordnanccsurvcy, was born at St Margaret's,
Rochester, on the 1st of September 1784, a member of a South
Wales family. Entering the Royal Engineers he began in 1802
a life-long connexion with the Ordnance Survey department.
His most important work was the survey of Ireland. This he
planned in 1824, and was engaged upon it until 1846. The last
sheets of this survey were almost ready for issue in that year
when he reached the rank of major-general, and according to the
rules of the service had to vacate his survey appointment. He
was the inventor of the compensation bar, an apparatus used in
base-measurements. He died at New Brighton on the 9th of
October 1852.
COLCHAGUA, a province of central Chile, bounded N. by
Santiago and O'Higgins, E. by Argentina, S. by Curko, and VV.
by the Pacific Its area is officially estimated at 3856 sq. m.;
pop- (1895) 157,566. Extending across the great central valley
of Chile, the province has a considerable area devoted to agri-
Culture, but much attention is given to cattle and mining. Its
principal river is the Rapel, sometimes considered as the southern
limit of the Inca empire. Its greatest tributary is the Cachapoal,
in the valley of which, among the Andean foothills, are the
popular thermal mineral baths of Cauquencs, 2306 ft. above
sea-level. The state central railway from Santiago to Puerto
Montt crosses the province and has two branches within its
borders, one from Rengo to Pcumo, and one from San Fernando
via Palmilla to Pichilemu on the coast. The principal towns arc
the capital, San Fernando, Rengo and Palmilla. San Fernando
is one of the several towns founded in 1742 by the governor-
general Jose* de Manso, and had a population of 7447 in 1895.
Rengo is an active commercial town and had a population of
6463 in 1 895.
COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT, ist Baron (1757-1820),
born at Abingdon, was the son of Dr John Abbot, rector of All
Saints, Colchester, and, by his mother's second marriage, half-
brother of the famous Jeremy Bent ham. From Westminster
school Charles Abbot passed to Christ Church, Oxford, at which
he gained the chancellor'* medal for Latin verse as well as the
Vtaeriaa scholarship) In lygs, after having practised twelve
years as a barrister, and published a treatise proposing the
incorporation of the judicial system of Wales with that of
England, he was appointed to the office previously held by his
brother of clerk of the rules in the king's bench; and in June
of the same year he was elected member of parliament for Hclston,
through the influence of the duke of Leeds. In 1796 Abbot
commenced his career as a reformer in parliament by obtaining
the appointment of two committees— the one to report on the
arrangements which then existed as to temporary laws or laws
about to expire, the other to devise methods for the better
publication of new statutes. To the latter committee, and a
second committee which he proposed some years later, it is owing
thatcopiesof newstatutes were thenceforth sent to all magistrates
and municipal bodies. To Abbot's efforts were also due the
establishment of the Royal Record Commission, the reform of
the system which had allowed the public money to lie for some
time at long interest in the hands of the public accountants,
by charging them with payment of interest, and, most important
of all, the act for taking the first census, that of xSor. On the
formation of the Addington ministry in March 1801 Abbot
became chief secretary and privy seal for Ireland; and in the
February of the following year he was chosen speaker of the
House of Commons— a position which he held with universal
satisfaction till 1817, when an attack of erysipelas compelled him
to retire. In response to an address of the Commons, he was raised
to the peerage as Baron Colchester, with a pension of £4000, of
which £3000 was to be continued to his heir. He died on the 8th
of May 1829. His speeches against the Roman Catholic daisu
were published in 1828.
He was succeeded by his eldest son Charles (d. 2867), post-
master-general in 1858; and the latter by his son Regxnaid
Charles Edw ard (b. 1842), as 3rd baron.
COLCHESTER, a market town, river port and municipal and
parliamentary borough of Essex, England; 52 m. N.E. by E.
from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 38*373.
It lies on the river Cblnc, 12 m. from the open sea. Among
numerous buildings of antiquarian interest the first is the ruined
keep of the castle, a majestic specimen of Norman architecture,
the largest of its kind in England, covering nearly twice the area
of the White Tower in London. It was erected in the reign of
William I. or William II., and is quadrangular, turreted at the
angles. As in other ancient buildings in Colchester there are
evidences of the use of material from the Roman town whkh
occupied the site, but it is clearly of Norman construction. Here
is the museum of the Essex Archaeological Society, with a remark-
able collection of Roman antiquities, and a library belonging to
the Round family, who own the castle. Among ecclesiastical
buildings are remains of two monastic foundations— the priory
of St Botolph, founded early in the 12th century for Augnstiniao
canons, of which part of the fine Norman west front (in whkh
Roman bricks occur), and of the nave arcades remain; and the
restored gateway of the Benedictine monastery of St John,
founded by Eudo, steward to William II. This is a beautiful
specimen of Perpendicular work, embattled, flanked by spired
turrets, and covered with panel work. The churches of Holy
Trinity, St Martin and St Leonard at Hythe are of antiquarian
interest; the first has an apparently pre-Norman tower and the
last preserves some curious frescoes.
The principal modern buildings are the town hall, corn ex-
change, free library, the Eastern Counties' asylum, Esses county
hospital and barracks. The town has long been an important
military centre with a large permanent camp. There are a free
grammar school (founded 1539), a technical and university
extension college, a literary institute and medical and other
societies. Castle Park is a public ground surrounding the castfe.
Colchester is the centre of an agricultural district, and has
extensive corn and cattle markets. Industries include founding,
engineering, malting, flour-milling, rose-growing and the making
of clothing and boots and shoes. The oyster fisheries at the
mouth of the Colnc, for which the town has been famous for
centuries, belong to the corporation, and are held on a ninety-
nine years' lease by the Colne Fishery Company, incorporated
COLCHESTER— COLCHICUM
66 1
under an act of 1870. The harbour, with quayage at the suburb
of Hytbe, b controlled by the corporation. The parliamentary
borough, which is co-extensive with the municipal, returns one
member. The municipal corporation consists of a mayor, 8
aldermen and 14 councillors. Area 11,333 acres.
The Roman town, Cotonia Victricensis Camaiodnnum (or
Canudodunum), was of great importance. It was founded by
Claudius, early in the period of the Roman conquest, as a
municipality with discharged Roman soldiers as citizens, to
assist the Roman dominion and spread its civilization. Under
Queen Boadicea the natives bu/ned the town and massacred the
colonists; but Camalodunum soon rose to fresh prosperity and
flourished throughout the Roman period. Its walls and some
other remains, including the guardroom at the principal gate,
can still be dearly traced, and many such relics as sculptures,
inscriptions, pavements and pottery have been discovered.
When the borough originated is not known, but Domesday Book
mentions two hundred and seventy-six burgesses and land in
commune burgensium, a phrase that may point to a nascent
municipal corporation. The first charter given by Richard I.
in 1189 granted the burghers leave to choose their bailiffs and a
justice to hold the pleas of the crown within the borough, freedom
from the obligation of duel, freedom of passage and pontage
through England, free warren, fishery and custom as in the time
of Henry I., and other privileges. An inspcximus of this charter
by Henry III. in 1252 granted the burgesses the return of certain
writs. The charters were confirmed by various kings, and new
grants obtained in 1447 and 1535. In 1635 Charles I. granted a
fresh charter, which replaced the bailiffs by a mayor, and in
1653 Cromwell altered it to secure a permanent majority for his
party on the corporation. But his action was undone in 1650,
and in 1663 Charles II. granted a new charter. In 1684 the
charters were surrendered, and a new one obtained reserving to
the crown power to remove the mayor and alderman, and this
one was further modified by James II. But the charter of 1663
was confirmed in 1603 and remained in force till 1741, when the
liberties were allowed to lapse. In 1763 George III. made the
borough a renewed grant of its liberties. Colchester returned
two members to parliament from 1295 until 1885. Fairs were
granted by Richard I. in 11 89 to the hospital of St Mary
Magdalene, and by Edward II. in 1319 to the town for the eve of
and feast of St Denis and the six following days— a fair which is
■till held. In the 13th century Colchester was sufficiently im-
portant as a port to pay a fee-farm of £46, its ships plying to
Winchelsea and France. Elizabeth and James I. encouraged
Flemish settlers in the manufacture of baize (" bays and says ").
which attained great importance, so that a charter of Charles I.
speaks of burgesses industriously exercising the manufacture of
doth. Both Camden and Fuller mention the trade in barrelled
oysters and candied eringo-root. The most notable event in the
history of the town was its siege by Fairfax in 1648, when the
raw levies of the Royalists in the second civil war held his army
at bay for nearly eleven weeks, only surrendering when starved
out, and when CromwelPs victory in the north made further
resistance useless. Colchester was made the see of a suffragan
bishop by King Henry VIII., and two bishops were in succession
appointed by him; no further appointments, however, were
made until the see was re-established under Queen Victoria.
See Victoria. County History, Essex; Charters and Letters Patent
Hstomy of Colchester' (1748); Ha r rod's Report on the Rrcords of
Colchester (1865); Cutts, Colchester (Historic Towns) 1888; J. If.
Smnted to the Borough of Colchester (Colchester, 1003); Morant
istomy of CoUhei ' " .. - .
Colchester (1865);
Round, " Colchester and the Commonwealth " in Eng. Hist. Rev.
vol. xv.; Benham, Red Paper Booh of Colchester (1902), and Oath
Book of Colchester (1907).
COLCHESTER, a township of Chittenden county, Vermont,
U.S.A., on Lake Champlain, immediately N.E. of Burlington,
from which it is separated by the Winooski river. Pop. (1000)
5352; (1910) 6450. It is served by the Central Vermont railway.
The surface is generally gently rolling, and in places along the
banks of the Winooski or Onion river, the shore of the lake,
•nd in the valleys, it is very picturesque. At Mallctt's Bay,
an arm of Lake Champlain, 1 m. long and 1 \ m. wide, several
large private schools hold summer sessions. The soQ is varied,
much of it being good meadow land or well adapted to the
growing of grain and fruit. The township has two villages:
Colchester Centre, a small, quiet settlement, and Winooski
(pop. in xooo, 3783) on the Winooski river. This stream
furnishes good water power, and the village has manufactories
of cotton and woollen goods, lumber, woodenware, gold and silver
plated ware, carriages, wagons and screens. Within the town-
ship there is a United States military reservation, Fort Ethan
Allen. The village was founded in 1772 by Ira Alien and for
many years it was known as " Allen's Settlement "; but later
it was called Winooski Falls, and in 1866 it was incorporated
as the Village of Winooski.
COLCHICUM, the Meadow Saffron, or Autumn Crocus (Cof-
chicum autumnalc), a perennial plant of the natural order
Liliaceae, found wild in rich moist meadow-land in England and
Ireland, in middle and southern Europe, and in the Swiss Alps.
It has pale-purple flowers, rarely more than three in number;
the perianth is funnel-shaped, and produced below into a long
slender tube, in the upper part of which the six stamens are
inserted. The ovary is three-celled, and lies at the bottom of
this tube. The leaves are three or four in number, flat, lanceolate,
erect and sheathing; and there is no stem. Propagation is by
the formation of new corms from the parent corm, and by seeds.
The latter are numerous, round, reddish-brown, and of the size
of black mustard -seeds. The corm of the meadow-saffron attains
its full size in June or early in July. A smaller corm is then
formed from the old one, close to its root; and this in September
and October produces the crocus-like flowers. In the succeeding
January or February it sends up its leaves, together with the
ovary, which perfects its seeds during the summer. The young
corm, at first about the diameter of the flower-stalk, grows
continuously, till in the following July it attains the size of a
small apricot. The parent corm remains attached to the new
one, and keeps its form and size till April in the third year of its
existence, after which it decays. In some cases a single corm
produces several new plants during its second spring by giving
rise to immature corms.
C. autumnale and its numerous varieties as well as other
species of the genus, arc well known in cultivation, forming
some of the most beautiful of autumn-flowering plants. They
arc very easy to cultivate and do not require lifting. The most
suitable soil is a light, sandy loam enriched with well decomposed
manure, in a rather moist situation. The corms should be planted
not less than 3 in. deep. Propagation is effected by seed or
increase of corms; the seed should be sown as soon as it is ripe
in June or July.
Colchicum was known to the Greeks under the name of
KoXxuoP) from KoXxfc, or Colchis, a country in which the
plant grew; and it is described by Dfoscoridcs as a poison. In
the 17th century the corms were worn by some of the German
peasantry as a charm against the plague. The drug was little
used till r763, when Baron Stttrck of Vienna introduced it for
the treatment of dropsy. Its use in febrile diseases, at one time
extensive, is now obsolete. As a specific for gout colchicum
was early employed by the Arabs; and the preparation known
as eau mtdicinale, much resorted to in the 18th century for the
cure of gout, owes its therapeutic virtues to colchicum; but
general attention was first directed by Sir Everard Home to the
use of the drug in gout.
For medical purposes the corm should be collected in the
early summer and, after the outer coat has been removed,
should be sliced and dried at a temperature of 130 to 150° F.
The chief constituents of colchicum are two alkaloids, colchicine
snd veratrine. Colchicine is the active principle and may be
given in full form in doses of tV to <\\ grain. It is a yellow, micro-
crystalline powder, soluble in water, alcohol and chloroform,
and forming readily decomposed salts with adds. It is the
methyl ester of a neutral body cokhicein, which may be obtained
in white acicular crystals.
The official dose of powdered colchicum is 2 to 5 grains, which
may be given in a cachet. The British Pharma^o^^sa.^jfcNai.xsx
cor .a us
. i . ..nit u llll
, ..,,i |« flu
• ■■« •%hii- »•!
» . »'•» MM III
. .. -, nl.Ufl
k ... s lv lui.l
I t ,'lllll»ttl
-v Oil ullltll
. .>| ioU tilt UU
,ti.«.t uoiit (ho
,, »,».»!» l\ IU»1
,- ., .» *S».i».l
\* % » .WW
,.s >.. lV»',l
furniBiia, K. lay HirriA, S. by the Monies Moschiti, Armenia aai
ji4ri nl I'miim, mill W. by the Kuxinc. The ancient district is
it |ui M-iiinl roughly by the modern province of Kutais (formerly
MIhkh lu). 'I fir name of Culihis first appears in Aeschylus raj
1'iii.I.h It wan inliatiitrd by a number of tribes whose stick-
mi ui« lav i liiiily uIoiik (he shore of the Black Sea. The chkf u
iIuim* win' thr 1-u/i, Moschi, AjttUac, A base i, Sagadae, Sua
uml v \u«i\i. Thest* tribes ditTered so completely in language ai-i
a|>|KMi.uur liom the surrounding nations, that the ancierj
«mii,iii.iu«I \unous theories to account for the phenozzese:
tUiwk'iui. who states th.it they, with the Egyptians lad ±:
I (Wi'i-tii*. wvw the iimt to practice circumcision. believed tfcs
to htw HjMunj; tivm the relics et the array of Sescs:ri* :% :
AiJ thu\ ivfjirtUxl tNrro as Fg>ptuss. Apelicnius Rbccrj
v i» % *«* i\ :«o* states that the IT&ptiass of Colchis preserves
.i» \ "'sV" »a :v fc "iS'r o: wotxUr. v.-.i5af ■, Lit lets' aho«izf sc^
a x « ■»> * '.fc «v.*»%;. ! ct,
iccura.-y- Though -is :
» ■■.•. $<. -v. ■ • "\ i. ; o:*;-.v S :S: jjrc*er:s. it baa bees iefen-ir:
. v. * ' N »■?!••;.%*>•* ^...vras. b> *oce sccera "writEs. !:*
„\-.** •<» i .-: .*-„■ V .-• :—zr.-£iz rveclts. tt'j '.an m zz
.x "v ■■-.; , i .".**- '..+1 i^f '-.* Mllcsia:-. -...zr '
^•. » v..*«* S.:_>. :-v.. s . tt-.-c 5cAjr*i3: Xu.i.3 . *:
•v x ,; ■•••■%.->. z _••. tt^j:— T. tsw— -a. Tv.
N. . - ■ ^ .
~~ : -=_• c . «ecs ■-
V
k-
COL
born .:t
Saints, t
brother * :
schotiK *»..
Vinerian - « i
i_S • - ««
— :."»iiv *■
COLCOTHAR— COLDEN
663
Leo the I saurian, afterwards emperor, to induce the Alans to
attack the Abasgi. The Alans, having gained knowledge of
the district by a trick, invaded Lazica, and, probably in 711, a
, Roman and Armenian army laid liege to Archaeopolit. On the
approach of a Saracen force they retired, but a small plundering
detachment was cut off. Ultimately Leo Joined this band and
aided by the Apsilian chief Marinus escaped with them to the
coast.
From the beginning of the 14th to the end of the 17th century
the district under the name Mingrelia (?.».) was governed by an
independent dynasty, the Dadians, which was succeeded by a
semi-independent dynasty, the Chikovans, who by 1838 had
submitted to Russia, though they retained a nominal sovereignty.
In 1866 the district was finally annexed by Russia.
For the kings see Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire, i. 83. (J- M - M.)
COLCOTHAB (adapted in Romanic languages from Arabic
goigotar, which was probably a corruption of the Gr. xdXraidof ,
from xoXjqAs, copper, IvOot, flower, i.e. copper sulphate), a name
given to the brownish-red ferric oxide formed in the preparation
of fuming sulphuric (Nordhausen) add by distilling ferrous
sulphate. It is used as a polishing powder, forming the rouge of
jewellers, and as the pigment Indian red. It is also known as
Crocus Mortis.
GOLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately
from a root cognate with the Lat. gdu, gclidus, and common in
the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms
for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kalu, halt, Dutch
koudt, houd) .subjectively the sensation which is excited by contact
with a substance whose temperature is lower than the normal;
objectively a quality or condition of material bodies uhich gives
rise to that sensation. Whether cold, in the objective sense, was
to be regarded as a positive quality or merely as absence of heat
was long a debated question. Thus Robert Boyle, who docs not
commit himself definitely to either view, says, in his New Expert'
menis and Observations touching Cold, that " the dispute which is
the primum frigidum is very well known among naturalists,
some contending for the earth, others for water, others for the air,
and some of the moderns for nitre, but all seeming to agree that
there is some body or other that is of its own nature supremely
cold and by participation of which all other bodies obtain that
quaUty." But with the general acceptance of the dynamical
theory of heat, cold naturally came to be regarded as a negative
condition, depending on decrease in the amount of the molecular
vibration that constitutes heat.
The question whether there is a limit to the degree of cold
possible, and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first
attacked by the French physicist, G. Amontons, in 1 703-1 703,
in connexion with his improvements in the air-thermometer.
In his instrument temperatures were indicated by the height
at which a column of mercury was sustained by a certain mass
of air, the volume or " spring " of which of course varied with
the heat to which it was exposed. Amontons therefore argued
that the aero of his thermometer would be that temperature at
which the spring of the air in it was reduced to nothing. On the
scale he used the boiling-point of water was marked at 73 and the
melting-point of ice at 51}, so that the aero of his scale was
equivalent to about -240 on the centigrade scale. This remark-
ably close approximation to the modern value of -273° for the
zero of the air-thermometer was further improved on by J. H.
Lambert {Pyrttmetrie, 1770). who gave the value -270° and
observed that this temperature might be regarded as absolute
cold. Values of this order for the absolute zero were not,
however, universally accepted about this period. Laplace and
Lavoisier, for instance, in their treatise on heat (1780), arrived
at values ranging from 1500° to 3000° below the freezing-point
of water, and thought that in any case it must be at least 6oo°
below, while John Dalton in his Chemical Philosophy gave ten
calculations of this value, and finally adopted -3000 8 C. as the
natural zero of temperature. After J. P. Joule had determined
the mechanical equivalent of heat, Lord Kelvin approached
the question from an entirely different point of view, and in
1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature which was inde-
pendent of the properties of any particular substance and was
based solely on the fundamental Jaws of thermodynamics (see
Heat and Thermodynamics). It followed from the principles
on which this scale was constructed that its zero was placed at
-273*, At almost precisely the same point as the zero of the
air-thermometer.
In nature the realms of space/ on the probable assumption
that the interstellar medium is perfectly transparent and diather-
manous, must, as was pointed out by VV. J. Macquorn Rankine,
be incapable of acquiring any temperature, and must therefore
be at the absolute zero. That, however, is not to say that if a
suitable thermometer could be projected into space it would
give a reading of -273*. On the contrary, not being a trans-
parent and diathermanous body, it would absorb radiation
from the sun and other stars, and would thus become warmed.
Professor J. H. Poynting (" Radiation in the Solar System,"
Phil. Trans., A, 1903, 202, p. 525) showed that as regards bodies
in the solar system the effects of radiation from the stars are
negligible, and calculated that by solar radiation alone a small
absorbing sphere at the distance of Mercury from the sun would
have its temperature raised to 483° Abs. (210° C), at the distance
of Venus to 358° Abs. (85° C.),of the earth to 300° Abs. (27* C),
of Mars to 243 d Abs. (- 30° C), and of Neptune to only 54* Abs.
(- 219° C). The French physicists of the early part of the 19th
century held a different view, and rejected the hypothesis of the
absolute cold of space. Fourier, for instance, postulated a
fundamental temperature of space as necessary for the explana-
tion of the heat-effects observed on the surface of the earth, and
estimated that in the interplanetary regions it was little less
than that of the terrestrial poles and below the freezing-point of
mercury, though it was different in other parts of space (Ann.
chim. p/iys., 1824, 27, pp. 141, 150). C. S. M. Pouillct, again,
calculated the temperature of interplanetary space as - 142° C.
(Comptcs rendus, 1838, 7, p. 61), and Sir John Hcrschel as
- 150° {Ency. Brit., 8th ed., art. "Meteorology," p. 643).
To attain the absolute zero in the laboratory, that is, to
deprive a substance entirely of its heat, is a thermodynamics!
impossibility, and the most that the physicist can hope for is an
indefinitely close approach to that point. The lowest steady
temperature obtainable by the exhaustion of liquid hydrogen
is about - 262° C. (n° Abs.), and the liquefaction of helium by
Professor Kamcrlingh Onnes in 1908 yielded a liquid having a
boiling-point of about 4*3* Abs., which on exhaustion must
bring us to within about 2} degrees of the absolute zero. (See
Liquid Gases.)
For a "cold, M in the medical sense, sec Catarrh and Respiratory
System: Pathology.
COLDEN, CADWALLADER (1688-1776), American physician
and colonial official, was born at Duns, Scotland, on the 17th of
February 1688. He graduated at the university of Edinburgh
in 1705, spent three years in London in the study of medicine,
and emigrated to America in 1708. After practising medicine
for ten years in Philadelphia, he was invited to settle in New
York by Governor Hunter, and in 17 18 was appointed the first
surveyor-general of the colony. Becoming a member of the
provincial council in 1720, he served for many years as its presi-
dent, and from 1761 until his death was lieutenant-governor;
for a considerable part of the time, during the interim between
the appointment of governors, he was acting-governor. About
1755 he retired from medical practice. As early as 1729 he had
built a country house called Coldcngham on the line between
Ulster and Orange counties, where he spent much of his time
until 1 761. Aristocratic and extremely conservative, he had a
violent distrust of popular government and a strong aversion
to the popular party in New York. Naturally he came into
frequent conflict with the growing sentiment in the colony in
opposition to royal taxation. He was acting-governor when in
1765 the stamped paper to be used under the Stamp Act arrived
in the port of New York ; a mob burned him in effigy in his
own coach in Bowling Green, in sight of the enraged acting-
governor and of General Gage; and Colden was compelled to
surrender the stamps to the «Ayi cawn& % Vi ^\«rc& ^fc*^ ^w».
COl D HARBOR— COLE, SIR H.
» » T :> 10 enforce the new
\ ....».* v'o.iien secured the sus-
x :•» an act of parliament.
■„ . . .» -ivi oi the patriot party,
. .. s .-■ '• a>. j I ii »c.« seemed inevitable,
. , ..• .u( with caution and to
, . , . v •■ i ;»'«. When the war began,
■ ...i.s- .:* tkmI. where hedicdon the
v.* ..i «.«* widely known among
, . . , it :\<!.ui»l and America. He was
... . ., ».,? wa* the first to introduce in
... % . i ".»«.tfiu »»t Linnaeus, who gave the
... » -u»:» ic*ogiii.:ed genus. He was an
1 1 nLlin. He wrote several medical
. . > -i i s. ■! .1.1%. the most noteworthy being
. * l-.urs ( 1 765); he also wrote The
... .<. .\... 4 '«i depending on the Province
s , % | . i . ,uvl tSoo and 1005), and an elaborate
. ■.......■ .i,i..»« in Hatter (1751), which, with
.'. \:.,jy »•/ Physics (c. 1756). his Enquiry into
1 ...... MdisH (1 766), and his Reflections (c. 1770),
, , , , t > u ui, i i»! American materialists and one of the
,.,l |.f.ik»ophers of his day. I. Woodbridge Riley,
... 1 .. l'n.:-wphy (New York, 1907), made the first
, 1 ui>K fi ('oldens philosophy, and said of it that it
.. 1.. >■ 11. .1 " Niwtunian mechanics with the ancient hylozoistic
• l •* imit ..." and "ultimately reached a kind of dynamic
|..iii|> \tlii-iii, subMancc being conceived as a self-acting and
u,.iu 1 »ully ditf unrd principle, whose essence is power and force."
Si- Ali«e M- Key*. Giduullader Col den. A Representative iStk
< 1 ■.:..» 1' ('.''km/ i.Ni-w York, 1 906.1, a Columbia I luvcr&ity doctoral
1I1 « 1 i.kt 1-V11 i J. C*.. Mumfonl. Xifufiir of Mcdiiine in America
lNi-w \«>iL, nK»j»): and Asa Gray, <( Select ions from the Scientific
4 xirv «|K»nK-iuo of Cailwalladcr Col den " in American Journal of
\(n/.f, \i>1. 44, 1843.
111-. KMiiilson, Cadwallader David Colden (1760- 1834),
l.iM>(i and |K'liiician, was educated in London, but returned
iu i,ss to New York, where he attained great distinction at the
Imi . IU* was a colonel of volunteers during the war of 181 2, and
iuuii 1.S1S 10 18? 1 was the successor of Jacob RadclilT as mayor
ul Ni-n York City. He was a member of the state assembly
yi.-iiKt a ihl 1 lie state senate (1S.2 5-18*7), and did rrnuh to secure
ihe v v*n^triiotii>ii of the Eric Canal and the organisation of the
»i ue public m. houl system; and in 1 8? 1-1833 he was a n-pre-
s 4 .iiii:\e in I'ongri-ss. He wrote a Life of Rolnrt Fulton (»Mi/>
.in I 1 Mtnwr sftkc Celebration of the Completion of the .>'•■*» J"»«r*
COLO HARBOR, Old and New, two localities in Ilunovrr
xv„ui>. \ugiuij. U.S.A., 10 m. N.E. of Richmond. 'Ihcy wen-
<av. vvviuv« 01 a succession of battles, on May ji-Junc it, ito>.\,
:•».» »iin I he I'nion forces under command of Cfcneral V. S.
v.'.: uii and the Confederates under General R. K. Lrr, who
Kiu a strongly entrenched line at New Cold Hailior. '1 hr
>.*,u I'nion attack on June 3 was delivered by the 11
Ummk}. VI. (Wright), and XVIII. (W. F. Smith) corps, and
..** jrvu^ht to a standstill in eight minutes. An order from annv
- iu\iiuricra to renew the attack was ignored by the oftueri und
t.i ai in* front, who realized fully the strength of the hostile
-3«utfa. Tittle troops lost as many ai 5000 men in un hom'-i
uung, i&t greater part in the few minutes of the aitual .»•. '.mil
za *«— ^»wt fighting of 31st of May to i:th of June on tint
:=-& Vaiant lost 14*000 men. (See Wilderness and Ami an **<
' •'««. i
**■!■■» a police burgh of Berwickshire, Stnttiiul
■■ U is situated on the north bank of the 1 mid,
1:. *■* Smcalon's fine bri<lgv of five an In •.
i ■■ *' i}) m. south-west of Berwuk In iln
c^:: ■ • " •* The chief public buildings arc the Ihm n
C-; 1 ■ ••' iastilute. and cottage hospital ?i..im
P> : '■ • h«tag to its position on the )U*id« 1 .u.J
COLCHIS. l^ consequence above Berwuk. i»u
of A 1 . :»li- ■ - •']!*■•«. « Skoltish history during iii.m%
0/1 tu - - ^L^aMd Lnr stream ia 129O with hu
invading host, and Montrose with the Covenanters in 164a
Of the Cistercian priory, founded about 1165 by Cospatric of
Dunbar, and destroyed by the xst earl of Hertford in 1545, which
stood a little to the east of the present market-place, no trace
remains; but for nearly four hundred years it was a centre of
religious fervour. Here it was that the papal legate, in the reign
of Henry VIII., published a bull against the printing of the
Scriptures; and by the irony of fate its site was occupied in the
19th century by an establishment, under Dr Adam Thomson,
for the production of cheap Bibles. At Coldstream General
Monk raised in 1659 the celebrated regiment of Foot Guard*
bearing its name. Like Gretna Green, Coldstream long enjo>rd
a notoriety as the resort of runaway couples, the old tofl-hwae
at the bridge being the usual scene of the marriage ceremony.
" Marriage House," as it is called, still exists in good repair.
Henry Brougham, afterwards lord chancellor, was married in
this clandestine way, though in an inn and not at the bridge, ia !
1821. Birgham, 3 m. west, was once a place of no small import-
ance, for there in 1 188 William the Lion conferred with the bishop
of Durham concerning the attempt of the English Church to
impose its supremacy upon Scotland; there in 1 289 was held the
convention to consider the question of the marriage of the Maid
of Norway with Trincc Edward of England; and there, too,ia
1200 was signed the treaty of Birgham, which secured the inde-
pendence of Scotland. Seven miles below Coldstream on the
English side, though 6 m. north-east of it, are the massive ruins
of Nor ham Castle, made famous by Scott's Marmion, and from
the time of its building by Ranulph Flambard in 11 ji a focus
of Bonier history during four centuries.
COLDWATER, a city and county-seat of Branch county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on Coldwater Stream (which connects two
of the group of small lakes in the vicinity), about 80 o.
S.S.E. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1800) 5247; (1000) 6216, of
whom 4.11 were foreign-born; (1004) 6225; (19 10) 5045. It
is served by the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railway. It »
the seat of a state public school and temporary home (opened
in 1874) for dependent, neglected or ill-treated children, who
ore received at any age under twelve. The city is situated ia
a line farming region, has an important flouring and grist null
industry, and also manufactures Portland cement, liniment,
lumber, furnit ure, sashes, doors and blinds, brass castings, sleighs,
short. &t*. The municipality owns and operates the water-works
and elnt tie lighting plant. Coldwater was settled in 1829, wa»
l.iitl out it*. .1 town under the name of Lyons in 1832, received its
pn -M-nt name in the following year, was incorporated as a village
in 1. Hi 7, w.it reached by railway and became the county-seat in
1 s ., 1 . mid was chartered as a city in 1S61.
COLE. SIR HENRY (1S08-1S82), English civil servant, was
Ihimi nt Hath on the 15th of July 1808, and was the son of as
otiii « r in the army. At the age of fifteen he became clerk to
S11 liamii I'algrave, then a subordinate officer in the record
nllur, mid, hel|ied by Charles Buller. to whom he had been inlro-
diiuil by Thomas Love Peacock, and who became chairman
ol n my.il commission for inquiry into the condition of the
pulilu inonK, worked his way up until he became an assistant
kir| H i I li< largely assisted in influencing public opinion in
mipiN.it of Sir Rowland Hill's reforms at the post office. A
• « !• 11 1 with the Society of Arts caused him to drift gradually
owl i.l the irrtirri office: he was a leading member of the com-
im.-.m.m il u i organized the Great Exhibition of 1851, and upon
Hi.< •••in lotion of its labours was made secretary to the School
■•I l»i .ii;ii, which by a series of transformations became in 1853
1 In l». piitimtit of Science and Art. I'nder its auspices the
'..mill k 1 nuiiigton (now Victoria and Albert) Museum was
Iu.... 1. .1 in iN S < upon land pur\ha>cd out of the surplus of the
1 > l.ii. hi,,.., in, I Cole practically became its director, retiring in
i'if| Mm pioeredings were frequently criticized, but the
1.... ...1.1 ..in H much to his energv. Indefatigable, genial and
1.1. I In drove everything before him, and by all sorts of
■ 1 • . II..I .leviirs built up a gitat institution, whose variety
■u. 1 i... .,.. ii.ii ,.1 uini|Kisition «cvnir\l imaged in the anomalous
■.1 tu. 1. .1. 1.1 wiihli it was temporarily housed. He also, though
COLE, T.— COLEMANITE
665
to the financial disappointment of many, conferred a great
benefit upon the metropolis by originating the scheme for the
erection of the Royal Albert HalL He was active in founding
the national training schools for cookery and music, the latter
the germ oj the Royal College of Musk. He edited the works of
Us benefactor Peacock; and was in his younger days largely
connected with the press, and the author of many useful topo-
graphical handbooks published under the pseudonym of u Felix
Summerly/' He died on the 18th of April 1882.
COLE, THOMAS (1801-1848), American landscape painter,'
was born at BoIton-le-Moors, England, on the 1st of February
1801. In 1819 the family emigrated to America, settling first in
Philadelphia and then at Steubenville, Ohio, where Cole learned
the rudiments of his profession from a wandering portrait painter
named Stein. He went about the country painting portraits,
but with little financial success. Removing to New York (1825),
he displayed some landscapes in the window of an eating-bouse,
where they attracted the attention of the painter Colonel
Trumbull, who sought him out, bought one of his canvases, and
found him patrons. From this time Cole was prosperous. He is
best remembered by a series of pictures consisting of four canvases
representing " The Voyage of Life," and another series of five
canvases representing " The Course of Empire," the latter now
in the gallery of the New York Historical Society. They were
allegories, in the taste of the day, and became exceedingly popular,
being reproduced in engravings with great success. The work,
however, was meretricious, the sentiment false, artificial and
conventional, and the artist's genuine fame must rest on his
landscapes, which, though thin in the painting, hard in the
handling, and not infrequently painful in detail, were at least
earnest endeavours to portray the world out of doors as it
appeared to the painter; their failings were the result of Cole's
environment and training. He had an influence on his time and
his fellows which was considerable, and with Durand he may be
said to have founded the early school of American landscape
painters. Cole spent the years i82o-i8j2and 1841-1842 abroad,
mainly in Italy, and at Florence lived with the sculptor
Greenough. After 1827 he had a studio in the Catakills which
furnished the subjects of some of his canvases, and he died at
Catskill, New York, on the 1 1 th of February 1848. His pictures
are in many public and private collections. His " Expulsion from
Eden " is in the Metropolitan Museum in New York.
COLE, TIMOTHY (1852- ), American wood engraver,' was
born in London, England, in 1852, his family emigrating to the
United States in 1858. He established himself in Chicago, where
in the great fire of 187 z he lost everything he possessed. In 1875
he removed to New York, finding work on the Century (then
Scribna's) magazine. He immediately attracted attention by
bis unusual facility and his sympathetic interpretation of illustra-
tions and pictures, and his publishers sent him abroad in 1883 to
engrave a set of blocks after the old masters in the European
galleries. These achieved for him a brilliant success. His repro-
ductions of Italian, Dutch, Flemish and English pictures were
published in book form with appreciative notes by the engraver
himself. Though the advent of new mechanical processes had
rendered wood engraving almost a lost art and left practically
no demand for the work of such craftsmen, Mr Cole was thus
enabled to continue his work, and became one of the foremost
contemporary masters of wood engraving. He received a
medal of the first class at the Paris Exhibition of 1000, and the
only grand prize given for wood engraving at the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition at St Louis, Missouri, in 1904.
COLE; VICAT (1833-1893), English painter, born at Ports-
mouth on the 17th of April 1833, was the son of the landscape
painter, George Cole, and in his practice followed his father's
lead with marked success. He exhibited at the British Institu-
tion at the age of nineteen, and was first represented at the Royal
Academy in 1853. His election as an associate of this institution
took place in 1870, and he became an Academician ten years later.
He died in London on the 6th of April 1 893. The wide popularity
Of his work was due partly to the simple directness of his technical
method, and partly to his habitual choice of attractive material.
Most of his subjects were found in the counties of Surrey and
Sussex, and along the banks of the Thames. Okie of his largest
pictures, u The Pool of London," was bought by the Chantrey
Fund Trustees in 1888, and is now in the Tate Gallery.
See Robert Chignell, The Life and Paintings of Vital Cole, RA.
(London. 1899).
COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS (1765-1837). English
Orientalist, the third son of Sir George Colebrooke, 2nd baronet,
was born in London on the 1 5th of June 1 765. He was educated
at home; and when only fifteen he had made considerable
attainments in classics and mathematics. From the age of
twelve to sixteen he resided in France, and in 1782 was appointed
to a writership in India. About a year after his arrival there he
was placed in the board of accounts in Calcutta; and three years
later he was removed to a situation in the revenue department
at TirhuL In 1789 he was removed to Purneah, where he investi-
gated the resources of that part of the country, and published his
Remarks on the Husbandry and Commerce of Bengal, privately
printed in 1795, in which he advocated free trade between Great
Britain and India. After eleven years' residence in India,
Colebrooke began the study of Sanskrit; and to him was confided
the translation of the great Digest of Hindu Laws, which had been
left unfinished by Sir William Jones. He translated the two
treatises Mitacshara and Dayabhaga under the title Law of In*
heritance. He was sent to Nagpur in 1709 on a special mission,
and on his return was made a judge of the new court of appeal,
over which be afterwards presided. In 1805 Lord Wellesley
appointed him professor of Hindu Law and Sanskrit at the college
of Fort William. During his residence at Calcutta he wrote his
Sanskrit Grammar (1805), some papers on the religious ceremonies
of the Hindus, and his Essay on the Vedas (1805), for a long time
the standard work on the subject. He became member of council
in 1807 and returned to England seven years later. He died on
the 1 8th of March 1837. He was a director of the Asiatic Society,
and many of the most valuable papers in the society's Transac-
tions were communicated by him.
His life was written by his son, Sir T. E. Colebrooke. in 1873.
COLEMANITE, a hydrous calcium borate, Ca : B,O n +0lI 2 O,
found in California as brilliant monoclinic crystals. It contains
50*9% of boron trioxide, and is an important source of com-
mercial borates and boracic acid. Beautifully developed
crystals, up to 2 or 3 in. in length, encrust cavities in compact,
white colemanite; they arc colourless and transparent, and
the brilliant lustre of their faces is vitreous to adamantine in
character. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of
symmetry of the crystals. Hardness 4-4]; specific gravity
2*42. The mineral was first discovered in 1882 in Death Valley,
Inyo county, California, and in the following year it was found
in greater abundance near Daggett in San Bernardino county,
forming with other borates and borosQicatcs a bed in sedi-
mentary strata of sandstones and clays; in more recent years
very large masses have been found and worked in these localities,
and also in Los Angeles county (sec Special Report, 1905, of
U.S. Census Bureau on Mines and Quarries; and Mineral
Resources of the U.S., 1007).
Priceite and pandcrmite are hydrous calcium borates with very
nearly the same composition as colemanite, and they may really
be only impure forms of this species. They are massive white
minerals, the former friable and chalk-like, and the latter firm
and compact in texture. Priceite occurs near Chctco in Curry
county, Oregon, where it forms layers between a bed of slate and
one of tough blue steatite; embedded in the steatite are rounded
masses of priceite varying in size from that of a pea to masses
weighing 200 lb. Pandcrmite comes from Asia Minor, and is shipped
from the port of Pandemia on the Sea of Marmora: it occurs as
large nodules, up to a ton in weight, beneath a thick bed of gypsum.
Another borate of commercial importance found abundantly in
the Califomian deposits is ulcxite, also known as buronatrocalcite
or "cotton-ball," a hydrous calcium and sodium borate,
CaNaBjOi+8HiO, which forms rounded masses consisting of a
loose aggregate of fine fibres. It is the principal species in the
borate deposits in the Atacama k^lqu,qISqm\!ew tcoc*£s»~ *\»V^t
66 4
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COLDSTREAM, a p..!i.e
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bn»\:r ;! i • itri-- 1 <»r:- O.'.sne. t<-
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COLEOPTERA
667
abdomen. The upper surface of the elytron is sharply folded
inwards at intervals, so as to give rise to a regular series of
external longitudinal furrows (striae) and to Conn a set of supports
between the two ehitinous layers forming the elytron. The
opper surface often shows a number of impressed dots (punctures).
Along the sutural border of the elytron, the ehitinous lamella
forms a tubular space within which are numerous glands. The
glands occur in groups, and lead into common ducts which open
usually so much reduced that the foremost apparent ventral
sclcrite of the abdomen represents the third slcrnite. From
this point backwards the successive abdominal segments, as
far as the seventh or eighth, can be readily made out The
ninth and tenth segments are at most times retracted within the
eighth. The female can protrude a long flexible tube in connexion
with the eighth segment, carrying the sderites of the ninth at
its extremity, and these sderites may carry short hairy processes
A
Under side.
Maxdkr. * l f
Fig. i.— Structure of Male Stag-Beetle {Lucamu unui).
A, Dorsal view; B, mouth organs; C, under tide.
in several series along the suture. Sometimes the glands are
found beneath the disk of the elytron, opening by pores on the
surface. The hind-wings, when developed, are characteristic
in form, possessing a sub-costal nervure with which the reduced
radial nervure usually becomes associated. There are several
curved median and cubital nervures and a single anal, but few
cross nervures or sreolels. The wing, when not in use, is folded
Pupa of
Dyticus.
Larva of Dyticus
Cybislcr sp. (Water- Beetle).
Flo. a.— Water Beetles (Dyticidae). a, Beetle; b, head of beetle
with feelers and palps; c, larva; d, pupa.
both lengthwise and transversely, and doubled up beneath
the elytron; to permit the transverse folding, the longitudinal
nervures are interrupted.
Ten segments can be recognized— according to the studies
of K. W. Vcrhoeff (1804-1806)— in a beetle's abdomen, but the
tenth sternite is usually absent. On account of the great
extension of the metathorax and the haunches of the large hind-
legs, the first abdominal sternite is wanting, and the second is
— the stylets. This flexible tube is the functional ovipositor,
the typical insectan ovipositor with its three pairs of processes
(see Hexapooa) being undeveloped among the Coleoptera. In
male beetles, however, the two pairs of genital processes (para-
mera) belonging to the ninth abdominal segment are always
present, though sometimes reduced. Between them is situated*
sometimes asymmetrically, the prominent intromittent organ.
In the structure of the digestive system, beetles resemble
most other mandibulate insects, the food-canal consisting of
gullet, crop, gizzard, mid-gut or stomach, intestine and rectum.
The stomach is beset throughout its length with numerous
small, linger-like caccal tubes. The excretory (malpighian)
tubes are few in number, either four or six. Many beetles have,
in connexion with the anus, glands which secrete a repellent
acid fluid, serving as a defence for the insect when attacked.
The " bombardier " ground beetles (fig. have this habit.
Oil-beetles (figs. 23 and 24) and ladybirds (fig. 32) defend them-
selves by ejecting drops of fluid from the knee-joints. The
nervous system is remarkably concentrated in some beetles, the
abdominal ganglia showing a tendency to become shifted
forward and crowded together, and in certain chafers all the
thoracic and abdominal ganglia are fused into a single nerve-
centre situated in the thorax,— a degree of specialization only
matched In the insectan class among the Hemiptera and some
muscid flies.
Development.— The embryonic development (see Hbxamoa) has
been carefully studied in several genera of beetles. As regards growth
after hatching, all beetles undergo a " complete " metamorphosis,
the wing-rudiments developing beneath the cuticle throughout the
larval stages, and a resting pupal stage intervening between the last
larval instar 1 and the imago. The coleopterous pupa (figs. 2d, 5 c)
is always " free," the legs, wings and other appendages not being
1 Instar is a convenient term suggested by D. Sharp to indicate
a stage in the life-history of an usectbetw
of the cuticle.
twecn two successive casting*
V \ *yw*A
. kS m the tullrtlor journeys far to *ouLh or
. . .tw«-**u *& many kiuu|u of bcciles is resign
...«.t«w *»tli Itii'ir habit* ; the C*r-mi?*?^4
\.-. Uiuir *t< «uhhI Ikuci*. arc abtxs^ ir:-
..,».*«*% A»tl uwji ubumUni m the gnra; :r.c*>.=i- . .,
J.....1U4 iiv %m i%"»UuU*l in iK:r ra.*:^. 7"r£ .
%. *v*»»|»U\ * miuU taut- > o* ii^'.a'.'c :« - ..tss. i.~r
1004 avM.m \oi.b Auv^xi a:u fc'j^-.T-s I"b«». *
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. «»ii ■ ****.• ". v. i v! V _>;:■! a. !T:c r^s"-z*
N. k .vN » U'.V M.VV V. "N * .CVs. ?^ ^.TT.^
* . »,x.. N.v. v\ »-»* -■» *•-• ». .^ :i-. -. ^«£. _.»
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COLEOPTERA. ., u.n. •
true beetles w hi. h f m r*- -
01 the orders into v.h,. •; 1...
COLEOPTERA
669
of beetles of different families, stridulating areas occur on various
segments of the abdomen, and are scraped by the elytra. It is
remarkable that these organs are found in similar positions in
genera belonging to widely divergent families, while two genera
of the same family may have them in different positions. It
follows, therefore, that they have been independently acquired
In the course of the evolution of the Coleoptera.
Stridulating organs among beetle-larvae have been noted,
especially in the wood-feeding grub of the stag-beetles (Lman-
idae) and their allies the Passalidae, and in the dung-eating
grubs of the dor-beetles (Geotrupes), which belong to the
chafer family {Scarabaeidae). These organs are described by
J. C SchkJdte and D. Sharp; in the stag-beetle larva a series
of short tubercles on the hind-leg is drawn across the serrate edge
of a plate on the haunch of the intermediate legs, while in the
Passatid grub the modified tip of the hind-leg acts as a scraper,
being so shortened that it is useless for locomotion, but highly
specialized for producing sound. Whatever may be the true
explanation of stridulating organs in adult beetles, sexual
selection can have had nothing to do with the presence of these
highly-developed larval structures. It has been suggested that
the power of stridulation would be advantageous to wood-boring
grubs, the sound warning each of the position of its neighbour,
so that adjacent burrowers may not get in each other's way.
The root-feeding larvae of the cockchafer and allied members
of the Scarabaeidae have a ridged area on the mandible, which
is scraped by teeth on the maxillae, apparently forming a
Stridulating organ.
Luminous Organs.— The function of the stridulating organs
just described is presumably to afford means of recognition
by sound. Some beetles emit a bright light from a portion of
their bodies, which leads to the recognition of mate or comrade
by sight. In the wingless female glow-worm (Lampyris, fig. 1 5/)
the luminous region is at the hinder end, the organ emitting
the light consisting, according to H. von Wielowiejski (1882),
of cells similar to those of the fat-body, containing a substance
that undergoes oxidation. The illumination is intermittent,
•Jul appears to be under the control of the insect's nervous
system. The well-known " fire-flies " of the tropics are large
click-beetles (Elateridae), that emit light from paired spots on
the prothorax and from the base of the ventral abdominal
region. The luminous organs of these beetles consist of a
specialized part of the fat-body, with an inner opaque and an
outer transparent layer. Its structure has been described by
C Heinemann, and its physiology by R. Dubois (1886), who
considers that the luminosity is due to the influence of an enzyme
in the cells of the organ upon a special substance in the blood.
The eggs and larvae of the fire-flics are luminous as well as the
perfect beetles.
Fossil History.— The Coleoptera can be traced back farther
In time than any other order of insects with complete trans-
formations, if the structures that have been described from the
Carboniferous rocks of Germany are really elytra. In the
Triassic rocks of Switzerland remains of weevils {Curculionidae)
occur, a family which is considered by many students the most
specialised of the order. And when we know that the CkrysomtU
idae and Buprestidae also lived in Triassic, and the Carabidae,
Elateridae, Cerambycidae and Scarabaeidae, in Liassic times,
we cannot doubt that the great majority of our existing families
had already been differentiated at the beginning of the Mesozoic
epoch. Coming to the Tertiary we find the Oiigocene beds of
Aix, of east Prussia (amber) and of Colorado, and the Miocene
of Bavaria, especially rich in remains of beetles, most of which
can be referred to existing genera, *
Classification.— The Coleoptera have been probably more
assiduously studied by systematic naturalists than any other
order of insects. The number of described species can now hardly
be less than 100,000, but there is little agreement as to the main
principles of a natural classification. About eighty-five families
are generally recognized; the difficulty that confronts the
zoologists is the arrangement of these families in " superfamilies "
or "sub-orders." Such obvious features as the number of
segments in the foot and the shape of the feeler were used by
the early entomologists for distinguishing the great groups. of
beetles. The arrangement dependent on the number of tarsal
segments— the order being divided into tribes Penlamerm,
Tetramera, Heieromero and Trimera — was suggested by E. L.
Geoffroy in 1762, adopted by PtA. Latreille, and used largely
through the xoth century. W. S. Madeay 's classification (1825),
which rested principally on the characters of the larvae, is
almost forgotten nowadays, but it is certain that in any sys-
tematic arrangement which claims to be natural the early stages
in the life-history must receive due attention. In recent years
classifications in part agreeing with the older schemes but largely
original, in accord with researches on the comparative anatomy
of the insects, have been put forward. Among the more con-
servative of these may be mentioned that of D. Sharp (1899),
who divides the order into sis great series of families: LomelU~
cornia (including the chafers and stag-beetles and their allies
with five-segmented feet and plate-like terminal segments to
the feelers); Adepkaga (carnivorous, terrestrial and aquatic
beetles, all with five foot-segments); Polymer pka (including
a heterogeneous assembly of families that cannot be fitted into
any of the other groups); Heteromera (beetles with the fore and
intermediate feet five-segmented, and the hind-feet four-seg-
mented); Phytophaga (including the leaf-beetles, and longhorns,
distinguished by the apparently four-segmented feet), and
Rkynchopkora (the weevils and their allies, with head prolonged
into a snout, and feet with four segments). L. Ganglbauer (1892)
divides the whole order into two sub-orders only, the Caraboidea
(the Adepkaga of Sharp and the older writers) and the Cantkari-
doidea (including all other beetles), since the larvae of Caraboidea
have five-segmented, two-clawed legs, while those of all other
beetles have legs with four segments and a single claw. A.
Lameere (1000) has suggested three sub-orders, the Cantkaridi-
formia (including the Phytophaga, the HeUromcra, the Rkyn-
chopkora and most of the Polymorpka of Sharp's classification),
the Stapkylini/ormia (including the rove-beetles, carrion-beetles
and a few allied families of Sharp's Polymorpka), and the Cara-
bidiformia {Adepkaga). Lamccrc's classification is founded on '
the number of abdominal sterna, the ncrvuration of the wings,
the number of malpighian tubules (whether four or six) and other
structural characters. Preferable to Lamecrc's system, because
founded on a wider range of adult characters and taking the
larval stages into account, is that of H. J. Kolbe (xoox), who
recognizes three sub-orders: (i.) the Adepkaga; (ii.) the
Heterophaga, including the Slaphylinoidca, the Actinorhabda
(Lamellicornio), the HeUrorkabda (most of Sharp's Polymorpka),
and the Anckulopodo (the Phytophaga, with the ladybirds
and some allied families which Sharp places among the Poly-
morpka)', (in.) the Rkynchopkora.
Students of the Coleoptera have failed to agree not only on a
system of classification, but on the relative specialization of
some of the groups which they all recognise as natural. Lameere,
for example, considers some of his Cantkaridiformia as the most
primitive Coleoptera. J. L. Leconte and G. H. Horn placed
the Rkynchopkora (weevils) in a group distinct from all other
beetles, on account of their supposed primitive nature. Kolbe,
on the other hand, insists that the weevils are the most modified
of all beetles, being highly specialized as regards their adult
structure, and developing from legless maggots exceedingly
different from the adult; he regards the Adephaga, with their
active armoured larvae with two foot-claws, as the most primitive
group of beetles, and there can be little doubt that the likeness
between larvae and adult may safely be accepted as a primitive
character among insects. In the Coleoptera we have to do with
an ancient yet dominant order, in which there is hardly a family
that does not show specialization in some point of structure
or life-history. Hence it is impossible to form a satisfactory
linear series.
In the classification adopted in this article, the attempt has
been made to combine the best points in old and recent schemes,
and to avoid the inconvenience of a large heterogeneous ejnu%
including the vast majority oi vbt tassftue*.
COLEOPTERA
.x >. -„-*». X\»
>. a .■>*■«& »v#\x'* SaNt »ilh
. .: v.- -.v v * »-.;h «v,w ei
xv v. v.* a %* the outct
-.^v'O'W^* a "«•' •.u'-.ntcrm
^- • .■■s * ;„**a\ 1 * the tip.
* . . k J*«e. As s hi* K*M
», k .••■•» M^vrt to the
*..X.*X
covered »i:h suckers, by means of «hkh they secure a fine baK af
their mates. Larwl dyticids ihg;. 2 6) possess slender, cur.c.
ho!!ow manJiblo. which are perforated at the tip and at the tax.
hes-ij thu< adapted for sucking the juice* of victims. Large dvt.^i
larxae oHen attack small fishes and tadpoles. They breat&e b>
rK'rvirsf the surface nlm wi:h the tail. »here a pair of spiracles are
*.:»a:<\i. The pupal staje is passed in an earthen cell, just bcseaih
V»V>. fww the \ s K .e surface cl the frc-and. Ncar'.v .\\» species of DytuuLu at
ta the ovarian k-.»»n- they aw cr.!\trw"v d;*:r;l*uscd. bjt are most abundant 3
I %xvl ceuRtrie*. The Hilifiiiie fern a s=u!I aquatic family alLrf
The vi'^K^, ar »rvtt.sd-becilcs. ccraprisir^ 13.000 species, fora
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COLEOPTERA
671
The PoiUfttfaeare a very remarkable family of small beetles, mostly
tropical, found only in ants' nests, or flying by night, and apparently
migrating from one nest to another. The number of antenna!
segments varies from eleven to two. It is supposed that these
beetles secrete a sweet substance on which the ants feed, but they
have been seen to devour the ants' eggs and grubs. The Cyrimidae,
or whirligig beetles (fig. o), are a curious aquatic family with the
feelers (fig. Q. b) short and reduced as in most Paussida*. They are
flattened oval in form, circling with gliding motion over the surface
film of the water, and occasionally diving, when they carry down
with them a bubble of air. The fore-legs are elongate and adapted
carry paired tracheal gills.
Stamylinoidea.— The members of this tribe may be easily
recognised by their wing-nervuration. Close to a transverse fold
near the base of the wing, the median nervure divides into branches
which extend to the wing-margin ; there is a second transverse fold
near the tip of the wing^and cross nervures are altogether wanting.
There are four malpignian tubes, and all five tarsal segments are
usually recognisable. With very few exceptions, the larva in this
group is active and eampodeiform, with cerci and elongate legs as in
the Adephaga, but the leg has only four segments and one claw.
FlO. 10.— SUpha quadri-
punttala. Europe.
Fie. 11.— Nccrophorus vespiUo
(Sexton Beetle). Europe.
The SilPhidae, or carrion beetles t farm one of the best -known
families 01 this group. They arc rotund or elongate insect* with
conical front haunches, the elytra generally covensg ifi^. 10) ihe
whole dorsal region of the abdomen, but some times leaving as many
As four terga exposed (fig. 1 1). Some ol these beetles are brtghijy
coloured, while others arc dull black. They are usually fount! in
carrion, and the species or S'ccr&f>h(trus (fig* 1 1} and Ntcropfiata arc
valuable scavengers from their habit of jurying small vertebrate
carcases which may serve aa food for their Larvae, At this work a
number of individuals ar-: associated together. The larvae that live
underground have spiny dorsal platts, while those of the Siipka
(fig. 10) and other genera that go openly about in search, of [pod
resemble wood-lice. About 1000 species or SUphuiae arc known.
Allied to the Silphidae arc a number of &mall and obscure families,
for which reference must be made to monographs of the order.
Of special interest among these are the Histenda*. compact beetles
(fie. 12) with very hard cutick and somewhat abbreviated elytra,
with over 2000 species, moat of which live on decaying matter, and
beetles and flies that bore in woody stems or succulent foots. Many
Stapkylinidae are constant inmates of ants' nests.
Malacode&mata.— In this tribe may be included a number of
families distinguished by the softness of the cuticle, the presence of
■even or eight abdominal sterna and of four malpignian tubes,
and the firm, well-arm-'
cured larva (fig. 13, c)
which is often predaceous
in habit. The mesothor-
acic epimera bound the
covil cavities of the inter'
mediate legs. The Lyrrt*
rxytonidac, a small family
of this group, character*-
taed by its slender, un-
differentiated feelers, and
feet, is believed by
Lameeir to comprise iiu»
most primitive of all living
beetles, and Sharp fay 1
stress on the undcveltfjied i-JL"
Fig. 15.— Clow- worm. Lampyrisnodi-
ca. a, Male; a, female; c, larva (ven-
tral view). Europe.
structure 0/ the tribe
generally.
The Lampyridae are a
large family, of which the glow-worm (Lampyrii) and the " soldier
beetles " (TcUpkorus) arc familiar examples. The female " glow-
worm " (fig. 15, a), emitting the well-known light (see above), is
wingless and like a larva; the luminosity seems to be an attraction
to the male, whose eves are often exceptionally well developed.
Some male members of the family have remarkably complex feelers.
In many genera of Lampyridae the female can fly as well as the
male; among these are the South European " fireflies."
Trichodermata.— Several families of rather soft-skinned beetles,
such as the Mdyridat, CUridat (fig. 16), Corynttidae, Dermestidat
(fig. 17), and bat-
ciffid ' " ' "
Fie. 16.— Genu
a£uzrtfj(Hive Beetle).
Europe.
Fin. if.—Denmeslet
lardartus (Bacon
Beetle).
7idae, are included
in this tribe. They
may be distin-
guished from the
Malacodermata by
the presence of only
five or six abdominal
sterna, while six mal'
pighian tubes are
present in some of
the families. The
beetles are hairy
and their larvae
well-armoured and often predaceous. Several species of Dermestid+t
are commonly found in houses, feeding on cheeses, dried meat,
skins and other such substances. The tX bacon beetle " {Dentate*
lardarnu), and its hard hairy larva, are well known. According to
Sharp, all Dcrmestid larvae probably feed on dried animal matters;
he mentions one species that can find sufficient food in the horsehair
of furniture, and another that eats the dried insect-skins banging in
old cobwebs.
Sternoxia.— This Is an important tribe of beetles, including
families with four malpignian tubes and only five or six abdominal
sterna, while in the thorax there is a baclcwardly directed process
of the presternum that fits into a mesostcrnal cavity. The larvae
are elongate and worm-like, with short legs but often with hard strong
cuticle.
The EiaUridae or dick beetles (fig. 18) have the prosternej process
Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Fig. 14.
Hister iv-maculatus Oxyporus rufus. Stenns biguttatus.
(Mimic Beetle). Europe. Europe. Europe.
the curious little Pselapkidae, with th re e- s egmented tarsi, elongate
palpi, and shortened abdomen; the latter are usually found in ants'
nests, where they are tended by the ants, which take a sweet fluid
secreted among little tufts of hair on the beetles' bodies; these
beetles, which are carried about by the ants, sometimes devour
their larvae. The Trich*pleryg$da* t with their delicate narrow
fringed wings, are the smallest of all beetles, while the PlatypsyUUae
consist of only a single species of curious form found on the beaver.
The Stapkylinidae, or rove-beetles— a large family of nearly
10,000 species — may be known by their very short elytra, which
cover only two of the abdominal segments, leaving the elongate
hind-body with seven or eight exposed, firm terga (figs. 13, 14).
These segments arc very mobile, and as the rove-beetles run along
they often curl the abdomen upwards and forwards like the tail of a
scorpion. The Slapkylinid larvae are typically canipodeifonn.
Beetles and larvae are frequently carnivorous in habit, hunting for
email insects under stones, or pursuing the soft-skinned grubs of
Fig. 18.— A, Wircworm ; 15, pupa of Click Beetle ; C, adult Click
Beetle {Air iota lineaium).
just mentioned, capable of movement in and out of the 1 _, „
cavity, the beetles being thus enabled to leap into the air, hence their
popular name of " dick-beetles " or " skip-jacks." The protborax
is convex in front, and is usually drawn out behind into a oramhaft*.
process on either side, while the. eVjXxa. vs. 4afeaj&fc , *xA>a«v'£flav>
670
Anr.riiAr.A. — Tim trior include* \* • ♦
five segments on every foot, simpl< t' :
tht* segment 1 enlarged to form tlui« « •
lolv-* (galea) of th«- first maxilla usually 1 .
(fiS- 4 M- The transverse fold of tin- h :
al>out tuo third* of the wlng-lcngth fi<
t!i«J median nt.rvuie stops and i$ joined •
ra«!i-il. which can bo dUtingui>hed thr«.' ••
subcostal. There are four malpighian 1..
W
-Afcrmrl
tuhr»-i of A«!»'ph:uM • «: .
t lianiUr;. while in ail • •
(tiainhcr at the narr«v. .
active, with well-* hiii: i.
(« mi), and with Avc-n-..;
< law;.
'I hi Rr-n< nili/ed arr.in^r • ..
of th«« Lirvi, whuh i'» U • •
d« tiu f ;uih thi tiilic ;i> yz-v.:-
in tin* ni«.j«- dominant f u. 1
small f.imili- -• <»f ji|uati'- '» ••• •!•
the AmphinnJac, who»c larva*. .
.»l,i .
»< imp--
Fi»:. «; ■ri.'fif'..fhus
Jurin.i. W. Alii. a.
ort rrni, nii'l «!>•» /',.' .'j. •',/.!,
the t iil end, v.\v it; .ir-- |.>
all.n.; th.- ....,|. t,| a M..\:U
Ihr /yr..v .- (f.. ; . ? i .„".. \,» .,.!,.»..
' wat. r. the ».i:n! 1. .» », imii-j tK v iv
:\- t«» l.-e wt.ll ,H.|pt<d lor -uiniimn
'»• "it • ■:.«. ni'im l> w»t!H''lt 1 In* tr.i.
• >■••'• ! in »:.. f t.uiiih..- •! -Vl.ph.i
•;•-. v.,?h . : ,, ...th o-nt.iur .. m.! the •
'!• •■-»!■ «i - ».i- f... ,|.„ea !>.:;-• Ivi.f:n
• ■ r it-niiiii, :.:..!.- x ,.,t, r. lb.- f»r«
'• '■ th.. ilu\cp: m,,..i1 fo,t-*4i:icul» I .
COLEOPTERA
673
sofa locust. The triungnlin Mfcw for the eggs, and, after a
moult, becomes changed into a soft-skinned tapering larva. This to
followed by a retting (pseudo-pupal) stage, and this by twotuoceaaive
larval stages like the grub 01 a chafer. The Rkipidopkorida* are
ritn short elytra, the feelera pectinate in the maleaa '
beetlea wit!
■ the maleaand aerrate
\
m the females. The life-history cAMttoeau haa been atodied by
T. A. Chapman, who finda that the eggs are laid in old wood, and that
the triungulin seeks to attach itself to a social wasp, who carries it
to her nest. There it feeds first as an internal parasite of the wasp-
grub, then bores its way out, moults and devours the wasp larva
from outaide. The waspa are said to leave the larval or pupal
MctiX-cui unmolested, but they are hostile to the developed beetles,
which hasten to leave the nest aa soon as pouible-
SriLBrsiFTEfEAr — Much difference of opinion has prevailed with
regard to the curious, tiny, parasitic insects included in this division,
some authorities confide n ng t ha 1 1 hey thou Id be referred to a distinct
order, white others would group them in the family Mdoid^c just
described* While from the nature of their life-history there is no
doubt that thejr have a rather close relationship to the: Mdcuiat.
their structure in to rcnurlublc that it seems Advisable to regard
them asi at least a distinct tribe of Colcoptera.
They may be comprised in a single family, the Stytoptdae, The
males are vei^ small, free-flying insects with the proihurax, meso-
thorax and elytra greatly reduced, the latter appearing as little,
twisted strip, while the metat borax is relatively large, with its
wings broad and capable of longitudinal folding. The feelers are
branched and the jaws vestigial. The female is a segmented, worm-
Like creature, spending her whole life within the body of the bee*
wasp or bug on which she is parasitic. One end of htr body pro-
trudes from between two of the abdominal segments of tbe boetj
it has been a lubject of dispute whether this protruded end is the
head or the tail* but there can be lit lie doubt that it is the latter-
While thus carried about by the host -insect, the female it fertitucd
by tbe free- flying male, and gives birth to m number of tiny triungulin
larvae- The chief points in the life- history of Stytops and Xmq*,
which are parasitic 00 certain bees (Andnna) and w^spe (Poiiiiet),
have been investigated by K. T. E. von Sit bold (tin) and N,
Nassonov (j#9?J. Tbe Little triungulins escape on to the body of
the bee or wasp: then those that are to survive must leave their
bast lor a nan- para u tired insect. Clinging to her hair* they are
carried to the nest, where they bore into the body of a bee or wasp
larva, and after a moult become soft -skinned legless maggots* The
vrowtn of the parasitic larva docs not stop the development of the
ftoM-larva, antj when the latter pupate* and assumes the winged
ffafm T the stylopid, which has completed iti tnxnsJorniiiiitjn, is
carried to the outer world. The presence of a Stylopi causes de-
rangement in the body of its host, and can be recognized by various
external signs. Other genera of the family are parasitic on Hemiptera
—bogs and frog-hoppers — but nothing 1a known aa to the details of «
tbeirlife-history.
Lajiellicornia.— This is a very well-marked tribe of beetles,
characterized by the peculiar elongation and flattening of three or
more of the terminal antennal segments, so that the feeler seems to
end in a number of leaf-like plates, or small comb-teeth (fig. 26, b, c).
The wings are well developed for flight, and there is a tendency
a the group, especially among the males, towards an excessive
development of the mandibles or the presence of enormous, horn-like
processes on the head or pronotum. There are four malpjghian tubes.
The larvae are furnished with large heads, powerful mandibles and
well-developed legs, but the body-segments are feebly chitinized,
and the tail-end is swollen. They feed in wood or spend an under-
ground life devouring roots or animal excrement.
The Lucanxdae or staff beetles (figs. 1 and 2O have the terminal
antennal segments pectinate, and so arranged that the comb-like 1
jort of the feeler cannot be curled up, while the elytra completely I
.-over the abdomen. There are about 600 species in the family, '
:e males being usually larger than the females, and remarkable
■r the sire of their mandibles. In the same species, however, great
.ariation occurs in the development of the mandibles, and the
breadth of the head varies correspondingly, the smallest type of
tale being, but little different in appearance from the female. The
larvae of iMcanidae live within the wood of treea, and may take
Miree or four years to attain their full growth. The Passalidae are a
tropical family of beetles generally considered to be intermediate
^•tween stag-beetles and chafers, the enlarged segments of the feeler
sting capable of close approximation.
The Scara b a ti dae or chafers are an enormous family of about
1 5.000 species. The plate-like segments of the feeler (fig. 26, 6, e) '
r\n be brought close together so aa to form a club-like termination;
nually the hinder abdominal segments are not covered by the elytra. I
i n this family there is often a marked divergence between the sexes;
the terminal antennal segments are larger in the male than in the
■^ male, and the males may carry large spinous proce s ses on the head
or protborax. or both. These structures were believed by C. Darwin
to be explicable by sexual selection. The larvae have the three pairs I
■A legs well developed, and the hinder abdominal segments swollen.
Most of tbe Scarabatidae are vegetable-feeders, but one section
of the family— represented in temperate countries by the dor-
beetles (G-irupn) (fig. *8) and AjJkmtau, and in warmer regions
by the " sacred " beetlea of the Egyptians (Scarahaems) (fig. 37),
and allied genera— feed both in the adult and larval stages, on dung
or decaying animal matter. Tbe heavy grube of Gftrupcs, tbeu
Fig. 25.— OadtrMthu
Java.
Fie. sC—MeMoMtkafullo
(Cockchafer). S. Europe, b.
Antenna of male; c, antenna
of female.
swollen tail-ends black with the contained food-material, are often
dug up in numbers in well-manured fields. The habits of Scarabaeus
have been described in detail by I. H. Fabre. The female beetle in
spring-time collects dung, which she forma into a ball by continuous
rolling, sometimes assisted by a companion. This ball is buried in a
suitable place, and serves the insect aa a store of food. During
the ineecta rest in their underground retreata, then in autumn
$
Fig. aB.—Geotrupes Block*
N. America.
Fig. 27.— Scarabaeus
Aegypliorum. Africa.
they reappear to bury another supply of dung, which serves aa food
for the larvae. Fabre states that the mother-insect carefully
arranges the food-supply so that the most nutritious and easily
digested portion is nearest the egg, to form the first meal of the
'of Cot*
young larva.
Copris it is stated that the female
Fig. 29.— Phaneus Tmperator.
S. America.
Flo. yi.—CeUmiaBaxU.
W.Africa.
ays only two or three eggs at a time, watching the offspring grow to
maturity, and then rearing another brood.
Among the vegetable-feeding chafers we usually find that while
the perfect insect devours leaves, the larva lives underground and
feeds on roots. Such are the habits of the aockchafer (Meloleutk*
eulgaris) and other species that often cause v* 3 *-^^ \ft\sm«a,
672
^yofthetrerl
J" Micproiho.-.,*
tnese arc " Ur t
elongate, wnrin-l, 1
MOIt h^s, ailll , .
lor moving ili, ailj .=.
SWihowpvc- k ,
T«e Buftratuj.-
JjoWlityn'f ,;../'
«he abaci
I III I'Ul I J J< /t
■I I I I t ll.. ,. J. »-*•/ £-.- Ill* IWU
t. ■ I- 1 1 1 Ill I. 1. . ,-. ., ..'w-: ii-
.1 .-i 1 ■• -l,i I 11.. . I. (■ ...\ ...-1 in
■ 1 ■■ in- 1 .. 1) ... . v ;/.— j *'.*■ 1 ^
- . i( 1 • 1 .... 1 1. 1..... ~ -..«« 1)
I 1 - ■ t- «1 , 1 i) »' ■'.» •*. ■-*.■"! "
\ t' ' - i|. . Il I. • . . .■ % .It., f ,-• .i«HW
■ ■ ■ r 1 • -4'.. i- . .\ ti ;h- ■•«»iU
■ ■ 1 \\ . 1 ,. , . . ^ .. ■■.. !•■ ■•-■■ lai<
* » T N |l li-«i *. W»r>
1 . } I ■»■■.-.! •• a
- ■ , » S >« ■ * '■%* UHllllk'/ I'
^
1
COLEPEPER
hi
• body. The hrwe hive toft. toby bodies, with the
thorax large and broad, and tba legs very much reduced.
d feed in the wood of trees. Consequently, beetles tA
ire moot abundant fai forett region*, and reach their
opment in the dense virgin forest* of tropical countries,
ca being particularly rich in peculiar genera.
i
Wett Africa.
a**W. or seed-beetles, agree with the two preceding
tarsal structure; the head is largely hidden by the
nd the elytra are short enough to wave the end of the
posed (fig. 38). The development of the pea and bean-
wen carefully studied by C. V. Riley, who finds that The
, hatched from the egg laid on the pod, has throe pain
that these are lost after the moult that occur* when the
red its way into the seed. In Great Britain the beetle,
rdng Its development, winter* in the seed, waiting to
lay it* eggs on the blossom in the ensuing spring.
*.—Bnukus piti Fk& jo.— PJaJwrttsu
Beetle.) Europe. laHrostris. Europe.
PBOtA.— The Ehynd up Hma are a group of beetle* easily
ry the elongation of the head into a beak or incut, which
. s at its aides and the jaws at its tip. The third tarsal
broad and bi-lobed, and the fourth is so small that the
be only four-segmented. There are it* malpfehian
ventral acleriteof the head-skeleton (gula), well developed
flies of beetles, is absent among the TttyactopAoftt, while
' the maxillae are much reduced. The larvae have w(t,
1 and, with very few exceptions, no leg*.
-m~wm- Fw. 41.— Oriorffcyn-
sr«gs. chtukgtuiici, Europe.
Fio. 42
-Lixtn pan-
t Europe.
n-fonflie* included m this group, the A ntkrfh&at [fij. to)
si. lesibto pulps, f e el ers ofte n of «*ee*s*ve length—
th**^*eg»eiit.asKitb«dkc£tsx*ni8^
m
Fig, 43* — Stoiyfn* tdmL
(Baric Beetle), Europe.
a dub, *nd, In tome genen, hmt wttb Vft, Th fer fr a rc ne a rt y raoo
known specie*,, mo*i of which live in tropical eonntries. The
Brenihtdce arc a remarkable la roily almost confined to the tropics;
they are elongate and narrow in form {6g r 40), *Ith a etr^rght,
cylindrical snout which in some ma.h beetles of the family Is longer
thin the neat of the body.
The CurttduHndac. or weevils ($.*.). comprising 13,000 species,
are by far the largest family of the group. The roaiilUry palp* arc
short and rigid, aad there is no distinct
labrum, whjJc rbc feelers are uiually of
an " elbowed " form, the basal segment
being very elongate (fig*- 4*+ 4*)- Tbey
arc vegetable feeders, both in the perfect
and larval stage*, and are often highly
injurious- The female uses her snout
as a boring instrument to prepare a
suitable place for egg* laying. Tha larvae
(fig, 3.) of some weevils live in seeds;
others devour roots, while the pa rent -
beetle* eat leaves: others, again, are
found in wood or under barfc. The Seolytidoe, or barV>bceile§„ are
a family of tome 1500 species* closely allied to the Curcvltoniaae,
differing only in the fceblc development of the snout. They have
clubbed feelers, and their cylindrical bodies (fig. 4j) are well adapted
for their burrowing habits under the bark of trees. Usually the
mother-beetle nukes a fairlytt might tunnel a Tom? which, at short
intervals, she lay* her eggs. The grubs, when hatched t start galleries
nearly at right angle* to this, and when fully grown form oval cells
in which they pupate; from these the young beetles emerge by
making circular holes direr My outward through the bark.
BiBuoGRAFifY.— Jn addition to what may be found in numerous
important works on the Hexapoda ia.rA as a whole, such as J. C.
West wood's Modem ttauijiiaiien ejlntectw* voL i. (London, 1838);
J, H- Fabre's Som*niri Enlvmetetivuej (Taris, 1S70-1&51J; D,
Sharp* contribution to the Cambridge Natural History (vol. vL,
London, t&goh and L, C. M tail's Astatic Inmtr (London . 1605),
the vpecial literature of the Cideetkrra a enormous, » Classical
anatomical memoirs are those of L, Uufour (Ann* Sti. Net. ii,, ifi..
iv., vi viii.p xlv., i8J4^ifl2^)*, lb. (*er # i> Z00LJ i,. 18J4: and
H. £. StniuTs-DUrkheim, Anatomic compart* des animaux artiadlei
(Paris, 1628).
The wing* of Cokvptfra (including the elytra) are described and
discussed by F. Mcincrt {Emtom* lijdtk* v, t 1W0); C. Hoffbaucr
(ZetLj. urine*. Zfrd. Uv,, 189J) ; J. Ji, Cam stock and LC, Need ham
{Aswr, AW. soaeH ., t«48)t and W. L, Tower (Zam. Jakrb And.
rvii., 1903). The n»rpMogy of the abdomen, ovipositor and genital
armature 1* dealt with by K, VV, Verhoef! {Eni. Nacktr. auL, 1894.
and Artk.f. Natbrf. lii., laii, 1603-1004); and B. Wandolkcfc {Zaai*
Jahrb. Anat, xxii, 1005 J.
Luminous organs are described by H. von WFeli^wiejski {Zeili. f.
msstn. Zori. xxx vii., iBgj}; C. Heinemann (ArtK. f r mikr. Anat.
«ii, liioo); and R* Dubob {BulL ux, *wf + Frame, 1896}; and
stridubtine organ."* by C J. Oahan {Trust, Enfant. 5*c* 1000), Sed
al$o C Darwin* Descent $f Man and Selection in Riicitcm tu Sex
(Umdon H t»7i).
Many larvae el Cdropttta an* described and beautifully figured by
\, C Schiodie (Not»rk. T*dnkr t i^xiiL, tnoi-ie^j). Hyper-
mctamorphoiis in the Mtlaid<i* is described by G> Newport (Tram.
Linn. Sac. «., xxi, ifljt-jBur; C V + Riky {Rtfr U.S. Lnivm.
Comm. L, 1JI7S); h H. Fabte (4nrt, Set. Not, W>*x~< xi*,, 1848-
tAu 1; Hi Beauregard (Let Inteetes t$3icant* t f>rif h 1S00);
A. Chabaud (Ann, StK, Ext France. I*., tflgi); in the Bra
by Riley {Snied Lite. iv, f v., iSoj-iflaj; and in the Sfrtpriptcm
(Stylcpidaf) by K. T. E. von Siiibold (ArcK f> Natural*,, i^aj):
N.'Nassonov {Bulk Unit, ffdHdsir, IB92); and C T. Brues {£m&
Jahrb, A not, iriii., looi).
For various schemes of cT.issmcation of t_he Coltcplrra see E. L.
GcorTroy (/itfu/ej qtli re treuaeni aux rttrirans Je Parti, Paris, 1762);
A. C. Olivier [CSU&pteMS, Paris, 1789-1808); W, S, MpcLeay
{A /tnuhsa Jataniat t London f 18? 5) ; the general works of West wood
and Sharp, .mentioned above; M. Gemmingcr and B. de Harold
el* T
'QPBi \
Umarc {A in. Sor. EnL 3*1 f» iliv., ijviL, looo-tjoj); and H + J.
Kotbe [Auh.L A'uiirrg, TaviL + rooi)*
For the Bnlwh species. W, W. Fowler (Cateopteri of tkt British
ft fonds, 5 veits., London, 1^7-1 Snt ) (1 the standard work ; and W. F,
Johnson and J* N. Hslbcrt s '* Beetles of Ireland " tptot. H IrhH
Aai,. 3* vi., 1901) i* valuable fauni^tically. Among the larg«
number of syiteaciaric writcri on the ordrr genera Uy, or on speciai
family, may be mc niiuncd D, Sharp. T r V, WoUaston, H. W f Bates,
G, C Champion. E. Reiltrr, C. C, Crotch, H. 5. Gorham. M. jacoby t
L, FairrtLiire aad C. O, Watrrhou*e, (C H. C.)
COLEPEPER, JOHN COLEPEPIR (or CmrrTPE*), 1st
Baa oh (d. 1660), EngHsh politician, was the only son of Slf
John Colepeper of Wigseil, Sluscjl lie began bU cumex ^
6 7 6
COLERAINE— COLERIDGE, HARTLEY
military service abroad, ud came first into public notice at
borne through his knowledge of country affairs, being summoned
often before the council board to give evidence ca such matters.
Be was knighted, and was elected member for Kent in the Long
Parliament, when he took the popular side, speaking against
monopolies on the 9th of November 1640, being entrusted with
the impeachment of Sir Robert Berkeley on the x 2th of February
1641, supporting Strafford's attainder, and being appointed to
the committee of defence on the 12th of August 1641. He
separated, however, from the popular party on the Church
question, owing to political rather than religious objections,
fearing the effect of the revolutionary changes which were now
contemplated. He opposed the London petition for the abolition
of episcopacy, the project of religious union with the Scots, and
the Root and Branch Bill, and on the 1st of September he
moved a resolution in defence of the prayer-book. In the
following session he opposed the militia bill and the Grand
Remonstrance, and finally on the and of January 1642 he
Joined the king's party, taking office as chancellor of the ex-
chequer. He highly disapproved of the attempt upon the five
members, which was made without his knowledge, but advised
the enterprise against Hull. On the 25th of August 1642 he
appeared at the bar of the House of Commons to deliver the
king's final proposals for peace, and was afterwards present at
Edgehill, where he took part in Prince Rupert's charge and
opposed the retreat of the king's forces from the battlefield.
In December he was made by Charles master of the rolls. He
was a leading member of the Oxford Parliament, and was said,
In opposition to the general opinion, to have counselled consider-
able concessions to secure peace. His influence in military
affairs caused him to be much disliked by Prince Rupert and
the army, and the general animosity against him was increased
by his advancement to the peerage on the 2ist of October 1644
by the title of Baron Colepcper of Thoresway in Lincolnshire.
He was despatched with Hyde in charge of the prince of Wales
to the West in March 1645, and on the 2nd of March 1646, after
Charles's final defeat, embarked with the prince for Scilly, and
thence to France. He strongly advocated the gaining over
of the Scots by religious concessions, a policy supported by the
queen and Mazarin, but opposed by Hyde and other leading
royalists, and constantly urged this course upon the king, at the
same time deprecating any yielding on the subject of the militia.
He promoted the mission of Sir John Berkeley in 1647 to secure
an understanding between Charles and the army. In 1648 he
accompanied the prince in his unsuccessful naval expedition,
and returned with him to the Ifague, where violent altercations
broke out among the royalist leaders, Colepeper going so far, on
one occasion in the council, as to challenge Prince Rupert, and
being himself severely assaulted in the streets by Sir Robert
Walsh. He continued after the execution of the king to press
the acceptance on Charles II. of the Scottish proposals. He was
sent to Russia in 1650, uhcrc he obtained a loan of 20,000
roubles from the tsar, and, soon after his return, to Holland, to
procure military assistance. By the treaty, agreed to between
Cromwell and Mazarin, of August 1654, Colepcper was obliged
to leave France, and he appears henceforth to have resided in
Flanders. He accompanied Charles II. to the south of France,
a September 1659, at the time of the treaty of the Pyrenees
-to the Restoration he returned to England, but only survived
* !ww weeks, dying on the nth of June 1660.
3ntial contemporary writers agree in testifying to (\>le|ic|K-i \
M < *»Nitmf powers and to his resources as an adviser, hut
:^u of his want of stability and of his uncertain temper
^^isn. with whom he was often on ill terms, spcnkN gene inllv
1 *"**•*, and repels the charge of corruption levelled «»<'»">*•'
** "^Wwm gifted with considerable pnlitiml Iom-.ic.IiI
TT s " >T * , *«rkable letter written on the 20th of Scpit inli 1
_ ""* "** *«h of Cromwell, in which he foretelh *nli
7^^ ^9dly the future developments in the pnliiu it
-,J7" ""**» the rcyilists to remain inactive till the ii|flit
--* W ^^V? -=* division of their opponent. «ml
"*"* *Wk« tje ooc person willing and capable *>l
effecting the Restoration (Clarendon Stale Papers, ffi. 412).
Colepeper was twice married, (x) to Phjtippa, daughter of Sit
John Snelling, by whom he had one son, who died young, and
a daughter, and (2) to Judith, daughter of Sir J. Col epep er
of Hollingbourn, Kent, by whom he had seven children. Of
these Thomas (d. 1719; governor of Virginia 1 680-1 683) wis
the successor in the title, which became extinct on the death
of his younger brother Cheney in 1 725. (P. C. Y.)
COLERAINE, a seaport and market town of Co. Londonderry,
Ireland, in the north parliamentary division, on the Bann, 4 m.
from its mouth, and 6x| m. N.W. by N. from Dublin by the
Northern Counties (Midland) railway. Pop. of urban district
(1001) 6958. The town stands upon both sides of the river,
which is crossed by a handsome stone bridge, connecting the
town and its suburb, Waterside or Killowen. The principal
part is on the east bank, and consists of a central square calld
the Diamond, and several diverging streets. Among institutioas
may be mentioned the public schools founded in 16x3 and
maintained by the Honourable Irish Society, and the Acadcmk&l
Institution, maintained by the Irish Society and the London
Clothworkcrs' Company. The linen trade has long beta
extensively carried on in the town, from which, indeed, a fine
description of cloth is known as " Colcraines." Wnisky-distillini,
pork-curing, and the salmon and eel fisheries are prosecuted.
The mouth of the river was formerly obstructed by a bar, bet
piers were constructed, and the harbours greatly improved by
grants from the Irish Society of London and from a loan under
the River Bann Navigation Act 1870. Coleraine ceased to
return one member to the Imperial parliament in 1885; having
previously returned two to the Irish parliament until the Union.
It was incorporated by James I. It owed its importance mainly
to the Irish Society, which was incorporated as the Company
for the New Plantation of Ulster in 1613. Though fortified only
by an earthen wall, it managed to hold out against the rebels
in 1641. There arc no remains of a former priory, monastery
and castle. A rath or encampment of large size occupies Mount
Sandcl, x m. south-east.
COLERIDGE, HARTLEY (1 706-1 849), English m»n of letters,
eldest son of the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, was born on the
10th of September X706, near Bristol. His early years were
passed under Southey's care at Greta Hall, Keswick, and he «as
educated by the Rev. John Dawes at Ambleside. In 18x5 be
went to Oxford, as scholar of Merton College. His university
career, however, was very unfortunate. He had inherited the
weakness of purpose, as well as the splendid conversational
powers, of his father, and lapsed into habits of intemperance.
He was successful in gaining an Oriel fellowship, but at the
close of the probationary year (1820) was judged to have forfeited
it. The authorities could not be prevailed upon to reverse
their decision; but they awarded to him a free gift of £300
Hartley Coleridge then spent two years in London, where be
wrote short poems for the London Magazine. His next step was
to become a partner in a school at Ambleside, but this scheme
failed. In 1K40 a 1-ccds publisher, Mr. F. E. Bingley, made a
contract with him to write biographies of Yorkshire and Lanca-
shire worthies. These were afterwards republished under the
title of Biftfafikhi Borcalis (1833) and Worthies of Yorkshire
and /ijiihiaAj>« (iH<6). Bingley also printed a volume of his
(MKiiii in iX\\ t and Coleridge lived in his house until the contract
1 .uue 10 an rnd through the bankruptcy of the publisher. From
tlui time, except fur two short periods In 1837 and 1838 when
he m ted an master at Sedbcrgh grammar school, he lived quietly
at CLiHiitirr and (1840-1849) Rydal, spending his time in
Html* mul MAiiilt-iingn uliout the countryside. His figure was as
l.iinili.ii «• Wui 1I1 wtir id's, and his gentleness and simplicity of
in, hum 1 nun fin him the friendship of the country-people. In
• 'mm npi id lu« edition of Massinger and Ford, with bio-
1-1 i|i|iii* 1.1 I1..1I1 it 1 * inn 1 hM. The dosing decade of Coleridge's
liii H-i. H.mii .1 in niini he himself calls " the woeful impotence
ni n«.ih h,i.|,,- - II,. dini n the 6th of January 1840. The
I -•»■'- >-l It uili t inlrriilge is marked by much finish and
tivri.in , 1.1,1 i.u uiriMiv icputation must chiefly rest on the
COLERIDGE, LORD
677
sanity of his criticisms, and above all on his Prometheus, an
unfinished lyric drama, and on his sonnets. As a sonneteer he
achieved real excellence, the form being exactly suited to his
sensitive genius. Essays and Marginalia, and Poems, with a
memoir by his brother Derwent, appeared in 1851.
COLERIDGE. JOHN DUKE COLERIDGE, ist Bason (1820-
1804), lord chief justice of England, was the eldest son of Sir
John Taylor Coleridge. He was born at Heath's Court, Ottery
St Mary, on the 3rd of December 1820. He was educated at
Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, of which he was a scholar.
He was called to the bar in 1846, and went the western circuit,
rising steadily, through more than twenty years of hard work,
till in 1865 he was returned as member for Exeter in the Liberal
interest The impression which he made on the heads of his
party was so favourable that they determined, early in the
session of 1867, to put him forward as the protagonist of their
attack on the Conservative government But that move
seemed to many of their staunchest adherents unwise, and it
was frustrated by the active opposition of a section, including
Hastings Russell (later ninth duke of Bedford), his brother
Arthur, member for Tavistock, Alexander Mitchell of Slow,
A. W. Kinglake and Henry Seymour. They met to deliberate
in the tea-room of the House, and were afterwards sometimes
confounded with the tea-room party which was of subsequent
formation and under the guidance of a different group. The
protest was sufficient to prevent the contemplated attack being
made, but the Liberals returned to power in good time with a
large majority behind them in 1868. Coleridge was made, first
solicitor-, and then attorney-general.
As early as 1863 a small body of Oxford men in parliament
had opened fire against the legislation which kept their university
bound by ecclesiastical swaddling clothes. They had made a
good deal of progress in converting the House of Commons to
their views before the general election of 1865. That election
having brought Coleridge into parliament, he was hailed as a
most valuable ally, whose great university distinction, brilliant
success as an orator at the bar, and hereditary connexion with
the High Church party, entitled him to take the lead in a move-
ment which, although gathering strength, was yet very far
from having achieved complete success. The clerically-minded
section of the Conservative party could not but listen to the son
of Sir John Coleridge, the godson of Keble, and the grand-
nephew of the man who had been an indirect cause of the Anglican
revival of 1833,— for John Stuart Mill was right when he said
that the poet Coleridge and the philosopher Bcntham were,
so far as England was concerned, the leaders of the two chief
movements of their times: " it was they who taught the teachers,
and who were the two great seminal minds."
Walking up one evening from the House of Commons to dine
at the Athenaeum with Henry Bruce (afterwards Lord Aberdare)
and another friend, Coleridge said: "There is a trial coming
on which will be one of the most remarkable causes c&ebrcs
that has ever been heard of." This was the Tichborne case,
which led to proceedings in the criminal courts rising almost to
the dignity of a political event. The Tichborne trial was the
most conspicuous feature of Coleridge's later years at the bar,
and tasked his powers as an advocate to the uttermost, though
he was assisted by the splendid abilities and industry of Charles
(afterwards Lord) Bowen. In November 1873 Coleridge suc-
ceeded Sir W. Bovill as chief justice of the common pleas, and
was immediately afterwards raised to the peerage as Baron
Coleridge of Ottery St Mary. In 1880 he was made lord chief
justice of England on the death of Sir Alexander Cockburn.
In jury cases his quickness in apprehending facts and his
lucidity in arranging them were very remarkable indeed. Re
was not one of the most learned of lawyers, but he was a great
deal more learned than many people believed him to be, and as
an ecclesiastical lawyer had perhaps few or no superiors. His
fault— a natural fault in one who had been so successful as an
advocate—was that of being too apt to take one side. He
allowed, also, certain political or personal p r e possessions to colour
the tone of his remarks from the bench. A game-preserving
landlord had not to thank the gods when his case, however
buttressed by generally accepted claims, came before Coleridge,
Towards the end of his life his health failed, and he became
somewhat indolent. On the whole, he was not so strong a man
in his judicial capacity as Campbell or Cockburn; but it most
be admitted that his scholarship, his refinement, his power of
oratory, and his character raised the tone of the bench while he
sat upon it, and that if it has been adorned by greater judicial
abilities, it has hardly ever known a greater combination of
varied merits. It is curious to observe that of all judges the
man whom he put highest was one very unlike himself, the.
great master of the rolls, Sir William Grant Coleridge died in
harness on the 14th of June 1894.
Coleridge's work, first as a barrister, and then as a judge,
prevented his publishing as much as he otherwise would have
done, but his addresses and papers would, if collected, fill a
substantial volume and do much honour to his memory. One
of the best, and one most eminently characteristic of the man,
was his inaugural address to the Philosophical Institution at
Edinburgh in 1870; another was a paper on Wordsworth (1873).
He was an exceptionally good letter-writer. Of travel he had
very little experience. He had hardly been to Paris; once*
quite near the end of his career, he spent a few days in Holland,
and came back a willing slave to the genius of Rembrandt; but
his longest absence from England was a visit, which had some-
thing of a representative legal character, to the United States.
It is strange that a man so steeped in Greek and Roman poetry,
so deeply interested in the past, present and future of Christi-
anity, never saw Rome, or Athens, or the Holy Land. A sub-
sidiary cause, no doubt, was the fatal custom of neglecting
modern languages at English schools. He felt himself at a
disadvantage when he passed beyond English-speaking lands,
and cordially disliked the situation. No notice of Coleridge
should omit to make mention of his extraordinary store of
anecdotes, which were nearly always connected with Eton,
Oxford, the bar or the bench. His exquisite voice, considerable
power of mimicry, and perfect method of narration added
greatly to the charm. He once told, at the table of Dr Jowctt,
master of Balliol, anecdotes through the whole of dinner oh
Saturday evening, through the whole of breakfast, lunch and
dinner the next day, through the whole journey on Monday
morning from Oxford to Paddington, without ever once repeating
himself. He was frequently to be seen at the Athenaeum, was
a member both of Grillkm's and The Gub, as well as of the
Literary Society, of which he was president, and whose meetings
he very rarely missed. Bishop Copleston is said to have divided
the human race into three classes, — men, women and Coleridge*.
If he did so, he meant, no doubt, to imply that the family of
whom the poet of Chrisiabel was the chief example regarded
themselves as a class to themselves, the objects of a special
dispensation. John Duke Coleridge was sarcastic and critical,
and at times over-sensitive. But his strongest characteristics
were love of liberty and justice. By birth and connexions a
Conservative, he was a Liberal by conviction, and loyal to his
party and its great leader, Mr Gladstone.
Coleridge had three sons and a daughter by his first wife,
Jane Fortcscue, daughter of the Rev. George Seymour of
Freshwater. She was an artist of real genius, and her portrait
of Cardinal Newman was considered much better than the one
by MiUais. She died in February 1878; a short notice of her
by Dean Church of St Paul's was published in the Guardian,
and was reprinted in her husband's privately printed collection
of poems. Coleridge remained for some years a widower, but
married in 1885 Amy Augusta Jackson Lawford, who survived
him. He was succeeded in the peerage by his eldest son, Bernard
John Seymour (b. 1851), who went to the bar and became a K.C.
in 1893. In 1007 he was appointed a judge of the Supreme
Court. The two other sons were Stephen (b. 1854), a barrister,
secretary to the Anti-Vivisection Society, and Gilbert Ja
Duke (b. 1859).
puw
His Life and Correspondence, edited by E. H. Coleridge, was
ibliahed in 1904; see further E. Maoton, Builders ei o%ur U»
.••< CVLF.VTC?. >-'x '. T— COLERIDGE, S. T.
- ^* ' v '""^ «t.\!:>?" Wi:!iini Frend, a fellow of Jesus, accused of sedition
•" *' * -* - i>r V? u.-a.ti*n. was at this time tried and expelled from
.V"«~^ '">»-♦ <^ • i ^* *x --"* -v- ■— *""•,: >•* ^--r^-vrxe CcMige had imbibed his sentiments, and joined
• - ^ ■- - .• *- v ."* » \-ro.-"b'5pjrtiMns. He grew discontented with university
■ - * '•■ -v -' I*: "!:■■:,?. p****** by debt, went to London. Perhaps
... ■ ■ .. -.*%-.•?-.*..: •«• US1.V ^•'jrncsi! by his passion for Mary Evans, the sister
- •-:*. ^v * .-. . *c .': ** kVccI-zcSjows. A poem in the Morning Chronicle
■ « "*■ '- -■ v .*»"**s; ■• * "^ * jp-"--ei. and when that was spent be enlisted m
•• «.^ •: v ■;.* '>i^x"tt u^JeT the name of Silas Tomkyn Comber-
■■ ->*» ■•* n •-■■ x* *Ve .'. :>c c£ccrs of the dragoon regiment, finding a
\- .- ■•->".- .:*::'v.-tf *\a»:r."Nfi oa a wall, discovered the condition of
v x . * . - - v -'• imiri roeniii. Shortly afterwards an old schooJ-
... ♦••.»-■> . . :„■» .*■ '-. V-c*;::* heard of his whereabouts, and by the
* *. ■- :.-:'. lit .* ->?r.-bvT Cip:am James Coleridge, his discharge
. » v - . - • *■ •-• ».- ■.-vc-.rv: H.- rvi-r-oi k: a short time to Cambridge, but
- * v -x^ .•. « > ;^: v. x- i-r v-xr.y *-::beu: a decree in 1794. In the same
% v - . ..- k >...•.' vTv.-ri. i-i after a short tour in Wales went to
x . *. . ... ..* » . v . . - , ^ ; . >. ■.. % x'-: "re -rv: Scuiiey. Tie French Revolution had
\. ^ .-. ^ ■••. *•- t .::-■■ Sc:Sf> :c :zs depths. Coleridge received
. - .*..*>*...■ • * -...'. '.s-ttf* ■•■ir=is scheme cf Par.cisocTaey. On the
■■...- •< . • *- - *■- v.^.^r^.ra *i* :? be founded a brotherly com-
... - v . x x . **x~ <>.?7v>» -»i* :.- be extinguished, and the
..<»-. » v . x .- .-».-. ■*. ~. ^.rrxz-x. S: surds were forthcoming,
. .... ... v % % ■_*'.. *■- - *^^- :.»("•* :mr. iz? : v .e sche.-ne was dropped
» „ ». v.--* ■«"-■". .\. .-..»:— ■ ;:-b;:b Cc:.r:dge wrote the
x. . x. :.■ -.%.. .%.?..■.- :v.v appeared. At Bristol
.... v x . v. v ■**.". -v *• ••' •;-• -■-:- r.z-ci ::";:serh Ccttle. the book-
... „ . . . . «. "* ■>* ■•- x» .-.>... •. : .\i z.rr. '.::': r.'-cij ::r a v:Iux=e of poems.
... . » . A --X- .. -.: A.vr':^: »jr-vi 5i.-ih Fricker. and took
. .» . n ^- ' > ->.-... :w i". CTt.-.-^-.-: -T. :-e Erst. I CLanzeL A few
• ..-. i ».%.>..--» .-.a.S.ii::ii' riT-ci x us:.-rc: Mrs Ccleridge.aad
>v '" ^ \ ..... v v .v. •.:% . .4 »c s^iv ,-j ;....:->: S-V~ '-' r P-r-.-jfal
^ .\ „\m. i,-. -*o,:-. -• a«:.-t: J2 3r?:.-; :z pc^:-rs a=d re^gion.
.^vi nvm*.-. "O'.M % ' .^ n3 v*. '«..-ti v.. :v i.->i :%■: '•.•:■: iT» a^j irs: prc« peb ^cation,
. , s n. . .\ .v *> -". -v . -: .* .■* •u.-fc-i •*:« 7-e bock -z~ * ?•- *,* much
. . v % N %.. %• ■. ■■».-.• .: v. -.;. ">i ""-- -« -"■ i-*- - - C^-.i.r.-i:^- deciired that.
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COLERIDGE, S. T.
679
the Common emotions of humanity. _ rom this sprang the
Lyrical Ballads, to which Coleridge contributed J he Ancient
Mariner, the Nightingale and two scenes from Oww, and after
much cogitation the book was published in 1708 at Bristol by
Cotdt, to whose reminiscences, often indulging too much in
detail, we owe the account of this remarkable time. A second
edition of the Lyrical Ballad* in 1800 included another poem
by Coleridge — Love, to which subsequently the sub-title was
given of An Introduction to the Tale of the Dark Ladie. To the
Stowey period belong also the tragedy of Otorio (afterwards
known as Remorse), Kubla Khan and the first part of Christabel.
In 1798 an annuity, granted him by the brothers Wedgwood,
led Coleridge to abandon his reluctantly formed intention of
becoming a Unitarian minister. For many years he had desired
to see the continent, and in September 1708, in company with
Wordsworth and his sister, he left England for Hamburg.
Satyr ant's Letters (republished in Biog. Lit. 1817) give an account
of the tour.
A new period in Coleridge's life now began. He soon left the
Wordsworths to spend four months at RaUcburg, whence he
removed to Gdttingen to attend lectures. A great intellectual
movement had begun in Germany. Coleridge was soon in the
full whirl of excitement. He learnt much from Blu men bach and
Ekhhorn, and took interest in all that was going on around him.
During his stay of nine months in Germany, he made himself
master of the language to such purpose that the translation of
Wallenstein — his first piece of literary work after his return to
England — was actually accomplished in six weeks. It was
published in 1800, and, although it failed to make any impression
on the general public, it became at once prized by Scott and
others as it deserved. It is matter for regret that a request to
Coleridge that he should undertake to translate Faust never
received serious attention from him. During these years Cole-
ridge wrote many newspaper articles and some poems, among
them "Fire, Famine and Slaughter," for the Morning Post
(January 8, 1708). He had vehemently opposed Pitt's policy,
but a change came over his way of thought, and he found
himself separated from Fox on the question of a struggle with
Napoleon. He had lost his admiration for the Revolutionists,
as his " Ode to France " shows (Morning Post, April 16, 1798).
Like many other Whigs, he felt that all questions of domestic
policy must at a time of European peril be postponed. From
this time, however, his value for the ordered liberty of constitu-
tional government increased; and though never exactly to be
found among the ranks of old-fashioned Constitutionalists,
during the remainder of his life he kept steadily in view the
principles which received their full exposition in his well-
known work on Church and State. In the year x 800 Coleridge left
London for the Lakes. Here in that year he wrote the second
part of Christabel. In 1803 Sou they became a joint lodger with
Coleridge at Greta Hall, Keswick, of which in 18x2 Sou they
became sole tenant and occupier.
In 1801 begins the period of Coleridge's life during which, in
spite of the evidence of work shown in his compositions, he sank
more and more under the dominion of opium, in which he may
have first indulged at Cambridge. Few things are so sad to
read as the letters in which he details the consequences of his
transgression. He was occasionally seen in London during the
first years of the century, and wherever he appeared he was the
delight of admiring circles. He toured in Scotland with the
Wordsworths in 1803, visited Malta in 1804, when for ten
months he acted as secretary to the governor, and stayed nearly
eight months at Naples and Rome in 1805-1806. In Rome he
received a hint that his articles in the Morning Post had been
brought to Napoleon's notice, and he made the voyage from
Leghorn in an American ship. On a visit to Somersetshire in
1807 he met De Quincey for the first time, and the younger man's
admiration was shown by a gift of £300, " from an unknown
friend." In 1809 he started a magazine called The Friend,
which continued only for eight months. At the same time
Coleridge began to contribute to the Courier. In 1808 he
lectured at the Royal Institution, but with little success, and
two years later he gave his lectures on Shakespeare and other
poets. These lectures attracted great attention and were
followed by two other series. In 181 2 his income from the
Wedgwoods was reduced, and he tattled the remainder on hb
wife. His friends were gen e rous in assisting Urn with money.
Eventually Mackintosh obtained a grant of £100 a year for him
in 1824 during the lifetime of George IV., as one of the royal
associates of the Society of Literature, and at different times
he received help principally from Stuart, the publisher, Poole,
Sotheby, Sir George Beaumont, Byron and Wordsworth, while
his children shared Southcy's home at Keswick. But between
18 1 a and 1817 Coleridge made a good deal by bis work, and was
able to send money to his wife in addition to the annuity she
received. The tragedy of Remorse was produced at Drury
Lane in 1813, and met with considerable success. Three years
after this, having failed to conquer the opium habit, he deter-
mined to enter the family of Mr James Gillman, who lived at
Highgate. The letter in which he discloses his misery to this
kind and thoughtful man gives a real insight into his character.
Under judicious treatment the hour of mastery at last arrived.
The shore was reached, but the vessel had been miserably
shattered in its passage through the rocks. For the rest of his
life he hardly ever left his home at Highgate. During his
residence there, Christabel, written many years before, and
known to a favoured few, was first published in a volume with
Kubla Khan and the Pains of Sleep in 1816. He read widely
and wisely, in poetry, philosophy and divinity. In 1816 and the
following year, he gave his Lay Sermons to the world. Sibylline
Leaves appeared in 181 7; the Biographia Liter aria and a revised
edition of The Friend soon followed. Seven years afterwards
his most popular prose work — The Aids to Reflection — first
appeared. His last publication, in 1830, was the work on Church
and State. It was not till 1840 that his Confessions of an Inquiring
Spirit, by far his most seminal work, was posthumously published.
In 1833 he appeared at the meeting of the British Association
at Cambridge, but he died in the following year (25th of July
1834), and was buried in the churchyard close to the house of
Mr Gillman, where he had enjoyed every consolation which
friendship and love could render. Coleridge died in the com-
munion of the Church of England, of whose polity and teaching
he had been for many years a loving admirer. An interesting
letter to his god-child, written twelve days before his death,
sums up his spiritual experience in a roost touching form.
Of the extraordinary influence which he exercised in conversa-
tion it is impossible to speak fully here. Many of the most
remarkable among the younger men of that period resorted to
Highgate as to the shrine of an oracle, and although one or two
disparaging judgments, such as that of Carlyle, have been
recorded, there can be no doubt that since Samuel Johnson
there had been no such power in England. His nephew, Henry
Nelson Coleridge, gathered together some specimens of the
Table Talk of the few last years. But remarkable as these are
for the breadth of sympathy and extent of reading disclosed,
they will hardly convey the impressions furnished in a dramatic
form, as in Boswell's great work. Four volumes of Literary
Remains were published after his death, and these, along with the
chapters on the poetry of Wordsworth in the Biographia Lilereria,
may be said to exhibit the full range of Coleridge's power as
a critic of poetry In this region he stands supreme. With
regard to the preface, which contains Wordsworth's theory,
Coleridge has honestly expressed his dissent:—" With many
parts of this preface, in the sense attributed to them, and which
the words undoubtedly seem to authorize, I never concurred;
but, on the contrary, objected to them as erroneous in principle,
and contradictory (in appearance at least) both to other parts
of the same preface, and to the author's own practice in the
greater number of the poems themselves." This disclaimer of
perfect agreement renders the remaining portion of what he
says more valuable. Coleridge waa in England the creator of
that higher criticism which had already in Germany accomplished
so much in the hands of Lessing and Goethe. It is enough
to refer here to the fragmentary series of his Shall rny«g«*.
678 COLERIDGE, SIR T t
(1904) ; and for tin- lii-?f.r. .r*'- '' '
The Stnry.f.. r •
CO.
judge
of the
was e«*
a brill,
made a !
Middle 1
circuit.
editorship
in favour
edition of
a Serjeant
appointed «
university •.
judgeship, ..
iS&o, allhoi
Memoir of /»'.
their college •
if year. He
Devon, lea v. . .
Duke. 1st H.:
England; tlu
Anglican for t!
well-known a;.
of numerous t'
brothers, Jann •
Coleridge), arc s
George was thi •
of assizes on the :.
whose daughter "
well-known wrikr •
COLERIDGE. SA'
and philosopher, v.
father's vicarage ot '
the Rev. John Col< r .
He w.is known for h
and affectionate in 1 1 r .
of which he wasapp". ::
vicar of the pari>h (i; 1
death. He had m.jrr:-.-:
child of his second v.i.\..
great good sense, and ai. .
her sons. On the death *»» ••
Hospital was procured for •
Buller, an old pupil of hi., i
give evidence of a powerful
in a letter to his valued frim--
which the admiration of an •■
upon him at t hi* period. For .
Hobpil.il. Of these stho'-l-d . .
ful glimpses in the Kssay* .-.*
(;i> he was (ailed, though hi-,
disciplinariin, but ropeclt-i :•
wards know n as a Greek s< h"l ■
Coleridge to Bov.yer as a b<-;.
and from that time Howyer bi-;
his rejiling. Some composition,
sixteen, and not without a tout. '
influence which Bowles, whose p«
over his mind at this time. Bci\
tional delicacy of frame, increased
in his clothes, began to give him ser
In February 17m he was entered ••
A school-fellow who followed him to .
in glowing terms evenings in his roo.
Plato, and Thucydides were pushed a-
and the like, to discu\s the pamphlt*
anon a pamphlet issued from the pen 1 .
need 0/ having the book before us;— t
the morning, and in the evening he wc
COLERIDGE, SARA— COLET, J.
68 r
re fruit not only In a widening of the field of English
y but in the larger scientific thought of a later
n. J- M. Ro.)
ridge's four children, two (Hartley and Sara) are separately
His second child, Berkeley, died when a baby. The third,
1800-1SJ i . . ■ . ! . ■ ■ .r^uisbed scholar and author, wa* matter
1 school, t. ornwall ( 1 ^25 -x H.4 1 ) , nnst tifinrip.il of St Mark's
Thelsea (ifl-ji~i86i) F and rector of Hanwtll ([8c4-US3o) ;
aughter Chrtstabei (b- 1&4 J J sod son Ernett Hartley (b,
1 became wtN known in the world o( letters, (.he former as a.
he latter as a biographer and critic,
blcridgelt death several of his wi,rks were edited by tiii
fenry rCelwn Coferidjpe. the husband of Sara* th<? poei'i
;hter. In 1*47 Sara Coleridge published the Bititrtpfrte
enriched with annotations and bioerdphiral supplerntnt
own pen, Three volumes of political writings, entitled
kis Own Timet, were also published by Sara Coleridge In
ie standiiM life of Coleridee U that by J , Dykes. Campbell
is letters were edited by EL H. Coleridge.
IDGE, SARA (1802*1853), English author, the fourth
I only daughter of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and his
h Frickcr of Bristol, was born on the 23rd of December
Jreta Hall, Keswick. Here, after 1803, the Coleridges,
uid his wife (Mrs Coleridge's sister), and Mrs Lovell
lister), widow of Robert Lovell, the Quaker poet, ail lived
but Coleridge was often away from home; and
Jouthcy " was a pater familias. The Wordsworths at
were their neighbours. Wordsworth, in his poem,
\ has left us a description, or " poetical glorification,"
Toleridgc calls it, of the three girls— his own daughter
ith Southey and Sara Coleridge, the " last of the three,
Idest born." Greta Hall was Sara Coleridge's home
marriage; and the little Lake colony seems to have
only school. Guided by Southey, and with his ample
her command, she read by herself the chief Greek and
ssics, and before she was five-and-twenty had learnt
German, Italian and Spanish.
1 Sara Coleridge published Account of the Abi penes, a
n in three large volumes of Dobrizhoffer, undertaken in
1 with Southey's Tale of Paraguay, which had been
. to him by Dobrizhoffer's volumes; and Southey
his niece, the translator (canto ill. stanza 16), where he
the pleasure the old missionary would have felt if
. . he could in Merlin's glass have seen
r whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught."
■andiloquent terms, Charles Lamb, writing about the
*araguay to Southey in 1825, says, " How she Dobriz-
t all out, puzzles my slender Latinity to conjecture."
a- second work appeared, a translation from the medieval
the " Loyal Servitcur," The Right Joyous and Pleasant
(the Feats, Jests, and Prowesses of the Chevalier Bayard,
Knight without Fear and without Reproach: By the
MM/.
ember 1829, at Crosthwaite church, Keswick, after an
tut of seven years' duration, Sara Coleridge was married
nun, Henry Nelson Coleridge (i7o8- : i843), younger son
1 James Coleridge ( 1 760-1836). He was then a chancery
in London. The first eight years of her married life were
little cottage in Hampstead. There four of her children
i f of whom two survived. In 1834 Mrs Coleridge pub-
1 Pretty Lessons in Verse for Good Children', with some
% Latin in Easy Rhyme. These were originally written
itmction of her own children, and became very popular,
k Coleridges removed to Chester Place, Regent's Park;
e same year appeared Phantasmion, a Fairy Tale, Sara
's longest original work. The songs in Phantasmion
h admired at the time by Leigh Hunt and other critics,
hem, such as " Sylvan Stay " and " One Face Alone,"
ndy graceful and musical, and the whole fairy tale is
5 for the beauty of the story and the richness of its
I Henry Coleridge died, leaving to his widow the un-
safe, of editing her father's works. To these she added
ipoaittons of her own, among which are the Essay on
sm, with a special application to the Doctrine of Baptismal
Regeneration, appended to Coleridge's Aids to Reflection, a Preface
to the Essays on his Own Times, by S. T. Coleridge, and the Intro-
duction to the Biographia Literaria. During the last few years of
her life Sara Coleridge was a confirmed invalid. Shortly before
she died she amused herself by writing a little autobiography for
her daughter. This, which reaches only to her ninth year, was
completed by her daughter, and published in 1873, together with
some of her letters, under the title Memoirs and Letters of Sara
Coleridge. The letters show a cultured and highly speculative
mind. They contain many apt criticisms of known people and
books, and are specially interesting for their allusions to Words-
worth and the Lake Poets. Sara Coleridge died in London on
the 3rd of May 18524
Her son, Herbert Coleridge (1830-1861), won a double first
class in classics and mathematics at Oxford in 1852. He was
secretary to a committee appointed by the Philological Society
to consider the project of a standard English dictionary, a scheme
of which the New English Dictionary, published by the Clarendon
Press, was the ultimate outcome. His personal researches into
the subject were contained in his Gossarial Index to the Printed
English Literature of the Thirteenth Century (1859).
COLET, JOHN (1467^-15x9), English divine and educationist,
the eldest son of Sir Henry Colet (lord mayor of London i486
and 1495), was born in London about 1467. He was educated
at St Anthony's school and at Magdalen College, Oxford, where
he took the M.A. degree in 1400. He already held the non-
resident rectory of Dennington, Suffolk, and the vicarage of
St Dunstan's, Stepney, and was now collated rector of Thurning,
Hunts. In 1493 he went to Paris and thence to Italy, studying
canon and civil law, patristics and the rudiments of Greek.
During his residence abroad he became acquainted with Budaeus
(Guillaume Bude) and Erasmus, and with the teaching of
Savonarola. On his return to England in 1496 be took orders
and settled at Oxford, where he lectured on the epistles of St Paul,
replacing the old scholastic method of interpretation by an
exegesis more in harmony with the new learning. His methods
did much to influence Erasmus, who visited Oxford in 1498,
and in after years Erasmus received an annuity from him.
Since 1404 he had been prebendary of York, and canon of St
Martin le Grand, London. In 1502 he became prebendary of
Salisbury, in 1505 prebendary of St Paul's, and immediately
afterwards dean of the same cathedral, having previously taken
the degree of doctor of divinity. Here he continued his
practice of lecturing on the books of the Bible; and he soon
afterwards established a perpetual divinity lecture, on three
days in each week, in St Paul's church. About the year 1508,
having inherited his father's large wealth, Colet formed his plan
for the re-foundation of St Paul's school, whkh he completed
in 151s, and endowed with estates of an annual value of £122
and upwards. The celebrated grammarian William Lilly was
the first master, and the company of mercers were (in 1510)
appointed trustees, the first example of non-clerical manage-
ment in education. The dean's religious opinions were so
much more liberal than those of the contemporary clergy
(whose ignorance and corruption he denounced) that they
deemed him little better than a heretic; but William Warham,
the archbishop, refused to prosecute him. Similarly Henry
VHI. held him in high esteem despite his sermons against
the French wars. In 1514 be made the Canterbury pilgrimage,
and in 15x5 preached at Wolsey's installation as cardinal
Colet died of the sweating sickness on the x 6th of September 15x9.
He was buried on the south side of the choir of St Paul's, where
a stone was laid over his grave, with no other inscription than
his name. Besides the preferments above mentioned, he was
rector of the gild of Jesus at St Paul's and chaplain to Henry VIHV
Colet, though never dreaming of a formal breach with the
Roman Church, was a keen reformer, who disapproved of auricular
confession, and of the celibacy of the clergy. Though no great
scholar or writer, he was a powerful force in the England of his
day, and helped materially to disintegrate the medieval con-
ditions still obtaining, and to introduce the humanist movement.
Among his works, which were. fixiX cjdta&v&i \ F $dbfiB*&>Bfc
68o
COLERIDGE, S. T.
criticisms, containing evidence of the truest insight, and a
marvellous appreciation of the judicial " sanity " which raises
the greatest name in literature far above even the highest of
the poets who approached him.
As a poet Coleridge's own place is safe. His nkhe in the pr^ ■■
gallery of English poets is secure. Of no one can t* '
emphatically said that at his highest he was "of ii;.
all compact." He does not possess the fiery pulse an
ness of Burns, but the exquisite perfection of his rottn- -.. .
subtle alliance of his thought and expression must p.'
secure for him the warmest admiration of true lovers ui ,
art. In his early poems may be found traces of the fierce sirur: '
of his youth. The most remarkable is the Monody on the l)r,r-
of Ckatlcrton and the Religious Musings. In what may h<
called his second period, the ode entitled France, considered !
by Shelley the finest in the language, is most memorable. The '
whole soul of the poet is reflected in the Ode to Dejection. The
well-known lines—
" O Lady! we receive but what we rive.
And in our life alone does nature live;
Ours is her wedding garment, ours her shroud,"
with the passage which follows, contain more vividly, perhaps,
than anything which Coleridge has written, the expression of
the shaping and colouring function which he assigns, in the
Biographia LiUraria, to imagination. Ckristabd and the A ncient
Mariner have so completely taken possession of the highest place,
that it is needless to do more than allude to them. The super-
natural has never received such treatment as in these two wonder-
ful productions of his genius, and though the first of them
remains a torso, it is the loveliest torso in the gallery of English
literature. Although Coleridge had, for many years before his
death, almost entirely forsaken poetry, the few fragments of
work which remain, written in later years, show little trace of
weakness, although they are wanting in the unearthly melody
which imparts such a charm to Kubla Khan, Love and Youth
and Age. (G. D. B.; H. Ch.)
In the latter part of his life, and for the generation which
followed, Coleridge was ranked by many young English church-
men of liberal views as the greatest religious thinker of thetr
time. As Carlyle has told in his Life of Sterling, the poet's
distinction, in the eyes of the younger churchmen with philo-
sophic interests, lay in his having recovered and preserved his
Christian faith after having passed through periods of rationalism
and Unitarianism, and faced the full results of German criticism
and philosophy. His opinions, however, were at all period;
somewhat mutable, and it would be difficult to state them in
any form that would hold good for the whole even of his later
writings. He was, indeed, too receptive of thought impressions
of all kinds to be a consistent systematizcr. As a schoolboy, by
his own account, he was for a time a Voltairean, on the strength
of a perusal of the Philosophical Dictionary. At college, as wc
have seen, he turned Unitarian. From that position he gradu-
ally moved towards pantheism, a way of thought to which he
had shown remarkable leanings when, as a schoolboy, he dis-
coursed of Neo-Platonism to Charles Lamb, or— -if we may trust
his recollection— translated the hymns of Synesrus. Early in
life, too, he met with the doctrines of Jacob Behmen, of whom,
in the Biographia LiUraria, he speaks with affection and grati-
tude as having given him vital philosophic guidance. Between
pantheism and Unitarianism he seems to have balanced till his
thirty-fifth year, always tending towards the former in virtue
of the recoil from " anthropomorphism " which originally took
him to Unitarianism. In 1706, when he named his first child
David Hartley, but would not have him baptised, he held by
the " Christian materialism " of the writer in question, whom in
his Religious Musings he terms " wisest of mortal kind.
When, again, he met Wordsworth in 1707, the two poeti | freely
and sympathetically discussed Spinoza, for whom C«™Jf
always retained a deep admiration; and when in J7j8j«jw
up his Unitarian preaching, he named his second child J*****;
signifying a new allegiance, but still without opting CM*™
rite, otherwise than passively. Shortly afterwards he went to
Germany, where he V
vatedbyLessiv"
of Kant '■
iiairn
at.tii.-i.-
Chn-,:.
Th< -
he rei* 1
equivj'-
COLIGNY— COLIMA
683
tascarUiumbricoidcs may, by reflex action, set up a very painful
out spasm; and certain forms of influenza (q.v.) are ushered
ttllc of a very pronounced type. Many physicians describe
atlc colic due to cold and damp, and among women
1 1 he pelvic organs may give rise to an exactly similar pain.
r« also those forms of colic which must be classed as
1 or neuralgic, though this view of the case must never
; until every other possible cause is found to be un-
Ftom this short account of a few of the commoner
1 trouble, it will be clear that colic is merely a symp-
, not a disease in itself, and that no diagnosis
.■ until the cause of the pain has been determined.
k i& paroxysmal, usually both beginning and
The pain is generally referred to the neigh-
umbilicus, and may radiate all over the abdomen.
\iy from a slight momentary discomfort to a
\ to cause the patient to shriek or even to break
nmy sweat It is usually relieved by pressure,
is one which aids in the differential diagnosis
rlc colic and peritonitis, the pain of the latter
1 by pressure. But should the colic be due to
Jrwtb, or should the intestines be distended with
iU probably increase the pain. The temperature
J, but may be slightly raised, and the pulse
at of simple colic the patient must be confined
■nutious applied to the abdomen and a purge
a few drops of laudanum being added when the
inally severe. But the whole difficulty lies in
tial diagnosis. Acute intestinal obstruction
tX as an attack of simple colic, but the rapid
Ulnrss, frequent vomiting, anxious countenance,
Be condition of the pulse, warn a trained observer
ict strioua slate. Appendicitis and peritonitis, as
crises of locomotor ataxy, must all be excluded.
GASPARD DE (15 19-157 2), admiral of France and
ider, came of a noble family of Burgundy, who
f*nt from the nth century, and in the reign of
r ij4 the service of the king of France. His father,
G4igny. known as the marechal de Chatillon (d.
■. m [he ii.J in wars from 1495 to 1515, and was
f France in 1516. By his wife, Louise de
.-ilt of the future constable, he had three
riinal de Chatillon; Gaspard, the admiral; and
1'Andelot; all of whom played an important
i-riod of the wars of religion. At twenty-two
.ne to court, and there contracted a friendship
■■(.•. In the campaign of 1 543 Coligny distin-
.fcatly, and was wounded at the sieges of
. . -s. In 1 544 be served in the Italian campaign
. Enghicn, and was knighted on the field of
!ng to France, he took part in different military
■• ing been made colonel-general of the infantry
i.itcd great capacity and intelligence as a
.-. He was made admiral on the death of
'. In x«57 he was entrusted with the defence
In the siege he displayed great courage, resolu-
h uf character; but the place was taken, and he
the stronghold of L'Ecluse. On payment of
■ ■> crowns he recovered his liberty. But he had
■■I? a Huguenot, through the influence of his
'. —the first letter which Calvin addressed to
..h of September 1558— and he busied himself
■ it ing his co-religionists, a colony of whom
a hence they were afterwards expelled by the
" knry II. be placed himself, with Louis, prince
■ ■ nt of hit sect, and demanded religious tolera-
her reforms. In 1560, at the Assembly of
i:>ebleau, the hostility between Coligny and
ij:oke fort* violently. When the civil wars
liguy decided to tike arms only after long
hesitation, and he was always. ready to negotiate. In none of
these wars did he show superior genius, but he acted throughout
with great prudence and extraordinary tenacity; he was "le
heros de la mauvaise fortune." In 1569 the defeat and death
of the prince of Condi at Jarnac left him sole leader of the
Protestant armies. Victorious at Arnay-le-Duc, he obtained
in 1570 the pacification of St Germain. Returning to the court
in 1 57 1, he grew rapidly in favour with Charles XI. As a meant
of emancipating the king from the tutelage of his mother and
the faction of the Guises, the admiral proposed to him a descent
on Spanish Flanders, with an army drawn from both sects and
commanded by Charles in person. The king's regard for the
admiral, and the bold front of the Huguenots, alarmed the
queen-mother; and the massacre of St Bartholomew was the
consequence. On the 22nd of August 1572 Coligny was shot in
the street by Maurevel, a bravo in the pay of the queen-mother
and Guise; the bullets, however, only tore a finger from hit
right hand and shattered his left elbow. The king visited him,
but the queen-mother prevented all private intercourse between
them. On the 24th of August, the night of the massacre, he
was attacked in his house, and a servant of the duke of Guise,
generally known as Besme, slew him and cast him from a window
into *he courtyard at his master's feet. His papers were seized
and burned by the queen-mother; among them, according to
P /an tome, was a history of the civil war, " tres-beau et tres-bicn
faict, et digne d'estre imprimeV'
By his wife, Charlotte de Laval, Coligny nad several children,
among them being Louise, who married first Charles de Teligny
and afterwards William the Silent, prince of Orange, and Francis,
admiral of Guienne, who was one of the devoted servants of
Henry IV. Gaspard de Coligny (1584-1646), son of Francis,
was marshal of France during the reign of Louis XIII.
See Jean du Bouchet, Premes de I'kistoire gtnSalogique de rillustn
maison de Coligny (Paris, 1661); biography by Francois Hotmaa,
7$ (French translation, 1665); L. J. Dcfaborde, Gaspard de
hgny (1870-1882); Erich Marc Its, Gaspard von Coligny, setn Leben
1575 (French translation,
Coligny (1879-1 882); Erich . .
und das Frankreich seiner Zeit (Stuttgart, 1892) ; H. Patry, " Coligny
et la Papaut6." in the Bulletin dn prolestantisme franqais (1902);
A. W. Whitehead, Gaspard de Coligny, Admiral of France (1904);
and C. Merki, L'Amiral de Coligny (1909).
COLIMA, a small Pacific coast state of Mexico, lying between
Jalisco on the N. W. and N., and Michoacan on the E. Including
the Revilla Gigtdo islands its area is only 2272 sq, m., which
thus makes it the second smallest of the Mexican states. Pop,
(1895) 55,264; (1900) 65,1x5. The larger part of its territory
is within the narrow, flat coastal plain, beyond which it rises
toward the north-east into the foothills of the Sierra Madre, the
higher masses of the range, including the Colima volcano, lying
outside the state. It is drained by the Amelia and Coahuayana
rivers and their affluents, which are largely used for irrigation.
There are tidewater lagoons and morasses on the coast which
accentuate its malarious character. One of the largest of these,
Cuitlan, immediately south of ManzaniUo, is the centre of a
large salt-producing industry. The soil is generally fertile and
productive, but lack of transportation facilities has been a
serious obstacle to any production greatly exceeding local
demands. The dry and rainy seasons are sharply denned, the
rainfall being abundant in the latter. The climate is hot, humid
and malarious, becoming drier and healthier on the higher
mountain slopes of the interior. Stock-raising is an important
industry in the higher parts of the state, but the horses, mules
and cattle raised have been limited to local demands. Agri-
culture, however, is the principal occupation of the state, the
more important products being sugar, rice, Indian corn, palm
oil, coffee, indigo, cotton and cacao. The production of cacao
is small, and that of indigo and cotton is declining, the latter
being limited to the requirements of small local mills. There
are two crops of Indian com a year, but sugar and rice are the
principal crops. The " Caracolillo " coffee, produced on the
slopes of the mountains culminating iu the volcano of Colima, is
reputed the best in Mexico, and the entire crop (about 506,000 lb.
in 1906) is consumed in the country at a price much above
other grade*. There are Important minexsl dey**^ ^ ^*
68a
COLET, L.— C
1867-1876, are Absolutissimus do oeto erationis partium con- I of all \ it
structione libdlus (Antwerp, 1530), Rudiment* Crammniir.es | an.l 1
(London, 1539), Daily Devotions, Monition to a Godly /••
EpisUdae ad Erasmum, and commenUries on different r
the Bible.
See F. Seebohm, The Oxford Reformers; J. H. Luptor
John Cotel (1887); art. in The Times, July 7, 1909,
COLET, LOUISE (1810-1876), French poet and
was born at Aix of a Provencal family named Revo:
15th of September 1810. In 1835 she came to Pari?
husband Hippolyte Colet (1808-1851), a composer of 1
professor of harmony and counterpoint at the con?
In 1836 appeared her Flews du Midi, a volume of verse
tendency, followed by Penserosa (1839), * second volun
by La Jeunesse de Goethe (1839), a one-act comedy; by
brisis (1843), a novel; Let Funerailles de NopotioH
poem, and La Jeunesse de Mirabeau (1841), a novel,
were crowned five or six times by the Institute, a <
which she owed, however, to the influence of Vict.
rather than to the quality of her work. The criticiv.
books and on the prizes conferred on her by the .
exasperated her; and in 1841 Paris was diverted by her a
reprisals on Alphonsc Karr for certain nc'«ccs in If.
In 1849 she had to defend an action brought against hi
heirs of Madame Recamicr, whose correspondence with .'
Constant she had published in the columns of the Pu
produced a host of writings in prose and verse, but sht
best known for her intimate connexion with some n, '.
contemporaries, Abel Yillcmain, Gustave Flaubert .
Cousin. Only one of her books is now of interest— A...
amUmporain (1859), the novel in which she told the sic
life. She died on the 8th of March 1876.
COLEUS, a genus of herbaceous or shrubby plants
to the natural order Labia tae, chiefly natives of thl
They are very ornamental plants, the colour of their \c,
exceedingly varied, and often very brilliant. They
easiest culture. The cuttings of young shoots shouU
gated every year, about March, being planted in tli;
in sandy loam, and placed in a dose temperature of 7
taking root shift into 6-in. pots, using ordinary \\A
compost, containing abundance of leaf-mould and
keeping them near the light. They may be pas-,
larger pots as often as required, but 8-in. pots will be 1 !
for general purposes, as they can oe fed with liiji.
The young spring-struck plants like a warm growing *
but by midsummer they will bear more air and stain!
house or conservatory. They should be wintered if.
ture of 6o° to 65°. The stopping of the young sin-
regulated by the consideration whether bushy or pyr.f •■
are desired. Some of the varieties are half-hardy :•'
for summer bedding.
COLFAX, SCHUYLER (1823-1885), American r*/
vice president of the United States from 1869 to 1 " -
in New York city on the 23rd of March 1823. H
before the son's birth, and his mother subseqm*r ■
Mr Matthews. The son attended the public school
until he was ten, and then became a clerk in h
store, removing in 1836 with his mother and step '
Carlisle, Indiana. In 1841 be removed to Sout!
for eight years he was deputy auditor (his stc^
auditor) of St Joseph county; in 1842-1844 he <
enrolling clerk of the state senate and senate tc\>.
Indiana State Journal. In 1845 he established n
Valley Register, which he published for eighteen ycai
an Influential Whig and later Republican journal.
was a member of the state constitutional convcr»
1854 took an active part in organizing the ' Ar
men M (later called Republicans) of his state, and
sent to Congress. Here he served with distinctly
until 1869, the last six years as speaker of thefta.
ehoe of the Civil War he was a leading member 01
"fag of the Republican party, advocating the duir..
t NU
1. 1 »«■
. ., \ 1
V •
V ,
y II. •♦»•
III -I
M
\\* • -
,'« « * • w
V..»|»
, ...»
■ t.<tod
COLLATERAL— COLLATIA
685
1371. Swinford was a follower of John of Gaunt, and the date
■' Vs death easily -disposes of the fancy that the Esses were
.!■ . . 1.1I by Henry IV. to stand for his motto or " word " of
:■. . .if.iy ne. Many explanations are given of the origin of these
lir- .t-rs, but none has as yet been established with sufficient proof.
Luring the reigns of Henry IV., his son and grandson, the collar
of Esses was a royal badge of the Lancastrian house and party,
the white swan being its pendant. In one of Henry VI. 'a own
collars the S was joined to the Broomcod of the French device,
thus symbolizing the king's claim to the two kingdoms.
The kings of the house of York and their chief followers wore
"the Yorkist collar of suns and roses, with the white lion of March,
Ike Clare bull, or Richard's white boar for a pendant device.
• "Henry VII. brought back the collar of Esses, a portcullis or a
s)fme hanging from it, although in a portrait of this king, now
'■ *)osftessed by the Society of Antiquaries, his neck bears the rose
'■&* toUil alternating with knots, and his son, when young, had
* * collar of roses red and white. Besides these royal collars, the
L«*4th and 15th centuries show many of private devices. A brass
p*t Mildcnhall shows a knight whose badge of a dog or wolf
if Hided by a crown hangs from a collar with edges suggesting a
raned bough or the ragged staff. Thomas of Markenfield
re* 1. c. 1415) on his brass at Ripon has a strange collar of park
ir «wHngs with a badge of a hart in a park, and the Lord Berkeley
- 4. 139s) wears one set with mermaids.
Collars of various devices are now worn by the grand crosses
- 1 the European orders of knighthood. The custom was begun
•v Philip of Burgundy, who gave his knights of the Golden Fleece,
_ 1 older founded on the 10th of February 1420-1430, badges
. a golden fleece hung from that collar of flints, steels and sparks
•aich Is seen in so many old Flemish portraits. To this day
remains the most beautiful of all the collars, keeping in the
■n the lines of its Flemish designer, although a vulgar fancy
lactimes destroys the symbolism of the golden fleece by chang-
j it for an unmeaning fleece of diamonds. Following this new
virion, Louis XI. of France, when instituting his order of
Michael in 1469, gave the knights collars of scallop shells
«cd on a chain. The chain was doubled by Charles VIII.,
* the pattern suffered other changes before the order lapsed
1830. Until the reign of Henry VIII., the Garter, most
:*nt of the great knightly orders, had no collar But the
lor king must needs match in all things with continental
. reigns, and the present collar of the Garter knights, with
golden knots and its buckled garters enclosing white roses
:>n red roses, has its origin in the Tudor age. An illustration
flours of the Garter collar is given on Plate I. in the article
IITHOOO and Chivaliy, while descriptions of the collars
T -c other principal orders are abo given. The collar of the
:!c with the thistles and rue-sprigs is as old as the reign of
a IL The Bath collar, in its first form of white knots linking
<i crowns to roses and thistles issuing from sceptres, dates
• 1725, up to which time the knights of the Bath had hung
medallion from a ribbon.
ending the order of the Saint Esprit in 1578, Henry III.
: ance devised a collar of enflamed flcur-dc-lis and cyphers
and L, a fashion which was soon afterwards varied by
y his successor. Elephants have been always borne on
■liar of the Elephant founded in Denmark in 1478, the other
of which have taken many shapes. Another Danish order,
•aunebrog, said to be " re-instituted " by Christian V. in
has a collar of crosses formy alternating with the crowned
n C and W, the latter standing for Waldcmar the Victorious,
r a legend of no value described as founding the order in
Of other European orders, that of St Andrew, founded
ter of Russia in 1608, has eagles and Andrew crosses and
rs, while the Black Eagle of Prussia has the Prussian eagle
•hundcrbolts in its claws beside roundels charged with
r* of the letters F.R.
.n collars of Esses are now worn in the United Kingdom
-igs-of-arms, heralds ami serjeants-at-arms. Certain legal
nries have worn them since the 16th century, the collar
•: lord chief-justice having knots and roses between the
letters. Henry IV 's parliament in his second year restricted
the free use of the king's livery collar to his sons and to all dukes,
earls, barons and bannerets, while simple knights and squires
might use it when in the royal presence or in going to and frost
the hostel of the king. The giving of a livery collar by the king
made a squire of a man even as the stroke of the royal sword
made him a knight. Collars of Esses are sometimes seen on the
necks of ladies. The queen of Henry IV. wears one. So do the
wife of a 16th century Knightley on her tomb at Upton, and
Penelope, Lady Spencer (d. 1667), on her Brington monument
Since 1545 the lord mayor of London has worn a royal livery
collar of Esses. This collar, however, has its origin in no royal
favour, Sir John Alen, thrice a lord mayor, having bequeathed
it to the then lord mayor and his successors " to use and occupie
yerely at and uppon principall and festivall dayes." It was
enlarged in 1 567, and in its present shape has 28 Esses alternating
with knots and roses and joined with a portcullis. Lord mayors
of York use a plain gold chain of a triple row of links given in
1670; this chain, since the day when certain links were found
wanting, is weighed on its return by the outgoing mayor. - la
Ireland the lord mayor of Dublin wears a collar given by
Charles II., while Cork's mayor has another which the Cork
council bought of a silversmith in 1755, stipulating that it should
be like the Dublin one. The lady mayoress of York wears a plain
chain given with that of the lord mayor in 1670, and, like his,
weighed on its return to official keeping. For some two hundred
and thirty years the mayoress of Kingston-on-Hull enjoyed a
like ornament until a thrifty council in 1S35 sold her chain as a
useless thing.
Of late years municipal patriotism and the persuasions of
enterprising tradesmen have notably increased the number
of English provincial mayors wearing collars or chains of office.
Unlike civic maces, swords and caps of maintenance, these
gauds are without significance. The mayor of Derby is decorated
with the collar once borne by a lord chief-justice of the king's
bench, and his brother of Kingston-on-Thames uses without
authority an old collar of Esses which once hung over a herald's
tabard. By a modern custom the friends of the London sheriffs
now give them collars of gold and enamel, which they retain as
mementoes of their year of office. (O. Ba.)
COLLATERAL (from Med. Lat collateral is, —cum, with, and
lotus, later is, side, — side by side, hence parallel or additional),
a term used in law in several senses. Collateral relationship
means the relationship between persons who are descended
from the same stock or ancestor, but in a different line; as
opposed to lineal, which is the relationship between ascendants
and descendants in a direct line, as between father and son,
grandfather and grandson. A collateral agreement is an agreement
made contemporaneously with a written contract as part of the
transaction, but without being incorporated with it. Collateral
facts, in evidence, are those facts which do not bear directly on
the matters in dispute. Collateral security is an additional
security for the better safety of the mortgagee, i.e. property
or right of action deposited to secure the fulfilment of an
obligation.
COLLATIA, an ancient town of Latium, 10 m. E. by N. of
Rome by the Via Collatina. It appears in the legendary history
of Rome as captured by Tarquinius Priscus. Li vy tells us it was
taken from the Sabincs, while Virgil speaks of it as a Latin
colony. In the time of Cicero it had lost all importance; Strabo
names it as a mere village, in private hands, while for Pliny it
was one of the lost cities of Latium. The site is undoubtedly
to be sought on the hill now occupied by the large medieval
fortified farmhouse of Lunghezza, immediately to the south
of the Anio, which occupies the site of the citadel joined by a
narrow neck to the tableland to the south-east on ivhkh the
city stood, this is protected by wide valleys on each side, and
is isolated at the south-cast end by a deep narrow valley enlarged
by cutting. No remains are to be seen, but the site is admirably
adapted for an ancient settlement The road may be traced
leading to the south end of this ublcland > txtaiSAexata&.'*te&&.
the modem toad \o\Aixt$keu& tot tat \s&\&fc v^tx.^***
686
COLLATION—COLLEGE
only. The rurrrnt imlentification with Castcllatcio, a m. to the
toulh-rast, is untenable.
Sea T AUiby in Papers of the British Sikool at Rom*, I. 138 acq.,
iii. jui. (T As.)
COLLATION (Lat. collalio, from tonferre, to bring together
Of ciunpare), the bringing together of things for the special
purpiMe of comparison, and thus, particularly, the critical
examination of the texts of documents or MSS. and the result
of such comparison. The word is al*o a term in printing and
bookbinding for the register of the " signatures," the number
of quires and leaves in each quire of a book or MS. In Roman
and Scots law " collation " answers to the English law term
"hotch-pot " (q.v.). From another meaning of the Latin word,
a consultation or conference, and so a treatise or homily, comes
the title of a work of Johannes Cassianus (q.v.), the Conferences
of the Fathers (Collaliones Pair urn). Readings from this and
similar works were customary in monasteries; by the rcgula
of St Benedict it is ordered that on rising from supper there
should be read collaliones, passages from the lives of the Fathers
and other edifying works; the word is then applied to the
discussions arising from such readings. On fast days it was
usual in monasteries to have a very light meal after the Collatio,
and hence the meal itself came to be called " collation," a mean-
ing which survives in the modern use of the word for any light
or quickly prepared repast.
COLLI, CHARLES (1700-1783), French dramatist and song-
writer, the son of a notary, was born at Paris in 1709. He
was early interested in the rhymes of Jean Heguanier, then the
most famous maker of couplets in Paris. From a notary's office
Colle was transferred to that of M. de Neulan, the receiver-
general of finance, and remained there for nearly twenty years.
When about seventeen, however, he made the acquaintance of
Alexis Piron, and afterwards, through Gallet (d. 1757), of
Panard. The example of these three masters of the vaudeville,
while determining his vocation, made him diffident; and for
some time he composed nothing but amphigouris—vencs whose
merit was measured by their unintelligibility. The friendship
of the younger Crfbillon, however, diverted him from this
by-way of art, and the establishment in 1729 of the famous
" Caveau " gave him a field for the display of his fine talent
for popular song. In 1739 the Society of the Caveau, which
numbered among its members Helvetius, Charles Duclos,
Pierre Joseph Bernard, called Gen til -Bernard, Jean Philippe
Rameau, Alexis Piron, and the two Crtbillons. was dissolved,
and was not reconstituted till twenty years afterwards. His
first and his best comedy, La ViriU dans It vim. appeared in 1 747.
Meanwhile, the Regent Orleans, who was an excellent comic
actor, particularly in representations of low life, and had been
looking out for an author to write suitable parts for him, made
Colle his reader. It was for the duke and his associates that
Colli composed the greater part of his Theatre de sociiti. In
176J Colli produced at the Theatre Francais Dupuis el Des-
ronais, a successful sentimental comedy, which was followed
In 1771 by La Veuve, which was a complete failure. In 1774
appeared La Partic de chase dc Henri Qualrc (partly taken from
Dodsley's King and the Miller of Mansfield), Colic's last and best
play, From 1748 to 1772, besides these and a multitude of
amp Colle was writing his Journal, a curious collection of
Etmry and personal strictures on his boon companions as well
ss«b their enemies, on Piron as on Voltaire, on La Harpeason
<usacOle. Colli died on the 3rd of November 1 7S3 . His lyrics
» hank and jovial, though often licentious. The subjects
* to* and wine; occasionally, however, as in the famous
**" : m) on the capture of Port Mahon, for which the author
^^* 1 tension of 000 livres, the note of patriotism is struck
^J^?**^ nanci( whi,r , " many othcrs Co11 * snows nimse ^
^j*"**«*siderablc epigrammatic force.
nw£*Wriiorfinif , sediii«.n (fHoH) of hii Jovr * alrt Mimoires
•SS&S^imii'* CotrtipOHdamr; and L. A. Saniie-Ucuve,
^^**i.irul.vu.
\ M trim unetl to denote the economic principle
r* community of all the means o( production
**%¥■
in order to secure to the people collectively an equitable co-
tribulion of the produce of their associated labour. Tta£
often used in a narrow sense to express the economic bases li
Socialism, the latter term is so generally employed in the sue
sense that collectivism is best discussed in connexion with i
(see Socialism).
COLLECTOR, a term technically used for various oficais
and particularly in India for the chief administrative offcial oil
district. The word was in this case originally a translation oi
tahsildar, and indicates that the special duly of the office a lk
collection of revenue; but the collector has aho m» gkiw^
powers and is a species of autocrat within the bounds of b
district. The title is confined to the regulation provinces, especi-
ally Madras; in the non-regulation provinces the same duticsat
discharged by the deputy-commissioner (see Comassxoxu).
COLLE DI VAL D' ELSA, a town and episcopal see of Italy.!
the province of Siena, 5 m. by rail S. of Poggibonsi, which is 26 a
N.W. of Siena. Pop. (1001) town 1087; commune 0870- Tk
old (upper) town (732 ft. above sea-level), contains the cathedaL
dating from the 23th century, with a pulpit partly of tab period
the facade has been modernized. There arc »l f> some old p 1 ""
of good architecture, and the old house where Arnolfo di Cambic.
the first architect of the cathedral at Florence (1332-1301) •»
born. The lower town (460 ft.) contains glass-works; the paper
and iron industries (the former as old as 1377) are less iraportul
COLLEGE (Collegium), in Roman law, a number of ptnoeu
associated together by the possession of common functions,-!
body of colleagues. Its later meaning applied to any muostf
persons, and collegium was the equivalent of Jrauptia. Is
many respects, e.g. in the distinction between the responatnbbo
and rights of the society and those of individual members laatot
the collegium was what we should now call a corporation (pi
Collegia might exist for purposes of trade like the Fji gKdi giVfc,
or for religious purposes (e.g. the college of augurs, of pontxtA
&c), or for political purposes, e.g. tribunorum plcbis aBept-
By the Roman law a collegium must have at least three membra
The name is now usually applied to educational corporal*!*
such as the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, with which, in tk
numerous English statutes relating to colleges, the coilejtsof
Winchester and Eton are usually associated. These colleges k
in the eye of the law eleemosynary corporations. In some of tat
earlier statutes of Queen Elizabeth they are spokfin of as aivjsj
an ecclesiastical character, but the doctrine of the common hv
since the Reformation has been that they are purely lay nrrpff"-
lions, notwithstanding that most or all of their members maybe
persons in priest's orders. This is said to have been settled by
Dr Patrick's case (Raymond's Reports, p. 101).
Colleges appear to have grown out of the voluntary asmit'**
of students and teachers at the university. According to soar
accounts these must at one time have been numerous and flourish-
ing beyond anything we an; now acquainted with. We are nM,
for example, of 300 halls or societies at Oxford, and 50,000
students. In early times theie seems to have been a stroaf
desire to confine the scholars to certain licensed houses bcyoai
the influence of the townspeople. Men of wealth and culture,
and notably the political bishops and chancellors of England,
obtained charters from the crown for the incorporation of
societies of scholars, and these in time became exclusively Ik
places of abode for students attending the university. At the
same time the corporations thus founded were not necessarily
attached to the locality of the university. The early statutes of
Merton College, for example, allow the residence of the college
to be shifted as occasion required; and the foundations of Woke?
at Oxford and Ipswich seem to have been the same in intenucc
In later limes (until the introduction of non-collegiate students)
the university and the colleges became coextensive; every
member of the university had to attach hirnelf to some coOrff
or hall, and every person admitted to a college or hall was obliged'
to matriculate himself in the university.
In Aylifle's A ncient and Present State of the Urn iter sily ofOiW
it is staled that a college must be " made up of three persons 1st
IcatM jouvtd in community. And the reason of this 1 "
COLLEONI— COLLEY
687
to speak Its own necessity, without the help of any express law to
countenance it: because among two persons only there cannot
be, in fact, a major part; and then if any disagreement should
happen to arise between them it cannot be, in fact, brought to a
conclusion by such a number alone in case both the parties should
firmly adhere to their dissenting opinions; and thus it is declared
by the dvU law. But by the canon law it is known to be other-
wise; for by that law two persons in number may make and
constitute a college, forasmuch as according to this law two
persons make and constitute an assembly or congregation. The
common law of England, or rather the constant usage of our
princes in erecting aggregate bodies,whicb has established this rule
Among us as a law, has been herein agreeable to the method and
doctrine of the civil law, for that in all their grants and charters
of incorporation of colleges they have not framed any aggregate
body consisting of less than three in number." Another principle,
apparently derived from the dvil law, is that a man cannot be
a fellow in two colleges at the same time. The law of England
Steadily resisted any attempt to introduce the principle of in-
equality into colleges. An act of 1 542, reciting that divers founders
of colleges have given in their statutes a power of veto to indi-
vidual members, enacts that every statute made by any such
founder, whereby the grant or election of the governor or ruler
with the assent of the most part of such corporation should be in
any wise hindered by any one or more being the lesser number
(contrary to the common law), shall be void.
The corporation consists of a head or master, fellows and
scholars. Students, not being on the foundation, residing in the
college, are not considered to be members of the corporation.
The governing body in all cases is the head and fellows.
It b considered essential to corporations of an ecclesiastical
or educational character that they should have a Visitor whose
duty it is to see that the statutes of the founder are obeyed.
The duties of this officer have been ascertained by the courts of
law in a great variety of decided cases. Subject to such restric-
tions as may be imposed on him by the statutes of the college,
bis duties are generally to interpret the statutes of the college
in disputed cases, and to enforce them where they have been
violated. For this purpose he is empowered to " visit " the
society— usually at certain stated intervals. In questions
within his jurisdiction his judgment is conclusive, but his juris-
diction does not extend to any cases under the common laws
of the country, or to trusts attached to the college. Generally
the visitorship resides in the founder and his heirs unless he has
Otherwise appointed, and in default of him in the crown.
The fellowships, scholarships, &c, of colleges were until a
comparatively recent date subject to various restrictions.
Birth in a particular county, education at a particular school,
relationship to the founder and holy orders, are amongst the
snost usual of the conditions giving a preferential or conclusive
daim to the emoluments. Most of these restrictions have been
or are being swept away. (See Universities; Oxioed; Cam-
BUDCE; &c.)
The term " college " (like " academy ") is also applied to
various institutions, e.g. to colleges of physicians and surgeons,
and to the electoral college in the United States presidential
elections, &c. For the Sacred College see Cabdinal.
COLLEONI, BARTOLOMMEO (1400-1475), Italian soldier
of fortune, was born at Bergamo. While he was still a child his
father was attacked and murdered in his castle of Trezzo by
Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan. After wandering about
Italy he entered the service of various condoUuri, such as Braccio
da Montone and Carmagnola. At the age of thirty-two he was
serving the Venetian republic, and although Francesco Maria
Gonzaga was commander-in-chief, Collconi was the life and soul
of the army. He recaptured many towns and districts for
Venice from the Milanese, and when Gonzaga went over to the
enemy be continued to serve the Venetians under Erasmo da
Narni (known as Gattamelata) and Francesco A. Sforza, winning
battles at Brescia, Verona and on the lake of Garda. When
peace was made between Milan and Venice in 1441 Colleoni went
over to the Milanese, together with Sforza in 1443. But although
well treated at first, he soon' fell under the sospidoa of the
treacherous Visconti and was imprisoned at Monxa, where he
remained until the duke's death in 1447. Milan then fell under
the lordship of Sforza, whom Colleoni served for a time, but ia
1448 he took leave of Sforza and returned to the Venetians.
Disgusted at not having been elected captain-general, he went
over to Sforza once more, but Venice could not do without him
and by offering him increased emoluments induced him to return,
and in 1455 he was appointed captain-general of the republic
for life. Although he occasionally fought on bis own account,
when Venice was at peace, he remained at the disposal of the
republic in time of war until his death.
Colleoni was perhaps the most respectable of all the Italian
condoUuri, and although he often changed sides, no act of
treachery is imputed to him, nor did he subject the territories
he passed through to the rapine and exactions practised by other
soldiers of fortune. When not fighting he devoted bis time to
introducing agricultural improvements on the vast estates with
which the Venetians had endowed him, and to charitable works.
At his death in 1475 De left a large sum to the republic for the
Turkish war, with a request that an equestrian statue of himself
should be erected in the Piazza San Marco. The statue was
made by Verrocchio, but as no monument was permitted in the
famous Piazza it was placed opposite the hospital of St Mark
by way of compromise.
See G. M. Bonomi, // Catteilo di Caocmofo t i conti Martinenjgo
Colleoni (Bergamo. 1884) ; for an account of his wars tee S. Roraanin,
Storia documentata di Venttia, vol. iv. (Venice, 1855), and other
histories of Venice. (L. V.*)
COLLETER (Gr. *6XXof, glue), a botanical term for the
gum-secreting hairs on the buds of certain plants.
COLLBTTA, PIETRO (1 775-1831), Neapolitan general and
historian, entered the Neapolitan artillery in 1796 and took part
in the campaign against the French in 1708. On the entry of
the French into Naples and the establishment of the Parthe-
nopean republic (1709) he adhered to the new government, and
when the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV. (q.v.) reconquered the
dty Cbllctta was thrown into prison and only escaped the death
penalty by means of judiciously administered bribes. Turned
out of the army he became a civil engineer, but when the
Bourbons were expelled a second time in 1806 and Joseph Bona-
parte seized the throne of Naples, he was reinstated in his rank
and served in the expedition against the brigands and rebels of
Calabria. In 181 2 he was promoted general, and made director
of roads and bridges. He served under Joachim Murat and
fought the Austrian* on the Panaro in 1815. On the restoration
of Ferdinand Colletta was permitted to retain his rank in the
army, and given command of the Salerno division. At the out-
break of the revolution of 1820 the king called him to his councils,
and when the constitution had been granted Colletta was sent
to put down the separatist rising in Sicily, which he did with
great severity. He fought in the constitutionalist army against
the Austrians at Ricti (7th of March 1821), and on the re-estab-
lishment of autocracy he was arrested and imprisoned for three
months by order of the prince of Canosa, the chief of police, bis
particular enemy. He would have been executed had not
the Austrians intervened in his favour, and he was exiled instead
to BrUnn in Moravia; in 1823 he was permitted to settle in
Florence, where he spent the rest of his days engaged on his
Storia del reame di Napoli. He died in 1831. His history
(1st ed., Capolago, 1834), which deals with the reigns of Charles
III. and Ferdinand IV. (1734-1825). is still the standard work
for that period; but its value is somewhat diminished by the
author's bitterness against his opponents and the fact that he
does not give chapter and verse for his statements, many of
which are based on his recollection of documents seen, but not
available at the time of writing. Still, having been an actor in
many of the events recorded, he is on the whole accurate and
trustworthy.
See Gino Capponi's memoir of him published in the Storia del
ream* di Napoli (2nd ed.. Florence, 1848). (L. V.*)
COLLET, SIR GEORGE POMEROY (1835-1881), British
general, third son of George Pomeroy Colfcj, <& ^aaa^a.,
OSH
v.#, v.... S«.»
^ ■■ *■•■
COLLIER, A.— COLLIER, J
,mnt Har-
v . ..^.. v < < . « »*••* ent««l th «
. .. u
s iSs.v From
.l-.. ...■»»» employed in
, ... i s S »»>i i iver district
i •... %^ 'i.-nt to China to
. v4. w>i in the capture
visible world it not external, by showing— first, that the seemis*
externality of a visible object is no proof of real externality, and
second, that a visible object, as Mich, is not external. The i~
of a centaur seems as much external to the mind as any object el
sense; and since the difference between imagination and pcrcepuoa
is only one of degree. God could so act upon the mind of a person
imagining a centaur, that he would perceive it as vividly as any
"' * .......... .- l £ ei
object can be seen. Similar illustrations are used to prove .___
proposition, that a visible object, as such, is not external. The first
„ eluiuing to South part ends with a reply to objections based on the universal consent
r ■ .a thivwt-tnajority). of men, on the assurance given by touch of the extra existence of the
. -I mil in on* war v »siM* world, and on the truth and goodness of Cod (Descartes).
... ; s. «ed out in one year wh jd| wo(jid ^ impugncd j, our Knttl deceived „,. Collier argue*
i >im 101 at ucvonport tor naJx c jy lhat jj umversa i consent means the consent of those w ho have
.:i 1S70 to assist in the considered the subject, it mav be claimed for his view. He think*
■ - > oi army reform, lie with Berkeley that objects of sight are quite distinct from those d
~ ~ touch, and that the one therefore cannot give any assurance of the
other: and he asks the Cartesians to consider how far Cod's truth
and goodness are called in question by their denial of the externality
of the secondary qualities. The second part of the book is taken op
.. .1 .. * .». Immigration at the Staff
.. . u ■» "jinxl Sir Garnet Wolscley at
. „ \ . .i.t 1 k* oi the transport, and the
, ..!• it>.i »a» 111 no small degree due to
..,*>.• .1 In c vet -colonel and awarded the
,.1 1 | t\ .»Mey to Natal (C.M.G.). On
I
with a number of metaphysical arguments to prove the irnpossibibt*
of an external world. The pivot ©7 this part is the logical principle of
contradiction. From the hypothesis of an external world a series of
. ... T contradictions are deduced, such as that the world is both finite asd
, t. n.i. 1 i-i •»■»>» lid military secretary to Lord infinite, is movable and immovable, &c.; and finally, Aristotle asd
ul ,.| India, and in 1877 private secretary various other philosophers are quoted.' to show that the extend
. . »,. km.h.I Wolselcy as chief of the staff and nutter they dealt with, as mere potentiality^ is just nothine at a&
. <. 1 ..» «„ ik. m ..«L.r «f r-^ontri Among other uses and consequences of his treatise, Collier dunks*
... .„ * h lima, hut on the murder of Cavagnan ^J^ an ca8y refutation of the Romish doctrine of traawb.
„, ,i i % . In.li.i In 1SS0 he succeeded Wolscley in .tantiation. If there is no external world, the distinction bctws
. K :i xv-umhi ..iouiT and general commanding, and substance and accidents vanishes, and these b ecome the sole essrm
,,„,!,,„» against the rebel Boers. He was of material. objects, so that there is no room for any chnnge «U«
. , 1 , ,u A i„ nMn ,:,.„,. -«j L.-n-ri *» they remain as before. Sir William Hamilton thinks lhat tW
... >. \A and at the Ingogo river, and killed at Iog J a „ y .^^^ advancc from the ^ theory a £Z^^Sl
perception to idealism was stayed by anxiety to save this miracle if
the church; and he gives Collier credit for being the first to oult
the discovery.
His Clatis Universalis is interesting on account of the rescmM*sor
between lis views and tho&c of Berkeley. Both were moved \ c*
dissatisfaction, with ihe theory of representative percept *_■*%_ F-icS
have the feeling [hat it is inconsistent with the common wtnm d
mankind, which will intkt that the very object perceived is the as:
reality, They equally atlirm that the so-talkd representa*
1 x . » \\ '. .-• i*«. ■ ih ft Icbruary 18S1 He had a very* high
„ ..... 1 »«n!» u»i ■» theoretical knowledge of military
■ ., i 1 o ii » riai tK.il soldier.
, x ■ x ,v^ \\>meroy ColUy by Lieut.-Gen. Sir W. F.
,.'\' % . .!.-.. iw»
oHVls* UUMUR (1680-1732), English philosopher, was
, . -1. i* « t.'i % »'i Staple Langford, Wiltshire, on the 12th of
^ , . .- » * lit 1 « mcicil at Pembroke College, Oxford, in July
.. . • » iViMvi »^*>8 he and his brother William became
w . ,»i ISiHii'l Hi* father having died in 1607, it was
\ v.
is the sole reality, and discard as unthinkable the ua{ktccstch
material cause of the jphilowphers. Of objects of setts*, they sit.
iheir rise h pnripi. But Collier never gut beyond a bald isserHei
>mi i!h laimlv living of Langford Magnashould be given of the fact, whdc Uerkeley addressed himwlf to Jn expUtutiom rf a.
....smi a* ho was old enough. He was presented to the The *h™ht of a diatmenon Ipween direct and indirect peeca^m
f . .. r rn,i, , r .: -.•■■• -n I m on ' Lothtr, 1 ■■ uv question how ,j r .-.j:., f , vB
i» .H. ami h, Id it till his death. His sermons show no in llcpt[l<knre <£ percipient mind hia ^only reply is, " KSfcswT
. % .. s . isJ.l 1 lu>»logical speculations, and he seems to have reader pteaacs, provided it be somehow." As cause of our setaawe*
\, ,| in 1 he discharge of his duty. He was often in and en>und of our belief in externality, he substituted for aa S»
' , % U.".,.iilUi«. fwm *hith at last he was obliged to free ["W«'l*ble material iiibsunce an equally uiumelli^bte operas «
, « X H.n... . m o diuoc power. His bopk cohabits no traces of a baentifv *v^^v»
.. s, ^i:.,,* the reversion of Langford rectory to Coq.us mtm+ ^, e m&sl th4t m ^ ^ about him iTfhS w%a?5
.:.**• Oxtotd. His philosophical opinions grew out of inulWnt student of De*eartesand Makbranche. and had thfitt-
, %l % [\ ot Pc>cartcs and MalebranLhe. John Norris of to f*p[jly the results of his reading to the facts of his e^ i n ji tiw j e Is
\
. % >*».v\*. which are still in manuscript, one on substance
.„.» ^"'- Alu ^ lnc olncr called Clctis Philosophua. His
^*.^ ^^varcd in 1713, under the tide C/jtir L'uixcnclis,
"' Vm ^ ^%»«v ii/'tT Truth , lieing a Demonstration of the Xon~
.. . w/vfwiiVj/vti/dH LjiU-rnd World (printed privately,
.->!*»A ,:S « i0, am * IC P r ' nltl * m MrtJpkysical 7>iii/j, 1837,
1 1 V*"- Tarr). It **s favourably mvr.liuneJ by Reid,
^m others, was frequently referred to Ly the Leib-
"^ -*• *** transUtci into German by von Eschcnhach in
■%. ■* «*^ '* ^ ri "' ''?•' * ff K «**u i'« J if a r.d The pry of Yi\ ion
;hrce an«i iojt >cirs n>f<cii.ely. but there is no
' 7iV^ViWlvinllucncedhimbyhis£«Ly^i^/«/ca/ phiibiftphy he is a curiosity, and noihins more, His
\ 1. -- r »*T.^rL'>>i A it...t r,aii«. •»-.!,*. «« attributes the c^mpafaH^e failure oJ the Clam to its ini>i
. » 1 -^>. It '* remarkable that Collier makes no fwint o[ 5tytc but / he Wlu!icnM a f hli thought had Qiate^asS-
,.. I .sU. and shows no M«n of having any knowledge do with hi* failure tojnin a hearing- Hamilton (ZHjfinwn. a tr"
^ V* A* early as 1703 he seems to have become cvn- allows greater sagacity to Collier than to Berkeley, on the frsosi
,V« ni'n existence of an external world. In 1712 he thit he did not vainly attempt toanUst mca + s naturml behdapaa
" l '^ - • ■ — ■ - - the hyj-iotheucal naU*m of the phiiDsophcrs. But Ctili»o' d«#ai
far a*, hit light enabled Him T He appeated to the popular eo*wDM
that the prnrier object of x-n.se 15 the tote reality, aJiNoail Bf
de'iuirrd of netrin(r men to pii e up tlieir belief in it» cxicrr^fo^ui
asserted that nothing but prejudice prevented them from deiwnv
and there i:>httlediiubt that, if it had ever occurred to him, as it Siti
Herkt U v. to explain the genesis of the notion of externality he «ss)d
ha\e U-eii moic hopeful of commending his theory to the mpifrT
mind. •-*—
In ilM*i>lfiKV Collier mas an adherent of the High Chorea fan
though hi^ mi*i mere by no means orthodox. In the TaoNr
.l/n/ j ./.-Miii.i/ he attacked Bishop Hoadly's defence of mat
11 n n v 1 1 is \ irw i on t he | vohh ms of Arianism, and his atreaitt »
in ••in ill* it with orthodox thffh^y, are contained in A Stmmtf
++ .icv mere kr.OMn to CoL.tr U-furc the publication "/>**• i •*!/•• wp/-y tt;3o. reprinted in Metaphysical Tracts lit-asi
^ I-ogology, or a rtrulne on the Loror in &rra SermumxJnJJml
/. ^. J. 14.C17W ana1>se.l in Stctapk. TractoTrh^ £**
comparril wuh Prrkelev ■ 5im. •■«■■ ***.
Bon«
. ^.»i rj arr_^er.:; the latter »ur>|>hes him with all
a* •»* ■ ii t^ k -ive. ar. 1 1h.1t is meagre ennuph.
b a( ** '• k*r:» Af'ir rxj.Jamir..- rh^! he will use
COLLIER, JEREMY
T (1650-1; >6>, English noojjuing <**
ith-Quy, Cambrldeeshire. on t %? 9 *i d
^. . ._.---.--. . ^ Ssw-with-Quy, Cambridgeshire %£~\h?r*ic
» a::er?:;t» in the first j-rs to pr^ethai the ■ btp f .er.-.v/ iC;o. He was educated at Ipswich free
COLLIER, J. P.
689
which his father presided, and at Cains College, Cambridge,
graduating B.A. in 1673 and M.A. in 1676. He acted for a short
time as a private chaplain, but was appointed in 1679 to the
small rectory of Ampton. near Bury St Edmunds, and in .1685 he
was made lecturer of Cray's Inn.
At the Revolution he was committed to Newgate for writing in
favour of James II. a tract entitled The Desertion discuss'd in a
Letter to a Country Gentleman (1688), in answer to Bishop Burnet's
defence of King William's position. He was released after some
months of imprisonment, without trial, by the intervention of his
friends. In the two following years he continued to harass the
government by his publications: and in 1692 he was again in
prison under suspicion of treasonable correspondence with James.
His scruples forbade him to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the
court by accepting bail, but he was soon released. But in
1696 for his boldness in granting absolution on the scaffold to
Sir John Friend and Sir William Parkyns, who had attempted
the assassination of William, he was obliged to flee, and for the
rest of his life continued under sentence of outlawry.
When the storm had blown over he returned to London, and
employed his leisure in works which were less political in their
tune. In 1697 appeared the first volume of his Essays on Several
Moral Subjects, to which a second was added in 1 705, and a third
in 1700. The first series contained six essays, the most notable
being that " On the office of a Chaplain," which throws much
light on the position of a large section of the clergy at that lime.
Collier deprecated the extent of the authority assumed by the
patron and the servility of the poorer clergy.
In 1698 Collier produced his famous Short View of the /m-
morality and Profaneness of the English Stage. ... He dealt
with the immodesty of the contemporary stage, supporting his
contentions by a long scries of references attesting the com-
parative decency of Latin and Greek drama; with the profane
language indulged in* by the players; the abuse of the clergy
common in the drama; the encouragement of vice by represent'
ing the vicious characters as admirable and successful; and
finally he supported his general position by the analysis of
particular plays, Drydcn's Amphitryon, Vanbrugh's Relapse and
D'Urfcy's Don Quixote. The Book abounds in hyperergic ism,
particularly in the imputation of profanity; and in a useless
display of learning, neither intrinsically valuable nor conducive
to the argument. He had no artistic appreciation of the subject
he discussed, and he mistook cause for effect in asserting that the
decline in public morality was due to the flagrant indecency of
the stage. Yet, in the wordsof Macaulay, who gives an admirable
account of the discussion in his essay on the comic dramatists of
the Restoration, " when all deductions have been made, great
merit must be allowed to the work." Drydcn acknowledged,
in the preface to his Fables, the justice of Collier's strictures,
though he protested against the manner of the onslaught; 1 but
Congrcve made an angry reply; Vanbrugh and others followed.
Collier was prepared to meet any number of antagonists, and
defended himself in numerous tracts. The Short View was
followed by a Defence (1699), a Second Defence (1700), and Mr
Collier's Dissuasive from the Playhouse, in a Letter to a Person of
Quality (1703), and a Further Vindication (1708). The fight
lasted in all some ten years; but Collier had right on his side,
•nd triumphed; his position was, moreover, strengthened by the
fact that he was known as a Troy and high churchman, and that
his attack could not, therefore, be assigned to Puritan rancour
against the stage.
From 1 701 to 1 72 1 Collier was employed on h is Great Historical,
Geographical, Genealogical and Poetical Dictionary, founded on,
and partly translated from, Louis Moreri's Dictionnaire his-
torique, and in the compilation and issue of the two volumes
folio of his own Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain from the
first planting of Christianity to the end of the reign of Charles II.
1 '' He is too much given to horse-play in his raillery, and comes
to battle like a dictator from the plough. I will not say, ' the zeal
of Cod's house has eaten him up ; but I am sure it has devoured
some part of his good manners and civility " (Drydcn, Works, ed.
Scott, xi. ajn).
(1708-1714). The latter work was attacked by Burnet and others
but the author showed himself as keen a controversialist as ever.
Many attempts were made to shake his fidelity to the lost cause
of the Stuarts, but he continued indomitable to the end. In
17 1 2 George Hickes was the only survivor of the nonjuring
bishops, and in the next year Collier was consecrated. He
had a share in an attempt made towards union with the Greek
Church. He had a long correspondence with the Eastern
authorities, his last letters on the subject being written in 172$.
Collier preferred the version of the Booh of Common Prayer
issued in 1549, and regretted that certain practices and petitions
there enjoined were omitted in later editions. His first tract on
the subject, Reasons for Restoring some Prayers (1717)1 ***
followed by others. In 1718 was published a new Communion
Office taken partly from Primitive Liturgies and partly from the
first English Reformed Common Prayer Book, . . . which em-
bodied the changes desired by Collier. The controversy that
ensued made a split in the nonjuring communion. His last work
was a volume of Practical Discourses, published in 1725. He
died on the 26th of April 1726.
Bibliography. — There is an excellent account of Collier in
re some
inal bio-
A. Kippis's Biograpkia Britanniea, vol. iv. (1789), where some
sensible observations bv the editor are added to the origin
fraphy. A full list of Collier's writings is given by the Rev
lunt in the article in the Dictionary of National Biography. For
.:-..!-— ~r r*_n: • . c:^. :.._: i •_!._«. -^ ■*•"
H-iginai D
i Rev. W
particulars of Collier's history as a nonjuring bishop, see Thomas
Lathbury, A History of the Nonjurors . . . (1845). There is an
excellent account of the Short view and the controversy arising
from it in A. Bcljamc's Le Public el Us hommes de Iclircs en AnglcUric
auXVUh siccle (2nd ed., 1897), pp. 244-263.
COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE (1789-1883), English Shakespearian
critic, was bom in London, on the nth of January 1789. His
father, John Dyer Collier ( 1 762-1825), was a successful journalist,
and his connexion with the press obtained for his son a position
on the Morning Chronicle as leader writer, dramatic critic and
reporter, which continued till 1847; he was also for some time
a reporter for The Times. He was summoned before the House
of Commons in 1819 for giving an incorrect report of a speech
by Joseph Hume. He entered the Middle Temple in 181 1, but
was not called to the bar until 1829. The delay was partly due
to his indiscretion in publishing the Criticisms on the Bar (1819)
by " Amicus Curiae." His leisure was given to the study of
Shakespeare and the early English drama. After some minor
publications he produced in 1825-1827 a new edition of Dodsley'a
Old Plays, and in 1S33 a supplementary volume entitled Fivo
Old Plays. In 1831 appeared his History of English Dramatic
Poetry and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration, a. badly arranged,
but valuable work. It obtained for him the post of librarian
to the duke of Devonshire, and, subsequently, access to the
chief collections of early Englbh literature throughout the
kingdom, especially to the treasures of Bridgwater House.
These opportunities were unhappily misused to effect a series of
literary fabrications, which may be charitably, and perhaps
not unjustly, attributed to literary monomania, but of which
it is difficult to speak with patience, so completely did they for
a long lime bewilder the chronology of Shakespeare's writings,
and such suspicion have they thrown upon MS. evidence in
general. After New Facts, New Particulars and Further Parti-
culars respecting Shakespeare had appeared and passed muster,
Collier produced (1852) the famous Perkins Folio, a copy of the
second folio (1632). so called from a name written on the title-
page. On this txx>k were numerous MS. emendations of Shake-
speare said by Collier to be from the hand of " an old corrector,"
He published these corrections as Notes and Emendations to
the Text of Shakespeare (1852), and boldly incorporated them
in his edition (1S53) of Shakespeare. Their authenticity was
disputed by S. \V. Singer in The Text of Shakespeare Vindicated
(1853) and by E. A. Brae in Literary Cookery (1855) on internal
evidence; and when in 1859 the folio was submitted by its
owner, the duke of Devonshire, to experts at the British Museum,
the emendations were incontcstably proved to be forgeries of
modern date. Collier was exposed by Mr Nicholas Hamilton in
bis Inquiry (i860). The point whether he was deceiver <*
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COLLINGWOOD— COLLINS, A.
691
continued to be a solace to him amidst the privations to which
the life of a seaman must ever be subject.
As captain of the " Barfleur," Collingwood was present at the
naval engagement which was fought on the 1st of June 1704;
and on that occasion he displayed equal judgment and courage.
On board the " Excellent " he shared in the victory of the 14th
of February 1797, when Sir John Jervis (Lord St Vincent)
humbled the Spanish fleet off Cape St Vincent. His conduct in
this engagement was the theme of universal admiration through-
out the fleet, and greatly advanced his fame as a naval officer.
After blockading Cadiz for some time, be returned for a few
weeks to Portsmouth to repair. In the beginning of 1709
Collingwood was raised to the rank of vkc- admiral, and hoisting
his flag in the " Triumph," he joined the Channel Fleet, with
which he proceeded to the Mediterranean, where the principal
•naval forces of France and Spain were assembled. Collingwood
Continued actively employed in watching the enemy, until the
peace of Amiens restored him once more to the bosom of his
family.
The domestic repose, however, which he so highly relished,
was cut short by the recommencement of hostilities with France,
and in the spring of 1803 he quitted the home to which he was
never again to return. The duty upon which he was employed
was that of watching the French fleet off Brest, and in the
discharge of it he displayed the most unwearied vigilance.
Kcarly two years were spent in this employment; but Napoleon
bad at length matured his plans and equipped his armament,
and the grand struggle which was to decide the fate of Europe
and the dominion of the sea was close at hand. The enemy's
fleet having sailed from Toulon, Admiral Collingwood was
appointed to the command of a squadron, with orders to pursue
them. The combined fleets of France and Spain, after spreading
terror throughout the West Indies, returned to Cadiz. On their
way thither they bore down upon Admiral Collingwood, who
had only three vessels with him; but he succeeded in eluding
the pursuit, although chased by sixteen ships of the line. Ere
one-half of the enemy had entered the harbour he drew up
before it and resumed the blockade, at the same time employing
an ingenious artifice to conceal the inferiority of his force. But
the combined fleet was at last compelled to quit Cadiz; and the
battle of Trafalgar immedia tely followed. The brilliant conduct
of Admiral Collingwood upon this occasion has been much and
justly applauded. The French admiral drew up his fleet in the
form of a crescent, and in a double line, every alternate ship
being about a cable's length to windward of her second, both
ahead and astern The British fleet bore down upon this
formidable and skilfully arranged armament in two separate
lines, the one led by Nelson in the " Victory," and the other
by Collingwood in the " Royal Sovereign." The latter vessel
was the swifter sailer, and having shot considerably ahead of the
rest of the fleet, was the first engaged. " See," said Nelson,
pointing to the " Royal Sovereign " as she penetrated the centre
of the enemy's line, " see how that noble fellow Collingwood
carries his ship into action!" Probably it was at the same
instant that Collingwood, as if in response to the observation of
his great commander, remarked to his captain, " What would
Nelson give to be here?" The consummate valour and skill
evinced by Collingwood had a powerful moral influence upon
both fleets. It was with the Spanish admiral's ship that the
" Royal Sovereign " clo&cd; and with such rapidity and precision
did she pour in her broadsides upon the " Santa Anna," that the
latter was on the eve of striking in the midst of thirty-three sail
of the line, and almost before another British ship had fired a
gun. Several other vessels, however, seeing the imminent peril
of the Spanish flag-ship, came to her assistance, and hemmed
in the " Royal Sovcri ign " on all sides; but the latter, after
suffering severely, was relieved by the arrival of the rest of the
British squadron; and not long afterwards the " Santa Anna "
struck her colours. The result of the battle of Trafalgar, and the
expense at which it was purchased, are well known. On the
death of Nelson, Collingwood assumed the supreme command;
and by his skill and judgment greatly contributed to the preserva-
tion of the British ships, as well as of those which were captured
from the enemy. He was raised to the peerage as Baron
Collingwood of Coldburne and Heathpool, and received the
thanks of both Houses of Parliament, with a pension of £2000
per annum.
From this period until the death of Lord Collingwood no great
naval action was fought; but he was much occupied in important
political transactions, in which he displayed remarkable tact and
judgment. Being appointed to the command of the Mediter-
ranean fleet, he continued to cruise about, keeping a watchful eye
upon the movements of the enemy. His health, however, which
had begun to decline previously to the action of Trafalgar in 1805,
seemed entirely to give way, and he repeatedly requested govern*'
ment to be relieved of his command, that he might return home;
but he was urgently requested to remain, on the ground that his
country could not dispense with his services. This conduct has
been regarded as harsh; but the good sense and political sagacity
which he displayed afford some palliation of the conduct of the
government; and the high estimation in which he was held is
proved by the circumstance that among the many able admirals,
equal in rank and duration of service, none stood so prominently
forward as to command the confidence of ministers and of the
country to the same extent as he did. After many fruitless
attempts to induce the enemy to put to sea, as well as to fall in
with them when they had done so (which circumstance materially
contributed to hasten his death), he expired on board the " Ville
de Paris," then lying off Port Mahon, on the 7th of March 1810.
Lord Collingwood's merits as a naval officer were in every
respect of the first order. In original genius and romantic daring
he was inferior to Nelson, who indeed had no equal in an age
fertile in great commanders. In seamanship, in general talent,
and in reasoning upon the probability of events from a number of
conflicting and ambiguous statements, Collingwood was equal to
the hero of the Nile; indeed, many who were familiar with both
give him the palm of superiority. His political penetration was
remarkable; and so high was the opinion generally entertained of
his judgment, that he was consulted in all quarters, and on all
occasions, upon questions of general policy, of regulation, and
even of trade. He was distinguished for benevolence and gener-
osity; his acts of charily were frequent and bountiful, and the
petition of real distress was never rejected by him. He was an
enemy to impressment and to flogging; and so kind was he to his
crew, that he obtained amongst them the honourable name of
father. Between Nelson and Collingwood a dose intimacy
subsisted, from their first acquaintance in early life till the fail of
the former at Trafalgar; and they lie side by side in the cathedral
of St Paul's..
The selections from the public and private correspondence of
Lord Collingwood, published in 2 vols., 8vo. in 1828, contain some
of the best specimens of letter-writing in the language. Sec also A
Fine Old English Gentleman exemplified in the Ltfe and Character of
Lord Collingwood, a Biographical Study, by William Davies (London,
1875).
COLLINGWOOD, a city of Bourfec county, Victoria, Australia,
suburban to Melbourne on the N.E., on the Yarra Yarra river.
Pop. (1901) 32,766. It was the first town in Victoria incor-
porated after Melbourne and Geelong. It. is esteemed one of
the healthiest of the metropolitan suburbs.
COLLINGWOOD, a town of Simcoe county, Ontario, Canada,
90 m. N.N.W. of Toronto, on Georgian Bay, and on the Grand
Trunk railway. Pop. (tool) 5755. It is the eastern terminus of
two lines of steamers for the ports of Lakes Huron and Superior.
It contains a large stone dry-dock and shipyard, pork, factory,
and saw and planing mills, and has a large lumber, grain and
produce export trade, besides a shipbuilding plant and steel works.
COLLINS, ANTHONY (1676-17 29), English deist, was born at
Heston, near Hounslow in Middlesex, on the 21st of June 1676.
He was educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, and
was for some time a student at the Middle Temple. The most
interesting episode of his life was his intimacy with Locke, who in
his letters speaks of him with affection-and admiration. In 171$
he settled in Essex, where he held the offices of justice of the peace
and dcputy-lieutcnant, which he had before held ux M.v&s!&ssuau
692
COLLINS, CHURTON— COLLINS, WILLIAM
He died at his bouse in Harley Street, London, on the 13th of
December 1729. , . t , , t
His writings are important as gathering together the results of
previous English Freethinkers. The imperturbable courtesy of
his style is in striking contrast to the violence of his opponents;
and it must be remembered that, in spite of his unorlhodoxy, he
was not an atheist or even an agnostic. In his own words,
"Ignorance is the foundation of atheism, and freethinking the
cure of it " {Discourse of Freethinking, 105).
His first work of note was Jus Essay concerning the Use of
Reason in Propositions the Evidence whereof depends on Human
Testimony (1707), in which he rejected the distinction between
abate reason and contrary to reason, and demanded that revelation
should conform to man's natural ideas of God. Like all his works,
it was published anonymously, although the identity of the
author was never long concealed. Six years later appeared his
chief work, A Discourse of Freethinking, occasioned by the Rise and
Growth ofaSect called Freethinkers (1713)- Notwithstanding the
ambiguity of its title, and the fact that it attacks the priests of all
churches without moderation, it contends for the most part, at
least explicitly, for no more than must be admitted by every
Protestant. Freethinking is a right which cannot and must not
be limited, for it is the only means of attaining to a knowledge of
truth, it essentially contributes to the well-being of society, and it
is not only permitted but enjoined by the Bible. In fact the first
introduction of Christianity and the success of all missionary
enterprise involve freethinking (in its etymological sense) on the
part of those converted. In England this essay, which was
regarded and treated as a plea for deism, made a great sensation,
calling forth several replies, among others from William Whiston,
Bishop Hare, Bishop Hoadly, and Richard Bentley, who, under
the signature of Phileleutherus Lipsiensis, roughly handles
certain arguments carelessly expressed by Collins, but triumphs
chiefly by an attack on trivial points of scholarship, his own
pamphlet being by no means faultless in this very respect. Swift
also, being satirically referred to in the book, made it the subject
of a caricature.
In 1724 Collins published his Discourse of the Grounds and
Reasons of the Christian Religion, with An Apology for Free Debate
and Liberty of Writing prefixed. Ostensibly it is written in
opposition to Whiston 's attempt to show that the books of the Old
Testament did originally contain prophecies of events in the New
Testament story, but that these had been eliminated or corrupted
by the Jews, and to prove that the fulfilment of prophecy by the
events of Christ's life is all " secondary, secret, allegorical, and
mystical," since the original and literal reference is always to some
other fact. Since, further, according to him the fulfilment of
prophecy is the only valid proof of Christianity, he thus secretly
aims a blow at Christianity as a revelation. The canon icity of the
New Testament he ventures openly to deny, on the ground that
the canon could be fixed only by men who were inspired. No less
than thirty-five answers were directed against this book, the most
noteworthy of which were those of Bishop Edward Chandler,
Arthur Sykes and Samuel Clarke. To these, but with special
reference to the work of Chandler, which maintained that a
number of prophecies were literally fulfilled in Christ, Collins
replied by his Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered (1727). An
appendix contends against Whiston that the book of Daniel was
forged in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (sec Deism).
In philosophy, Collins takes a foremost place as a defender of
Necessitarianism. His brief Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty
(1715) has not been excelled, at all events in its main outlines, as a
statement of the dcterminist standpoint. One of his arguments,
however, calls for special criticism,— his assertion that it is self-
evident that nothing that has a beginning can be without a cause
is an unwarranted assumption of the very point at issue. He was
attacked in an elaborate treatise by Samuel Clarke, in whose
system the freedom of the will is made essential to religion and
morality. During Clarke's lifetime, fearing perhaps to be
branded as an enemy of religion and morality, Collins made no
reply, but in 1729 he published an answer, entitled Liberty and
Necessity.
Besides these works he wrote A Letter te* Mir ZWsxtf. argons
that it is conceivable that the soul may be material, and, secondly,
that if the soul be immaterial it does not follow, as Clarke ta-i
contended, that it is immortal; Vindication of Ike Dmne Attri-
butes (17 10); Priestcraft in Perfection (1709)* >n which he asserts
that the clause " the Church . . . Faith " in the twentieth of tk
Thirty-nine Articles was inserted by fraud.
See Kippis, Biographia Britannica; G. Lechlcr. Gesckkkw in
engtischen Deismus (1841); J. Hunt, Religious Thought im Emgtawi.
ii. (1871); Leslie Stephen, English Thought in the 18th Century, i.
(1881) ; A. W. Benn, Hist, of English Rationalism in the lath Cm-Vy
i London, 1906), vol. i. ch. Hi.: J. M. Robertson, Short Hi&rjtl
•retthought (London, 1906) ; and Deism.
COLLINS, JOHN CHURTON (1848-1008), English literary
critic, was born on the 26th of March 1848 at Bourton on lie
Water, Gloucestershire. From King Edward's school, Birming-
ham, he went to Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated is
1872, and at once devoted himself to a literary career, as jour-
nalist, essayist and lecturer. His first book was a study of Sir
Joshua Reynolds (1874), and later he edited various classical
English writers, and published volumes on BoHngbrobr a*i
Voltaire in England (1886), a Study of English Literature (1891)1
study of Dean Swift (1893), Essays and Studies (1895), Epkaurs
Critica (1901), Essays in Poetry andCriticism{iQos),*i*6 Roussees
and Voltaire (1908), his original essays beingsharplycontroversial
in tone, but full of knowledge. In 1904 he became professor of
English literature at Birmingham University. For many years he
was a prominent University Extension lecturer, and a constant
contributor to the principal reviews. On the 1 5th of September
1908 be was found dead in a ditch near Lowestoft, at which place
he had been staying with a doctor for the benefit of his health.
The circumstances necessitated the holding of an inquest, the
verdict being that of " accidental death/'
COLLINS, MORTIMER (1827-1876), English writer, was bora
at Plymouth, where his father, Francis Collins, was a solicitor, on
the 29th of June 1827. He was educated at a private school, and
after some years spent as mathematical master at Queen Eliza*
beth's College, Guernsey, he went to London, where he devoted
himself to journalism in the Conservative interest. In 1855 he
published his Idyls and Rhymes; and in 1865 appeared his first
story, Who is the Heir? A second volume of lyrics, The Im of
Strange Meetings, was issued in 187 1; and in 1872 he produced
his longest and best sustained poem, The British Birds, a com-
munication from the Ghost of A ristophanes. He also wrote several
capital novels, the best of which is perhaps Sweet Anne Pap
(1868). Some of his lyrics, in their light grace, their sparkling
wit, their airy philosophy, arc equal to anything of their kind in
modern English. On his second marriage in 1868 he settled at
Knowl Hill, Berkshire. Collins was an athlete, an excellent
pedestrian, and an enthusiastic lover of country life; and from
this time he rarely left his home for a day. Conservative in his
political and literary tastes, an ardent upholder of Church and
State, he was yet a hater of convention; and his many and very
varied gifts endeared him to a large circle of friends. He died on
the 28th of July 1876.
COLLINS, WILLIAM (1 721-1759), English poet, was born on
the 25th of December 1721. He divides with Gray the glory of
being the greatest English lyrist of the 18th century. After some
childish studies in Chichester, of which his father, a rich hatter,
was the mayor, he was sent, in January 1733, to Winchester
College, where Whitehead and Joseph Warton were his school-
fellows. When he had been nine months at the school, Pope paid
Winchester a visit and proposed a subject for a prize poem; it is
legitimate to suppose that the lofty forehead, the brisk dark eyes
and gracious oval of the childish face, as we know it in the only
portrait existing of Collins, did not escape the great man's notice,
then not a little occupied with the composition of the Essay on
Man.
In 1734 the young poet published his first verses, in a sixpenny
pamphlet on The Royal Nuptials, of which, however, no copy has
come down to us; another poem, probably satiric, called The
Battle of the Schootbooks, was written about this time, and has also
been lost. Fired by his poetic fellows to further feats in verse,
COLLINS, W.— COLLINS, WILKIE
693
Coffins produced, in his seventeenth year, those Persian Eclogues
which were the only writings of his that were valued by the world
during his own lifetime. They were not printed for some years,
and meanwhile Collins sent, in January and October 1730, some
verses to the Gentleman's Magawme, which attracted the notice
and admiration of Johnson, then still young and uninfluentiaL
In March x 740 he was admitted a commoner of Queen's College,
Oxford, but did not go up to Oxford until July 1741, when he
obtained a demyship at Magdalen College. At Oxford he con-
tinued his affectionate intimacy with the Wartons, and gained
the friendship of Gilbert White. Early in 1742 the Persian
Eclogues appeared in London. They were four in number, and
formed a modest pamphlet of not more than 300 lines in all. In a
later edition, of 1759, the title was changed to Oriental Eclogues.
Those pieces may be compared with Victor Hugo's Les Orientates,
to which, of course, they arc greatly inferior. Considered with
regard to the time at which they were produced, they are more
than meritorious, even brilliant, and one at least—the second —
can be read with enjoyment at the present day. The rest, per-
haps, will be found somewhat artificial and effete.
In November 1743 Collins was made bachelor of arts, and a
few days after taking his degree published his second work,
Verses humbly addressed to Sir Thomas Hanmer. This poem,
written in heroic couplets, shows a great advance in individuality,
and resembles, in its habit of personifying qualities of the mind,
the riper lyrics of its author. For the rest, it is an enthusiastic
review of poetry, culminating in a laudation of Shakespeare.
It is supposed that he left Oxford abruptly in the summer of
x 744 to attend his mother's death-bed, and did not return.
He is said to have now visited an uncle in Flanders. His in-
dolence, which had been no less marked at the university than his
genius, combined with a fatal irresolution to make it extremely
difficult to choose for him a path in life. The army and the
church were successively suggested and rejected; and he finally
arrived in London, bent on enjoying a small property as an in-
dependent man about town. He made the acquaintance of
Johnson and others, and was urged by those friends to undertake
various important writings— a History of the Revival of Learning,
several tragedies, and a version of Aristotle's Poetics, among
others— all of which he began but lacked force of will to continue.
He soon squandered his means, plunged, with most disastrous
effects, into profligate excesses, and sowed the seed of his un-
timely misfortune.
It was at this time, however, that he composed his matchless
Odes— twelve in number— which appeared on the 12 th of
December 1746, dated 1747. The original project was to have
combined them with the odes of Joseph Warton, but the latter
proved at that time to be the more marketable article. Collins'*
little volume fell dead from the press, but it won him the admira-
tion and friendship of the poet Thomson, with whom, until the
death of the latter in 1748, he lived on terms of affectionate
intimacy. In x 749 Collins was raised beyond the fear of poverty
by the death of his uncle, Colonel Martyn, who left him about
£2000, and he left London to settle in his native city. He had
hardly begun to taste the sweets of a life devoted to literature
and quiet, before the weakness of his will began to develop in
the direction of insanity, and he hurried abroad to attempt to
dispel the gathering gloom by travel. In the interval he had
published two short pieces of consummate grace and beauty —
the Elegy on Thomson, in 1749, and the Dirge in Cymbeline,
later in the same year. In the beginning of 1750 he composed
the Ode on the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands, which was
dedicated to the author of Douglas, and not printed till long
after the death of Collins, and an Ode on the Music of the Grecian
Theatre, which no longer exists, and in which English literature
probably has sustained a severe loss. With this poem his literary
career closes, although he lingered in great misery for nearly
nine years. From Gilbert White, who jotted down some pages
of invaluable recollections of Collins in 1781, and from other
friends, we learn that his madness was occasionally violent,
and that he was confined for a time in an asylum at Oxford.
But for the most part he resided at Chichester, suffering from
extreme debility of body when the mind was dear, and incapable
of any regular occupation. Music affected him in a singular
manner, and it is recorded that he was wont to slip out into
the cathedral cloisters during the services, and moan and howl
in horrible accordance with the choir. In this miserable con-
dition he passed out of sight of all his friends, and in 1756 it
was supposed, even by Johnson, that he was dead; in point
of fact, however, his sufferings did not cease until the 12th of
June 1750. No journal or magaxinr recorded the death of the
forgotten poet, though Goldsmith, only two months before, had
begun the laudation which was soon to become universal.
No English poet so great as Collins has left behind him so
small a bulk of writings. Not more than 1500 lines of his have
been handed down to us, but among these not one is slovenly, and
few are poor. His odes are the most sculpturesque and faultless
in the language. They lack fire, but in charm and precision of
diction, exquisite propriety of form, and lofty poetic suggestion
they stand unrivalled. The ode named The Passions is the most
popular; that To Evening is the classical example of perfect
unrhymed verse. In this, and the Ode to Simplicity, one seems
to be handling an antique vase of matchless delicacy and elegance.
In his descriptions of nature it is unquestionable that he owed
something to the influence of Thomson. Distinction may
be said to be the crowning grace of the style of Collins; its
leading peculiarity is the incessant personification of some
quality of the character. In the Ode on Popular Superstitions
he produced a still nobler work; this poem, the most considerable
in size which has been preserved, contains passages which are
beyond question unrivalled for rich melancholy fulness in the
literature between Milton and Keats.
The life of Collins was written by Dr Johnson; he found an
enthusiastic editor in Dr Langhorne in 1765, and in I858 a kindly
biographer in Mr Moy Thomas. (E. G.)
COLLINS, WILLIAM (1787-1847), English painter, son of an
Irish picture dealer and man of letters, the author of a Life of
George U or land, was born in London. He studied under Etty
in 1807, and in 1809 exhibited his first pictures of repute — " Boys
at Breakfast," and " Boys with a Bird's Nest" In 18 15 he was
made associate of the Royal Academy, and was elected R. A. in
1820. For the next sixteen years he was a constant exhibitor;
his fishermen, shrimp-catchers, boats and nets, stretches of coast
and sand, and, above all, his rustic children were universally
popular. Then, however, he went abroad on the advice of
Wilkie, and for two years (1837-1838) studied the life, manners
and scenery of Italy. In. 1839 he exhibited the first fruits of this
journey; and in 1840, in which year he was appointed librarian
to the Academy, he made his first appearance as a painter of
history. In 1842 he returned to his early manner and choice
of subject, and during the last years of life enjoyed greater
popularity than ever. Collins was a good colourist and an
excellent draughtsman. His earlier pictures are deficient in
breadth and force, but his later work, though also carefully
executed, is rich in effects of tone and in broadly painted
masses. His biography by his son, W. Wilkie Collins, the novelist,,
appeared in 1848.
COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE (1824-1889), English novelist,
elder son of William Collins, R.A., the landscape painter, was
born in London on the 8th of January 1824. He was educated
at a private school in Highbury, and when only a small boy of
twelve was taken by his parents to Italy, where the family lived
for three years. On their return to England Wilkie Collins was
articled to a firm in the tea trade, but four years later he aban-
doned that business for the law, and was entered at Lincoln's Inn
in 1846, being called to the bar three years later. He found little
pleasure in his new career, however; though what he learned in
it was exceedingly valuable to him later. On his father's death
in 1847 young Collins made his first essay in literature, publishing
the Life of William Collins, in two volumes, in the following year.
In 1850 be put forth his first work of fiction, Antonina, or the
Fall of Rome, which was clearly inspired by his life in Italy.
Basil appeared in 1852, and Hide and Seek in 1854. About this
time he made the acquaintance of Charles Diduec&* < MA>\**)ab.
694
COLLODION— COLLYER
to contribute to Household Words, where After Dark (1856) and
The Dead Secret (1857) ran serially. His great success was
achieved in i860 with the publication of The Woman in White,
which was first printed in All the Year Round. From that time
he enjoyed as much popularity as any novelist of his day, No
Name (1862), Armadale (1866), and The Moonstone, a capital
detective story (1868), being among his most successful books.
After The New Magdalen (1873) his ingenuity became gradually
exhausted, and his later stories were little more than faint echoes
of earlier successes. He died in Wimpole Street, London, on
the 23rd of September 1889. Collins 's gift was of the melo-
dramatic order, and while many of his stories made excellent
plays, several of them were actually reconstructed from pieces
designed originally for stage production. But if his colours
were occasionally crude and his methods violent, he was at least
a master of situation and effect. His trick of telling a story
through the mouths of different characters is sometimes irritat-
ingly disconnected; but it had the merit of giving an air of
actual evidence and reality to the elucidation of a mystery. He
possessed in the highest degree the gift of absorbing interest;
the turns and complexities of his plots are surprisingly ingenious,
and many of his characters are not only real, but uncommon.
Count Fosco in Tlte Woman in White is perhaps his masterpiece;
the character has been imitated again and again, but no imitation
has ever attained to the subtlety and humour of the original.
COLLODION (from the Gr. KoXXa, glue), a colourless, viscid
fluid, made by dissolving gun-cotton and the other varieties of
pyroxylin in a mixture of alcohol and ether. It was discovered
in 1846 by Louis Nicolas Menard in Paris, and independently in
1848 by Dr J. Parkers Maynard in Boston. The quality of
collodion differs according to the proportions of alcohol and ether
and the nature of the pyroxylin it contains. Collodion in which
there is a great excess of ether gives by its evaporation a very
tough film; the film left by collodion containing a large quantity
of alcohol is soft and easily torn; but in hot climates the presence
of an excess of alcohol is an advantage, as it prevents the rapid
evaporation of the ether. Under the microscope, the film
produced by collodion of good quality appears translucent and
colourless. To preserve collodion it should be kept cool and out
of the action of the light; iodized collodion that has been dis-
coloured by the development of free iodine may be purified by
the immersion in it of a strip of silver foil. For the iodizing
of collodion, ammonium bromide and iodide, and the iodides
of calcium and cadmium are the agents employed (see Photo-
graphy). Collodion is used in surgery since, when painted
on the skin, it rapidly dries and covers the skin with a thin
film which contracts as it dries and therefore affords both
pressure and protection. Flexible collodion, containing Canada
balsam and castor oil, does not crack, but, on the other hand,
does not contract. It is therefore of less value. Collodion is
applied to small aseptic wounds, to small-pox pustules, and
occasionally to the end of the urethra in boys in order to prevent
nocturnal incontinence. Collodion and crystals of carbolic acid,
taken in equal parts, are useful in relieving toothache due to
the presence of a carious cavity. Vesicating or Blistering
Collodion contains cantharidin as one of its constituents. The
styptic colloid of Richardson is a strong solution of tannin in
gun-cotton collodion. Similarly collodion may be impregnated
with salicylic acid, carbolic acid, iodine and other substances.
Small balloons are manufactured from collodion by coating the
interior of glass globes with the liquid; the film when dry is
removed from the glass by applying suction to the mouth of the
vessel. M. E. Gripon found (Compt. rend., 1S75) that collodion
membranes, like glass, reflect light and polarize it both by
refraction and reflection; they also transmit a very much larger
proportion of radiant heat, for the study of which they are
preferable to mica.
COLLOT D'HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE (1750-1796), French
revolutionist, was a Parisian by birth and an actor by profession.
After figuring for some years at the principal provincial theatres
of France and Holland, he became director of the playhouse at
Geneva. He hud from the first a share in the revolutionary
tumult; but it was not until 1791 that he became a figure of
importance. Then, however, by the publication of L'Almano+n
du Fire Cirard, 1 a little book setting forth, in homely style, the
advantages of a constitutional monarchy, he suddenly acquired
great popularity. His renown was soon increased by his active
interference on behalf of the Swiss of the Chateau- Vieux Rep*
ment, condemned to the galleys for mutiny at Nancy. His
efforts resulted in their liberation; he went himself to Brest hi
search of them; and a civic feast was decreed on his befell
and theirs, which gave occasion for one of the few poems published
during his life by Andre Chenier. But his opinions became
more and more radical. He was a member of the Commune of
Paris on the toth of August 1702, and was elected deputy f»
Paris to the Convention, where he was the first to demand tk
abolition of royalty (on the 21st of September 179a), and be
voted the death of Louis XVI. " sans sursis." .In the struggle
between the Mountain and the Girondists he displayed grot
energy; and after the coup d'itai of the 31st of May 1793 he
made himself conspicuous by his pitiless pursuit of the defeated
party. In June he was made president of the Convention; aod
in September he was admitted to the Committee of Pubis
Safety, on wluch he was very active. After having entrusted
him with several missions, the Convention sent h«™, 00 ac
30th of October 1703, to Lyons to punish the revolt of that dr/.
There he introduced the Terror in its most terrible form.
In May 1704 an attempt was made to assassinate CoDot; bti
it only increased his popularity, and this won him the hatreds'
Robespierre, against whom he took sides on the oth Thermite,
when he presided over the Convention during a part of ik
session. During the Thermidorian reaction he was one of tie
first to be accused of complicity with the fallen leader, but vs
acquitted. Denounced a second time, he defended *»««-!* bf
pleading that he had acted for the cause of the Revolution, bd
was condemned with Barere and Billaud-Varenne to txansjnu-
tion to Cayenne (March 1795). where be died early in 1706.
Collot d'Herbois wrote and adapted from the EngiiA td
Spanish many plays, one of which, Le Paysam magistral bp
the stage for several years. V Almanack du Pire Gerard «
reprinted under tae title of £trennes aux amis da la Consbto*
francaise, ou entretiens du Pert Cirard avec ses conakj*
(Paris, 1792).
See F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Ligistatw* etdela Dimiii
(Paris, 188S-1886), t. ii. pp. 501-512. The principal doctor
relative to the trial of Collot d'Herbois, Barere and Billaud-Vxtn
are indicated in Aulard, Recueil des octet dm cemili de satal *■£=■
t. i. pp. 5 and 6.
COLLUSION (from Lat cottudere, strictly, to play iritl}. »
secret agreement or compact for some improper purpose, a
judicial proceedings, and particularly in matrimonial caaa
(see Divorce), collusion is a deceitful agreement bctweei tn
or more persons, or between one of them and a third jtf*.
to bring an action against the other in order to obtain a jo££
decision, or some remedy which would not have been obtrwd
unless the parties had combined for the purpose or sopprtsd
material facts or otherwise.
COLLYER, ROBERT (1823- ), American Unitarian degr
man, was born in Keighlcy, Yorkshire, England on the 5**
December 1823. At the age of eight he was compelled to Sen
school and support himself by work in a linen factor/. »
was naturally studious, however, and supplemented bis ia*
schooling by night study. At fourteen he was apprenticed ft
a blacksmith, and for several years worked at this trade at Hfc
In 1849 he became a local Methodist minister, and in thcfcxV*«
year emigrated to the United States, where he obtained ea^
ment as a hammer maker at Shoemakersville, PeaosrKi^
Here he soon began to preach on Sundays while still eaatoni*
the factory on week-days. His earnest, rugged shnpkti*
of oratory made him extremely popular, and at oaczsstn^'
him a wide reputation. His advocacy of anti-atavci 9 vu*&
then frowned upon by the Methodist authoritiesT*"^
opposition, and eventually resulted in his trial for here? «*
\^ r v V ^i li0 A ° f his li( \ CnC « He ^tfaued. howew **
» * M\c\K\OfeT*x^TO *wtas\tatoaQ«asant deputy Cnejtfoft*
COLMAN, SAINT— COLMAN, S.
695
independent preacher and lecturer, and in 1859, having joined
the Unitarian Church, became a missionary of that church in
Chicago, Illinois. In i860 he organized and became pastor of
the Unity Church, the second Unitarian church in Chicago.
Under his guidance the church grew to be one of the strongest of
that denomination in the West, and Mr Collyer himself came
to be looked upon as one of the foremost pulpit orators in the
country. During the Civil War he was active in the work of
the Sanitary Commission. In 1879 he left Chicago and became
pastor of the church of the Messiah in New York city, and in
1903 he became pastor emeritus. He published: Nature and
Life (1867); A Man in Earnest: Lift of A. H. Conant (1868);
The Life That Now is (1871); The Simple Truth (1877); Talks
to Young Men: With Asides to Young Women (1888); Things
New and Old (1893); Father Taylor (1906); and A History of
the Town and Parish of Ilkley ((with Horscfall Turner, 1886).
COLMAN, SAINT (d. 676), bishop of Lindisfarne, was prob-
ably an Irish monk at Iona. Journeying southwards he became
bishop of Lindisfarne in 661, and a favoured friend of Oswio,
king of Northumbria. He was at the synod of Whitby in 664,
when the great dispute between the Roman and the Celtic parties
in the church was considered; as spokesman of the latter party
be upheld the Celtic usages, but King Oswio decided against him
and his cause was lost. After this event Colman and some
monks went to Iona and then to Ireland. He settled on the
island of Inishbofin, where he built a monastery and where he
died on the 8th of August 676.
Colman must be distinguished from St Colman of Goync
(c. 522-600), an Irish saint, who became a Christian about 570;
and also from another Irishman, St Colman Ela (553-010),
a kinsman of St Columba. The word Colman is derived from
the Latin columbus, a dove, and the Booh of Leinsler mentions
909 saints of this name.
COLMAN, GEORGE (i73*-i794), English dramatist and
essayist, usually called 'the Elder," and sometimes "George
the First," to distinguish him from his son, was born in 1732 at
Florence, where his father was stationed as resident at the court
of the grand duke of Tuscany. Colman's father died within a
year of his son's birth, and the boy's education was undertaken
by William Pulteney, afterwards Lord Bath, whose wife was
Mrs Colman's sister. After attending a private school in Maryle-
bone, he was sent to Westminster School, which he left in due
course for Christ Church, Oxford. Here he made the acquaint-
ance of Bonnell Thornton, the parodist, and together they founded
The Connoisseur (1754-1756)1 * periodical which, although it
reached its 140th number, "wanted weight," as Johnson said.
He left Oxford after taking his degree in 1755, and, having been
entered at Lincoln's Inn before his return to London, he was
called to the bar in 1757. A friendship formed with David
Garrick did not help his career as a barrister, but he continued
to practise until the death of Lord Bath, out of respect for his
wishes.
In 1 760 he produced his first play, Polly Honeycomb, which met
with great success. In 1761 The Jealous Wife, a comedy partly
founded on Tom Jones, made Colman famous. The death of
Lord Bath in 1 764 placed him in possession of independent means.
In 1 765 appeared his metrical translation of the plays of Terence ;
t and in 1766 he produced The Clandestine Marriage, jointly with
Garrick, whose refusal to take the part of Lord Ogleby led to a
t quarrel between the two authors. In the next year he purchased
: a fourth share in the Covent Garden Theatre, a step which is
: said to have induced General Pulteney to revoke a will by which
he had left Colman large estates. The general, who died in that
year, did, however, leave him a considerable annuity. Colman
was acting manager of Covent Garden for seven years, and during
that period he produced several "adapted" plays of Shakespeare.
In 1768 he was elected to the Literary Club, then nominally con-
sisting of twelve members. In 1774 he sold his share in the
great playhouse, which had involved him in much litigation with
his partners, to Leake; and three years later he purchased
of Samuel Foote, then broken in health and spirits, the little
theatre in the Haymarket. He was attacked with paralysis in
1785; in 1789 his brain became affected, and he died on the 14th
of August 1794. Besides the works already cited, Colman was
author of adaptations of Beaumont and Fletcher's Bonduca,
Ben Jonson's Epicoene, Milton's Comus, and of other plays.
He also produced an edition of the works of Beaumont and
Fletcher (1778), a version of the Ars Poitica of Horace, an
excellent translation from the M creator of Plautus for Bonnell
Thornton's edition (1760-1772), some thirty plays, many
parodies and occasional pieces. An incomplete edition of his
dramatic works was published in 1777 in four volumes.
His son, George Colman (1762-1836), known as "the
Younger," English dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was
born on the 21st of October 1 762. He passed from Westminster
school to Christ Church, Oxford, and King's College, Aberdeen,
and was finally entered as a student of law at Lincoln's Inn,
London. While in Aberdeen he published a poem satirizing
Charles James Fox, called The Man of the People', and in 1782
he produced, at his father's playhouse in the Haymarket, his
first play, The Female Dramatist, for which Smollett's Roderick
Random supplied the materials. It was unanimously condemned,
but Two to One (1784) was entirely successful. It was followed
by Turk and no Turk (1785), a musical comedy; Inkle and
Yarico (1787), an opera; Ways and Means (1788); The Iron
Chest (1706), taken from William Godwin's Adventures of Caleb
Williams; The Poor Gentleman (1802); John Bull, or on
Englishman's Fireside (1803), his most successful piece; The
Heir at Law (1808), which enriched the stage with one immortal
character, "Dr Pangloss," and numerous other pieces, many of
them adapted from the French.
The failing health of the elder Colman obliged him to relinquish
the management of the Haymarket theatre in 1789, when the
younger George succeeded him, at a yearly salary of £600. On
the death of the father the patent was continued to the son;
but difficulties arose in his way, he was involved in litigation
with Thomas Harris, and was unable to pay the expenses of
the performances at the Haymarket. He was forced to take
sanctuary within the Rules of the King's Bench. Here he resided
for many years continuing to direct the affairs of his theatre.
Released at last through the kindness of George IV., who had
appointed him exon of the Yeomen of the Guard, a dignity
disposed of by Colman to the highest bidder, he was made
examiner of plays by the duke of Montrose, then lord chamberlain.
This office, to the disgust of all contemporary dramatists, to
whose MSS. be was as illiberal as he was severe, be held till his
death. Although his own productions were open to charges of
indecency and profanity, he was so severe a censor of others
that he would not pass even such words as "heaven," "provid-
ence" or "angel." His comedies are a curious mixture of
genuine comic force and sentimentality. A collection of them
was published (1827) in Paris, with a life of the author, by
J. W. Lake.
Colman, whose witty conversation made him a favourite, was
also the author of a great deal of so-called humorous poetry
(mostly coarse, though much of it was popular) — My Night
Gown and Slippers (1797), reprinted under the name of Broad
Grins, in 1802; and Poetical Vagaries (1812). Some of his
writings were published under the assumed name of Arthur
Griffinhood of Turnham Green. He died in Brompton, London,
on the 17th of October 1836. He had, as early as 1784, contracted
a runaway marriage with an actress, Clara Morris, to whose
brother David Morris, he eventually disposed of his share in the
Haymarket theatre. Many of the leading parts in his plays
were written especially for Mrs Gibbs {nle Logan), whom be was
said to have secretly married after the death of his first wife.
See the second George Colman's memoirs of his early life, entitled
Random Records (1830), and R. B. Peake, Memoirs of the Colman
Family (1842).
COLMAN, SAMUEL (1832- ), American landscape painter,
was born at Portland, Maine, on the 4th of March X832. He
was a pupil of Ashur B. Durand in New York, and in 1860-186*
studied in Spain, Italy, France and England. In 1871-1876 he
was again in Europe. In i860tW\thJ*T&^^.^xs^^>ft.V*»&&«&>
6 9 6
COLMAR— COLOCYNTH
the American Water Color Society, and became its first president
(1866-1867), his own water-colour paintings being particularly
fine. He was elected a member of the National Academy of
Design in x86a. Among his works are " The Ships of the Western
Plains," in the Union League Club, New York; and "The
Spanish Peaks, Colorado/' in the Metropolitan Museum, New
York.
COLMAR, or Kolmar, a town of Germany, in the imperial
province of Alsace-Lorraine, formerly the capital of the depart-
ment of Haut-Rhin in France, on the Logelbach and Lauch,
tributaries of the 111, 40 m. S.S.W. from Strassburg on the main
line of railway to Basel. Pop. (1905) 41,582. It is the seat of
the government for Upper Alsace, and of the supreme court of
appeal for Alsace-Lorraine. The town is surrounded by pleasant
promenades, on the site of the old fortifications, and has numerous
narrow and picturesque streets. Of its edifices the most re-
markable are the Roman Catholic parish church of St Martin,
known also as the MilnsUr, dating from the 13th and 14th
centuries, the Lutheran parish church (15th century), the former
Dominican monastery (1232-1289), known as "Unterlinden"
and now used as a museum, the Kaufhaus (trade-hall) of the
15th century, and the handsome government offices (formerly
the Prefecture). Colmar is the centre of considerable textile
industries, comprising wool, cotton and silk-weaving, and has
important manufactures of sewing thread, starch, sugar and
machinery. Bleaching and brewing are also carried on, and
the neighbourhood is rich in vineyards and fruit-gardens. The
considerable trade of the place is assisted by a chamber of
commerce and a branch of the Imperial Bank (Rdchsbank).
Colmar (probably the columbarium of the Romans) is first
mentioned, as a royal villa, in a charter of Louis the Pious in
823, and it was here that Charles the Fat held a diet in 884. It
was raised to the status of a town and surrounded with walls by
W&lfelin, advocate (Landvogt) of the emperor Frederick II. in
Alsace, a masterful and ambitious man, whose accumulated
wealth was confiscated by the emperor in 1235, and who is said
to have been murdered by his wife lest her portion should also
be seized. In 1226 Colmar became an imperial city, and the
civic rights (Stcdtreckt) conferred on it in 1274 by Rudolph of
Habsburg became the model for those of many other cities. Its
civic history is much the same as that of other medieval towns:
a struggle between the democratic gilds and the aristocratic
"families," which ended in 1347 in the inclusion of the former
in the governing body, and in the 17th century in the complete
exclusion of the latter. In 1255 Colmar joined the league of
Rhenish cities, and in 1476 and 1477 took a vigorous share
in the struggle against Charles the Bold. In 1632, during the
Thirty Years' War, it was taken by the Swedes, and in 1635 by
the French, who held it till after the Peace of Westphalia (1649).
In 1673 the French again occupied it and dismantled the fortifica-
tions. In 168 1 it was formally annexed to France by a decree
of Louis XIV. 's Ckambre de Reunion, and remained French till
187 1, when it passed with Alsace-Lorraine to the new German
empire.
See " Annalen und Chronik von Kolmar." German translation,
G. 11. Pabst, in Ceschicktssckreiber der deutscken Vorzeit (2nd ed.,
G. Wattenbach, Leipzig, 1897); Sigmund Billing, Kleine Chronik
dcr Stadt Kolmar (Colmar, 1891); Hund, Kolmar vor mud wdkrend
seiner Enhcicketung xur Reicksstadt (Strassburg, 1899); J. Liblin,
Ckronique de Colmar, KS-1400 (Mulhausen, 1 867-1868)": T. F. X.
Hunkler, Gesck, der Stadt Kolmar (Colmar, 1838). For further
references tee Ulysse Chevalier, Ripertoire dts sources. Topo-
bibliograpkie (Montbeliard, 1894-1899); and Waltz, BMUnraphie
de la rtlfe de Colmar (Mulhausen, 1902).
COLME, a market town and municipal borough in the Clitheroe
parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 34} m. N. by £.
from Manchester by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway; it is
served also by a branch of the Midland railway from Skipton.
Pop. (1001) 23,000. It stands on a hilly site above a small affluent
of the river Caldcr. The church of St Bartholomew retains some
Norman work, but is chiefly of various later periods. There is
m doth hall or piece haJJ, originally used as an *™***vigr when
woollens were the simple of the town. The grammar school is
of interest as the place where John TOlotson (1630-1604),
archbishop of Canterbury, received early education. Colne is a
place of great antiquity, and many Roman coins have been
found on the site. As early as the 14th century it was the seat
of a woollen manufacture; but its principal manufactures do*
are cottons, printed calicoes and muslin. In the neighbour-
hood are several limestone and slate quarries. The town was
incorporated in 2895, and the corporation consists of a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 5063 acres.
COLOCYNTH, Coloqtjintxda or Brrra Affix, CUruUas
Colocynihis, a plant of the natural order Cucurbitaceae. The
flowers are unisexual; the male blossoms have five stamens
with sinuous anthers, the female have reniform stigmas, and an
ovary with three large fleshy placentas. The fruit is round,
and about the size of an orange; it has a thick yellowish rind,
and a light, spongy and very bitter pulp, which yields the
colocynth of druggists. The seeds, which number from son to
300, and are disposed in vertical rows on the three parietal
placentas of the fruit, are flat and ovoid and dark-brown; they
are used as food by some of the tribes of the Sahara, and a coarst
oil is expressed from them. The pulp contains only about 3-5,%
of fixed oil, whilst the seeds contains about 15%. The foliage
resembles that of the cucumber, and the root is perennisL The
plant has a wide range, being found in Ceylon, India, Ferns,
Arabia, Syria, North Africa, the Grecian Archipelago, the Caps
Verd Islands, and the south-east of Spain. The term /nUwrt.
translated "wild gourds" in 2 Kings iv. 39, is thought to refer
to the fruit of the colocynth; but, according to Dr Olaf Cebm
(1670-1756), a Swedish theologian and naturalist, it signifies
a plant known as the squirting cucumber, Ecbolium EioUrium.
The commercial colocynth consists of the peeled and dried
fruits. In the preparation of the drug, the seeds are always
removed from the pulp. Its active principle is an intensely
bitter amorphous or crystalline glucoside, colocynthin, CmHmO*
soluble in water, ether and alcohol, and decomposable by seas
into glucose and a resin, colocynthein, CoHmOii. Colocynthna
also occurs as such in the drug, together with at least two other
resins, dtrullin and coiocynthiden. Colocynthin has been used
as a hypodermic purgative— a dass of drugs practically non-
existent, and highly to be desired in numberless cases of apoplexy.
The dose recommended for hypodermic injection is filters
minims of a 1 % solution in glycerin.
The British Pharmacopeia contains a compound extract of
colocynth, which no one ever uses; a compound pill — dose 4 to 8
grains— in which oil of doves is included in order to relieve the
griping caused by the drug; and the Pflula Colocynthidis et
Hyoscyami, which contains 2 parts of the compound pin to 1 of
extract of hyoscyamus. This is by far the best preparation, the
hyoscyamus being added to prevent the pain and griping which
is attendant on the use of colocynth alone. The offirial dose
of this pill is 4 to 8 grains, but the most effective and least dis-
agreeable manner in which to obtain its action is to give four
two-grain pills at intervals of an hour or so.
In minute doses colocynth acts simply as a bitter, but is never
given for this purpose. In ordinary doses it greatly increases
the secretion of the small intestine and stimulates its -* -r">—
coat. The gall-bladder is also stimulated, and the biliary function
of the liver, so that colocynth is both an excretory and a secretary
cholagogue. The action which follows hypodermic injection
is due to the excretion of the drug from the blood into the
alimentary canal. Though colocynth is a drastic hvdrsgom
cathartic, it is desirable, as a rule, to supplement its action by
some drug, such as aloes, which acts on the large intestine,
and a sedative must always be added. Owing to its irritant
properties, the drug must not be used habitually, but it fa very
valuable in initiating the treatment of simple chronic constipa-
tion, and its pharmacological properties obviously render it
especially useful in cases of hepatitis and congestion of the fiver.
Colocynth was known to the ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic
physicians; and in an Anglo-Saxon herbal of the nth ccntsry
(Cockayne, Letckdoms, &c, vol. i. p. 323, London, iMa) At
foUowtag directions are tjven as to its use: — " For aUiih-jjj rk
COLOGNE
697
inwards, take the inward neshness of the fruit, without the
kernels, by weight of two pennies; give it, pounded in lithe beer
to be drunk, it stirreth the inwards."
COLOGNE (Ger. Kdln, or officially, since 1000, Cdin), a dty
and archiepiscopal see of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, a fortress of the first rank, and one of the most im-
portant commercial towns of the empire. Pop. (1885) 230,437;
(1000) 370,685; (100$) 428,503, of which about 80% are Roman
Catholics. It lies in the form of a vast semicircle on the left
bank of the Rhine, 44 m. by rail north-east from Aix-la-Chapelle,
24 south-east from DUsseldorf and 57 north-north-west from
Coblenz. Its situation on the broad and navigable Rhine, and
at the centre of an extensive network of railways, giving it direct
communication with all the important cities of Europe, has
greatly fostered its trade, while its close proximity to the beautiful
scenery of the Rhine, has rendered it a favourite tourist resort.
When viewed from a distance, especially from the river, the
city, with its medieval towers and buildings, the whole sur-
mounted by the majestic cathedral, is picturesque and imposing.
The ancient walls and ditches, which formerly environed the
city, were dismantled between 1881 and 1885, and the site of the
old fortifications, bought from the government by the munici-
pality, were converted into a fine boulevard, the Ring, nearly
4 m. long. Beyond the Ring, about J m. farther out, a new
continuous line of wall fortifications, with outlying clusters of
earthworks and forts, has since been erected; 1000 acres, now
occupied by handsome streets, squares and two public parks,
were thus added to the inner town, almost doubling its area.
Cologne is connected by bridges with the suburb of DeuU.
Within the outer municipal boundary are included (besides
Deutz) the suburbs of Bayenthal, Lindenthal, Ehrenfeld, Nippes,
Sub, Bickendorf, Niehl and Poll, protected by another widely
extended circle of detached forts on both banks of the Rhine.
Of the former city gates four have been retained, restored and
converted into museums: the Sevcrin gate, on the south,
contains the geological section of the natural history museum;
the Hahnen gate, on the west, is fitted as the historical and
antiquarian museum of the city; and the Eigelstein gate, on
the north, accommodates the zoological section of the natural
history museum.
Cologne, with the tortuous, narrow and dark streets and lanes
of the old inner town, is still regarded as one of the least attractive
capital cities of Germany; but in modern times it has been
greatly improved, and the evil smells which formerly character-
ized it have yielded to proper sanitary arrangements. The most
important squares are the Domhof, the Heumarkt, Neumarkt,
Alte Markt and Waidmarkt in the old inner, and the Hansa-platz
in the new inner town. The long Hohe-strasse of the old town
is the chief business street.
The cathedral or Dom, the principal edifice and chief object
of interest in Cologne, is one of the finest and purest monuments
of Gothic architecture in Europe (for plan, &c see Architec-
ture: Romanesque and Gothic in Germany). It stands on the
site of a cathedral begun about the beginning of the 9th century
by Hildebold, metropolitan of Cologne, and finished under
Willibert in 873. This structure was ruined by the Normans,
was rebuilt, but in 1348 was almost wholly destroyed by fire.
The foundation of the present cathedral was then laid by Conrad
of Hochstadcn (archbishop from 1288 to 1261). The original
plan of the building has been attributed to Gerhard von Rile
(d. c. 1205). In 1322 the new choir was consecrated, and the
bones of the Three Kings were removed to it from the place they
had occupied in the former cathedral. After Conrad's death
the work of building advanced but slowly, and at the time
of the Reformation it ceased entirely. In the early part of the
19th century the repairing of the cathedral was taken in hand,
in 1842 the building of fresh portions necessary for the com-
pletion of the whole structure was begun, and on the 15th of
October 1880 the edifice, finally finished, was opened in the
presence of the emperor William L and all the reigning German
princes. The cathedral, which is in the form of a cross, has a
length of 480, and a breadth of 282 ft.; the height of the central
aisle is 154 ft ; that of each of the towers 512 ft The heaviest
of the seven bells (Kaiser glocke), cast in 1874 from the metal
of French guns, weighs 543 cwt., and is the largest and heaviest
bell that is rung. In the choir the heart of Marie de' Medici k
buried; and in the adjoining side-chapels are monuments of
the founder and other archbishops of Cologne, and the shrine^
of the Three Kings, which is adorned with gold and precious
stones. The three kings of Cologne (Kaspar, Melchior and
Balthazar) were supposed to be the three wise men who came
from the East to pay adoration to the infant Christ; according
to the legend, the emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa brought
their bones from Milan in 1x62, and had them buried in Cologne
cathedral, and miraculous powers of healing were attributed
to these relics. The very numerous and richly-coloured windows,
presented at various times to the cathedral, add greatly to the
imposing effect of the interior. The view of the cathedral has
been much improved by a clearance of the old houses on the
Domhof, including the archiepiscopal palace, but the new Hof ,
though flanked by many fine buildings, is displeasing owing to
the intrusion of numerous modern palatial hotels and shops.
Among the other churches of Cologne, which was fondly styled
in the middle ages the " holy city " (kcili S e Stadt) and " German
Rome/' and, according to legend, possessed as many sacred
fanes as there are days in the year, are several of interest both
for their age and for the monuments and works of art they
contain. In St Peter's are the famous altar-piece by Rubens,
representing the Crucifixion of St Peter, several works by Lucas
van Leyden, and some old German glass-paintings. St Martin's,
built between the 10th and 12th centuries, has a fine baptistery;
St Gereon's, built in the nth century on the site of a Roman
rotunda, is noted for its mosaics, and gloss and oil-paintings; the
Minorite church, begun in the same year as the cathedral, contains
the tomb of Duns Scotus. Besides these may be mentioned
the church of St Pantaloon, a 13th-century structure, with a
monument to Theophano, wife of the emperor Otto II.; St
Cunibert, in the Byzantine-Moorish style, completed in 1248;
St Maria im Capitol, the oldest church in Cologne, dedicated
in 1049 hy Pope Leo IX., noted for its crypt, organ and paintings;
St Cecilia, St Ursula, containing the bones of that saint and,
according to legend, of the 11,000 English virgins massacred
near Cologne while on a pilgrimage to Rome; St Sevcrin, the
church of the Apostles, and that of St Andrew (1220 and 1414),
which contains the remains of Albertus Magnus in a gilded
shrine, Most of these, and also many other old churches, have
been completely restored. Among newer ecclesiastical buildings
must be mentioned the handsome Roman Catholic church in
Deutz, completed in 1806, and a large synagogue, in the new
town west of the Ring, finished in 1800.
Among the more prominent secular buildings are the Gur-
zenich, a former meeting-place of the diets of the Holy Roman
Empire, built between 1441 and 1447, of which the ground floor
was in 1875 converted into a stock exchange, and the upper hall,
capable of accommodating 3000 persons, is largely utilized for
public festivities, particularly during the time of the Carnival:
the Rathaus, dating from the 13th century, with beautiful
Gobelin tapestries; the Tempclhaus, the ancestral seat of the
patrician family of the Ovcrstolzens, a beautiful building dating
from the 13th century, and now the chamber of commerce; the
Wallraf-Richartz Museum, in which is a collection of paintings
by old Italian and Dutch masters, together with some works
by modern artists; the Zeughaus, or arsenal, built on Roman
foundations; the Supreme Court for the Rhine provinces; the
post-office (1893); the Imperial Bank (Reichsbank); and the
municipal library and archives. The Wolkenburg, a fine Gothic
house of the 15th century, originally a patrician residence, was
restored in 1874, and is now the headquarters of the famous men's
choral society of Cologne (Kdlner Mannergesangverein).
A handsome central railway station (high level), on the site
of the old station, and dose to the cathedral, was built in 1889-
1894. The railway to Bonn and the Upper Rhine now follows
the line of the ceinture of the new inner fortifications, and on.
this section there are three cky i^\&x*\xi^&^\^\A'^^e*»^»
698
COLOGNE
Like all important German towns, Cologne contains many fine
monuments. The most conspicuous is the colossal equestrian
statue (22} ft. high) of Frederick William III. of Prussia in the
Hcumarkt. There are. also monuments to Moltke (1881), to
Count Johann von Werth (1885), the cavalry leader of the Thirty
Years 1 War, and to Bismarck (1879). Near the cathedral is
an archkpiscopal museum of church antiquities. Cologne is
richly endowed with literary and scientific institutions. It has
an academy of practical medicine, a commercial high school, a
theological seminary, four Gymnasia (classical schools), numer-
ous lower-grade schools, a conservatory of music and several
high-grade ladies' colleges. Of its three theatres, the municipal
theatre (Stadttheater) is famed for its operatic productions.
Commercially, Cologne is one of the chief centres on the Rhine,
and has a very important trade in corn, wine, mineral ores,
coals, drugs, dyes, manufactured wares, groceries, leather and
hides, timber, porcelain and many other commodities. A large
new harbour, with spacious quays, has been constructed towards
the south of the city. In 1003, the traffic of the port amounted
to over one million tons. Industrially, also, Cologne is a place
of high importance. Of the numerous manufactures, among
which may be especially mentioned sugar, chocolate, tobacco
and cigars, the most famous is the perfume known as can de
Cologne (q.v.) (KMnisches Wasser, i.e. Cologne-water).
Of the newspapers published at Cologne the most important
is the Kdlnische Zeitung (often referred to as the " Cologne
Gazette"), which has the largest circulation of any paper in
Germany, and great weight and influence. It must be distin-
guished from the Kdlnische Volksxcitung, which is the organ
of the Clerical party in the Prussian Rhine provinces.
History.— Cologne occupies the site of Oppidum Ubiorum,
the chief town of the Ubii, and here in a.d. 50 a Roman colony,
Colonic, was planted by the emperor Claudius, at the request
of his wife Agrippina, who was born in the place. After her it
was named Colonia Agrippina or Agrippinensis. Cologne rose to
be the chief town of German ia Secunda, and had the privilege
of the Jus Italicum. Both Vitcllius and Trajan were at Cologne
when they became emperors. About 330 the city was taken by
the Franks but was not permanently occupied by them till the
5th century, becoming in 475 the residence of the Frankish
king Childeric. It was the scat of a pagus or gau, and counts
of Cologne are mentioned in the 9th century.
The succession of bishops in Cologne is traceable, except for
a gap covering the troubled 5U1 century, from a.d. 313, when the
see was founded. It was made the metropolitan see for the
bishoprics of the Lower Rhine and part of Westphalia by Charle-
magne, the first archbishop being Hildebold, who occupied the
sec from 785 to his death in 819. Of his successors one of the
most illustrious was Bruno (q.v.), brother of the emperor Otto I.,
archbishop from 953 to 965, who was the first of the archbishops
to exercise temporal jurisdiction, and was also " archduke " of
Lorraine. The territorial power of the archbishops was already
great when, in 1 180, on the partition of the Saxon duchy, the
duchy of Westphalia was assigned to them. In the x ith century
they became ex-officio arch-chancellors of Italy (see Aech-
chancelloe), and by the Golden Bull of 1356 they were finally
placed among the electors (Kurfiirsten) of the Empire. With
Cologne itself, a free imperial city, the archbishop-electors were
at perpetual feud; in 1262 the archiepiscopal see was transferred
to Bruhl, and in 1273 to Bonn; it was not till 1671 that the
quarrel was finally adjusted. The archbishopric was secularized
in i8ox, all its territories on the left bank of the Rhine being
annexed to France; in 1803 those on the right bank were
divided up among various German states; and in 181 5 by the
congress of Vienna, the whole was assigned to Prussia. The
last archbishop-elector, Maximilian of Austria, died in 1801.
In Archbishop Hildebold 's day Cologne was still contained by
the square of its Roman walls, within which stood the cathedral
and the newly-founded church of St Maria (known later as
" im Capitol"); the city was, however, surrounded by a ring
of churches, among which those of St Gereon, St Ursula, St
Semm mnd St Cunlbert were conspicuous. In 881 Norman '
pirates, sailing up the Rhine, took and sacked the city; bit
it rapidly recovered, and in the nth century had become the
chief trading centre of Germany. Early in the t 2th century the
city was enlarged by the inclusion of suburbs of Oversburg,
Niederich and St Aposteln; in n 80 these were enclosed in a
permanent rampart which, in the 13th century, was strengthened
with the walls and gates that survived till the 19th century.
The municipal history of Cologne is of considerable interest
In general it follows the same lines as that of other cities of Lower
Germany and the Netherlands. At first the bishop ruled through
his burgrave, advocate, and nominated jurats (scabini, Schdjjn).
Then, as the trading classes grew in wealth, his jurisdiction begat
to be disputed; the conjuratio pro libertate of 1112 seems to
have been an attempt to establish a commune (see Comitm,
Medieval). Peculiar to Cologne, however, was the Rickenetk
(riginegkeide), a corporation of all the wealthy patricians,
which gradually absorbed in its hands the direction of the city's
government (the first record of its active interference is in 122$).
In the 13th century the archbishops made repeated efforts to
reassert their authority, and in 1259 Archbishop Conrad of
Hochstaden, by appealing to the democratic element of the
population, the " brotherhoods " (fratemilates) of the craftsmen,
succeeded in overthrowing the Richerzeche and driving its
members into exile. His successor, Engelbert II., however,
attempted to overthrow the democratic constitution set up by
him, with the result that in 2262 the brotherhoods combined
with the patricians against the archbishop, and the Richerzeche
returned to share its authority with the elected " great council "
{Wetter Rat). As yet, however, none of the trade or craft gilds,
as such, had a share in the government, which continued in the
hands of the patrician families, membership of which was
necessary even for election to the council and to the parochial
offices. This continued long after the battle of Worringcn ( x 288)
had finally secured for the city full self-government, and the
archbishops had ceased to reside within its walls. In the 14th
century a narrow patrician council selected from the Richersecbc,
with two burgomasters, was supreme. In 1370 an insurrectin
of the weavers was suppressed; but in 1306, the rule of the
patricians, having been weakened by internal rfic^ninn*. a
bloodless revolution led to the establishment of a comparatively
democratic constitution, based on the organization of the trade
and craft gilds, which lasted with but slight modification till the
French Revolution.
The greatness of Cologne, in the middle ages as now, was dae
to her trade. Wine and herrings were the chief articles of her
commerce; but her weavers had been in repute from tint
immemorial, and exports of cloth were large, while her gold-
smiths and armourers were famous. So early as the 1 1 th century
her merchants were settled in London, their colony forming the
nucleus of the Steelyard. When, in 1201, the city joined the
Hanseatic League (q.v.) its power and repute were so great that
it was made the chief place of a third of the confederation.
In spite of their feuds with the archbishops, the burghers of
Cologne were stanch Catholics, and the number of the magni-
ficent medieval churches left is evidence at once of their piety
and their wealth. The university, founded in 1389 by the sole
efforts of the citizens, soon gained a great reputation; in the
15th century its students numbered much more than a thousand,
and its influence extended to Scotland and the Scandinavian
kingdoms. Its decline began, however, from the moment whea
the Catholic sentiment of the city closed it to the influence of
the Reformers; the number of its students sank to vanishing
point, and though, under the influence of the Jesuits, it sub-
sequently revived , it never recovered its old importance. A final
blow was dealt it when, in 1777, the enlightened archbishop
Maximilian Frederick (d. 1784) founded the university of Bona,
and in 1708, amid the confusion of the revolutionary epoch, k
ceased to exist.
The same intolerance that ruined the university all but
ruined the city too. It is difficult, indeed, to blame the burghers
for resisting the dubious reforming efforts of Hermann of Wied,
archbishop from 15x5 to 1546, inspired mainly by 1
COLOMAN— COLOMB
699
Ambitions; but the expulsion of the Jews in 14x4* And still more
the exclusion, under Jesuit influence, of Protestants from the
right to acquire citizenship, and from the magistracy, dealt
severe blows at the prosperity of the place, A variety of other
causes contributed to its decay: the opening up of new trade
routes, the gradual ossification of the gilds into close and corrupt
corporations, above all the wars in the Netherlands, the Thirty
Years' War, and the Wars of the Spanish and Austrian Succes-
sion. When in 1704 Cologne was occupied, by the French, it
was a poor and decayed city of some 40,000 inhabitants, of whom
only 6000 possessed civic rights. When, in 1801, by the treaty
of Lunlville, it was incorporated in France, it was not important
enough to be more than the chief town of an arrondissement.
On the death of the last elector in 1801 the archiepiscopal see
was left vacant. With the assignment of the city to Prussia by
the congress of Vienna in 1815 a new era of prosperity began.
The university, indeed, was definitively established at Bonn,
but the archbishopric was restored (1821) as part of the new
ecclesiastical organisation of Prussia, and the city became the
seat of the president of a governmental district. Its prosperity
now rapidly increased; when railways were introduced it became
the meeting-place of several lines, and in 188 1 its growth neces-
sitated the pushing outward of thi? circle ot fort [fieri I ions,
£c* L. Enncn, Ctsih. dcr Siadi Kvln [5 vuk< Colore. 1863-16*0)
to J64S. and Frankreick Mnd dcr t \ud*rrkein {1 vols,, ib. t J 855, 1856),
a history oJ the city ami eJea orate of Cologne since the Thirty
Years' War; ]L Scbwl«e and C Sicuern*pel t Cohnia Ainppinms**
_ " Mtui dir Ct
far (Cc
tunaien Verft
bis turn Jckrt t.1<?& (fronn, ifejB) ; K. Hogtl, Stddfa ttnd Gildtn der
{Halle.
895): K- HeUmann, Dtt KUlngau v/td di* Cimttas Ktrf*
ooo};_ U KonK K&n iw JLftttdatier (Cologne, tftjo)
Lau, Entiffkktlutte dtr kommttnultn Vtrfanvn^ der Sudl Kmn
rermamiihrn Vettei ins Mitteinher {l vols., Leipzig, 1891), ii- p, 323;
H. KeuHcn, Ifistorische Tapoirafckit dtr Skidi Kvln im MiUdnikr
(Bonn, 1906}; W, Behnl;*, Am Kalnj fmnzojenztii {Cologne, 1901) ',
fE_
HeTmfccn, K&tts. and snnt Sfhtin-wiiirdt^ktiieii [30th ed., Cologne^
1003). F-or source* see L> Bnada Ptut G< Eckeftf* QutUin tut
Gtiihithte der St&dX Kdn (6 vols., Cologne, 1860-1879); later
source* will be found In U, Chevalier, R* pertain dts wvnti Mitt,
Tt>pO-hibliairaphif tMontbclianl, [894-1B99J, i-v* Cologne* whkrh
- -ythir-
jlogn
give* a l« a" full list of work* on every thtnB'eonncded with the city
jtlso in Da hi ma nn Wart it. Quttftttknttd* fai. Leipiig, 1906), p, 17,
No*. i$2. 3 S3- Fof the archdiocese and doctorate of Cologne *ce
Siaaiium-jialsuni, new cd* by A* Moorcn in 2 vol*. (DitudUiuri, 1892,
OOLOHAN (1070-1116), lung of Hungary, was the son of
King Geza of Hungary by a Greek concubine. King Ladislaus
would have made the book-loving youth a monk, and even;
designated him for the sec of Egcr; but Coloman had no inclina-
tion for an ecclesiastical career, and, with the assistance of his
friends, succeeded in escaping to Poland. On the death of
Ladislaus (1095), he returned to Hungary and seised the crown,
passing over his legitimately born younger brother Almos, the
son of the Greek princess Sinadene. Almos did not submit to
this usurpation, and was more or less of an active rebel till 1 108,
when the emperor Henry V. espoused his cause and invaded
Hungary. The Germans were unsuccessful; but Coloman
thought fit to be reconciled with his kinsman and restored to him
his estates. Five years later, however, fearing lest his brother
might stand in the way of his heir, the infant prince Stephen,
Coloman imprisoned Almos and his son Beia in a monastery and
had them blinded. Despite his adoption of these barbarous
Byzantine methods, Coloman was a good king and a wise ruler.
In foreign affairs be preserved the policy of St Ladislaus by
endeavouring to provide Hungary with her greatest need, a
suitable seaboard. In 1097 he overthrew Peter, king of Croatia,
and acquired the greater part of Dalmatia, though here he
encountered formidable rivals in the Greek and German emperors,
Venice, the pope and the Norman-Italian dukes, all equally
Interested in the fate of that province, so that Coloman had to
proceed cautiously in his expansive policy. By 1 102, however,
Zara, Trau, Spalato and all the islands as far as the Cetina were
In his hands. But it was as a legislator and administrator that
Coloman was greatest (see Hungary: History). He was not
only one of the most learned, but also one of the most states-
manlike sovereigns of the earlier middle ages. Coloman was
twice married, (x) in 1007 to Busella, daughter of Roger, duke of
Calabria, the chief supporter of the pope, and (2) in 11 12 to the
Russian princess, Euphemia, who played him false and was sent
back in disgrace to her kinsfolk the following year. Coloman
died on the 3rd of February xi 16.
COLOMB, PHILIP HOWARD OSix-1899), British vice-
admiral, historian,, critic and inventor, the son of General G. T.
Colomb, was born in Scotland, on the 20th of May 1831. He
entered the navy in 1846, and served first at sea off Portugal in
1847; afterwards, in 1848, in the Mediterranean, and from
1848 to 1851 as midshipman of the " Reynard " in operations
against piracy in Chinese waters; as midshipman and mate of
the " Serpent " during the Burmese War of 1852-53; as mate
of the " Phoenix " in the Arctic Expedition of 1854; as lieu-
tenant of the " Hastings " in the Baltic during the Russian War,
taking part in the attack on Sveaborg. He became what was
known at that time as a " gunner's lieutenant " in 1857, and
from 1859 to 1863 he served as flag-lieutenant to rear-admiral
Sir Thomas Pasley at DevonporL Between 1858 and 1868 he
was employed in home waters on a variety of special services,
chiefly connected with gunnery, signalling and the tactical
characteristics and capacities of steam warships. From 1868
to 1870 he commanded the " Dryad," and Was engaged in the
suppression of the slave trade. In 1874, while captain of the
" Audacious," he served for three years as flag-captain to vice-
admiral Ryder in China; and finally he was appointed, in 1880,
to command the " Thunderer " in the Mediterranean. Next
year he was appointed captain of the steam reserve at Ports-
mouth; and after serving three years in that capacity, he re-
mained at Portsmouth as flag-captain to the commander-in-chief
until 1886, when be was retired by superannuation before he
had attained flag rank. Subsequently he became rear-admiral,
and finally vice-admiral on the retired list.
Few men of his day had seen more active and more varied
service than Colomb. But the real work on which his title to
remembrance rests is the influence he exercised on the thought
and practice of the navy. He was one of the first to perceive
the vast changes which must ensue from the introduction of
steam into the navy, which would necessitate a new system of
signals and a new method of tactics. He set himself to devise
the former as far back as 1858, but his system of signals was
not adopted by the navy until 1867.
What he had done for signals Colomb next did for tactics.
Having first determined by experiment— for which he was given
special facilities by the admiralty— what are the manoeuvring
powers of ships propelled by steam under varying conditions
of speed and helm, he proceeded to devise a system of tactics
based on these data. In the sequel he prepared a new evolu-
tionary signal-book, which was adopted by the royal navy, and
still remains in substance the foundation of the existing system
of tactical evolutions at sea. The same scries of experimental
studies led him to conclusions concerning the chief causes of
collisions at sea; and these conclusions, though stoutly com-
bated in many quarters at the outset, have since been generally
accepted, and were ultimately embodied in the international
code of regulations adopted by the leading maritime nations oa
the recommendation of a conference at Washington in 1880.
After his retirement Colomb devoted himself rather to the
history of naval warfare, and to the large principles disclosed by
its intelligent study, than to experimental inquiries having an
immediate practical aim. As in his active career he had wrought
organic changes in the ordering, direction and control of fleets,
so by his historic studies, pursued after his retirement, he helped
greatly to effect, if he did not exclusively initiate, an equally
momentous change in the popular, and even the professional,
way of regarding sea-power and its conditions. He did not invent
the term " sea-power, " — it is, as is shown elsewhere (see Sea-
Power), of very ancient origin, — nor did he employ it until
Captain Mahan had made it a household word with all. But he
thoroughly grasped its conditions, and in his great work on naval
warfare (first published in ¥891) he enunciated its principles
with great cogency and with keen hvsAAtvc\TCa^&x. *\>«.***&5^
roo
COLOMBES— COLOMBIA
idea of his teaching was that naval supremacy is the condition
precedent of all vigorous military offensive across the seas, and,
conversely, that no vigorous military offensive can be under-
taken across the seas until the naval force of the enemy has been
accounted for— either destroyed or defeated and compelled to
withdraw to the shelter of its own ports, or at least driven from
the seas by the menace of a force it dare not encounter in the
open. This broad and indefeasible principle he enunciated and
defended in essay after essay, in lecture after lecture, until what
at first was rejected as a paradox came in the end to be accepted
as a commonplace. He worked quite independently of Captain
Mahan, and bis chief conclusions were published before Captain
Ma nan's works appeared.
He died quite suddenly and in the full swing of his
literary activity on the 13th of October 1809, at Steeple Court,
Botley, Hants, His latest published work was a biography of
his friend Sir Astky Cooper Key, and his last article was a critical
examination of the tactics adopted at Trafalgar, which showed
his acumen and insight at their best.
His younger brother, Si* John Colomb (1838-1000), was
closely associated in the pioneer work done for British naval
strategy and Imperial defence, and his name stands no less high
among those who during this period promoted accurate thinking
on the subject of sea-power. Entering the Royal Marines In
1854, he rose to be captain in 1867, retiring in 1869; and thence-
forth he devoted himself to the study of naval and military
problems, on which he had already published some excellent
essays. His books on Colonial Defence and Colonial Opinions
(1873), The Defence of Great and Greater Britain (1879), Natal
Intelligence and the Protection of Commerce (1881), The Use and
the Application of Marine Forces (1883), Imperial Federation:
Naval and Military (1887), followed later by other similar works,
made him well known among the rising school of Imperialists,
and he was returned to parliament (1886-1892) as Conservative
member for Bow, andafterwards(x8o5-ioo6)forGreat Yarmouth.
In 1887 he was created C.M.G., and in 1888 K.C.M.G. He died
in London on the 37th of May 1909. In Kerry, Ireland, he
was a large landowner, and became a member of the Irish privy
council (1903), and in 1906 he sat on the Royal Commission
dealing with congested districts.
COLOMBES, a town of France in the department of Seine,
arrondissement of St Denis, 7 m. N.N.W. of Paris. Fop. (1006)
38,920. Ithasa 16th-century church with 13th-century tower, a
race-course, and numerous villa residences and boarding-schools.
Manufactures include oil, vinegar and measuring-instruments.
A castle formerly stood here, in which died Henrietta Maria,
queen of Charles I. of England.
COLOMBEY, a village of Lorraine, 4 m. E. of Met*, famous as
the scene of a battle between the Germans and the French fought
on the 14th of August 1870. It is often called the battle of
Borny, from another village 2 J m. E. of Metz. (See Metz and
Franco-German Wax.)
COLOMBIA, a republic of South America occupying the
K.W. angle of that continent and bounded N. by the Caribbean
Sea and Venezuela, E. by Venezuela and Brazil, S. by Brazil,
Peru and Ecuador, and W. by Ecuador, the Pacific Ocean,
Panama and the Caribbean Sea, The republic is very irregular
in outline and has an extreme length from north to south of
X050 m., exclusive of territory occupied by Peru on the north
bank of the upper Amazon, and an extreme width of 860 m.
The approximate area of this territory, according to official
calculations, is 481,979 sq. m., which is reduced to 465,733 *°.- m -
by Gotha planimetrical measurements. This makes Colombia
fourth in area among the South American states.
The loss of the department of Panama left the republic with
unsettled frontiers on every side, and some of the boundary
disputes still unsolved in 1909 concern immense areas of territory.
The boundary with Costa Rica was settled in 1900 by an award
of the President of France, but the secession of Panama in 1903
gave Colombia another unsettled line on the north-west. If
the line which formerly separated the Colombian di-partrocnt*
d Cduc* Mjid Psjuh+u is Ukc-n as [orming the international
boundary, this line follows the water-parting between the
streams which flow eastward to the Atrato, and those whki
flow westward to the Gulf of San Miguel, the terminal points
being near Cape Tiburon on the Caribbean coast, and at about
7* 10' N. lat. on the Pacific coast. The boundary dispute wilk
Venezuela was referred in 1883 to the king of Spain , and the award
was made in 1891. Venezuela, however, refused to accept ike
decision. The line decided upon, and accepted by Colombo,
starts from the north shore of Calabozo Bay on the west side ef
the Gulf of Maracaibo, and runs west and south-west to aid
along the water-parting (Sierra de Perija) between the drainage
basins of the Magdalcna and Lake Maracaibo as far as the source
in lat. 8° 50* N. of a small branch of the Catatumbo river, thence
in a south-easterly direction across the Catatumbo and Zola
rivers to a point in 7 3° 30' W. long., 8° is' N. lat., thence in so
irregular southerly direction across the Cordillera de Mertda to
the source of the Sarare, whence it runs eastward along that river,
the Arauca, and the Meta to the Orinoco. Thence the line ran
south and south-east along the Orinoco, Atabapo and Guaisa
to the Pedra de Cucuhy, which serves as a boundary mark for
three republics. Of the eastern part of the territory lying
between the Meta and the Brazilian frontier, Venezuela claims
as far west as the meridian of 69° xo'. Negotiations for the
settlement of the boundary with Brazil (q.v.) were resumed in
1 006, and were advanced in the following year to an agreemest
providing for the settlement of conflicting claims by a mixed
commission. With Ecuador and Peru the boundary disputes are
extremely complicated, certain parts of the disputed territory
being claimed by all three republics. Colombia holds possesskB
as far south as the Napo in lat. a° 47' S., and claims territory
occupied by Peru as far south as the Amazon. On the other
hand Peru claims as far north as La Chorrera in o* 49' S. lat,
including territory occupied by Colombia, and the eastern half
of the Ecuadoran department of Oriente, and Ecuador would
extend her southern boundary line to the Putumayo, in bag.
71° 1' S., and make that river her northern boundary as fax
north as the Peruvian claim extends. The provisional line starts
from the Japura river (known as the Caqucta in Colombia) in
lat. i° 30' S., long. 69 34' W., and runs south-west to the 70th
meridian, thence slightly north of west to the Igaraparana river,
thence up that stream to the Peruvian military post of La
Chorrera, in o° 49' S. lat., thence west of south to Huiririnuv
chico, on the Napo. Thence the line runs north-west along the
Napo, Coca and San Francisco rivers to the Andean watershed,
which becomes the dividing line northward for a distance of
nearly 80 m., where the line turns westward and reaches the
Pacific at the head of Panguapi Bay, into which the southern
outlet of the Mira river discharges (about x° 34' N. lat.).
Physical Geography. — Colombia is usually described as an ex-
tremely mountainous country, which is true of much leas than half
its total area. Nearly one half its area lies south-east of the Andes
and consists of extensive llanos and forested plains, traversed by
several of the western tributaries of the Amazon and Orinoco.
These plains slope gently toward the east, those of the Amazon htsia
apparently lying in great terraces whose escarpments have the char-
acter of low, detached ranges of hills forming successive rims to the
great basin which they partly enclose. The elevation and slope ef
this immense region, which has an approximate length of 640 av
and average width of 330 m., may be inferred from the elevation
of the Caqucta, or Japura river, which was explored by Crcvaux in
1 878-1 879. At Santa Maria, near the Cordillera (about 75* 30' W.
long.), the elevation is 613 ft. above eea-lcvel, on the 73rd rnendisa
it is 538 ft., and near the 70th meridian 436 ft.— a fall of 187 ft.
in a distance of about 400 m. The northern part of this great region
has a somewhat lower elevation and gentler slope, and consists of
open grossly plains, which are within the zone of alternating wet and
dry seasons. In the south and toward the great lower basin of the
Amazon, where the rainfall is continuous throughout the year, the
plains arc heavily forested. The larger part of this territory is
unexplored except along the principal rivers, and is inhabited by
scattered tribes of Indians. Near the Cordilleras and along some of
the larger rivers there arc a few small settlements of whites and
mestizos, but their aggregate number is small and their economic
value to the republic is inconsiderable. There are some cattle
r.mpi's on the open plains, however, but they are too isolated to
have murh lm|Miir.ince. A mii.iII part of the northern Colombia,
1 on the \uwci cuuiwtot the Atrato and Magdalen*, extending 1
GEOGRAPHY]
COLOMBIA
701
the country from the Eastern to the Western Cordilleras with a paramo, or range, north-east of Bogota (16,700 ft.). Between the
varying width of 100 to 1 50 m., , not including the lower river basins 5th and 6th parallels the range divides into twojwapches, the eastern
which penetrate much farther inland, alio consists of low, alluvial
'ains, partly covered with swamps and intricate watercourses,
nsely overgrown with vegetation, but in places admirably adapted
_ . different kinds of tropical agriculture. These plains are broken
in places by low ranges of hills which arc usually occupied by the
principal industrial settlements of this part of the republic, the
lower levels being for the most part swampy and unsnited for white
occupation.
The other part of the republic, which may be roughly estimated at
two-fifths of its total area, consists of an extremely rugged moun-
tainou* country, traversed from south to north
by the pa relief river valley 1 of the Ma^dalena.
Cauea snd Atrato. The mountain chains which
cover this part of Colombia art (he northern
terminal ranges of (he great Andean system.
In northern Ecuador the Andes narrows into
a tingle ma wive range which has (he character
of a confused mass of peaks and ridges on the
southern frontier of Colombia. There are several
lofty plateaus in this region which form a huge
central watershed for rivers Sowing east to toe
Amazon, west to the Pacific, and north to the
Caribbean Sea* The higher plateaus are called
auramai, cold» windswept, mist -drenched de«rt »>
lying between the elevations of 10,000 and tS.ooo
ft, which are often the only passes over the
Cordilleras ant! yet are almost —
passing into Venezuela, where it is called the Cordillera de Mcrida,
and the northern continuing north and north-east aa the Sierra de
Perija and the Sierra de Oca, to terminate at the north-eastern
extremity of the Goajira peninsula. The culminating point in the
first-mentioned range is the Cerro Pintado ft 1,800 ft.). West of
this range, and lying be tw ee n the xoth parallel and the Caribbean
coast, is a remarkable group of lofty peaks and knotted ranges
known aa the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. the highest snow-
crowned summit of which rises' 1 7,389 ft. above the sea according to
some, and 16,728 according to other authorities. This group of
of their mnra*&c$, heavy mists, and cold, piercing
wind*. The paramo of Crua Verde (M t &95 ft/)
and Paste, and the volcanoes of Chiles (15,900
ft), Chumbut (15.7*5 M,and Pasto ftj,9>>t> ft)
are prominent bud marks of this desolate region-
North of ttiii great plateau (he Andes divides
into three great ranges, the Western, Central nnd
Eastern Cordillera*. The Central M the Mi* of
(he system h b distinguished by a line of lofty
volcanoes and par&mtu, some of which show their
**hit< mantles :ooo to jooo ft. ebon; the line of
perpetual mo* {appru*. 15,000 ft. in this lati-
tude), and is sometimes distinguished with the
name borne by the republic for the time being.
This range runs in a north -north -east direction
and separates the valleys of the Magdalena and
Cauea > terminating in some low hills *outh-wrst
of El Banco, a small ^ own on the lower Mrigdakna,
The principal summit* of this range areTajumbina
itj,5j4 ft/}, pan de Azutar (15^78 U-h Furaee
l5,aaott J, Sotara (13,4,10 ft), Huila over 18.000
t), Tolima (18,43* H }, Santa Isabel Ci 6,700 ft X
Ruis f 18,373 ft ). and Mesa de Ktrveo < i8,yw HX
The last named afford* ■ magnificent spectacle
from Bogota, its level top which is 5 or 6 m, across,
and 11 farmed by the nrn of An immense crater,
having the appearance of a table, down the sides
of which for more than 3000 ft. hangs annotlcsd
while drapery of perpetual snow. The Western
Cordillera branches from the main range firtt
and follows the coast very closely as far north
as the sth parallel, where the San Juan and
Atrato rivets, though flowing in opposite directions
and separated near the 5th parallel by a low
transverse ridge, combine to interpose valleys
between it and the Cordillera de Baudo, which
thereafter becomes the irue mant range, It th^n
forms the divide between the Cauca and At rota
valleys, and terminates near the Caribbean coast.
The general elevation of this range is lower than
that of the others, its culminating points being the ^~
volcanoMunchique (1 1,850 ft.) and Cerro Leon (10^47 ft.). Therange
is covered with vegetation and its Pacific slopes are precipitous and
humid. The Cordillera de Baudo, which becomes the coast range
above lat. 4 N., is the southern extension of the low mountainous
chain forming the backbone of the Isthmus of Panama, and may be
considered the southern termination of the great North American
system. Its elevations are low and heavily wooded. It divides on
the Panama frontier, the easterly branch forming the watershed
between the Atrato and the rivers of eastern Panama, and serving aa
the frontier between the two republics. The passes across these
ranges are comparatively low. but they are difficult because of the
precipitous character of their Pacific slopes and the density of the
vegetation on them. The Eastern Cordillera is in some respects the
most important of the three branches of the Colombian Andes. Its
Keneral elevation is below that of the Central Cordillera, and it has
sw summits rising above the line of perpetual snow, the highest
being the Sierra Nevada de Cocui. in lat. 6° 30' N. Between Cocui
and the southern frontier of Colombia there are no noteworthy
elevations except the so-called Paramo de Sums Pai near BogotA,
the highest point of which is 14,146 ft. above sca-levcl, and die Chita
t/D
mountains, covering an appro*] mate area of 6500 eq r m., lies im*
mediate! v on the coast, and its highest summits wire long considered
inaccessible. It stands detached from the lower ranges of the
Eastern Cordillera, and gives the Impression that it is essentially
independent- The eastern Cordillera region is noteworthy lor its
large areas of plateau and elevated valley within the limits of the
vertical temperate zone. En this region us to be found the greater
part of the wh ire population, the best products of Colombian civilisa-
tion, and the great ett industrial development- The " sabana " of
Bogota is a good illustration of the, higher of these plateaus (8563 ft*,
according to Sticler's HawLA doj), with its mild temperature,
inexhaustible fertility and numerous production* of the temperate
zone. It has an area of about 2000 sq. m- The lower valleys,
plateaus and mountain slopes of this range are celebrated for their
coffee, which, with belter means 0/ transports Lion, would be a greater
source of prosperity for the republic than the guld-mim* of AnuoquiA.
The mountainous region of Colombia is subject to volcanic disturb-
ances and earthquake thoclu ate frequent, especially in cfc* scn^
These shocks. howe.w % ue \ss* %!?*«*, ^nlu i^Nvatasis^*. ** '■»*
Ecuador.
702
COLOMBIA
{GEOGRAPHY
There are few islands on the coast of Colombia, and the great
majority of these are too small to appear on Che maps in general use.
Gorgona is one of the larger islands on the Pacific coast,
and is situated about 25 m. from the mainland in bt.
3* N. It is 5 J m. long by 1 J m. wide, and rises to an extreme eleva-
tion of 1296 ft. above sea-kvcL It is a beautiful island, and is
celebrated as one of Pizarro's stopping places. It has been used
by the Colombian government for political offenders. Malpelo island,
282 m. west by south of Charambira point, in lat. 3* 40' N., long
81 A 24' W., nominally belongs to Colombia. It is a small, rocky,
uninhabited island, rising to an elevation of 846 ft. above the sea,
and has no ascertained value. The famous Pearl islands of the
Gulf of Panama arc claimed by Colombia, and their pearl oyster
fisheries arc considered a rentable asset by the government. The
group covers an area of about 450 sq. m., and consists of 16 islands
and several rocks. The largest is Rev Island, which is about 17 m.
long, north to south, and 8 m. broad, with an extreme elevation of
600 ft. The other larger islands are San Jose, Pedro Gonzales,
Casaya, Saboga and Pachcca. There arc several fishing villages
whose inhabitants are largely engaged in the pearl fisheries, and a
number of cocoa-nut plantations. The islands belong chiefly to
Panama merchants. There arc several groups of small islands on
the northern coast, and a few small islands so near the mainland as
to form sheltered harbours, as at Cartagena. The largest of these
islands is Dam. lying immediately south of the entrance to Cartagena
harbour. North-west of Colombia in the Caribbean Sea arc several
small islands belonging to the republic, two of which (Great and
Little Corn Is.) lie very near the coast of Nicaragua. The largest
and most important of these islands is Vicja Providcncia (Old
Providence), 120 m. off the Mosquito Coast, 4) m. long, which
supports a small population.
The rivers of Colombia may be divided, for convenience of descrip-
tion, into three general classes according to the destination of their
«**«_. waters, the Pacific, Caribbean and Atlantic — the last
■ cn ^ r * reaching their destination through the Amazon and
Orinoco. Of these, the Caribbean rivers are of the greatest economic
importance to the country, though those of the eastern plains may at
some time become nearly as important as transportation routes in a
region possessing forest products of great importance and rich in
agricultural and pastoral possibilities. It is worthy of note that the
principal rivers of these three classes — the Patia, Cauca, Magdalcna,
Caqueta and Put u mayo — all have their sources on the high plateaus
of southern Colombia and within a comparatively limited area.
The Pacific coast rivers are numerous, and discharge a very large
volume of water into the ocean in proportion to the area of their
drainage basins, because of the heavy rainfall on the western slopes
of the Coast range. The proximity of this range to the coast limits
them to short, precipitous courses, with comparatively short navi-
gable channels. The principal rivers of this group, starting from
the southern frontier, are the Mira, Patia. Iscuande, Micai, Buena-
ventura or Dagua. San Juan and Baudo. The Mira has its principal
sources in Ecuador, and f'^r a short distance forms the boundary
line between the two republics, hut its outlets and navigable channel
are within Colombia. It has a larjre delta in proportion to the length
of the riyer, which is visible evidence of the very large quantity
of material brought down from the neighbouring mountain slopes.
The Patia is the longest river of the Pacific group, awl is the only one
haying its sources on the eastern side of the Western Cordillera.
It is formed by the confluence of the Sotara and Guaitara at the point
where the united streams turn westward to cut their way through
the mountains to the sea. The Sotara or upper Palia rises on the
southern slope of a transverse ridge or dyke, between the Central
and Western Cordilleras, in the vicinity of Popayan, and flows
southward about 120 m. to the point of confluence with the Guaitara.
The latter has its sources on the elevated plateau of Tuqucrres and
flows north-west to meet the Sotara. The can von of the Patia through
the Western Cordillera is known as the " Minima gorge," and has
been cue to a depth of 1676 ft., above which the perpendicular
mountain sides rise like a wall some thousands of feet more. The
upper course of the Guaitara is known as the Carchi, which for a
short distance forms the boundary line between Colombia and
Ecuador. At one point in its course it is crossed by the Rumichaca
arch, a natural arch of stone, popularly known a? the " Inca'h bridee."
which with the Minima gorge should be classed among the natural
wonders of the world. There is a narrow belt of low, swampy
country between the Cordillera and the coast, traversed at intervals
by mountain spurs, and across this the river channels are usually
navigable. m The San Juan has built a large delta at its mouth,
n , na Y i f ab J c * or * distance of 140 m. inland, the river flowing
parallel with the coast for a long distance instead of crossing the
coastal plain. It rises in the angle between the Western Cordillera [
a j transverse ridge connecting it with the Baudo coast
range, and flows westward down to the valley between the two
range*, and then southward through this valley to about lat. a° 15' N..
where it turns sharply westward and crones a narrow belt of lowland
t°the coast. It probably has the largest discharge of water of the
l"aobc group, and has almut 300 m. i»f navigable channels, including
i:» tributaries, although the river itself is only 1QO m. long and ihe
aioJ-fcirt at its mouth h.uv tmly 7 or S ft of water on them. The
Ssa Juan t$ duttaguisljvd f or tuvinn been one of the proposed
routes for a ship canal between the Caribbean and Pacific. At <**
point in its upper course it is so near the Atrato thai, accorduu; tot
survey by Captain C. S. Cochrane. R.N.. in 1824. a canal 400 )*.
long with a maximum cutting of 70 ft., together with some itcpro**
roents in the two streams, would give Tree communication. Ha
calculations were made, of course, fox the smaller craft of tkv
time.
The rivers belonging to the Caribbean system, all of which tm
in a northerly direction, are the Atrato. Bacuba. Sinu. Magdalen
and Zulia. The Bacuba. Suriquilla or Leon, is a small stream rarj
on the western slopes of the Cordillera and flowing into the iippr
end of the Gulf of L'raba. Like the Atrato it brings down much v\
which is rapidly filling that depression. There are many ml
streams and one important river, the Sinu. flowineicto the set
between this gulf and the mouth of the Magdalena. The Sinu rid
on the northern slopes of the Alto del Vicnto near the 7th paraH
and flows almost due north across the coastal plain for a disunrr
of about 286 m. to the Gulf of Morosquillo. It has a very siinkw
channel which is navigable for small steamers for some distaste,
but there is no good port at its outlet, and a considerable part d tte
region through which it flows is malarial and sparsely settled- The
most important rivers of Colombia, however, are the Magdalcna asd
its principal tributary, the Cauca. They both rise on the high table-
land of southern Colombia about 14.000 ft- above sea-Ievd— the
Magdalena in the Laguna del Buey (Ox Lake) on the Las Pap*
plateau, and the Cauca a short distance westward in the Laguna 6t
Santiago on the Paramo de Guanacas — and flow northward a
parallel courses with the great Central Cordillera, forming the mater-
parting between their drainage basins. The principal tribuurcs
of the Magdalcna arc the Suaza, N'eiva, Cabrera. Prado, Fuhagasaft,
Funza or Bogota, Carare, Opon, Sogamoso. Lcbrija and Cesar,
and the western the La Plata, Pacr, Saldana, Cucllo. Guali, Sanura
or Miel, Narc or Negro and Cauca. There are also many smafrr
streams flowing into the Magdalena from both aides of the vaUcv
Of those named, the Funza drains the " sabana " of Bogota and a
celebrated for the great fall of Tequcndarna, about 480 ft. in hckht;
the Sogamoso passes through some of the richest districts of tk
republic; and the Cesar rises on the elevated slopes of the Sera
Nevada dc Santa Marta and flows southward across a low plain,
in which are many lakes, to join the Magdalcna where it brcdi
westward to meet the Cauca. The course of the Magdalcna traverse*
nine degrees of latitude and is nearly 1000 m. long. It is navigable
for steamers up to La Dorada, near Honda, 561 m. above its mouth,
which is closed by sand-bars to all but light-draught vessels, and (ct
93 m. above the rapids at Honda, to Girardot. The river is a!*
navigable at high water for small steamers up to Kciva. 100 in-
farther and 1535 ft. above sea-level, beyond which point it descends
precipitously from the plateaus of southern Colombia. The Huet&
rapids have a fall of only 20 ft. in a distance of a ro., but the current
is swift and the channel tortuous for a distance of 20 m.. which
make it impossible for the light-draught, flat-bottomed steamers of
the lower river to ascend them. The Cauca differs much /ram lb?
Magdalena, although its principal features are the same. The Utter
descends 12,500 ft. before it becomes navigable, but at 10,000 It.
below its source the Cauca enters a long narrow valley with as
average elevation of 3500 ft., where It is navigable for over aoo nu
and then descends 2500 ft. through a series of impetuous rapids for a
distance of about 250 m.. between Cartago and Caccrcs, with a break
of 60 m. above Antioquia. where smooth water permits isolated
navigation. While, therefore, the Magdalcna is navigable throughout
the greater part of its course, or from Girardot to the coast, with an
abrupt break of only 20 ft. at Honda which could easily be overcome,
the Cauca has only 200 m. of navigable water in the upper \alky
and another 200 m. on its lower course before it joins the MagdalrM
in lat. 9* jo' the two being separated by 250 m. of canyon and
rapids. So difficult is the country through which the Cauca has cut
its tortuous course that the fertile upper valley is completely isolated
from the Caribbean, and has no other practicable outlet than the
overland route from Cali to Buenaventura, on the Pacific. The
upper sources of the Cauca flow through a highly volcanic region,
and are so impregnated with sulphuric and other acids that fish
cannot live in them. This is especially true of the Rio Vinagre.
which rises on the Purace volcano. The principal tributaries are
the PiendanA Chejas, Palo, Amaime and Necht, from the central
Cordillera, of which the last named is the most important, and ike
Jarmindi and a large number of small streams from the West era.
The largest branch of the Cauca on its western side, however, b the
San Jorge* which, though rising in the Western Cordillera on the
northern slope* of the Alto del Ylento, in about lat. 7* N.. and not
far from the sources of the Sinu and Bacuba, is essentially a river
of the plain, flowing north-east across a level country filled vita
&ni£ll lake* and subject to inundations to a junction with the Cauca
juit before it joins the Magdalcna. Both the San Jorge and Kechi
are navigable for considerable distances. The valley of the Caura
ii much narrower than that of the Magdalena, and between Cartato
and Ciccres the mountain ranges on both sides press down upon the
river And confine it to a njrrow canyon. The Cauca unites with the
Magdalcna about 200 m. from the mm through several widely separated
channel*, which are continually changing through the wearing awiy
d ihe aXtaxui tanks. Ttas* thaA&ta in the channel are alto at a or*
GEOGRAPHY, COLOMBIA
in the Lower Magdalena. The remaining rivwrt of the Caribbean,
system, exclusive of the smaller one* riamj in the Sierra Nevada
«Je Santa Maria, are the Zuha and Catatumbo, which riie in the
mountains of northern Santander and flow across the law pJaini of
the Vencaoelan Hate of Zulia into Lake Maracaibo.
Of the river* of the great eastern plains, whose waters pas* through
the Orinoco and Amaion to the Atlantic, little can be said beyond
the barest geographical description* The alee and course* of many
of their atfl uents are *lilJ unknown, aa this great region ha* been only
partially explored, The largest of these river* flow across the plains
>n7 an easterly direction, those of the Orinoco lyrtem inclining north-
ward, and those of the Amazon system southward. The first include
the Cuaviarc or Guayabcro, the Vichada, the Meta, and the upper
course of the Arauca. The Guaviare was explored by Crevaua in
iftSi . It rises on the eastern elopes of the Eastern Cordillera between
the 3rd and 4th parallels, about 75 m, south of Bogota, and now*
with a slight southward curve across the llano* to the Orinoco* into
which it discharges at San Fernando de Atabapo in Jm* 4* N* Its
largest tributary is the Inirida, which enters from the south* The
Guaviare has about 600 m. of navigable channel. The Meta rises
on the opposite side of the Cordillera from Bogota, and flown with A
sluggish current east-north-east across the Llanos to the Orinoco,
Into which it discharge* below the A tares rapids, in lot* 6" 22' N-
Jt is navigable throughout almost its whole length, small steamers
Ascending it to a point within too m. of Bogota, It* principal
tributaries, so far as known, are the Tuca, Chire and Casanare,
The principal rivers of the Amazon system are the Napo, the Upper
part of which forms the provisional boundary line with Ecuador,
the Puturtiavo or lea, and the Caqucta or J J pur i (Yapuri), which
flow from 'the Andes entirely across the eastern plains, and the
Guainia, which rise* 00 the northern stupes of the Serra Tunaji
near the provisional Brazilian frontier, and flows with a great north'
ward curve to the VencjueUn and Brazilian froatiers h and 1* thereafter
known as the Rio Nrc.ro, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon.
There are many large tributaries of these rivers in the unexplored,
regions of south-eastern Colombia, but their names as well as their
courses are still unset tied.
The coast of Colombia laces on the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean
Sea. and ts divided by the Isthmu* of Panama into two completely
separated parts* The Pacific coast- line, omitting minor
«*■* convolutionsr has a length of about 500 itu while that of
the Caribbean is about 700 m. The former has been of slight service
io the development of the country because of the unsettled and
unhealthy character of the coast region, and the high mountain
barriers between its natural ports and the sett lei I parts of the rc-
p*jbLc. There are only two commercial port* on the coast, Tunvooj
snd Buenaventura, though there are several natural harljuur*
which would be of great service were there any demand for thcni,
The rivers Mira. Fatia and San Juan permit the entrance uf small
steamers, as also some of the smaller rivers. The la titer bays on
this coast are Tumaco, Choco, Magdalcna, Obit a, Couui, Puerto
Utria* Solano. Cupica and Octavia — some of them affording ex-
ceptionally safe and well-sheltered harbours. The Caribbean coast
of Colombia has only four ports engaged in international trade —
Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Maria and Rio Hacha, There are
some smaller port* on the coast, but ihcy are open only c>j vessels
of light draft and have no trade worth mention, Ba/ranqikiELa*
the principal port of the republic, is situated on the Magdakna,
and its seaport, or landing-place, is Puerto Colombia at the inner
end of Sa vanilla Bay, where a steel pier 4000 ft- Inng has Urn limit
out to deep water, alongside which ocean-going vessels can receive and
discharge cargo, The bay is slowly filling up, however, and two
other landing -places — Salgar and Savanilla — had to be abandoned
before Puerto Colombia was selected. The pier-head had 24 ft- of
water alongside in too?, but the sdt hroughtdowu by the Magcialena
is turned westward by the current along this const, and may at any
time fill the bay with dangerous shoals. The oldest and best port
on the coast is Cartagena, 05 m, south-west of BorrancjuilU, which
has a well-sheltered harbour protected by islands, and » connected
with the Magdalena at Cahmar by railway. The next Ivst port i*
that of Santa Marta, about 46 m, east -north-east of Barranquilla
(in a straight line}, with which it is connected by 23 m. qf railway
and 50 m. of inland navigation en the Citnaaa de Santa Marta and
eastern outlets of the Magdalena. Santa Marta is situated on a
small, almost landlocked bay, well protected from prevailing,
winds by high land on the north and north-east, affording excellent
anchorage in waters free from shoaling through the deposit of silt -
The depth of the bav ranges from 4* to 19 fathoms. The town
stands at the foot of the sierra Nevada de Santa Marta,^ which
restrict* the area of cultivatable land in its immediate vicinity,
and the enclosing high land a make the climate hot and somewhat
dangerous for foreigners. Since the development of the fruit trade
on the shores of the Caribbean sea and Gulf of Mexico by an im-
portant American company, which own* * large tract of land near
Santa Marta devoted to banana cultivation, and ho* built a railway
50 m. inland principally for the transportation of fruit, the trade
of the port has greatly Increased. The population of this region,
however, ii sparse, and its growth is slow. The fourth port on this
Coast u Rio riacha, an open roadstead, about 03 m, east of Santa
Malta , at the mouth of the small river Ranchcira descending from
703
the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, It has
little trade, an J the undeveloped^ unpopulated stale of the country
behind it affords no promise of immediate growth. There are other
small towns on the coast which are porta fur the small vessels engaged
in the coasting and river trade, but they have no international *rn*
portance because of their inaccessibility to ocean-going steamer*,
or the extremely small volume of their trade. The Gulf of Uraba ii
a large bight or southerly extension of the Gulf of Daricn. Jt
receives the water* of the Alrafo, Bacuba, and a number of small
rivers, and penetrates the land about 50 m., but has very little com-
mercial importance because of the unhealthy and unsettled character
of the neighbouring Country, and because of the bar across its
entrance formed by silt from the Atrato. The Gulf of Morosquillo,
a broad shallow indentation of the coast south of Cartagena, receives
the waters of the Rio Sinu, at the mouth of which is the small port
of Ctspata. Between the mouth of the Magdalena and Santa Marta
is the Ctfcnaga de Santa Marta, a large marshy lagoon separated
from the sea by a narrow sand spit, having its " boca " or outlet
at its eastern side. There is some traffic in small steamers on its
shallow waters j which is increasing with the development of fruit
cultivation on it* eastern, and southern sides. It extends inland
about .^1 m., and marks a deep indentation of the coast Like the
Gulf of Uraba.
Gccfoey. — The gcotnpy of Colombia is very imperfectly know n , add
it is only by a comparison with the neighbouring regions that it la
possible to form any clear idea of the geological struct lire and
succession. The oldest rucks are gneisses and schists, together with
granite and other eruptive rocks. These are overlaid by hand stones,
slates nod limestones, alternating with porphyries and porphy rite*
sometimes in the form of sheets, sometimes as breccias ana con-
glomerates* Cretaceous fossils have been found abundantly In this
scries, but it is still possible that earlier systems may be represented-
Coal- bearing bcd* + possibly of Tertiary age, occur in AnMaquia and
elsewhere- Structurally, the four main chain* of Colombia differ
considerably from one another in ge&logkal constitution. The
low Cordilleras of the Choc-oa, on the west coast, are covered by soft
Quaternary sandstones and marls containing shells of extant species,
such as stifl inhabit the neighbouring ocean. Trie Western Cordillera
is the direct continuation of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador,
and. like the latter, to judge from the scattered observations which
are all that are available, consists chiefly of sandstones and porphy*
ritic rocks of the Cretaceous series. Between the Western arid the
Central Cordilleras is a longitudinal depression along which the river
Cauca finds its way towards the sea. On the western side of this
depression there are red sandstones with coal-seams, powibly
Tertiary; the floor and the eastern side consist ihietly of ancient
crystalline and schistose rocks- The Central Cordillera is the direct
Continuation of the tla&tcrn Cordillera of Ecuador, and is formed
chiefly uf gneiss and oi her c ry tta II i ne roe ks , but sedimentary deposits
of Cretaceous age also occur. Finally the Eastern branch, known
as the Cordillera of Bogota* is composed almost enlirely of Cretaceous
beds thrown inlo a scries of regular anticlinal* and sy nc linals similar
to those of the Jura Mountain!*. The older rocks occasionally appear
in the centre of the nn tic linals. In nil these branches of the Andes
the folds run approximately in the direction ol the chains, but the
Sierra de Santa Marta appears to belong to a totally distinct system
of folding, the direction of the folds being from west to cast, bending
gradually towards the south-cast. Although volcanoes arc by no
means absent, they are much less important than in Ecuador, and
their products take a far smaller share in the formal ion of the Andes.
In Ecuador th* depression between the Eastern and Western Cordil-
leras is almost entirely hi Led with modern lavas and agglomerates;
in Colombia the corresponding Cauca depression is almost tret Iram
such deposits, 1 n the Central Cordillera volcanoes extend to about
S" N,j in the Western Cordillera they barely enter within the
limits or Colombia, in the Cordillera of Bogota they are entirely/
absent- 1
Cti mo te. — Were it not for the high altitudes of western Colombia,
high temperatures would prevail over the whole country, except
where modified by the north-east trade winds and the cold ocean
current which sweeps up the western coast. The elevated plateaus
and summits of the Andes are responsible. howcver T for many
important and profound mod thca linns in climate, not only in respect
to the lower temperature* of the higher elevations, btftalK) in respect
to tbe higher temperatures of the sheltered lowland valleys and the
varying climatic conditions: of the neighbouring plains. The
republic lie* almost wholly within the north torrid zone, a compara-
tively small part of the forested Amazonian plain extending beyond
1 See A, H ei trier and G. Line k, " Bcitrage rur Geologic und
Petrographie dec Columbia nischen Andtn/' Zrits. desitic A, gtal. C«,
voL xL ((AAA), pp. 204-a^o; W# Sievers. " Die Sierra Nevada dt
Santa Marta unci die Sierra de Perija," Ztits. G*i, Etdk. Rtttin,
vol. xxjiL {!&&&)* pp. 1 -150 and p. 447* Pis. L and iii. ; A, Kettner,
" Die Kotdillerc von Bogota," Fttrrm. XI iii. , Erganzyngshtft 104
fl&V?), and " Die And en des wesUiehen Columbiens," Pettrm. Mitt*
(tlQJj] pp, i?o-ij6: W, Rein and A* Stflbet, Jtfistti in S*d Amtrim*
GtrtcgrMM $iudic*i in drr fcpubiik Colombia (Btrhn, 1*03-1099),^
a good geologiioal bibliography will be found in part ii. of ihia
work*
702 C^ T
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POPULATION! COLOMBIA
* th« patm, whose varieties and met are incredibly numerous.
On the eastern plains are to be found the " miriti " (Mauritta
tiexuosa) and the "pinjao" or peach palm (Cuilirlma sPeetosa),
ailed the " pupunha " on the Amazon, whose fruit, fibre, loaf, sap,
pith and wood! meet so large a part of the primary needs of the
aborigines. A noteworthy palm of the eastern Andean slopes is the
" cometo " (Deckena), whose tall, slender trunk starts from the apex
sf a number of aerial roots, rising like a cone 6 to 8 ft. above the
S round. It is one of the mo*t fruitful of palms, its dusters weighing
rom 120 to 20o lb each. Extensive groves of the coco-nut palm
ire to be found on the Caribbean coast, the fruit and fibre of which
figure among the national exports. In north-eastern Colombia,
■mere a part of the year is dry, the " curuas " form the prevailing
species, but farther south, on the slopes of the Cordilleras up to an
elevation of 10,000 ft., the wax-palm, or " palma de ©era " (Ceroxylon
tmduola), is said to be the most numerous. It is a tall slender palm,
ind is the source of the vegetable wax so largely used in some parts
of the country in the manufacture of matches, a single stem some-
rimes yielding 16-20 lb. Another widely distributed species in
central Colombia is known as the " palmita del Azufral in some
localities, and as the " palma real " and " palma dotce " id other*.
Humboldt says it is not the " palma real " of Cuba (Oreodoia r^ia),
but in the Kio Sinu region is the Coats btUyraeea, or the ah palma
rioke," from which palm wine is derived. Another palm of much
economic importance in Colombia is the " tagua ' (Pftytdephai
macrvcar pa). which grows abundantly in the valleys of the Majfidale-na,
Atrato and Patia. and produces a large melon-shaped fruit in u htc!t
ire found the extremely hard, fine-grained nuts or seeds known Id
rbe commercial world as vegetable ivory. The Colombian " Panama
Hat " is made from the fibres extracted from the ribs of the fan-
shaped leaves of still another species of palm, Carluicmca palmata,
•vhUe in the Rio Sinu region the natives make a kind of butter
r* 1 ounteca dc Corozo ") from the Elaeis melanococca. Mart., by
neeKng the nuts in water and then purifying the oil extracted in this
*mj by boiling. This oil was formerly used for illuminating purposes.
""he forests are never made up wholly of palms, but arc composed
•4 tree* of widely different characters, including many common to
■Hs» Amazon region, together with others found in Central American
"Meats, such as mahogany and " vera " or lignum vitae (ZygopkyUum
mfcafwiw). Brazilwood (Caesalpinta erhtnata), valuable for its
•nber and colouring extract, and " roco " (Bixm ortUana), the
urucu " of Brazil which furnishes the anatto of commerce, arc
■idely distributed in central and southern Colombia, and another
•ocies of the first-named genus, the C. coariaria, produces the
Hivi-divi " of the Colombian export trade— a peculiarly shaped
«d-pod, rich in tannic and gallic acids, and used for tanning leather.
sj« rubber-producing Hevea guayanensis is found in abundance on
-« Amazon tributaries, and the Casiiiloa elastica is common to all
~« Caribbean river valleys. Southern Colombia, especially the
jtern slopes of the Andes, produces another valuable tree, the
.mduma caJisaya. from the bark of which quinine is made. These
m but a few of the valuable cabinet woods, dye-woods, &c, which
lo be found in the forests, but have hardly been reached by
tunerce because of their inaccessibility and the unsettled state of
country. The adventurous orchid-hunter, however, has pene-
•cd deeply into their recesses in search of choice varieties, and
ccton of these valuable plants are largely indebted to Colombia
their specimens of Calileya UendeJti, Warscewicsti and Trianae;
*aama aurea, Odontoglossum enspum, Pescatorei, rexiUonum,
alum, caronarium, llarryanum, and blandum; Miltonw vexih
i; Oncidmm eartkagmtnse and Kramerfanum'. MasdevaJliae,
!emdra, Sehomburgkiae and many others. Colombia is also the
C of the American " Alpine rose ' (Befaria), which is to be found
■ ccn 9000 and 11,000 ft. elevation, and grows to a height of
«"u Tree ferns have a remarkable growth in many localities,
■ »tems being used in southern Cundinamarca to make corduroy
The South American bamboo (Bambttsa guadta) has a very
range, and is found nearly up to the limit of perpetual snow.
■ actus is alio widely distributed, and is represented by several
*-nown species. Among the more common fruit-tree?, some of
•■ are exotics, may be mentioned cacao (Thtobroma), orange,
lime, pine-apple, banana, guava (Psidium), breadfruit (Arto-
j, cashew {A nacatdium), alligator pear (Per sea), with the apple,
|iear, and other fruits of the temperate zone on the elevated
■us. Other food and economic plants are coffee, rice, tobacco,
■:ane, cotton, indigo, vanilla, cassava or " yucca," sweet and
(lotatoes, wheat, maize, rye, barley, and vegetables erf both
1I and temperate climates. It is claimed in Colombia that a
* of wild potato found on the paramos is the parent of the
ted potato.
ulation.— The number of the population of Colombia
largely a matter of speculation. A census was taken in
hen the population was 2,951,323. What the vegetative
? has been since then (for there has been no immigration)
■y conjectural, as there are no available returns of births
aths upon which an estimate can be based. Civil war
isrd a large loss of life, and the withdrawal from their
705
homes of a considerable part 0/ the male population, some of them
for military service and a greater number going into concealment
to escape it, and it is certain that the rate of increase has been
small. Some statistical authorities have adopted 1}% as the
rate, but this is loo high for such a period. All things considered,
an annual increase of 1% for the thirty-five years between
1871 and 1006 would seem to be more nearly correct, which would
give a population in the latter year — exclusive of the population
of Panama — of a little over 3,800,000. The Statesman's Year
Book for 1007 estimates it at 4,279,674 in 1905, including about
150,000 wild Indians, while Supan's Die Bevolkcrung der Erde
(1004) places it at 3,917,000 in 1809. Of the total only 10%
is classed as white and 15% as Indian, 40% as mestizos (while
and Indian mixture), and 35% negroes and their mixtures with
the other two races. The large proportion of mestizos, if these
percentages are correct, is significant because it implies a per-
sistence of type that may largely determine the character of
Colombia's future population, unless the more slowly increasing
while clement can be reinforced by immigration.
The white contingent in the population of Colombia is chiefly
composed of the descendants of the Spanish colonists who settled
there during the three centuries following its discovery and
conquest. Mining enterprises and climate drew them into the
highlands of the interior, and there they have remained down
to the present day, their only settlements on the hot, unhealthy
coast being the few ports necessary for commercial and political
intercourse with the mother country. The isolation of these
distant inland settlements has served to preserve the language,
manners and physical characteristics of these early colonists
with less variation than in any other Spanish-American state.
They form an intelligent, high-spirited class of people, with all
the defects and virtues of their ancestry. Their isolation has
made them ignorant to some extent of the world's progress,
while a supersensitive patriotism blinds them to the discredit
and disorganization which political strife and misrule have
brought upon them. A very small proportion of the white clement
consists of foreigners engaged in commercial and industrial
pursuits, but they very rarely become permanently identified
with the fortunes of the country. The native whiles form the
governing class, and enjoy most of the powers and privileges of
political office.
Of the original inhabitants there remain only a few scattered
tribes in the forests, who refuse to submit to civilized require-
ments, and a much larger number who live in organized com-
munities and have adopted the language, customs and habits
of the dominant race. Their total number is estimated at 15%
of the population, or nearly 600,000, including the 120,000
to 150,000 credited to the uncivilized tribes. Many of the
civilized Indian communities have not become wholly Hispani-
cized and still retain their own dialects and customs, their attitude
being that of a conquered race submitting to the customs and
demands of a social organization of which they form no part.
According to Uricoechca there are at least twenty-seven native
languages spoken in the western part of Colombia, fourteen in
Tolima, thirteen in the region of the Caquetu, twelve in Panama,
Bolivar and Magdalena, ten in Bogota and Cundinamarca,
and thirty-four in the region of the Mela, while twelve had died
out during the preceding century. The tribes of the Caribbean
seaboard, from Chiriqui to Goajira, are generally attached to the
great Carib stock; those of the eastern plains show affinities
with the neighbouring Brazilian races; those of the elevated
Tuquerres district are of the Peruvian type; and the tribes of
Antioquia, Cauca, Popayan and Neiva preserve characteristics
more akin to those of the Aztecs than to any other race. At
the time of the Spanish Conquest the most important of these
tribes was the Muyscas or Chibchas, who inhabited the table-
lands of Bogota and Tunja, and had attained a considerable
degree of civilization. They lived in settled communities,
cultivated the soil to some extent, and ascribed their progress
Toward civilization to a legendary cause remarkably similar to
those of the Aztecs of Mexico and the lncas of Peru. They are
represented by some tribes living on the hcad-wax«**k\2wt W<v»^
of :
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industry! COLOMBIA 707
TO de Cuesta (Santander) 12,000 of 383111.111 1906, of which 226 were built to connect with stcwn-
^^(ASioqub) :::::: !*:S5 ^transportation^
Santa Rosa de Osos (Antioquia) .... 11,000 neighbouring localities, and 108 to furnish other outlets for
Sonson » .... 15,000 productive regions. There is no system outlined in the location
|an Ios*deC6cuU (Santander) .... 13.000 f these detached lines, though in 1005-1008 President Reyes
Socorro ((San) ', io 000 planned to connect them in such a way as to form an extensive
Veld „ ........ 15^000 system radiating from the national capital Tramway lines
were in operation in Bogota, Barranquilla and Cartagena in 1907.
Among the smaller towns which deserve mention are Ambalcma The telegraph and postal services arc comparatively poor,
on the upper Magdalcna, celebrated for its tobacco and cigars; owing to the difficulty of maintaining lines and carrying mails
Buenaventura (q.v.) ; Chaparral (0000), a market town of Toliraa through a rugged and uninhabited tropical country. The total
in the valley of the Saldafta, with coal, iron and petroleum in length of telegraph lines in 1903 was 6470 m., the only cable
its vicinity; Honda (6000), an important commercial centre at connexion being at Buenaventura, on the Pacific coast. All
the head of navigation on the lower Magdalcna; Girardot, a the principal Caribbean ports and department capitals are
railway centre on the upper Magdalcna; and Quibd6, a small connected with Bogota, but interruptions arc frequent because
river town at the head of navigation on the Atrato. of the difficulty of maintaining lines through so wild a country.
Communications. — The railway problem in Colombia is one There are only five ports, Buenaventura, Barranquilla,Carta-
of peculiar difficulty. The larger part of the inhabited and gena, Santa Marta and Rio Hacha, which are engaged in foreign
productive districts of the republic is situated in the mountainous commerce, though Tumaco and Villamazar are favourably
departments of the interior, and is separated from the coast by situated for carrying on a small trade with Ecuador and Vcn-
low, swampy, malarial plains, and by very difficult mountain ezucla. Colombia has no part in the carrying trade, however,
chains. These centres of production are also separated from her merchants marine in 1905 consisting of only one steamer
each other by high ridges and deep valleys, making it extremely of 457 tons and five sailing vessels of 1385 tons. Aside from these,
difficult to connect them by a single transportation route. The small steamers are employed on some of the small rivers with
One common outlet for these districts is the Magdalcna river, barges, called "bongocs," to bring down produce and carry back
whose navigable channel penetrates directly into the heart of merchandise to the inland trading centres. The coasting trade
the country. From Bogota the Spaniards constructed two is insignificant, and does not support a regular service of even
partially-paved highways, one leading down to the Magdalcna the smallest boats. The foreign carrying trade is entirely in the
la the vicinity of Honda, while the other passed down into the hands of foreigners, in which the Germans take the lead, with
•pper valley of the same river in a south-westerly direction, over the British a close second. The Caribbean ports are in frequent
jnrich communication was maintained with Popayan and other communication with those of Europe and the United States,
settlements of southern Colombia and Ecuador. This highway . _ , ...
Was known as the camino real Political independence and ^^^^^^T^r^rTd ^to^I^rs^U^^aiBr^^^nd
misrule led to the abandonment of these roads, and they are now ot ^ r cereals arc cultivated on the elevated plateaus, with the fruits
Utile better than the bridle-paths which are usually the only and vegetables of the temperate zone, and the European in Bogota
■leans of communication between the scattered communities is able to supply his table very much as he would do at hoine. The
Of the Cordilleras. In some of the more thickly settled and Pj**"! and aP* °u low " c ^ vat, . on «re used for the cultivation
. TT, . . 7", « . JL ,.., . T v ■ ji .v of coffee and other sub-trofHcal products, the former being produced
prosperous districts of the Eastern Cordillera these bndlc paths in ^ly all the departments at elevations ranging from 3500 to
Rave been so much improved that they may be considered 6500 ft. This industry has been greatly prejudiced by civil wars,
reasonably good mountain roads, the traffic over them being which not only destroyed the plantations and interrupted trana-
tfcat of pack animals and not of wheeled vehicles. Navigation W«™n. but d. pnved them of f the l ^P n **™™£?*°
»■ , »« 1 1 11 li 1. » #.i_ %€• • • s tninr maintenance and development. It is estimated that the
on the lower Magdalcna closely resembles that of the Mississippi, rrrtlutfarfiry >* toggle of 1899-1003 destroyed 10 % of the able-
ihe same type of light-draft, flat-bottomed steamboat being used, bodied agi i. uli uru I population of the Santa Marta district, and this
and similar obstacles and dangers to navigation being en- estimate, if iruc. Will fioW [good for all the inhabited districts of the
muntPTwl Thw i« il«n ih*» «nm* liihilitv tn rhirnrp ii« rhinnrl Hastcrn. Cordillera. The best coffee is produced in the department of
countered. 1 here is also the same liability to change is channel, Cimd j MiIUIta in the almost inaccessible districts of Fusagasaga
aa shown in the case of Mompox, once an important and pros- afld u Falma. Tolinla coffee is also considered to be exceptionally
perous town of the lower plain situated on the main channel, gop* The department of Santander, however, is the largest pro-
OOW a decaying, unimportant place on a shallow branch 20 m. ductr, and much of its output in the past has been placed upon the
tut of the main river. Small steamers also navigate the lower ™ *« •■ ^^IV^SI to r5J? r^CiSS?^?^^
#*_ , « T .. . , .. .. , ° . the Venezuelan port or that name. t. once cultivation in the Ninta
Qavca and Ncchi rivers, and a Umitcd service is maintained on Marta rcKioil is receiving much attention on actount of its proximity
the upper Cauca. to the coast.
With three exceptions all the railway lines of the country The tropical productions of the lower plains include, among
tad to the Magdalena, and are dependent upon its steamship ° ^^
service for transportation to and from the coast. In i.)o6 t f<>f hofW coemption, a * va n,s, cassava and arracacha. Potatoes
according to an official statement, these lines were: (t) The are widely cultivated in the temperate and sub-tropical regions,
Barranquilla and Savanilla (Puerto Colombia), 17 J m. in length: and sweet potatoes in the sub-tropical and tropical. Athough it is
(a) the Cartagena and Calamar. 65 m., (0 the La Dorada & f " u " d growing wil.l. cacao is cultivated to 1 » hm "^ «\f n «- »"iJj*
\ . , j .v 11 j -j"\ 1 / \ .u w«*luct is insufficient for home consumption. Lotton is cultivated
Alincaplumas (around the Honda rapids). 20} m., (4) the ^jyon a snM H scale, although there are large areas suitable for the
Colombian National, from Girardot to Facatativa, 80 m.. of pi.int The staple product is short, but experiments haw been
which 48} m. were completed in 1006; (s) the Girardot to initiated in the Santa Marta region to improve it. Sugarcane is
Eepinal. 13J m.,part of a projected line running south-west from another plant admirably adapted «> <>* C^™" ~S3t^2
r^iL^W. tA\ /u <;,K,n, ,, iu. a „ 4^^ p nn -..« .^ f,,.,,,,^^ « '» cultivated to so limited an extent that the sugar produced is
Girardot; (6) the Sabana railway, from Bogota to Facatativa, ^^ puftcicnt ior nomr consumption. Both cultivation and
«S "*•; (7) the Northern, from Bogota to Zipaquira, 31 m., manufacture have been carried on in the old time way. by the
(8) Ihe Southern, from Bogota to Sibale. 18 m., and (9) the rudest of methods, and the principal product is a coarse brown sugar.
Puerto Bcrrio & Medcllin, about 78 m. long, of which 36 are "lied pandm, universally used by the poorer clawc* as an article of
. AMn u»^i fi— «k rM i:«— ur k;,i, j„ „«, Mn ^, . «:,i. ,u m food and for making a popular beverage. Antiquated refining
completed. The three lines which do not connect with the ^^^^ aro aKo ^ in l ^ manufacture of an inferior white
Magdalena are* (1) the Cucuta and Villamazar. 43J m., the su R ar. but the quantity produced i»nmall, and it is unable to compete
'atter being a port on the Zulia river near the Venezuelan with beet-sugar from Germany A considerable part of the sugar*
rontier; (2) the Santa Marta railway, running inland from that cane produced is likewise devoted to the manufacture r of eAicAo
„«* ii.m.,,,1, tii* Knn«, nnv 4., mn » j^t^rfT «.;«u . , i „» ,'„ (rum), the consumption of which is common among the Indians
•ort through the banana-producing districts, with 41 J m. in am| ^.^^ of t £ AnHcan ^^^
•peraUon in 1907; and (3) the Buenaventura and Call, 23 m. Kice is grown to a very limited extent, though it is a common
a operation inland from the former. This gives a total extension article of diet and the partially Mrtwwit^A. Vs«WA% -w* issvwi»«i
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GOVERNMENT]
COLOMBIA
709
by the municipal council of the territorial capital. As the
constituent assembly which amended the constitution, according
to the president's wishes in 1905, was to continue in office until
1008 and to provide laws for the regulation of elections and other
public affairs, it appeared that the president would permit no
expression of popular dissent to interfere with his purpose to
establish a dictatorial regime in Colombia similar to the one
in Mexico.
The executive power is vested in a president chosen by Con-
gress for a period of four years. The first presidential period,
. dating from the 1st of January 1905, was for ten years, and no
. restriction was placed upon the choice of President Rafael Reyes
- to succeed himself. The constituent assembly gave the prcsi-
* dent exceptional powers to deal with all administrative matters.
^He is assisted by a cabinet of six ministers, interior, foreign
.. Affairs, finance, war, public instruction and public works, who
- are chosen and may be removed by himself. The office of vice-
»■ president is abolished, and the president is authorized to choose
^ * temporary substitute from his cabinet, and in case of his death
7-jf resignation his successor is chosen by the cabinet or the
•overnor of a department who happens to be nearest Bogota at
ffte time. The president is authorized to appoint the governors
*" I departments, the intendants of territories, the judges of the
.opreme and superior courts, and the diplomatic representatives
•i the republic. I lis salary, as fixed by the 1905 budget, is
-tfoo a year, and his cabinet ministers receive £1200 each.
_ lie council of state is abolished and the senate is charged with
~ .c duty of confirming executive appointments.
The judicial branch of the government, like the others, has
■en in great measure reorganized. It consists of a supreme
' irt of seven members at Bogota, and a superior court in each
iidal district. There are various inferior courts also, includ-
4 magistrates or jueces oV pas, but their organization and
notions are loosely defined and not generally understood
'side the republic. The supreme court has appellate juris-
Jon in judicial matters, and original jurisdiction in impeach-
ut trials and in matters involving constitutional interpretation.
•ier the constitution of 18S6 the judges of the higher courts
-e appointed for life, but the reforms of 1905 changed their
ire to five years for the supreme court and four years for the
crfor courts, the judges being eligible for re-appointment.
he departments, which are administered by governors reprc-
•»ng the national executive, are permitted to exercise
icted legislative functions relating to purely local affairs.
licipal councils are also to be found in the larger towns. The
rnor is assisted by a departmental council consisting of his
laries and the president of the Corte de Cucntas, which
.s the political administration of the department under the
t control of the president at Bogota.
c strength of the army is determined annually by congress,
every able-bodied citizen is nominally liable to military
c. Its peace footing in 1808 was 1000 men. After the war
■30-1903 its strength was successively reduced to 10,000
,000, a part of this force being employed in the useful
ation of making and repairing public roads. The navy
•6 consisted of only three small cruisers on the Caribbean
and two cruisers, two gunboats, one troopship and two
launches on the Pacific. There was also one small gun-
ti the Magdalena.
arte*.— Although Bogota was reputed to be an educational
in colonial times, so slight an influence did this exert upon
intry that Colombia ended the 19th century with no effective
school system, very few schools and colleges, and fully 90 %
racy in her population. This is due in great measure to the
urn of political disorder, but there are other causes as well,
hile, the Indifference of the ruling class to the welfare of the
n people is a primary cause of their ignorance and poverty,
•1 must be added the apathy, if not opposition, of the Church.
such conditions primary schools in the villages and rural
. were practically unknown, and the parish priest was the
•icated person in the community. Nominally there was a
ystem under the supervision of the national and departmental
icnts, but its activities were limited to the larger towns,
r.ere were public and private schools of all grades. There were
lies in Bogota and Medellin, the former having faculties
of letters and philosophy, jurisprudence and political science,
medicine and natural sciences, and mathematics and engineering,
with an attendance of 1 200 to 1500 students. The war of 1899-1901
so completely disorganized this institution that only one faculty,
medicine and natural sciences, was open in 1907. There were also
a number of private schools in the larger towns, usually maintained
by religious organizations. The reform programme of President
Reyes included a complete reorganization of public instruction, to
which it is p r o po sed to add normal schools for the training of teachers,
and agricultural and technical schools for the better development
of the country's material resources. The supreme direction of this
branch of the public service is entrusted to the minister of public
instruction, ana state aid is to be extended to the secondary, as well
as to the normal, technical and professional schools. The secondary
schools receiving public aid, however, have been placed in charge of
religious corporations of the Roman Catholic Church. The ex-
penditure on account of public instruction, which includes schools of
all grades and descriptions, Is unavoidably small, the appropriation
for the biennium 1905-1906 being only £167,583. The school and
college attendance for 1906, according to the president's review of
that year, aggregated 218,941, of whom 50,691 were in Antioquia,
where the whites are more numerous than in any other department;
4916 in Atlantico, which includes the city of Barranquilla, and in
which the negro element preponderates; and only 12,703 in the
federal district and city of Bogota where the mestizo element is
numerous. Although primary instruction is gratuitous it is not
compulsory, and these figures clearly demonstrate that school
privileges have not been extended much beyond the larger towns.
The total attendance, however, compares well with that of 1897,
which was 143.096, although it shows that only 5 % of the population,
approximately, is receiving instruction.
Religion. — The religious profession of the Colombian people is
Roman Catholic, and is recognized as such by the constitution,
but the exercise is permitted of any other form of worship which b
not contrary to Christian morals or to the law. There is one Protes-
tant church in Bogota, but the number of non-Catholics is small and
composed of foreign residents. There has been a long struggle
between liberals and churchmen in Colombia, and at one time the
latter completely lost their political influence over the government,
but the common people remained loyal to the Church, and the upper
classes found it impossible to sever the ties which bound them to it.
The constitution of 1861 disestablished the Church, confiscated a
large part of its property, and disfranchised the clergy, but in 1886
political rights were restored to the latter and the Roman Catholic
religion was declared to be the faith of the nation. The rulers of the
Church have learned by experience, however, that they can succeed
best by avoiding partisan conflicts, and the archbishop of Bogota
gave effect to this in 1874 hv issuing an edict instructing priests
not to interfere in politics. The Church influence with all classes fa
practically supreme and unquestioned, and it still exercises complete
control in matters of education. The Colombian hierarchy consists
of an archbishop, residing at Bogota, 10 bishops. 8 vicars-general,
and 2170 priests. There were also in 1905 about 750 members of 10
monastic and religious orders. There were 270 churches and 3 is
chapels in the republic Each diocese has its own seminary for the
training of priests.
Finance. — In financial matters Colombia is known abroad chiefly
through repeated defaults in meeting her bonded indebtedness,
and through the extraordinary depreciation of her paper currency.
The public revenues arc derived from import duties on foreign
merchandise, from export duties on national produce, from internal
taxes and royalties on liquors, cigarettes and tottacco, matches,
hides and salt, from rentals of state emerald mines and pearl fisheries,
from stamped paper, from port due* and from postal and telegraph
charges. The receipts and expenditure are estimated for biennial
periods, but it has not been customary to publish detailed results.
Civil wars have of course been a serious obstacle, but it was an-
nounced by lYesident Reyes in 1007 that the revenues were incrcas*
ing. For the two years 1905 and 1906 the revenues were estimated
to produce (at 55 to the £1 sterling) £4.203,823, the expenditures
being fixed at the same amount. The expenditures, however, did
not include a charge of £424,000, chiefly due on account of war claims
and requisitions. During the first year of this period the actual
receipts, according to the council of the corporation of foreign
bondholders, were f9.i49.5?l gold (£1.829,918) and the payments
$7.<>33.3> 7 gold (£1,406.663). It was expected by the government
that the 1006 revenues would largely exceed 1905, but the expecta-
tion was not fully realized, chiefly, it may be assumed, because of the
inability of an impoverished people to meet an increase in taxation.
An instance of this occurred in the promising export of live cattle to
Cuba and Panama, which was completely suppressed in 1906 because
of a new export tax of $3 gold per head. Of the expenditures about
one-fourth is on account of the war department.
The foreign debt, according to the 1896 arrangement with the
bondholders which was renewed in 1905. is £2,700.000, together
with unpaid interest since 1896 amounting to £351,000 more.
Under the 1905 arrangement the government undertook to pay the
first coupons at 2}%, and succeeding ones at 3%, pledging 1 2 to
15% of the customs receipts as security- TWt €k*.\s*fb*!«!^««wi
made according, Xo actenueai, woA, \x ^ws»\*e&ss«&. v* v#n "»=*> *■*
708
COLOMBIA
Adapted to its production. Tobacco was cultivated in New Granada I Chiqirnn"
ami Venezuela in colonial times, when its sale was a royal monopoly | in -
and its cultivation was restricted to specified localities. T 1
Colombian product is best known through the Ambalcma. r
and I'almiru tobacco, especially the Ambalcma H
considered by some to be hardly inferior to th--
plant is cultivated in other places nn<! -
port ant article of cx|X>rt wen* it « ■
cultivation. Banana culii
comparatively mocNn-
recorded expir: '
efforts of an At
lands in the vii u..
and taught the r..'
A railway was biiiit
Mart.i, and is being •
plantations arc o|kiu<!.
export returns, which w-
bunches for 1906. the an-.i
in the last-mentioned >■• n
arraracha are chielly culiiv.'-
with other fruits and vegct.i' '
agriculturalists near the lar^c t !
The pastoral industry' date> li
services of a considerable numl >. .
ini]>ortance is not great. The o[-
of the north support large herd* of ■ ..
have been established on the Met.i .-. ■
to a limited extent, are cx|x>rtcd to t ■
markets but the chief produce from ,- .. • .
department of Santandcr devotes cm: i--
breeding. Goats are largely produced I-t :.
localities, as in Cauca, sheep are raided t-ir »•,■ ir
common to the whole country, and son it- aliii :■
to the breeding of mules.
Minerals.— The mineral resources of Cnl"iu!»a .
believed to be the princi|>al source of her wealth. .«ri . •
the precious metals extracted from her mines «■•:..- 1
invasion. The estimate aggregate for three and .1 I ..:'
certainly large, but the exact amount will prokiblv ne\.
because the returns in colonial times were as defect;.-
di-orderly indc(irndenrc have been. Humbuldt
estimated the total output down to 1845 at {i.-
Professor Soctbeer sulwquently increased to £•
Liter Colombian authority, Vicente Restrcpo, who
anil silver mining in Colombia haw been generally a.-
elusive and trustworthy, after a careful sifting (if tie
which these two widely diverse conclusions wen*
examination of records not seen by lhimlmldt and v -
the conclusion that the region comprised within li
republic, including Panama, had produced down to i>
of £1:7,800,000 in gold and £6,600,000 in silver. '1 '
distributes as follows: —
1 6th century /■
17th „
I8th „
19th ., :
According to his computations the eight Colombia -
omitting Panama, had produced during this pen -
silver: —
Antioquia £"
('aura \j
Tul inn I-
Santandcr
Holivnr ........ 1
Cundinamarca .......
Magdalcna
lioyaca
£"5.<
Three-fourths of the gold production, he estimates, w..
from alluvial deposit*. Large as thc>c aggregates are. 1
seen that the annual production was comjmrativclv mi
highest average, that for the I'jih century. Uing lc*s than »
a year. Toward the end of the 19th century, afiera dn
production due to the abolition of da very aiid to civil w ■•
creased interest was shown abroad in Colombian mining ojf ■
Mcdellin. the capital of Anti«K]iiui. i» provided with an tier*
refining establishment, several assaying lal»>ratorics, and a
The department of Cauca is considered to 1k« the richest »•»
republic in mineral deposit s, but it is le««s conveniently wi««
for carrying on mining orrtrationv Besides this, the cxn*
unhealthmcks of its most productive regions the Chocoand •
bacoas districts on the Pacific dope, has Iteen a serious obstnr >
foreign enterprise. Tolima U al-»o considered to lie rich in g«»1«'
(especially) silver deno.-its Kasi of the Magdalena the produc*
of these two metals has Urn cornfiarativelv small. Incompcns '
the famous emerald mines of Mu/o and C usruez are situated n:
extremely muuntuinmis region north of Bogota and near the torn; • ^
HBTORY)
COLOMBIA
7"
in the hands of General Jose" HOario Lopes, a member of the
democratic party, and Under him various changes were effected
of a liberal tendency. In January 185 a slavery was entirety
abolished. The nest president was Jose Maria Obamlo, but his
term of office had to be completed by vice-presidents Obaldia
and Mallarino.
In 1853 an important alteration of the constitution took place,
by which the right was granted to every province to declare
itself independent, and to enter into merely federal connexion
with the central republic, which was now known as the Granadine
Confederation. In 1856 and 1857 Antioquia and Panama took
advantage of the permission. The Conservative parly carried
their candidate in 1857, Mariano Ospino, a lawyer by profession;
but an insurrection broke out in 1859, which was fostered by the
rx-president Mosquera, and finally took the form of a regular
'-ivil wsr. Bogota was captured by the democrats In July 1H01 ,
•nd Mosquera assumed the chief power. A congress st llogota
•ctablished a republic, with the name of the United Sutes
-f Colombia, adopted a new federal constitution, and made
- totquera dictator. Meanwhile the opposite party was victorious
■ the west; and their leader, Julio Arboleda, foimcd an alliance
ith Don Garcia Moreno, the president of Kcuador He was
-Hsinated, however, in i86a, and his successor, Ixxmardo
ml, came to terms with Mosquera at Cali. The dictatorship
• resigned into the hands of a convention ( February 186.1)
Kio Negro, in Antioquia; a provisional government was
minted, a constitution was drawn up, and Mosquera the lid
_ uient till 1864. An unsuccessful attempt was alto made to
re the union between the tlu-cc republics of the former
■ition. The presidency of Manuel M urillo Toro ( 1 864- J 866J
4i>turbed by various riU-llions, and even Mosquera, who
Lame to the helm, found nutters in su/.h a disAtrganii' d
ion that he offered to retire. On the refusal of his
ition, he entered into a struggle with the majority jn the
:s. and ultimately resorted to an adjournment abd the
■ iiutionaJ arrest of 68 of the senators and representatives.
decree of impeachment pubhsricd by the congress he
' by a notice of CussolalioL. and a dc.Iarulioij of war; but
found that the real power was with his opponents, »l*o
..is arrest., and condematd him fcn»l to t*o years' 11a-
nt, but aftcrwuds by commutation to two > ears' exile.
"'dency of San'.os Gutierrez dbC^-ib^i was disturbed
actions in difTerect part* of the repubik, the niost
.t of which mas thai ic }'anama, where the most absolute
■"ition prevailed- Uuciex his successor, GewraJ JL
Liberal candidate elected in opposition to (jetier**
: treaty was finally concluded wi'ai the I'mtcd buu.t
on with ax. interoceanit canal a bans wasesuuhsLee a 1 .
.il cducationu! refurxm instituted. Manuei Murilio 'I oro
1) and Santiago J'crcz ' :*:4-il7C saw tiit county
acquihug coxis'.r.u:iunal equiburium. and turi*u»g
» to the development of it* maiciuesi resources
ion for tni- prmaunLial lenx ibrb-zbri. resuiiec u
Iquiles Pam. vhc wai succreaec u. April :t:fc iu
an Trujilic. Kn aanuuistra'.iui. wu mari.ee u> a
1 to p!au :ht financial pu&iuuL of Hie g'j\eriiii».eii*
atisfaciury iooling. cue tin jw.enia. iiiuemcjuen
'•ally recu '_•--_ auriat* nn rui: i: r\pii :Wk. beno'
■* accede:: il. tat presiienr: L'uruif ha ;«n. o'
,; . .inary distarbir.ee* ormrret u. tut province: o'
^.'iloquia. but wsr*. supprsssec wi'j. w gr«* culJ.-
* e! on wai nuri*. it. sbSt tor a setiicmcir. o. f tin
"•'tic witi. Cosu 1j=l. anc jx ju:; o: luav year tut
rncs authurizec ;:*'. iormauur. 0' l uivi squoxiiui.
»".is no* sc*. aiuo: 11. favour o - ' t toaiecWiaUoi. o:
jbli'rsof CoiomuL.. Ecuador ax:c \«ie.:uck 01 lu*.
riginal condiLiuiu causing alter fir. expui^u: o
• i'y. and z. rcso!ui;oz wai passec u? tir. '.harcjc:
^hat effec*. Thi crposiuc; s::u«:. vy Xz&uw-ml.
> thii proieci prevcniec an^ ucnr.u- resui" liou
In Apri' 18a: beiio* ^r^umLi. J Laidvu ^cc^uk
Eusebio Otakira was nominated to exert isc the t'Sf*uUve [hiua
for the unes|Mre«l |aniuui ut the Iciui. In ititi.t itu- ili>puu a 111
connexkitt with I he huuii«Uiy bulMuit tnUuuliu and \n«n.ui.U
was submitli'd by the t*u gtivt'iiiiiuiil* lu ihts ailiUtaliuii w\
Al|»hoiUKi \11 , kiug itl N|mIii, <iiiil a % ttiiiiiii»»itm ul hw mi-iuWia
was appointed to iuvealiKdlu llu- uu-iiu 0! llw u»\n\ liui Liium
The ilctuiuu in this depute hu luiatl.v Mlvi 11 b> tin: i|iitxu u & ut
of Spain uu tlie irtthol Mduh ihtji. In Apnl ih6« Si nm Kal.iwl
NuAes was agtiu pirn Uuiied pitdiiKul ul the i.|iikl.li> m hu
alMrliee abroad. IVihIiiim his iilunt llu: ailiuiiii.tiifiliiin **u
left in the haiulsul ttcueiul t 'ami mi hiiiiimi 4111I iiitni.il Mis*:u
l'ayan, Tlie l.ilMiial |Mily lia«i Ihi.ii iiialiuniiiii.il in I he u
election of Nunt-a, ami IimiLiiI lm « |mlii y lu iiiiiluuiiiit miiIi
ihrir views and pol11u.il uiiivuUimis I'lraidiul Nun. ^ bad nu
sonnrr rclunird tu I'uloiiihia than llu: 1.iIh.m1. ili»uviuil lli.il
hi* |>olitii ul upiiiious bad iltdiHjrd ,11111 hail in 1111111 ahiHuJ>
Conseivaiive. Distuuii-ul at this niiiiliiiuii ut uM.iiia mhui
spread. Niife-A tloiii mulivisof ill lu-allh iliil in>l i«|x ul> .i.^iimv
the presidriiliul olluc, but fimu Ills lu jo.il jh.u 1 ail.i^ma lu'
prae Id ally dirt-i Inllhu govt 1 una ul ul llu: n p«ihlu . 'llu l.iini.ila
HOW begun to foment a txiU* ut uvululhfii4ii> imWiiiiLjil.-i. a in I
thest; ltd in iH4$ to a ilvll wai ml nullum uvu I hi. ikpuiiiiit ul..
of lioyara, (.'uiiililjamaiia, Mi>K>l>iliiia ami l'aji.iina. Iiluu^I
Kryis and Cicueiiil Vth« hoi the iwo piimi^..! I>.i>I>ij ul 1I1.
rcvoll. In or'lti loprolnl iIm pj^a)it' ul llu. lulln *u*m ii»
Jalhmusof 1'aiiaiiia iluiing lluae <Iibl0jlj4.il u,,u.a ■!» lailuj.iiilj ul
L'llilt'd blatiS MS! Hit* toilf IdiitJol a I J'aliJUia tin-1 I iJwjj, In
acioidame wilh Ihe Urius ol llu lijoituiuu uijiln \.la«l» iI.l
railway hud been toJislnu l««l AH>i u uujjjUi ol .UKala I lie
b-'Sders of iIm* fi.'voll biijn itiiimi in Augu^-I jh">., uij<J 011 Hit
5 ill of S»|*U/nUi t'AUj*m% [/t^c v,** oUiu.iUy pimlanjuil
Numz, who ba«J lAtaiiwvluLi. ussuiin.4 llu. |/jti>id> uiui ilulua,
Itow l/rouglil about a I'kjviikmiI in l^youj *A y Iu.Ij A* I of
(xrtialiluiiori for 0/l>/inbj4, ai>d a iu.# law \*j ll.^l tllnl na*
hnn\ly a|i}^rovi.«J ttiA pi'/ioui^ud 00 41b Auyu.-i it--/* I'mIh
the U-rius of litis a' I (ii« U*\<iA b/s.Uiu ol k*'«» '•'••■^»'' l<'J
Colombia wus aW.iJj'J, «l^ tt»iUs U«oh..i.k •!• j/. iin.-.i.i. il*
gOViTl.viS of tbi.M: Jj'yUli'dl <iir..ioiid l*..t*¥ iii/.^/n.O •'. \* 9 U.i
pn-a^d* ut of il^. itpwo!.' \:*.*\\ 'iii«uiifin i:i h-.\ j :•#< «.i li ¥,u\* 1 1 ,%.
assetnbly tl«.«.Ud 0/ il**. iaoj/I^. 'JU. j»j'joo. 1 ajsi.ai*.. . :. ••#!!
SblUl^ Of the ^IjiiU fci»d Iia Jiouai. ol Ki^l».yt..'dl wi.^ JJ.i
wjcnate is composed of i*»i.i/ jjviu ujnumia *:!< • u c' Ioj ->a
yuus, Of»c -third n l*r»i.g <»n/ Iao /i.,ib, li»*»-v ol v/l.</ii< «i*
liouiiualcd by ia<:L of ihi i»>ui 'iii/aii.uniii^ 'J 1.1 Jf<«u.^ i/l
KepfeM-uUUves couipri^s intiu\sni ek« i^J to« 1<j m < />.■■■ I//
uniweisai sutliage, ti*'.L 1*1.1 lu«« o' lvru^iu/ o <.vi.i'''-.< <•> / >n.'!
leluiiiiiig oue UK-uibcr lw 1.^11/ ^c,<^>c nii»uu.Ui.'. ' '.i.^n.. u
Coiivebcs. ftfcry Imo y.uis. 'J Ju i/n o.dt uu^.' l« j u> o> vILm «».«!. 1
tue utn> a*.! was t**-d at i-i* >i-»i- 10 p.^»-» of n.i u.<* ymi^
2vi!iv r i/ p(<-ku,tiii^ 'J 1*1. juG.' 1.1,1/ «kM^ iiiui^tfiiU.1, »i<^! U.ai
b> J»r> »iit i.how«.c ior «.»"iiiiii*u. otli o'.i.i. l^pi-'ai pL.u,-,jiuii ,,'
Was Ic-t-slauiuiiCC' ii:.'J '.ia. pi'.M. *ah IUmCl JL^^yi.^w 1</|
Uiu'.Uf pUUioUCC 'J 1j< ulli,i.i.|j:A<J U*i«i» 4I1 .l/IIi . i*l.'.' .fcJi.iiiL.i.t' ,'j|i
liii'.iieric ly.ia'.iij^ *«c JjIvji.-oiUC' i*i« ^iOU. vo 10V. 'u < r.u.>
o! HiulO'.-r te M -. Oiii/ pul.i.'.itV'Jti b/ iV ^irtli Ui^sf l j'ii.U.' ii" ^
seuu:iiC<. M'iu>.i, ii. pit»'.Lj'.i »ai iLdua'. -.o 1*i-i...i'j o' u..«.'
lenii SMiu'^f «ajC 1il»«.-; »>«.n i^iu.'.r.^ ull>.Jt<x. «,..«» i.*i ».«
baC IiC pOM'.'f Ic l-.AImi.. i.U'J' l«v I » :.-j/v#J< >I«#Uk/ a.^>'.uvJU W
Autr Iul pwiiui.fc.^Lvi o! iiu~ u« ■* /•• ' o ( '/^juU ui^/'
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COLOMBIER— COLOMBO
7«3
1808; (15) an extradition treaty with Peru, signed on the 6th
of August 1898; (16) a treaty of peace, friendship and defensive
alliance with Venezuela, signed on the 21st of November
1896, and on the tame date a treaty regulating the frontier
commerce. (G. E.)
AUTHOJUTfFS- — t E^ Altera . A History of South America, 1854-
'1004 (New York. 1905); J. J. BorJi. Compendia de ki liana de
Colombia (ttugota. 1890} ; Salvadur Kulibn Camatbo, NoUii de
wiajt (Bogoia. 1890). and Eur hoi varias (Bogota, i&pt): Or Alfred
He^tFwfj Reiien in dm totombiaaiscken Anden (Leipzig. 1&88);
Angel Um«, Compendia de aeo^tajui de la Republic* do- Columbia
(Medetlin, 12*94 J; Alljcrt Millican. Tun-els and Adventures of an
Onkid Hunter ^London, 1*91); j r M. Cordovei Maura, fa-mints-
\t£*£U2.i Sanio-fi y. Bitgoid (Bogoti. 1899), Neurit and Laird (Bureau
oC Navigation J, Telegraphic Determination of Longitudes in Mexico*
Central America, the West Indies, and an ike Worth Coast oj South
' Ametita (Washing I on. J891): K. Nunc* and H. Jalhay. La JH-
— \pmbtique de Colombia, %n>£r*iphie< histoirt. &c (Uru.vcUe*, 1 803):
. J + M. Q. Otero. lit aorta Pattia (LWola\ 1891 J; L inmate Patau,
La Republics de Colombia 0*O.J^ **- ^* sn ^ r - Pern, /Jtfaf
itoerajuo t htudriia de la Rrpubitea de Colombia (1893); R. S.
n. Fcreira. Lei j-iati Unit de Colombia (Pari*. i88j): Felipe Pltct.
.- \Ceoeraf\a general, fiiica y politico, de lot E^iadot Unideu de Colombia
(Begat J, lfc6j) : F. Lof;uric Petrie, The Rf public vf Colombia (London*
" IS); Elisce Rectus, Ceogra/ia de Colombia (Bogota. 1893): W.
KeiMand A. Stubcl, Reisen in Sudamerika. Geologische Sludien in der
Rfpmblik Colombia (Berlin. 1893): Ernesto Kestrcpo, Ensayo
iftmmllriT y arqueoiogico de la provincia de los.Quimbayas (Bogota,
ifOJ), and Estudios sabre los aborigines de Colombia (Bogota, 1892};
" Vicente Restrepo, Estudxo sobre las minas de oro v plata de Colombia
'Bogota, 1888, translated by C. W. Fisher, New York, 1886);
W. L. Scruggs, The Colombian and Venezuelan Republics (London,
. 1899; Boston, 1900) ; W. Sievers, Reisen in der Sierra Nevada de
SuUa Maria (Leipzig, 1887) ; F. J. Vergara y Velasco. Sueva geografia
It Colombia (Bogota, 1892) ; Frank Vincent, Around and About South
^-America (New York, 1890): R. G. Watson, Spanish and Portuguese
_ Smtlk America during Ike Colonial Period (2 vols., London, 1884).
See also the diplomatic and consular reports of Great Britain
red the United States; publications of the International Bureau of
.merican Republics (Washington, D.C.): Bureau of Statistics, Com-
—menial America in 190$ (Washington, 1906).
COLOMBIER. PIERRE BERTRAND DE (1290-1361), French'
~~ 'ordinal and diplomatist, was born at Colombicr in Ardechc.
" Te was nephew and namesake of Cardinal Pierre Bert rand of
" noonay. After a careful juristic education he was successively
'.vocate at the parlcmcnt of Paris, intendant of the council
•<r the count of Nevers (1321), and counsellor-clerk to the parlc-
cnt (1329). Having taken holy orders, he became dean of
*'• Quentin in 1330, and was employed to negotiate the marriage
r the duke of Normandy, the future king John the Good of
* ~ancc, with the daughter of the king of Bohemia. In 1335 he
""■came bishop of Nevers, in 1339 of Arras, and contributed
- •*> bong the county of Flanders into the kingdom of France.
i-ated cardinal priest of St Susanna in 1344, he was employed
»• the pope on important missions, notably to negotiate peace or
" armistice between France and England. Having become
hop of Ostia in 1353, he was sent next year to Charles IV.
* Germany, and induced him to come to Italy to be crowned
-nperor at Rome, 1355. In 1356 he went to France to try to
••ange a peace with England, and died in 1361 at the priory of
inntaud near Avignon.
S?e A. Mazon, Essai historique sur Vital du Vivarais pendant la
erre de cent ans (Paris, 1889), with references there.
TOLOHBO. the capital and principal seaport of Ceylon, situ-
* .1 on the west coast of the island. Pop. (1901) 154,691.
ombo stands to the south of the mouth of the river Kelani.
» coast-land is here generally low-lying, but broken by slight
nences. The great artificial harbour, enclosed by break-
ers, is bounded on the south by a slight promontory. This
-■cupicd by the quarter of the city known as the Fort, from
~ former existence of a fort founded by the Portuguese and
■ instructed by the Dutch. In 1869 the governor, Sir Hercules
Ninson (afterwards Lord Rosmcad), obtained authority to
•Polish the fortifications, which were obsolete for purposes of
•ence, and required 6000 men to man them properly. The
. riling of the walls and filling up of the moat made the Fort
- h more accessible and healthy, and since then it has become
centre of the city. Here are situated Queen's
i House, the governor's residence; the secretariat or government
offices, and other government buildings, such as the fine general
post office and the customs house. Here also are most of the
principal hotels, which have a peculiarly high reputation among
European hotels in the East. A lofty tower serves as the prin-
cipal lighthouse of the port and also as a clock-tower. On
the south side of the Fort are extensive barracks. The old
banqucting-hall of the Dutch governors is used as the garrison
church of St Peter.
To the north-east of the Fort, skirting the harbour, are the
Pettah, the principal native quarter, the districts of Kotahena
and Mutwall, and suburbs beyond. In this direction the prin-
cipal buildings are the Wolfcndahl church, a massive Doric
building of the Dutch (1749); the splendid Roman Catholic
cathedral of St Lucia (completed in 1904); and St Thomas's
College (1851), which follows the lines of an English public school.
Close to this last is the Anglican cathedral of Christ Church.
The Kotahena temple is the chief Buddhist temple in Colombo.
' To the north-east of the Fort is the Lake, a ramifying sheet of
fresh water, which adds greatly to the beauty of the site of
Colombo, its banks being clothed with luxuriant foliage and
•flowers. The narrow isthmus between this lake and the sea,
south of the Fort, is called Gallc Face, and is occupied chiefly by
promenades and recreation grounds. The peninsula enclosed
by two arms of the Lake is known as Slave Island, having been
the site of a slave's prison under the Dutch. South-cast of this
iis the principal residential quarter of Colombo, with the circular
Victoria Park as its centre. To the east of the park a scries of
parallel roads, named after former British governors, arc lined
with beautiful bungalows embowered in trees. This locality
is generally known as the Cinnamon Gardens, as it was formerly
a Dutch reserve for the cultivation of the cinnamon bush, many
of which are still growing here. In the park is the fine Colombo
Museum, founded by Sir William Gregory; and near the neigh-
bouring Campbell Park arc the handsome buildings of a number
of institutions, such as Wesley College, and the General, Victoria
Memorial Eye and other hospitals. South of Victoria Park is
the Havelock racecourse. Among educational establishments
not hitherto mentioned are the Royal College, the principal
government institution, the government technical college and
St Joseph's Roman Catholic college. Most of the town is lighted
by gas, and certain quarters with electric light, and electric
tramways have been laid over several miles of the city roads.
The water-supply is drawn from a hill region 30 m. distant.
Under British rule Colombo has shared in the prosperity brought
to the island by the successive industries of coffee and tea-
planting. At the height of the coffee-growing enterprise 20,000
men, women and children, chiefly Sinhalese and Tamils, found
employment in the large factories and stores of the merchants
scattered over the town, where the coffee was cleaned, prepared,
sorted and packed for shipment. Tea. on the contrary, is pre-
pared and packed on the estates; but there is a considerable
amount of work still done in the Colombo stores in sorting,
blending and repacking such teas as are sold at the local public
sales; also in dealing with cacao, cardamoms, cinchona bark
and the remnant still left of the coffee industry. But it is to its
position as one of the great ports of call of the East that Colombo
owes its great and increasing importance. A magnificent break-
water, 4200 ft. long, the first stone of which was laid by the prince
of Wales in 1875, was completed in 1884. This breakwater
changed an open roadstead into a harbour completely sheltered
on the most exposed or south-west side; but there was stilt
liability in certain months to storms from the north-west and
south-east. Two additional arms were therefore constructed,
consisting of a north-cast and north-west breakwater, leaving
two openings, one 800 ft. and the other 700 ft. wide, between
the various sections. The area enclosed is 660 acres. A first-
class graving-dock, of which the Admiralty bore half the cost,
has also been added. These improvements caused GaHe to be
abandoned as a port of call for steamers in favour of Colombo,
while Trincomalee has been abandoned as a naval s&aAfcfe. *^V*.
port has assumed nxsX-cXas* Ym$mN»&at« "w^ ^ra^kc* «Sas^
7i+
COLON— COLONIAL OFFICE
regularly as well as men-of-war and the mercantile marine of
all nations; and it is now one of the finest artificial harbours
in the world. The extension of railways also has concentrated
the trade of the island upon the capital, and contributed to its
rise in prosperity.
Colombo was originally known as the Kalantotta or Kalany
ferry. By the Arabs the name was changed to Kolambu, and
the town was mentioned by Ibn Batuta in 1346 as the largest
and finest in Scrcndib. In 151 7 the Portuguese effected a settle*
ment, and in 1520 they fortified their port and bade defiance
to the native besiegers. In 1586 the town was invested by Raja
Singh, but without success. On its capture by the Dutch in
2656 it was a flourishing colony with convents of five religious
orders, churches and public offices, inhabited by no fewer than.
900 noble families and 1500 families dependent on mercantile or
political occupations. In 1796 it was surrendered to the British.
COLON (formerly known as Aspinwall), a city of the
Republic of Panama, on the Atlantic coast, in the Bay of Limon,
and 47 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Panama. Pop. (1908)
about 3000, consisting largely of Jamaica negroes and natives of
mixed Spanish, Indian and African descent. It is served by the
Panama railway, which crosses the Isthmus of Panama from
ocean to ocean. Colon has a deep, though poorly sheltered
harbour, and is cither the terminus or a place of call for seven
lines of steamships. It thus serves as an entrepot for much of
the commerce between Atlantic and Pacific ports, and between
the interior towns of Central and South America and the cities
of Europe and the United States. The city lies on the west side
of the low island of Manzanillo, is bordered on the landward
sides by swamp, and consists mainly of unimposing frame houses
and small shops. The most attractive parts are the American
quarter, where the employes of the Panama railway have their
homes, and the old French quarter, where dwelt the French
officers during their efforts to build the canal. In this last
district, near the mouth of the old canal, stands a fine statue of
Christopher Columbus, the gift of the empress Eugenic in 1870.
Here also stands the mansion erected and occupied by Ferdinand
de Lesseps during his residence on the isthmus. With the
exception of railway shops, there are no important industrial
establishments.
Colon dates its origin from the year 1850, when the island of
Manzanillo was selected as the Atlantic terminus of the Panama
railway. The settlement was at first called Aspinwall, in honour
of William H. Aspinwall (1807-1875), one of the builders of the
railway; but some years afterwards its name was changed
by legislative enactment to Colon, in honour of Christopher
Columbus, who entered Limon Bay in 1 502. The original name,
however, survived among the English-speaking inhabitants for
many years after this change. With the completion of the
railway in 1855, the town supplanted Chagrcs (q.v.) as the
principal Atlantic port of the isthmus. Later it acquired
increased importance through its selection by de Lesseps as the
site for the Atlantic entrance to his canal. During the revolu-
tion of 1885 it was partly burned and was rebuilt on a somewhat
larger plan. As the city has always been notoriously unhcallh-
ful, the United States, on undertaking the construction of the
Panama Canal (q.v.), became interested in preventing its becom-
ing a centre of infection for the Canal Zone, and by the treaty
of November 1003 secured complete jurisdiction in the city and
harbour over all matters relating to sanitation and quarantine,
and engaged to construct a system of waterworks and sewers
in the municipality, which had been practically completed in
1907. The United States government has also opened a port
at Cristobal, within the Canal Zone.
COLON, a town of Matanzas province, Cuba, on the railway
between Matanzas and Santa Clara, and the centre of a rich
sugar-planting country. Pop. (1907) 7124.
COLON. (1) (Gr. kSSov, miswritten and mispronounced as
ftCtair, the term being taken from K&Sa% curtailed), in anatomy,
that part of the greater intestine which extends from the caecum
to the rectum (see Alimentary Canal). (2) (Gr. k&Xov, a
member or part), originally in Creek rhetoric a short clause
longer than the "comma," hence a mark (:),
used to show a break in construction greater than that ■ukai
by the semicolon (;), and less than that maifr^ by the period 01
full stop. The sign is also used in psalters and the like to end
off periods for chanting. The word is applied in palaeography
to a unit of measure in MSS., amounting in length to a hen-
meter line.
COLONEL (derived either from Lat. cotumuta, Fr. ohm,
column, or Lat. corona, a crown), the superior officer of a regime*
of infantry or cavalry; also an officer of corresponding rank k
the general army list. The colonelcy of a regiment fanseny
implied a proprietary right in it. Whether the colonel coo-
manded it directly in the field or not, he always superintended
its finance and interior economy, and the emoluments of the
office, in the 18th century, were often the only form of pay
drawn by general officers. The general officers of the 17th tad
1 8th centuries were invariably colonels of regiments, and m us
case the active command was exercised by the l^tomm.
colonels. At the present day, British general officers are often,
though not always, given the colonelcy of a regiment, whka
has become almost purely an honorary office. The soverrip,
foreign sovereigns, royal princes and others, hold honorary
colonelcies, as eolonels-in-chicf or honorary colonels of many
regiments. In other armies, the regiment being a fighting suit,
the colonel is its active commander ; in Great Britain the
lieutenant-colonel commands in the field the battalion of infantry
and the regiment of cavalry. Colonels are actively employed m
the army at large in staff appointments, brigade commands, Ac
extra-rcgimentally. Colonel-general, a rank formerly g«-t is
many armies, still survives in the German service, a colonel-
general (General-Obcrst) ranking between a general of infantry,
cavalry or artillery, and a general field marshal (General-FeU-
marschalt). Colonels-general are usually given the honorary
rank of general field marshal.
- COLONIAL OFFICE; the department of the administrati*
of the United Kingdom which deals with questions affecting the
various colonial possessions of the British crown. The depart*
ment as it now exists is of comparatively modern creation, dating
only from 1854. The affairs of the English colonies began to
assume importance at the Restoration, and were at first entrusted
to a committee of the privy council, but afterwards transferred
to a commission created by letters patent From 167a to 167s
the council for trade was combined with this commission, bat
in the latter year the colonies were again placed underthe control
of the privy council. This arrangement continued until 1695,
when a Board of Trade and Plantations was created; its duty,
however, was confined to collecting information and giving,
advice when required. The actual executive work was performed
by the secretary of state for the southern department, who was
assisted, from 1768 to 1782, by a secretary of state for the
colonies. Both the Board of Trade and Plantations and the
additional secretary were abolished in 178a, and the executive
business wholly given over to the home office. In 1794 a third
secretary of state was reappointed, and in 1801 this secretary
was designated as secretary of state for war and the colonies.
In 1854 the two offices were separated, and a distinct office of
secretary of state for the colonies created.
The secretary of state for the colonies is the official medium
of communication with colonial governments; he has certain
administrative duties respecting crown colonies, and has a right
of advising the veto of an act of a colonial legislature — this veto,
however, is never exercised in the case of purely local statutes.
He is assisted by a permanent and a parliamentary under-
secretary and a considerable clerical staff.
As reorganized in 1907 the colonial office consists of three
chief departments: (1) the Dominions Department, dealing
with the affairs of the self-governing over-sea dominions of the
British crown, and of certain other possessions geographically
connected with those dominions; (2) the Colonial Department,
dealing with the affairs of crown colonies and protectorates;
(3) the General Department, dealing with legal, financial and
other general business. In addition to these three departments,
COLONNA— COLONNADE
7*5
funding committees exist to take a collective view of such
matters as contracts, concessions, mineral and other leases,
and patronage.
COLONNA, a noble Roman family, second only to the Gactani
di Scrmoneta in antiquity, and first of all the Roman houses in
importance. The popes Marccllinus, Sixtus IIL, Stephen IV.
and Adrian III. are said to have been members of it, but the
authentic pedigree of the family begins with Pietro, lord of
Columna, Palestrina and Paliano (about 1100), probably a
brother of Pope Benedict IX. His great grandson Giovanni had
two sons, respectively the founders of the Colonna di Paliano
and Colonna di Sciarra lines. The third, or Cokmna-Romano
line, is descended from Federigp Colonna (1223). In the x 2th
century we find the Colonna as counts of Tusculum, and the
family was then famous as one of the most powerful and turbulent
of the great Roman clans; its feuds with the Orsini and the
Gaetani are a characteristic feature of medieval Rome and the
Campagna; like the other great nobles of the Campagna the
Colonna plundered travellers and cities, and did not even spare
the pope himself if they felt themselves injured by him.
Boniface VIII. attempted to break their power, excommunicated
them in 1297, and confiscated their estates. He proclaimed a
crusade against them and captured Palestrina, but they after-
wards revenged themselves by besieging him at Anagni, and
Sciarra Colonna laid violent hands on His Holiness, being with
difficulty restrained from actually murdering him (1303). In
1347 the Colonna, at that time almost an independent power,
were defeated by Cola di Rienxi; but soon recovered. Pope
Martin V. (1417-1431) was a Colonna, and conferred immense
estates on his family, including Marino, Frascati, Rocca di Papa,
Nettuno, Palinao, &c, in the Campagna, and other fiefs in
Romagna and Umbria. Their goods were frequently confiscated
and frequently given back, and the house was subject to many
changes of fortune; during the reign of Pope Alexander VI.
they were again humbled, but they always remained powerful
and important, and members of the family rose to eminence as
generals, prelates and statesmen in the service of the Church
or other powers. In the war of 1522 between France and Spain
there were Colonna on both sides, and at the battle of Lepanto
(1571) Marc Antonio Colonna, who commanded the papal
contingent, greatly distinguished himself. A detailed record
of the Colonna family would be a history of Rome. To-day
♦hrre are three lines of Colonna: (1) Colonna di Paliano, with
two branches, the princes and dukes of Paliano, and the princes
of Stigliano; (2) Colonna di Sciarra, with two branches, Colonna
di Sciarra, princes of Carbagnano, and Baibcrini- Colonna,
princes of Palestrina; and (3) Colonna-Romano. The Colonna
palace, one of the finest in Rome, was begun by Martin V- and
xontatns a valuable picture and sculpture gallery.
.Sec A. von Rcuraont, Ceukichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1868),
containing an elaborate account of the family; F. Gregorovius,
Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Stuttgart, 1872); Almanack de Gotha.
(L. V.*)
COLONNA, GIOVANNI PAOLO {circa 1637-1605), Iulian
musician, was born in Bologna about 1637 and died in the
same city on the 28th of November 1605. He was a pupQ of
FOippuzxi in Bologna, and of Abbatini and Benevoli in Rome,
where for a time he held the post of organist at S. ApoUinare.
A dated poem in praise of his music shows that he began to
distinguish himself as a composer in 1650. In that year be was
chosen organist at S. Petronio in Bologna, where on the 1st of
November 1674 he was made chapel-master. He also became
president of the Philharmonic Academy of Bologna. Most of
Colonna's works are for the church, including settings of the
psalms for three, four, five and eight voices, and several masses
and motets. He also composed an opera, under the title A mitcare,
and an oratorio, La Profaia d* Elisco. The emperor Leopold
I. received a copy of every composition of Colonna, so that
the imperial library in Vienna possesses upwards of 83
church compositions by him. Colonna's style is for the most
part dignified, but is not free from the inequalities of style
and taste almost unavoidable at a period when church music
was in a state of transition, and had hardly learnt to combine
the gravity of the old style with the brilliance of the new.
COLONNA, VICTORIA (1490-1547), marchioness of Pescara,
Italian poet, daughter of Fabrizio Colonna, grand constable of
the kingdom of Naples, and of Anna da Montefeltro, was born at
Marino, a fief of the Colonna family. Betrothed when four years
old at the instance of Ferdinand, king of Naples, to Fcrrantc
de Avalos, son of the marquis of Pescara, she received the
highest education and gave early proof of a love of letters. Her
hand was sought by many suitors, including the dukes of Savoy
and Braganza, but at nineteen, by her own ardent desire, she
was married to de Avalos on the island of Ischia. There the
couple resided until 1511, when her husband offered his sword
to the League against the French. He was taken prisoner at
the battle of Ravenna (151 2) and conveyed to France. During
the months of detention and the long years of campaigning
which followed, Vittoria and Fcrrantc corresponded in the most
passionate terms both in prose and verse. They saw each other
but seldom, for Ferrante was one of the most active and brilliant
captains of Charles V.; but Vittoria's influence was sufficient
to keep him from joining the projected league against the
emperor after the battle of Pa via (1525), and to make him refuse
the crown of Naples offered to him as the price of his treason.
In the month of November of the same year he died of his
wounds at Milan. Vittoria, who was hastening to tend him,
received the news of his death at V iter bo; she halted and turned
off to Rome, and after a brief stay departed for Ischia, where she
remained for several years. She refused several suitors, and
began to produce those Rime spirituali which form so distinct
a feature in her works. In 1529 she returned to Rome, and spent
the next few years between that city, Orvieto, Ischia and other
places. In 1537 we find her at Fcrrara, where she made many
friends and helped to establish a Capuchin monastery at the
instance of the reforming monk Bernardino Ochino, who after-
wards became a Protestant. In 1539 she was back in Rome,
where, besides winning the esteem of Cardinals Reginald Pole
and Contarini, she became the object of a passionate friendship
on the part of Michelangelo, then in his sixty-fourth year. The
great artist addressed some of his finest sonnets to her, made
drawings for her, and spent long hours in her society. Her
removal to Orvieto and Vitcrbo in 154 1, on the occasion of her
brother Ascanio Colonna's revolt against Paul III., produced
no change in their relations, and they continued to visit and
correspond as before. She returned to Rome in 1544, staying
as usual at the convent of San Silvcstro, and died there on the
25th of February 1547.
Cardinal Bcmbo, Luigi Alamanni and Baldassare Castiglione
were among her literary friends. She was also on intimate terms
with many of the Italian Protestants, such as Pietro Carnc-
secchi, Juan de Valdcs and Ochino, but she died before the
church crisis in Italy became acute, and, although she was an
advocate of religious reform, there is no reason to believe that
she herself became a Protestant. Her life was a beautiful one,
and goes far to counteract the impression of the universal cor-
ruption of the Italian Renaissance conveyed by such careers
as those of the Borgia. Her amatory and elegiac poems, which
are the fruits of a sympathetic and dainty imitative gift rather
than of any strong original talent, were printed at Parma in
1538; a third edition, containing sixteen of her Rime Spirituali,
in which religious themes are treated in Italian, was published
at Florence soon afterwards; and a fourth, including a still
larger proportion of the pious element, was issued at Venice in
X544-
A great deal has been written about Vittoria Colonna, but perhaps
the best account of her life is A. Luzio's Vittoria Colonna (Modcna,
1885); A. von Reumont's Vita di Vittoria Colonna (Italian corrected
edit.. Turin. 1883) is also excellent; F. le Fevre's Vittoria Colonna
(Paris, 1856) is somewhat inaccurate, but T. Roscoe's Vittoria
Colonna (London. 1868) may be recommended to English readers;
P. E. Visconti's Le Rime di Vittoria Colonna (Rome, 1846) deals with
her poems. (L. V.*)
COLONNADE, in architecture, a range <*( cfeWsc& ^c&i*
colonna) in a ton. VfYmu cs\K&!ta&. v* *s> \» «&&!»«. *. NrasaJ*.*
jib
COLONSAY— COLONY
it s called a peristyle, and the same term applies when round
an open court, as in the houses at Pompeii When projecting
in front of a building, it is called a portico, as in the Pantheon
at Rome and the National Gallery in London. When enclosed
between wings, as in Pcrrault's facade to the Louvre, it is
correctly described as a colonnade. Colonnades lined the streets
of the towns in Syria and Asia Minor, and. they were largely
employed in Rome.
COLONSAY, an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire,
Scotland, 10 m. S. of the Ross of Mull. It is 7} m. long by
3 m. broad. The highest point is CarnanEoin (470 ft.). Towards
the middle of the island lies Loch Fada, nearly 2 m. long but
very narrow, and there are two other small lakes and a few
streams. The coast-line, with frequent beautiful sandy reaches,
is much indented, the chief bays being Kiloran, Kilchattan and
Staosunaig. On the north-western coast the cliffs are particularly
fine. To the south, separated by a strait that fa fordable at low
water, lies the isle of Okonsay, 2} m. long by aj m. wide. Both
islands contain a number of ecclesiastical remains, standing
stones, and some beautiful sculptured crosses. They are named
after Columba and Oran, who are said to have stopped here after
they left Ireland. There is regular communication between
Scalasaig and Glasgow and the Clyde ports. The golf-course at
Kilchattan lends a touch of modernity to these remote islands.
Near Scalasaig a granite obelisk has been erected to the memory
of Sir Duncan M'Neill (1 794-1874), a distinguished Scottish
lawyer, who took the title of Lord Colonsay when he became
a lord of appeal. The soil of both islands is fertile, potatoes
and barley being raised and cattle pastured. Population:
Colonsay (1901), 301; Oronsay (1001), 12.
COLONY (Lat. colon io, from colonus, a cultivator), a term
most commonly used to denote a settlement of the subjects of
a sovereign state in lands beyond its boundaries, owning no
allegiance to any foreign power, and retaining a greater or less
degree of dependence on the mother country. The founding
and the growth of such communities furnish matter for an inter-
esting chapter in the history as well of ancient as of modern
civilization; and the regulation of the relations between the
parent state and its dependencies abroad gives rise to important
problems alike in national policy and in international economics.
It was mainly the spirit of commercial enterprise that led the
Phoenicians to plant their colonics upon the islands and along
the southern coast of the Mediterranean', and even beyond the
Pillars of Hercules this earliest great colonizing race left enduring
traces of its maritime supremacy. Carthage, indeed, chief of the
Phoenician settlements, sent forth colonies to defend her con-
quests and strengthen her military power; and these sub-
colonies naturally remained in strict subjection to her power,
whereas the other young Phoenician states assumed and asserted
entire independence.
In this latter respect the Greek colonies resembled those of
the Phoenicians. From a very early period the little civic com-
munities of Greece had sent forth numerous colonizing streams.
At points so far asunder as the Tauric Chersonese, Cyrene and
MassQia were found prosperous centres of Greek commercial
energy; but the regions most thickly peopled by settlers of Greek
descent were the western seaboard of Asia Minor, Sicily and the
southern parts of the Italian peninsula. Nor were the least
prosperous communities those which were sprung from earlier
colonics. The causes that led to the foundation of the Greek
colonics were very various. As in Phoenicia, pressure created
by the narrow limits of the home country coincided with an
adventurous desire to seek new sources of wealth beyond seas;
but very many Greek emigrations were caused by the expulsion
of the inhabitants of conquered cities, or by the intolerable
domination of a hated but triumphant faction within the native
state. The polity of the new community, often founded in
defiance of the home authorities, might cither be a copy of that
just left behind or be its direct political antithesis. But wherever
they went, and whether, as apparently in Asia Minor, Greek
blood was kept tree from barbaric mixture, or whether, as in
Magna Graccia and Sicily, it was mingled with that of the
aboriginal races, the Greek emigrants carried with them the
Hellenic spirit and the Hellenic tongue; and the colonies fostered,
not infrequently more rapidly and more brilliantly than at home,
Greek literature, Greek art and Greek speculation. The relation
to be preserved towards the mother states was seldom or never
definitely arranged. But filial feeling and established custom
secured a measure of kindly sympathy, shown by precedence
yielded at public games, and by the almost invariable abstinence
of the colony from a hostile share in wars in which the mother
city was engaged.
The relation of Rome to her colonies was altogether different
No Roman colony started without the sanction and direction of
the public authority; and while the Colonic Romano differed
from the Colonia Latino, in that the former permitted its members
to retain their political rights intact, the colony, whether planted
within the bounds of Italy or in provinces such as Gaul or
Britain, remained an integral part of the Roman state. In the
earlier colonies, the state allotted to proposing emigrants from
amongst the needy or discontented class of citizens portions of
such lands as, on the subjection of a hostile people, the state
took into its possession as public property. At a later time,
especially after the days of Sulla, the distribution of the terri-
tories of a vanquished Roman party was employed by the
victorious generals as an easy means of satisfying the claims of
the soldiery by whose help they had triumphed. The Romu
colonies were thus not merely valuable as propvgnacula of lb
state, as permanent supports to Roman garrisons and armies, hot
they proved a most effective means of extending over wide
bounds the language and the laws of Rome, and of inoculating
the inhabitants of the provinces with more than the rudiments
of Roman civilization.
The occupation of the fairest provinces of the Roman empfet
by the northern barbarians had little in common with colonial*
tkm. The Germanic invaders came from no settled state; they
maintained loosely, and but for a short white, any form of
brotherhood with the allied tribes. A nearer parallel to Greet
colonization may be found in Iceland, whither the adherents of
the old Norse polity fled from the usurpation of Harold Haar-
fager; and the early history of the English pale in Ireland
shows, though not in orderliness and prosperity, several points of
resemblance to the Roman colonial system.
Though both Genoese and Venetians in their day of power
planted numerous trading posts on various portions of the
Mediterranean shores, of which some almost deserve the name
of colonies, the history of modern colonization on a great scale
opens with the Spanish conquests in America. The first Spanish
adventurers came, not to colonize, but to satisfy as rapidly as
possible and by the labour of the enslaved aborigines, their
thirst for silver and gold. Their conquests were rapid, but the
extension of their permanent settlements was gradual and slow.
The terrible cruelty at first exercised on the natives was restrained,
not merely by the zeal of the missionaries, but by effective
official measures; and ultimately home-born Spaniards and
Creoles lived on terms of comparative fairness with the Indians
and with the half-breed population. Till the general and success-
ful revolt of her American colonies, Spain maintained and em-
ployed the latter directly and solely for what she conceived to
be her own advantage. Hex commercial policy was one of most
irrational and intolerable restriction and repression; and till the
end of Spanish rule on the American continent, the whole
political power was retained by the court at Madrid, and
administered in the colonies by an oligarchy of home-bred
Spaniards.
The Portuguese colonisation in America, in most respects
resembling that of Spain, is remarkable for the development
there given to an institution sadly prominent in the history
of the European colonies. The nearness of Brazil to the coast of
Africa made it easy for the Portuguese to supply the growing
lack of native labour by the wholesale importation of purchased
or kidnapped Africans.
Of the French it is admitted that in their colonial possessions
they displayed an unusual faculty for conciliating the prejudices
COLOPHON— COLORADO
717
of native races, and even for assimilating themselves to the
Utter. But neither this nor the genius of successive governors
and commanders succeeded in preserving for France her once
extensive colonies in Canada or her great influence in India.
In Algeria and West Africa the French government baa not
merely found practical training schools for her own soldiers,
but by opening a recruiting field amongst the native tribes it
has added an available contingent to the French army.
The Dutch took early a leading share in the carrying trade
of the various European colonies. They have still extensive
colonies in the East Indian Archipelago, as well as possessions
in the West Indies. The Danish dependencies in the Antilles
are but trifling in extent or importance.
It is the English-speaking race, however, that has shown the
most remarkable energy and capacity for colonization. The
English settlements in Virginia, New England, New York, New
Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, South Carolina,
North Carolina, and Georgia had, between the first decade of
the 17th and the seventh decade of the iftth century, developed
into a new nation, the United States of America. It is unnecessary
here to deal with the development of what have since been the
two great independent branches of the English-speaking people —
those of the United States (q.v.) and of the British Empire (?.».),
as their history is given elsewhere. But the colonising genius
which, with the British Isles as centre, has taken up the " white
man's burden " in all quarters of the globe, is universally recog-
nized. In the problems of government raised by the organization
of the British dominions beyond the seas the system of coloniza-
tion has been developed to an extent unknown under any other
national flag.
COLOPHON* an ancient city of Ionia, situated inland about
IS m. N. of Ephesus. Its port was at Notium or New Colophon.
The site, now called Tracha (only recognized towards the end of
the 19th century), lies near Diermendere, $ m. S. of Develikeui
station on the Smyrna -Aid in railway, and about 2 m. from the
farms and hamlet of Malkajik. It is almost entirely under
cultivation, and there is little to be seen but remains of the walls
and certain tumuli. Rich tombs, however, have been found
beside the old roads leading to it, and the site is usually regarded
as a particularly promising one for excavation, since Colophon
was a very flourishing city in the great period of Ionia and had
declined and. been largely superseded by Notium before the
Roman age. The common belief, however, that it had no
ffyU tjttM'g after the time of Lysimachus is not borne out by the
remains on the site. Founded by Andracmon of Pylos, it was
at the acme of its prosperity in the 8th and 7th centuries b.c,
up to the epoch of its sack by Gyges of Lydia in 665. It claimed
to have produced Homer, but its greatest genuine literary name
was Mimnermus. It seems to have been ruled by a rich aristo-
cracy which provided a famous troop of horse; and, from the
Greek saying, usually supposed to refer to the decisive effect
of the final charge of this troop in battle, the word colophon has
come to be used for the final note appended to old printed books,
fftnt^j njng date, &c. In 387 Lysimachus transferred a part of
the population to his new city at Ephesus. Though an Ionian
colony Colophon did not share in the common festival of the
Apaturia and seems to have been isolated for some reason among
its neighbours, with one of whom, Ephesus, St was constantly
at enmity. The forts by which Ephesus protected itself against
ColopboniaA invasion are still to be seen on the hills north of
theCaystrus.
Notium or New Colophon contained the important shrine of
the Clarian Apollo, whose site has recently been identified with
probability by Tta. Makridy Bey during excavations conducted
lor the Ottoman museum.
See C Schuchardt in Aiken. MUteH (1886); W. M. Ramsay,
BisL Coot, of Asia Minor (addenda) (1890). (D. G. H.)
COLOPHON, a final paragraph in some manuscripts and
many early printed books (see Book), giving particulars as to
authorship, date and place of production, &c. Before the in-
vention of printing, a scribe when he had finished copying a book
occasionally added a final paragraph at the end of the text in
which he recorded the fact, and (if he were so minded) expressed
his thankfulness to God, or asked for the prayers of readers. In
the famous Bodleian MS. 264 of the Roman d 1 Alexandre there is
an unusually full note of this kind recording the completion of lot
copy on the 18th of December 1338 and ending—
" Explicit iste liber, scriptor sit crimine liber,
Chriatus scriptorem custodial ac det bonorem."
Both in manuscripts and also in early printed books authors
made use of such a final paragraph for expressing similar feelings.
Thus the GuiUermus who made a famous collection of sermons
on the gospels for Sundays and saints' days records its completion
in 1437 and submits it to the correction of charitable readers, and
Sir Thomas Malory notes that his Mario a" Arthur " was ended
the ix yere of the reygne of Kyng Edward the fourth," and bids
his readers " praye for me whyle I am on Iyue that God sende
me good delyuerance, and whan I am deed I praye you all praye
for my soule." So again Jacobus Bergomensis records that his
Supplementum Chronicarum was finished " anno salutis nostre
1483. 3* Kalendas Julii in ciuitate Bergomi: mini vero a
natiuitate quadragesimo nono," and in the subsequent editions
which he revised brings both the year and his own age up to
date. Before printing was invented, however, such paragraphs
were exceptional, and many of the early printers, notably
Gutenberg himself, were content to allow their books to go out
without any mention of their own names. Fust and Schoeffer,
on the other hand, printed at the end of their famous psalter of
1457 the following paragraph in red ink:— Prescns spalmorum (tic
for psalmorum) codex vcnuslaU capilalium decoratus RubrUattonl-
busque sujfkienter distinct**, Adinuentiono artifidosa imprimendi
ac caracterisandi absque calami ttfa esaracione sic effigiatus,
Et ad euubiam. dei industrie est consummatus. Per lohannem
fust ciuem maguntinum, Et Peirum Schoffer de Cernstheim Anna
domini Millcsimo. cue. Mi In tiplia Assumption^ Similar
paragraphs in praise of printing and of Mainz as the city where
the art was brought to perfection appear in most of the books
issued by the partners and after Fust's death by Schoeffer alone,
and were widely imitated by other printers. In their Latin Bible
of 146a Fust and Schoeffer added a device of two shields at the
end of the paragraph, and this addition was also widely copied.
Many of these final paragraphs give information of great value
for the history of printing; many also, especially those to the
early editions of the classics printed in Italy, are written in
verse. As the practice grew up of devoting a separate leaf or
page to the title of a book at its beginning, the importance of
these final paragraphs slowly diminished, and the information
they gave was gradually transferred to the title-page. Complete
title-pages bearing the date and name of the publishers are found
in most books printed after 1520, and the final paragraph, if
retained at all, was gradually reduced to a bare statement of the
name of the printer. From the use of the word in the sense
of a " finishing stroke," such a final paragraph as has been de-
scribed is called by bibliographers a " colophon " (Gr. flota^cfe),
but at what period this name for it was first used has riot been
ascertained. It is quite possibly not earlier than the tSlh
century. (For origin see Colophon (city).) (A. W. Pa)
COLORADO, a state of the American union, situated between
41° and 37° N. lat. and 102° and ioo° W. long., bounded N. by
Wyoming and Nebraska, E. by Nebraska and Kansas, S. by
Oklahoma and New Mexico, and W. by Utah. Its area Is,
103.048 sq. m. (of which 200 are water surface). It is the seventb
largest state of the Union.
Physiography.— Colorado embraces In its area a great variety
of plains, mountains and plateaus. It lies at the junction of the
Great Plains— which in their upward slant to the westward attain
an average elevation of about 4000 ft along the east boundary
of the state— with the Rocky Mountains, to the west of which is
a portion of the Colorado Plateau. These are the three physio-
graphic provinces of the state (see also United States, section
Geology* o4 Jin., for details of structure). The last-named
includes a number of lofty plateaus— the Roan or Book, Un-
compahgre, Ac, which form the eastern ^taaasaaa*^ *&> ^^
7i8
COLORADO
State. Its eastern third consists of rich, unbroken plains. On
their west edge lies an abrupt, massive, and strangely uniform
chain of mountains, known in the neighbourhood of Colorado
Springs as the Rampart Range, and in the extreme north as the
Front Range, and often denominated as a whole by the latter
name. The upturning of the rocks of the Great Plains at the
foot of the Front Range develops an interesting type of topo-
graphy, the harder layers weathering into grotesquely curious
forms, as seen in the famous Garden of the Gods at the foot of
Pike's Peak. Behind this barrier the whole country is elevated
sooo ft. or so above the level of the plains region. In its lowest
portions just behind the front ranges are the natural " parks "
—great plateaus basined by superb enclosing ranges; and to
the west of these, and between them, and covering the remainder
of the state east of the plateau region, is an entanglement of
mountains, tier above tier, running fromnorthtosouth, buttressed
laterally with splendid spurs, dominated by scores of magnificent
peaks, cut by river valleys, and divided by mesas and plateaus.
These various chains are known by a multitude of local names.
Among the finest of the chains are the Rampart, Sangre de
Cristo, San Juan, Sawatch (Saguache) and Elk ranges. The
first, like the other ranges abutting from north to south upon
the region of the prairie, rises abruptly from the plain and has
a fine, bold outline. It contains a number of fine summits
dominated by Pike's Peak (14,108 ft). Much more beautiful
as a whole is the Sangre de Cristo range. At its southern end
are Dlanca Peak (14, J 9©) and Old Baldy (14,176, Hayden), both
in Costilla county; to the northward are Rito Alto Peak (x 2,989,
Wheeler), in Custer county, and many others of almost equal
height and equal beauty. The mountains of the south-west
are particularly abrupt and jagged. Sultan Mountain (13,366,
Hayden) , in San Juan county, and M t Eolus (14,079), in La Plata
county, dominate the fine masses of the San Juan ranges; and
ML Sneffels (14,158, Hayden), Ouray county, and Uncompahgre
Peak (14,289), Hinsdale county, the San Miguel and Uncom-
pahgre ranges, which are actually parts of the San Juan. Most
magnificent of all the mountains of Colorado, however, are the
Sawatch and adjoining ranges in the centre of the state. The
former (the name Is used a little loosely) consists of almost
a solid mass of granite, has an average elevation of probably
13,000 ft., presents a broad and massive outline, and has a
mean breadth of 15 to 20 m. Mt. Ouray (13.956 ft.), in Chaffee
county, may be taken as the southern end, and in Eagle county,
the splendid Mount of the Holy Cross (14,170)— so named from
the figure of its snow-filled ravines — as the northern. Between
them lie: in Chaffee county, Mt. Shavano (14*239, Hayden),
Mt. Princeton (14,106, Hayden), ML Yale (14,187, Hayden),
Ml Harvard (i4»375, Hayden), and La Plata Peak (14,342);
in Pitkin county, Grizzly Peak (13,956, Hayden); in Lake
county, Elbert Peak (14,421), and Massive mountain (14,424),
the highest peak in the state; on the boundary between Summit
and Park counties, ML Lincoln. (14,297, Hayden); and, in
Summit county, ML Fletcher (14,265). The Elk range is geo-
logically interesting for the almost unexampled displacement of
the strata of which it is composed, and the apparent confusion
which hat thence arisen. Among the most remarkable of its
separate summits, which rise superbly in a crescent about Aspen,
are North Italian Peak (13,225), displaying the red, white and
green of Italy's national colours, White Rock Mountain (13,532),
Mt Owen (13,102), Teocalli Mountain (23,220), Snow Mass
(<3,97<>, Hayden) and Maroon (14,003, Hayden) mountains,
Castle Peak (14*259)1 Capitol Mountain (13,007, Hayden),
Pyramid Peak (13,885, Hayden), Taylor Peak (13,419), and
about a dozen other summits above 12,000 ft. A few miles
to the north and north-east of the Mount of the Holy Cross are
Red Mountain (13,333, Wheeler), in Eagle county, Torrey Peak
(14*336, Hayden) and Gray's Peak (14,341, Hayden), in Summit
county, Mt. Evans (14,330, Hayden), in Clear Creek county, and
Rosalie Peak (13,575), in Park county; a little farther north,
in Gilpin, Grand and Clear Creek counties, James Peak (13,283,
Hayden), and, in Boulder county, Long's Peak (14,271 , Hayden).
Many one mountains are scattered in the lesser ranges ol the
state. Altogether there are at least 180 summits exceeding
12,000 ft. in altitude, more than no above 13.000 and about
40 above 14,000.
Cirques, valley troughs, numberless beautiful cascades, shar-
pened alpine peaks and ridges, glacial lakes, and valley moraines
offer everywhere abundant evidence of glacial action, which has
modified profou ndly practically all the ranges. The Park Range
east of Lcadville, and the Sawatch Range, are particularly fine
examples. Much of the grandest -scenery is due to gtadation.
One of the most remarkable orographical features of the state
are the great mountain " parks "—North, Estes. Middle. South
and San Luis— extending from the northern to the souther*
border of the state, and Iving (with the exception of Middle Park)
just east of the continental divide. These " parks " are great
plateaus, not all of them level, lying below the barriers of sur-
rounding mountain chains. North Park, the highest of all. is a
lovely country of meadow and forest. Middle Park is not level,
but is traversed thickly by low ranges like the AUeghanies; in
the bordering mountain rim are several of the grandest moun-
tain peaks and some of the most magnificent scenery of the suit
Estes Park is small, only 20 m. long and never more than 2 m.
broad; it is in fact the valley of Thompson Creek. Its surface
is one of charming slopes, and by many it is accounted among
the loveliest of Colorado valleys. Seven ranges lie between it
and the plains. South Park is similarly quiet and charming is
character. Much greater than any of these is San Luis Park.
The surface is nearly as flat as a lake, and it was probably at one
time the bed of an inland sea. In the centre there is a long
narrow lake fed by many streams. It has no visible outlet, but
is fresh. The San Luis Park, which runs into New Mexico, is
traversed by the Rio Grande del Norte and more than a doxen
of its mountain tributaries. These parks are frequented by
great quantities of large game, and— especially the North and
Middle — are famous hunting-grounds. They are fertile, too, and
as their combined area is something tike 13,000 sq. m. they are
certain to be of great importance in Colorado's agricultural
development.
The drainage system of the state is naturally very complicated.
Eleven topographical and climatic divisions are recognized by
the United States Weather Bureau within its borders, including
the several parks, the continental divide, and various river
valleys. Of the rivers, the North Platte has its sources in North
Park, the Colorado (the Gunnison and Grand branches) in Middle
Park, the Arkansas and South Platte in South Park where
their waters drain in opposite directions from Palmer's Lake—
the Rio Grande in San Luis Park. Three of these flow east sad
south-east to the Missouri, Mississippi and the Gulf; but
the waters of the Colorado system flow to the south-west inte
the Gulf of California. Among the other streams, almost count-
less in number among the mountains, the systems of the Dolores,
White and Yampa, all in the west, are of primary importance,
The scenery on the head-waters of the White and Bear, the upper
tributaries of the Gunnison, and on many of the minor rivers of
the south-west is wonderfully beautiful. The South Platte falls
4830 ft. in the 139 m. above Denver; the Grand 3600 ft. m the
224 m. between the mouth of the Gunnison and the Forks* the
Gunnison 6477 ft. in 200 m. to its mouth (and save for 16m.
never with a gradient of less than 10 ft.); the Arkansas 7000 fL
in its 338 m. west of the Kansas line. Of the smaller streams
the Uncompahgre falls 2700 ft. in 134 m., the Las Animas 719a
ft. in xx3 m., the Los Pinos 4920 ft. in 75 m., the Roaring Fork
5923 fL in 64 m., the Mancos 5000 ft. in 62 m., the La Plata
3103 fL in 43 m., the Eagle 4293 ft in 62 m., the San Juan 3785
in 303, the Lake Fork of the Gunnison 6047 in 59. The canyons
formed in the mountains by these streams are among the glories
of Colorado and of America. The grandest are the Toltec Gorge
near the Southern boundary line, traversed by the railway
1500 ft. above the bottom; the Red Gorge and Rouge Canyon
of the Upper Grand, and a splendid gorge 16 m. long below the
mouth of the Eagle, with walls 2000-2500 ft. in height- the
Grand Canyon of the Arkansas (8 m.) above Canyon Cfty with
I granite wa\\* \nwex\n% tfx» VV. *W* One boiling river at the
COLORADO
719
Royal Gorge; and the superb Black Canyon (15 m.) of the
Gunnison and the Cimarron. But there are scores of others
which, though less grand, are hardly less beautiful. The ex-
quisite colour contrasts of the Cheyenne canyons near Colorado
Springs, Boulder Canyon near the city of the same name, Red
Cliff and Eagle River Canyons near Red Cliff,Clear Creek Canyon
near Denver — with walls at places 1000 ft. in height — the
Granite Canyon (iz m.) of the South Platte west of Florissant,
and the fine gorge of the Rio de las Animas (1 500 ft.), would be
considered wonderful in any state less rich in still more mar-
vellous scenery. One peculiar feature of the mountain land-
scapes are the mines. In districts like that of Cripple Creek their
enormous ore " dumps " dot the mountain flanks like scores
of vast ant-hills; and in Eagle River canyon their mouths, like
dormer windows into the granite mountain roof, may be seen
sooo ft above the railway.
Many parts of the railways among the mountains are remark-
able for altitude, construction or scenery. More than a dozen
mountain passes lie above 10,000 ft. Argentine Pass (13,000
ft.), near Gray's Peak, is one of the highest wagon roads of the
world; just east of Silverton is Rio Grande Pass, about x 2,400
ft above sea-level, and in the Elk Mountains between Gunnison
and Pitkin counties is Pearl Pass (12,715 ft.). Many passes
are traversed by the railways, especially the splendid scenic
route of the Denver and Rio Grande. Among the higher passes
are Hoosier Pass (10,300 ft.) in the Park Range, and Hayden
Divide (10,780) and Veta Pass (9300), both of these across the
Sangre de Cristo range; the crossing of the San Miguel chain
at Lizard He&d Pass (10,250) near Rico; of the Uncompahgre
at Dallas Divide (8977) near Ouray; of the Elk and Sa watch
ranges at Fremont (11,320), Tennessee (10,229), and Brecken-
ridge (11,470) passes, and the Busk Tunnel, all near LeadviUe;
and Marshall Pass (10,846) above Salida. Perhaps finer than
these for their wide-horizoned outlooks and grand surroundings
are the Alpine Tunnel under the continental divide of the Lower
Sawatch chain, the scenery of the tortuous line along the
southern boundary in the Conejos and San Juan mountains,
which are crossed at Cumbres (10,003 ft.), and the magnificent
scenery about Ouray and on the Silverton railway over the
shoulder of Red Mountain (attaining 11,235 ft). Notable, too,
is the road in Gear Creek Canyon— where the railway track coils
six times upon itself above Georgetown at an altitude of
10,000 ft.
Climate. — The climate of Colorado is exceptional for regularity
and salubrity. The mean annual temperature for the state is
about 46 . The mean yearly isothermal* crossing the state are
ordinarily 35 to 50 or 55 F. Their course, owing to the com-
plex orography of the state, is necessarily extremely irregular,
and few climatic generalizations can be made. It can be said,
however, that the south-east is the warmest portion of the state,
lying as it does without the mountains; that the north-central
region is usually coldest; that the normal yearly rainfall for the
entire state is about 15-5 in., with great local variations (rarely
above 27 in.)- Winds arc constant and rather high (5 to xo m.),
and for many persons are the most trying feature of the climate.
Very intense cold prevails of course in winter in the mountains,
and intense heat (uo° F. or more in the shade) is often ex-
perienced in summer, temperatures above 90° being very
common. The locality of least annual thermomctric range is
Lake Moraine (10,268 ft. above the sea)— normally 91 F.; at
other localities the range may be as great as 140°, and for the
whole state of course even greater (iS5° or slightly more). The
lowest monthly mean in 16 years (1887-1903) was 17-30. Never-
theless, the climate of Colorado is not to be judged severe, and
that of the plains region is in many ways ideal. In the lowlands
the snow is always slight and it disappears almost immediately,
even in the very foothills of the mountains, as at Denver or
Colorado Springs. However hot the summer day, its night is
always cool and dewlcss. Between July and October there is
little rain, day after day bringing a bright and cloudless sky.
Humidity is moderate (annual averages for Grand Junction,
Pueblo, Denver and Cheyenne, Wyo., for 6 a.m. about 50 to 66;
for 6 p.m. 33 to 50); it is supposed to be increasing with the
increasing settlement of the country. Sunshine is almost
continuous, and splendidly intense. The maximum number of
" rainy " days (with a rainfall of more than o*ox in.) rarely
approaches 100 at the most unfortunate locality; for the whole
state the average of perfectly " clear " days is normally above
50% of " partly cloudy " above 30, of " cloudy " under to,
of " rainy " still less. At Denver, through xx years, the actual
sunlight was 70% of the possible; many other points are even
more favoured; very many enjoy on a third to a half of the days
of the year above 00% of possible sunshine. All through the
year the atmosphere is so dry and light that meat can be pre*
served by the simplest process of desiccation. " An air mora
delicious to breathe," wrote Bayard Taylor, " cannot anywhere
be found; it is neither too sedative nor too exciting, but has that
pure, sweet, flexible quality which seems to support all one's
happiest and healthiest moods." For asthmatic and con-
sumptive troubles its restorative influence is indisputable.
Along with New Mexico and Arizona, Colorado has become
more and more a sanitarium for the other portions of the Union.
Among the secondary hygienic advantages are the numerous
mineral wells.
Flora and Fauna.— -The life zones of Colorado are simple fas
arrangement. The boreal embraces the highest mountain
altitudes; the transition belts it on both sides of the con-
tinental divide; the upper Sonoran takes in about the eastern
half of the plains region east of the mountains, and is represented
further by two small valley penetrations from Utah. Timber is
confined almost wholly to the high mountain sides, the mountain
valleys and the parks being for the most part bare. Nowhere
is the timber large or dense. The timber-line on the mountains
is at about 10,000 ft, and the snow line at about 1 1,000. It is
supposed that the forests were much richer before the settlement
of the state, which was followed by reckless consumption and
waste, and the more terrible ravages of fire. In 1872-1876 the
wooded area was estimated at 32% of the state's area. It Is
certainly much less now. The principal trees, after the yellow
and lodgepole pines, are the red-fir, so-called hemlock and cedar,
the Engelmann spruce, the Cottonwood and the aspen {Pofulnt
tremuloides). In 1809 Federal forest reserves had been created,
aggregating 4849 sq. m. in extent, and by 1910 this had been
increased to 24,528 sq. m. The reserves cover altitudes of 7000
to 14,000 ft. The rainfall is ample for their needs, but no other
reserves in the country showed in xooo such waste by fire and
pillage. The minor flora of the country is exceedingly rich.
In the plains the abundance of flowers, from spring to autumn,
is amazing.
Large game is still very abundant west of the continental
divide. The great parks arc a favourite range and shelter.
Deer and elk frequent especially the mountains of the north-
west, in Routt and Rio Blanco counties, adjoining the reserva-
tions of the Uncompahgre (White River Ute) and Uintah-
Ute Indians — from whose depredations, owing to the negligence
of Federal officials, the game of the state has suffered enormous
losses. The bison have been exterminated. Considerable bands
of antelope live in the parks and even descend to the eastern
plains, and the mule-deer, the most common of large game, is
abundant all through the mountains of the west Grizzly or
silver-tip, brown and black bears are also abundant in the same
region. Rarest of all is the magnificent mountain sheep. Game
is protected zealously, if not successfully, by the state, and it was
officially estimated in 1898 that there were then probably 7000
elk, as many mountain sheep, 25,000 antelope and 100,000 deer
within its borders (by far the greatest part in Routt and Rio
Blanco counties). Fish are not naturally very abundant, but
the mountain brooks are the finest home for trout, and these
as well as bass, cat-fish and some other varieties have been
used to stock the streams.
Soil. — The soils of the lowlands arc prevailing sandy loams,
with a covering of rich mould. The acreage of improved lands
in 1900 was returned by the federal census as 2,273,968, three
times as much being unimproved; the land improved constituted.
720
COLORADO
3-4% of tbe state's area. The lands available for agriculture
are the lowlands and the mountain parks and valleys.
Speaking generally, irrigation is essential to successful culti-
vation, but wherever irrigation, is practicable the soil proves
richly productive. Irrigation ditches having been exempted
from taxation in 1872, extensive systems of canals were soon
developed, especially after 1880. The Constitution of Colorado
declares the waters of its streams the property of the state,
and a great body of irrigation law and practice has grown up
about this provision. The riparian doctrine does not obtain in
Colorado. In no part of the semi-arid region of the country are
■the irrigation problems so diverse and difficult. In 1003 there
were, according to the governor, 10 canals more than 50 m. in
length, 51 longer than 30 m., and hundreds of reservoirs. In
1899 there were 7374 m. of main ditches. The average annual
coat of water per acre was then estimated at about 79 cents.
The acres under ditch in 1002 were greater (1,754,761) than in
any other state; and the construction cost of the system was
then $14,769,561 (an increase of 25-6% from 1899 to 1002).
There are irrigated lands in every county. Their area increased
8*9% in 1 800-1002, and 80-9% from 1890 to 1000; in the
latter year they constituted 70-9% of the improved farm-land
of the state, as against 48*8 in 1890. The land added to the
irrigated area in the decade was in 1800 largely worthless public
domain; its value in 1000 was about $29,000,000. As a result
of irrigation the Platte is often dry in eastern Colorado in the
summer, and the Arkansas shrinks so below Pueblo that little
water reaches Kansas. The water is almost wholly taken from
the rivers, but underflow is also utilized, especially in San Luis
Park. The South Platte is much the most important irrigating
stream. Its valley included 660,495 acres of irrigated land in
loot, no other valley having half so great an area. The diversion
of the waters of the Arkansas led to tbe bringing of a suit against
Colorado by Kansas in the United States Supreme Court in 1902,
on the ground that such diversion seriously and illegally lessened
the waters of the Arkansas in Kansas. In 1907 the Supreme
Court of the United States declared that Colorado had diverted
waters of the Arkansas, but, since it had not been shown that
Kansas had suffered, the case was dismissed, without prejudice
to Kansas, should it be injured in future by diversion of water
from the river. The exhaustion, or alleged exhaustion, by
irrigation in Colorado of the waters of the Rio Grande has raised
international questions of much interest between Mexico and
the United States, which were settled in 1007 by a convention
pledging the" United States to deliver 60,000 acre-feet of water
annually in tbe bed of the Rio Grande at the Acequia Madre, just
above Juarez, in case of drought this supply being diminished
proportionately to the diminution in the United States. As a
part of the plans of the national government for reclamation of
land in the arid slates, imposing schemes have been formulated
for such work in Colorado, including a great reservoir on the
Gunnison. One of the greatest undertakings of the national
reclamation service is the construction of 77 m. of canal and of
a six-mile tunnel, beneath a mountain, between the canyon of
tbe Gunnison and the valley of the Uncompahgrc, designed to
make productive some 140,000 acres in the latter valley.
Apart from mere watering, cultivation is in no way intensive.
One of the finest farming regions is the lowland valley of the
Arkansas. It is a broad, level plain, almost untimbcrcd, given
over to alfalfa, grains, vegetables and fruits. Sugar-beet culture
has been found to be exceptionally remunerative in this valley
as well as in those of the South Platte and Grand rivers. The
growth of this interest has been since 1899 a marked feature in
the agricultural development of the state; and in 1905, 1906
and 1907 the state's product of beets and of sugar was far greater
than that of any other state; in 1007, 1.523,303 tons of beets
were worked— more than two-fifths of the total for the United
States. There are various large sugar factories (in 1903, 9, and
in 1907, 16), mainly in the north; also at Grand Junction and in
the Arkansas valley. The total value of all farm property in-
creased between 1880 and 1900 from $42,000,000 to $161,045,101
and 45-9% from 1800 to 1000. In the latter year $49,954,3"
of this was in live-stock (increase 1890-1000, 121*1%), tht
remaining value in land with improvements and machinery.
The total value of farm products in 1899 was $33,048,576; of
this sum 97 % was almost equally divided between crop producti
and animal products, the forests contributing the remainder.
Of the various elements in the value of all farm produce as shown
by the federal census of 1900, live-stock, hay and grains, and
dairying represented 87-2%. The value of cereals ($4,700,271)
—of which wheat and oats represent four-fifths — is muck
exceeded by that of hay and forage ($8,159,279 in 1899). Wheat
culture increased greatly from 1800 to 1900. Flour made from
Colorado wheat ranks very high in the market. As a cereal-
producing state Colorado is, however, relatively unimportant;
nor in value of product is its hay and forage crop notable, except
that of alfalfa, which greatly surpasses that of any other state.
In 1906 the state produced 3,157,136 bushels of Indian com,
valued at $1,578,568; 8,266,538 bushels of wheat, valued at
$5,373,25°; 5*962,304 bushels of oats, valued at $2,683,077;
759.771 bushels of barley, valued at $410,276; 43,580 busbeb
of rye, valued at $24,405; and 1,596,542 tons of hay, valued at
$15,167,149. The value of vegetable products, of fruits, and of
dairy products was, relatively, equally small (only $7.346415
in 1899). Natural fruits arc rare and practically worthless.
Apples, peaches, plums, apricots, pears, cherries and melons
have been introduced. The best fruit sections are the Arkansas
valley, and in the western and south-western parts of the state.
Melons are to some extent exported, and peaches also; the
musk-melons of the Arkansas valley (Rocky Ford Canteloups)
being in demand all over the United States. The fruit industry
dates practically from 1890. The dairy industry is rapidly
increasing. In the holdings of neat cattle (1,453,971) and
sheep (2,045,577) it ranked in 1900 respectively seventeenth and
tenth among the states of the Union; in 1007, according to the
Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture, there were in the
state 1,561,712 neat cattle and 1,677,561 sheep. Stock-raising
has always been important. The parks and mountain valleys are
largely given over to ranges. The native grasses are especially
adapted for fodder. The grama, buffalo and bunch varieties
cure on the stem, and furnish throughout the winter an excellent
ranging food. These native grasses, even the thin bunch varieties
of dry hills, are surprisingly nutritious, comparing very favour-
ably with cultivated grasses. Large areas temporarily devoted
to cultivation with poor success, and later allowed to revert to
ranges, have become prosperous and even noted as stock country.
This is true of the sandhill region of eastern Colorado. The grass
flora of tbe lowlands is not so rich in variety nor so abundant
in quality as that of high altitudes. Before the plains were
fenced large herds drifted to the south in the winter, but now
sufficient hay and alfalfa are cut to feed the cattle during the
storms, which at longest are brief. An account of Colorado
agriculture would not be complete without mentioning the
depredations of the grasshopper, which are at times extra-
ordinarily destructive, as also of the " Colorado Beetle M (Dory-
pkora dccemlhteala), or common potato-bug, which has extended
its fatal activities eastward throughout the prairie states.
Minerals. — Colorado is pre-eminently a mineral region, and
to this fact it owes its colonization. It possesses unlimited
supplies, as yet not greatly exploited, of fine building stones,
some oil and asphalt, and related bituminous products, a few'
precious and semi-precious stones (especially tourmalines,
beryls and aquamarines found near Canyon near the Royal
Gorge of the Arkansas river), rare opalized and jasperized
wood (in the eastern part of the EI Paso county), considerable
wealth of lead and copper, enormous fields of bituminous coal,
and enormous wealth of the precious metals. In the exploitation
of the last there have been three periods: that before the dis-.
covery of the lead-carbonate silver ores of Leadville in 1879, in
which period gold-mining was predominant; the succeeding years
until 1804, hi which silver-mining was predominant; and the
period sincei894. in which gold has attained an overwhelming
primacy. The two metals are found in more than 50 counties.
San Miguel, Gilpin, Boulder, Clear Creek, Lake, El Paso and
COLORADO
721
Teller being the leading producers. The Cripple Creek field in
the last-named county is one of the most wonderful mining
districts, past or present, of America. Leadville, in Lake county,
Is another. The district about Silverton (product 1 870-1 000
•bout $35,000,000, principally silver and lead, and mostly after
1881) has also had a remarkable development; and Creede, in
the years of its brief prosperity, was a phenomenal silver-field.
From 1858 up to and including 1004 the state produced, accord-
ing to the State Bureau of Mines (whose statistics have since
about 1800 been brought into practical agreement with those
of the national government) a value of no less than $889,203,323
in gold, silver, lead, copper and zinc at market prices.
(If the value of silver be taken at coinage value this total
becomes vastly greater.) The yield of gold was $353,013,605 —
$229,336,007 from 1895 to 1904; of silver, $386,455,463—
$115,608,366 from 1889 to 1893; of lead, $120,742,674— its
importance beginning in 1879; of copper, $17,879,446 —
$8,441,783 from 1898 to 1904; and of zinc, $10,212,045— all
this from 1902 to 1904. Silver-mining ceased to be highly
remunerative beginning with the closing of the India mints and
repeal of the Sherman Law in 1893; since 1900 the yield has
shown an extraordinary decrease— in 1905 it was $6,945,581,
and in 1907 $7,411,652— and it is said that as a result of the
great fall in the market value of the metal the mines can now
be operated only under the most favourable conditions and by
exercise of extreme economy. In Lake county, for example,
very much of the argentiferous ore that is too low for remunera-
tive extraction (limit 1903 about $12-00 per ton) is used for
fluxes. 1 The copper output was of slight importance until 1889
— * 1 .457.749 in 1005, and $1,544,918 in 1907; and that of
zinc was nil until 1002, when discoveries made it possible to
rework for this metal enormous dumps of waste material about
the mines, and in 1006 the zinc output was valued at $5,304,884.
Lead products declined with silver, but a large output of low
ores has continued at Leadville, and in 1005 the product was
valued at $5,111,570, and in 1906 at $5,933,829. Up to 1895
the gold output was below ten million dollars yearly; from
1898 to 1904 it ran from 21*6 to 28-7 millions. In 1897 the
product first exceeded that of California. In 1907 the value
was $20,826,194. Silver values ran, in the years 1880-1902, from
1 1 -3 to 23*1 million dollars; and the quantities in the same years
from 1 x*6 to 26*3 million ounces. In 1907 it was 11,229,776 oz.,
valued at $7,411,652. Regarding again the total combined
product of the above five metals, its growth is shown by these
figures for its value in the successive periods indicated: 1858-
1870, $77,380,140; 1879-1888, $220,815,709; X889-1898,
$322,878,362; 1899-1904, $268,229,112. From 1900 to 1003
Colorado produced almost exactly a third of the total gold and
silver (market value) product of the entire country.
In addition, iron ores (almost all brown hematite) occur
abundantly, and all material for making steel of excellent
quality. But very little iron is mined, in 1907 only 11,714 long
tons, valued at $21,085. Of much more importance are the
manganiferous and the silver manganiferous ores, which are
much the richest of the country. Their product trebled from
1889 to 1003; and in 1907 the output of manganiferous ores
amounted to 09,7 1 z tons, valued at $2 5 1 ,207. A small amount
is used for spiegeleisen, and the rest as a flux.
The stratified rocks of the Great Plains, the Parks, and the
Plateaus contain enormous quantities of coal. The coal-bearing
rocks are confined to the Upper Cretaceous, and almost wholly
to the Laramie formation. The main areas are on the two
flanks of the Rockies, with two smaller fields in the Parks. The
east group includes the fields of Canyon Gty (whose product is
the ideal domestic coal of the western states), Raton and the
South Platte; the Park group includes the Cones field and the
Middle Park; the west group includes the Yampa, La Plata
and Grand River fields— the last prospectively (not yet actually)
the most valuable of all as to area and quality. About three-
1 The market value of silver varied in the years 1870-1885 from
$1-32 to $1-065 an ounce ; 1886-1893, $0*995 to $0-782; 1894-
1904. fo-630 to $05722.
VL 19*
fifths of all the coal produced in the state comes from Las Animas
and Huerfano counties. In 1 001 about a third and in 1907 nearly
two-fifths of the state's output came from Las Animas county.
The Colorado fields are superior to those of all the other Rocky
Mountain states in area, and in quality of product. In 1007
Colorado ranked seventh among the coal-producing states of the
Union, yielding 10,700,236 short tons (2*2% of the total for the
United States). The total includes every variety from typical
lignite to typical anthracite. The aggregate area of beds is
estimated by the United States Geological Survey at 18,100
sq. m. (seventh in rank of the states of the Union); and the ac-
cessible coal, on other authority, at 33,897,800,000 tons. The
industry began in 1864, in which year 500 tons were produced.
The product first exceeded one million tons in 1882, two in 1888,
three in 1890, four in 1893, five in 1900. From 1897 to xooa
the yield almost doubled, averaging 5,267,783 tons (lignite, semi-
bituminous, bituminous, and a steady average production of
60,038 tons of anthracite). About one-fifth of the total product
is made into coke, the output of which increased from 245,746
tons in 1800 to 1,421,579 tons (including a slight amount from
Utah) in 1007; in 1007 the coke manufactured in Colorado
(and Utah) was valued at $4,747,436. Colorado holds the same
supremacy for coal and coke west of the Mississippi that Penn-
sylvania holds for the country as a whole. The true bituminous
coal produced, which in 1897 was only equal to that of the
lignitk and semi-bituminous varieties (1-75 million tons), had
come by 1902 to constitute three-fourths (5-46 million tons)
of the entire coal output. Much of the bituminous coal, especi-
ally that of the Canyon City field, is so hard and clean as to be
little less desirable than anthracite; it is the favoured coal for
domestic uses in all the surrounding states.
Petroleum occurs in Fremont and Boulder counties. There
have been very few flowing wells. The product increased from
76,295 barrels in 1887 to above 800,000 in the early 'nineties;
it fell thereafter, averaging about 493.269 barrels from 1899
to 1003; in 1005 the yield was 376,238 barrels; and in 1907,
331.851 barrels. In 1905 the state ranked eleventh, in 1007
twelfth, in production of petroleum. It is mostly refined at
Florence, the centre of the older field. The Boulder district
developed very rapidly after 1002; its product is a high-grade
illuminant with paraffin base. Asphalt occurs in the high north
rim of Middle Park (c. 10,000 ft.). Tungsten is found in wolf-
ramite in Boulder county. In 1003 about 37,000 men were
employed in the mines of Colorado. Labour troubles have
been notable in state history since 1S90.
Mineral springs have already been mentioned. They are
numerous and occur in various parts of the state. The most
important are at Bucna Vista, Ouray, Wagon Wheel Gap,
Poncha or Poncho Springs (oo°-i85° F.), Canyon City, Manitou,
Idaho Springs and Glenwood Springs (i2o°-i4o° F., highly
mineralized). The last three places, all beautifully situated—
the first at the base of Pike's Peak, the second in the Clear Creek
Canyon, and the third at the junction of the Roaring Fork with
the Grand river— have an especially high repute. In x 004 it was
competently estimated that the mineral yield and agricultural
yield of the state were almost equal— somewhat above
$47,000,000 each.*
In 1900 only 4-6% of the population were engaged in manu-
factures. They are mainly dependent on the mining industry.
There are many large smelters and reduction plants'in the state,
most of them at Denver, Leadville, Durango and Pueblo; at
the latter place there are also blast-furnaces, a steel plant and
rolling mills. Use is made of the most improved methods of
treating the ore. The cyanide process, introduced about 1800,
is now one of the most important factors in the utilization of
low-grade and refractory gold and silver ores. The improved
dioxide cyanide process was adopted about 1895. The iron
and steel product— mainly at Pueblo— is of great importance,
though relatively small as compared with that of some other
stales. Nevertheless, the very high rank in coal and iron
* The mineral yield for 1007, according to The Mineral R<«
qf the United States, io/^,*mo^V!^l*%i\^V"&»
722
COLORADO
interests of the state among the states west of the Mississippi,
the presence of excellent manganifcrous ores, a central position
for distribution, and much the best railway system of any moun-
tain state, indicate that Colorado will almost certainly eventu-
ally entirely or at least largely control the trans-Mississippi
market in iron and steel. The Federal census of 1900 credited
the manufacturing establishments of the state with a capital
of $62,825,472 and a product of $102,830,137 (increase 1S00-
1900, 142*1%); of which output the gold, silver, lead and
copper smelted amounted to $44,625,305. Of the other pro-
ducts, iron and steel ($6,108,295), flouring and grisfc-rmU
products ($4,528,062), foundry and machine-shop products
($3,986,985), steam railway repair and construction work
($3,141,602), printing and publishing, wholesale slaughtering
and meat packing, malt liquors, lumber and timber, and coLc
were the most important. The production of beet sugar fa
relatively important, as more of it was produced in Colorado in
1905 than in any other state; in 1906 334,386,000 lb (out of
a grand total for the United States of 967,224,000 lb) were
manufactured here; the value of the product in 1005 was
$7,198,982, being 29*2% of the value of all the beet sugar
produced in the United States in that year. 1
Railways. — On the xst of January 1909 there were 5403 05 m.
of railway in operation. The Denver Pacific, built from Chcy r n nc .
Wyoming, reached Denver in June 1870, and the Kansas Pacific,
from Kansas City, in August of the same year. Then followed
the building of the Denver & Rio Grande (1871), to which the
earlier development of the state is largely due. The great 5a nta
Fe" (1873), Burlington (1882), Missouri Pacific (1887) and Rock
Island (1888) systems reached Pueblo, Denver and Colorado
Springs successively from the east. In 1888 the Colorado Mid land
started from Colorado Springs westward, up the Ute Pass,
through the South Park to Lcadvillc, and thence over the con-
tinental divide to Aspen and Glcnwood Springs. The Color? - J o &r
Southern, a consolidation of roads connecting Colorado with the
south, has also become an important system.
Population. — The population of the state in 1870 was 39,864 ;
in 1880, 194,327*; »a 1890, 4i3i*49; in 1900, 530JOOJ
and in 1910, 799,024. Of the 1900 total, males constituted
54-7%, native born 83*1%. The 10,654 persons of coloured
race included 1437 Indians and 647 Chinese and Japanese, ihe
rest being negroes. Of 185,708 males twenty-one or more years
of age 7689 (4*1%) were illiterate (unable to write), including
a fourth of the Asiatics, a sixth of the Indians, one-nineteenth
of the negroes, one in twenty-four of the foreign born, and one
in 147*4 of the native born. Of 165 incorporated cities, towns
and villages, 27 had a population exceeding 2000, and 7 a
population of above 5000. The latter were Denver (133,850),
Pueblo (28,137), Colorado Springs (2 1,085), Lcadvillc (12,453),
Cripple Creek (10,147), Boulder (6150) and Trinidad (5345}*
Crcede, county-seat of Mineral county, was a phenomenal silver
camp from its discovery in 1891 until 1893; in 1892 it numbered
already 7000 inhabitants, but the rapid depreciation of silver
soon thereafter caused most of its mines to be dosed, and in igio
the population was only 741. Grand Junction (pop. in 1910,
7754) derives importance from its railway connexions, and from
the distribution of the fruit and other products of the irrigated
valley of the Grand river. Roman Catholics are in the majority
among church adherents, and Methodists and Presbyterians most
1 The special census of manufactures of 1905 was concerned only
with the manufacturing establishments of the state conducted under
the so-called factory system. The capital invested in such esta bti? h ■
meats was $107 ,663,300, and the product was valued at $100,143,094.
The corresponding figures for 1900 reduced to the same standard
for purposes of comparison were $58,172,865 and $89,067 >g 79,
Thus during the five years the capital invested in factories increased
85-1%, and the factory product 124%. The increase in product
would undoubtedly have been much greater but for the lutour
disturbances (described later in the article), which occurred during
this interval. Of the total product in 1905 more than four-Mi hs
were represen ted bjr the smelting of lead, copper and sine orci,
the manufacture of iron and steel, the production of coke, and the j
refining of petroleum. The value of the flour and grist-mill product
' Ceasus hgurc* More 1890 do not include Indians on reservations.
numerous of the Protestant denominations. The South Vtt
Indian Reservation in the south of the state is the home of the
Moache, Capote and Wiminuche Utes, of Shoshonean stock.
Administration. — The first and only state constitution wis
adopted in 1876. It requires a separate popular vote on any
amendment-— though as many as six may be (since 1000) voted
on at one election. Amendments have been rather freely
adopted. The General Assemblies are biennial, sessions limited
to 00 days (45 before 1884); state and county elections are held
at the same time (since 1902). A declared intention to become
a United States citizen ceased in 1902 to be-aufficient qualifica-
tion for voters, full citizenship (with residence qualifications)
being made requisite. An act of 1909 provides that election
campaign expenses shall be borne " only by the state and by
the candidates," and authorized appropriations for this purpose.
Full woman suffrage was adopted in 1893 (by a majority of
about 6000 votes). Women have served in the legislature and
in many minor offices; they are not eligible as jurors. The
governor may veto any separate item in an appropriatka
bill. The state treasurer and auditor may not hold office during
two consecutive terms. Convicts are deprived of the privilege
of citizenship only during imprisonment. County government is
of the commissioner type. There is a State Voter's League
similar to that of Illinois.
In 1907 the total bonded debt of the state was $393,500; the
General Assembly in 1906 authorized the issue of $000,000 worth
of bonds to fund outstanding military certificates of indebtedness
incurred in suppressing insurrections at Cripple Creek and
elsewhere in 1003-1904. The question of issuing bonds for all
outstanding warrants was decided to be voted on by the people
in November 1908. Taxation has been very erratic. From
1877 to 1893 the total assessment rose steadily from $3,453,046
to $238,722,417; it then fell at least partly owing to the de-
preciation in and uncertain values of mining property, and from
1S94 to 1900 fluctuated between 192*2 and 216*8 million dollars;
in 1901 it was raised to $465^74,288, and fluctuated in the
years following; the estimated total assessment for 2907 was
S365.coo.oco.
Of charitable and reformatory institutions & soldiers' and
sailors' home (1889) is maintained at Monte Vista, a school for
the deaf and blind (1874) at Colorado Springs, an insane asylum
(1879) at Pueblo, a home for dependent and neglected children
(1895) at Denver, an industrial school for girls (1887) near
Morrison, and for boys (1881) at Golden, a reformatory (1889)
at Buena Vista, and a penitentiary (1868) at Canyon City.
Denver was one of the earliest cities in the country to institute
special courts for juvenile offenders; a reform that is widening
in influence and promise. The parole system is in force in the
state reformatory; and in the industrial school at Golden (for
youthful offenders) no locks, bars or cells are used, the theory
being to treat the inmates as "students." The state has a
parole law and an indeterminate-sentence law for convicts.
The public school system of Colorado dates from 1861, when
a school law was passed by the Territorial legislation; this law
was superseded by that of 1876, which with subsequent amend-
ments is still in force. In expenditure for the public schools
per capita of total population from 1890 to 1903 Colorado was
one of a small group of leading states. In 1906 there were
187,836 persons of school age (from 6 to 21) in the state, and of
these 144,007 were enrolled in the schools; the annual cost of
education was $4-34 per pupil. In 1902-1903, 92-5 % of persons
from 5 to 18 years of age were enrolled in the schools. The
institutions of the state are: the University of Colorado, at
Boulder, opened 1877; the School of Mines, at Golden (1873);
the Agricultural College, at Fort Collins (1870); the Normal
School (1891) at Greeley; and the above-mentioned industrial
schools. All are supported by special taxes and appropriations—
the Agricultural College receiving also the usual aid from the
federal government. Experiment stations in connexion with the
college are maintained at different points. Colorado College
(1874) at Colorado Springs, Christian but not denominmtional.
and the University of Denver, Methodist, are on independent
COLORADO
7*3
foundation*. The United Stale* maintains an Indian School at
Grand Junction.
History. — According as one regards the Louisiana purchase
as including or not including Texas to the Rio Grande (in the
territorial meaning of the state of Texas of 2845), one may say
that all of Colorado east of the meridian of the head of the Rio
Grande, or only that north of the Arkansas and east of the
meridian of its head, passed to the United States in 1803. At
all events the corner between the Rio Grande and the Arkansas
was Spanish from 2819 to 1845, when it became American
territory as a part of the state of Texas; and in 1850, by a
boundary arrangement between that state and the federal
government, was incorporated in the public domain. The
territory west of the divide was included in the Mexican cession
of 1848. Within Colorado there are pueblos and cave dwellings
commemorative of the Indian period and culture of the south-
west. Coronado may have entered Colorado in i&o; there
are also meagre records of indisputable Spanish explorations
in the south in the latter half of the 18th century (friars fescal-
lante and Dominguez in 2776). In 2806 Zebulon M. Pike,
mapping the Arkansas and Red rivers of the Louisiana Territory
for the government of the United States, followed the Arkansas
into Colorado, incidentally discovering the famous peak that
bears his name. In 1819 Major S. H. Long explored the -valleys
of the South Platte and Arkansas, pronouncing them unin-
habited and uncultivable (as he also did the valley of the Mis-
souri, whence the idea of the " Great American Desert ")• His
work also is commemorated by a famous summit of the Rockies.
There is nothing more of importance in Colorado annals until
2858. From 1804 to 1854 the whole or parts of Colorado were
included, nominally, under some half-dozen territories carved
successively out of the Trans-Mississippi country ; but not one of
these had any practical significance for an uninhabited land. In
1828 (to 2832) a fortified trading post was established near La
Junta in the Arkansas valley on the Santa F£ trail; in 1834-2836
several private forts were erected on the Platte; in 2842 the
first overland emigrants to the Pacific coast crossed the state,
and in 1846-1847 the Mormons settled temporarily at the old
Mexican town of Pueblo. John C. Fremont had explored the
region in 1842-1843 (and unofficially in later years for railway
routes), and gave juster reports of the country to the world than
his predecessors. Commerce was tributary in these years to the
(New) Mexican town of Taos.
Colorado was practically an unknown country when In 1858
gold was discovered in the plains, on the tributaries of the South
Platte, near Denver. In 1859 various discoveries were made
in the mountains. The history of Denver goes back to this time.
Julesburg, in the extreme north-east corner, at the intersection
of the Platte valley and the overland wagon route, became
transiently important during the rush of settlers that followed.
Emigration from the East was stimulated by the panic and bard
times following 1857. During i860, 1861 and 1862 there was
a continuous stream of immigration. Denver (under its present
name), Black Hawk, Golden, Central City, Mount Vernon and
Nevada City were all founded in 1859; Breckenridge, Empire,
Gold Hill, Georgetown and Mill City date from i860 and 1861.
The political development of the next few years was very com-
plicated. " Arapahoe County/' including all Colorado, was
organized as a part of Kansas Territory in 1858; but a delegate
was also sent to Congress to work for the admission of an inde-
pendent territory (called "Jefferson"). At the same time,
early in i860, a movement for statehood was inaugurated, a
constitution being framed and submitted to the people, who
rejected it, adopting later in the year a constitution of terri-
torial government Accordingly the Territory of Jefferson arose,
assuming to rule over six degrees of latitude (37°-43°) and eight
of longitude (ioa°-i io°). Then there was the Kansas territorial
government also, and under this a full county organization was
maintained. Finally, peoples' court, acting wholly without
reference to Kansas, and with no more than suited them (some
districts refusing taxes) to the local " provisional " legislature,
secured justice in the mining country. The provisional legis-
lature of the Territory of Jefferson maintained a wholly illegal
but rather creditable existence somewhat precariously and
ineffectively until 1861. Its acts, owing to the indifference of
the settlers, had slight importance. Some, such as the first
charter of Denver, were later re-enacted under the legal territorial
government, organized by the United States in February 1861.
Colorado City was the first capital, but was soon replaced by
Golden, which was the capital from 1862 until 1868, when Denver
was made the seat of government (in 1881 permanently, by vote
of the people). In 2862 some Texas forces were defeated by
Colorado forces in an attempt to occupy the territory for the
Confederacy. From 2864 to 1870 there was trouble with the
Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians. A sanguinary attack on an
Indian camp in Kiowa county in 2864 is known as the Sand
Creek Massacre. In 2867 the Republican party had prepared
for the admission of Colorado as a state, but the enabling act was
vetoed by President Johnson, and statehood was not gained
until 2876. Finally, under a congressional enabling act of the
3rd of March 1875, a constitution was framed by a convention
at Denver (20th of December 1875 to 14th of March 1876) and
adopted by the people on the 1st of July 2876. The admission
of Colorado to the Union was thereupon proclaimed on the 1st
of August 2876.
From this time on the history of the state 'was long largely
that of her great mining camps. After 2890 industrial con-
ditions were confused and temporarily set greatly backward
by strikes and lockouts in the mines, particularly in 1894, 1896-
1897 and 2903-1904, several times threatening civil war and
necessitating the establishment of martial law. Questions of
railways, of franchises, union scales and the recognition of the
union in contracts, questions of sheep and cattle interests,
politics, dvic, legal and industrial questions, all entered into
the economic troubles of these years. The Colorado " labour
wars " were among the most important struggles between labour
and capital, and afforded probably the most sensational episodes
in the story of all labour troubles in the United States in these
years. A state board of arbitration was created in 1896, but
. its usefulness was impaired by an opinion of the state attorney-
general (in 2901) that it could not enforce subpoenas, compel
testimony or enforce decisions. A law establishing an eight-
hour day for underground miners and smelter employees (1899)
was unanimously voided by the state supreme court, but in 2902
the people amended the constitution and ordered the general
assembly to re-enact the law for labourers in mines, smelters and
dangerous employments. Following the repeal of the Sherman
Law and other acts and tendencies unfavourable to silver coinage
in 2893 and thereafter, the silver question became the dominant
issue in politics, resulting in the success of the Populist-Demo-
cratic fusion party in three successive elections, and permanently
and greatly altering prior party organizations.
The governors of Colorado have been as follows:—
Territorial.
W. Gilpin . . . 1861
E. M. McCook .
1869
J. Evans . » . 1862
S. H. Elbert
2873
A. dimming* . € 1865
E. M. McCook .
1874
A. C Hunt. . . 1867
J. L. Routt
•
- I87J
Sic
ite.
J. L. Routt
F. W. Pitkin .
Republican
1876
M
X
J. B. Grant
B. H. Eaton
Democrat
Republican
1885
A. Adams .
Democrat
1887
J. A. Cooper .
J. L. Routt
D. H. Waite .
Republican
1890
„
2891
Populist
1893
A. W. M'Intirc .
Republican
1895
A. Adams .
Dein.-Populist
1897
C. S. Thomas .
»»
1899
J. B. Oman
1. H. Pcabody .
A. Adams .
w
1901
Republican
1903.
Democrat
I905 1
Jesse F. M'Donald
Henry A. Buchtcl
Republican
I905 1
, f
1907
John H. Shafroth
Democrat
1909
1 Adams was inaugurated on the- ukSx <& \*Naar>i,>Datf«0»*».
72*
COLORADO RIVER
Authorities.— For topography and general description : Hayden
and Assistants, reports on Colorado. U.S. Department of the Interior,
Geological ud Geographical Suney of the Territories (13 vols.,
lS67-ii;H} H various report*, especially annual report for 1874;
Captain J. C. Frtmont. Rrpatt of the Exploring Expedition to the
Rocky Mountains in J&f*. published 1 845 as Congressional document
^ath Congress, and Session. House Executive Document No. 166,
and various other editions. Other early exploring reports are:
TtseExpediiioniofZebulonMonignmeryPike . . . Through Louisiana
Territory and in New Spain in the Years 1805-6-7, edited by E. Coucs
(j vols., New York, 1895) ; Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh
to the Rocky Mountains, i$iQ-£O t under the Command of Major S. a.
Lent 1 compiled . . . by Edwin James (3 vols., London; 2 vols.,
PliiLidcEphia r lSij); Captain M. Stansbury, Exploration of the
Yattey of the Great Salt lake fa vols., Philadelphia, 1852; also as
Senate Executive Document No. 3, 32nd Congress Special Session);
Francis Parkm.in r The Cuiifonitt and Oregon Trail (New York,
i&49; revised cd,, Boston, i&ija), — a narrative of personal experi-
ence, as art* the two following books: Bayard Taylor, Colorado;
A Summer Trip (New York, 1867) ; Samuel Bowles, The Switzerland
of America, A Summer Vacation in Colorado (Springfield, Mass.,
1869); F. Fossett, Colorado: A Historical, Descriptive and Statistical
Work on the Rocky Mountain Cold and Silver Region (Denver, 1878;
New York, 1879, and ed v 1880).
On fauna and flora: United States Biological Survey, Bulletins
(especially No. 10), &c. ; the Biennial Report of the State Game and
Fish Commissioner; United States Geological Surrey, jffth Animal
Report, pl+ V, r and 20th A.R., pt. 5- an ^ various publications of the
United States. Forestry Division fur forest and forest rescires-
Porte] 1 and Coulter, Synopsis of the Flora of Colorado (1879) ; and
scattered papers in scEea tine periodicals. On climate: United States
Depart men t of Agriculture, Ctftorado Climate and Crop Service
(monthly)* On soil and apiculture; Annual Report of the Stale
Board of Agriculture [since 1878), of the State Agricultural College,
Agricultural Experiment Station (since 1687), and of the State
Boartl of Horticukuie; Biennial Report of the State Board of Land
Commissioners (since 1879); publication* of the United Stales
Department of Agriculture, various bulletins on agrostology, water
supply and irrigation, &c (Sec Department bibliographic^;
United States Census iooq (States), Bulletin 177, " Agriculture in
Colorado *' (Special), Bulletin 10. " Irrigation, in the United States *'
(toot), Ac.; United States Geological Sur\ r cy, various materials,
consult bibliographies in its Bulletins too, 177, .215, 301, Hie. On
manufactures l publications of United States Census, looo. and the
special census of manufacture*! J 9°5> On mineral industriti :
United States Geological Survey ( Annual Report, annual volume
00 " Mineral Resources ": also the annual Mineral industry (Roth-
well's New York-London); Colorado State Bureau of Mines,
Biennial Report, Inspector of Coal Mines, Biennial Report (since
I0&i-tS&4); and an enormous quantity of information in the
publications of the United States Geological Survey- For labour
troubles see below. On railway.*, see annual Statistics of Railways
of the United States tnterstatc Commerce Commission, and Boor's
Manual (Annual, New York). Riper i t ccc Index to Reports of the
Chief of Engineer*, United btalcs Army (1 vols., 1900, covering
1S&&-IQO0); publications United States Geological Survey* On
papulation: United States Census, 1900, Administration \ J. W,
Mill-.* Annotated Statutes of the State of Colorado . . , (i vols,,
Denver, 1 Best : vol. iii. 1096); Helen L, Sumner, Equal Suffrage in
Colorado (New York, 1909); J, E T Snook, Colorado History and
Government (Denver, 1904), is a reliable school epitome.
On history v F. L, Paxwn, ** A Preliminary Bibliography of
Colorado History," being vot iti.» No r 3, of Unnerjily of Colorado
Studies (June Jpo6); H. H* Bancroft, Hi story of , , . Nevada T
Colorado and Wyoming, iS4&~i8£8 (San Francisco. 1890); on
labour conditions and troubles consult: Reports ol the State Bureau
of Labour Statistics (since i&9*)^ Annual Reports of the State Board
of Arbitration (since 1898); publications of United States Bureau
of Labour (bibliographies) ; alto especially Senate Document Uz f
58th Congress, jrd Sow-Eon. covering Che years 1860-1904. See also
C kittle Cheek and Leadyills,
COLORADO RIVER, a stream in the south of the Argentine
Republic It has its sources on the eastern slopes of the Andes
in the lat. of the Chilean volcano Tinguiririca (about 34 48' S.),
and pursues a general E.S.E. course to the Atlantic, where
it discharges through several channels of a delta extending
from lat. 39 30' to 39° 50' S. Its total length is about 620 m.,
of which about 200 m. from the coast up to Pichemahuida is
navigable for vessels of 7 ft. draft It has been usually described
as being formed by the confluence of the Grande and Barrancas,
elected on the return of the vote, which had been notoriously cor-
rupted in Denver and elsewhere. The Republican legislature, after
investigating the election and upon receiving from Pea body a written
promise that he would resign in twenty-four hours, declared on the
1 6th of March that Pcabody was elected. His resignation on the
27th oiMsrch made Lieutenant-Governor M' Donald governor of the
but as the latter is only a small stream compared with the
Grande it is better described as a tributary, and the Grande n
a part of the main river under another name. After leaving the
vicinity of the Andes the Colorado flows through a barren, arid
territory and receives no tributary of note except the Cunco,
which has its sources in the Pampa territory and is considered
to be part of the ancient outlet of the now closed lacustrine basin
of southern Mcndoza. The bottom lands of the Colorado in its
course across Patagonia are fertile and wooded, but their am
is too limited to support more than a small, scattered population.
COLORADO RIVER, a stream in the south-west of the United
States of America, draining a part of the high and arid platen
between the Rocky mountains and the Sierra Nevada in Cai-
fornia. The light rainfall scarcely suffices over much of the
river's course to make good the toss by evaporation from the
waters drained from mountain snows at Its source. Its bead*
waters are known as the Green river, which rises in north-we£
Wyoming and after a course of some 700 m. due south unites
in south-east Utah with the Grand river, flowing down froa
Colorado, to form the main trunk of the Colorado proper. The
Green cuts its way through the Uinta mountains of Wyoming;
then flowing intermittently in the open, it crosses successive
uplifts in a series of deep gorges, and flows finally at the foot of
canyon walls 1500 ft. high near its junction with the Grand
The Colorado in its course below the junction has formed
a region that is one of the most wonderful of the world, not only
for its unique and magnificent scenery, but also because it affords
the most remarkable example known of the work of differential
weathering and erosion by wind and water and the exposure
of geologic strata on an enormous scale. Above the Paria the
river flows through scenery comparatively tame until it reaches
the plateau of the Marble Canyon, some 60 m. in length. The
walls here are at first only a few score of feet in height, bat
increase rapidly to almost 5000 ft. At its southern end is the
Little Colorado. Above this point eleven rivers with steep
mountain gradients have joined either the Green or. the Grand
or their united system. The Little Colorado has cut a trench
1800 ft deep into the plateau in the last 27 m. as it approaches
the Colorado, and empties into it 2625 ft above the sea. Here
the Colorado turns abruptly west directly athwart the f oM t
and fault line of the plateau, through the Grand Canyon ($.*.)
of the Colorado, which is 21 7 m. long and from 4 to 20 m. wide
between the upper cliffs. The walls, 4000 to 6000 ft. high, drop
in successive escarpments of 500 to 1600 ft, banded in f pifrnH
colours, toward the gloomy narrow gorge of the present river.
Below the confluence of the Virgin river of Nevada the Colorado
abruptly turns again, this time southward, and flows as the
boundary between Arizona and California and in part between.
Arizona and Nevada, and then through Mexican territory, same
450 m. farther to the Gulf of California. Below the Black
Canyon the river lessens in gradient, and in its lower course flews
in a broad sedimentary valley— a distinct estuarine pla in extend-
ing northward beyond Yuma— and the channel through much
of this region is bedded in a dyke-like embankment lying above
the flood-plain over which the escaping water spills in *ni * of
flood. This dyke cuts off the flow of the river to the remarkable
low area in southern California known as the Salton Sink, or
Coahuila Valley, the descent to which from the river near Yuma
is very much greater than the fall in the actual river-bed from
Yuma to the gulf. In the autumn of 1004. the diversion flow
from the river into a canal heading in Mexican territory a few
miles below Yuma, and intended for irrigation of California
south of the Sink, escaped control, and the river, taking the canal
as a. new channel, recreated in California a great inland sea— to
the bed of which it had frequently been turned formerly, for
example, in 1884 and 1891— and for a time practically abin-
doned its former course through Mexican territory to the Gulf
of California. But it was effectively dammed in the early P*rt
of 1907 and returned to its normal course, from which, however,
there was still much leakage to Salton Sea; in July 1907 the
permanent dam was completed. From the Black Canyon to the
sea the Colorado normally flows through a desert-like blfPj
COLORADO SPRINGS— COLOSSAE
725
to the west of which, in Mexico, is Laguna Maquata (or Salada),
tying in the so-called Pattic Basin, which was formerly a part
of the Gulf of California, and which is frequently partially
flooded (like Coahuila Valley) by the delta waters of the Colorado.
Qf the total length of the Colorado, about 2200 m., 500 m. or
more from the mouth are navigable by light steamers, bnt
channel obstacles make all navigation difficult at low water,
and impossible about half the year above Mojavc. The whole
area drained by the river and its tributaries is about 225,000
sq. m.; and it has been estimated by Major J. W. Powell that
in its drainage basin there are fully 200,000 sq. m. that have
been degraded on an average 6000 ft. It is still a powerful
eroding stream in the canyon portion, and its course below the
canyons has a shifting bed much obstructed by bars built of
sediment carried from the upper course. The desert country
toward the mouth is largely a sandy or gravelly aggradation
plain of the river. The regular floods are in May and June.
Others, due to rains, arc rare. The rise of the water at such
times is extraordinarily rapid. Enormous drift is left in the
canyons 30 or 40 ft. above the normal level. The valley near
Yuma is many miles wide, frequently inundated, and remark-
ably fertile; it is often called the " Nile of America " from its
resemblance in climate, fertility, overflows and crops. These
alluvial plains are covered with a dense growth of mesquite,
cottonwood, willow, arrowwood, quelite and wild hemp. Irri-
gation is essential to regular agriculture. There is a fine delta
in the gulf. The Colorado is remarkable for exceedingly high
tides at its mouth and for destructive bores.
In 1540, the second year that Spaniards entered Arizona,
they discovered the Colorado. Hernando de Alarcon co-opera-
ting with F. V. de Coronado, explored with ships the Gulf of
California and sailed up the lower river; Mclchior Diaz, march-
ing along the shores of the gulf, likewise reached the river; and
Captain Garcia Lopez de Cardenas, marching from Zufti, reached
the Grand Canyon, but could not descend its walls. In 1604
Juan de Oftate crossed Arizona from New Mexico and descended
the Santa Maria, Bill Williams and Colorado to the gulf. The
name Colorado was first applied to the present Colorado Chiquito,
and probably about 1630 to the Colorado of to-day. But up
to 1869 great portions of the river were still unknown. James
White, a miner, in 1867, told a picturesque story (not generally
accepted as true) of making the passage of the Grand Canyon
on the river. In 1869, and in later expeditions, the feat was
accomplished by Major J. W. Powell. There have been since
then repeated explorations and scientific studies.
See Cf. E. Dutton, " Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon/* U.S.
Geological Survey, Monograph IT. (1882); J. W. Powell. Exploration
of the Colorado River (Washington, 1875), and Canyons of the Colorado
(Meadville, Pa. 1895); F* S. Dcllcnbauzh, Romance of the Colorado
Rher (New York, 1902), and Canyon Voyag* (1908): G. W. James,
Wonders of the Colorado Desert (2 vols., Boston, 1906).
COLORADO SPRINGS, a city and the county-seat of El Paso
county, Colorado, U.S.A., about 75 m. S. of Denver. Pop.
(1800) 11,140; (1000) 21,085, of whom 2300 were foreign-born;
(1910) 29,078. The dty is served by the Atchison, Topeka
& Santa Fe, the Denver & Rio Grande, the Chicago, Rock Island
& Pacific (of which the city is a terminus), the Colorado &
Southern,' the Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek District (con-
trolled by the Colorado & Southern), and the Colorado Midland
railways, of which the first three are continental systems.
Continuous on the west with Colorado Springs is Colorado City
(pop. in 1000, 29x4), one of the oldest settlements of Colorado,
and the first capital (1861). Colorado Springs is superbly
situated where the Rocky Mountains rise from the great plains
of the prairie states, surrounded on all sides by foothills save
in the south-east, where it is open to the prairie. To the south
of the mesa (tableland) on which it lies is the valley of Fountain
Creek. To the west is the grand background of the canyon-riven
Rampart range, with Pike's Peak (q.v.) dominating a half-dozen
other peaks (among them Cameron Cone, Mt. Rosa, Cheyenne
Mt.) 9000 to x 2,000 ft. in height. Monument Creek traverses
the city. The streets are of generous width (100-140 ft.), and are
well shaded by trees. There are several fine parks. The dty is
the seat of a state asylum for the deaf, dumb and blind, of t
printers' home for union men, which was endowed in 1892 by
Anthony J. Drcxcl and George W. Childs, and of Colorado
College (1874), one of the leading educational institutions of
the Rocky Mountain states, and the oldest institution for higher
education in the state. The college is coeducational and non-
sectarian. In 1908 it had a permanent endowment of about
$425,000, a faculty of 46 and 607 students; the library con-
tained 40,000 bound volumes and as many pamphlets. The
departments of the institution arc a college of arts; schools of
engineering (1003), music, and (1906) forestry; and the Cutler
Academy, a preparatory school under the control of the college.
In 1005 Gen. W. J. Palmer (1836-1009) and W. A. Bell gave to
the college Manitou Park, a tract of forest land covering about
13,000 acres and situated about 20 m. from Colorado Springs.
Bright sunshine and a pleasant climate (mean annual tempera-
ture about 48° F., rainfall 14 in., falling almost wholly from
April to September, relative humidity 59), combined with
beautiful scenery, have made the dty a favourite health resort
and place of residence. Land deeds for dty property have
always exduded saloons. The municipality owns and operates
the water system, water being drawn from lakes near Pike's
Peak. The scenery about the dty is remarkable. Manitou
(6100-6300 ft.) a popular summer resort, lies about 6 m. (by
ran) north-west of Colorado Springs, in a glen at the opening
of Ute Pass (so-named because it was formerly used by the Ute
Indians), with the mountains rising from its edge. Its springs
of soda and iron belong to the class of weak compound carbon-
ated soda waters. In the neighbourhood are the Cave of the
Winds, the Grand Caverns, charming glens, mountain lakes and
picturesque canyons; and the Garden of the Gods (owned by
the dty) — approached between two tremendous masses of red
rock 330 ft. high, and strewn (about 500 acres) with great rocks
and ridges of brightly coloured sandstone, whose grotesque shapes
and fantastic arrangement have suggested a playground of
superhuman beings. At the southern end of the Rampart
range is Cheyenne Mt. (0407 ft.), on whose slope was buried
Helen Hunt Jackson (" H.H."), who has left many pictures of
this country in her stories. The two Cheyenne Canyons, with
walls as high as 1000 ft. and beautiful falls, and the road
over the mountain side toward Cripple Creek, afford exquisite
views. Monument Park (10 m. N.) is a tract of fantastically
eroded sandstone rocks, similar to those in the Garden of the
Gods.
In 1859 a winter mining party coming upon the sunny valley
near the present Manitou, near the old Fontaine-qui-Bouille,
settled " El Dorado." Colorado City is practically on the same
site. In 1870, as part of the town development work of the
Denver & Rio Grande railway, of which General W. J. Palmer
was the president, a land company founded Colorado Springs,
In 1872 Manitou (first La Fontaine) was founded. Colorado
Springs was laid out in 1871, was incorporated in 1872, and was
first chartered as a dty In 1878. A new charter (May 1009)
provided for the recall of elective officials. A road over the Ute
Pass to South Park and Leadviue was built, and at one time
about x 2,000 horses and mules were employed in freighting to
the Leadvillc camps. The Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific rail-
way reached the dty in 1888. The greatest part of the Cripple
Creek mining properties is owned in Colorado Springs, where the
exchange is one of the greatest in the world.
COLOSSAE, once the great dty of south-west Phrygia, was
situated on rising ground (1x50 ft) on the left bank of the
Lycus (Chunk Su) t a tributary of the Maeander, at the upper
end of a narrow gorge 2} m. long, where the river runs between
cliffs from 50 to 60 ft. high. It stood on the great trade route
from Sardis to Cdaenae and Iconhim, and was a large, prosperous
dty (Herod, vil. 30; Xenophon, Anab. 1. 1, §6), until it was
ruined by the foundation of Laodicea in a more advantageous
position. The town was celebrated for its wool, which was
dyed a purple colour called cohssinus. Colossae was the seat
of an early Christian church, the result of St **»!!* va&*a*
at Ephcsua, Vhfifetfi v^" 8 ^ v*aa8r* NwsxAw^Vj ^\M^w»a^
726
COLOSSAL CAVERN— COLOSSIANS
The church, to which St Paul wrote a letter, was mainly com-
posed of mingled Greek and Phrygian elements deeply imbued
with fantastic and fanatical mysticism. Colossae lasted until
the 7th and 8th centuries, when it was gradually deserted under
pressure of the Arab invasions. Its place was taken by Khonae
(Khouas)—* strong fortress on a rugged spur of Mt. Kadmus,
3 m. to the south, which became a place of importance during
the wars between the Byzantines and Turks, and was the
birthplace of the historian, Nicetas Khoniates. The worship of
angels alluded to by St Paul (Col. ii. 18), and condemned in the
4th century by a council at Laodicca, reappears in the later
worship of St Michael, in whose honour a celebrated church,
destroyed by the Seljuks in the 12th century, was built on the
right bank of the Lycus.
See Sir W. M. Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, vol. i.
COLOSSAL CAVERN, a cave in Kentucky, U.S.A., the main
entrance of which is at the foot of a steep hill beyond Eden
Valley, and 1} m. from Mammoth Cave. It is connected with
what has long been known as the Bed Quilt Cave. Several
entrances found by local explorers were rough and difficult.
They were dosed when the property was bought in 1806 by the
Louisville & Nashville railway and a new approach made as
indicated on the accompanying map. From the surface to the
floor is 240 ft.; under Chester Sandstone and in the St Louis
Limestone. Fossil corals fix the geological age of the rock.
The temperature is uniformly 54 Fahr., and the atmosphere
is optically and chemically pure. Lovely incrustations alternate
with queer and grotesque figures. There are exquisite gypsum
rosettes and intricately involved hclictites.
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Tremendous forces have been at work, suggesting earthquakes
and eruptions; but really all is due to the chemical and mechani-
cal action of water. The so-called " Ruins of Carthage " fill a
hall 400 ft long by 100 ft. wide and 30 ft. high, whose flat roof
is a vast homogeneous limestone block. Isolated detached
blocks measure from 50 to 100 ft. in length. Edgar Vaughan
and \V. L. Marshall, civil engineers, surveyed every part of the
cave. Vaughan*s Dome is 40 ft. wide, 300 ft. long, and 79 ft.
high. Numerous other domes exist, and many deep pits. The
1 pUcc oi all is the Colossal Dome, which used to be
entered only from the apex by windlass and a rope reaching
135 ft. to the floor. This is now used only for illumination by
raising and lowering a fire-basket. The present entrance is by 1
gateway buttressed by alabaster shafts, one of which, 75 ft.
high, is named Henry Clay's Monument. The dome walls arise
in a series of richly tinted rings, each 8 or xo ft. thick, and eaca
fringed by stalactites. The symmetry is remarkable, and ite
reverberations are strangely musical. The Pearly Fool, in a
chamber near a pit 86 ft. deep, glistens with countless ate
pearls. The route beyond is between rows of stately shafts,
and ends in a copious chalybeate spring. Blind flies, spkim,
beetles and crickets abound; and now and then a blind crawfiA
darts through the waters; but as compared with many cavers
the fauna and flora are not abundant. It is conjectured, not
without some reason, that there is a connexion, as yet undis-
covered, between the Colossal and the Mammoth caves. It
seems certain that Eden Valley, which now lies between them,
is a vast " tumble-down " of an immense cavern that formerly
united them into one. (H. C H.)
COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, the twelfth book of the
New Testament, the authorship of which is ascribed to the
Apostle Paul Colossae, like the other Phrygian cities of
Laodicca and Hicrapolis, had not been visited by Paul, but owed
its belief in Jesus Christ to Epaphras, a Colossian, who had beta
converted by Paul, perhaps in Ephcsus, and had laboured not
only in his native dty but also in the adjacent portions of the
Lycus valley, — a Christian in whom Paul reposed the greatest
confidence as one competent to interpret the gospel of whose
truth Paul was convinced (i. 7; iv. 12, 13). This Epaphras,
like the majority of the Colossians, was a Gentile. It is probable,
however, both from the letter itself and from the fact that
Colossae was a trade centre, that Jews were there with their
synagogues (cf. also Josephus, Ant. xii. 149). And it is further
probable that some of the Gentiles, who afterwards became
Christians, were either Jewish proselytes or adherents who paid
reverence to the God of the Jews. At all events, the letter
indicates a sensitiveness on the part of the Christians not only
to oriental mysticism and thcosophy (cf. Sir W. M. Ramsay,
Cities and Bishoprics of Pkrygia, and Church in UU Rome*
Empire), but also to the Judaism of the Diaspora.
Our first definite knowledge of the Colossian Church data
from the presence of Epaphras in Rome in a.d. 62-04 (or *-&
56-58), when Paul was a prisoner. He arrived with new,
perhaps with a letter (J. R. Harris, Expositor, Dec. x8oS, pp.
404 ff.), touching the state of religion in Colossae. Paul leans,
to his joy, of their faith, hope and love; of the order and stability
of their faith; and of their reception of Christ Jesus the Lord
(i. 4. 8; ii. 5-7)' He sees no sign of an attack upon him or aa
gospel. On the contrary, loyalty to him and sympathy with
him in his sufferings are everywhere manifest (i. 9, 24; ii. 1;
iv. 8); and the gospel of Christ is advancing here as elsewhere
ft. 6). At the same time he detects a lack of cheerfulness and a
lack of spiritual understanding in the Church. The joy of the
gospel, expressing itself in songs and thanksgivings, is damped
(iii. 15, 16), and, above all, the message of Christ does not
dwell richly enough in them. Though the believers know the
grace of God they are not filled with a knowledge of his wiS,
so that their conduct is lacking in that strength and joy and
perfection, that richness of the fulness of knowledge expected
of those who had been made full in. Christ (i. 6, o-n, 28; a.
a, 7, zo). The reason for this, Paul sees, is the influence of the
claim made by certain teachers in Colossae that the <"T»rwtiant t
in order to attain unto and be assured of full salvation, must
supplement Paul's message with their own fuller and more
perfect wisdom, and must observe certain rites and practices
(ii x6, ax, S3) connected with the worship of angels (iL iS, 13)
and elementary spirits (ii 8, so).
The origin and the exact nature of this religious movement
are alike uncertain. (1) If it represents a type of syncretism as
definite as that known to have existed in the developed gnostic
systems of the 2nd century, it is inconceivable that Paul should
have passed it by as easily as he did. (2) As there is no r
COLOSSUS
727
to celibacy, communism tad the worship of the tun, it is im-
probable that the movement is identical with that of the Esscnes.
(3) The phenomena might be explained solely on the basis of
Judaism (von Sod en, Pcake). Certainly the asceticism and
ritualism might so be interpreted, for there was among the Jews
of the Dispersion an increasing tendency to asceticism, by way
of protest against the excesses of the Gentiles. The reference
in ii. 23 to severity of the body may have to do with fasting
preparatory to seeing visions (cf. Apoc. Baruch, xxi 1, ix. 2,
v. 7). Even the worship of angels, not only as mediators of
revelation and visions, but also as cosmical beings, is a well-
known fact in late Judaism {Apoc. Bar. lv. 3; Etkiopic Enoch,
Ix. xi, Ixi. xo; Col. ii. 8, 20; GaL iv. 3). As for the word
" philosophy " (ii. 8), it is not necessary to take it in the technical
Greek sense when the usage of Philo and Josephus permits a
looser meaning. Finally the references to circumcision, para-
dosis (ii. 8) and dogmata (ii. 20), directly suggest a Jewish origin.
If we resort solely to Judaism for explanation, it must be a
Judaism* of the Diaspora type. (4) The difficulty with the last-
mentioned position is that it under-estimates the speculative
tendencies of the errorists and ignores the direct influence of
oriental thcosophy. It is quite true that Paul does not directly
attack the speculative position, but rather indicates the practical
dangers inherent therein (the denial of the supremacy of Christ
and of full salvation through Him); he does not say that the
errorists hold Christ to be a mere angel or an aeon, or that words
like fibroma (borrowed perhaps from their own vocabulary)
involve a rigorous dualism. Yet his characterization of the
movement as an arbitrary religion (ii. 23), a philosophy which
is empty deceit (ii. 8), according to elemental spirits and not
according to Christ, and a higher knowledge due to a mind
controlled by the flesh (ii. 18); his repeated emphasis on Christ,
as supreme over all things, over men and angels, agent in creation
as well as in redemption, in whom dwelt bodily the fulness of the
Godhead; and his constant stress upon knowledge,— all these
combine to reveal a speculation real and dangerous, even if
naive and regardless of consequences, and to suggest (with
Julicher and McGiffcrt) that in addition to Jewish influence there
b also the direct influence of Oriental mysticism.
To meet the pressing need in Colossae, Paul writes a letter
and entrusts it to Tychichus, who is on his way to Colossae with
Oncsimus, Philemon's slave (iv. 7, 9). (On the relation of this
letter to Ephesians and to the letter to be sent from Laodicca
to Colossae, see Ephesians, Epistle to the.) His attitude is
prophylactic, rather than polemic, for the " philosophy " has
not as yet taken deep root. His purpose is to restore in the
hearts of the readers the joy of the Spirit, by making them sec
that Christ fulfils every need, and that through faith in Him
and love from faith, the advance is made unimpeded unto the
perfect man. He will eliminate foreign accretions, that the
gospel of Christ may stand forth in its native purity, and that
Christ Himself may in all things have the pre-eminence.
The letter begins with a thanksgiving to God for the spiritual
growth of the Colossians, and continues with a prayer for their
fuller knowledge of the divine will, for a more perfect Christian
life, and for a spirit of thanksgiving, seeing that it is God who
guarantees their salvation in Christ (i. 1-14). It is Christ who
is supreme, not angels, for He is the agent in creation; and it
is solely on the basis of faith in Him, a faith expressing itself in
love, that redemption is appropriated, and not on the basis of
any further requirements such as ascetic practices and the
worship of angels (i. 15-23). It is with a full message that Paul
has been entrusted, the message of Christ, who alone can lead
to all the riches of fulness of knowledge. And for this adequate
knowledge the readers should be thankful (i. 23-ii. 7). Again
he urges, that since redemption is in Christ alone, and that, too,
full redemption and on the basis of faith alone, the demand for
asceticism and meaningless ceremonies is folly, and moreover
robs Christ, in whom dwells the divine fulness, of His rightful
supremacy (ii. 8-23). And he exhorts them as members of the
Body of Christ to manifest their faith in Christian love, particu-
larly in their domestic relations and in their contact with non-
Christians (ill. i-hr. 6). He closes by saying that Tychichus
will give them the news. Greetings from all to all (iv. 7.18).
A letter like this, clear cut in its thought, teeming with ideaa
emanating from an unique religious experience, and admirably
adjusted to known situations, bears on the face of it the marks
of genuineness even without recourse to the unusually excellent
external attestation. It is not strange that there is a growing
consensus of opinion that Paul is the author. With the critical
renaissance of the early part of the 19th century, doubts were
raised as to the genuineness of the letter (e.g. by E. T. Mayerboff,
1838). Quite apart from the difficulties created by the Tubingen
theory, legitimate difficulties were found in the style of the letter,
in the speculation of the errorists, and in the theology of the
author. ( 1) As to style, it is replied that if there are peculiarities
in Colossians, so also in the admittedly genuine letters, Romans,
Corinthians, Calatians. Moreover, if Philippians is Pauline, so
also the stylistically similar Colossians (cf. von Soden). (2) As
to the speculation of the errorists, it is replied that it is explicable
in the lifetime of Paul, that some of the elements of it may have
their source in pre-Christian Jewish theories, and that recourse
to the developed gnosticism of the 2nd century is unnecessary.
(3) As to the Christology of the author, it is replied that it does
not go beyond what we have already in Paul except in emphasis,
which itself is occasioned by the circumstances. What is im-
plicit in Corinthians is explicit in Colossians. H. J. Holtzmann
(1872) subjected both Colossians and Ephesians to a rigorous
examination, and found in Colossians at least a nucleus of
Pauline material. H. von Soden (1885), with well-considered
principles of criticism, made a similar examination and found a
much larger nucleus, and later still, (1893), in his commentary,
reduced the non-Pauline material to a negligible minimum.
Harnack, Jiilicher and McGiftert, however, agree with Lightfoot,
Weiss, Zahn (and early tradition) in holding that the letter is
wholly Pauline— a position which is proving more and more
acceptable to contemporary scholarship.
AttiiOKiTiES. — In addition to the lit to lure already mentioned,
see the articles of Sanday on * Colombians'* and Robert son. 011
*' Ephesians" in Smith** Bible JJktJtmary (md ed.» 1893), and the
article of A, Jftlicber on " Coloi^ian* ami Ephrsian* " in" the
EntydepQtdia BibtUa {1899}; the I nt rod uc lions of 11 J- Holumann
(1893), Uh Weiss (1897)* Th, Zano (ihooq) and JuLieher (.1906);
the histories of the apo*rolie age by C. von Wct&uicbtr (ttfoj) t
A. C. M'Giffert (t»97> and O. Plbiderer WKkrisittHum* 1907);
and the commentaries of J, B. Ligtiiioot ((^75), H. von Soden (iftgi)
T. K. Abbott (i&07)i E. Haupt (too*), Pcake (1903) awl P, EwaTd
COLOSSUS, in antiquity a term applied generally to statues of
great size (hence the adjective " colossal "), and in particular to
the bronze statue of the sun-god Helios in Rhodes, one of the
wonders of the world, made from the spoils left by Demetrius
Poliorcetes when he raised the siege of the city. The sculptor was
Chares, a native of Lindus, and of the school of Lysippus, under
whose influence the art of sculpture was led to the production of
colossal figures by preference. The work occupied him twelve
years, it is said, and the finished statue stood 70 cubits high. It
stood near the harbour (hi \tpkvi), but at what point is not
certain. When, and from what grounds, the belief arose that
it had stood across the entrance to the harbour, with a beacon
light in its hand and ships passing between its legs, is not known,
but the belief was current as early as the 16th century. The
statue was thrown down by an earthquake about the year
224 B.C.; then, after lying broken for nearly 1000 years, the
pieces were bought by a Jew from the Saracens, and probably
reconverted into instruments of war.
Other Greek colossi were the Apollo of Calamis; the Zeus
and Heracles of Lysippus; the Zeus at Olympia, the Athena,
in the Parthenon, and the Athena Promachos on the Acropolis—:'
all the work of Pheidias.
The best -known Roman colossi are: a statue of Jupiter on
the Capitol; a bronze statue of Apollo in the Palatine library;
and the colossus of Nero in the vestibule of his Golden House,
afterwards removed by Hadrian to the north of the Colosseum,
where the basement upon which it stood is still visible (Pliny,
Nai Hist xxxiv. x8).
7«8
COLOUR
COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with cetare, to hide, the root
meaning, therefore, being that of a covering). The visual appar-
atus of the eye enables us to distinguish not only differences of
form, size and brilliancy in the objects looked upon, but also
differences in the character of the light received from them.
These latter differences, familiar to us as differences in colour,
have their physical origin in the variations in wave-length (or
frequency) which may exist in light which is capable of exciting
the sensation of vision. From the physical point of view, light
of a pure colour, or homogeneous light, means light whose
undulations are mathematically of a simple character and which
cannot be resolved by a prism into component parts. All the
visible pure colours, as thus defined, are to be found in the
spectrum, and there is an infinite number of them, correspond-
ing to all the possible variations of wave-length within the limits
of the visible spectrum (see Spectroscopy). On this view, there
is a strict analogy between variations of colour in light and
variations of pitch in sound, but the visible spectrum contains
a range of frequency extending over about one octave only,
whereas the range of audibility embraces about eleven octaves.
Of all the known colours it might naturally be thought that
white is the simplest and purest, and, till Sir Isaac Newton's
time, this was the prevailing opinion. Newton, however, showed
that white light could be decomposed by a prism into the spectral
colours red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet; the
colours appearing in this order and passing gradually into each
other without abrupt transitions. White is therefore not a
simple colour, but is merely the colour of sunlight, and probably
owes its apparently homogeneous character to the fact that it is
the average colour of the light which fills the eye when at rest.
The colours of the various objects which we see around us are
not 'due (with the exception of self-luminous and fluorescent
bodies) to any power possessed by these objects of creating the
colours which they exhibit, but merely to the exercise of a
selective action on the light of the sun, some of the constituent
rays of the white light with which they are illuminated being
absorbed, while the rest are reflected or scattered in all directions,
or, in the case of transparent bodies, transmitted. White light
Is thus the basis of all other colours, which are derived from it
by the suppression of some one or more of its parts. A red
flower, for instance, absorbs the blue and green rays and most
of the yellow, while the red rays and usually some yellow are
scattered. If a red poppy is illuminated successively by red,
yellow, green and blue light it will appear a brilliant red in the
red light, yellow in the yellow light, but less brilliant if the red
colour is pure; and black in the other colours, the blackness being
due to the almost complete absorption of the corresponding
colour.
Bodies may be classified as regards colour according to the
nature of the action they exert on white light. In the case
of ordinary opaque bodies a certain proportion of the incident
light is irregularly reflected or scattered from their surfaces. A
white object is one which reflects nearly all the light of all colours;
a black object absorbs nearly all. A body which reflects only
a portion of the light, but which exhibits no predominance in
any particular hue, is called grey. A white surface looks grey
beside a similar surface more brilliantly illuminated.
The next class is that of most transparent bodies, which owe
their colour to the light which is transmitted, cither directly
through, or reflected back again at the farther surface. A body
which transmits all the visible rays equally well is said to be
colourless; pure water, for example, is nearly quite colourless,
though in large masses it appears bluish-green. A translucent
substance is one which partially transmits light. Transluccncy
b due to the light being scattered by minute embedded particles
or minute irregularities of structure. Some fibrous specimens
of tremolite and gypsum are translucent in the direction of the
fibres, and practically opaque in a transverse direction. Coloured
transparent objects vary in shade and hue according to their
size; thus, a conical glass filled with a red liquid commonly
appears yellow at the bottom, varying through orange up to
red At the upper put. A coloured powder is usually of a much
lighter tint than the substance in bulk, as the tight is reflected
back after transmission through only a few thin layers. For
the same reason the powders of transparent substances tie
opaque.
Polished bodies, whether opaque or transparent, when illumi-
nated with white light and viewed at the proper angle, reflect
the incident h'ght regularly and appear white, without showinj
much of their distinctive colours.
Some bodies reflect light of one colour and transmit that of
another; such bodies nearly always possess the properties of
selective or metallic reflection and anomalous dispersion. Most
of the coal-tar dyes belong to this category. Solid eosia. for
example, reflects a yellowish-green and transmits a red light
Gold appears yellow under ordinary circumstances, but if the
light is reflected many times from the surface it appears a ruby
colour. On the other hand, a powerful beam of light transmitted
through a thin gold-leaf appears green.
Some solutions exhibit the curious phenomenon of iicho-
matism (from bV, double, and xpS»iu\, colour), that is, they
appear of one colour when viewed in strata of moderate thickness,
but of a different colour in greater thicknesses (see Absokpiios
of Light).
The blue colour of the sky (q.v.) has been explained by Lord
Rayleigh as due to the scattering of light by small suspended
particles and air molecules, which is most effective in the cast
of the shorter waves (blue). J. Tyndall produced similar effect!
in the laboratory. The green colour of sea-water near the shore
is also due to a scattering of light.
The colours of bodies which are gradually heated to white
incandescence occur in the order— red, orange, yellow, white.
This is because the longer waves of red light are rust emitted,
then the yellow as well, so that orange results, then so orach
green that the total effect is yellow, and lastly all the colour*,
compounding to produce white. Fluorescent bodies have the
power of converting light of one colour into that of another
(see Fluorescence).
Besides the foregoing kinds of colorization, a body jmt
exhibit, under certain circumstances, a colouring due to sow
special physical conditions rather than to the specific proper! its
of the material; such as the colour of a white object when
illuminated by light of some particular colour; the colours
seen in a film of oil on water or in mother-of-pearl, or soap-
bubbles, due to interference (q.v.); the colours seen through
the eyelashes or through a thin handkerchief held up to the
h'ght, due to diffraction (q.v.) ; and the colours caused by ordinary
refraction, as in the rainbow, double refraction and polarnatioa
(qq.v.).
Composition of Colours.— It has been already pointed out
that white light is a combination of all the colours in the spectrum.
This was shown by Newton, who recombined the spectral
colours and produced white. Newton also remarks that if •
froth be made on the surface of water thickened a little with
soap, and examined closely, it will be seen to be coloured with
all the colours of the spectrum, but at a little distance it looks
white owing to the combined effect on the eye of all the colour!.
The question of the composition of colours is largely a physio-
logical one, since it is possible, by mixing colours, say red and
yellow, to produce a new colour, orange, which appears identical
with the pure orange of the spectrum, but is physically quite
different, since it can be resolved by a prism into red and yellow
again. There is no doubt that the sensation of colour-vision
is threefold, in the sense that any colour can be produced by
the combination, in proper proportions, of three standard
colours. The question then arises, what are the three primary
colours? Sir David Brewster considered that they were red,
yellow and blue; and this view has been commonly held by
painters and others, since all the known brilliant hues can be
derived from the admixture of red, yellow and blue pigments.
For instance, vermilion and chrome yellow will give an orange,
chrome yellow and ultramarine a green, and vermilion and
ultramarine a purple mixture. But if we superpose the pure
^spectral colours ot a screen, the resulting colours are quite
COLOURS, MILITARY
729
different. This is especially the case with yellow and blue,
which on the screen combine to produce white, generally with
a pink tint, but cannot be made to give green. The reason of
this difference in the two results is that in the former case we do
not get a true combination of the colours at all. When the
mixed pigments are illuminated by while light, the yellow
particles absorb the red and blue rays, but reflect the yellow
along with a good deal of the neighbouring green and orange.
The blue particles, on the other hand, absorb the red, orange
and yellow, but reflect the blue and a good deal of green and
violet. As much of the light is affected by several particles,
most of the rays are absorbed except green, which is reflected
by both pigments. Thus, the colour of the mixture is not a
mixture of the colours yellow and blue, but the remainder of
white light after the yellow and blue pigments have absorbed
all they can. The effect can also be seen in coloured solutions.
If two equal beams of white light are transmitted respectively
through a yellow solution of potassium bichromate and a blue
solution of copper sulphate in proper thicknesses, they can be
compounded on a screen to an approximately white colour;
but a single beam transmitted through both solutions appears
green. Blue arid yellow pigments would produce the effect
of white only if very sparsely distributed. This fact is made use
of in laundries, where cobalt blue is used to correct the yellow
colour of linen after washing.
Thomas Young suggested red, green and violet as the primary
colours, but the subsequent experiments of J. Clerk Maxwell
appear to show that they should be red, green and blue. Sir
William Abney, however, assigns somewhat different places in
the spectrum to the primary colours, and, like Young, considers
that they should be red, green and violet. AU other hues can
be obtained by combining the three primaries in proper propor-
tions. Yellow is derived from red and green. This can be done
by superposition on a screen or by making a solution which
will transmit only red and green rays. For this purpose Lord
Rayleigh recommends a mixture of solutions of blue litmus
and yellow potassium chromatc. The litmus stops the yellow
and orange light, while the potassium chromate slops the blue
and violet. Thus only red and green are transmitted, and the
result is a full compound yellow which resembles the simple
yellow of the spectrum in appearance, but is resolved into red
and green by a prism. The brightest yellow pigments are those
which give both the pure and compound yellow. Since red and
green produce yellow, and yellow and blue produce white, it
follows that red, green and blue can be compounded into
white. H. von Hclmholtz has shown that the only pair of
simple spectral colours capable of compounding to white are
a greenish-yellow and blue.
Just as musical sounds differ in pitch, loudness and quality,
so may colours differ in three respects, which Maxwell calls
hue, shade and tint. AU hues can be produced by combining
every pair of primaries in every proportion. The addition of
white alters the tint without affecting the hue. If the colour
be darkened by adding black or by diminishing the illumination,
K a variation in shade is produced. Thus the
hue red includes every variation in tint from
red to white, and every variation in shade
-/ . x p from red to black, and similarly for other
hues. We can represent every hue and tint
on a diagram in a manner proposed by
_ Young, following a very similar suggestion
B of Newton's. Let RGB (fig. 1) be an
equilateral triangle, and let the angular
points be coloured red, green and blue of such intensities
as to produce white if equally combined; and let the colour
of every point of the triangle be determined by combining
such proportions of the three primaries, that three weights
in the same proportion would have their centre of gravity
at the point. Then the centre of the triangle will be a neutral
tint, white or grey; and the middle points of the sides Y, S, P
will be yellow, greenish-blue and purple. The hue varies all
round the perimeter. The tint varies along any straight line
through W. To vary the shade, the whole triangle must be
uniformly darkened.
The simplest way of compounding colours Is by means of
Maxwell's colour top, which is a broad spinning-top over the
spindle of which coloured disks can be slipped (fig. 2). The disks
are slit radially so that they can be slipped partially over each
other and the surfaces exposed in any desired ratio. Three
disks are used together, and a match is obtained between these
and a pair of smaller ones mounted on the same spindle. If
any five colours are taken, two of which may be ^-^^
black and white, a match can begot between them f >y
by suitable adjustment. This shows that a relation / J
exists between any four colours (the black being I J
only needed to obtain the proper intensity) and v^_-X
that consequently the number of independent T^"""^^
colours is three. A still better instrument for Flc * 2 '
combining colours is Maxwell's colour box, in which the colours
of the spectrum are combined by means of prisms. Sir W.
Abney has also invented an apparatus for the same purpose,
which is much the same in principle as Maxwell's colour box.
Several methods of colour photography depend on the fact that
all varieties of colour can be compounded from red, green and
blue in proper proportions.
Any two colours which together give white are called comple-
mentary colours. Greenish-yellow and blue are a pair of comple-
mentarics, as already men-
tioned. Any number of pairs
may be obtained by a simple
device due to Hclmholtz and
represented in fig. 3. A beam
of white light, decomposed by
the prism P, is rccompounded
into white light by the lens /
and focusscd on a screen at /.
If the thin prism p is inserted
near the lens, any set of
colours may be deflected to
another point n, thus pro-
ducing two coloured and com-
plementary images of the source of light.
Nature of While Light. — The question as to whether white light
actually consists of trains of waves of regular frequency has been
discussed in recent years by A. Schuster, Lord Rayleigh and
others, and it has been shown that even if it consisted of a suc-
cession of somewhat irregular impulses, it would still be resolved,
by the dispersive property of a prism or grating, into trains of
regular frequency! We may still, however, speak of white light
as compounded of the rays of the spectrum, provided we mean
only that the two systems are mathematically equivalent, and
not that the homogeneous trains exist as such in the original
light.
See also Newton's Optic ks, bk. I. pt. ii.; Maxwell's Scientific
Papers', Hclmholtz's papers in Poggenderfs Annaten; Sir G. G.
Stokes, Burnett Lectures for 1884-5-6; Abney 's Colour Vision
(1895). (J. R. C.)
COLOURS, MILITARY, the flags carried by infantry regiments
and bat talions, sometimes also by troops of other arms. Cavalry
regiments and other units have as a rule standards and guidons
(see Flag). Colours are generally embroidered with mottoes,
symbols, and above all with the names of battles.
From the earliest time at which men fought in organised
bodies of troops, the latter have possessed some sort of insignia
visible over all the field of battle, and serving as a rallying-point
for the men of the corps and an indication of position for the
higher leaders and the men of other formed bodies. In the
Roman army the eagle, the vexiUum, &c. had all the moral and
sentimental importance of the colours of to-day. During the
dark and the middle ages, however, the basis of military force
being the individual knight or lord, the banner, or other flag
bearing his arms, replaced the regimental colour which had
signified the corporate body and claimed the devotion of each
individual soldier in the ranks, ttaufcbttettv^^TOM&s^K'^it
(After MQHer-ftKiairt's Lthrtoek 4r
Pkytik. i? w .)
Fig. j.
73°
COLOURS, MILITARY
colour as a corps, not a personal distinction, was sometimes
maintained by corporate bodies (such as trade-gilds) which took
the field as such. An example is the famous carroccio or standard
on wheels, which was frequently brought into the field of battle
by the citizen militia of the Italian cities, and was fought for with
the same ardour as the royal standard in other medieval battles.
The application of the word " colour " to such insignia, how-
ever, dates only, from the x6th century. It has been suggested
that, as the professional captain gradually ousted the nobleman
from the command of the drilled and organized companies of
foot — the man of gentle birth, of course, maintained his ascend-
ancy in the cavalry far longer— the leaders of such bodies, no
longer possessing coat-armour and individual banners, had
recourse to small flags of distinctive colour instead. " Colour "
is in the 16th century a common name in England and middle
Europe for the unit of infantry; in German the FiLknkin (colour)
of landsknecbts was a strong company of more than 300 foot.
The ceremonial observances and honours paid nowadays to the
colours of infantry were in fact founded for the most part by the
landsknechts, for whom the flag (carried by their " ensign ")
was symbolical of their intense regimental life and feeling. The
now universal customs of constituting the colour guard of picked
men and of saluting the colours were in equal honour then;
before that indeed, the appearance of the personal banner of a
nobleman implied his actual presence with it, and the due
honours were paid, but the colour of the 16th century was not
the distinction of one man, but the symbol of the corporate life
and unity of the regiment, and thus the new colour ceremonial
implied the same allegiance to an impersonal regimental spirit,
which it has (with the difference that the national spirit has been
blended with the regimental) retained ever since. The old
soldier rallied to the colours as a matter of habit in the confusion
of battle, and the capture or the loss of a colour has always been
considered a special event, glorious or the reverse, in the history
of a regiment, the importance of this being chiefly sentimental,
but having as a very real background the fact that, if its colour
was lost, a regiment was to all intents and purposes dissolved
and dispersed. Frederick the Great and Napoleon always
attached the highest importance to the maintenance at all costs
of the regimental colours. Even over young troops the influence
of the colour has been extraordinary, and many generals have
steadied their men in the heat of battle by taking a regimental
colour themselves to lead the advance or to form up the troops.
Thus in the first battle of Bull Run (1861) the raw Confederate
troops were rallied under a heavy fire by General Joseph John-
ston, their commander-in-chief, who stood with a colour in his
hand until the men gathered quickly in rank and file. The arch-
duke Charles at Aspcrn (1809) led his young troops to the last
assault with a colour in his hand. Marshal Schwerin was killed
at the battle of Prague while carrying a regimental colour.
In the British army colours are carried by guards and line
(except rifle) battalions, each battalion having two colours, the
king's and the regimental. The size of the colour is 3 ft. 9 in.
by 3 -ft., and the length of the stave 8 ft. 7 in. The colour has
a gold fringe and gold and crimson tassels, and bears various
devices and " battle honours." Both colours arc carried by
subaltern officers, and an escort of selected non-commissioned
officers forms the rest of the colour party. The ceremony of
presenting new colours is most impressive. The old colours
are " trooped " (sec below) before being cased and taken to the
rear. The new colours are then placed against a pile of drums
and then uncased by the senior majors and the senior subalterns.
The consecration follows, after which the colours are presented
to the senior subalterns. The battalion gives a general salute
when the colours are unfurled, and the ceremony concludes with
a inarch past. " Trooping the colour " is a more elaborate
ceremonial peculiar to the British service, and is said to have
been invented by the duke of Cumberland. In this, the colour
is posted near the left of the line, the right company or guard
moves up to it, and an offieer receives it, after which the guard
with the colour files between the ranks of the remainder from
hit to 4fhi until the ri^bt 0/ the Une is reached.
In the United States army the infantry regiment hat t*t
colours, the national and the regimental. They axe carried is
action.
In the French army one colour {drapcau) is carried by each
infantry regiment. It is carried by an officer, usually a *wu-
lieutenant, and the guard is composed of a non-commissioud
officer and a party of "first class "soldiers. Regiments which have
taken an enemy's colour or standard in battle have their ova
colours "decorated," that is, the cross of the Legion of Honour
is affixed to the stave near the point. Battle honours are em-
broidered on the white of the tricolour. The eagle was, in tl*
First and Third Empires, the infantry colour, and was so called
from the gilt eagle which surmounted the stave. The chassevs
& pied, like the rifles of the British army, carry no colours, but
the battalion quartered for the time being at Yincennes carries
a colour for the whole arm in memory of the first chasseurs it
Vincennes. As in other countries, colours are saluted by all
armed bodies and by individual officers and men. When the
drapcau is not present with the regiment its place is taken by
an ordinary flag.
The colours of the German infantry, foot artillery and en-
gineers vary in design with the states to which the corps belong
in the first instance; thus, black and white predominate in
Prussian colours, red in those of Wiirttemberg regiments, Use
in Bavarian, and so on. The point of the colour stave is decorated
in some cases with the iron cross, in memory of the War of
liberation and of the war of 1870. Each battalion of an infantry
regiment has its own colour, which is carried by a non-com-
missioned officer, and guarded as usual by a colour party. The
colour is fastened to the stave by silver nails, and the ceremony
of driving the first nail into the stake of a new colour is one of
great solemnity. Rings of silver on the stave are engraved with
battle honours, the names of those who have fallen in action
when carrying the colour, and other commemorative names
and dates. The oath taken by each recruit on joining is sworn
on the colour (Faknateid).
The practice in the British army of leaving the colours behind
on taking the field dates from the battle of Isandhlwana (22nd
January 1879), in which Lieutenants Mclvill and Coghill lost
their lives in endeavouring to save the colours of the 24th
regiment. In savage warfare, in which the British regular
army is more usually engaged, it is true that no particular reason
can be adduced for imperilling the colours in the field. It is
questionable, however, whether this holds good in civilized
warfare. Colours were carried in action by both the Russians
and the Japanese in the war of 1904-5, and they were supple-
mented on both sides by smaller flags or camp colours. The
conception of the colour as the emblem of union, the rallying*
point, of the regiment has been mentioned above. Many bold
that such a rallying-point is more than ever required in the
modern guerre de masses, when a national short-service army
is collected in all possible strength on the decisive battle-field,
and that scarcely any risks or loss of life would be dispropor-
tionate to the advantages pined by the presence of the colours.
There is further a most important factor in the problem, which
has only arisen in recent years through modern perfection in
armament. In the first stages of an attack, the colours could
remain, as in the past, with the closed reserves or line of battle,
and they would not be uncased and sent into the thick of the
fight at all hazards until the decisive assault was being delivered.
Then, it is absolutely essential, as a matter of tactics, that the
artillery (q.v.), which covers the assault with all the power given
it by modern science and training, should be well informed as
to the progress of the infantry. This covering fire was main-
tained by the Japanese until the infantry was actually in the
smoke of their own shrapnel. With uniforms of neutral tint
the need of some means whereby the artillery officers can, at
4000 yds. range, distinguish their own infantry from that of the
enemy, is more pronounced than ever. The best troops are apt
to be unsteadied by being fired into by their own guns {e.g. at
Elandslaagte), and the more powerful the shell, and the more
rapid and far-ranging the fire of the guns, the more necessary it
COLOUR-SERGEANT— COLOURS 1 OF ANIMALS
73'
becomes to prevent such accidents. A practicable solution of
the difficulty would be to display the colours as of old, and this
course would not only have to an enhanced degree the advan-
tages it formerly possessed, but would also provide the simplest
means for ensuring the vitally necessary co-operation of infantry
and artillery in the decisive assault The duty of carrying the
colours was always one of special danger, and sometimes, in the
old short-range battles, every officer who carried a flag was
shot. That this fate would necessarily overtake the bearer under
modern conditions is far from certain, and in any case the few
men on the enemy's side who would be brave enough to shoot
accurately under heavy shell fire would, however destructive
to the colour party, scarcely inflict as much damage on the
battalion as a whole, as a dozen or more accidental shells from
the massed artillery of its own side.
COLOUR-SERGEANT, a non-commissioned officer of infantry,
ranking, in the British army, as the senior non-commissioned
officer of each company. He is charged with many adminis-
trative duties, and usually acts as pay sergeant. A special dutyof
the colour-sergeants of a battalion is that of attending and guard-
ing the colours and the officers carrying them. In some foreign
armies the colours are actually carried by colour-sergeants.
The rank was created in the British army in 1813.
COLOURS OF ANIMALS. Much interest attaches in modern
biology to the questions involved in the colours of animals.
The subject may best be considered in two divisions: (1) as
regards the uses of colour in the struggle for existence and in
sexual relationships; (2) as regards the chemical causation.
x. Bionomics
Use of Colour for Concealment. — Cryptic colouring is by far the
commonest use of colour in the struggle for existence. It is
employed for the purpose of attack {aggressive resemblance or
anticryptic colouring) as well as of defence (protective resemblance
or procryptic colouring). The fact that the same method, con-
cealment, may be used both for attack and defence has been
well explained by T. Belt ( The Naturalist in Nicaragua, London,
1 888), who suggests as an illustration the rapidity of movement
which is also made use of by both pursuer and pursued, which is
similarly raised to a maximum in both by the gradual dying
out of the slowest through a scries of generations. CryjYtic
colouring is commonly associated with other aids in the struggle
for life. Thus well-concealed mammals and birds, when dis-
covered, will generally endeavour to escape by speed, and will
often attempt to defend themselves actively. On the other hand,
small animals which have no means of active defence, such as
large numbers of insects, frequently depend upon concealment
alone. Protective resemblance is far commoner among animals
than aggressive resemblance, in correspondence with the fact
that predaceous forms are as a rule much larger and much less
numerous than their prey. In the case of insectivorous Verte-
brata and their prey such differences exist in an exaggerated
form. Cryptic colouring, whether used for defence or attack,
may be either general or special. In general resemblance the
animal, in consequence of its colouring, produces the same effect
as its environment, but the conditions do not require any special
adaptation of shape and outline. General resemblance is
especially common among the animals inhabiting some uni-
formly coloured expanse of the earth's surface, such as an ocean
or a desert. In the former, animals of all shapes are frequently
protected by their transparent blue colour; on the latter, equally
diverse forms are defended by their sandy appearance. The
effect of a uniform appearance may be produced by a combina-
tion of tints in startling contrast. Thus the black and white
stripes of the zebra blend together at a little distance, and " their
proportion is such as exactly to match the pale tint which arid
ground possesses when seen by moonlight " (F. Galton, South
Africa, London, 1889). Special resemblance is far commoner
than general, and is the form which is usually met with on the
diversified surface of the earth, on the shores, and in shallow
water, as well as on the floating masses of Algae on the surface
of the ocean, such as the Sargasso Sea. In these environments
the cryptic colouring of animals is usually aided by special
modifications of shape, and by the instinct which leads them to
assume particular attitudes. Complete stillness and the assump-
tion of a certain attitude play an essential part in general resem-
blance on land; but in special resemblance the attitude is often
highly specialized, and perhaps more important than any other
element in the complex method by which concealment is effected.
In special resemblance the combination of colouring, shape and
attitude is such as to produce a more or less exact resemblance
to some one of the objects in the environment, such as a leaf or
twig, a patch of lichen, or flake of bark. In all cases the resem-
blance is to some object which is of no interest to the enemy
or prey respectively. The animal is not hidden from view by
becoming indistinguishable from its background, as in the cases
of general resemblance, but it is mistaken for some well-known
object.
In seeking the interpretation of these most interesting and
elaborate adaptations, attempts have been made along two
lines. First, it is sought to explain the effect as a result of the
direct influence of the environment upon the individual (G. L. L.
Buffbn), or by the inherited effects of effort and the use and
disuse of parts (J. B. P. Lamarck). Second, natural selection
is believed to have produced the result, and afterwards main-
tained it by the survival of the best concealed in each generation.
The former suggestions break down when the complex nature
of numerous special resemblances is appreciated. Thus the
arrangement of colours of many kinds into an appropriate
pattern requires the co-operation of a suitable shape and the
rigidly exact adoption of a certain elaborate attitude. The latter
is instinctive, and thus depends on the central nervous system.
The cryptic effect is due to the exact co-operation of all these
factors; and in the present state of science the only possible
hope of an interpretation lies in the theory of natural selection,
which can accumulate any and every variation which tends
towards survival. A few of the chief types of methods by which
concealment is effected may be briefly described. The colours
of large numbers of Vertebrate animals are darkest on the back,
and become gradually lighter on the sides, passing into white
on the belly. Abbott H. Thayer (Tke Auk, vol. xiii., 1806) has
suggested that this gradation obliterates the appearance of
solidity, which is due to shadow. The colour-harmony, which
is also essential to concealment, is produced because the back
is of the same tint as the environment (e.g. earth) bathed in the
cold blue-white of the sky, while the belly, being cold blue-white
bathed in shadow and yellow earth reflections, produces the
same effect. Thayer has made models (in the natural history
museums at London, Oxford and Cambridge) which support
his interpretation in a very convincing manner. This method
of neutralizing shadow for the purpose of concealment by
increased lightness of tint was first suggested by E. B. Poulton
in the case of a larva (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1887, p. 394) and
a pupa (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1888, pp. 506, 597), but he did
not appreciate the great importance of the principle. In an
analogous method an animal in front of a background of dark
shadow may have part of its body obliterated by the existence
of a dark tint, the remainder resembling, e.g., a part of a leaf
( W. Muller, Zool. Jahr. J. W. Spengel, Jena, 1 886). This method
of rendering invisible any part which would interfere with the
resemblance is well known in mimicry. A common aid to
concealment is the adoption by different individuals of two or
more different appearances, each of which resembles some
special object to which an enemy is indifferent Thus the
leaf-like butterflies (Kallima) present various types of colour and
pattern on the under side of the wings, each of which closely
resembles some well-known appearance presented by a dead leaf;
and the common British yellow under-wing moth (Trypkaena
pronuba) is similarly polymorphic on the upper side of its upper
wings, which arc exposed as it suddenly drops among dead
leaves. Caterpillars and pupae are also commonly dimorphic,
green and brown. Such differences as these extend the area
which an enemy is compelled to search in order to make a living
In many cases the cryptic colouring changes appropriately
73o
I'lA Ut:> ,• ■
?*• ...
i.-.k.' •
i.
J. ••
ut ;.
'/„// /
A'.'IMAL*
i,
.. i i .1
. .1... i.
.1....,...,.
.ii.. i.. i
. i .. .i
,.i i.. 1 1..
i. ii .
it
■i. i
. . .\ .
. t. i.i i
x ...
..*. -:_-.:- kt.c quality or »:apor.
..--*; :-5c-: or dangerous, s 1 -:". .-.
r i i. -.*:. :he poison-fang. &c. T:
, . . •. .;.•.•..-/:•::. ihesc colours arc alyj Cii.-.j
, '• ]'• ,;; . . .:. rr.-:*.:^. on the other h*nd, v.
■/ ./.. ... • ; ,; i'." :•. :.v:i-aJs of the same species :■» ►:■;.
'..• # -I.i i '.».• ir vifity depends upon numlicr», or c.-.;.'; •
.. , - # i- :. ••' i.i i io .i j.l.u ._- of safety, the young and ine\p*.r!.: ■-. i
i.. ... .' j« l.y tin i ».ii:.j.ic of the older. Episemalic c. k tr •::.-:
.i. I.i I- . (..nil!) .ii than aposcmatic, and these than •.:».:.
.IiI.m.1,11, .i. r<g.u>K tht- latter comparison, the op;-.;/.: "-•
,i, ,..n i-, I'niit.iKv pr.Hluct-d from the very fact thai o.: ..
mini i. mi Minrvdiilly attained. Warning or ar ..-. .
I..I..IU-., lof't'thi'i \uih the qualities they indicate, d^-.'.-: ■-
i ml. . U't itu :r wiy e\;>tence upon the abundance of ?.»'.:
i.i.id supi-'u.! l>> the animals with cryptic colouring, t' :.:... ■
li".i\ . »■• e\e:*. ;!v ;«..ssc<>!on of a si.rt:, is not su:';.\.fcr.: -:.'.-.: ■
. 1. n •.'•. :.• :> «.■•■* :.;:' i'v--! of lr.^ihcr kind to be oStair.-..: u'. ■-.-
• i'.'v ; ••.* a-' 1 . ; ' .;-: IV-!:.-.. />.««:. Z;.7. £\v , iS^r.r j..
t'.. •.»• . -^v.:» •• . >. . a:-.*.* c !.-rs art* not seen in l-.:::-.'.
.■» ex.. : ::: •. ■; •.•■"••. '*':.-. ;r.ec..t h:'c a$ a whc'.e .» r..
i • *. .«-—.: ;■;_•.•-.•."• *a :h wtil-markvi ••:: -"
• » «. • » -..:.. :e i.'-.-.-i t.iat warn.'ng c :!*•-*»:*
. s •.. .->. • : .- .:•; Latter. In rr.ir> .«;•..
. ' « .• •;-;.:•:« z-.r.-i Jun. *r.'; r.. -. "."
•. . «..-.-../.-: ;:J-^. a h.:.J !y thv =:.-. '
« — •. . 4?. ' v-^e "t tl*: :•„• ?.>
? i>.at "re * .
• >:-aS..*i :::. •
* .-ham i«rr.*
•^ to i :»».!. <s '.
r :moni» :.-c :
. .-.m' a p ?
. . ;. r>r. s c-
. • I-.
'Hie..
to tin
when !.'.- .
a nurth ;•
(erenionial ; •
heen invented .
is po.stcd near ::
mows up Ui a, ..■
with the colour !..'■
left tO li£hl Ul.t.l i
? crs :•'
«»> ::-
-e •:-:
arf :
.tr r:
COLOURS OF ANIMALS
733
, a suggestion since verified by experiment (Proc. EnL Soc.
1867, p. Uxx; Trans. EtU. Soc. Lend., 1869, pp. 21 and
Jthough animals with warning colours are probably but
tacked by the ordinary enemies of their class, they have
enemies which keep the nu rollers down to the average,
te cuckoo appears to be an insectivorous bird which will
levour conspicuously coloured unpalatable larvae. The
f the warning colours of catcrpiuars is often intensified
;arious habits. Another aposematic use of colours and
res b to divert attention from the vital parts, and thus
; animal attacked an extra chance of escape. The large,
uous, easily torn wings of butterflies and moths act in
y, as is found by the abundance of individuals which may
ured with notches bitten symmetrically out of both wings
hey were in contact. The eye-spots and " tails " so
a on the hinder part of the hind wing, and the conspicuous
> frequently seen on the fore wing, probably have this
g. Their position corresponds to the parts which arc most
•und to be notched. In some cases (e.g. many Lycaeuidac)
lil " and eye-spot combine to suggest the appearance of
with antennae at the posterior end of the butterfly, the
on being aided by movements of the hind wings. The
ped " tussocks " of hair on many caterpillars look like
uous fleshy projections of the body, and they are held
ently when the larva b attacked. If seized, the " tus-
x>mes out, and the enemy b greatly inconvenienced by the
inched hairs. The tails of lizards, which easily break off,
X similarly explained, the attention of the pursuer being
ly still further diverted by the extremely active move-
>f the amputated member. Certain crabs similarly throw
r claws when attacked, and the claws continue to snap
:tivcly. The tail of the dormouse, which easily comes off,
5 extremely bushy tail of the squirrel, arc probably of use
tame manner. Animals with warning colours often tend
nble each other superficially. Thb fact was first pointed
H. W. Bates in his paper on the theory of mimicry ( Trans.
Joe. vol. xxiii., 1862, p. 495). He showed that the con-
is, presumably unpalatable, tropical American butterflies,
ng to very different groups, which are mimicked by others,
id to resemble each other, the likeness being often remark-
act. These resemblances were not explained by his theory
licry, and he could only suppose that they had been
ed by the direct influence of a common environment,
oblem was solved in 1879 by Fritz Mullcr (see Proc. EtU.
md., 1870, p. xx.), who suggested that life b saved by thb
lance between warning colours, inasmuch as the education
ng inexperienced enemies b facilitated. Each species
fails into a group with common warning (synajwematic)
. contributes to save the lives of the other members. It
iently obvious that the amount of learning and remembcr-
d consequently of injury and loss of life involved in the
», are reduced when many species in one place possess the
posematic colouring, instead of each exhibiting a different
er-signal." These resemblances are often described as
erian mimicry," as distinguished from true or " Batesian
y " described in the next section. Similar synapose-
resemblances between the specially protected groups of
lies were afterwards shown to exbt in tropical Asia, the
ndian Islands and Polynesia by F. Moore (Proc. Zool.
883, p. 201), and in Africa by E. B. Poulton (Report Brit.
, 1897, p. 688). R. Meldola (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.
la, p. 417) first pointed out and explained in the same
r the remarkable general uniformity of colour and pattern
runs through so many species of each of the distasteful
of butterflies; while, still later, Poulton (Proc. Zool. Soc.,
p. 191) similarly extended the interpretation to the syn-
aatic resemblances between animals of all kinds in the
country. Thus, for example, longitudinal or circular
of the same strongly contrasted colours are found in
1 of many groups with distant affinities.
ain animals, especially the Crustacea, make use of the
I defence and warning colours of other animals. Thus
the Englbh hermit-crab, Pagurus Bernkardus, commonly carries
the sea-anemone, Sagartia parasitica, on its shell; while another
English species, Pagurus Pridcauxii, inhabits a shell which b
invariably clothed by the flattened Adamsia pallida.
The white patch near the tail which b frequently seen in the
gregarious Ungulates, and b often rendered conspicuous by
adjacent black markings, probably assists the individuab in
keeping together; and appearances with probably the same
interpretation are found in many birds. The white upturned
tail of the rabbit b probably of use in enabling the individuab
to follow each other readily. The difference between a typical
aposematk character appealing to enemies; and episemalic
intended for other individuab of the same species, b well seen
when we compare such examples as (1) the huge banner-like
white tail, conspicuously contrasted with the black or black and
while body, by which the slow-moving skunk warns enemies of its
power of emitting an intolerably offensive odour; (2) the small
upturned white tail of the rabbit, only seen when it b likely
to be of use and when the owner b moving, and, if pursued, very
rapidly moving, towards safety.
Mimicry (see also Mimicry) or Pscudc-stmatic Colours.— The
fact that animab with distant affinities may more or less closely
resemble each other was observed long before the existing ex-
planation was possible. Its recognition b implied in a number
of insect names with the termination -Jormb, usually given to
species of various orders which more or less closely resemble the
stinging Hymenoptera. The usefulness of the resemblance was
suggested in Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology,
London, 1817, ii 223. H. W. Bates (Trans. Linn. Soc. vol.
xxiiL, 1862, p. 495) first proposed an explanation of mimicry
based on the theory of natural selection. He supposed that
every step in the formation and gradual improvement of the
likeness occurred in consequence of its usefulness in the struggle
for life. The subject b of additional interest, inasmuch as it
was one of the first attempts to apply the theory of natural
selection to a large class of phenomena up to that time well known
but unexplained. Numerous examples of mimicry among
tropical American butterflies were discussed by Bates in hb
paper; and in 1866 A. R. Wallace extended the hypothesis to
the butterflies of the tropical East (Trans. Linn, Soc. vol. xxv.,
1866, p. 19); Roland Trimcn (Trans. Linn. Soc. vol. xxvi., 1870,
p. 497) to those of Africa in 1870. The term mimicry b used in
various senses. It b often extended, as indeed it was by Bates,
to include all the superficial resemblances between animab and
any part of their environment. Wallace, however, separated the
cryptic resemblances already described, and the majority of
naturalbts have followed thb convenient arrangement. In
cryptic resemblance an animal resembles some object of no
interest to its enemy (or prey), and in so doing b concealed; in
mimicry an animal resembles some other animal which b
specially disliked by its enemy, or some object which b specially
attractive to its prey, and in so doing becomes conspicuous.
Some naturalists have considered mimicry to include all super*
ficial likenesses between animals, but such a classification would
group together resemblances which have widely different uses.
(1) The resemblance of a mollusc to the coral on which it lives,
or an external parasite to the hair or skin of its host, would be
procryptic; (2) that between moths which resemble lichen,
syncryptic; (3) between dbtasteful insects, synaposcmatic; (4)
between the Inscctivor mole and the Rodent mole-rat, syn-
Uchnk\ (5) the essential element in mimicry b that it b a
false warning (pseud-aposcmatic) or false recognition (pscud-
episematic) character. Some have considered that mimicry
indicates resemblance to a moving object; but apart from the
non-mimetic likenesses between animab classified above, there are
ordinary cryptic resemblances to drifting leaves, swaying bits
of twig, &c, while truly mimetic resemblances are often specially
adapted for the attitude of rest Many use the term mimicry
to include synaposcmatic as well as pseudo-sematic resemblances,
calling the former " MUllerian," the latter " Batesian," mimicry.
The objection to thb grouping is that it takes little account
of the deceptive element, nbfcb vk ya m ttfo ft Naa>, tsfcg*Kci. A»>
COLOURS OP
the course of an individual life, either sea*
l^an or Alpine hare, or acconlinT
environment in the r. •
i mago, fr. N
season
Irncs ..
as thi-
amin .
>ser\;i;.
i the •
1 by f
that
nal in"
ic use
ing. I
i of th
y cral-
:ils an
ormt t
iiulci •
rypl.-
le ai.
tophr
•rcy.
of t'
ugh
us i
I c.-
roi
m
h
:h
: of
,i.\Y ■
>ur o*.-
these •
.'OUS 3 •
«.kinat .
luce p % :
luli m i
ih then ■.
rmediati*
rs. En :
•!.r.!.,!ly •
. •"'•- r! j
. h.n, »'. r .
i to!, r.i!.'..
> io:.ir:il. '
n:c*t /■».'..•.
•;v.'-he«l !r. •
•h lb..- l:ki;i.
>'ic r. •■ n 1 '• i .•
ntally .ai.s- ! 1.
ns pio.!u. . 1 i:
r*upialia. 8«;« h ■■
dentally ps-li: ' 1
■mManoe ib p:''<l". • ■ •
•u'i>fCt>!->nrf..-r\\.--- ..
he ii.,o <>f colour (or «' , -.-
*».:!e of the one \ih : »h s •• • ! •
1C to irii'h-r the ar.-m.il "-i j , •.
he e>:il\ seen, will rersien.'.en.!,
COLOURS OF ANIMALS
735
destroyed by the parasite Stylops. J. T. Cunningham has argued
(Sexual Dimorphism in the Animal Kingdom, London, iooo) that
secondary sexual characters have been produced by direct
stimulation due to contests, &c, in the breeding period, and have
gradually become hereditary, a hypothesis involving the assump-
tion that acquired characters are transmitted. Wallace suggests
that they are in part to be explained as " recognition characters/'
in part as an indication of surplus vital activity in the male.
Authorities. — The following works may also be consulted: —
T. Eimcr, Orthogenesis der Schmetterlinge (Leipzig, 1898); E. B.
Poulton, The Colours of Animals (London, 1890); F. E. Beddard,
Animal Coloration (London, 1802): E. Haase, Researches on Mimicry
(translation, London, 1896); A. R. Wallace, Natural Selection and
Tropical Nature (London, 1895); Darwinism (London, 1897): A. H.
Thayer and G. H. Thayer, Concealing-Coloration in the Animal
Kingdom (New York, 1910). (E. B. P.)
2. Chemistry
Hie coloration of the surface of animals is caused either by
fitments, or by a certain structure of the surface by means of which
the light falling on it, or reflected through its superficial trans-
parent layers, undergoes diffraction or other optical change.
Or it may be the result of a combination of these two causes.
It plays an important part in the relationship of the animal to
its environment, in concealment, in mimicry, and so on; the
presence of a pigment in the integument may also serve a more
direct physiological purpose, such as a respiratory function. The
coloration of birds' feathers, of the skin of many fishes, of many
insects, is partially at least due to structure and the action of the
peculiar pigmented cells known as " chromatophores " (which
W. Garstang defines as pigmented cells specialized for the
discharge of the chromatic function), and is much better marked
when these have for their background a " reflecting layer " such
as is provided by guanin, a substance closely related to uric acid.
Such a mechanism is seen to greatest advantage in fishes. Among
these, guanin may be present in a finely granular form, causing
1 he light falling on it to be scattered, thus producing a white
effect; or it may be present in a peculiar crystalline form, the
crystals being known as " iridocytcs "; or in a layer of closely
npposed needles forming a silvery sheet or mirror. In the iris of
^ome fishes the golden red colour is produced by the light
reflected from such a layer of guanin needles having to pass
through a thin layer of a reddish pigment, known as a " lipo-
<-hrorne." Again, in some lepidoptcrous insects a white or a
vellow appearance is produced by the deposition of uric acid or
ft nearly allied substance on the surface of the wings. In many
tnimals, but especially among invertebrates, colouring matters
or pigments play an important r61e in surface coloration; in some
rases such coloration may be of benefit to the animal, but in
others the integument simply serves as an organ for the excretion
of waste pigmentary substances. Pigments (1) may be of direct
physiological importance; (a) they may be excretory; or (3)
1 hey may be introduced into the body of the animal with the
lood.
Of the many pigments which have been described up to the
,i resent time, very few have been subjected to elementary
■ ncmical analysis, owing to the great difficulties attending their
eolation. An extremely small amount of pigment will give rise
.•j a great amount of coloration, and the pigments arc generally
..companied by impurities of various kinds which cling to them
..ilh great tenacity, so that when one has been thoroughly
icanscd very little of it remains for ultimate analysis. Most of
• ! 1 cse substances have been detected by means of the spectroscope,
•\eir absorption bands serving for their recognition, but mere
: . ntity of spectrum does not necessarily mean chemical identity,
• nd a few chemical tests have also to be applied before a con-
^'.Jiion can be drawn. The absorption bands are referred to
7 tain definite parts of the spectrum, such as the Fraunhofcr
' ics, or they may be given in wave-lengths. For this purpose
• he readings of the spectroscope arc reduced to wave-lengths by
r.cans of interpolation curves; or if Zeiss's microspectroscopo
ii« used, the position of bands in wave-lengths (denoted by the
« -reek letter X) may be read directly.
Haemoglobin, the red colouring matter of vertebrate
blood, CmHimNmSiFeCW and its derivatives hacmatin,
CrHjuN 4 FcOj,and haematoporphyrin, CuHuNsOfcare colouring
matters about which we possess definite chemical knowledge, as
they have been isolated, purified and analysed. Most of the
bile ' pigments of mammals have likewise been isolated and
studied chemically, and all of these are fully described in the
text-books of physiology and physiological chemistry. Haemo-
globin, though physiologically of great importance in the re-
spiratory process of vertebrate animals, is yet seldom used for
surface pigmentation, except in the face of white races of man or
in other parts in monkeys, &c. In some worms the transparent
skin allows the haemoglobin of the blood to be seen through the
integument, and in certain fishes also the haemoglobin is visible
through the integument. It is a curious and noteworthy fact
that in some invertebrate animals in which no haemoglobin
occurs, we meet with its derivatives. Thus haematin is found in
the so-called bile of slugs, snails, the limpet and the crayfish.
In sea-anemones there is a pigment which yields some of the
decomposition-products of haemoglobin, and associated with
this is a green pigment apparently identical with biliverdin
(C M HuN]Oi), a green bile pigment. Again, haematoporphyrin
is found in the integuments of star-fishes and slugs, and occurs
in the " dorsal streak " of the earth-worm Lumbricus Urrestris, and
perhaps in other species. Haematoporphyrin and biliverdin also
occur in the egg-shells of certain birds, but in this case they are
derived from haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is said to be found as
low down in the animal kingdom as the Echinoderms, e.g. in
Ophiactis virens and Tkyondla gemmate. It also occurs in the
blood of Planorbis corneus and in the pharyngeal muscles of
other moUusca.
A great number of other pigments have been described; for
example, in the muscles and tissues of animals, both vertebrate
and invertebrate, are the histohacmatins, of which a special
muscle pigment, myohaematin, is one. In vertebrates the latter
is generally accompanied by haemoglobin, but in invertebrates—
with the exception of the pharyngeal muscles of the molluscs —
it occurs alone. Although closely related to haemoglobin or its
derivative hacmochromogen, the histohacmatins are yet totally
distinct, and they are found in animals where not a trace of
haemoglobin can be detected. Another interesting pigment is
turacin, which contains about 7% of nitrogen, found by Pro-
fessor A. II. Church in the feathers of the Cape lory and other
plantain-eaters, from which it can be extracted by water
containing a trace of ammonia. It has been isolated, purified
and analysed by Professor Church. From it may be obtained
turacoporphyrin, which is identical with haematoporphyrin, and
gives the band in the ultra-violet which J. L. Sorct and subse-
quently A. Gamgee have found to be characteristic of haemoglobin
and its compounds. Turacin itself gives a peculiar two-banded
spectrum, and contains about 7% of copper in its molecule.
Another copper-containing pigment is hacmocyanin, which in the
oxidized state gives a blue colour to the blood of various MoUusca
and Arlhropoda. Like haemoglobin, it acts as an oxygen-carrier
in respiration, but it takes no part in surface coloration.
A class of pigments widely distributed among plants and
animals are the lipochromes. As their name denotes, they are
allied to fat and generally accompany it, being soluble in fat
solvents. They play an important part in surface coloration,
and may be greenish, yellow or red in colour. They contain
no nitrogen. As an example of a lipochromc which has been
isolated, crystallized and purified, we may mention carotin,
which has recently been found in green leaves. Chlorophyll,
which is so often associated with a lipochromc, has been found
in some Infusoria, and in Hydra and Spongille, &c. In some
cases it is probably formed by the animal; in other cases it may
be due to symbiotic algae, while in the gastric gland of many
MoUusca, Crustacea and Echinodcrmata it is derived from
food-chlorophyll. Here it is known as cntero-chlorophyll.
The black pigments which occur among both vertebrate and
invertebrate animals often have only one attribute in common,
viz. blackness, for among the discordant results of analysis one
thing is certain, viz. that the mclauins (com, wvctaate itx*sKdch
V
fui. .
ina :
imp- '
rcath« :
ar.'l re-. '
bt-th p.-
nir'.t'mrr.!
impmki!.!-
no cxpl.ir:.i*.
th- >c rJ«.nn v
tlSiis/iiA in i vi...
73+ , . .-. i •• hhiI
synap« i i i . •- .r.%. r
apott' .. , i , •:•...-.-
under , ., | . , , .... : .. . ; -.vatt *.
dclib- . ,, t .. i 1 1- • In i;:v.afti* .
anir i i.» i< |.r. • :it . ••-
thai , . :. • «l -i . i in : •
is h * i >■■• : • • « :..
of. . '. ..;.:.::
as ' v ' •in', i! -.r r.. Hr.
|.,'.ii ..i ». -!..\m:.k
tr . ' ..-I \.\A thv nl:«.i <.
,. . . ,, . u» !.• Un> th..-
COLUGO— COLUMBAN
737
common in Britain in damp, heavy soils. It has a stout branching
underground stem, which sends up in March and April scapes
about 6 in. high, each bearing a head of bright yellow flowers,
the male in the centre surrounded by a much larger number of
female. The flowers are succeeded by the fruits, which bear a
soft snow-white woolly pappus. The leaves, which appear
later, are broadly cordate with an angular or lobcd outline, and
are covered on the under-face with a dense white felt. The
botanical name, Tussitogo, recalls its use as a medicine for
cough {lussis). The leaves are smoked in cases of asthma.
COLUGO, or Cobego, either of two species of the zoological
genus Galeopithuus. These animals live in the forests of the
Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippine Islands,
where they feed chiefly on leaves, and probably also on insects.
In size they may be compared with cats; the long slender
limbs are connected by a broad fold of skin extending outwards
from the sides of the neck and body, the fingers and toes are
webbed, and the hind-limbs joined by an outer membrane as in
bats. Their habits are nocturnal, and during the daytime they
cling to the trunks or limbs of trees head downwards in a state
of repose. With the approach of night their season of activity
commences, when they may be occasionally seen gliding from
tree to tree supported on their cutaneous parachute, and they
have been noticed as capable of traversing in this way a space
of 70 yds. with a descent of only about one in five. Europeans
in the East know these animals as "flying lemurs." (See
Galeopithecus.)
COLUMBA. SAINT (Irish, Colum), Irish saint, was born on the
7th of December 531, in all probability at Gartan in Co. Donegal.
His father Fcidiimid was a member of the reigning family in
Ireland and was closely allied to that of Dalriada (Argyll). His
mother Eithne was of Leinster extraction and was descended
from an illust rious provincial king. To these powerful connexions
as much as to his piety and ability, he owed the immense influence
he possessed. Later lives state that the saint was also called
Crimthann (fox), and Reeves suggests that he may have had
two names, the one baptismal, the other secular. He was
afterwards known as Columkille, or Columba of the Church,
to distinguish him from others of the same name. During his
early years the Irish Church was reformed by Gildas and Finian
of Clonard, and numerous monasteries were founded which
made Ireland renowned as a centre of learning. Columba
himself studied under two of the most distinguished Irishmen
of his day, Finian of Movillc (at the head of Strangford Lough)
and Finian of Clonard. Almost as a matter of course, under
such circumstances, he embraced the monastic life. He was
ordained deacon while at Moville, and afterwards, when about
■thirty years of age, was raised to the priesthood. During his
residence in Ireland he founded, in addition to a number of
churches, two famous monasteries, one named Daire Calgaich
(Deny) on the banks of Lough Foyle, the other Dair-magh
(Durrow) in King's county.
In 563 he left his native land, accompanied by twelve disciples,
and went on a mission to northern Britain, perhaps on the
invitation of his kinsman Conall, king of Dalriada. Irish
accounts represent Columba as undertaking this mission in
consequence of the censure expressed against him by the clergy
after the battle of Cooldrevny ; but this is probably a fabrication.
The saint's labours in Scotland must be regarded as a manifesta-
tion of the same spirit of missionary enterprise with which so
many of his countrymen were imbued. Columba established
himself on the island of Hy or Iona, where he erected a church
and a monastery. About the year 565 he applied himself to
the task of converting the heathen kingdom of the northern
Picts. Crossing over to the mainland he proceeded to the
residence, on the banks of the Ness, of Brude, king of the Picts.
By his preaching, his holy life, and, as his earliest biographers
assert, by the performance of miracles, he converted the king
and many of his subjects. The precise details, except in a few
cases, are unknown, or obscured by exaggeration and fiction;
but it is certain that the whole of northern Scotland was con-
verted by the labours of Columba, and his disciples and the
religious instruction of the people provided for by the erection
of numerous monasteries. The monastery of Iona was reverenced
as the mother house of all these foundations, and its abbots weze
obeyed as the chief ecclesiastical rulers of the whole nation of
the northern Picts. There were then neither dioceses nor parishes
in Ireland and Celtic Scotland; and by the Columbite rule the
bishops themselves, although they ordained the clergy, were
subject to the jurisdiction of the abbots of Iona, who, like the
founder 01 the order, were only presbyters. In matters of
ritual they agreed with the Western Church on the continent,
save in a few particulars such as the precise time of keeping
Easter and manner of tonsure.
Columba was honoured by his countrymen, the Scots of
Britain and Ireland, as much as by his Pictish converts, and
in his character of chief ecclesiastical ruler he gave formal
benediction and inauguration to Aidan, the successor of Conall,
as king of the Scots. He accompanied that prince to Ireland
in 575. and took a leading part in a council held at Drumceat
in Ulster, which determined once and for all the position of the
ruler of Dalriada with regard to the king of Ireland. The last
years of Columba 's life appear to have been mainly spent at
Iona. There he was already revered as a saint, and whatever
credit may be given to some portions of the narratives of his
biographers, there can be no doubt as to the wonderful influence
which he exercised, as to the holiness of his life, and as to the
love which he uniformly manifested to God and to his neighbour.
In the summer of 597 he knew that his end was approaching.
On Saturday the 8th of June he was able, with the help of ono
of his monks, to ascend a little hill above the monastery and
to give it his farewell blessing. Returning to his cell he con tinued
a labour in which he had been engaged, the transcription of the
Psalter. Having finished the verse of the 34th Psalm where it
is written, " They who seek the Lord shall want no manner of
thing that is good," he said, " Here I must stop:— what follows
let Baithen write "; indicating, as was believed, his wish that
his cousin Baithen should succeed him as abbot. He was
present at evening in the church, and when the midnight bell
sounded for the nocturnal office early on Sunday morning he
again went thither unsupported, but sank down before the altar
and passed away as in a gentle sleep.
Several Irish poems are ascribed to Columba, but they are
manifestly compositions of a later age. Three Latin hymns may,
however, be attributed to the saint with some degree of certainty.
The original materials for a life of St Columba are unusually fuu.
The earliest biography was written by one of his successors, Cuminius,
who became abbot of Iona in 657. Much more important is the
enlargement of that work by Adamnan. who became abbot of Iona
in 670. These narratives arc supplemented by the brief but most
tees given by the Venerable Bcdc. See W. Reeves,
„ , oiumba, written by Adamnan (Dublin, 1857); W. F.
Skene, Celtic Scotland, vol ii. ' T Church and Culture " (Edinburgh,
ft giv«
Life of St Columba,
Skene, Celtic Scotland, vol ii. " Church and Culture " (Edinburgh,
1877). (E. C. Q.J
COLUMBAN (543-615), Irish saint and writer, was born in
Leinster in 543, and was educated in the monastery of Bangor,
Co. Down. About the year 585 he left Ireland together with
twelve other monks, and established himself in the Vosges, among
the ruins of an ancient fortification called Anagratcs, the present
Anegray in the department of Haute-Saone. His enemies accused
him before a synod of French bishops (602) for keeping Easter
according to the old British and now unorthodox way, and a more
powerful conspiracy was organized against him at the court
of Burgundy for boldly rebuking the crimes of King Thcuderich
II. and the queen-mother Brunhilda. He was banished and
forcibly removed from his monastery, and with St Gall and
others of the monks he withdrew into Switzerland, where he
preached with no great success to the Suebi and Alamanni.
Being again compelled to flee, he retired to Italy, and founded
the monastery of Bobbio in the Apennines, where he remained
till his death, which took place on the 21st of November 615.
His writings, which include some Latin poems, prove him a man
of learning, and he appears to have been acquainted not only
with the Latin classics, but also with Greek, and even Hebrew.
The collected edition of St Columbau's wrvtu^<w^<v&&afc*&>*\
Patrick Fleming ui \x\a CdU O a w aa wn USfccrri. ^«n*»»^ x**rev
. •» . *
i i *
tl!.'
oc
ex-
SCI'
No
cat-
An
wl...
pop '
phy'
sub » •
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'I!
(i.v :
jMMIIfl
&*. 1 1
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liter..*..i.
uml< •• i'~
in />••
pu|Ht in /
COLSTON,
the son ••» V. . .
was born • :•■•
ally umli r •:•
hood as a t.i- '•
connected «• ::
wines and •••'!. :
On his return ■ •
bent himself r •
the date of K
Christ's hospi;..
fri-«juently ami !
take an active :
about this ti" •
rif.i.iin'ltrofl . '
C'l'l-Hy bi-t '.'.•« : ='
1 (;-..• In- apjM-.ir* r '
v.if.ir.^ :i -.ism «•! •' •
"a Ire. burr.' n .rA .=
rtKii.bi r »•: tl.r M- 1 'i. •
one of i inir.r:.ilti « f«»r r .
h'-.ie.iif .ipi»--.ir-:isth'-i i
of v.hnh hi- i- found in:. ■
auditor by tlu- vc-irv at "•'
old house ««n< <• ili<- .j bod ■ «•.'
St MuhailbHill. I'.ri.t*.! . •
bouse fur ih rwpej : of .
with accomTniHl, ioti Jor. '•
mi ri rwwti iftmhou- u - n }.
/Hooo, he endowed f< nfr
l>,,y.; (the hooka . mpluy d «<i.
f 'Whii^Um "); and mt \.ar, .-..:
s um of ilisoo «n re build. n ; . tl : ,. M J.
&f jC4i,;oo, he built and u, ; »i:.-: ;
COLUMBIA RIVER— COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
739
m; Is engaged extensively in the mining and shipping
hosphates; has an important trade in live-stock, especially
is; manufactures cotton, lumber, flour, bricks, pumps and
Jen goods; and has marble and stone works. Columbia
settled about 1807 and was incorporated in 182s. During
3vil War it was the base from which General N. B. Forrest
ated in 1862-1863, and was alternately occupied by Con-
rate and Federal forces during General Hood's Nashville
paign (November-December 1864).
NLUMBIA RIVER, a stream of the north-west United States
south-west Canada, about 939 m. in length, draining a basin
K>ut 250,000 sq. m., of which 38.395 are in British Columbia;
t 105,000 sq. m. belong to the valley of the Snake and
» to that of the Willamette. The source of the river is
ly in the Yellowstone country, partly near the Titon peaks,
partly in the pine-dad mountains of British Columbia,
e American geographers regard the head as that of the Clark
r, but it is most generally taken to be in British Columbia
it 80 m. north of the United States line. From this point
ns some 150 m. to the north-west to the " Big Bend," and
. in a great curve southward, enclosing the superb ranges of
Selkirks, crossing the international line near the boundary
Washington and Idaho, where it is joined by the Pend Oreille
r, or Clark Fork, already referred to. This latter river rises
he Rocky Mountains west of Helena, Montana, falls with
svy slope (1323 ft. in 167 m.) to its confluence with the Flat-
l, flows through Lake Pend Oreille (27 m.) in northern Idaho,
runs in deep canyons (falling 000 ft. in 200 m.) to its junction
. the Columbia, which from this point continues almost due
h for more than 106 m. Here the Columbia is joined by the
Lane, a large river with heavy fall, and enters the " Great
11 of the Columbia," an area of some 22,000 sq. m., resemb-
the " parks " of Colorado, shut in on all sides by mountains:
Hoses range to the north, the Bitter Root and Cocur d'Alene
be east, the Blue on the south, and the Cascades on the west,
■oil is rich, yielding great harvests of grain, and the moun-
1 rich in minerals as yet only slightly prospected. After
king into this basin the river turns sharply to the west and
Is the northern mountain barrier for about 105 m. Where
Hikes the confines of the Cascades, it is joined by the
■ogan, turns due south in the second Big Bend, and flows
it joo m. to its junction with the Snake near Wallula.
fter the confluence of the Snake with the Columbia the
ter river turns west toward the Pacific. Throughout its
to to this point it may be said that the Columbia has no
I plain; everywhere it is cutting its bed; almost evcry-
re it is characterized by canyons, although above the Spokane
valley is much broken down and there is considerable
lered and fertile bench land. Below the Spokane the
ron becomes more steep and rugged. From the mouth of
Qkanogan to Priests Rapids extends a superb canyon, with
jpitous walls of black columnar basalt 1000 to 3000 ft. in
At. The finest portion is below the Rock Island Rapids,
bis part of its course, along the Cascade range in the Great
a and at its passage of the range westward, rapids snd
ades particularly obstruct the imperfectly opened bed.
Jm lower Columbia, navigation is first interrupted 160 m.
t the mouth at the Cascades, a narrow gorge across the
cade range 4*5 m. long, where the river falls 24 ft. in 2500;
rapids are evaded by a canal constructed (1 878-1896) by the
eral government, and by a portage railway (1S90-1891).
y-three miles above this are the Dalles, a series of falls,
ds and rock obstructions extending some 14 m. and ending
2elilo, 115m. below Wallula, with a fall of 20 ft. There are
impediments just below the mouth of the Snake; others
he lower course of this river below Riparia; and almost
Linuous obstructions in the Columbia above Priests Rapids.
commerce of the Columbia is very important, especially
. from Portland, Vancouver, Astoria, and other outlets of
Willamette valley and the lower Columbia. The grain
on of the Great Plain, the bottom-land orchards and grain
1 on the plateaus of the Snake, have not since 1880 been
dependent upon the water navigation for freighting, but m their
interest costly attempts have been made to open the river below
the Snake uninterruptedly to commerce.
The Columbia, is one of the greatest salmon streams of the
world (see Oregon). The tonnage of deep-sea vessels in and out
over the bar at the river's mouth from 1890-1809 was 9,4*3,637
tons. From 1872-1899 the United States government expended
for improvement of the Snake and Columbia $6,925,649. The
mouth of the latter is the only deep-water harbour between
San Francisco and Cape Flattery (700 m.), and the only fresh
water harbour of the Pacific coast To facilitate its entrance,
which, owing to bars, tides, winds, and the great discharge of
the river, has always been difficult, a great jetty has been con- -
structed (1885-1895, later enlarged) to scour the bars. It was
about 4*5 miles long, and in 2903 work was begun to make it 2*5
miles longer. The tides are perceptible 250 m. above the mouth
(mean tide at Astoria c. 6* a ft.), the average tidal flow at the
mouth being about 1,000,000 cub. ft. per second; while the
fresh water outflow is from 90,000 to 300,000 cub. ft according
to the stage of water, and as high as 1,000,000 cub. ft in time
of flood. Improvements were undertaken by the Federal govern-
ment and a state commission in 1002 in order to secure a 25-ft
channel from Portland to the sea.
In 1792, and possibly also in 1 788, the river mouth was entered
by Captain Robert Gray (1 755-1806) of Boston, Mass., who
named the river after his. own vessel, " Columbia," which name
has wholly supplanted the earlier name, " Oregon." In 1804-
1805 the river was explored by Meriwether Lewis and William
Clark. Upon these discoveries the United States primarily
based its claim to the territory now embraced in the states of
Oregon and Washington .
COLUMBIA mUVKRSITY, one of the oldest and most im-
portant of the higher institutions of learning in the United
States, located for the most part on Morningside Heights,
New York city. It embraces Columbia College, founded as
King's College in 1754; a school of medicine (the College of
Physicians and Surgeons) founded in 1767, in West 59th Street;
a school of law, founded in 1858; schools of applied science,
including a school of mines and schools of chemistry and engineer-
ing, separately organized in 1606; a school of architecture,
organized in 1S81 ; graduate schools of political science, organized
in 1880, philosophy, organized in 1890, and pure science,
organized in 1892; and a school of journalism; closely affiliated
with it are the College of Pharmacy, founded in 1829, in West
68th Street; Teachers' College, founded in 1886, as the New
York College for the Training of Teachers, and essentially a
part of the university since 1809; and Barnard College (for
women) founded in 1889, and essentially a part of the university
since 1900. Reciprocal relations also exist between the university
and both the General Theological Seminary of the Protestant
Episcopal Church and the Union Theological Seminary, thus
practically adding to the university a theological department
Columbia also nominates the American professors who lecture at
German universities by the reciprocal arrangement made in 1905,
the German professors lecturing in America being nominated by
the Prussian ministry of education. Women are now admitted to
all the university courses except those in law, medicine, techno-
logy and architecture. Since 1900 a summer session has been
held for six weeks and attended largely by teachers. Teachers
and others, under the direction of the Teachers' -College, are
afforded an opportunity to pursue courses in absentia and so meet
some of the requirements for an academic degree or a teacher's
diploma. All students of good ability are enabled to complete
the requirements for the bachelor's degree together with any one
of the professional degrees by six years of study at the university
Several courses of lectures designed especially for the public—
notably the Hewitt Lectures, in co-operation with Cooper Union
— are delivered at different places in the city and at the university.
In 1008 there were in Columbia University in aU departments
609 instructors and 4096 students; of these 420 were in Barnard
College, 850 were in the Teachers' Collect, xtvd vw> -««»>»> , "fc*
College ol Pharmacy. IVa wkb\«kn& \iriwxw\>j v***** 3 ****
738
, , , l Ml MM
I n li I l . I. •■«.!, flu- c\
li .11 I . I !■- Mil illi l tin . . .
i ... 1 1.. p. . ii'-i n ri '.*•»
. I . . ..I 1 ' , •••»..»
It '.
Co:.
ovei
colky
ParLi;
the l
College.
collegiate
of the Di-.
(under Hap:
muniurtaliiy .
plant, (oliini
COLUMBIA, ..
r .S.A . on the \l .
COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER
tetroxidt. CbiOi. U obtained u a black powder when the pentoxkk
h heated to a hieh temperature in a current o( hydrogen- It is un-
attacked by aeitf*, C^umbium pentoxide (columbic acMh CbiQ* t
above). The mat her Liquor* are concentrated, and the double salt
of composition ZKF-CbOFj-HjG, s/hich separates* i# decomposed
by sulphuric add, or by continued boiling with water t€» Marignac .
pee also G- Knias .mj L F, Nilson, Brr. 1887, 70, p. i6?b). ft is a
white amorphous infuiiblc powdrr H which when strongly healed iti
sulphuretted hydrogen, yield* in okysulphide. Several hydra ted
iarm* a re know a. yield i ng sa 1 1 s known a* ro/mnfriij 5, A pertidn wr*n:
acid 1 . HCbtVnHiO, has beta prepared by P. Melikof? and L- Fiuaf-
jew»ky [Ztti.f. atwrr. Ck*™. 1 &09. jo. p ; 341), as a yellow amorphoui
powder by the aciinn of diTirte sulphuric acid on ihr poiassium saH h
which i* formed when ttiJufnLic MM is fused in a silver crucible wilh
righi lifre* it* weight of caustic p- (ash {loc. cit.j. Saht ol toe acid
H.LbUt have been described by <_. W. Bailee and E. ¥. bin it h [Jour.
Alter, Chfrri. 5i>c- TOO®, JO, p. (637).
Crfumt'ium trUhloridr, CbCti, ■* obtained in needles or crystalline
erinU, when the vjpour of the pen la chloride is slowly passed
through a red-hot tube. When heated in a current of carbon dioxide
it form* the oxychloridc CbOCIj. and carbon monoxide. Columbium
prttachloriJe, CbC\i. is obtained in yellow needles when a mixture
of the pentoxide and sugar charcoal 11 heated in a current of air-free
chlorine. It melts at 104" C. (H. Devillc) and bulls at 240-5* C.
It is decomposed by water, and dissolves in hydrochloric acid.
Columbium oxychloride, CbOCIj. is formed when carbon tetrachloride,
and columbic acid are heated together at 440* C. : 3CCI«+CbjO» ■
2CbOCIi+3COCI;.andalx> by distilling the pentachlciride.inacurrent
of carbon dioxide, over ignited columbic acid. It forms a white silky
mass which volatiliresat about 400" C It deliquesces in moist air, and
la decomposed violently by water. Columbium penta fluoride, CbF».
b obtained when the pentoxide is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid.
It is only known in solution; evaporation of the solution yields the
pentoxide. The oxyfiuonde, CbOFi. results when a mixtuie of the
pentoxide and fluorspar is heated in a current of hydrochloric acid.
It forms many double salt* with other metallic fluorides.
Columbium oxysulphide, CbOSi, is obtained as a dark bronze
coloured powder when the pentoxide is heated to a white heat in a
current of carbon bisulphide vapour; or by gently heating the
oxychloride in a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. It burns when
heated in air. forming the pentoxide and sulphur dioxide.
Columbium nitride, CbjNs. (?). is formed when dry ammonia gas is
passed into an ethereal volution of the chloride. A heavy white
precipitate, consisting of ammonium chloride and columbium
nitride, is thrown down, and the ammonium chloride is removed by
washing it out with hot water, when the columbium nitride remains
as an amorphous residue (Hall and Smith, loc. fit.).
Potassium fluoxy percolumbate, K,CbO»Fi-H:0, is prepared by
dissolving potavoum columbium oxy fluoride in a 3 % solution of
hydrogen peroxide. The solution turns yellow in colour, and, when
saturated, deposits a pasty mass of crystals. The salt separates
from solutions containing hydrofluoric acid in large plates, which
aregreeni»h yellow in colour.
The atomic weight was determined by C. Marignac {Ann. ckim. et
pkyt. 1866 (4), 8. p. 16) to be 94 from the anal) vis of potassium
rolumbium oxy fluoride, and the same value has been obtained by
T. W. Richards {Journ. Amer. Ckem. Soc. 1898, 20, p. 543).
COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER [in Spanish Cristobal Colon]
(c. 1446, or perhaps rather 1451, -1506) was the eldest son of
Domenico Colombo and Suzanna Fontanarossa, and was born at
Genoa either about 1446 or in 145 1, the exact date being un-
certain. His father was a wool-comber, of some small means,
who lived till 140S. According to the life of Columbus by his
son Ferdinand (a statement supported by Las Casas), young
Christopher was sent to the university of Pavia, where he
devoted himself to astronomy, geometry and cosmography.
Yet, according to the admiral's own statement, he became a
sailor at fourteen. Evidently this statement, however, cannot
mean the abandonment of all other employment, for in 1470,
1473, and 1473 wc find him engaged in trade at Genoa, following
the family business of weaving, and (in 1473) residing at the
neighbouring Savona. In 1474- M 75 he appears to have visited
Chios, where he may have resided some time, returning to
Genoa perhaps early in 1476. Thence he seems to have again
set out on a voyage in the summer of 1476, perhaps bound for
England; on the 13th of August 1476, the four Genoese vessels
he accompanied were attacked off Cape St Vincent by a privateer,
one Guillaume de Case no vc, surnamed Cotillon or Colombo
(" Columbus ") ; two of the four ships escaped, with Christopher,
to Lisbon. In December 1476. the latter resumed their voyage
to England, probably carrying with them Columbus, who, after
a short stay in England, claims to have made a voyage in the
741
northern seas, and even to have visited Iceland about February
1477. This last pretension is gravely disputed, but it is perhaps
not to be rejected, and we may also trace the Genoese about this
time at Bristol, at Galway, and probably among the islands west
and north of Scotland. Soon after this he returned to Portugal,
where (probably in 1478) he married a lady of some rank, Fclipa
Moniz de Percstrello, daughter of Bartholomew Percstrello, a
captain in the service of Prince Henry the Navigator, and one of
the early colonists and first governor of Porto Santo. Felipa was
also a cousin of the archbishop of Lisbon at this time (1478).
About 1479 Columbus visited Porto Santo, here as in Portugal
probably employing his time in making maps and charts for a
livelihood, while he pored over the logs and papers of his deceased
father-in-law, and talked with old seamen of their voyages, and
of the mystery of the western seas. About this time, too, if
not earlier, he seems to have arrived at the conclusion that much
of the world remained undiscovered, and step by step conceived
that design of reaching Asia by sailing west which was to result
in the discovery of America. In 1474 he is said to **••/
have corresponded with Paolo Toscanclli, the Klorcn- wutrm
tine physician and cosmographcr, and to have received *"*4f»
from him valuable suggestions, both by map and tmA * u -
letter, for such a Western en terprise. (The whole of this incident
has been disputed by some recent critics.) He had perhaps
already begun his studies in a number of works, especially the
Book of Marco Polo and the Imago Mundi of Pierre d'Ailly, by
which his cosmographical and geographical conceptions were
largely moulded. His views, as finally developed and presented
to the courts of Portugal and Spain, were supported by three
principal lines of argument, derived from natural reasons, from
the theories of geographers, and from the reports and traditions
of mariners. He believed the world to be a sphere; he under-
estimated its size; he overestimated the size of the Asiatic
continent. And the farther that continent extended towards
the east, the nearer it came towards Spain. Nor were these
theories the only supports of his idea. Martin Vicente, a Portu-
guese pilot, was said to have found, 400 leagues to the westward
of Cape St Vincent, and after a westerly gale of many days'
duration, a piece of strange wood, wrought, but not with iron;
Pedro Corrca, Columbus's own brother-in-law, was said to have
seen another such waif at Porto Santo, with great canes capable
of holding four quarts of wine between joint and joint, and to
have heard of two men being washed up at Flores " very broad-
faced, and differing in aspect from Christians." West of Europe,
now and then, men fancied there hove in sight the mysterious
islands of St Bran dan, of Brazil, of Antillia or of the Seven
Cities. In his northern journey, too, some vague and formless
traditions may have reached the explorer's ear of the voyages
of Lcif Ericson and Thornnn Karlscfne, and of the coasts of
Markland and Vinland. All were hints and rumours to bid the
bold mariner sail towards the setting sun, and this he at length
determined to do.
The concurrence of some state or sovereign, however, was
necessary for the success of this design. Columbus, on the
accession of John II. of Portugal, seems to have omtataf
entered the service of this country, to have accom- spotrmm
panied Diego d'Azambuja to the Gold Coast, and to
have taken part in the construction of the famous fort of St
George at El Mina (1481-148'). On his return from this ex-
pedition, he submitted to King John the scheme he had now
matured for reaching Asia by a western route across the ocean.
The king was deeply interested in the rival scheme (of an eastern
or south-eastern route rouud Africa to India) which had so long
held the field, which had been initiated by the Genoese in 1291,
and which had been revived, for Portugal, by Prince Henry
the Navigator; but he listened to the Genoese, and referred
him to a committee of council for geographical affairs. The
council's report was adverse; but the king, who was yet inclined
to favour the theory of Columbus, assented to the suggestion
of the bishop of Ccuta that the plan should be carried out in
secret and without its author's knovil«,d^yt. K saxw^. ^-*x
despatched; \>\A \l leAumeA a.\\*x %.\>\w\ ^teuexft** 'k*- vasww
COLUMEUS. CZ-17-^TOrHEX
rriused to vrn'ure far»h«T. " : : rV r" w > .-..-: r.:r ■ ".zr s. ^ttzzi^sz. x Tm^uci-. a-.d «rjcr-.
C iilun.hus !• ft LijIiot. fi»* "-T.4.,; ._ - ; .— . : * ." ~' 7 -""- —•: :s-r: :» recess cnnfo* -
.- I'K-p". :h» ot.ly i-su»- o nr r.j-..^r ;.:•**- * ■ :rr a irr.r.. -^=3- s=- •i* ausrrsoned *.c b<:
. *a= t-y ihi«. ijmt 'j'.j'i }.• •-.— ..- -: :--.-.-r.^ i.:ii rr--.-- v-.i ^. _. .'.i^=j:-^a :j :n=g him c*:r
*umt wn'.erv lo p:vt '.ii*. si : :• i-::^ r ~* 1 '. -T". .-■-. - — .t. : -r^. "^ . : i *i .me :o witness :r?
r*> :t c»'^:>» hiv Tfii'.o". ..—'-.:.•■■ .:i! _ _: — — :. _:. i^ : "tejciiatior.s t ;-»
**. i::niy-:i lu iht sr»*jt. o ":i:t .;! ; --. ~r..z. I -_r " ~ :ri.. -i - :_^ t.i^»*.v.. xz.d stood c
->..i.' u- ::n ».jr:r v' Jrti.-* • ♦•:.•. :: s - :.«:: '.-nt :^ ;_»_-: .- _:s -i^jj, ai .uis-iral al or.
••k :ji. du».t . u? I»>-j;*.i. ■ .. "".r ' •:.::..-_ • .:* "•■_^: 7— :** «# **-■: z&. »Z3. a-dcor.lir.t*:--
-•..ourL^-ivr-' rrv.-iL :•.-.: :,r ■• -.-. — :r r.,-: -_»■•- -:r :•■=-:■' ^ ii ««••. i.'d disc©.*.:
-.;::-.-: u :_-::: r n.rr v..i .;.-•■ -r . _- „:;.._ .: .:c :r.-:i:.^. r ; -a--*-rMi %:*j^_- iiiadir.ini:.:
r.:.- r-.^: ov..cr. »'•:-.: • jot.--.- *"ii-t» :r -__i;c< tl— - t- _-^ ^j .^ "se^cujcr-s mere as~j:
..•::-i ■•'-■.i"T •..•;..: :.v .-..—-.,. v^ :• -.— .- -l s .: :: • — .* * z. 'trr.io^a. arrears to r.i\r
■. u-: s -.. t.:.- r-v.' -»n .v l-.—t*::-.:...-: ■ ' * : :. -.< .r..-; i_-r : :. --: :c;.irs ^s< ~cse of Januv.
i~: r -:■: ..■.••: :.: .v. . -:- • z z..:.. m _ . '. _z :■«■ i-:: — •«.: ^: r .-"-i_-.r. Ailcr-^ih. ho»£\«:
^. .. 'ur*.' i^:»v'.. ».;: " ..»-.t..hil t .:e ?- — i .; .:ie ..is--: -..::— i:s. lie Slarquoa *
.".•-.».• ► i.: ?■— : .:.:..:j _ ■ .-. • -. :.' 1_l ii* r— • -■^".. -v- r -«; s^-*:«*ia^rical revr rue
- i ■- U-. :..-■' r- 1 .'" . •■•-■a:... "*.- ..V .• _-.rt t.»i a 4 _--^ t. lzj. : '.Tlt rzvjr.^n. Iiabclla ras
.: i • .-_ .•"-ST' ^ .. : **-:■••. :: r..:^;-: ■. ^-t.-^_z»: ..: _3c iiz- — ^n. * 2ts*er.gcr *as ms:
. -_■ .._. J '.••.-. 4.: !.- .:-.- : ■.-: ■«.:•.: ^.-.rr lu^: :ij. ii_; : j- •*:% t.= ifcir l :r.:js called "Finos."
• .. c -. :j« -•• .— . 7 .:-- : r. -:- lir.±.zi. r^ — -ric*i o zt: urp at Santa Fe,
-•--.- v_. ::,-j..: ;■--:■ - • .-. ■„:.:-. .: : . -_: :: --rl .t^ ^r^-=s*:: t:c:-*eta him afid
. _: f: !l.._ ..:•:.-- - . *_■ t_; ^.-£ n = .^-i -.: ir^v ^e ^*:r.-r>- of Cipanjju of
.-.:-- -.-::. ^:-: _r« ••-* .:.-t I-.-, -z ."-^-- : -' — -• -=« rrm::- :r n j-:r-.*urie «%;ih the gracd
•' *•- -■•"'. f- '• -..:-• I: :- »^-l.: . li _•- :e --.. -; i '•' - «. *?r o: ir.iroduction :d
— . .:-. ru-.— •:. '-i*. r • - ■ ;- - _;- ^ -.^^ ~; .. . ii .. 7i.v4 *is iCLT^-z. :«.' ir.d him tHOihlpi
: *.. :•■ — . ■ : • — as \ii i= : ^^< * — : ^>:.t t^-v- »- ^» u^cv^a^ B_: no crews could
v. . : -: ■ : „ .--.,.. :- r * ■ r *r.r r ■c:'.? :. ^= n«-t:.T..:.:y ct.rcd to criminals
"-- ■• .. • - „i."=a.--a_ lzi 27 t.-. :.-. " »3- *« -- 5«r- : „: :.-:c cAp^dition; iid
---*.:■"•• .... •-!.■• -^i. -. : ." . — 7 r= .^.^.rf-t-i a i'. . .■r^i..-.^ .a the cause (be
-..- .••-:_ ...-.-.. .:- -.- - : : ^ * -;— ^ _-« Vr*.:. «uvffso 7-.-^r--n a.-..i Vicente Yaflc:
- :-. .- - • .-: _-: .- -: -- ." z.- - I .-..- .-.:-- :r\ "-- :«■: l.- ? d.- ,\i yed. At Lut.
-— .-r . .:■ :.- — . -„~ »-- zw.-.z r_.- .-.: ,-^ --- -*.w> *'-- ~-^>- The expediiioc
■•-"■"--'•" "-. : ' . - ■ -« :^^i*_i-: • .r^ r— :.- '•»— -a, ' x :o .*.•: ? 4 :.p of xoo tons with
- : • r. - ••• 1» - .- m-_= i :r:» .+ . -*.- .'"7r-*n:w ?v .J:c lumiral in person; and
-r. ..-._- .«■ — - t-t.-*« -■" :■»: •«.- ^s ""•—■a ' -« *- '- r -*- *^'b iS men. under
-" • ' — -z -t Mi- - 7 -. • -■- -^ Niii. * m *c : te '»i5. with 18 iwc.
■" ■ " - -: m :. - ■ z* -r.ijr ^ • -.• •.-•'••c V-c«.:. iittrnozxi* .1409) the first to
*.Tw»n.a:i V»:ant:c.
r > ..-Lx'^i ?S sou;>. ind en Friday, the yd
% . •. : :« -nwrrsinji;, lie LtUe fleet wcijliei
Iru.ics. An abstract
..* -u.c :v Los Cfcsii is yet
- .•■ »-: \v •-..!:> 31 ay be gleaned
. -h v "'{fit J a -si: u-r the ships had set
- ^ --c -* ' ' ~c i ■—.."ral was in si-me
.■ . -• - *^ : » • * v *■-" ? *vi:on that Mania
vy ^ ^. ••»•-. * '••■ :Vy h*d, however.
... x :* ... ^.- k .n.:: On the 6th '4
i. ...v- * v, ^r -vrj with all ha>le.
* N x * "• * "" ?": % -iguese caravx!*
« - •».-■■• » v *-■ :5:hof Septerr.lrr
., x *. w:.; were for the first
«. .*i «*. -:o the sea at four er
..-%»■«• v* arrived at those vast
. tv % x -. >*o 5ea; while all the time.
V *•■* k-%. .-.-rperaie breeres. the sweet-
>» x: j. .sxvm 'y delightful, the weathtr
... > .v.* :he song of the nightingale
„ v. '.x-.i Vjean to murmur: they were
. v • mm . • e»v Avp-crj of the variation of the
-u>-ii. \zt rn. ■-. • - ' s . %;iM .^». wlur.bus gave restored their
-t • -ranzua ■ • .•„*.» v» xiw many birds, and a great
- -i-jeiore ..i-r- ^ . % . t v. :>c\ expected to see land. On
-»*»"•'* '" . vx.-..w k - o;vr birds, and were sure the
"-"«■■■ ' . . . ' v Vwe\rr. they were disappointed;
"' " tr '. " . •.-.%. *V «a> keeping all the while a
' r * '■ " '* .. • ■•• v - <* .v. 1 . one for himself, had great
"• l ' ■ " " " " . , v »-\ -! /.>;vHed from the excesses
_-*•"•"•.. s •• ^ K V.a:: : rs Alonso Pinzon raised the
~**tkr i ■•••'' ' •. \. . v »» ..».%• *v; xs dvd ih< rumour to the same
«aj. ' 1
COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER
743
effect oo the 7th of October, from the " Nina." But on the
1 ith the " PinU " fished up a car*, a pole, a stick which appeared
to have been wrought with iron, and a board, while the " Nina "
sighted a branch covered with berries; " and with these signs
all of them breathed and were glad." At ten o'clock on that
night Columbus himself perceived and pointed out
, a light ahead, and at two in the morning of Friday,
the 12th of October 1492, Rodrigo de Triana, a sailor
aboard the " Nina," announced the appearance of what proved
to be the New World. The land sighted was an island, called by
the Indians Guanahani, and named by Columbus San Salvador.
It is generally identified with Watling Island.
The same morning Columbus landed, richly clad, and bearing
the royal banner of Spain. He was accompanied by the brothers
Pinzon, bearing banners of the Green Cross (a device of the
admiral's), and by great part of the crew. When they all had
" given thanks to God, kneeling upon the shore, and kissed the
ground with tears of joy, for the great mercy received," the
admiral named the island, and took solemn possession of it for
their Catholic majesties of Castile and Leon. At the same time
such of the crews as had shown themselves doubtful and mutinous
sought his pardon weeping, and prostrated themselves at his feet.
Into the remaining detail of this voyage, of highest interest
as it is, it b impossible to go further. It will be enough to say
that it resulted in the discovery of the islands of Santa Maria
de la Conception (Rum Cay), Femandina (Long Island), Isabella
(Crooked Island), Cuba or /Kane (named by Columbus in honour
of the young prince of Spain), and Hispaniola, Haiti, or San
Domingo. Off the last of these the " Santa Maria " went
•ground, owing to the carelessness of the steersman. No lives
were lost, but the ship had to be unloaded and abandoned; and
Columbus, who was anxious to return to Europe with the news
of his achievement, resolved to plant a colony on the island, to
build a fort out of the material of the stranded hulk, and to leave
the crew. The fort was called La Navidad; 44 Europeans were
placed in charge. On the 4th of January 1493 Columbus, who
had lost sight of Martin Pinzon, set sail alone in the " Nina "
for the east; and two days afterwards the " Pinta " joined her
sister-ship. A storm, however, separated the vessels, and it
was not until the 18th of February that Columbus reached the
island of Santa Maria in the Azores. Here he was threatened
with capture by the Portuguese governor, who could not for
tome time be brought to recognize his commission. On the
24th of February, however, he was allowed to proceed, and
on the 4th of March the " Nina " dropped anchor off Lisbon.
The king of Portugal received the admiral with the highest
honours. On the 13th of March the " Nina " put out from the
Tagus, and two days afterwards, Friday, the 15th of March,
she reached Palos.
The court was at Barcelona; and thither, after despatching
a letter announcing his arrival, Columbus proceeded in person.
He entered the city in a sort of triumphal procession, was received
by their majesties in full court, and, seated in their presence,
related the story of his wanderings, exhibiting the " rich and
strange " spoils of the new-found lands, — the gold, the cotton,
the parrots, the curious arms, the mysterious plants, the un-
known birds and beasts, and the Indians he had brought with
him for baptism. All his honours and privileges were confirmed
to him; the title of Don was conferred on himself and his
brothers; he rode at the king's bridle; he was served and saluted
as a grandee of Spain. A new and magnificent scutcheon was
also blazoned for him (4 th May 1493), whereon the royal castle
and lion of Castile and Leon were combined with the five anchors
of his own coat of arms. Nor were their Catholic highnesses
less busy on their own account than on that of their servant.
On the 3rd and 4th of May Alexander VI. granted bulls confirm*
ing to the crowns of Castile and Leon all the lands discovered,
or to be discovered, west of a line of demarcation drawn 100
leagues west of the Azores, on the same terms as those on which
the Portuguese held their colonies along the African coast A
new expedition was got in readiness with all possible despatch,
to secure and extend the discoveries already made.
After several delays the fleet weighed anchor on the 24th of
September 1493 and steered westwards. It consisted of three
great carracks (galleons) and fourteen caravels (light
frigates), having on board over 1500 men, besides the
animals and materials necessary for colonization.
Twelve missionaries accompanied the expedition, under the
orders of Bernardo Buil or Boil, a Benedictine; Columbus had
been already directed (29th May 1493) to endeavour by all means
in his power to Christianize the inhabitants of the islands, to
make them presents, and to " honour them much", while all
under him were commanded to treat them " well and lovingly/ 1
under pain of severe punishment. On the 13th of October the
ships, which had put in at the Canaries, left Ferro; and on
Sunday, the 3rd of November, after a single storm, " by the
goodness of God and the wise management of the admiral " an
island was sighted to the west, which was named Dominica.
Northwards from this the isles of Marigalante and Guadalupe
were next discovered and named; while on the north-western
course to La Navidad those of Montserrat, Antigua, San Martin,
Santa Cruz and the Virgin Islands were sighted, and the island
now called Porto Rico was touched at, hurriedly explored, and
named San Juan Bautista. On the 22nd of November Columbus
came in sight of Hispaniola, and sailing westward to La Navidad,
found the fort burned and the colony dispersed. He decided
on building a second fort, and coasting on 30 m. east of Monte
Cristi, he pitched on a spot where he founded the city of Isabella.
The climate proved unhealthy; the colonists were greedy of
gold, impatient of control, proud, ignorant and mutinous; and
Columbus, whose inclination drew him westward, was doubtless
glad to escape the worry and anxiety of his post, and to avail
himself of the instructions of his sovereigns as to further dis-,
coveries. On the 2nd of February 1494 he sent home, by
Antonio de Torres, that despatch to their Catholic highnesses
by which he may be said to have founded the West Indian slave
trade. He established the mining camp of San Tomaso in the
gold country of Central Hispaniola; and on the 24th of April
1494, having nominated a council of regency under his brother
Diego, and appointed Pedro Margarit his captain-general, he
again put to sea. After following the southern shore of Cuba
for some days, he steered southwards, and discovered (May 14th)
the island of Jamaica, which he named Santiago. He then
resumed his exploration of the Cuban coast, threaded his way
through a labyrinth of islets which be named the Garden of the
Queen (Jardin de la Rcyna), and, after coasting westwards for
many days, became convinced that he had discovered continental
land. He therefore caused Perez de Luna, the notary, to draw
up a document to this effect (12th of June 1494), which was
afterwards taken round and signed (the admiral's steward
witnessing) by the officers, men and boys of his three caravels,
the " Nina," the " Cordera," and the " San Juan." He then
stood to the south-east, and sighted the island of Evangelist*
(now Isla de k>s Pinos), revisited Jamaica, coasted the south of
Hispaniola, and on the 24th of September touched at and named
the island of La Mona, in the channel between Hispaniola and
Porto Rico. Thence he had intended to sail eastwards and
complete the survey of the Caribbean Archipelago; but he
was exhausted by the terrible tear and wear of mind and body
he had undergone (he says himself that on this expedition be
was three-and-thirty days almost without sleep), and on the day
following his departure from La Mona he fell into a lethargy,
that deprived him of sense and memory, and had well-nigh
proved fatal to life. At last, on the 29th of September, the little
fleet dropped anchor off Isabella, and in his new city the admiral
lay sick for five months.
The colony was in a sad plight Every one was discontented,
and many were sick, for the climate was unhealthy and there
was nothing to eat. Margarit and Boil had deserted the settle-
ment and fled to Spain, but ere bis departure the former, in bis
capacity of captain-general, had done much to outrage and
alienate the Indians. The strongest measures were necessary
to undo this mischief, and, backed by his brother Bartholomew^
Columbus proceeded to reduce the, r^s^\^^x^v«*^ vw *''
742
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COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER
745
ashore to Ovando, asking for a new ship and for permission to
enter the harbour to weather a hurricane which he saw was
coming on. But his requests were refused, and he coasted the
island, casting anchor under lee of the land. Here he weathered
the storm, which drove the other caravels out to sea, and anni-
hilated the homeward-bound fleet; the richest that had till then
been sent from Hispaniola. Roldan and Bobadilla perished with
others of the admiral's enemies; and Fernando Columbus, who
accompanied his father on this voyage, wrote long afterwards,
" I am satisfied it was the hand of God, for had they arrived in
Spain they had never been punished as their crimes deserved,
but rather been favoured and preferred."
After recruiting his flotilla at Azua, Columbus put in at
Jaquimo and refitted his four vessels; and on the 14th of July
1502 he steered for Jamaica. For several days the ships
wandered painfully among the keys and shoals he had named the
Garden of the. Queen, and only an opportune easterly wind
prevented the crews from open mutiny. The first land sighted
(J^y 30th) was the islet of Guanaja, about 40 m. cast of the
coast of Honduras. Here he got news from an old Indian of a
rich and vast country lying to the eastward, which he at once
concluded must be the long-sought -for empire of the grand khan.
Steering along the coast of Honduras, great hardships were
endured, but nothing approaching his ideal was discovered.
On the 12th of September Cape Gracias~a-Dios was rounded.
The men had become clamorous and insubordinate; not until
the 5th of December, however, would he tack about and retrace
. Ms course. It now became his intention to plant a colony on the
fiver Veragua, which was afterwards to give his descendants a
title of nobility; but he had hardly put about when he was caught
in a storm, which lasted eight days, wrenched and strained his
crazy, worm-eaten ships severely, and finally, on Epiphany
Sunday 1503, blew him into an embouchure which he named
belem or Bethlehem. Gold was very plentiful in this place,
and here he determined to found his settlement. By the end of
March 1503 a number of huts had been run up, and in these the
jJttanlado (Bartholomew Columbus), with 80 men, was to
-emain, while Christopher returned to Spain for men and supplies.
Quarrels, however, arose with the natives; the cacique was
aade prisoner, but escaped again; and before Columbus could
.**vt the coast he had to abandon a caravel, to take the settlers
a board, and to relinquish the enterprise of colonization.
■leering eastwards, he left a second caravel at Puerto Bcllo; he
•tence bore northwards for Cuba, where he obtained supplies
om the natives. From Cuba he bore up for Jamaica, and there,
• the harbour of San Gloria, now St Ann's Bay, he ran his
iipa aground in a small inlet still called Don Christopher's
owe (June 23rd, 1503).
The expedition was received with great kindness by the natives,
id here Columbus remained upwards of a year, awaiting the
turn of his lieutenant Diego Mcndez, whom he had despatched
Ovando for assistance. During his critical sojourn here, the
■rairal suffered much from disease and from the lawlessness of
1 followers, whose misconduct had alienated the natives, and
evoked them to withhold their accustomed supplies, until be
rterously worked upon their superstitions by prognosticating
f u*' ^ w0 vcasc k navm 8 at ^ asl arrived for his relief,
nimbus left Jamaica on the 28th of June 1504, and, after
«S at Hispaniola, set sail for Spain on the 12th of September.
fiL* * crn Pcstuous voyage he landed once more at San Lucar
As lL ?lh ° f Novcmbcr "504-
ne was too ill to go to court, his son Diego was sent thither
Her r ' to *°°k a * tcr h * s intercst$ an( * transact ms business.
t ^ ? er letter followed the young man from Seville— one
. hands of Amerigo Vespucci A licence to ride on mule-
e fQiT** .8»"anted him on the 23rd of February 1505; and in
,. nce °^'P8 May he was removed to the court at Segovia, and
Corun?' n t0 VaUadoud - 0° the hiding of Philip and Juana
- «©ut ^ a 5th of April 1506). although " much oppressed with
Sout
*>id troubled to see himself put by his rights, " he is
"Hui~ Ve sent on * lne oddantod* to pay them his duty and
^ them that he *as yet able to do them extraordinary
service. The last documentary note of him is contained in a final
codicil to the will of 1408, made at Valladolid on the 19th of
May 1506. By this the old will is confirmed; the mayorazp
is bequeathed to his son Diego and his heirs male, failing these
to Fernando, his second son, and failing these to the heirs male
of Bartholomew; only in case of the extinction of the male line,
direct or collateral, is it to descend to the females of the family;
and those into whose hands it may fall arc never to diminish it,
but always to increase and ennoble it by all means possible. The
head of the house is to sign himself " The Admiral." A tenth
of the annual income is to be set aside yearly for distribution
among the poor relations of the house. A chapel is founded and
endowed for the saying of masses. Beat riz Enriqucz is left to the
care of the young admiral Among other legacies is one of " half
a mark of silver to a Jew who used to live at the gate of the
Jewry, in Lisbon." The codicil was written and signed with
the admiral's own hand. Next day (20th of May 1 506) he died.
After the funeral ceremonies at Valladolid, Columbus's remains
were transferred to the Carthusian monastery of Santa Maria de
las Cuevas, Seville, where the bones of his son Diego, the second
admiral, were also bid. Exhumed in 1542, the bodies of both
father and son were taken over sea to Hispaniola and interred
in the cathedral of San Domingo. In 1795-1706, on the cession
of that island to the French, the relics were re-exhumed and
transferred to the cathedral of Havana, whence, after the Spanish-
American War of 1898 and the loss of Cuba, they were finally
removed to Seville cathedral, where they remain. The present
heir and representative of Columbus belongs to the Larreategui
family, descendants of the discoverer through the female line,
and retains the titles of admiral and duke of Veragua,
s
%»o FERENS
Columbus Cipher.
The interpretation of the seven-lettered cipher, accepting the
smaller letters of the second line as the final ones of the words, seems
to be Salve Ckristus, Maria. Yosepkus. The name Christopher
[Christojerens) appears in the last line.
In person Columbus was tall and shapely. The only authentic
portrait of him is that which once belonged to Paulusjovius.and
is still in the possession of the de Orchi family (related to Joviua
by female descent) at Como. It shows us a venerable man with
clean-shaven face, thin grey hair, high forehead, sad thoughtful
eyes. It bears the inscription Columbus Lygur. novi orbit re per toe.
Authorities. — Fernando Columbus, Historic del Signor Don
Fernando Colombo . . . e vera relation* deUo vita . . . dell' Ant'
mtragho D. Christojoro Colombo (the Spanish original of this, written
before 1539. is lost; only the Italian version remains, first published
at Venice in 1571; a good edition appeared in London in 1867);
Bartolomd de las Casas, Historia de las Indias, written 1527- 1561,
but first printed at Madrid in 1875. after remaining in manuscript
more than three centuries; Andres Bcrnandcz. Historia de lot Reyes
Catolicos (contemporary with Fernando Col umbus's //u/orie, but first
printed at Granada in 1856; best edition, Seville, 1870); Gonzalo
Fernandez Ovicdo y Valdcs, Historia general de las Indias (Seville,
1535; best edition. Madrid. 1851-1855); Peter Martyr d'Anghiera,
Opus Epistolarum, first published in 1530, and De Orbe Novo (De-
cades), printed in 1511 and 1530; Francisco Lopez de Gomara,
Historia general de las Indias (Saragossa, 1552-15*3. and Antwerp*
1554) : Antonio de llerrera, Historia general de las Indias oeadentafes
(publication first completed in 1615, but best edition perhaps that of
1710. Madrid): Juan Bautista MuAoz, Historia del Nnevo XI undo
(Madrid, 1793); Martin Fernandez Navarrete. Coletcion de lot
COLUMELLA— COLUMN
747
the state archaeological and historical society. In 1008 the
faculty numbered 175, and the students 2*77- The institution
owed its origin to federal land grants; it is maintained by the
state, the United States, and by small fees paid by the students;
tuition is free in all colleges except the college of law. The
government of the university is vested in a board of trustees
appointed by the governor of the state for a term of seven years.
The first president of the institution (from 1873 to 1881) was
the distinguished geologist, Edward Orton (1820-1800), who
was professor of geology from 1873 to 1809.
Other institutions of learning are the Capital University and
Evangelical Lutheran Theological Seminary (Theological Semi-
nary opened in 1830; college opened as an academy in 1850),
with buildings just east of the city limits; Starling Ohio
Medical College, a law school, a dental school and an art insti-
tute. Besides the university library, there is the Ohio state
library occupying a room in the capitol and containing in 1008
126.000 volumes, including a " travelling library " of about
36,000 volumes, from which various organizations in different
parts of the state may borrow books; the law library of the
supreme court of Ohio, containing complete sets of English,
Scottish, Irish, Canadian, United States and state reports,
statutes and digests; the public school library of about 68,000
volumes, and the public library (of about 55>°oo), which is
housed in a marble and granite building completed in 1006.
Columbus is near the Ohio coal and iron-fields, and has an
extensive trade in coal, but its largest industrial interests are
in manufactures, among which the more important are foundry
and machine-shop products (1005 value, $6,259,579); boots
and shoes (1005 value, $5,425,087, being more than one-sixtieth
of the total product value ol the boot and shoe industry in the
United States, and being an increase from $359,000 in 1890);
patent medicines and compounds (1905 value, $3,214,096);
carriages and wagons (1905 value, $2,197,960); malt liquors
(1005 value, $2,133,955); iron and steel; regalia and society
emblems; steam-railway cars, construction and repairing; and
olco-margarine. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued
at $40,435,531, an increase of 16 -4% in five years. Immediately
outside the city limits in 1905 were various large and important
manufactories, including railway shops, foundries, slaughter-
houses, ice factories and brick-yards. In Columbus there is a
large market for imported horses. Several large quarries also
axe adjacent to the city.
The waterworks are owned by the municipality. In 1904-
1905 the city built on the Scioto river a concrete storage dam,
having a capacity of 5,000,000,000 gallons, and in 1008 it com-
pleted the construction of enormous works for filtering and
softening the water-supply, and of works for purifying the Mow
of sewage— the two costing nearly $5,000,000. The filtering
works include 6 lime saturators, 2 mixing or softening tanks,
6 settling basins, 10 mechanical filters and 2 cicar-walcr reser-
voirs. A large municipal electric-lighting plant was completed
in 1908.
The first permanent settlement within the present limits of
the city was established in 1707 on the west bank of the Scioto,
was named Franklin ton, and in 1803 was made the county-scat.
In 1 810 four citizens of Franklinton formed an association to
secure the location of the capital on the higher ground of the
east bank; in 1812 they were successful and the place was laid
out while still a forest. Four years later, when the legislature
held its first session here, the settlement was incorporated as
the Borough of Columbus. In 1824 the county-seat was removed
here from Franklinton; in 1831 the Columbus branch of the
Ohio Canal was completed; in 1834 the borough was made a
city; by the close of the same decade the National Road extend-
ing from Wheeling to Indianapolis and passing through Columbus
was completed; in 1871 most of Franklinton, which was never
incorporated, was annexed, and several other annexations
followed.
See J. H. Studer, Columbus, Ohio; its History and Resources
(Columbus, 1873); A. E. Lee, History of Ik* City of Columbus, Ohio
(New York, 1892).
COLUMELLA, LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS, of Cades,
writer on agriculture, contemporary of Seneca the philosopher,
flourished about the middle of the 1st century a.d. His extant
works treat, with great fulness and in a diffuse but not inelegant
style which well represents the silver age, of the cultivation of
all kinds of corn and garden vegetables, trees, flowers, the
vine, the olive and other fruits, and of the rearing of cattle,
birds, fishes and bees. They consist of the twelve books of the
De re ruslica (the tenth, which treats of gardening, being in
dactylic hexameters in imitation of Virgil), and of a book De
arboribus, the second book cf an earlier and less elaborate work
on the same subject.
The best complete edition is by J. G. Schneider (1794)- Of a new
edition by K. J. LundstrOm, the tenth book appeared in 1002 and
De arboribus in 1&97. There are English translations by R. Bradley
(1725I. and anonymous 0745): and treatises, De ColumeUae vita el
scripts, by V. Barberct (1887). and G. R. Becher (1897), a compact
dissertation with notes and references to authorities.
COLUMN (Lat. columna), in architecture, a vertical support
consisting of capital, shaft and base, used to carry a horizontal
beam or an arch. The earliest example in wood (2684 B.C.) was
that found at Kahun in Egypt by Professor Flinders Petrk,
which was fluted and stood on a raised base, and in stone the
octagonal shafts of the early temple at Deir-el-Bahri (c. 2850).
In the tombs at Bcni Hasan (2723 B.C.) are columns of two
kinds, the octagonal or polygonal shaft, and the reed or lotus
column, the horizontal section of which is a qua trefoil. This
became later the favourite type, but it was made circular on plan.
In all these examples the column rests on a stone base. (See
also Capital and Order.)
The column was employed in Assyria in small structures only,
such as pavilions or porticoes. In Persia the column, employed
to carry timber superstructures only, was very lofty, being
sometimes 12 diameters high; the shaft was fluted, the number
of flutes varying from 30 t0 5*-
The earliest example of the Greek column is that represented
in the temple fresco at Cnossus (c. 1600 B.C.), of which portions
have been found. The columns were in cypress wood raised on
a stone base and tapered downwards. 1 The same, though to a
less degree, is found in the stone semi-detached columns which
flank the doorway of the Tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae;
the shafts of these columns were carved with the chevron
design.
The earliest Greek columns in stone as isolated features are
those of the Temple of Apollo at Syracuse (early 7th century B.C.),
the shafts of which were monoliths, but as a rule the Greek
columns were all built of drums, sometimes as many as ten or
twelve. There was no base to the Doric column, but the shafts
were fluted, 20 flutes being the usual number. In the Archaic
Temple of Diana at Ephesus there were 52 flutes. In the later
examples of the Ionic order the shaft had 24 flutes. In the
Roman temples the shafts were very often monoliths.
Columns were occasionally used as supports for figures or
other features. The Naxian column at Delphi of the Ionic
order carried a sphinx. The Romans employed columns in
various ways: the Trajan and the Antonine columns carried
figures of the two emperors; the columna rostrata (260 B.C.)
in the Forum was decorated with the beaks of ships and was
a votive column, the miliaria column marked the centre of
Rome from which all distances were measured. In the same
way the column in the Place Vendome in Paris carries a statue
of Napoleon I.; the monument of the Fire of London, a finial
with flames sculptured on it; the duke of York's column
(London), a statue of the duke of York.
With the exception of the Cretan and Mycenaean, all the
shafts of the classic orders tapered from the bottom upwards,
and about one-third up the column had an increment, known
as the entasis, to correct an optical illusion which makes tapering
shafts look concave; the proportions of diameter to height varied
with the order employed. Thus, broadly speaking, a Roman
Doric column will be eight, a Roman Ionic nine, a Corinthian
1 The tree-trunk used as a column was inverted to retalci tfc*. «.Vi
hence the shape.
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»f«.
COMA BERENICES— COMAYAGUA
749
as the patient can be partially roused only to relapse again
> a state of insensibility; in the deeper states, the patient
not be roused at all, and such are met with in apoplexy,
ady described. Coma may arise abruptly in a patient who
presented no pre-existent indication of such a state occurring.
b a condition is called primary coma, and may result from
following causes:— (i) concussion, compression or laceration
he brain from head injuries, especially fracture of the skull;
from alcoholic and narcotic poisoning; (j) from cerebral
aorrhage, embolism and thrombosis, such being the causes
ipoplexy. Secondary coma may arise as a complication in
following diseases: — diabetes, uraemia, general paralysis,
ingitis, cerebral tumour and acute yellow atrophy of the
r; in such diseases it is anticipated, for it is a frequent cause
be fatal termination. The depth of insensibility to stimulus
measure of the gravity of the symptom; thus the con-
rtival reflex and even the spinal reflexes may be abolished,
only sign of life being the respiration and heart-beat, the
del of the limbs being sometimes perfectly flaccid. A
iscteristk change in the respiration, known as Cheyne-
tes breathing occurs prior to death in some cases; it indicates
; the respiratory centre in the medulla is becoming exhausted,
Is stimulated to action only when the venosity of the blood
bxrrasfd sufficiently toexdte it The breathing consequently
l its natural rhythm, and each successive breath becomes
Mr until a maximum is reached; it then diminishes in depth
occessive steps until it dies away completely. The condition
pnoea, or cessation of breathing, follows, and as soon as the
Mhy of the blood again affords sufficient stimulus, the signs
jr-hunger commence; this altered rhythm continues until
respiratory centre becomes exhausted and death ensues.
ama Vigil is a state of unconsciousness met with in the
k stage of cholera and some other exhausting diseases. The
eat'a eyes remain open, and he may be in a state of low
taring delirium; he is entirely insensible to his surroundings,
■rithrr knows nor can indicate his wants.
hare is a distinct word " coma " (Cr. cosoy, hair), which
■d in astronomy for the envelope of a comet, and in botany
a toft
■A BERENICES (" Berenice's Hair"), in astronomy,
Mtdlition of the northern hemisphere; it was first mentioned
jaHfanachns, and Eratosthenes (jrd century B.C.), but is not
■fad in the 48 asterisms of Ptolemy. It is said to have been
■dby Conon, in order to console Berenice, queen of Ptolemy
■fetes, for the loss of a lock of her hair, which had been
■ from a temple to Venus. This constellation is sometimes,
wrongly, attributed to Tycho Brahe. The most interesting
of this group is 24 Comae, a fine, wide double star,
I of an orange star of magnitude 5}, and a blue star,
7.
MACCH10, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of
■A, 30 m. E.S.E. by road from the town of Ferrara, on the
I flf the sea, in the centre of the lagoon of Valli di Comacchio,
N. of the present mouth of the Reno. Pop. (1001) 7044
nj), 10,745 (commune). It is built on no less than thirteen
lent islets, joined by bridges, and its industries are the
ay, which belongs to the commune, and the salt-works,
seaport of Magnavacca lies 4 m. to the east. Comacchio
HH as a city in the 6th century, and, owing to its position
Bf- centre of the lagoons, was an important fortress. It was
tied in the " donation of Pippin " ( it was taken by the
■tins in $54. but afterwards came under the government
sst archbishops of Ravenna; in 1209 it came under the
Mm of the bouse of Este. In 1508 it became Venetian,
in 1507 was claimed by Clement VII L as a vacant fief.
MANA. a city of Cappadocia [frequently called Chxyse or
OA, ix. the golden, to distinguish it from Comana in Pont us;
L Skakr], celebrated in ancient times as the place where the
I of Mi-Enyo, a variety of the great west Asian Nature-
leas, were celebrated with much solemnity. The service
carried on in a sumptuous temple with great magnificence
■nay t h o us a n ds of kitrodtdi (lempk-hcrvaou). To dtfray
e xpenses, large estates had been set apart, which yielded a more
than royal revenue. The city, a mere apanage of the temple,
was governed immediately by the chief priest, who was always
a member of the reigning Cappadocian family, and took rank
next to the king. The number of persons engaged in the service
of the temple, even in Strabo's time, was upwards of 6ooo, and
among these, to judge by the names common on local tomb-
stones, were many of Persian race. Under Caracalla, Comana
became a Roman colony, and it received honours from later
emperors down to the official recognition of Christianity. The
site lies at Shahr, a village in the Anti-Taurus on the upper
course of the Sams (Sihun), mainly Armenian, but surrounded
by new settlements of Avshar Turkomans and Circassians. The
place has derived importance both in antiquity and now from
its position at the eastern end of the main pass of the western
Anti-Taurus range, the Kuru Chai, through which passed the
road from Cacsarea-Maaaca (mod. Kaisaruk) to Melitcne
(Malatia), converted by Septimius Severus into the chief military
road to the eastern frontier of the empire. The extant remains
at Shahr include a theatre on the left bank of the river, a fine
Roman doorway and many inscriptions; but the exact site
of the great temple has not been satisfactorily identified. There
are many traces of Severus' road, including a bridge at Kemer,
and an immense number of milestones, some in their original
positions, others in cemeteries.
See P. H. H. Massy in G«*. Jomrn. (Sept. 1905) ; E. Chantre,
Uusion em Cafipadocie (1898). (D. C. H.)
COHAJfA (mod. Cumunek), an ancient city of Pontus, said
to have been colonized from Comana in Cappadocia. It stood
on the river Iris (Tozanli Su or Ycshil Irmak), and from its
central position was a favourite emporium of Armenian and
other merchants. The moon-goddess was worshipped in the
city with a pomp and ceremony in all respects analogous to those
employed in the Cappadocian city. The slaves attached to the
temple alone numbered not less than 6000. St John Chrysostom
died there on the way to Constantinople from his exile at Cocysvs
in the Anti-Taurus. Remains of Comana are still to be seen
near a village called Gurccnck on the Tozanli Su. 7 m. from Tokat,
but they are of the slightest description. There is a mound;
and a few inscriptions are built into a bridge, which here spans
the river, carrying the road from Niksar to TckaL (D. G. H )
COMANCHES, a tribe of North American Indians of Sbe-
shonean stock, so called by the Spaniards, but known to the
French as Padoucas, an adaptation of their Sioux name, and
among themselves asniswiis m(people). Theynumbersome 1400,
attached to the Kiowa agency, Oklahoma. When first met by
Europeans, they occupied the regions between the upper waters
of the Brazos and Colorado on the one hand, and the Arkansas
and Missouri on the other. Until their final surrender in 187 s
the Comanchcs were the terror of the Mexican and Texan
frontiers, and were always famed for their bravery. They were
brought to nominal submission in 1783 by the Spanish general
Anza, who killed thirty of their chiefs. During the 19th century
they were always raiding and fighting, but in 1867, to the
number of 2500, they agreed to go on a reservation. In 187a
a portion of the tribe, the Quanhada or Staked Plain Comanchcs,
had again to be reduced by military measures.
COMAYAGUA, the capital of the department of Comayagua
in central Honduras, on the right bank of the river Ulua, and
on the intcroceanic railway from Puerto Cortes to Fonseca Bay.
Pop. (1900) about 8000. Comayagua occupies part of a fertile
vaUey, enclosed by mountain ranges. Under Spanish rule it
was a city of convidcrable size and beauty, and in 1897 its in-
habitant* numbered more than 18,000. A fine cathedral, dating
from 171 5, is the chief monument of its former prosperity, for
most of the handsome public building erected in the colonial
period have fallen Into dwepair. 'I he present rily chiefly
convists of low adobe houses ami cane huU, tenanted by Indians.
The university founded in 1678 has <rawd to rml, but there
la a school oi juriftpru<!ei«t. Jn the iieji/.liboijfhood are many
an* lent Indian ruif* 'icr OtifML Awj-»i< a: Anhin,U%^\.
Founded iu i«,V i»i M*mvil vmvv^N^VvW^uXxn^^n*^
75°
COMB— COMBE, G.
by the Spanish government to find a site for a city midway
between the two oceans, Valladolid la Nueva, as the town was first
named, soon became the capital of Honduras. It received the
privileges of a city in 1557, and was made an episcopal sec in
IS61. Its decline dates from 1827, when it was burned by
revolutionaries; and in 1854 its population had dwindled to
9000. It afterwards suffered through war and rebellion, notably
in 1872 and 1873, when it was besieged by the Guatemalans.
In 1880 Tegucigalpa (q.v.), a city 37 m. east-south-east, super-
seded il as the capital of Honduras.
COMB (a word common in various forms to Teut. languages,
cf. Gcr. Kamm, the Indo-Kurop. origin of which is seen in 7op4of,
a peg or pin, and Sanskrit, gambhas, a tooth), a toothed article
of the toilet used for cleaning and arranging the hair, and also
fur holding it in place after it has been arranged; the word is
aNo applied, from resemblance in form or in use, to various
appliances employed for dressing wool and other fibrous sub-
stances, to the indented fleshy crest of a cock, and to the ridged
series of cells of wax filled with honey in a beehive. Hair combs
are of great antiquity, and specimens made of wood, bone and
horn have been found in Swiss lake-dwellings. Among the
Greeks and Romans they were made of boxwood, and in Egypt
also of ivory. For modern combs the same materials are used,
together with others such as tortoise-shell, metal, india-rubber
and celluloid. There are two chief methods of manufacture.
A plate of the selected material is taken of the size and thickness
required for the comb, and on one side of it, occasionally on both
sides, a series of fine slits are cut with a circular saw. This
method involves the loss of the material cut out between the
teeth. The second method, known as " twinning " or " part-
ing," avoids this loss and is also more rapid. The plate of
material is rather wider than before, and is formed into two
combs simultaneously, by the aid of a twinning machine. Two
pairs of chisels, the culling edges of which are as long as the
teeth are required to be and are set at an angle converging
towards the sides of the plate, arc brought down alternately
in such a way that the wedges removed from one comb form
the teeth of the other, and that when the cutting is complete
the plate presents the appearance of two combs with their teeth
exactly inosculating or dovetailing into each other. In india-
rubber combs the teeth are moulded to shape and the whole
hardened by vulcanization.
COMBACONUM, or Ki'unAKOKAif, a city of British India, in
the Tanjore disirk t of Madras, in the delta of the Cauvcry, on the
South Indian railway. 104 m. from Madras. Pop. (1001) 59,623.
showing an increase of io°„ in the decade. It is a large town with
wide and airy st reels, and is adorned with pagodas, gateways and
other building* of considerable pretension. The great go pur am, or
gate -pyramid, is one of the most imposing buildings of the kind,
rising in twelve stories to a height of upwards of 100 ft., and
ornamented with a profusion of figures of men and animals formed
in stucco. One of the water-tanks in the town is popularly reputed
to be filled with water admitted from the Ganges every twelve
years bv a subterranean passage 1200 m. long; and it con-
sequently forms a centre of attraction for large numbers of
devotee*. The city is historically interesting as the capital of the
Chola race, one of the oldest Hindu dynasties of which any traces
remain, and from which the whole coast of Coromandel, or more
properly Cholamandal, derives its name. It contains a govcrn-
Bcnt college. Brass and other metal wares, silk and cotton cloth
and sugar are among the manufactures.
COMBE, ANDREW (i;o?-iS47>, Scottish physiologist, was
born in Edinburgh on the 27th of October 1797, and was a
younger brot her of George Combe. I le served an appren ticeship
in a surgery, and in 1S1 : passed at Surgeons' Hall. He proceeded
to Paris to complete his medical studies, and whilst there he
investigated phrenology on anatomical principles. He became
convinced of the truth of the new science, and. as he acquired
much skSi in the dissection of the brain, he subsequently gave
additional interest to the lectures of his brother George. "by his
Practical dawn»tra*i^ns of the convolutions. He returned to
Frfi'anurgi ii iStj *::h the intention of beginning practice', but
being attacked by the first symptoms of pulmonary disease, W
was obliged to seek health in the south of France and is Iu.)
during the two following winters. He began to practise in i&ij.
and by careful adherence to the laws of health he was enabled
to fulfil the duties of his profession for nine years. Duricg uui
period he assisted in editing the Phrenological Journal att
contributed a number of articles to it, defended phmok{r
before the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh, published as
Observations on Mental Derangement (1831), and prepared 'Jx
greater portion of his Principles 0/ Physiology Applied to /fntii
and Education, which was issued in 1834, and irnmeduifcT
obtained extensive public favour. In 1836 he was appoint
physician to Leopold I., king of the Belgians, and removed k
Brussels, but he speedily found the climate unsuitable inI
returned to Edinburgh, where he resumed his practice. In 1^
he published his Physiology of Digestion, and in iSjS he »u
appointed one of the physicians extraordinary to the qucea tf
Scotland. Two years later he completed his Physiologies! etf
Moral Management of Infancy, which he believed to be his bm
work and it was his last. His latter years were mostly occuprf
in seeking at various health resorts some alleviation of &»
disease; he spent two winters in Madeira, and tried a u-nf
to the United States, but was compelled to return within a* In
weeks of the date of his landing at New York. He died at Gotpt
near Edinburgh, on the oth of August 1S47.
His biography, written by George Combe, was published is it<a
COMBB, GEORGE (17S8-1858), Scottish phrenologist, die
brother of the above, was born in Edinburgh on the 21st *'
October 178S. After attending Edinburgh high school vA
university he entered a lawyer's office in 1804, and in i3i J been
to practise on his own account. In 1S15 the Edinburgh Mtrtrt
contained an article on the system of " craniology " of F. J. &fl
and K. Spurzhcim, which was denounced as " a piece of thonxui
quackery from beginning to end." Combe laughed like othen
at the absurdities of this so-called new theory of the brain, asd
thought that it must be finally exploded after such an exposure
and when Spurzhcim delivered lectures in Edinburgh, in rcfau-
tion of the statements of his critic, Combe considered the subjtct
unworthy of serious attention. He was, however, invited to a I
friend's house where he saw Spurzhcim dissect the brain, and be
was so far impressed by the demonstration that he aitendei
the second course of lectures. Investigating the subject for
himself, he became satisfied that the fundamental prineinfo
of phrenology were true— namely " that the brain is the enjn
of mind; that the brain is an aggregate of several parts, nek
subserving a distinct mental faculty; and that the size of the
cerebral organ is, cactcris paribus, an index of power or eaenj
of function." In 1817 his first essay on phrenology was pub-
lished in the Scots Magazine-, and a series of papers on the sine
subject appeared soon afterwards in the Literary and Stctiiiud
Magazine; these were collected and published in 1819 in bock
form as Essays on Phrenology, which in later editions beam
A System of Phrenology. In 1 820 he helped to found the Phreno-
logical Society, which in 1823 began to publish a PkrtmoUgKA
Journal. By his lectures and writings he attracted potto
attention to the subject on the continent of Europe and is
America, as well as at home; and a long discussion with Sir
William Hamilton in 1827-1828 excited general interest.
H is most popular work. The Constitution of Man , was published
in 1S2S, and in some quarters brought upon him denundslioai
as a materialist and atheist. From that time he saw everything
by the light of phrenology. He gave time, labour and money
to help forward the education of the poorer classes; he estab-
lished the first infant school in Edinburgh; and he originilfd
a series of evening lectures on chemistry, physiology, history
and moral philosophy. He studied the criminal classes. t?A
tried to solve the problem how to reform as well as to punisk
them; and he strove to introduce into lunatic asrrums a hums*
system of treatment. In 1836 he offered himself as a candidate
for the chair of logic at Edinburgh, but was rejected in favour
of Sir William Hamilton. In 1838 he visited America and spent
about \wq >eaxs lecturing on phrenology, education and the
COMBE, W.— COMBES
75'
treatment of the criminal classes. On bis return in 1840 he
published his Moral Philosophy, and in the following year his
Notes on the United Stales oj North America. In 1842 he delivered,
in German, a course of twenty-two lectures on phrenology in
the university of Heidelberg, and he travelled much in Europe,
inquiring into the management of schools, prisons and asylums.
The commercial crisis of 1855 elicited his remarkable pamphlet
on The Currency Question (1858). The culmination of the
religious thought. and experience of his life is contained in his
work On the Relation between Science and Religion, first publicly
issued in 1857. He was engaged in revising the ninth edition
of the Constitution of Man when be died at Moor Park, Farnham,
on the 14th of August 1858. He married in 1 835 Cecilia Siddons,
a daughter of the great actress.
COMBE, WILLIAM (1741-1823), English writer, the creator
of "Dr Syntax," was born at Bristol in 1741. The circum-
stances of his birth and parentage are somewhat doubtful, and
it is questioned whether his father was a rich Bristol merchant,
or a certain William Alexander, a London alderman, who died
in 1762. He was educated at Eton, where he was contemporary
with Charles James Fox, the 2nd Baron Lyttelton and William
Beckford. Alexander bequeathed him some £2000— a little
fortune that soon disappeared in a course of splendid extrava-
gance, which gained him the nickname of Count Combe; and
after a chequered career as private soldier, cook and waiter,
he finally settled in London (about 1771), as a law student and
bookseller's hack. In 1776 he made his first success in London
with The Diaboliad, a satire full of bitter personalities. Four
years afterwards (1780) his debts brought him into tho King's
Bench; and much of his subsequent life was spent in prison.
His spurious Letters oj the Late Lord Lyttelton 1 (1780) imposed
on many of his contemporaries, and a writer in the Quarterly
Review, so late as 1851 , regarded these letters as authentic, basing
upon them a claim that Lyttelton was "Junius." An early
acquaintance with Lawrence Sterne resulted in his Letters
supposed to have been written by Yorich and Eliza (1779).
Periodical literature of all sorts — pamphlets, satires, bur-
lesques, " two thousand columns for the papers," " two hundred
biographies "—filled up the next years, and about 1789 Combe
was receiving £200 yearly from Pitt, as a pamphleteer. Six
volumes of a Devil on Two Sticks in England won for him the
title of " the English le Sage "; in 1794-1796 he wrote the
text for Boydell's History of the River Thames; in 1803 he began
to write for The Times. In 1809-181 1 he wrote for Ackermann's
Political Magazine the famous Tour of Dr Syntax in search of
the Picturesque (descriptive and moralizing verse of a somewhat
doggerel type), which, owing greatly to Thomas Rowlandson's
designs, had an immense success. It was published separately
In 18x2 and was followed by two similar Tours, " in search of
Consolation," and " in search of a Wife," the first Mrs Syntax
having died at the end of the first Tour. Then came Six Poems
In illustration of 'drawings by Princess Elizabeth (18x3), The
English Dance of Death (1815-1816), The Dance of Life (1816-
1817), The Adventures of Johnny Quae Genus (1822)— all written
for Rowlandson's caricatures; together with Histories of Oxford
and Cambridge, and of Westminster Abbey for Ackermann;
Picturesque Tours along the Rhine and other rivers, Histories
of Madeira, Antiquities of York, texts for Turner's Southern
Coast Views, and contributions innumerable to the Literary
Repository. In his later years, notwithstanding a by no means
unsullied character, Combe was courted for the sake of his charm-
ing conversation and inexhaustible stock of anecdote. He died
in London on the 19th of June 1823.
Brief obituary memoirs of Combe appeared in Ackermann'*
Literary Repository and in the Gentleman's Magazine for August
1823: and in May 1859 a list of his works, drawn up by his own
hand, was printed in the latter periodical. See also Dtary of H.
Crabb Robinson, Notes and Queries for s86g.
1 Thomas, and Baron Lyttelton (1 744-1 779), commonly known
as the " wicked Lord Lyttelton," was famous for his abilities and
his libertinism, also for the mystery attached to his death, of which
it was alleged he was warned in a dream three days before the
COMBE, or Coomb, a term particularly in use in south-western
England for a short closed-in valley, either on the side of a down
or running up from the sea. It appears in place-names as a ter-
mination, e.g. Wiveliscombe, Ilfracombe, and as a prefix, e.g.
Combemartin. The etymology of the word is obscure, but
" hollow " seems a common meaning to similar forms in many
languages. In English " combe " or " cumb " is an obsolete
word for a " hollow vessel," and the like meaning attached to
Teutonic forms kumtn and kumme. The Welsh cwm, in place-
names, means hollow or valley, with which may be compared
cum in many Scots place-names. The Greek tdtyfa also means
a hollow vessel, and there is a French dialect word combe meaning
a little valley.
COMBERMERE, STAPUETON COTTON, xst Viscount (1773-
1865), British field-marshal and colonel of the xst Life Guards,
was the second son of Sir Robert Salusbury Cotton of Comber-
mere Abbey, Cheshire, and was born on the 14th of November
1773, at Llewenny Hall in Denbighshire. He was educated at
Westminster School, and when only sixteen obtained a second
lieutenancy in the 23rd regiment (Royal Welsh Fusiliers). A
few years afterwards (1793) he became by purchase captain in
the 6th Dragoon Guards, and he served in this regiment during
the campaigns of the duke of York in Flanders. While yet in
his twentieth year, he joined the 25th Light Dragoons (subse-
quently 22nd) as lieutenant-colonel, and, while in attendance
with his regiment on George III. at Weymouth, he became a
great favourite of the king. In 1706 he went with his regiment
to India, taking part en route in the operations in Cape Colony
(July-August 1796), and in 1799 served in the war with Tippoo
Sahib, and at the storming of Seringapatam. Soon after this,
having become heir to the family baronetcy, he was, at his father's
desire, exchanged into a regiment at home, the 16th Light
Dragoons. He was stationed in Ireland during Emmett's
insurrection, became colonel in 1800, and major-general five
years later. From 1806 to 18x4 he was M.P. for Newark. In
x 808 he was sent to the seat of war in Portugal, where he shortly
rose to the position of commander of Wellington's cavalry, and
it was here that he most displayed that courage and judgment
which won for him his fame as a cavalry officer. He succeeded
to the baronetcy in 1809, but continued his military career.
His share in the battle of Salamanca (22nd of July 1812) was
especially marked, and he received the personal thanks of
Wellington. The day after, he was accidentally wounded. He
was now a lieutenant-general in the British army and a K.B.,
and on the conclusion of peace (18x4) was raised to the peerage
under the style of Baron Combermere. He was not present at
Waterloo, the command, which he expected, and bitterly re-
gretted not receiving, having been given to Lord Uxbridge.
When the latter was wounded Cotton was sent for to take over
his command, and he remained in France until the reduction
of the allied army of occupation. In 18x7 he was appointed
governor of Barbadoes and commander of the West Indian forces.
From x8j2 to 1825 he commanded in Ireland. His career of
active service was concluded in India (1826), where he besieged
and took Bhurtpore — a fort .which twenty-two years previously
had defied the genius of Lake and was deemed impregnable. For
this service he was created Viscount Combermere. A long period
of peace and honour still remained to him at home. In 1834 he
was sworn a privy councillor, and in 1852 he succeeded Welling-
ton as constable of the Tower and lord lieutenant of the Tower
Hamlets. In 1855 be was made a field-marshal and G.C.B.
He died at Clifton on the 21st of February 1865. An equestrian
statue in bronze, the work of Baron Marochetti, was raised in
his honour at Chester by the inhabitants of Cheshire. Comber-
mere was succeeded by his only son, Wellington Henry (1818-
1891), and the viscountcy is still held by his descendants.
See Viscountess Combermere and Captain W. W. Knollys, The
Combermere Correspondence (London, 1866).
COMBES,[JUSTIN LOUIS] *MILB (1835- ), French states-
man, was born at Roquecourbe in the department of the Tarn.
He studied for the priesthood, but abandoned tfc»vtot.V*3«tt».
ordination, and took, tat &o\»oa. cil &*Mast <ji>c*x*3s* v^StaSt**
752
COMBINATION— COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS
Then he studied medicine, taking his degree in 1867, andsetting up
in practice at Pons in Charente-Infeneure. In i88x he presented
himself as a political candidate for Saintes, but was defeated.
In 1885 he was elected to the senate by the department of
Charente-Infeneure. He sat in the Democratic left, and was
elected vice-president in 1893 and 1804. The reports which he
drew up upon educational questions drew attention to him, and
on the 3rd of November 1895 he entered the Bourgeois cabinet
as minister of public instruction, resigning with his colleagues
on the aist of April following. He actively supported the
Waldcck-Rousseau ministry, and upon its retirement in 1003 he
was himself charged with the formation of a cabinet. In this he
took the portfolio of the Interior, and the main energy of the
government was devoted to the struggle with clericalism. The
parties of the Left in the chamber, united upon this question in
the Bloc rcpublicain, supported Combes in his application of
the law of zooi on the religious associations, and voted the new
bill on the congregations (1004), and under his guidance France
took the first definite steps toward the separation of church and
state. He was opposed with extreme violence by all the Con-
servative parties, who regarded the secularisation of the schools
as a persecution of religion. But his stubborn enforcement of
the law won him the applause of the people, who called him
familiarly le petit pire. Finally the defection of the Radical
and Socialist groups induced him to resign on the 17th of
January 1905, although he had not met an adverse vote in the
Chamber. His policy was still carried on; and when the law
of the separation of church and state was passed, all the leaders
of the Radical parties entertained him at a noteworthy banquet
in which they openly recognized him as the real originator of
the movement.
COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine), a term meaning
an association or union of persons for the furtherance of a common
object, historically associated with agreements amongst workmen
for the purpose of raising their wages. Such a combination was
for a long time expressly prohibited by statute. See Trade
Unions; also Conspiracy and Strikes and Lock Outs.
COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS. The Combinatorial Analysis,
as it was understood up to the end of the 18th century, was of
limited scope and restricted application. P. Nicholson,
2KJI* 1 ' in his Essays on the Combinatorial Analysis, published
luiiom in l8l8 » states that " the Combinatorial Analysis is a
branch of mathematics which teaches us to ascertain
and exhibit all the possible ways in which a given number of
things may be associated and mixed together; so that we may be
certain that we have not missed any collection or arrangement of
these things that has not been enumerated." Writers on the
subject seemed to recognize fully that it was in need of cultiva-
tion, that it was of much service in facilitating algebraical
operations of all kinds, and that it was the fundamental method
of investigation in the theory of Probabilities. Some idea of its
scope may be gathered from a statement of the parts of algebra
to which it was commonly applied, viz., the expansion of a
multinomial, the product of two or more multinomials, the
quotient of one multinomial by another, the reversion and
conversion of series, the theory of indeterminate equations, &c.
Some of the elementary theorems and various particular problems
appear in the works of the earliest algebraists, but the true
pioneer of modern researches seems to have been Abraham
Demoivre, who first published in Phil. Trans. (1697) the law
of the general coefficient in the expansion of the series
•+fa+ex*+Ar 1 + . . . raised to any power. (See also hliscd-
Imm Analytica, hk. iv. chap. ii. prob. iv.) His work on Proba-
bilities would naturally lead him to consider questions of
this nature. An important work at the time it was pub-
lished was the De PartUione Numcrorum of Leonhard
Euler, in which the consideration of the reciprocal of the
product (i-») (i-A) (i-A) . . .establishes a fundamental
connexion between arithmetic and algebra, arithmetical addition
being made todepend upon algebraical multiplication, and a close
bond Js stand between the theories of discontinuous and
qualities. (Cf. Numbers, Partition of.) The
multiplication of the two powers *•, x\ via. *■+**-!•*
showed Euler that he could convert arithmetical addition into
algebraical multiplication, and in the paper r e f er r e d to he gives
the complete formal solution of the main problems of the panitks
of numbers. He did not obtain general expre ss ions for the co-
efficients which arose in the expansion of his generating ronctioss,
but he gave the actual values to a high order of the coefficient*
which arise from the generating functions corresponding to varioa
conditions of partitionment. Other writers who have contributed
to the solution of special problems are James Bernoulli, Rugpero
Guiseppe Boscovich, Karl Friedrich Hindenburg (1741-1808:,
William Emerson (1701-1782), Robert Woodhouse (1773-1827).
Thomas Simpson and Peter Barlow. Problems of eombimtin
were generally undertaken as they became necessary for the
advancement of some particular part of mathematical scjeaoc:
it was not recognized that tne theory of combinations is h
reality a science by itself, well worth studying for its own air
irrespective of applications to other parts of analysis. There wi*
a total absence of orderly development, and until the first third of
the 19th century had passed, Eider's classical paper remained
alike the chief result and the only scientific method of comhjs>
torial analysis.
In 1846 Karl G.J. Jacobi studied the partitions of number* by
means of certain identities involving infinite series that are Drt
with in the theory of elliptic functions. The method employed
is essentially that of Euler. Interest in England was arouid,
in the first instance, by Augustus De Morgan in 1846. who, in 1
letter to Henry Warburton, suggested that combinatorial analysa
stood in great need of development, and alluded to the theory cf
partitions. Warburton, to some extent under the guidance of De
Morgan, prosecuted researches by the aid of a new instnuwsL
viz. the theory of finite differences. This was a distinct advance,
and he was able to obtain expressions for the coerficknua
partition scries in some of the simplest cases (Trans. Comb. PH
Soc., 1840). This paper inspired a valuable paper by Sir Jota
Herschel (Phil. Trans. 1850), who, by introducing the ideaaad
notation of the circulating function, was able to present results
in advance of those of Warburton. The new idea involved a
calculus of the imaginary roots of unity. Shortly afterwards, ■
1855, the subject was attacked simultaneously by Arthur Cayky
and James Joseph Sylvester, and their combined efforts resulted
in the practical solution of the problem that we have to-day
The former added the idea of the prime circulator, and the bite
applied Cauchy's theory of residues to the subject, and invented
the arithmetical entity termed a denumerant. The next distinct
advance was made by Sylvester, Fabian Franklin, WiHon
Pitt Durfee and others, about the year 188a (Attur. Jnrt
Math. vol. v.) by the employment of a graphical method, tbt
results obtained were not only valuable in themselves, bit
also threw considerable light upon the theory of algebraic series
So far it will be seen that researches had for their object tk
discussion of the partition of numbers. Other branches d
combinatorial analysis were, from any general point of view,
absolutely neglected. In 1 888 P. A. MacMabon investigated the
general problem of distribution, of which the partition of 1
number is a particular case. He introduced the method d
symmetric functions and the method of differential operaion,
applying both methods to the two important subdivisions, the
theory of composition and the theory of partition. He introduced
the notion of the separation of a partition, and extended all ik
results so as to include multipartite as well as unipartite numbs-
He showed how to introduce zero and negative numbers, uv*
partite and multipartite, into the general theory; he extended 1
Sylvester's graphical method to three dimensions; and nnaUj,
1808, he invented the " Partition Analysis " and applied it to 1st
solution of novel questions in arithmetic and algebra. An im-
portant paper by G. B. Mathews, which reduces the problem of
compound partition to that of simple partition, should also be
noticed. This is the problem which was known to Euler and fca
contemporaries as " The Problem of the Virgins," or •• the Rule
of Ceres "; it is only now, nearly 200 years later, that it has bed
' sotaed.
COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS
753
The most important problem of combinatorial analysis is con-
nected with the distribution of objects into classes. A number n
may be regarded as enumerating n similar objects; it
j^*£ is then said to be unipartite. On the other hand, if the
^S!, m objectsbenotallsimilartheycannotbeeflfectivelyenu-
merated by a single integer; we require a succession of
Integers. If the objects be p in number of one kind , q of a second
kind, r of a third, &c, the enumeration is given by the succession
fqr . . . which is termed a multipartite number, and written,
PV~,
where p+q+r+ ...-». If the order of magnitude of the
numbers P,q,r t . . . is immaterial, it is usual to write them in
descending order of magnitude, and the succession may then
be termed a partition of the number *, and is written (pqr . . .).
The succession of integers thus has a twofold signification: (i.)
as a multipartite number it may enumerate objects of different
kinds; (ii.) it may be viewed as a partitionment into separate
parts of a unipartite number. We may say either that the
objects are represented by the multipartite number pqr . . .,
or that they are denned by the partition (pqr . . . ) of the uni-
partite number n. Similarly the classes into which they are
distributed may be m in number all similar; or they may be
ft of one kind, q\ of a second, n of a third, &c, where
fi + fi+fi+ ... "»». We may thus denote the classes cither
by the multipartite numbers M» r i • • •» or by the partition
(Itfll . . . ) of the unipartite number m. The distributions to be
considered are such that any number of objects may be in
any one class subject to the restriction that no class is empty.
Two cases arise. If the order of the objects in a particular class
is immaterial, the class is termed a parcel; if the order is material,
the class is termed a group The distribution into parcels is
alone considered here, and the main problem is the enumeration
of the distributions of objects denned by the partition (pqr . . . )
of the number n into parcels defined by the partition (Pxqin . . . )
of the number m. (See " Symmetric Functions and the Theory
of Distributions," Proc. London Mathematical Society, vol. xix.)
Three particular cases are of great importance. Case I. is the
** one-to-one distribution," in which the number of parcels is
equal to the number of objects, and one object is distributed in
each parcel. Case II. is that in which the parcels are all different,
being defined by the partition (111 1 . . . ), conveniently written
(i M ); this is the theory of the compositions of unipartite and
multipartite numbers. Case III. is that in which the parcels are
all similar, being defined by the partition (m) ; this is the theory
of the partitions of unipartite. and multipartite numbers. Pre-
vious to discussing these in detail, it is necessary to describe the
method of symmetric functions which will be largely utilized.
Let a, 0, 7, ... be the roots of the equation
x*-Oi* +a& — . . . - 0.
The symmetric function Za'0V—» where p+q+r+ . . . «n
is, in the partition notation, written {pqr . . . ). Let
VHmfiZm A (w— )* <*»«in—) < * enote ^ e numDcr °f wa y* of distri-
JkMttao. buting the n objects defined by the partition (pqr . . . )
into the m parcels defined by the partition (Piqvx . . . ).
The expression
2A (m»),^»«.'.-)'^« r " ) '
where the numbers Pi, q if r x . . . are fixed and assumed to be in
descending order of magnitude, the summation being for every
partition (pqr . . . )of the number n, is defined to be the distribu-
tion function of the objects defined by (pqr . . . ) into the parcels
defined by (/>i<?i r i • • • )• It gives a complete enumeration of
n objects of whatever species into parcels of the given species.
I. Onc-to-One Distribution. Parcels m in number (i.e. m-n). —
_^ Let A, be the homogeneous product-sum of degree s of
*■*•* the quantities a, ft, y, . . . so that
(l-«x. l-0x. I-7*. -.)-«-l+*,* +Jk«*«+*ix»+...
A,-Za-(1)
Jb,-Z.»+Z«*-(2)+(t«)
A,-S•»+2:a'0+Z^tfT-(3) + C21)+(l , ).
Form the product A^A,^ . . .
VI, P
Any term in A^ may be regarded as derived from ft objects dis-
tributed into P\ similar parcels, one object in each parcel, since
the order of occurrence of the letters a, 0, y, . . . in any term ts
immaterial. Moreover, every selection of fa letters from the
letters in a*fi*Y . . . will occur in some term of A,,, every further
selection of q\ letters will occur in some term of A Cl , and so on.
Therefore in the product A^A^A,, ... the term a'p-f .... and there-
fore also the symmetric function (par ...), will occur as many times
as it is possible to distribute objects defined by (pqr . . .) into parcels
defined by (PiqiU . . .) one object in each parcel. Hence
SA (iv..>. (*»«,'..")• to* -) -*n*«Ai ••••
This theorem b of algebraic importance; for consider the simple
particular case of the distribution of objects (43) into parcels (52),
and represent objects and parcels by small and capital letters
respectively. One distribution is shown by the scheme
AAAAABB
a a a a b b b
wherein an object denoted by a small letter is placed in a parcel
denoted by the capital letter immediately above it. We may
interchange small and capital letters and derive from it a distribution
of objects (53) into parcels (43) ; via. :—
AAAABBB
a a a a a b b'
The process is clearly of general application, and establishes a one-
to-one correspondence between the distribution of objects (pqr }
into parcels (P^n ...) and the distribution of objects (p^r, )
into parcels (Pqr ...). It is in fact, in Case I., an intuitive observa-
tion that we may either consider an object placed in or attached to
a parcel, or a parcel placed in or attached to an object. Analytically
we have
Theorem. — " The coefficient of symmetric function (pqr . . J in
the development of the product h, l k\ l kr l . . is equal to the coefficient
of symmetric function (p\q\r x . . .) in the development of the product
V»A "
The problem of Case I. may be considered when the distributions
are subject to various restrictions. If the restriction be to the
effect that an aggregate of similar parcels is not to contain more
than one object of a kind, we have clearly to deal with the elementary
symmetric functions a u a*, a,, ... or (1), (1*), (i*), in lieu of the
quantities A|, At, *«. . . . The distribution function has then the value
a^a^Orf.. or (l»i) (1«J (l r i)..., and by interchange of object and
parcel we arrive at the well-known theorem of symmetry in sym-
metric functions, which states that the coefficient of symmetric
function (Pqr . . .) in the development of the product a, l a Vl a ri . . . in
a series of monomial symmetric functions, is equal to the coefficient
of the function (PiqiU . . . ) in the similar development of the product
a.q.a, ...
TThe general result of Case I. may be further analysed with im-
portant consequences.
Write X,-(l)*,,
X,-(2)x,+(l»)*J,
X,-(3)x,+(21)* t r 1 +<l')*i
and generally X« » 2(Xm» ...)x\x H x p „
the summation being in regard to every partition of jr. Consider
the result of the multiplication —
X, l X tl X, l ...-2?x? i x < ?xV r
To determine the nature of the symmetric function P a few definitions
are necessary.
Definition I. — Of a number n take any partition (X t X|Xj ... X.)
and separate it into -component partitions thus: —
(X,X,)(X,X«X0(X4)...
in any manner. This may be termed a separation of the partition,
the numbers occurring in the separation being identical with those
which occur in the partition. In the theory of symmetric functions
the separation denotes the product of symmetric functions —
Zo X »p^»Za X *fl x «7 X •2• X ••••
The portions (X|Xj), CX,X«X»), (X,), ... are termed separates, and if
Xt+X»-j>i, Xj+Ju+Xj-gi.Xi-ri. .. be in descending order of magni-
tude, the usual arrangement, the separation is said to have a species
denoted by the partition (Pxqir t . . .) of the number n.
Definition II. — If in any distribution of n objects into n parcels
(one object in each parcel), we write down a number (..whenever
we observe { similar objects in similar parcels we will obtain a
succession of numbers fc, &,{*..., where fe, &,{»...) is some parti-
tion of ft. The distribution is then said to have a specification denoted
by the partition (fcfefc. . .).
Now it is clear that P consists of an aggregate of terms, each of
which, to a numerical factor prtt, is a separation of the partition
(iP^**...) of species (piqiU. . .). Further, P is the distribution
function of objects into parcels denoted by (p\q\r\ . . .), subject to the
restriction that the distributions have each of them the *^ccifica.v««v
a*.
754
COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS
denoted by the partition Of 1 *?*?-)- Employing a more general
notation we may write
Pi w P» »i n «
and then P is the distribution function of objects into parcels
O'VK'PV" )• lhe distributions bc» n 8 such as to have the specifica-
tion (*?*?***...). Multiplying out P so as to exhibit it as a sum
of monomials, we get a result —
indicating that for distributions of specification (^J*** 1 — ) there
are 9 ways of distributing n objects denoted by (*( , *J , >£-) amongst
» parcels denoted by (^'pJ'Pj'. •)• onc ob J ect in each P arcc! - Now
observe that as before wc may interchange parcel and object, and
that this operation leaves the specification of the distribution un-
tie
changed,
audi!
then also
tience the number of distributions must be the same,
*wk: ■•• -•••+»w^ x '. , ->;*?< , -+ -
^*!i , .----k<'Wp*, , ™K , «;<, , -+--
This extensive theorem of algebraic reciprocity includes many
known theorems of symmetry in the theory of Symmetric Functions.
The whole of the theory has been extended to include symmetric
functions symbolized by partitions which contain as well zero and
negative parts
2. The Compositions of Multipartite Numbers. Parcels denoted by
(i M ). — There are here no similarities between the parcels.
Let On r t tj...) be a partition ol m.
Cam tt (pTpVpV") a Partition of n.
Of the whole number of distributions of the n objects, there will be a
certain number such that n t parcels each contain pi objects, and in
general v, parcels each contain p, objects, where *»l, a, 3, ...
Consider the product A*W\.. which can be permuted in
Pt Pi pi *
■ i ?* i ways. For each of these ways ** W\„ wUl be a dis-
«•,!«-,!»,!... * Pi Pi Ps
tribution function for distributions of the specified type. Hence,
regarding all the permutations, the distribution function is
Ti!irj!xj!... Pi Pi Pi
and regarding, as well, all the partitions of n into exactly m parts,
the desired distribution function is
Z — r— tH - "* „!*«!*„!••• [2* » m, Zvp » n],
vi' *|! wi!... Pi Pi Pi l r '
that is, it is the coefficient of x* in (Aix+ A 2 x*-M»x*-r. • )"*. The
value of typ'ip'ip**...}, (l") ** tne coefficient ol^p' l p* l p^'...)x m in
the development of the above expression, and is easily shown to
have the value
//>i+w-l\'>/p,-fm-l\*>//»,+w-l\ ,r »_
-wrrrrrv?**;:- 2 )''"-
—...to m terms.
Observe that when pi-Pt~pi-. .-»!-»•»«», . .•»! this ex-
pression reduces to the mth divided differences of o» . The ex pression
gives the compositions of the multipartite number p^p^p'^ . . . into
m parts. Summing the distribution function from m«i tom>oo
and putting x-i, as wc may without detriment, wc find that the
totality of the compositions is given by j J^JjV,'^' ' which
Ox — a* "4* Ai ~~
may be given the form 1 -2Ca l -a t +c,'-...) ' Mdia S i *c bring
this to the still more convenient form
, 1
M-2(ff,-o, +a. -...)*
Let F(/>ppJVJ'...)denote the total number of compositions of the
multipartite p^p^p?.... Then l]-zj£-l+2F(rta'\ and thence
F(p)-2^ ! . Again h l _ 2 (a +fl-«l) " * +ZF(ft^«*fl w .aadcxpand-
ing the left-hand side wc easily find
+2*+**-* ± , j ft + Ar 2 ^ ! ai t -
We ha ve found t hat the number of compositions of the multi-
partite p\hpi...p, is equal to the coefficient of symmetric function
ipxpipt—P*) or of the single term af , af l af , ...aJ• in the development
according to ascending powers of the algebraic fraction
. ^_^ 1
,, l-2(ra,-2a,o,+2«,«^,-... + (-)'* l a,a^^..« -
This result can be thrown into another suggestive form, for it an
he proved that this portion of the expandedfraction
I
which is composed entirely of powers of
<l«l. /tOt, /|ft|, ...lt««
has the expression
i 1
a 1-' tii i «i-Si|/fi«i*^i'i'»«i«»t'|-- M-k^i'i- -^it-.^J*
and therefore the coefficient of a^a^...a Pt in the Utter fraction,
when ft, h, &c t are put equal to unity, is equal to the coefficient of
the same term in the product
i(2a,+e i +...+«u)^(2«,+2a l +...+tt,)«..(2a,+2«,+„.+2a.)» , »
This result gives a direct connexion between the number of composi-
tions and the permutations of the letters in the product ***•*..**.
Selecting any permutation, suppose that the letter a, occurs a, timet
in the last pw-f Am-i +...+/>• places of the permutation; the co-
efficient in question may be represented by J 22v»*«** ■■•♦*, the
summation being for every permutation, and since qi**Pi this may
be written
2/n- l r2«Wt*~4««.
Ex. Gr.— For the bipartite 53, p% - pt ** 2, and we have the following
scheme: —
a t a, a«at fc-2
•tat a, «, -I
•l«l «|0| -1
a* ai a ( a t "1
«« ai a, a t =1
Hence F(22) -2(2»+2+2+2+2+2°) -26u
We may regard the fraction
4 . (l-i|(2-l+«i+...+««)| ll-i|(2* 1 *a^,+...+«.)|...|l-i i (i. 1 ^a t *„.*4.^} »
as a redundant generating function, the enumeration of the com-
positions being given by the coefficient of
The transformation of the pure generating function into a factorized
redundant form supplies tne key to the solution of a large number
of questions in the theory of ordinary permutations, as will be seen
later.
[The transformation of the last section involves' The tbtarr
a comprehensive theory of Permutations, which it is o/permw
convenient to discuss shortly here. uuoas.
If Xi, Xt, Xi,... X. be linear functions given by the matricular
relation
(Xi, Xt, ... X, = (fl u a,, ... fluKx t , x it ...x,)
an a a ... Ou I
*»i"«i... «*»|
that portion of the algebraic fraction,
which is a function of the products Jixi, s^xt, f»r«...j M x a only is
1
|(1 -4i*ixi)(l -fla*»xO(l -ttw*^,) ... (1 -a..*^.)!
where the denominator is in a symbolic form and denotes on ex*
pansion
1-X|«ul*i*i+ X|flu«>i!ii%*ixs-*-+ (-)"I«U«B«II-*««!l*..^*i«|...««.
where \a u ], |a u an!.. ..|auOB,...a«»| denote the several co-axial
minors of the determinant
JoiiOa...o»J
of the matrix. (For the proof of this theorem see MacMahon, " A
certain Class of Generating Functions in the Theory of Numbers,"
Phil. Trans. R. S. vol. dxxxv. A, 1894). It follows that the co»
efficient of
COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS
755
in the product
<«„jr,+a,^rK+«!»**>*(*n^4<wrrf..4*?*^^
is equal to the coefficient of the same term in the expansion ascending-
wise oC the fraction
1
1 -Zltful*i+2Ia u flBlxiXt-.~ +(-)1a u <»«...l*i*».. •*•'
If the elements of the determinant be all of them equal to unity,
we obtain the functions which enumerate the unrestricted permu-
tations of the letters in
*i *s "•*■ •
vix. Cn+ft+~-*0* l ***-** r
1
Suppose that we wishto find the generating function for the enumera-
tion of those permutations of the letters inx*ix*« . . .xj" which are such
that no letter x, is In a position originally occupied by an x t for all
values of s. This is a generalization of the " Probieme des rencontres"
or of " derangements." We have merely to put
and the remaining elements equal to unity. The generating product is
(x,+x,+...+x,O l '(xi+x,+...+x ll ) 6 ...(*i+*t+...+x.-,)^.
and to obtain the condensed form we have to evaluate the co-axial
minors of the invertebrate determinant —
1 1 ... 1
1 1 ... 1
1 1 ... 1
1* i 1 .".*.' 6
The minors of the 1st, and. 3rd . . nth orders have respectively the
values
+2
(-)-H«-D.
therefore the generating function is
1 - ZX|Xf - 2XXi*,X| - ... -tZXiXy..X^i -...—(»- 1 )x,x,.. jc. •
or writing
(x-*0(*-*0-(*-*0 ■x*-raiX*-«+tf|X*"*-....
this it
I
l-o,-2a,-3a 4 -...-(»-l)a.
Again, consider the general problem of " derangements.** We
have to find the number of permutations such that exactly m of
the letters are in places they originally occupied. We have the
particular redundant product
in which the sought number is the coefficient of o"xf 'x{ J .~xJ". The
true generating function is derived from the determinant
1 1 1
I a 1 1
1 1 a 1
Ilia
and has the form
1
l-ai»,+ v >-i)ti+i)a*i« k ---K-)*U-ir-*U+»-i)'i*i-JN.
It is dear that a large class of problems in permutations can Toe
solved in a similar manner, vix. by giving special values to the
elements of the determinant of the matrix. The redundant pro-
duct leads uniquely to the real generating function, but the latter
has generally more than one representation as a redundant
product, in the cases in which it is representable at all. For the
existence of a redundant form, the coefficients of x u x t , . . .anx, . . .
in the denominator of the real generating function must satisfy
a*— «*+*— 1 -conditions, and assuming this to be the case, a
redundant form can be constructed which involves n— 1 un-
determined quantities. We are thus able to pass from any par-
ticular redundant generating function to one equivalent to it,
but involving »— 1 undetermined quantities. Assuming these
quantities at pleasure we obtain a number of different algebraic
products, each of which may have its own meaning in arithmetic*
and thus the number of arithmetical comsrjono^mcesobtamable
is subject to no finite limit (d. MacMabon, he. cit. pp. 115
xTtke Theory of Partitions. Parcels defined by (m).— When an
ordinary unipartite number n is broken up into other numbers,
and the order of occurrence of the numbers is immaterial, ^ mmm __
the collection of numbers is termed a partition of the v- ""*
number n. It is usual to arrange the numbers comprised in the
collection, termed the parts of the partition, in descending order of
magnitude, and to indicate repetitions of the same part by the use
of exponents. Thus (32111), a partition of 8, is written (321*)..
Euler s pioneering work in the subject rests on the observation that
the algebraic multiplication
x-Xx»Xx*X... -*•♦♦♦•*...
is equivalent to the arithmetical addition of the exponents a, b, c, ... .
He showed that the number of ways of composing n with p integers
drawn from the series a, b, c, . . . , repeated or not, is equal to the
coefficient of px» in the ascending expansion of the fraction
1
1-faf. 1-fx*. 1-fx*....'
which he termed the generating function of the partitions in question.
If the partitions are to be composed of p, or fewer parts, it is
merely necessary to multiply this fraction by j~ p Similarly, if
the parts are to be unrepeated, the generating function is the algebraic
product
a+rx*)(i+rx»)(i+r*o...: . .
if each part may occur at most twice,
(1 +r**+^)U+r**+^)a+r**+( f *o...:
and generally if each part may occur at most Je — 1 times it b
1->x»M-»t*x» 1-fx**
1 -fx* * 1 -fx> * 1 -Sx* ""*
It is thus easy to form generating functions for the partitions of
numbers into parts subject to various restrictions. If there be no
restriction in regard to the numbers of the parts, the generating
function is
l-x«.i-xU-x*....
and the problems of finding the partitions of a number n, and of
determining their number, are the same as those of solving and
enumerating the solutions of the indeterminate equation in positive
integers
ax+by +«+'.«■■«.
Euler considered also the question of enumerating the solutions
of the indeterminate simultaneous equation in positive integers
ax+fty+«+...-»
a'x+£v+c'*+...-tt'
which was catted by him and those of his time the " Problem of
the Virgins." The enumeration is given by the coefficient of
x*v*'**'* • • in the expansion of the fraction
1
(1 -x*yV...)(l -x-VV\..)(l -x- y V...)...
which enumerates the partitions of the multipartite number »»'«"...
into the parts
-7b7Z; a'bV....aW...
Sylvester has determined an analytical expression for the coefficient
of x* in the expansion of
(i-**)(i-l*)...<i-*V
To explain this we have two lemma*: —
Lemma 1. — The coefficient of x~ l , Le.. after Cauchy, the residue
in the ascending expansion of (1 —<*)"*, is — 1. For when » is unity,
it is obviously the case, and
(1 -*)H-i.(l -«■)-*+«•(! -«-)-*-«
Here the residue of j£ (I -•*)"* j is xero, and therefore (he residua
of (1— f)~ t is unchanged when i is increased by unity, and b
therefore always — 1 for all values of s.
Lemma a. — The constant term in any proper algebraical fraction
developed In ascending powers of its variable is the same as the
residue, with changed sign, of the sum of the fractions obtained
by substituting in the given fraction, in lieu of the variable, its ex-
ponential multiplied in succession by each of its values (xero excepted,
if there be such), which makes the given fraction infinite. For
write the proper algebraical fraction
75&
COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS
**?
The constant term is
Let aw be a value of x which makes the fraction infinite. The
residue of
is equal to the residue of
ZZZr
(«,-o,**)*
and when »»*, the residue vanishes, so that we have to consider
Z2r
tti(l-«*) X
'**?>
and the residue of this is, by the first lemma,
which proves thi: lemma.
TakeFCr) ^.,.^
is its constant term.
Let p be a root of unity which makes /(x) infinite when substituted
for x. The function of which we have to take the residue is
We may divide the calculation up into sections by considering
\_ x h ~j> tsincethcaought number
separately that portion of the summation which involves the primi-
tive gtn roots of untiy, q being a divisor of one of the number*
a, 6,.../. Thus the 2th smw u
<i -#*~)U -#"*)...<! -#"*)
which, putting — for a, and r-«3+J(c+o+...+/)i may be written
and the calculation in simple cases is practicable.
Thus Sylvester finds for the coefficient of x* in
1
l-x.l-x«.l-*»
n-72-s ( ~>' + §tf + 0'
the
where r^n+j.
Sylvester, Franklin, Durfee, G. S. Ely and others have
evolved a constructive theory of partitions, the object of
which is the contemplation of the partitions thero-
frwbJaU* selves, and the evolution of their properties from a
mSod. study of their inherent characters. It is concerned
for the most part with the partition of a number into
parts drawn from the natural series of numbers x, a, 3 . . . .
Any partition, say (521) of the number 8, is represented by nodes
placed in order at the points of a rectangular lattice,
II ,t, , , 1
I II ~ — —■
, , .
when the partition is given by the enumeration of the nodes by
lines. If we enumerate by columns we obtain another partition
of 8, viz. (321'), which is termed the conjugate of the former.
The fact or conjugacy was first pointed out by Norman Macleod
Ferrers. If the original partition is one of a number n in i parts,
of which the largest is j, the conjugate is one into j parts, of
which the largest is t, and we obtain the theorem:—" The
number of partitions of any number into i oj^^i^gr "^
having the largest part equal or less than >, re,nains the aame
when the numbers sand; are interchanged."
The stud\y ot this representation on a lattice (termed by
Sylvester the " graph ") yields many theorems similar to that just
given, and, moreover, throws considerable light upon the expan-
sion of algebraic series.
The theorem of reciprocity just established shows that the number
of partitions of n into,; parts or fewer, is the same as the number of
ways of composing » with the integers 1, a, 3,. . .j. Hence we can
cx P^ l>a.t r o».l--L».t-o«*..^iV. maacending powers of s;
for the coefficient of afx* in the expansion is the number of ways
of composing » with j or fewer parts, and this we have seen in the
coefficients of a* in the ascending expansion of i^ x 1— jt> i-W *
Therefore
1 , , o a*
l-a.l-ox.l-ax'.... " 1 +P^+ l--x.l-x' +"'
+1-X.1-,
The coefficient of a'x* in the expansion of
**....! -x>
=*+....
r:
. 1 —ox. 1 —ax 9 . ...1 — ax*
denotes the number of ways of composing n with j or fewer parts,
none of which are greater than ». The expansion is known to be
, 1 -*>+'. 1 -**«. ...1 -xt+* ,
* i-x. i-**....i-*< *
It has been established by the constructive method by F. Franklin
(A met. Jour, of Math. v. 254), and shows that the generating function
for the partitions in question is
1 -**♦». 1 -a**.... 1-x**
l-x.l-*». M .l-x* *
which, observe, is unaltered by interchange of i and j.
Franklin has also similarly established the identity of Euler
(1 -x)(l -x«)(l -x*)...o<f inf. iTz(")/xl(«i*3-> t
,-♦0.
known as the " pentagonal number theorem," which on interpre-
tation shows that the number of ways of partitioning n into an
even number of unrepeated parts is equal to that into an uneven
number, except when n has the pentagonal form l(3j*+j) t j positive
or negative, when thedifference between the numbers of the partitions
To illustrate an important dissection of the graph we will consider
those graphs which read the same by
columns as by lines; these are called self-
con iugate. 5uch a graph may be obvi-
ously dissected into a square, containing
say if nodes, and into two graphs, one
lateral and one subjacent, the latter being
the conjugate of the former. The former
graph is limited to contain not more than •
9 parts, but is subject to no other con- •
dition. Hence the number of self -con jugate •
partitions of n which are associated with a square of $* nodes b
clearly equal to the number of partitions of i (»—**) into • or f ew
parts, ».«. it is the coefficient of xl<"-"> in
1
l-x.l-xU-x»....l-xV
x«
or of x* In
l-x». 1-x*. 1 -*•....! -a*'
and the whole generating function is
l+r *^
•ml
. 1 -x*. 1 -
xU-x^.T-x* '
Now the graph is also composed of 9 ancles of nodes, each angle con-
taining an uneven number of nodes; hence the partition is trans-
formable into one containing 9 unequal uneven numbers. In the
case depicted this partition is (17, 9, 5, 1). Hence the number of the
partitions based upon a square of 9* nodes is the coefficient of a'r*
in the product (i+cx)(i+ox*)(i+ax*). . .(i+ax**»). .., and thence
the coefficient of o # in this product is 1^^ i^.gi 1-.U — 1— -is '
and we have the expansion
(l+ox)(l+ax 1 )(l+ax<). M aa v inf.
- 1 +F^+ i-xU -«» ^ l-xU-xU--** 1 ' *-
Again, if we restrict the part magnitude to t, the largest angle of
nodes contains at most as— 1 nodes, and based upon a square of
0* nodes we have partitions enumerated by the coefficient of a'x"
in the product (i+ax)(i+ax , )(i+ox*).. . (1 -f-ax** 1 ) : moreover
the same number enumerates the partition of |(»— #») into 9 or
fewer parts, of which the largest part is equal to or less than 1— s\
and is thus given by the coefficient of x***~ #l> in the ** pam tfwi of
COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS
or of x" in
1 — x* **'.! — x*n***.l
1-*. l-x«.l-
l-x»*-^«. 1
19 •
'.-.1
l-*».l-x«.l-*«
bence the expansion
(1 +o*)(l +ox»)(l +o*«Ml +«**-*)
1+ £ l-*».l-x«.l-*4..a-s* ^
There is no difficulty in extending the graphical method to three
- 4mmmtmm dimensions, and we have then a theory of a special kind
r*JJ"~ of partition of multipartite numbers. Of such kind is the
' mm partition
(aid*!*..., bibajbi
r3
I -*•-(*). the i
factors
i by thi
CldC,..., _)
of the multipartite number
(a»+6i+c,+..., o,H-*i+«t+.... a,+6,+c«+, .
if
for then the graphs of the parts o.a»a*.., he***..., ~. are soper-
posable, and we have what we may t erm a reg ular graph in three
dimensio ns. Thus the partition (643, 632, 41 1) of the mul tip a r tite
(16, 8, 6) leads to the graph
W- W ;;;; W 1
1 the solntioo of a 1
»rdaci
• w
9. ©
<9 •
and every such graph is readable in six ways, the axis of a being
perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
Ex. Cr.
Plane parallel to xy, direction Ox reads( 643,632,4H)
» y*. „ Oy „ $*m&LXR£TjnS.
'* t* y*t »• Os „ (333^^2,|mI
i» >»t «*» o Of „ (w«EP<gn
.» tx t „ O* M (664^31,321)
the par ti tions hav ing reference to the multipartite numbers 16,8,6,
076422. 13, 11, 6. which are brought into relation through the
medium of the graph. The graph in question is more conveniently
represented by a numbered diagram, viz. —
3 3 3 3 2 2
3 2 2 1
3 2 1
and then we may evidently regard it as a unipartite partition on
the points of a lattice.
upon 1
of the form
X J *+W*»+X..s+-.*0.
the lofflkifrts X being ghresi awiU » c or asgaU »e a
some cases the generating f ssncriosi has been deters*
which exlttoits the fsnmnaaeattnJ ■ ii l s t i u m of the 1
which all other sohmoas are JerivaMeby addoisa, <S
PkU. Trmms. voL exesi. r f*oay. pp. J51-401; and
Pkil. Sac voL xvSL (itaaj. pav. 12-34-/
The number of di s t i m a f s r ms of a objects <>*»*, . .
(at) is the coemokat of Vifr**, . ■ -*** « the de«esapa
of the fraction.
(l-Uxl-U* \-h*~
X(l-swVl-*M»*l-hsv_ ;
X (!-*•%* 1 -sw**%*.l -*•***•_,
andif wewriutherrpssninri c/ that yxixM. which nrm
of the letters a, A T. - - - «*" cVtf?wt * as the farm
l+*^hr<r***s»+-,
we may write the ih i do gm wnf
TT (! +«w i aw r -rA-jSV-^.
and picking out the coeficieat of *- *- we had
4. * *
The quantities a are syi
which in siamnle casa
then the dastribataon fi
•ftaet
Ct — j . . *
the descending order of magnitude of part being maintained along
every line of route which proceeds from the origin in the positive
directions of the axes.
This brings in view the modern notion of a partition, which has
enormously enlarged the scope of the theory. We consider any
number of points in piano or in softs* connected (or not) by lines
in pairs in any desired manner and fix upon any condition, sach
as is implied by the symbols jfc, >,—,<, «&, 5, as affecting any
pair of points so connected. Thus in ordinary unipartite partition
we have to solve in integers such a system as
at i «c 2s «» 2» ..~« 2s •»
the points being in a straight line. In the simplest _
the three-dimensional graph we have to solve the system
osascjEj
KSttWf OJ
then the distribution f aacziui can he flora*!,
Ex. Gr.— Required the taiimsrsiiia of the aanhmai
partiUsuiaabers(^/^... / aaioesaciJytm«savia, 1
*,-*»-Jir4<r^-swV+a*,
aad paying artmfina to the fact that is tht nimsnii
term h\ b absent whea rstaev«na,fh* law is dear. Th
function is
*^+M^+Ca<4-*>M^M*+M^4^4-*
+(*A+aA+M^4-(fc+2aA4»>,4-^
Taking As+ftj-ivHa+CW
the term $(*!*) i s If m m that object* sods as a. #, 6
firtiuofsed in five way* iota two parts, Tasw ere
I «,*,<; *l a,*,*; a, #1*. ^;«, *!*, «. Tht la
Ml Ir
a«2bS4
«!+■€+•» +«4 •»»
and a system for the general lattice constructed upon tht taaat
principle. The system has been disc us sed by MacMahoa, PhiL
Trans, vol. clxxxvii. A, 1806, pp. 619473, with the condasioa that
if the numbers of nodes along the axes of *, y, a be limited not to
fine MarMahoa. Ptm. Imd Him
_jl) Patting g «naaJ to aahy, the (mmttim may I
(*+*<+*,+-) (i+k t +h,+m 9 +k 4 +„), a coa*taw4H*«
The aacthod of dtfenaOal opeantota, Wwfcle#pad
probkf af combinatorial aaaiyais, hat fa/ ha Isa4b*j
deaapnaif of a function aad 0/ a d«ab***taW apcrai**,
so that whjai the operator is oarjbraaadaaoa thstuac'
Um «asjMhayitgwrht<whifhaan^
of Iht gf vts pfobleam, (kaanfly apeahiftg; the prob-
lems coawidrrrd ant sach m an wnmttxtd with lattl
it it pmntfalt 10 caaatct fdifc laitkes.
* V fMMHH^ MT IIHIII WIS IMlMt.
To take the s f ma fe s t prmil^c «^n\\X», c»tva\^n ^sa
Jkdtag tht aaawtf U v^tAaUVumn *A « «&kr»x \
760
COMET
from the arc of a parabola. An obvious bat not sharp classi-
fication of comets is into bright comets visible to the naked eye,
and telescopic comets which can be seen only with a telescope.
The telescopic class is much the more numerous of the two, only
from 20 to 30 bright comets usually appearing in any one century,
while several telescopic comets, frequently 6 or 8, are generally
observed in the course of a year.
. A bright comet consists of (1) a star-like nucleus; (2) a nebu-
lous haze, called the coma, surrounding this nucleus, the latter
fading into the base by insensible gradations; (3) a tail or
luminous stream flowing from the coma in a direction opposite
to that of the sun. The nuclei and comae of different comets
exhibit few peculiarities to the unaided vision except in respect
to brightness; but the tails of comets differ widely, both in
brightness and in extent They range from a barely visible
brush or feather of light to a phenomenon extending over a
considerable arc of the heavens, which, comparatively bright
near the head of the comet, becomes gradually fainter and more
diffuse towards its end, fading out by gradations so insensible
that a precise length cannot be assigned to it. When a telescopic
comet is first discovered the nucleus is frequently invisible, the
object presenting the appearance of a faint nebulous haze,
scarcely distinguishable in aspect from a nebula. When the
nucleus appears it may at first be only a comparatively faint
condensation, and may or may not develop into a point of light
as the comet approaches the sun. A tail also is generally not
seen at great distances from the sun, but gradually develops
as the comet approaches perihelion, to fade away again as the
comet recedes from the sun.
A few comets are known to revolve in orbits with a regular
period, while, in the case of others, no evidence is afforded by
observation that the orbit deviates from a parabola. Were the
orbit a parabola or hyperbola the comet would never return
(see Orbit). Periodicity may be recognized in two ways:
observations during the apparition may show that the motion
b in an elliptic and not in a parabolic orbit; or a comet may
have been observed at more than one return. In the latter case
the comet is recognized as distinctly periodic, and therefore a
member of the solar system. The shortest periods range between
3 and 10 years. The majority of comets which have been ob-
served are shown by observation to be periodic; the period is
usually very long, being sometimes measured by centuries, but
generally by thousands of years. It is conceivable that a comet
might revolve in a hyperbolic orbit. Although there are several
of these bodies observations on which indicate such an orbit, the
deviation from the parabolic form has not in any case been so
well marked as to be fully established. Circumstances lead
to the classification of newly appearing comets as expected and
unexpected. An expected comet is a periodic one of which the
return is looked for at a determinate time and in a certain
region of the heavens. When this is not the case the comet is an
unexpected one.
Physical Constitution of Comets. — The subject of the physical
constitution of these bodies is one as to the details of which
much uncertainty still exists. The considerations on which
conclusions in this field rest are very various, and can best be
set forth by beginning 'with what we may consider to be the
best established facts.
We must regard it as well established that comets are not,
like planets and satellites, permanent in mass, but are con-
tinuously losing minute portions of the matter which belongs
to them, through a progressive dissipation — at least when they
are in the neighbourhood of the sun. When near perihelion
the matter of a comet is seen to be undergoing a process in the
nature of evaporation, successive envelopes of vapour rising from
the nucleus to form the coma, and then gradually repelled from
the sun to form the tail. If this process went on indefinitely
every comet would, in the course of ages, be entirely dissipated.
This result has actually happened in the case of some known
comets, the best established example of which is that of Bicla,
in which the process of disintegration was clearly followed. As
the unount of matter lost by m comet at any one return cannot
be estimated, and may be very small, it is Impossi b l e to set say
limit to the period during which its life may continue. It is
still an unsettled question whether, in every case, the en-
poration will ultimately cease, leaving a residuum as permanent
as any other mass of matter.
The next question in logical order is one of great difficulty.
It is whether the nucleus of a comet is an opaque solid body, t
cluster of such bodies, or a mass of particles of ex t r eme tenuity.
Some light is thrown on this and other questions by the spectro-
scope. This instrument shows in the spectrum of nearly every
comet three bright bands, recognized as those of hydrocarbons.
The obvious conclusion is that the light forming these bands o
not reflected sunlight, but light radiated by the gaseous hydro-
carbons. Since a gas at so great a distance from the sun cannot
be heated to incandescence, the question arises how incan-
descence is excited. The generalizations of recent years growing
out of the phenomena of radioactivity make it highly probable
that the source is to be found in some form of electrical excitation,
produced by electrons or other corpuscles thrown out by the sun.
The resemblance of the cometary spectrum to the spectrum
of hydrocarbons in the Geissler tube lends great plausibility
to this view. It is remarkable that the great comet of 1882 also
showed the bright lines of sodium with such intensity that they
were observed in daylight by R. Copcland and W. O. Lohse.
In addition to these gaseous spectra, all but the fainter comets
show a continuous spectrum, crossed by the Fraunhofer lines,
which is doubtless due to reflected sunlight. It happens that,
since the spectroscope has been perfected, no comet of great
brilliancy has been favourably situated for observation. Until
the opportunity is offered, the conclusions to be derived from
spectroscopic observation cannot be further extended.
In the telescope the nucleus of a bright comet appears as an
opaque mass, one or more seconds in diameter, the absolute
dimensions comparing with those of the satellites of the planets,
sometimes, indeed, equal to our moon. But the actual results
of micrometric measures are found to differ very widely. In
the case of Donati's comet of 1858 the nucleus seemed to grow
smaller as perihelion was approached. This is evidently due to
the fact that the coma immediately around the nucleus was so
bright as apparently to form a part of it at considerable distances
from the sun. G. P. Bond estimated the diameter of the actual
nucleus at 500 m. That the nucleus is a body of appreciable
mass seems to be made probable by the fact that, except for the
central attraction of such a body, a comet would speedily be
dissipated by the different attractions of the sun on different
parts of the mass, which would result in each particle pursuing
an orbit of its own. 1 1 follows that there must be a mass sufficient
to hold the parts of the comet, if not absolutely together, at least
in each other's immediate neighbourhood. How great a central
mass may be required for this is a subject not yet investigated.
It might be supposed that the amount of matter must be sufficient
to make the nucleus quite opaque. But two considerations
based on observations militate against this view. One is that an
opaque body, reflecting much sunlight, would show a brighter
continuous spectrum than has yet been found in any comet
Another and yet more remarkable observation is on record which
goes far to prove not only the tenuity, but the transparency of
a cometary nucleus. The great comet of 1882 made a transit
over the sun on the 17 th of September, an occurrence unique in
the history of astronomy. But the fact of the transit escaped
attention except at the observatory of the Cape of Good Hope.
Here the comet was watched by W. H. Finlay and by W. L.
Elkin as it approached the sun, and was kept in sight until it
came almost or quite in contact with the sun's disk, when it
disappeared. It should, if opaque, have appeared a few minutes
later, projected on the sun's disk; but not a trace of it could be
seen. The sun was approaching Table Mountain at the critical
moment, and its limb was undulating badly, miking the detection
of a minute point difficult. The possibility of a very small opaque
nucleus is therefore still left open; yet the remarkable conclusion
still holds, that, immediately around a possible central nucleus,
the matter of the head of the comet was so rare as not to intercept
COMET
Plat£ I.
P'ig. i. — Comet 1892, I. (Swift), 1802, April :><>.
By permission i>f I.uk <)l<s»Tv.»torv fF£. ! : .. Barnard).
I'u. 2. — Comet C', 1908, Nov. 1 6(1. i.<h. 10m.
Plate II.
COMET
*ig- 3- — Halley's Comet, iqio, April 27.
By permission of Helw&n Ohservatory. FirVP«
Fig. 4. — Halley's Comet, 19 10, May 4.
By petm\«VoTv ol Y«Vl« tlh«ervatory (E. E. Baraaid).
COMET
761
tuiy appreciable fraction of the sun's light This result seems
also to show that, with the possible exception of a very small
central mass, what seems to telescopic vision as a nucleus is
really only the central portion of thecoma, which, as the distance
from the centre increases, becomes less and less dense by imper-
ceptible gradations.
Another fact tending towards this same conclusion is that
after this comet passed perihelion it showed several nuclei
following each other. Evidently the powerful attraction of the
sun had separated the parts of the apparent nucleus, which were
following each other in nearly the same orbit. As they could not
have been completely brought together again, we may suppose
that in such cases the smaller nuclei were permanently separated
from the main body. In addition to this, the remarkable
similarity of the orbit of this comet to that of several others
indicates a group of bodies moving in nearly the same orbit.
The other members of the group were the great comets of 1843,
1 880 and 1887. The latter, though so bright as to be conspicuous
to the naked eye, showed no nucleus whatever. The closely
related orbits of the four bodies are also remarkable for approach-
ing nearer the sun at perihelion than does the orbit of any other
known body. All of these comets pass through the matter of the
sun's corona with a velocity of more than 100 m per second
without suffering any retardation. As it is beyond all reasonable
probability that several independent bodies should have moved
in orbits so nearly the same, the conclusion is that the comets
were originally portions of one mass, which gradually separated
in the course of ages by the powerful attraction of the sun as the
collection successively passed the perihelion. It may be remarked
that observations on the comet of 1843 seemed to show a slight
eUipticity of the orbit, corresponding to a period of several
centuries; but the deviation of all the orbits from a parabola is
too slight to be established by observations. The periods of
the comets arc therefore unknown except that they must be
counted by centuries and possibly by thousands of years.
Another fact which increases the complexity of the question is
the well-established connexion of comets with meteoric showers.
The shower of November 13-15, now known as the Leonids,
which recurred for several centuries at intervals of about one-
third of a century, are undoubtedly due to a stream of particles
left behind by a comet observed in 1866. The same is true of
Biela's comet, the disintegrated particles of which give rise to
the Andromedids, and probably true also of the Perseids, or
August meteors, the orbits of which have a great similarity to
a comet seen in 1862. The general and well-established conclu-
sion seems to be that, in addition to the visible features of a
comet, every such body is followed in its orbit by a swarm of
meteoric particles which must have been gradually detached and
separated from it. (See Meteor.)
The source of the repulsive force by which the matter forming
the tail of a comet is driven away from the sun is another question
that has not yet been decisively answered. Two causes have
been suggested, of which one has only recently been brought to
light. This is the repulsion of the sun's rays, a form of action
the probability of which was shown by J. Gerk Maxwell in 1870,
and which was experimentally established about thirty years later.
The intensity of this action on a particle is proportional to the
surface presented by the particle to the rays, and therefore to
the square of its diameter, while its mass, and therefore its
gravitation to the sun, are proportional to the cube of the
diameter. It follows that if the size and mass of a particle in
space are below a certain limit, the repulsion of the rays will
exceed the attraction of the sun, and the particle will be driven
off into space. But, in order that this repulsive force may act,
the particles, however minute they may be, must be opaque.
Moreover, theory shows that there is a lower as well as an upper
limit to their magnitude, and that it is only between certain
definable limits of magnitude that the force acts. Conceiving
the particle to be of the density of water, and considering its
diameter as a diminishing variable, theory shows that the repul-
sion will balance gravity when the diameter has reached 0*0015
of a millimetre. As the diameter is reduced below this limit
the ratio of the repulsive to the attractive force increases, bat
soon reaches a maximum, after which it diminishes down to a
diameter of 0*00007 mm., when the two actions are again balanced.
Below this limit the light speedily ceases to act. It follows that
a purely gaseous body, such as would emit a characteristic bright
line spectrum, would not be subject to the repulsion We must
therefore conclude that both the solid and gaseous forms of
matter are here at play, and this view is consonant with the fact
that the comet leaves behind it particles of meteoric matter.
Another possible cause is electrical repulsion. The probability
of this cause is suggested by recent discoveries in radioactivity
and by the fact that the sun undoubtedly sends forth electrical
emanations which may ionize the gaseous molecules rising from
the nucleus, and lead to their repulsion from the sun, thus
resulting in the phenomena of the tail. But well-established
laws are not yet sufficiently developed to lead to definite con-
clusions on this point, and the question whether both causes are
combined, and, if not, to which one the phenomena in question
are mainly due, must be left to the future.
A curious circumstance, which may be explained by a duplex
character of the matter forming a cometary tail, is the great
difference between the visual and photographic aspect of these
bodies. The soft, delicate, feathery-like form which the comet
with its tail presents to the eye is wanting in a photograph,
which shows principally a round head with an irregularly formed
tail much like the knotted stalk of a plant. It follows that the
light emitted by the central axis of the tail greatly exceeds in
actinic power the diffuse light around it. A careful comparison
of the form and intensity of the photographic and visual tails
may throw much light on the question of the constitution of
these bodies, but no good opportunity of making the comparison
has been afforded since the art of celestial photography has been
brought to its present state of perfection.
The main conclusion to which the preceding facts and con-
siderations point is that the matter of a comet is partly solid
and partly gaseous. The gaseous form is shown conclusively
by the spectroscope, but in view of the extreme delicacy of the
indications with this instrument no quantitative estimate of
the gas can be made. As there is no central mass sufficient to
hold together a continuous atmosphere of elastic gas of any sort,
it seems probable that the gaseous molecules are only those
rising from the coma, possibly by ordinary evaporation, but
more probably by the action of the ultra-violet and other rays
of the sun giving rise to an ionization of disconnected gaseous
molecules. The matter cannot be wholly gaseous because in
this case there could be no central force sufficient to keep the
parts of the comet together.
The facts also point to the conclusion that the solid matter
of a comet is formed of a swarm or cloud of small disconnected
masses, probably having much resemblance to the meteoric
masses which are known to be flying through the solar system
and possibly of the same general kind as these. The question
whether there is any central solid of considerable mass is still
undecided; it can only be said that if so, it is probably small
relative to cosmic masses in general— more likely less than
greater than xoo m. in diameter. The light of the comet therefore-
proceeds from two sources: one the incandescence of gases,
the other the sunlight reflected from the solid parts. No estimate
can be formed of the ratio between these two kinds of light
until a bright comet shall be spcctroscopically observed during
an entire apparition.
Oritin and Orbits of Cornels.— The great difference which we
have pointed out between comets and the permanent bodies of
the solar system naturally suggested the idea that these bodies
do not belong to that system at all, but are nebulous masses,
scattered through the stellar spaces, and brought one by one
into the sphere of the sun's attraction. The results of this
view are easily shown to be incompatible with the observed
facts. The sun, carrying the whole solar system with it, Is
moving through space with a speed of about 10 m. per second.
If it approached a comet nearly at rest the result would be a
relative motion of this amount which, as the comet came nearer x
762
COMET
would be constantly increased, and would result in the comet
describing relative to the sun a markedly hyperbolic orbit,
deviating too widely from a parabola to leave any doubt, even
in the most extreme cases. Moreover, a large majority of comets
would then have their aphelia in the direction of the sun's
motion, and therefore their perihelia in the opposite direction.
Neither of these results corresponds to the fact. The conclusion
is that if we regard a comet as a body not belonging 10 the solar
system, it is at least a body which before its approach to the
sun had the same motion through the stellar spaces that the sun
has. As this unity of motion must have been maintained
from the beginning, we may regard comets as belonging to the
solar system in the sense of not being visitors from distant
regions of space.
The acceptance of this seemingly inevitable conclusion leads
to another: that no comet yet known moves in a really hyper-
bolic orbit, but that the limit of eccentricity must be regarded
as 1, or that of the parabola. It is true that seeming evidence
of hyperbolic eccentricity is sometimes afforded by observations
and regarded by some astronomers as sufficient. The objections
to the reality of the hyperbolic orbit are two. (1) A comet
moving in a decidedly hyperbolic orbit must have come from
so great a distance within a finite lime, say a few millions of
years, as to have no relation to the 6un, and must after its
approach to the sun return into space, never again to visit our
system. In this case the motion of the sun through space
renders it almost infinitely improbable that the orbit would have
been so nearly a parabola as all such orbits are actually found
to be. (2) The apparent deviation from a very elongated
ellipse has never been in any case greater than might have been
the result of errors of observation on bodies of this class.
This being granted, a luminous view of the causes which lead
to the observed orbits of comets is readily gained by imagining
these bodies to be formed of nebulous masses, which originally
accompanied the sun in its journey through space, but at
distances, in most cases, vastly greater than that of the farthest
planet. Such a mass, when drawn towards the sun, would move
round it in a nearly parabolic orbit, similar to the actual orbits
of the great majority of comets. The period might be measured
by thousands, tens of thousands, or hundreds of thousands of
years, according 10 the distances of the comet in the beginning;
but instead of bodies extraneous to the system, we should have
bodies properly belonging to the system and making revolutions
around the sun.
Were it not for the effect of planetary attraction long periods
like these would be the general rule, though not necessarily
universal. But at every return to perihelion the motion of a
comet will be to some extent either accelerated or retarded by
the action of Jupiter or any other planet in the neighbourhood
of which it may pass. Commonly the action will be so slight
as to have little influence on the orbit and the time of revolution.
But should the comet chance to pass the orbit of Jupiter just
in front of the planet, its motion would be retarded and the
orbit would be changed into one of shorter period. Should
it pass behind the planet, its motion would be accelerated and
its period lengthened. In such cases the orbit might be changed
to a hyperbola, and then the comet would never return. It
follows that there is a tendency towards a gradual but constant
diminution in the total number of comets. If we call Ae the
amount by which the eccentricity of a cometary orbit is less
than unity, Lt will be an extremely minute fraction in the case
of the original orbits. If we call * b the change which the
eccentricity x - Ac undergoes by the action of the planets during
the passage of the comet through our system, it will leave the
system with the eccentricity i-A**fl. The possibilities are
«yen whether d shall be positive or negative. If negative, the
eccentricity will be diminished and the period shortened. If
positive, and greater than A*, the eccentricity i-Ae + 5 will
be greater than 1, and then the comet will be thrown into a
hyperbolic orbit and become for ever a wanderer through the
jtclJar spaces.
The nearer a comet passes to a planet, especially to Jupiter,
the greatest planet, the greater 6 may be. If 5 is a considerable
negative fraction, the eccentricity will be so reduced that the
comet will after the approach be one of short period. It follows
that, however long the period of a comet may be, there is a
possibility of its becoming one of short period if it approaches
Jupiter. There have been several cases of this during the past
two centuries, the most recent being that of Brooks's comet,
1880, V. Soon after its discovery this body was found to have
a period of only about seven years. The question why it had
not been observed at previous returns was settled after the
orbit had been determined by computing its motion in the past.
It was thus found that in October 18S6 the comet had passed
in the immediate neighbourhood of Jupiter, the action of which
had been such as to change its orbit from one of long period
to the short observed period. A similar case was that of Lexel's
comet, seen in 1770. Originally moving in an unknown orbit, it
encountered the planet Jupiter, made two revolutions round the
sun, in the second of which it was observed, then again encoun-
tered the planet, to be thrown out of its orbit into one which did
not admit of determination. The comet was never again found.
A general conclusion which seems to follow from these con-
ditions, and is justified by observations, so far as the latter go,
is that comets are not to be regarded as permanent bodies like
the planets, but that the conglomerations of matter which
compose them are undergoing a process of gradual dissipation
in space. This process is especially rapid in the case of the
fainter periodic comets. It was first strikingly brought out in
the case of Biela's comet. This object was discovered in 1772,
was observed to be periodic after several revolutions had been
made, and was observed with a fair degree of regularity at
different returns until 1852. At the previous apparition it was
found to have separated into two masses, and in 1852 these
masses were so widely separated that they, might be considered
as forming two comets. Notwithstanding careful search at
times and places when the comet was due, no trace of it has
since been seen. An examination of the table of periodic comets
given at the end of this article will show that the same thing is
probably true of several other comets, especially Brorsen's and
Tempel's, which have each made several revolutions since last
observed, and have been sought for in vain.
In view of the seemingly inevitable dissipation of comets in
the course of ages, and of the actually observed changes of their
orbits by the attraction of Jupiter, the question arises whether
the orbits of all comets of short period may not have been
determined by the attraction of the planets, especially of Jupiter.
In this case the orbit would, for a period of several centuries,
have continued to nearly intersect that of the planet. We find,
as a matter of fact, that several periodic comets either pass near
Jupiter or have their aphelia in the neighbourhood of the orbit
of Jupiter. The approach, however, is not sufficiently close to
have led to the change unless in former times the proximity of
the orbits was much greater than it is now. As the orbits of all
the bodies of the solar system are subject to a slow secular change
of their form and position, this may only show that it must have
been thousands of years since the comet became one of short
period. The two cases of most difficulty are those of Halley's
and Encke's comets. The orbit of the former is so elongated and
so inclined to the general plane of the planetary orbits that its
secular variation must be very slow indeed. But it does not pass
near the orbit of any planet except Venus; and even here the
proximity is far from being sufficient to have produced an
appreciable change in the period. The orbit of Encke's comet
is entirely within the orbit of Jupiter, and it also cannot have
passed near enough to a planet for thousands of years to have
had its orbit changed by the action in question. It therefore
seems difficult to regard these two comets as other than per-
manent members of the solar system.
Special Periodic Comets. — One of the most remarkable periodic
comets with which we are acquainted is that known to
astronomers as Halley's. Having perceived that the elements
of the comet of 1682 were nearly the same as those of two comets
which had respectively appeared in 1531 and 1607, Edmund
COMET-SEEKER— COMITIA
7 6 3
Halley concluded that ill the three orbits belonged to the same
comet, of which the periodic time was about 76 years. After
a rough estimate of the perturbations it must sustain from the
attraction of the planets, he predicted its return for 1757, — a
bold prediction at that time, but justified by the event, for the
comet again made its appearance as was expected, though it did
not pass through its perihelion till the month of March 1759,
the attraction of Jupiter and Saturn having caused, as was
computed by Clairault previously to its return, a retardation
of 618 days.* This comet had been observed in 1066, and the
accounts which have been preserved represent it as having then
appeared to be four times the size of Venus, and to have shone
with a light equal to a fourth of that of the moon. History is
silent respecting it from that time till the year 1456, when it
passed very near to the earth: its tail then extended over 6o°
of the heavens, and had the form of a sabre. It returned to its
perihelion in 1835, and was well observed in almost every
observatory. But its brightness was far from comparing with
the glorious accounts of its former apparitions. That this should
have been due to the process of dissipation does not seem possible
in so short a period; we must therefore consider either that the
earlier accounts are greatly exaggerated, or that the brightness
of the comet is subject to changes from some unknown cause.
Previous appearances of Hallcy '$ comet have been calculated
by J. R. Hind, and more recently by P. H. Cowell and A. C. D.
Crommelin of Greenwich, the latter having carried the comet back
to 87 B.C. with certainty, and to 740 B.C. with (air probability.
It was detected by Max Wolf at Heidelberg on plates exposed on
Sept. n, 1000, and subsequently on a Greenwich plate of Sept. 9.
The known comet of shortest period bears the name of J. F.
Encke, the astronomer who first investigated its orbit and
showed its periodicity. It was originally discovered in 1789.
but its periodicity was not recognized until 1818. after it had
been observed at several returns. This comet has given rise to
a longer series of investigations than any other, owing to Enckc's
result that the orbit was becoming smaller, and the revolutions
therefore accelerated, by some unknown cause, of which the most
plausible was a resisting medium surrounding the sun. As this
comet is almost the only one that passes within the orbit of
Mercury, it is quite possible that it alone would show the effect
of such a medium. Recent investigations of this subject have
been made at the Pulkova Observatory, first by F. E. von Asten
and later by J. O. Backlund who, in 1909. was awarded the
Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society for his researches
in this field. During some revolutions there was evidence of a
slight acceleration of the return, and during others thare was not.
The following is a list (compiled in 1009) of comets which are
well established as periodic, through having been observed at
when the resemblance of the two orbits led to the conclusion of
the identity of the bodies, the period of which was soon made
evident by continued observations. The comets of Pons and
Olbers are remarkable for having an almost equal period. But
their orbits are otherwise totally different, so that there does not
seem to be any connexion between them. Brorsen's comet seems
also to be completely dissipated, not having been seen since 1870.
There are also a number of cases in which a comet has been
observed through one apparition, and found to be apparently
periodic, but which was not seen to return at the end of its
supposed period. In some of these cases it seems likely that the
comet passed near the planet Jupiter and thus had its orbit
entirely changed. It is possible that in other cases the apparent
periodicity is due to the unavoidable errors of observation to
which, owing to their diffused outline, the nuclei of comets are
liable. (S. N.)
COMET-SEEKER, a small telescope (q.v.) adapted especially
to searching for comets: commonly of short focal length and
large aperture, in order to secure the greatest brilliancy of light.
COMLLA, or Kumilla, a town of British India, headquarters
of Tippers district in Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated on the
river Cumti, with a station on the Assam-Bengal railway, 96 m.
from the coast terminus at Chittagong. Pop. (1901) 19,169.
The town has many large tanks and an English church, built
in 1875.
COMINES, or Coiiiixnes (Flem. Komcn), a town of western
Flanders, 1 j m. N.N.W. of Lille by rail. It is divided by the
river Lys, leaving one part on French (department of Nord), the
other on Belgian territory (province of West Flanders). Pop. of
the French town 6359 (1906); of the Belgian town, 6453 (1904).
The former has a belfry of the 14th century, restored in the 17th
and 19th centuries, and remains of a chateau. Comines carries
on the spinning of flax, wool and cotton.
■ COMITIA, the name applied, always in technical and generally
in popular phraseology, to trie most formal types of gathering
of the sovereign people in ancient Rome. It is the plural of
comitium, the old " meeting-place " (Lat. cum, together, ire, to go)
on the north-west of the Forum. The Romans had three words
for describing gatherings of the people. These were concilium,
comitia and contio. Of these concilium had the most general
significance. It could be applied to any kind of meeting and is
often used to describe assemblies in foreign states. It was,
therefore, a word that might be employed to denote an organized
gathering of a portion of the Roman people such as the plebs,
and in this sense is contrasted with comitia, which when used
strictly should signify an assembly of the whole people. Thus
the Roman draughtsman who wishes to express the idea
" magistrates of any kind as president of assemblies " writes
List of Periodic Comets observed at more than one Return.
Designation.
] st Ptrih.
Latt Perih,.
JVriod
Least Dim.
Cr. Dirt,
Pauagr.
Pa wage obv
Year*,
Art. Unit*.
Ast. Units
Halley . . .
1456 Tunc 8 -2
i?7* Feb. 16 7
1835 Nov, 159
75 9
607
058
JS'43
6 iB
TVIi . ■ ,
IS** Sept. >3-4
■I s -
Enclee . . >
1786 Ian. 30 9
1905 Ian. tl 4
I899 May 45
U'?S
*34
408
T little . -
1790 Ian, 309
101
78
J<>53
Ton* . . .
18J2 Sept. is 3
1M5 April 36
1884 Jan. 357
72-38
IMP
Gibers . . .
1887 w. a-5
1898 Mar. ao-4
73- JJ
i-ai
atf?
Winncckc ,
ifirg July ift-9
1843 Ocl 17-1 ,
5*>7
077
i-il
Faye . * ,
1896 Mar- 19*3
ts
*4&
5-93
Dc Vico . .
1*44 **pt- *'S
1846 Feb. 111
1894 Oct. 12 1
na
5*0 1
Bforrfn
1870 Mar, 30-5
£
065
S6j
D* Arrest . . «
Tempcl T. ^
1851 July 8 7
lB6?>lay 33-9
[897 May ZJ'7
1879 May 70
T*i7
156
4 83
Tempd -Swift .
18*9 Nov. ra-8
i89r Nov, 15-0
5'5i
1 -06
5-1*
Tcmpcl II-
1873 June as-a
iSfiiNov. 17 8
1JJ86 Nov. 1 3 -4
1904 Nirv, lO'S
1890 luJy 46
538
l"34
46*
Wolf , . .
680
!■»
5S7
6-17
Fintay -
Brooks
1893 ltily 13 7
664
0'99
1889 Sept, 30 3
1903 Dec 6-j
1899 April j8- 1
7- 10
t-95
544
Holme*
1S02 June 13-3
6-Bq
i-14
4 SO
one or more returns. In addition to what has already been said
of several comets in this list the following remarks may be made.
Tuttle's comet was first seen by P. F. A. Mechain in 1790, but
was not recognised as periodic until found by Tuttle in 1858,
" Magistratus quciquomquc comitia eon-
ciliumve habebit " (Lex Latina tabulae
Bantinae, 1. 5), and formalism required that
a magistrate who summoned only a portion
of the people to meet him should, in his
summons, use the word concilium. This
view is expressed by Laelius Felix, a
lawyer probably of the age of Hadrian,
when he writes " Is qui non univcrsum
populum, sed partem aliquam adesse jubct,
non comitia, sed concilium edicere debet"
(Gcllius, Nocks Atlicae, xv."»7). But
popular phraseology did not conform to
this canon, and comitia, which gained in
current Latin the sense of " elections " was
sometimes used of the assemblies of the
plebs (see the instances in Botsford, dis-
tinction between Comitia and Concilium,
p. 33). The distinction between com 1/1*0 and
contio wasmoreclearly marked. Both were
formal assemblies convened by a magistrate; but while, in the
case of the comitia, the magistrate's purpose was to ask a question
of the people and to elicit their binding response, his object in
summoning a contio was merely tA tafo%\tat \^^.\wysfc&Rx<e^*x
764
COMITIA
for their instruction or for a declaration of his will as expressed in
an edict (" contionem habere est verba facere ad populum sine
nlla rogatione," Gell. op. cit. xiii. 6). The word comitia merely
means " meetings."
The earliest comitia was one organized on the basis of parishes
(curiae) and known in later times as the comitia curiata. The
curia voted as a single unit and thus furnished the type for that
system of group-voting which runs through all the later organiza-
tion of the popular assemblies. This comitia must originally
have been composed exclusively of patricians (q.v.); but there is
reason to believe that, at an early period of the Republic, it had,
in imitation of the centuriate organization, come to include
plebeians (see Curia). The organization which gave rise to the
comitia centuriata was the result of the earliest steps in the political
emancipation of the plebs. Three stages in this process may be
conjectured. In the first place the plebeians gained full rights of
ownership and transfer, and could thus become freeholders of the
land which they occupied and of the appurtenances of this land
(res mancipi). This legal capacity rendered them liable to military
service as heavy-armed fighting men, and as such they were
enrolled in the military units called centuriae. When the
enrolment was completed the whole host (txtrcitus) was the best
organized and most representative gathering that Rome could
show. It therefore either usurped, or became gradually
invested with voting powers, and gained a range of power which
for two centuries (508-287 B.C.) made it the dominant assembly
in the state. But its aristocratic organization, based as this was
on property qualifications which gave the greatest voting power
to the richest men, prevented it from being a fitting channel for
the expression of plebeian claims. Hence the plebs adopted a
new political organization of their own. The tribunate called
into existence a purely plebeian assembly .firstly , for the election of
plebeian magistrates; secondly, for jurisdiction in cases where
these magistrates had been injured; thirdly, for presenting
petitions on behalf of ihc plebs through the consuls to the
comitia centuriata. This right of petitioning developed into a
power of legislation. The stages of the process (marked by the
Valerio-Horatian laws of 440 B.C., the Publilian law of 339 B.C.,
and the Hortensian law of 287 B.C.) are unknown; but it is
probable that the two first of the laws progressively weakened the
discretionary power of senate and consuls in admitting such
petitions; and that the Hortensian law fully recognized the
right of resolutions of the plebs (plebiscita) to bind the whole
community. The plebeian assembly, which had perhaps
originally met by curiae, was organized on the basis of the terri-
torial tribes in 471 B.C. This change suggested a renewed
organization of the whole people for comitial purposes. The
comitia tribute populi was the result. This assembly seems to
have been already in existence at the epoch of the Twelve Tables
in 451 B.C., its electoral activity is perhaps attested in 447 B.C.,
and it appears as a legislative body in 357 B.C.
In spite of the formal differences of these four assemblies and
the real distinction springing from the fact that patricians were
not members of the plebeian bodies, the view which is appropriate
to the developed Roman constitution is that the people expressed
its will equally through all, although the mode of expression varied
with the channcL This will was in theory unlimited. It was re-
stricted only by the conservatism of the Roman, by the condition
that the initiative must always be taken by a magistrate, by the
de facto authority of the senate, and by the magisterial veto which
the senate often had at its command (sec Senate). There were no
limitations on the legislative powers of the comitia except such as
they chose to respect or which they themselves created and might
repeal. They never during the Republican period lost the right
of criminal jurisdiction, in spite of the fact that so many spheres
of this jurisdiction had been assigned in perpetuity to standing
commissions (quaestiones perpeiuae). This power of judging
exercised by the assemblies had in the main developed from the
use of the right of appeal (provocatio) against the judgments of
the magistrates. But it is probable that, in the developed
procedure, where it was known that the judgment pronounced
*ight legally give rise to the appal, the magistrate pronounced
no sentence, but brought the case at once before the people. The
case was then beard in four separate contiones. After these
hearings the comitia gave its verdict. Finally, the people elected
to every magistracy with the exception of the occasional offices
of Dictator and Interrex. The distribution of these functions
amongst the various comitia, and the differences in their organiza-
tion, were as follows: —
The comitia curiata had in the later Republic become a merely
formal as-cmbly. . Its main function was that of passing the la
curiata which was necessary for the ratification- both of the
imperium of the higher magistracies of the people, and of the
poteslas of those of lower rank. This assembly also met, under
the name of the comitia calata and under the presidency of the
pon t if ex maximus, for certain religious acts. These were the
inauguration of the rex sacrorum and the flamens, and that
abjuration of hereditary worship (detestatio sacrorum) which was
made by a man who passed from his dan (gens) either by an act of
adrogation (see Roman Law and Adoption) or by transition
from the patrician to the plebeian order. For the purpose of
passing the lex curiata, and probably for its other purposes as weD,
this comitia was in Cicero's day represented by but thirty lictors
(Cic. de Lege Agraria, ii. 12, 31).
The comitia centuriata could be summoned and presided over
only by the magistrates with imperium. The consuls were its
usual presidents for elections and for legislation, but the praetors
summoned it for purposes of jurisdiction. It elected the magis-
trates with imperium and the censors, and alone had the power
of declaring war. According to the principle laid down in the
Twelve Tables (Cicero, de Lc gibus, iii. 4. 11) capital cases were
reserved for this assembly. It was not frequently employed as
a legislative body after the two assemblies of the tribes, which
were easier to summon and organize, had been recognized as
possessing sovereign rights. The internal structure of the
comitia centuriata underwent a great change during the Republic
— a change which has been conjecturally attributed to the
censorship of Flaminius in 220 B.C. (Mommsen, Staaisnckt, in.
p. 270). In the early scheme, at a time when a pecuniary
valuation had replaced land and its appurtenances (res mancipi}
as the basis of qualification, five divisions (dosses) were recog-
nized whose property was assessed respectively at 100,000,
75.000, 50,000, 25,000 and 11,000 (or 12,500) asses. The first
class contained 80 centuries; the second, third and fourth
20 each; the fifth 30. Added to these were the 18 centuries
of knights (see Equites). The combined vote of the first class
and the knights was thus represented by 08 centuries; that
of the whole of the other classes (including 4 or 5 centuries of
professional corporations connected with the army, such as the
fabri and 1 century of proldarii, i.e. of all persons below the
minimum census) was represented by 95 or 06 centuries. Thus
the upper classes in the community possessed more than half
the votes in the assembly. The newer scheme aimed at a greater
equality of voting power; but it has been differently interpreted.
The Interpretation most usually accepted, which was first
suggested by Pantagathus, a 17th-century scholar, is based 09
the view that the five classes were distributed over the tribes in
such a manner that there were 2 centuries of each class in a
single tribe. As the number of the tribes was 35, the total
number of centuries would be 350. To these we must add 18
centuries of knights, 4 of fabri, &c, and x of prolelarii. Here
the first class and the knights command but 88 votes out of a
total of 373. Mommsen 's interpretation (Staatsrccht, iii. p. 275)
was different He allowed the 70 votes for the 70 centuries of
the first class, but thought that the 280 centuries of the other
classes were so combined as to form only 100 votes. The total
votes in the comitia would thus be 70+100+5 (fabri, &c)+i8
(knights), i.e. 193, as in the earlier arrangement. In 88 B.C. a
return was made to the original and more aristocratic system
by a law passed by the consuls Sulla and Pompeius. At least
this seems to be the meaning of Appian (Bellum Ctvilt, i. 59)
when he says iarryovrro . . . rAs xetforonas u^l card 0uX*s *XXe
tear A Xoxovs • • • ylyrwOat. But this change was not permanent
as the more liberal system prevails in the Ciceronian period.
COMITY— COMMENTARII
765
The comilia tr&ula wit In the later Republic the usual organ
for laws passed by the whole people. Its presidents were the
magistrates of the people, usually the consuls and praetors,
and, for purposes of jurisdiction, the eurule aediles. It elected
these aediles and other lower magistrates of the people. Its'
jurisdiction was limited to monetary penalties.
'The concilium pUbis, although voting, like this last assembly,
by tribes could be summoned and presided over only by plebeian
magistrates, and never included the patricians. Its utterances
(plebiscite) had the full force of law; it elected the tribunes of
the plebs and the plebeian aediles, -and it pronounced judgment
on the penalties which they proposed. The right of this assembly
to exercise capital jurisdiction was questioned; but it possessed
the undisputed right of pronouncing outlawry (aquae ct ignis
interdiclio) against any one already in exile (Livy xxv. 4, and
xxvi. 3).
When the tenure of the religious colleges—formerly filled up
by co-optation— was submitted to popular election, a change
effected by a tec Domilia of 104 B.C., a new type of comilia was
devised for this purpose. The electoral body was composed of
17 tribes selected by lot from the whole body of 35.
There was a body of rules governing the comilia which were
concerned with the time and place of meeting, the forms of
promulgation and the methods of voting. Valid meetings might
be held on any of the 104 " comitial " days of the year which
were not market or festal days (nundinae, feriae). The comilia
curiala and the two assemblies of the tribes met within the walls,
the former usually in the Comitium, the latter in the Forum or
on the Area Capitolii; but the elections at these assemblies were
in the later Republic held in the Campus Martius outside the
walls. The comilia centutiala was by law compelled to meet
outside the city and its gathering place was usually the Campus.
Promulgation was required for the space of 3 nundinae (i.e. 24
days) before a matter was submitted to the people. The voting
was preceded by a conlio at which a limited debate was permitted
by the magistrate. In the assemblies of the curiae and the tribes
the voting of the groups took place simultaneously, in that of
the centuries in a fixed order. In elections as well as in legislative
acts an absolute majority was required, and hence the candidate
who gained a mere relative majority was not returned.
The comilia survived the Republic. The last known act of
comitial legislation belongs to the reign of Ncrva (a.d. 96-08).
After the essential elements in the election of magistrates had
passed to the senate in a.d. 14, the formal announcement of the
successful candidates (rcnuntiatio) still continued to be made
to the popular assemblies. Early in the 3rd century Dio Cassius
still saw the comilia centuriata meeting with all its old solemnities
(Dio Cassius lviii. 20).
Bibliography. — Mommsen, RdmischesStaalsrecht, Hi. p. 300 foil.
" ' - - • - - ~1. L(Ber
udge, Roman Public Life, p. 65 loll., 102, 238 toll, and App
(1901); G. W. Botsford, Roman Assemblies (1909). (A. H. J. G.)
COMITY (from the Lat. comitas, courtesy, from corns t friendly,
courteous), friendly or courteous behaviour; a term particularly
used in international law, in the phrase " comity of nations, "
for the courtesy of nations towards each other. This has been
held by some authorities to be the basis for the recognition by
courts of law of the judgments and rules of law of foreign tribunals
(see International Law, Private). "Comjty of nations"
is. sometimes wrongly used, from a confusion with the Latin
comes, a companion, for the whole body or company of nations
practising such international courtesy.
COMMA (Gr. xom/io, a thing stamped or cut off, from wbrrwr,
to strike), originally, in Greek rhetoric, a short clause, something
less than the " colon "; hence a mark (,), in punctuation, to
show the smallest break in the construction of a sentence. The
mark is also used to separate numerals, mathematical symbols
and the like. Inverted commas, or "quotation-marks," ie.
pain of commas, the first inverted, and the last upright, an
placed at the beginning and end of a sentence or word quoted,
or of a word used in a technical, or conventional sense; single
commas are similarly used for quotations within quotations.
The word is also applied to comma-shaped objects, such as the
M comma-bac illus/ ' the causal agent in cholera.
COMMANDEER (from the South African Dutch kommandercn,
to command), properly, to compel the performance of military
duty in the field, especially of the military service of the Boer
republics (see Commando); also to seise property for military
purposes; hence used of any peremptory seizure for other than
military purposes.
COMMANDER, in the British navy, the title of the second
grade of captains. He commands a small vessel, or is second in
command of a large one. A staff commander is entrusted with
the navigation of a large ship, and ranks above a navigating
lieutenant Since 1 838 the officer next in rank to a captain in the
U.S. navy has been called commander.
COMMANDERY (through the Fr. commanderie, from med.
Lat commendaria, a trust or charge), a division of the landed
property in Europe of the Knights Hospitallers (see St John or
Jerusalem). The property of the order was divided into
" priorates," subdivided into " bailiwicks," which in turn were
divided into " commanderies "; these were placed in charge of
a " commendator " or commander. The word is also applied to
the emoluments granted to a commander of a military order of
knights.
COMMANDO, a Portuguese word meaning "command,"
adopted by the Boers in South Africa through whom it has come
into English use, for military and semi-military expeditions
against the natives. More particularly a " commando " was the
administrative and tactical unit of the forces of the former Boer
republics, " commandeered " under the law of the constitutions
which made military service obligatory on all males between the
ages of sixteen and sixty. Each " commando " was formed from
the burghers of military age of an electoral district
COMMEMORATION, a general term for celebrating some past
event It is also the name for the annual act, or Encaenia, the
ceremonial closing of the academic year at Oxford University.
It consists of a Latin oration in commemoration of benefactors
and founders; of the recitation of prize compositions in prose and
verse, and the conferring of honorary degrees upon English or
foreign celebrities. The ceremony, which is usually on the third
Wednesday after Trinity Sunday, is held in the Shcldonian
Theatre, in Broad St, Oxford. " Commencement " is the term
for the equivalent ceremony at Cambridge, and this is also used
in the case of American universities.
COMMENDATION (from the Lat commendare, to entrust to
the charge of, or to procure a favour for), approval, especially
when expressed to one person on behalf of another, a recommenda-
tion. The word is used in a liturgical sense for an office commend-
ing the souls of the dying and dead to the mercies of God. In
feudal law the term is applied to the practice of a freeman
placing himself under the protection of a lord (sec Feudalism),
and in ecclesiastical law to the granting of benefices in com-
mendam. A benefice was held in commendam when granted
either temporarily until a vacancy was filled up, or to a layman,
or, in case of a monastery or abbey, to a secular cleric to enjoy the
revenues and privileges for life (see Abbot), or to a bishop to hold
together with his see. An act of 1836 prohibited the holding of
benefices in commendam in England.
COMMENTARII (Lat -Gr. inrofirfuiara), notes to assist the
memory, memoranda. This original idea of the word gave rise to
a variety of meanings: notes and abstracts of speeches for the
assistance qf orators; family memorials, the origin of many of
the legends introduced into early Roman history from a desire to
glorify a particular family ; diaries of events occurring in their own
circle kept by private individuals,—- the day-book, drawn up for
Trimalchio in Petronius (Salyricon, 53) by his actuarius (a slave
to whom the duty was specially assigned) is quoted as an example ;
memoirs of events .in which they had taken part drawn up by
pubb'c men, — such were the " GQmxrox&Mta»" ^^wax^^o*,
766
COMMENTRY— COMMERCE
Gallic and Civil wars, and of Cicero on his consulship. Different
departments of the imperial administration and certain high
functionaries kept records, which were under the charge of an
official known as a commentariis (cf. a secret is, ab epistulis).
Municipal authorities also kept a register of their official acts.
The CommerJarii Principis were the register of the official acts
of the emperor. They contained the decisions, favourable or
unfavourable, in regard to certain citizens; accusations brought
before him or ordered by him; lists of persons in receipt of
special privileges. These must be distinguished from the
commentarii diurni, a daily court-journal. At a later period
records called cphcmcridcs were kept by order of the emperor;
these were much used by the Scriptores Historiae Augustae (sec
Augustan History). The Commcntarii Scnatus, only once
mentioned (Tacitus, Annals, xv. 74) arc probably identical with
the Acta Senatus (q.v.). There were also Commentarii of the
priestly colleges: (a) Pontificum, collections of their decrees and
responses for future reference, to be distinguished from their
Annates , which were historical records, and from their Ada,
minutes of their meetings; (b) Augur urn, similar collections of
augural decrees and responses; (c) Dcccmvirorum; (d) Fratrum
Arvalium. Like the priests, the magistrates also had similar
notes, partly written by themselves, and partly records of which
they formed the subject. But practically nothing is known of
these Commentarii Magistratuum. Mention should also be made
of the Commentarii Regum, containing decrees concerning the
functions and privileges of the kings, and forming a record of the
acts of the king in his capacity of priest. They were drawn up in
historical times like the so-called leges regiae (jus Papirianum),
supposed to contain the decrees and decisions of the Roman
kings.
See the exhaustive article by A. von Prcmcrstein in Pauly-
Wissowa, Rcalencydop&di* (1.001); Tcuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman
Lit. (Eng. trans.), pp. 72, 77-79; and the concise account by H. Thej-
denat in Darcmberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquiles.
COMMENTRY, a town of central France, in the department of
Allicr, 42 m. S.W. of Moulins by the Orleans railway. Fop.
(1006) 7581. Commentry gives its name to a coalfield over
5000 acres in extent, and has important foundries and forges.
COMMERCE (Lat. commcrcium, from cum, together, and
mcrx, merchandise), in its general acceptation, the international
traffic in goods, or what constitutes the foreign trade of all
countries as distinct from their domestic trade.
In tracing the history of such dealings we may go back to the
early records found in the Hebrew Scriptures. Such a transac-
tion as that of Abraham, for example, weighing down " four
hundred shekels of silver, current with the merchant** for the field
of Ephron, is suggestive of a group of facts and ideas indicating
an advanced condition of commercial intercourse, — property in
land, sale of land, arts of mining and purifying metals, the use of
silver of recognized purity as a common medium of exchange, and
merchandise an established profession, or division of labour.
That other passage in which we read of Joseph being sold by his
brethren for twenty pieces of silver to "a company of Ishmaclites,
coming from Gilcad, with their camels bearing spicery and balm
and myrrh to Egypt," extends our vision still farther, and shows
us the populous and fertile Egypt in commercial relationship with
Chaldaca, and Arabians, foreign to both, as intermediaries in
their traffic, generations before the Hebrew commonwealth was
founded.
The first foreign merchants of whom we read, carrying goods
and bags of silver from one distant region to another, were the
southern Arabs, reputed descendants of Ishmacl and Esau. The
first notable navigators and maritime carriers of goods were the
Phoenicians. In the commerce of the ante-Christian ages the
Jews do not appear to have performed any conspicuous part..
Both the agricultural and the theocratic constitution of their
society were unfavourable to a vigorous prosecution of foreign
trade. In such traffic as they had with other nations they were
served on their eastern borders by Arabian merchants, and on
the west and south by the Phoenician shippers. The abundance
of gold, silver *nd other precious commodities gathered from
distant parts, of which we read in the days of greatest Hebrew
prosperity, has more the character of spoils of war and tributes of
dependent states than the conquest by free exchange of their
domestic produce and manufacture. It was not until the Jew*
were scattered by foreign invasions, and finally cast into the
world by the destruction of Jerusalem, that they began to
develop those commercial qualities for which they have since
been famous.
There are three conditions as essential to extensive inter-
national traffic as diversity of natural resources, division of
labour, accumulation of stock, or any other primal p r j mafr
element— (1) means of transport, (2) freedom of labour cwAbti
and exchange, and (3) security; and in all these tf< *-
conditions the ancient world was signally deficient. mmnt '
The great rivers, which became the first scats of population
and empire, must have been of much utility as channels of
transport, and hence the course of human power of which they
are the geographical delineation, and probably the idolatry with
which they were sometimes honoured. Nor were the ancient
rulers insensible of the importance of opening roads through their
dominions, and establishing post and lines of communication,
which, though primarily for official and military purposes, must
have been useful to traffickers and to the general population.
But the free navigable area of great rivers is limited, and when
diversion of traffic had to be made to roads and tracks through
deserts, there remained the "slow and costly carriage of beasts
of burden, by which only articles of small bulk and the rarest
value could be conveyed with any hope of profit. Corn, though
of the first necessity, could only be thus transported in famines,
when beyond price to those who were in want, and under this
extreme pressure could only be drawn from within a narrow
sphere, and in quantity sufficient to the sustenance of but a small
number of people. The routes of ancient commerce were thus
interrupted and cut asunder by barriers of transport, and the
farther they were extended became the more impassable to any
considerable quantity or weight of commodities. As long as
navigation was confined to rivers and the shores of inland gulfs
and seas, the oceans were a terra incognita, contributing nothing
to the facility or security of transport from one part of the world
to another, and leaving even one populous part of Asia as
unapproachable from another as if they had been in different
hemispheres. The various routes of trade from Europe and
north-western Asia to India, which have been often referred to,
are to be regarded more as speculations of future development
than as realities of ancient history. It is not improbable that
the ancient traffic of the Red Sea may have been extended along
the shores of the Arabian Sea to some parts of Hindustan, but
that vessels braved the Indian Ocean and passed round Cape
Comorin into the Bay of Bengal, 2000 or even 1000 years before
mariners had learned to double the Cape of Good Hope, is
scarcely to be believed. The route by the Euxine and the
Caspian Sea has probably never in any age reached India. That
by the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf is shorter, and was
besides the more likely from passing through tracts of country
which' in the most remote times were seats of great population.
There may have been many merchants who traded on all these
various routes, but that commodities were passed in bulk over
great distances is inconceivable. It may be doubted whether in
the ante-Christian ages there was any heavy transport over even
500 m., save for warlike or other purposes, which engaged the
public resources of imperial states, and in which the idea of
commerce, as now understood, is in a great measure lost.
The advantage which absolute power gave to ancient nations
In their warlike enterprises, and in the execution of public works
of more or less utility, or of mere ostentation and monumental
magnificence, was dearly purchased by the sacrifice of individual
freedom, the right to labour, produce and exchange under the
steady operation of natural economic principles, which more »h«"
any other cause vitalizes the individual and social energies, and
multiplies the commercial resource of communities. Commerce
in all periods and countries has obtained a certain freedom and
hospitality from the fact that the foreign merchant hassosMtblBg
COMMERCE
767
desirable to offer; but the action of trading is reciprocal, and
requires multitudes of producers and merchants, as free agents,
on both sides, searching out by patient experiment wants more
advantageously supplied by exchange than by direct production,
before it can attain either permanence or magnitude, or can
become a vital element of national life. The ancient polities
offered much resistance to this development, and in their absolute
power over the liberty, industry and property of the masses of
their subjects raised barriers to the extension of commerce
scarcely less formidable than the want of means of communica-
tion itself. The conditions of security under which foreign trade
can alone flourish equally exceeded the resources of ancient
civilization. Such roads as exist must be protected from robbers,
the rivers and seas from pirates ; goods must have safe passage
and safe storage, must be held in a manner sacred in the territories
through which they pass, be insured against accidents, be
respected even in the madness of hostilities ; the laws of nations
must give a guarantee on which traders can proceed in their
operations with reasonable confidence; and the governments,
while protecting the commerce of their subjects with foreigners
as if it were their own enterprise, must in their fiscal policy, and
in all their acts, be endued with the highest spirit of commercial
honour. Every great breach of this security stops the continuous
circulation, which is the life of traffic and of the industries to
which it ministers. But in the ancient records we see commerce
exposed to great risks, subject to constant pilage, hunted down
in peace and utterly extinguished in war. Hence it became
necessary that foreign trade should itself be an armed force in the
world; and though the states of purely commercial origin soon
fell into the same arts and wiles as the powers to which they were
opposed, yet their history exhibits clearly enough the* necessity
out of which they arose. Once organized, it wps inevitable that
they should meet intrigue with intrigue, and force with force.
The political empires, while but imperfectly developing industry
and traffic within their own territories, had little sympathy with
any means of prosperity from without' Their sole policy was cither
to absorb under their own spirit and conditions of rule, or to
destroy, whatever was rich or great beyond their borders.
Nothing is more marked in the past history of the world than
this struggle of commerce to establish conditions of security and
means of communication with distant parts. When almost
driven from the land, it often found both on the sea; and often,
when its success had become brilliant and renowned, it perished
under the assault of stronger powers, only to rise again in new
centres and to find new channels of intercourse.
While Rome was giving laws and order to the half-civilized
tribes of Italy, Carthage, operating on a different base, and by
CiJtfl other methods, was opening trade with less accessible
parts of Europe. The strength of Rome was in her
legions, that of Carthage in her ships; and her ships could cover
ground where the legions were powerless. Her mariners had
passed the mythical straits into the Atlantic, and established the
port of Cadiz. Within the Mediterranean itself they founded
Carthagena and Barcelona on the same Iberian peninsula, and
ahead of the Roman legions had depots and traders on the shores
of Gaul. After the destruction of Tyre, Carthage became the
greatest power in the Mediterranean, and inherited the trade of
her Phoenician ancestors with Egypt, Greece and Asia Minor,
as well as her own settlements in Sicily and on the European
coasts. An antagonism between the great naval and the great
military power, whose interests crossed each other at so many
points, was sure to occur; and in the three Punic wars Carthage
measured her strength with that of Rome both on sea and on land
with no unequal success. But a commercial state impelled into
a scries of great wars has departed from its own proper base; and
in the year 146 B.C. Carthage was so totally destroyed by the
Kommm Romans that of the great city, more than ao m. in
i,„„,f, circumference, and containing at one period near a
million of inhabitants, only a few thousands were found
within its ruined walls. In the same year Corinth, one of the
greatest of the Greek capitals and seaports, was captured,
I of vast wealth and given to the flames by a Roman
consul. Athens and her magnificent harbour of the Piraeus fell
into the same hands 60 years later. It may be presumed that
trade went on under the Roman conquests in some degree as
before; but these were grave events to occur within a brief period,
and the spirit of the scat of trade in every case having been
broken, and its means and resources more or less plundered and
dissipated — in some cases, as in that of Carthage, irreparably —
the most necessary commerce could only proceed with feeble and
languid interest under the military, consular and proconsular
licence of Rome at that period. Tyre, 'the great seaport of
Palestine, having been destroyed by Alexander the p t j mynt
Great, Palmyra, the great inland centre of Syrian trade,
was visited with a still more complete annihilation by the Roman
Emperor Aurelian within little more than half a century after the
capture and spoliation of Athens. The walls were razed to their
foundations; the population — men, women, children and the
rustics round the city — were all either massacred or dispersed;
and the queen Zcnobia was carried captive to Rome. Palmyra
had for centuries, as a centre of commercial intercourse and
transit, been of great service to her neighbours, east ond west.
In the wars of the Romans and Parthians she was respected by
both as an asylum of common interests which it would have been
simple barbarity to invade or injure; and .w.hcn the Parthians
were subdued, and Palmyra became a Roman annexe, she
continued to flourish as before. Her relations with Rome were
more than friendly; they became enthusiastic and heroic; and
her citizens having inflicted signal chastisement on the king of
Persia for the imprisonment of the emperor Valerian, the admira-
tion of this conduct at Rome was so great that their spirited
leader Odaonathus, the husband of Zcnobia, was proclaimed
Augustus, and became co-emperor with Gallienus. It is obvious
that the destruction of Palmyra must not only have doomed
Palestine, already bereft of her seaports, to greater poverty and
commercial isolation than had been known in long preceding
ages, but have also rendered it more difficult to Rome herself to
hold or turn to any profitable account her conquests in Asia ; and,
being an example of the policy of Rome to the seats of trade over
nearly the whole ancient world, it may be said to contain in
graphic characters a presage of what came to be the actual
event — the collapse and fall of the Roman empire itself.
The repeated invasions of Italy by the Goths and Huns gave
rise to a scat of trade in the Adriatic, which was to sustain during
more than a thousand years a history of unusual veak§
splendour. The Vcncti cultivated fertile lands on the
Po, and built several towns, of which Padua was the chief. They
appear from the earliest note of them in history to have been
both an agricultural and trading people; and they offered a rich
prey to the barbarian hordes when these broke through every
barrier into the plains of Italy. Thirty years before Attila razed
the neighbouring city of Aquilcia, the consuls and senate of
Padua, oppressed and terrified by the prior ravages of Alaric,
passed a decree for erecting Rialto, the largest of the numerous
islets at the mouth of the Po, into a chief town and port, not more
as a convenience to the islanders than as a security for themselves
and their goods. But every fresh incursion, every new act of
spoliation by the dreaded enemies, increased the flight of the rich
and the industrious to the islands, and thus gradually arose the
second Venice, whose glory was so greatly to exceed that of the
first. Approachable from the mainland only by boats, through
river passes easily defended by practised sailors against barbarians
who had never plied an oar, the Venetian refugees could look in
peace on the desolation which swept over Italy; their ware-
houses, their markets, their treasures were safe from plunder;
and stretching their hands over the sea, they found in it fish and
salt, and in the rich possessions of trade and territory which it
opened to them more than compensation for the fat lands and
inland towns which had long been their home. The Venetians
traded with Constantinople, Greece, Syria and Egypt. They
became lords of the Morea, and of Candia, Cyprus and other
1 islands of the Levant. The trade of Venice. with India, though
spoken of, was probably never great. But the crusades of the
I lath and 13th centuries against the Saracens in PaksAin*.
768
COMMERCE
extended her repute more widely east and west, and increased
both her naval and her commercial resources. It is enough,
Indeed, to account for the grandeur of Venice that in course of
centuries, from the security of her position, the growth and
energy of her population, and the regularity if her government at
a period when these sources of prosperity were rare, she became
the great emporium of the Mediterranean— all that Carthage,
Corinth and Athens had been in a former age on a scene the most
remarkable in the. world for its fertility and facilities of traffic, —
and that as Italy and 6ther parts of the Western empire became
again more settled her commerce found always a wider range.
The bridge built from the largest of the islands to the opposite
bank became the " Rialto," or famous exchange of Venice, whose
transactions reached farther, and assumed a more consolidated
form, than had been known before. There it was where the first
public bank was organized; that bills of exchange were first
negotiated, and funded debt became transferable; that finance
became a science and book-keeping an art. Nor must the effect
of the example of Venice on other cities of Italy be left out of
account. Genoa, following her steps, rose into great prosperity
and power at the foot of the Maritime Alps, and became her rival,
and finally her enemy. Naples, Gaeta, Florence, many other
towns of Italy, and Rome herself, long after her fall, were
encouraged to struggle for the preservation of their municipal
freedom, and to foster trade, arts and navigation, by the brilliant
success set before them on the Adriatic; but Venice, from the
early start she had made, and her command of the sea, had the
commercial pre-eminence.
The state of things which arose on the collapse of the ftoman
empire presents two concurrent facts, deeply affecting the course
junto of trade — (i) the ancient scats of industry and civiliza-
^^^B«ai» t | Qn wcrc ujyjgrgQjng constant decay, while (2) the
energetic races of Europe were rising into more civilized
forms and manifold vigour and copiousness of life. The fall of the
Eastern division of the empire prolonged the effect of the fall of
the Western empire; and the advance of the Saracens over Asia
Minor, Syria, Greece, Egypt, over Cyprus and other possessions of
Venice in the Mediterranean, over the richest provinces of Spain,
and finally across the Hellespont into the Danubian provinces of
Europe, was a new irruption of barbarians from another point of
the compass, and revived the calamities and disorders inflicted by
the successive invasions of Goths, Huns and other Northern
tribes. For more than ten centuries the naked power of the sword
was vivid and terrible as fashes of lightning over all the scats
of commerce, whether of ancient or more modern origin. The
feudal system of Europe, in organizing the open country under
military leaders and defenders subordinated in possession and
service under a legal system to each other and to the sovereign
power, must have been well adapted to the necessity of the times
in which it spread so rapidly; but it would be impossible to say
that the feudal system was favourable to trade, or the extension
of trade. The commercial spirit in the feudal, as in preceding
ages, had to find for itself places of security, and it could only
find them in towns, armed with powers of self-regulation and
defence, and prepared, like the feudal barons themselves, to
resist violence from whatever quarter it might come. Rome, In
her best days, had founded the municipal system, and when this
system was more than ever necessary as the bulwark of arts
and manufactures, its extension became an essential element
of the whole European civilization. Towns formed themselves
into leagues for mutual protection, and out of leagues not
infrequently arose commercial republics. The Hanseatic League,
founded as early as 1241, gave the first note of an increasing
traffic between countries on the Baltic and in northern Germany,
which a century or two before were sunk in isolated barbarism.
From Lubeck and Hamburg, commanding the navigation of the
Elbe, it gradually spread over 85 towns, including Amsterdam,
Cologne and Frankfort in the south, and Danzig, R6nigsbcrg and
Riga in the north. The last trace of this- league, long of much
•crvice in protecting trade, and as a means of political mediation,
passed away in the erection of the German empire (1870), but
only from the tame cause that had brought about its gradual
dissolution— the formation of powerful and legal governments-
which, while leaving to the free cities their municipal rights, wet
well capable of protecting their mercantile interests. The tares
of Holland found lasting strength and security from other causes.
Their foundations were laid as literally in the sea as those of
Venice had been. They were not easily attacked whether by set
or land, and if attacked bad formidable means of defence. 1st
Zuydcr Zee, which had been opened to the German Ocean in nh,
carried into the docks and canals of Amsterdam the traffic of tat
ports of the Baltic, of the English Channel and of the south of
Europe, and what the seas did for Amsterdam from without the '
Rhine and the Maese did for Dort and Rotterdam from the
interior. By the Union of Utrecht in 1579 Holland became at
independent republic, and for long after, as it had been for soeae
time before, was the greatest centre of maritime traffic in Europe.
The rise of the Dutch power in alow country, exposed to the nest
destructive inundations, difficult to cultivate or even to inhabit,
affords a striking illustration of those conditions which in all tine
have been found specially favourable to commercial development,
and which are not indistinctly reflected in the mercantile history
of England, preserved by its insular position from hostile in-
vasions, and capable by its fleets and arms to protect its goods
on the seas and the rights of its subjects in foreign lands.
The progress of trade and productive arts in the middle
ages, though not rising to much international exchange, was very
considerable both in quality and extent. The republics of Italy,
which had no claim to rival Venice or Genoa in maritime power
or traffic, developed a degree of art, opulence and refinement
commanding the admiration of modern times; and if any
historian of trans-Alpine Europe, when Venice had already
attained some greatness, could have seen it five hundred yean
afterwards, the many strong towns of France, Germany and the
Low Countries, the great number of their artisans, the products
of their looms and anvils, and their various cunning workmanship,
might have added many a brilliant page to his « tin* If - Two
centuries before England had discovered any manufacturinf
quality, or knew even how to utilize her most valuable raw
materials, and was importing goods from the continent for the
production of which she was soon to be found to have special
resources, the Flemings were selling their woollen and linen fabrics,
and the French their wines, silks and laces in all the richer parts
of the British Islands. The middle ages placed the barbarous
populations of Europe under a severe discipline, trained them in
the most varied branches of industry, and developed an amount
of handicraft and ingenuity which became a solid basis for the
future. But trade was too walled in, too much clad in armour,
and too incessantly disturbed by wars and tumults, and violations
of common right and interest, to exert its full influence over the
general society, or even to realize its most direct advantages.
It wanted especially the freedom and mobility essential to much
international increase, and these it was now to receive from a
series of the most pregnant events.
The mariner's compass had become familiar in the European
ports about the beginning of the 14th century, and the seamen
of Italy, Portugal, France, Holland and England ^_._. .
entered upon a more enlightened and adventurous XSJjJJ;
course of navigation. The Canary Islands were sighted
by a French vessel in 1330, and colonized in 141s by the
Portuguese, who two years later landed on Madeira, In 1431
the Azores were discovered by a shipmaster of Bruges. The
Atlantic was being gradually explored. In i486, Diaz, a
Portuguese, steering his course almost unwittingly along the
coast of Africa, came upon the land's-end of that continent;
and eleven years afterwards Vasco da Gama, of the same nation,
not only doubled the Cape of Good Hope, but reached India.
About the same period Portuguese travellers penetrated to India
by the old time-honoured way of Suez; and a land which
tradition and imagination had invested with almost fabulous
wealth and splendour was becoming more real to the European
world at the moment when the expedition of Vasco da Gama
had made an oceanic route to its shores distinctly visible. One
can hardly now realise the impression made by these discoveries
COMMERCE
769
fa an age when the minds of men were awakening out of a long
sleep, when the printing press was disseminating the ancient
classical and sacred literature, and when geography and
astronomy were subjects of eager study in the seats both of
traffic and of learning. But their practical effect was seen in
swiftly-succeeding events. Before the end of the century
Columbus had thrice crossed the Atlantic, touched at San
Salvador, discovered Jamaica, Porto Rico and the Isthmus of
Darien, and had seen the waters of the Orinoco in South America.
Meanwhile Cabot, sent out by England, had discovered New-
foundland, planted the English flag on Labrador, Nova Scotia
and Virginia, and made known the existence of an expanse of
land now known as Canada. This tide of discovery by navigators
flowed on without intermission. But the opening of a maritime
route to India and the discovery of America, surprising as these
events must have been at the time, were slow in producing the
results of which they were a sure prognostic. The Portuguese
established in Cochin the first European factory in India a few
years after Vasco da Gama's expedition, and other maritime
nations of Europe traced a similar course. But it was not till
1600 that the English East India Company was established, and
the opening of the first factory of the Company in India must be
dated some ten or eleven years later. So also it was one thing to
discover the two Americas, and another, in any real sense, to
possess or colonize them, or to bring their productions into the
general traffic and use of the world. Spain, following the stroke
of the valiant oar of Columbus, found in Mexico and Peru
remarkable remains of an ancient though feeble civilisation, and a
wealth of gold and silver mines, which to Europeans of that period
was fascinating from the rarity of the precious metals in their own
realms, and consequently gave to the Spanish colonisations and
conquests in South America an extraordinary but unsolid
prosperity. The value of the precious metals in Europe was found
to fall as soon as they began to be more widely distributed, a
process in itself at that period of no small tediousness; and it was
discovered further, after a century or two, that the production of
gold and silver is limited like the production of other commodities
for which they exchange, and only increased in quantity at a
heavier cost, that is only reduced again by greater art and science
in the process of production. Many difficulties, in short, had to
be overcome, many wars to be waged, and many deplorable
errors to be committed, in turning the new advantages to account
But given a maritime route to India and the discovery of a new
world of continent and islands in the richest tropical and sub-
tropical latitudes, it could not be difficult to foresee that the course
of trade was to be wholly changed as well as vastly extended.
The substantial advantage of the oceanic passage to India by
the Cape of Good Hope, as seen at the time, was to enable
European trade with the East to escape from the Moors,
JJJUJiJ* Algerines and Turks who now swarmed round the
ifltfia. shores of the Mediterranean, and wageda predatory war
on ships and cargoes which would have been a formid-
able obstacle even if traffic, after running this danger, had not to
be further lost, or filtered into the smallest proportions, in the
sands of the Isthmus, and among the Arabs who commanded the
navigation of the Red and Arabian Seas. Venice had already
begun to decline in her wars with the Turks, and could in-
adequately protect her own trade in the Mediterranean. Armed
vessels sent out in strength from the Western ports often fared
badly at the hands of the pirates. European trade with India
can scarcely be said, indeed, to have yet come into existence.
The maritime route was round about, and it lay on the hitherto
almost untrodden ocean, but the ocean was a safer element than
inland seas and deserts infested by the lawlessness and ferocity of
hostile tribes of men. In short, the maritime route enabled
European traders to see India for themselves, to examine what
were its products and its wants, and by what means a profitable
exchange on both sides could be established; and on this basis of
knowledge, ships could leave the ports of their owners in Europe
with a reasonable hope, via the Cape, of reaching the places
to which they were destined without transhipment or other
Intermediary obstacle. This is the explanation to be given of the
joy with which the Cape of Good Hope route was received, as well
as the immense influence it exerted on the future course and
extension of trade, and of the no less apparent satisfaction with
which it was to some extent discarded in favour of the ancient
line, via the Mediterranean, Isthmus of Sues and the Red Sea. .
The maritime route to India was the discovery to the European
nations of a" new world "quite as much as the discovery of North
and South America and their central isthmus and
islands. The one was the far, populous Eastern world, ™" U, *Q'
heard of from time immemorial, but with which there lamia
had been no patent lines of communication. The other
was a vast and comparatively unpeopled solitude, yet full of
material resources, and capable in a high degree of European
colonization. America offered less resistance to the action of
Europe than India, China and Japan; but on the other hand this
new populous Eastern world held out much attraction to trade.
These two great terrestrial discoveries were contemporaneous;
and it would be difficult to name any conjuncture of material
events bearing with such importance on the history of the world.
The Atlantic Ocean was the medium of both ; and the waves of the
Atlantic beat into all the bays and tidal rivers of western Europe.
The centre of commercial activity was thus physically changed;
and the formative power of trade over human affairs was seen in
the subsequent phenomena — the rise of great seaports on the
Atlantic seaboard, and the ceaseless activity of geographical
exploration, manufactures, shipping and emigration, of which
they became the outlets.
The Portuguese are entitled to the first place in utilizing the
new sources of wealth and commerce. They obtained Macao as a
settlement from the Chinese as early as 1 537, and their laenma9 ^
trading operations followed close on the discoveries of trmtiac
their navigators on the coast of Africa, in India and in MOfc-
the Indian Archipelago. Spain spread her dominion JJJJJJ^"*
over Central and South America, and forced the mmam '
labour of the subject natives into the gold and silver mines,
which seemed in that age the chief prize of her conquests. France
introduced her trade in both the East and West Indies, and was
the first to colonize Canada and the Lower Mississippi. The
Dutch founded New York in 162 1; and England, which in
boldness of naval and commercial enterprise bad attained high
rank in the reign of Elizabeth, established the thirteen colonies
which became the United States, and otherwise had a full share in
all the operations which were transforming the state of the world.
The original disposition of affairs was destined to be much
changed by the fortune of war; and success in foreign trade and
colonization, indeed, called into play other qualities besides those
of naval and military prowess. Tbe products of so many new
countries — tissues, dyes, metals, articles of food, chemical
substances — greatly extended the range of European menu*
facture. But in addition to the mercantile faculty of discovering
how they were to be exchanged and wrought into a profitable
trade, their use in arts and manufactures required skill, invention
and aptitude for manufacturing labour, and those again, in many
cases, were found to depend on abundant possession of natural
materials, such as coal and iron. In old and populous countries,
like India and China, modern manufacture had to meet and
contend with ancient manufacture, and had at once to learn from
and improve economically on the established models, before an
opening could be made for its extension. In many parts of the
New World there were vast tracts of country, without population
or with native races too wild and savage to be reclaimed to
habits of industry, whose resources could only be developed by
the introduction of colonies of Europeans; and innumerable
experiments disclosed great variety of qualification among the
European nations for the adventure, hardship and perseverance
of colonial life. There were countries which, whatever their
fertility of soil or favour of climate, produced nothing for which a
market could be found; and products such as the sugar-cane and
the seed of the cotton plant had to be carried from regions
where they were indigenous to other regions where they
might be successfully cultivated, and the art of planting had
to pass through an ordeal of risk and t^ecuU&nu tVKt%.^K<aB&
77°
COMMERCE
also countries where no European could labour; and the ominous
work of transporting African negroes as slaves into the colonies —
begun by Spain in the first decade of the 16th century, followed
up by Portugal, and introduced by England in 1 562 into the West
Indies, at a later period into New England and the Southern
States, and finally domiciled by royal privilege of trade in the
Thames and three or more outports of the kingdom,— after being
done on an elaborate scale, and made the basis of an immense
superstructure of labour, property and mercantile interest over
nearly three centuries, had, under a more just and ennobling view
of humanity, to be as elaborately undone at a future time.
These are some of the difficulties that had to be encountered
in utilizing the great maritime and geographical conquests of
the new epoch. But one cannot leave out of view the obstacles,
arising from other sources, to what might be expected to be the
regulnr and easy course of affairs. Commerce, though an un-
dying and prevailing interest of civilized countries, is but one of
the forces acting on the policy of states, and has often to yield
the pace to other elements of national life. It were needless
to say what injury the great but vain and purposeless wars of
Louis XIV. of France inflicted in that country, or how largely
the fruitful and heroic energies of England were absorbed in the
civil wars between Charles and the Parliament, to what poverty
Scotland was reduced, or in what distraction and savagery
Ireland was kept by the same course of events. The grandeur
of Spain in the preceding century was due partly to the claim of
her kings to be Holy Roman emperors, in which imperial capacity
they entailed intolerable mischief on the Low Countries and on
the commercial civilization of Europe, and partly to their com-
mand of the gold and silver mines of Mexico and Peru, in an eager
lust of whose produce they brought cruel calamities on a newly-
discovered continent where there were many traces of antique
life, the records of which perished in their hands or under their
feet. These ephemeral causes of greatness removed, the hollow-
ness of the situation was exposed; and Spain, though rich in
her own natural resources, was found to be actually poor —
poor In number of people, poor in roads, in industrial art,
and in all the primary conditions of interior development.
An examination of the foreign trade of Europe two centuries
after the opening of the maritime route to India and the discovery
of America would probably give more reason to be surprised
at the sraallness than the magnitude of the use that had been
made of these events.
By the beginning of the igth century the world had been
well explored. Colonics had been planted on every coast; great
nations had sprung up in vast solitudes or in countries
inhabited only by savage or decadent races of men;
the most haughty and exclusive of ancient nations
had opened their ports to foreign merchantmen; and all parts
of the world been brought into habitual commercial intercourse.
The seas, subdued by the progress of navigation to the service
of man, had begun to yield their own riches in great abundance
and the whale, seal, herring, cod and other fisheries, prosecuted
with ample capital and hardy seamanship, had become the source
of no small traffic in themselves. The lists of imports and exports
and of the places from which they flowed to and from the centres
of trade, as they swelled in bulk from time to time, show how
busily and steadily the threads of commerce had been weaving
together the labour and interests of mankind, and extending a
security and bounty of existence unknown in former ages. The
19th century witnessed an extension of the commercial relations
cf mankind of which there was no parallel in previous history.
The heavy debts and taxes, and the currency complications
u which the close of the Napoleonic wars left the European
.-w-'Joas, as well as the fall of prices which was the necessary
shea of the sudden closure of a vast war expenditure and
uiuaytioQ of labour, had a crippling ctTect for many years on
nutinif energies. Vet cvvu under such circumstances commerce
s uaucly found, «a As *vll established modern basi*, to nuikr
tauiv imfrtu from »Mw »-i *v» of years to anuther. The p«»v%t n
* mxiwr.iw. had lice* (W^l'i increased by a t-i illiaul dot lop
3boz. At-titM/ia/ 4/1* Mt»U 111 milieus. The I'uitud huim
had grown into a commercial nation of the firs: nzi. Tie
European colonies and settlements were being rrrrr*,. iri
assiduously cultivated, and were opening larger and meet mud
markets for manufactures. In 1819 the first steamboat csced
the Atlantic from New York to Liverpool, and a similar advent:
was accomplished from England to India in 1835— erects a
themselves the harbingers 01 a new era in trade. China, lite
many efforts, was opened under treaty to an intercoms «;A
foreign nations which was soon to attain surprising dnneuwa.
These various causes supported the activity of commerce it i
first four decades ; but the great movement which made the
19th century so remarkable was chiefly disclosed in prtcus!
results from about 1840. The outstanding characteristics 4
the 19th century were the many remarkable inventions « hid: »
widened the field of commerce by the discovery of aev xri
improved methods of production, the highly organized divis!::
of labour which tended to the same end, and, above ail, the
powerful forces of steam navigation, railways and telegraph*.
Commerce has thus acquired a security and extension, inilh
most essential conditions, of which it was void in any prevku
age. It can hardly ever again exhibit that wandering cause
from route to route, and from one solitary centre to anoth:.
which is so characteristic of its ancient history, because i: i
established in every quarter of the globe, and ail the sets ud
ways are open to it on terms fair and equal to every natis.
Wherever there is population, industry, resource, art and ski
there will be international trade. Commerce will have may
centres, and one may relatively rise or relatively fall; but iz±
decay and ruin as have smitten many once proud seats of atxi'i
into dust cannot again occur without such cataclysms of vi:
violence and disorder as the growing civilization and reasca et
mankind, and the power of law, right and common inlera:
forbid us to anticipate, B ut the present magnitude of comment
devolves serious work on all who are engaged in it. If id lb
older times it was thought that a foreign merchant required to
be not only a good man of business, but even a statesman, it a
evident that all the higher faculties of the mercantile professia
must still more be called into request when imports and expert
are reckoned by hundreds instead of fives or tens of millioB,
when the markets are so much larger and more numerous, the
competition so much more keen and varied, the problems to be
solved in every course of transaction so much more complex,
the whole range of affairs to be overseen so immensely widened.
It is not a company of merchants, having a monopoly, and demf
whatever they please, whether right or wrong, that now hold the
commerce of the world in their hands, but large communities of
free merchants in all parts of the world, affiliated to manu-
facturers and producers equally free, each under strong tempta-
tion to do what may be wrong in the pursuit of his own interest,
and the only security of doing right being to follow steady lights
of information and economic science common to all. Easy
transport of goods by land and sea, prompt intelligence from
every point of the compass, general prevalence of mercantile
law and safety, have all been accomplished; and the world
is opened to trade. But intellectual grasp of principles and
details, and t he moral integrity which is the root of ail commercial
success, are severely tested in this vaster sphere.
See Ti adp. Organization : Economics; Commercial Treaties,
and the «ecrion» under the headings of countries.
COMMERCE, the name of a card-game. Any number can play
with an ordinary pack. There arc several variations of the game ,
but the following is a common one. Each player receives three
cards, and three more are turned up as a " pool." The first player
may exchange one or two of his cards for one or two of the
exposed cards, putting his own. face upwards, in their place.
Hi* object is to " make his hand " (sec below), but if he changes
all three cards at once he cannot change again. The neat player
can do likewise, anil m> «»» 1>ua1I>' there are as many rounds
a* ilit'tc iirr pUvnv ni«l t ln-th card is added to the pool at
tin- Ugnming ni rm It li rt fl.ivrr posses once he cannot ex-
»Uin>n aim 1 W4it1i Wlit it 1 ln< uiunils are finished the ,
mi tun*!!, ih» Mdvt i'i Un> Ih»i either receiving a 1
COMMERCIAL COURT— ^COMMERCIAL TREATIES
771
al! the others, or, supposing each has started with three " lives,"
taking one life from the lowest. The hands, in order of merit,
are: (i.) Tricon— three similar cards, three aces ranking above
three kings, and so on. (ii.) Sequence— three cards of the .same
suit in consecutive order;- the highest sequence is the best,
(iii.) Flush — three cards of the same suit, the highest " point "
wins, %.e. the highest number of pips, ace counting eleven and
court-cards ten. (iv.) J\w— two similar cards, the highest pair
winning, (v.) Point— tht largest number of pips winning, as in
V flush," but there is no restriction as to suit. Sometimes
" pair " and " point " are not recognized. A popular variation
of Commerce is Pounce Commerce. In this, if a player has
already three similar cards, e.g. three nines, and the fourth nine
comes into the pool, he says " Pounce 1" and takes it, thus obtain-
ing a hand of four, which is higher than any hand of three:
whenever a pounce occurs, a new card is turned up from the pack.
COMMERCIAL COURT, in England, a court presided over
by a single judge of the king's bench division, for the trial, as
.expeditiously as may be, of commercial cases. By the Rules of
'the Supreme Court, Order xviii. a (made in November 1803), a
plaintiff was allowed to dispense with pleadings altogether,
provided that the indorsement of his writ of summons contained
a statement sufficient to give notice of his claim, or of the relief
or remedy required in the action, and stating that the plaintiff
intended to proceed to trial without pleadings. The judge might,
on the application of the defendant, order a statement of claim
to be delivered, or the action to proceed to trial without pleadings,
and if necessary particulars of the claim or defence to be delivered.
Out of this order grew the commercial court. It is not a distinct
court or division or branch of the High Court, and is not regulated
by any special rules of court made by the rule committee. It
originated in a notice issued by the judges of the queen's bench
division, in February 1895 (see W.N., 2nd of March 1895), the
provisions contained in which represent only " a practice agreed
on by the judges, who have the right to deal by convention
among themselves with this mode of disposing of the business
in their courts " (per Lord Esher in Barry v. Peruvian Corpora-
tion, 1896, 1 Q. B. p. 209). A separate list of causes of a com-
mercial character is made and assigned to a particular judge,
charged with commercial business, to whom all applications
before the trial are made. The 8th paragraph is as follows: —
Such judge may at any time after appearance and without plead*
logs make such order as he thinks fit tor the speedy determination,
in accordance with existing rules, of the questions really in con-
troversy between the parties.
Practitioners before Sir George Jessel, at the rolls, in the years
2873 to 1880, will be reminded of his mode of ascertaining the
point in controversy and bringing it to a speedy determination.
Obviously the scheme is only applicable to cases in which there
is some single issue of law or fact, or the case depends on the
construction of some contract or other instrument or section of
an act of parliament, and such issue or question is either agreed
upon* by the parties or at once ascertainable by the judge. The
success of the scheme also depends largely on the personal
qualities of the judge to whom the list is assigned. Under the
able guidance of Mr (afterwards Lord) Justice Mathew (d. 1908),
the commercial court became very successful in bringing cases to
a speedy and satisfactory determination without any technicality
or unnecessary expense.
COMMERCIAL LAW, a term used rather indefinitely to
include those main rules and principles which, with more or less
minor differences, characterize the commercial transactions
and customs 'of most European countries. It includes within
its compass such titles as principal and agent; carriage by land
and sea; merchant shipping; guarantee; marine, fire, life
and accident insurance; bills of exchange, partnership, Ice.
COMMERCIAL TREATIES. A commercial treaty is a contract
between states relative to trade. It is a bilateral act whereby
definite arrangements are entered into by each contracting
party towards the other— not mere concessions. As regards
technical distinctions, an "agreement," an "exchange of
rjotcs," or a " convention H properly applies to one specific
subject; whereas a " treaty " usually composes several matters,
whether commercial or political
In ancient times foreign intercourse, trade and navigation
were in many instances regulated by international arrangements.
The text is extant of treaties of commerce and navigation con-
cluded between Carthage and Rome in 509 and 348 B.C. Aristotle
mentions that nations were connected by commercial treaties;
and other classical writers advert to these engagements. Under
the Roman empire the matters thus dealt with became regulated
by law, or by usages sometimes styled laws. When the territories
of the empire were contracted, and the imperial authority was
weakened, some kind of international agreements again became
necessary. At Constantinople in the 10th century treaties cited
by Gibbon protected " the person, effects and privileges of the
Russian merchant"; and, in western Europe, intercourse,
trade and navigation were carried on, at first tacitly by usage
derived from Roman times, or under verbal permission given
to merchants by the ruler to whose court they resorted. After*
wards, security in these transactions was afforded by means of
formal documents, such as royal letters, charters, laws and other
instruments rjoasessing the force of government measures.
Instances affecting English commercial relations are the letter
of Charlemagne in 706, the Brabant Charter of 1305, and the
Russian ukase of 1569. Medieval treaties of truce or peace
often contained a clause permitting in general terms the renewal
of personal and commercial communication as it subsisted before
the war. This custom is still followed. But these medieval
arrangements were precarious: they were often of temporary
duration, and were usually only effective during the lifetime
of the contracting sovereigns.
Passing over trade agreements affecting the Eastern empire, the
modern commercial treaty system came into existence in the 1 3th
century. Genoa, Pisa and Venice were then well-organized com-
munities, and were in keen rivalry. Whenever their position in a
foreign country was strong, a trading centre was established, and
few or no specific engagements were made on their part. But in
serious competition or difficulty another course was adopted: a
formal agreement was concluded for the better security of their
commerce and navigation. The arrangements of 1140 between
Venice and Sicily; the Genoese conventions of x 149 with Valencia,
of xi6i with Morocco, and of 1181 with the Balearic Islands;
the Pisan conventions of n 73 with Sultan Saladin, and of n 84
with the Balearic Islands, were the earliest Western commercial
treaties. Such definite arrangements, although still of a personal
character, were soon perceived to be preferable to general pro-
visions in a treaty of truce or peace. They afforded also greater
security than privileges enjoyed under usage; or under grants of
various kinds, whether local or royal. The policy thus in-
augurated was adopted gradually throughout Europe. The first
treaties relative to the trade of the Netherlands were between
Brabant and Holland in 1203, Holland and Utrecht in 1204, and
Brabant and Cologne in 1251. Early northern commercial
treaties are those between Riga and Smolensk 1229, and between
Lubeck and Sweden 1269. The first commercial relations
between the Hanse Towns and foreign countries were arrange-
ments made by gilds of merchants, not by public authorities as a
governing body. For a long period the treaty system did not
entirely supersede conditions of intercourse between nations
dependent on permission.
The earliest English commercial treaty is that with Norway in
1217. It provides " ut mercatores et homines qui sunt de
potestatcvestraliberiet sine impedimento terram nostramadire
possint, et homines et mercatores nostri similiter vestram."
These stipulations are in due treaty form. The next early
English treaties are.*— with Flanders, 1274 and 1314; Portugal,
1308, 1352 and 1386; Baltic Cities, 1319 and 1388; Biscay and
Castile, 1351; Burgundy, 1417 and 1496; France, 147X1 M97
and 1510; Florence, 1490. The commercial treaty policy in
England was carried out systematically under Henry IV. and
Henry VII. It was continued under James I. to extend to
Scotland English trading privileges. The results attained in the
17th century w ere r eg ularity in treaty arrangements; their
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'/, «x« ^»»a/ .•».>* vjc-^jtv.'jt •■_-.!
l^vJfii^xd. */*jcr*% ihr vxkfnl v. :
■,#»-l • «> •** »/a ••-. ■j'jfijk- vtrjf v.: a «ra.:iiaisS ir
4.1Uft.* k./'f*** n*v» ?/rt»«i :%6r tii lirjt
1 ,t*u / 1**\ j •*/«* «/( /. ,tv,rm 4 -t>a ii *ie vnci
<iiw »J»).i/i fi.i« tf*ai/ lyivrn. la 1271 "
t/'**fh/t+t,t •fAJj^ii l// tem.iutc the treaties of i
Jl/iitab M^iitiMi i*rvtrt)^l«a* cbtaiived tLe rtliag; yr r— : -
(U «M#ff«|»i t// li-yy protective duties under the f^ae a =a-
l«*hwii««ri for liri|ir/»u on raw materials; the dunaor cc -be
irr«iy ol jV/yj wit \tJu\nn%fA\ and stipulations better -vtriei
Ulan Ouat |jffi«r«: in (one were agreed to for shipping aad zxr.
favoiiml fiaiion irratinent. In 188a. however, France tenciu*^:
Jirf riUiinf t-Airfipran tariff treaties. Belgium and some o^x:
1 on 11 1 1 if « (run ludri] frrsh treaties, less liberal than those of ue
■yah in 11I iHfto, yrt much better than anterior arrangemeo'j.
(in ni lliiialu ilM not formally accept these higher duties; the
in «l y 11I Hit 1H1I1 of February 188a, with France, which secun-i
iiuwl lavoiirml nation treatment in other matters, provided thst
1 iiHlmtM dulirs fcliould be " henceforth regulated by the intenui
Ii'KIbUHiiimiI ra« h iif the two states." In 1892 France also fell cut
ul In tr mat lima! tariff arrangements; and adopted the system «
iIuuIiIp miliums of customs duties — one, of lower rates, to be
«|)|tlk*t to Ihr rihxIs of all nations receiving most favoured
itruiiiinit, and the other, of higher rates, for countries notes
thu limtiug. iicrmany then took up the treaty tariff policy; u4
U* 1 «rr it 1 Ho 1 and 181)4 concluded several commercial treaties.
liitciiMtkmal trade in Europe in iqoq was regulated by 1
»*itv» nt Until whkh came into operation, mainly on the iniiia-
li\«\«l tirrnwtiiy in 10*6. Austrii-Hungan*. Belgium. Bulgarli.
ilcniunv. Italy. Kununu. Russia. Scrvu jind Switzerland, net
|km t u ■» to theui. Ihcir object and e£f<x- ! «os prveectionist. Tie
kiuuxh |x>tu'y then hcotme one of ob;xi=izg cxxiitcatiocs to
ivusxb d-jadvantj^es to Bri:-j>. cnJf. a* »ai icce in Jw c*
s-i Y<^\$x:\± *aU K-.r^irvi. As •r.-pc:'.:.-: s*:rn» ct c«ciEerdiI
am^eve'-* haj Se<a oor.c--.*v>* S::«-«b :53a and :x»
RniwrS'.^ '.Se terr^crie* i-^i »r\r?» *t r.-irrsz ot European
'.v«er» -i »«*:vr?. cw.n* i--i »rx»*rr- A— ex la ihv5« reg:ca
-u.'-ov •.vr^'.'cip.'s ^vrr ?oc c*i r*ez ^i^sc "aviiurcJ aa:J:n
:a v.-'kt .-n.-.T*:'*: :■• i_l 2f»*:cvx"»» i"vi "jtrir —sire.
»* "i.»» ?^ ^"i.-^CiU? latensw rrn vr—ntf. ~^'»t> xmx ■srr^ucjM a
*-.■»,.■ .'k -k-.- *are.T3 "^s;eL-?i- :r .-a^::Rg n iie? Cttomia
. •.■-[.. i i.vua, i.-ilc^'me "_w ?ciie" -.'flrfft I j^iuvaix ixacts ji 'ire
:vt.\ -i .-'Ttpipf. Li -.n; :rv. riMxit-Tr .ijju'ijaiiwns *esr ^ranxeti
>*.•■«.■ «. •.*:■ ."j sua Ttpm^j sru ■-■ 'iv'" J "*f »2i:i iw iJeaueaein
,.._. *Tii.'i :ti..rr-i a-. - : *i- nik. ^'S'."!-!* I'm "xntev \iter-
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« ik. ».«-.« i_«„ ft-n -.i-:i -;t-r w -tv t r^re ".rrr *iaifi; 1
». j-v. . -vii %.•:.-! ^•.-.rr^ : r.-^i .. ■ r^r-". r^LNrr irtxcie. Tbe
ir-j.-i'kkf .-,■ ■■: ; :-. *; ;■_ t r-tr. ?k-. .:-- **-."' «• *imi Be -asa
1*... 'ix'.. ^ •-. •■■.-::.•> r -rT:-.r. * ■.«;* -~- «■« -ui»:ciia *i*ts
■ i'k-v»* 1 _*i-^i." :-^»- tirr -""^ci = ^ ■ •■» x»i :» 'tea
■ •- •*•« — -•. -■ :«•■•'.:.•? : c:>e«:-r:r'. aie ' 'iuw mu
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::r
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llrrimcn tim
V9
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yaftfagrAffaV
COMMERCY
773
treaties of perpetual duration as regards substance and prin- :
ciples, while details, such as rates of customs duties, may, by
mutual consent, be varied from time to time.
The most favoured nation article already referred to concedes to
the state in the treaty with which it is concluded whatever
advantages in the matters comprised within its stipulations have
been allowed to any foreign or third state. It does not in itself
directly confer any particular rights, but sums up the whole of the
rights in the matters therein mentioned which have been or may
be granted to foreign countries. The value of the privileges
under this article accordingly varies with the conditions as to
these rights in each state which concedes this treatment.
The article is drafted in different form :
(i) That contracting states A. and B. agree to extend to each
other whatever rights and privileges tbey concede to countries C.
and D., or to C. and D. and any other country. The object in this
instance is to ensure specifically to B. and A. whatever advantages
C. and D. may possess. A recent instance is Article XI. of the
treaty of May io, 1871, between France and Germany, which binds
them respectively to extend to each other whatever advantages they
grant to Austria, Belgium, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Russia
and Switzerland.
(2) The present general formula: A. and B. agree to extend to
each other whatever advantages they concede to any third country ;
and engage that no other or higher duties shall be levied on the
importation into A. and B. respectively of goods the produce or
manufacture of B. and A. than are levied on the like goods the
produce or manufacture of any third country the most favoured
in this respect. There is a similar clause in regard to exportation.
(3) The conditional or reciprocity formula, often used in the 18th
and in the early part of the 19th century, namely, that whenever
A. and B. make special concessions in return for corresponding
concessions, B. and A. respectively are either excluded from par-
ticipation therein, or must make some additional equivalent con-
cession in order to participate in those advantages.
It may further be observed that the word "like " relates to the
goods themselves, to their material or quality, not to conditions of
manufacture, mode of conveyance or anything beyond the fact of
their precise description; small local facilities allowed to traffic
between conterminous land districts are not at variance with this
article.
A recent complete and concise English formula is that of Article 7
of the treaty of commerce and navigation of the 31st of October
I905, with Rumania. *' The contracting parties agree that, in all
matters relating to commerce, navigation and industry, any privi-
lege, favour or immunity which either contracting party ha* actually
granted or may hereafter grant, to the subjecti or ciiirtn* of pfiy
Other foreign state, shall be extended immediately and uncondition-
ally to the subjects of the other; it being their intention that the
commerce, navigation and industry of each country' thai) be placed*
in all respects, on the footing of the most favoured nation/ 1
Colonies. — The application of commercial treaties to colonies
depends upon the wording of each treaty. The earlier colonial
policy of European states was to subordinate colonial interests to
those of the mother country, to reserve colonial trade for the
mother country, and to abstain from engagements contrary to
these general rules. France, Portugal and Spain have adhered
in principle to this policy. Germany and Holland have been
more liberal. The self-government enjoyed by the larger British
colonies has led since 1886 to the insertion of an article in British
commercial and other treaties whereby the assent of each of these
colonies, and likewise of India, is reserved before they apply to
each of these possessions. And further, the fact that certain other
British colonies are now within the sphere of commercial inter-
course controlled by the United States, has since 1891 induced the
Britbh government to enter into special agreements on behalf of
colonies for whose products the United States is now the chief
market. As regards the most favoured nation article, it is to be
remembered that the mother country and colonies are not
distinct— not foreign or third— countries with respect to each
other. The most favoured nation article, therefore, does not,
preclude special arrangements between the mother country and,
colonies, nor between colonies.
Termination. — Commercial treaties are usually concluded for a
term of years, and either lapse at the end of this period, or are
terminable then, or subsequently, if cither state gives the required]
notice, Wlienaportifjnofacountryestablishesits independence,
for example the several American republics, according to present
1 fonto.tnfb hfraoim * mtform most favoured nation
footing, and fresh treaties are entered into to regulate the com
mercial relations of the new communities. In the case of former
Turkish provinces, the capitulations remain in force in principle
until they are replaced by new engagements. If one state is
absorbed into another, for instance Texas into the United States,
or when territory passes by conquest, for instance Alsace to
Germany, the commercial treaties of the new supreme govern-
ment take effect. In administered territories, as Cyprus and
formerly Bosnia, and in protected territories, it depends on the
policy of the administering power how far the previous fiscal
system shall remain in force. When the separate Italian states
were united into the kingdom of Italy in 1861, the commercial
engagements of Sardinia superseded those of the other states, but
fresh treaties were concluded by the new kingdom to place inter-
national relations on a regular footing. When the German
empire was established under the king of Prussia in 1871, the
commercial engagements of any state which were at variance with
a Zollverein treaty were superseded by that treaty.
Scope.— The scope of commercial treaties is well expressed by
Calvo in his work on international law. They provide for the
importation, exportation, transit, transhipment and bonding of
merchandise; customs tariffs; navigation charges; quarantine;
the admission of vessels to roadsteads, ports and docks; coasting
trade; the admission of consuls and their rights; fisheries; they
determine the local position of the subjects of each state in the
other country in regard to residence, property, payment of taxes
or exemptions, and military service; nationality; and a most
favoured nation clause. They usually contain a termination, and
sometimes a colonial article. Some of the matters enumerated by
Calvo — consular privileges, fisheries and nationality— are now
frequently dealt with by separate conventions. Contraband and
neutral trade are not included as frequently as they were in the
x8th century.
The preceding statement shows that commercial treaties afford
to foreigners, personally, legal rights, and relief from technical
disabilities: they afford security to trade and navigation, and
regulate other matters comprised in their provisions. In Europe
the general principles established by the series of treaties 1860-
1866 bold good, namely, the substitution of uniform rates of
.customs duties for prohibitions or differential rates. The dis-
advantages urged are that these treaties involve government
interference and bargaining, whereas each state should act
independently as its interests require, that they are opposed to
free trade, and restrict the fiscal freedom of the legislature. It
may be observed that these objections imply some confusion of
ideas. All contracts may be designated bargains, and some of the
details of commercial treaties in Calvo's enumeration enter
directly into the functions of government; moreover, countries
cannot remain isolated. If two countries agree by simultaneous
action to adopt fixed rates of duty, this agreement is favourable to
commerce, and it is not apparent how it is contrary, even to free
trade principles. Moreover, security in business transactions,
a very important consideration, is provided.
Our conclusions are —
, (1) that under the varying jurisprudence of nations commercial
treaties are adopted by common consent;
(2) that their provisions depend upon the general and fiscal
policy of each state;
(3) that tariff arrangements, if judiciously settled, benefit
trade;
(4) that commercial treaties are now entered into by all states;
and that they are necessary under present conditions of com-
mercial intercourse between nations. (C. M. K.*)
See the British parliamentary Return (Cd. 4080) of all commercial
treaties between various countries in force on Jan. 1, 1908.
COMMERCY, a town of north-eastern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Mcuse, on the left bank of
the Meuse, 26 m. E. of Bar-le-Duc by rail. Pop. (1906) 562a.
Commercy possesses a chateau of the 17 th century, now used as
cavalry barracks, a Benedictine convent occupied by a training-
college for primary teachers, and a communal college for boys.
A statue of Dom Calmct, the histoTAaxw^\^>x^v^^<MSbXri ^^w»i».
77+
COMMERS— COMMISSION
in one of the squares. The industries include iron-working and
the manufacture of nails, boots and shoes, embroidery and
hosiery. The town has tradein cattle, grain and wood, and is well
known for its cakes {madeleines). Commercy dates back to the
9th century, and at that time its lords were dependent on the
bishop of Mctz. In 1 544 it was besieged by Charles V. in person.
For some time the lordship was in the hands of Francois Paul de
Gondi, cardinal de Rctz, who lived in the town for a number of
years, and there composed his memoirs. From him it was
purchased by Charles IV., duke of Lorraine. In 1744 it became
the residence of Stanislas, king of Poland, who spent a great
deal of .care on the embellishment of the town, castle and
neighbourhood.
COMMERS (from Lat. commercium), the German term for the
German students' social gatherings held annually on occasions
such as the breaking-up of term and the anniversary of the
university's founding. A Commers consists of speeches and
songs and the drinking of unlimited quantities of beer. The
arrangements are governed by officials (ChargierU) elected by the
students from among themselves. Strict rules as to drinking
exist, and the chairman after each speech calls for what is called
a salamander {ad exercitium Sahmandris bibiU, IcrgiU). All rise
and having emptied their glasses hammer three times on the
table with them. On the death of a student, his memory is
honoured with a salamander, the glasses being broken to atoms
at the close.
COMMINES, PHILIPPE DE (c. 1445-t. 1511), French historian,
called the father of modern history, was born at the castle of
Rcncscure, near Hazebrouck in Flanders, a little earlier than
1447. He lost both father and mother in his earliest years. In
1463 his godfather, Philip V., duke of Burgundy, summoned him
to his court, and soon after transferred him to the household of his
son, afterwards known as Charles the Bold. He speedily acquired
considerable influence over Charles, and in 1468 was appointed
chamberlain and councillor; consequently when in the same
year Louis XI. was entrapped at Peronne, Commincs was able
both to soften the passion of Charles and to give useful advice to
the king, whose life he did much to save. Three years later he was
charged with an embassy to Louis, who gained him over to
himself by many brilliant promises, and in 147a he left Burgundy
for the court of France. He was at once made chamberlain and
councillor; a pension of 6000 livres was bestowed on him; he
received the principality of Talmont, the confiscated property of
the Amboisc family, over which the family of La Tremoille
claimed to have rights. The king arranged his marriage with
Hclene de Chambcs, who brought him the fine lordship of
Argenton, and Commincs took the name d'Argenton from then
(27th of January 1473). He was employed to carry out the
intrigues of Louis in Burgundy, and spent several months as
envoy in Italy. On his return he was received with the utmost
favour, and in 14 79 obtained a decree confirming him in possession
of his principality.
On the death of Louis in 1483 a suit was commenced against
Commincs by the family of La Tremoille, and he was cast in
heavy damages. He plotted against the regent, Anne of Beaujeu,
and joined the party of the duke of Orleans, afterwards
Louis XII. Having attempted to carry off the king, Charles
VIII., and so free him from the tutelage of his sister, he was
arrested, and put in one of his old master's iron cages at Loches.
In 1489 he was banished to one of his own estates for ten years,
and made to give bail to the amount of 10,000 crowns of gold for
his good behaviour. Recalled to the council in 140a, he strenu-
ously opposed the Italian expedition of Charles VIII., in which,
however, he took part, notably as representing the king in the
negotiations which resulted in the treaty of VerceUi. During the
"kl °* nis lifc ' notwithstanding the accession of Louis XII.,
whom he had served as duke of Orleans, be held no position of
jnjPortance; and his last days were disturbed by lawsuits. He
•*s £i Ar 8 c *ton on the x8th of October, probably in 151 1. His
**««8seA ChMmbes survived him till isj»; their tomb is now
******** to which Comaiaes owes his reputation as *
statesman and man of letters, were written during his latter years.
The graphic style of his narrative and above all the keenness of
his insight into the motives of his contemporaries, an insight
undimtned by undue regard for principles of right and wrong,
make this work one of the great classics of history. His portrait
of Louis XI. remains unique, in that to such a writer was given
such a subject. Scott in Qutntin Dunrard gives an interesting
picture of Commines, from whom he largely draws. Sainte-Beuve,
after speaking of Commines as being in date the first truly modem
writer, and comparing him with Montaigne, says that his history
remains the definitive history of his time, and that from it all
political history took its rise. None of this applause is un-
deserved, for the pages of Commines abound with excellences.
He analyses motives and pictures manners ; he delineates men and
describes events; his reflections are pregnant with suggestiveness,
his conclusions strong with the logic of facts.
The Memoirs divided themselves into two parts, the first from
the reign of Louis XI., 1464-1483, the second on the Italian
expedition and the negotiations at Venice leading to the VerceUi
treaty, 1404-1495 The first part was written between 1489 and
1491, while Commines was at the chateau of Dreux, the second
from 1495 to 1498. Seven MSS. are known, derived from a single
holograph, and as this was undoubtedly badly written, the copies
were inaccurate; the best is that which belonged to Anne de
Polignac, niece of Commines, and it is the only one containing
books vii. and viii.
The best edition of Commines is the one edited by B. de
Mandrot and published at Paris in 1001-1003. For this edition
the author used a manuscript hitherto unknown and more com-
plete than the others, and in his introduction he gives an account
of the life of Commines.
Bibliography. — The Memoirs remained in MS. till 1524, vfm
part of them were printed by Galliot du Pre, the remainder first
seeing light in 1525. Subsequent editions were put forth by Deny*
Sauvage in 1552, by Deny* Godefroy in 1649, and by Lenglet Do-
fresnoy in 1747. Those of Mademoiselle Dupont (1841-1848) and
of M de Chantclauze ( 1 88 1 ) have many merits, but the best was given
by Bernard de Mandrot. Memoirs de Philippe de Commynet.lrcm
the MS. of Anne de Polignac (1901). Various translations of
Commines into English have appeared, from that of T Dancrt is
1506 to that, based on the Dupont edition, which was printed in
Bonn's series in 1855. (C. B.')
COMMISSARIAT, the department of an army charged with the
provision of supplies, both food and forage, for the troops. The
supply of military stores such as ammunition is not included ra
the duties of a commissariat. In almost every army the duties of
transport and supply are performed by the same corps of depart-
mental troops.
COMMISSARY (from Med. Lat. commissar ius, one to whom s
charge or trust is committed), generally, a representative; e^
the emperor's representative who presided in his absence over
the imperial diet; and especially, an ecclesiastical official who
exercises in special circumstances the jurisdiction of a bishop
(q.v.)', in the Church of England this jurisdiction is exercised in a
Consistory Court (q.v.) t except in Canterbury, where the court of
the diocesan as opposed to the metropolitan jurisdiction of the
archbishop is called a commissary court, and the judge is the
commissary general of the city and diocese of Canterbury. When
a see is vacant the jurisdiction is exercised by a " special com-
missary " of the metropolitan. Commissary is also a general
military term for an official charged with the duties of supply,
transport and finance of an array. In the 1 7th and 1 8th centuries
the commissaire des guerres, or KriegskommissUr was an important
official in continental armies, by whose agency the troops, in
their relation to the civil inhabitants, were placed upon semi-
political control. In French military law, cemmissaires du
gouvernemttU represent the ministry of war on military tribunals,
and more or less correspond to the British judge-advocate (see
Coukt-Maktial).
COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committer e), the action of
committing or entrusting any charge or duty to a person, and the
charge or trust thus committed, and so particularly an authority,
or the document embodying such authority, given to tome pens*
toajetmaparAknliXca^adty. The term h thus appfled 10 *•
COMMISSIONAIRE
775
written authority to command troops, which the sovereign or
president, as the ultimate commander-in-chief of the nation's
armed forces, grants to persons selected as officers, or to the
similar authority issued to certain qualified persons to act as
justices of the peace. For the various commissions of assize see
Assize. The word is also used of the order issued to a naval
officer to take the command of a ship of war, and when manned,
armed and fully equipped for active service she is said to be " put
in commission."
In the law of evidence (q.v.) the presence of witnesses may, for
certain necessary causes, be dispensed with by the order of the
court, and the evidence be taken by a commissioner. Such
evidence in England is said to be " on commission " (see R.S.C
Order XXXVII.). Such causes may be illness, the intention of
the witness to leave the country before the trial, residence out of
the coun try or the like. Where the witness is out of the jurisdic-
tion of the court, and his place of residence is a foreign country
where objection is taken to the execution of a commission, or is a
British colony or India, " letters of request " for the examination
of the witness are issued, addressed to the head of the tribunal in
the foreign country, or to the secretary of state for the colonies or
(or India.
Where the functions of an office are transferred from an
individual to a body of persons, the body exercising these
delegated functions is generally known as a commission and the
members as commissioners; thus the office of lord high admiral
of Great Britain is administered by a permanent board, the lords
of the admiralty. Such a delegation may be also temporary, as
where the authority under the great seal to give the royal assent
to legislation is issued to lords commissioners. Similarly bodies
of persons or single individuals may be specially charged with
carrying out particular duties; these may be permanent, such as
the Charity Commission or the Ecclesiastical and Church Estates
Commission, or may be temporary, such as various international
bodies of inquiry, like the commission which met in Paris in 1005
to inquire into the North Sea incident (see Docoer Bank), or
such as the various commissions of inquiry, royal, statutory or
departmental, of which an account is given below,
A commission may be granted by one person to another to act
as his agent, and particularly in business; thus the term is
applied to that method of business in which goods are entrusted to
an agent for sale, the remuneration being a percentage on the
sales. This percentage is known as the " commission," and hence
the word is extended to all remuneration which is based on a
percentage on the value of the work done. The right of an agent
to remuneration in the form of a " commission " is always
founded upon an express or implied contract between himself and
his principal. Such a contract may be implied from custom or
usage, from the conduct of the principal or from the circumstances
of the particular case. Such commissions are only payable on
transactions directly resulting from agency and may be payable
though the principal acquires no benefit. In order to claim
remuneration an agent must be legally qualified to act in the
capacity in which he claims remuneration. He cannot recover
in respect of unlawful or wagering transactions, or in cases of
misconduct or breach of duty.
Secret Commissions.— The giving of a commission, in the sense
of a bribe or unlawful payment to an agent or employe in order
to influence him in relation to his principal's or employer's affairs,
has grown to considerable proportions in modern times; it has
been rightly regarded as a gross breach of trust upon the part of
employes and agents, inasmuch as it leads them to look to their
own interests rather than to those of their employers. In order to
suppress this bribing of employes the English legislature in 1006
passed the Prevention of Corruption Act, which enacts that if an
agent corruptly accepts or obtains for himself or for any other
person any gift or consideration as an inducement or reward for
doing or forbearing to do any act or business, or for showing or
forbearing to show favour or disfavour to any person in relation to
his principal's affairs, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour and
shall be liable on conviction or indictment to imprisonment with
or without hard labour for a tern not exceeding two years, or to a
fine not exceeding £500, or to both, or on summary conviction to
imprisonment not exceeding four months with or without hard
labour or to a fine not exceeding £50 , or both. The act also applies
the same punishment to any person who corruptly gives or offers
any gift or consideration to an agent. Also if a person knowingly
gives an agent, or if an agent knowingly uses, any receipt, account
or document with intent to mislead the principal, they are
guilty of a misdemeanour and liable to the punishment already
mentioned. For the purposes of the act " consideration " in-
cludes valuable consideration of any kind, and " agent " includes
any person employed by or acting for another. No prosecution
can be instituted without .the consent of the attorney -general,
and every information must be upon oath.
Legislation to the same effect has been adopted in Australia.
A federal act was passed in 1905 dealing with secret commissions,
and in the same year both Victoria and Western Australia passed
drastic measures to prevent the giving or receiving corruptly of
commissions. The Victorian act applies to trustees, executors,
administrators and liquidators as well as to agents. Both the
Victorian and the Western Australian acts enact that gifts to the
parent, wife, child, partner or employer of an agent arc to be
deemed gifts to the agent unless the contrary is proved; also
that the custom of any trade or calling is not in itself a defence to
a prosecution.
Commissions of Inquiry, i.e. commissions for the purpose of
eliciting information as to the operation of laws, or investigating
particular matters, social, educational, &c, arc distinguished,
according to the terms of their appointment, as royal, statutory
and departmental. A royal commission in England is appointed
by the crown, and the commissions usually issue from the office of
the executive government which they specially concern. The
objects of the inquiry are carefully defined in the warrant
constituting the commission, which is termed the " reference."
The commissioners give their services gratuitously, but where
they involve any great degree of professional skill compensation
is allowed for time and labour. The expenses incurred are
provided out of money annually voted for the purpose. Unless
expressly empowered by act of parliament, a commission cannot
compel the production of documents or the giving of evidence, nor
can it administer an oath. A commission may hold its sittings in
any part of the United Kingdom, or may institute and conduct
experiments for the purpose of testing the utility of invention, &c.
When the inquiry or any particular portion of it is concluded, a
report is presented to the crown through the home department.
All the commissioners, if unanimous, sign the report, but those
who arc unable to agree with the ma jori ty can record their dissent,
and express their individual opinions, either in paragraphs ap-
pended to the report or in separately signed memoranda.
Statutory commissions are created by acts of parliament, and,
with the exception that they are liable to have their proceedings
questioned in parliament, have absolute powers within the limits
of their prescribed functions and subject to the provisions
of the act defining the same. Departmental commissions or
committees are appointed cither by a treasury minute or by the
authority of a secretary of state, for the purpose of instituting
inquiries into matters of official concern or examining into
proposed changes in administrative arrangements. They are
generally composed of two or more permanent officials of the
department concerned in the investigation, along with a sub-
ordinate member of the administration. Reports of such com-
mittees are usually regarded as confidential documents.
A full account of the procedure in royal commissions will be found
in A. Todd's Parliamentary Government in England, vol. ii.
COMMISSIONAIRE, the designation of an attendant, messen-
ger or subordinate employe in hotels on the continent of
Europe, whose chief duty is to attend at railway stations, secure
customers, take charge of their luggage, carry out the necessary
formalities with respect to it and have it sent on to the hotel.
They are also employed in Paris as street messengers, light porters,
&c. The Corps of Commissionaires, in England, is an associa-
tion- of pensioned soldiers of trustworthy character, founded in
1859 by Captain Sir Edward Wa.lt.et, \L.C&. V^v^-v**^
v/y y wwrj* w—>z.»jc«irxc--. ~.\
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■ii.'Nr fcl.ii li J^ i; «!Mjir,/-ri i ^ri'l may chaUenge itj V -ji':.- r 3-
4|f|fh'4li'.n f'if 4 -AM nt h.ll^A1 ror(>US.
*.•. In 4: »*#iif#rnt ih*- ftMi of jir.fkw and tribunals of "—- --:
inn .«ln Ii'ph, ili/- ciriuj;! i.i y of ihr ruks as to comns:txces.t5 a zz
ini|i«#rl.iril dl'l lo tin- lihrrly of the suhject.
tn 1 In 1 iv nf iiiirf-rior toiirti no statutory forms of cocs.:-
mi- nt 1 ih.l, ninl ilir Mimr- formalities arc not so strict] v erJcrcec
* miuniM -it of u iri-r-JHi prrwut in rourt for contempt of the wr.
l« 1 iiffir 1 it by lih iiiinmliatc arrest by the tipstaff as soon. 15
tt1i11ini11.1l li onlrml, and he may be detained in prison 011 1
iiiriiK.Mtiitiim of the clerk or registrar of the court while a foncal
iiidn ii lifiujf diawn up. Ami in the case of persons sentenced
itt n«il/ri ami c|iiarter sessions the only written authority for
rnfnimiii'iit is a ealrndar of the prisoners tried, on which the
ftrnli'iireH are enteml up, signed by the presiding judge.
CiMiitnitiiieiili aie usually nude by courts of criminal juri*-
ilu don iii it- .jh-i I i»l otTeiivem against the criminal law, but are also
iKi.iiiiMi.dly made as a punishment for disobedience to the orders
made in a ei\il court, e f. wlure a judgment debtor having means
lo |»ay refuses to s.iti>fy the judgment debt, or in cases where
lhe tvfson coimniUcd has been guilty of a direct contempt cl
l he eouii.
lhe e\p*n»cs of executing a tiirrint of commitment, so fax
.»■« not paid by ihe prisoner, are deira\c\lcut of the parliamentary
Slants t v ir ihe suintcpancc 01 ;*r 1-0115.
COMHITTEB ..?rv»m ^mm:.„: a:-. \ngfo-Fr. past participle of
.■'ftfni.li":. La: .v»*«i :;:.-» r. t.»c ■■!:■-.-»;: t lie Modern Fr equivalent
.jm »v :*» derived frvn iJ^c Y:w V a person or body of persons to
*V:n jomclhiTTj ■"» " wntfli:".^! " or en: pasted. The term is
-v.«. J of a ;x-i>on or ;h">k'iih «o »Hon the charge of the body
.vin:»»Lf.oe oj 'Nc *»e ■■%».■ n " M or ."i :'te ^n-'per'-y xad business
1 li i\ v " vvn«;i»i''.'.v -.'i "ie ^la.. 1
s * V vv;iM . -^v l\Nl^•,-^ , In ;
" 'n'l^i.isv -'h* wp j .-mm: .
■ •i ^■mriiit'-.v "' . ■n-m'ijn. ■.<-»
N.s.si, .-!e\u«l .■! li'iH'i'iix-d ■
•■■» * *-» y. 'v.vii k vs s^smIU .«r pvhtiIU rc«i.TTed'.i»iL
tVMYWUHUai x vN.«*. -., , La-n \xt. ««m» .tounshed i
» ■■ .»■• t*w- ^.'> ik'hh •trier* who aienutm him are
—V-n ,m.^>;v. 04 NiWu» vvmliii «th comiQt), is hi* 0$
ot a 'uiia:.'c i» committed
ihi> >eM»c \\tc Kngiish usiage is
r*te non? cvmraun meaning
if.: > -Jiat ji a body of
■ -jiiMilcr ami ie*! with certain
COMMODORE— COMMON LAW
777
tcriptoribus eccUsiosticit, and Pope Gehsius in D* librit
recipiendis ct non recipiendis, in which his works are classed as
Apocryphi, probably on account of certain heterodox statements
contained in them. Commodianus is supposed to have been an
African. As he himself tells us, he was originally a heathen, but
was converted to Christianity when advanced in years, and felt
called upon to instruct the ignorant in the truth. He was the
author of two extant Latin poems. Instructions and Carmen
apdogeticum (first published in 1853 by J. B. Pitra in the
Spiciiegium Sotesmense, from a MS. in the Middlehill collection,
now at Cheltenham, supposed to have been brought from the
monastery of Bobbio). The Instructions consist of 80 poems,
each of which is an acrostic (with the exception of 60, where the
initial letters are in alphabetical order). The initials of 80, read
backwards, give Commodianus Mendicus Christi. The Apoh-
geticum, undoubtedly by Commodianus, although the name of
the author (as well as the title) is absent from the MS., is free
from the acrostic restriction. The first part of the Instructimus
is addressed to the heathens and Jews, and ridicules the divinities
of classical mythology; the second contains reflections on
Antichrist, the end of the world, the Resurrection, and advice to
Christians, penitents and the clergy. In the Apoiogeticum all
mankind are exhorted to repent, in view of the approaching end of
the world. The appearance of Antichrist, identified with Nero
and the Man from the East, is expected at an early date.
Although they display fiery dogmatic zeal, the poems cannot be
considered quite orthodox. To the classical scholar the metre
alone is of interest. Although they are professedly written in
hexameters, the rules of quantity are sacrificed to accent. The
first four lines of the Instructions may be quoted by way of
illustration:
" Praefatio nostra vtam errant! demonstrat,
Respect umque bonum, cum vencrit saccuK rocta,
Aeternum fieri, quod discrcdunt inscia corda:
Ego similiter erravi tempore multo."
These versus politici (as they are called) show that the change was
already passing over Latin which resulted in the formation of the
Romance languages. The use of cases and genders, the construc-
tion of verbs and prepositions, and the verbal forms exhibit
striking irregulari ties. The author, however, shows an acquaint*
ance with Latin poets— Horace, Virgil, Lucretius.
The best edition of the text is by B. Dombart (Vienna, 1887), and
a good account of the poems will be found in M. Manitius, Gesckichle
ier ckristlich-lateinischen Poesie (1891), with bibliography, to which
may be added G. Boissier, " Commodien," in the Mflanges Renter
.593)
trans., 384), should also be consulted,
COMMODORE (a form of " commander"; in the 17th century
the term " commandore " is used), a temporary rank in the
British navy for an officer in command of a squadron. There are
two kinds, one with and the other without a captain below him in
his ship, the first holding the temporary rank, pay, &c, of a rear-
admiral, the other that of captain. It is also given as a courtesy
title to the senior officer of a squadron of more than three vessels.
In the United States navy " commodore " was a courtesy title
given to captains who had been in command of a squadron. In
2862 it was made a commissioned rank, but was abolished in 1899.
The name is given to the president of a yacht club, as of the
Royal Yacht Squadron, and to the senior captain of a fleet of
merchant vessels.
COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIUS (161-192), also
called Marcus Antoninus, emperor of Rome, son of Marcus
Aurelius and Faustina, was born at Lanuvium on the 31st of
August 161. In spite of a careful education he soon showed a
fondness for low society and amusement. At the age of fifteen he
was associated by his father in the government. On the death of
Aurelius, whom he had accompanied In the war against the Quadi
and Marcomanni, he hastily concluded peace and hurried back
to Rome (180). The first years of his reign were uneventful, but in
183 be was attacked by an assassin at the instigation of his sister
Lucilla and many members of the. senate, which felt deeply
insulted by the contemptuous manner in which Commodus
treated it. From this time he became tyrannical. Many
distinguished Romans were put to death as implicated in the
conspiracy, and others were executed for no reason at all. The
treasury was exhausted by lavish expenditure on gladiatorial and
wild beast combats and on the soldiery, and the property of the
wealthy was confiscated. At the same time Commodus, proud
of his bodily strength and dexterity, exhibited himself in the
arena, slew wild animals and fought with gladiators, and com-
manded that he should be worshipped as the Roman Hercules.
Plots against his life naturally began to spring up. That of his
favourite Perennis. praefect of the praetorian guard, was dis-
covered in time. The next danger was from the people, who were
infuriated by the dearth of corn. The mob repelled the praetorian
guard, but the execution of the hated minister Cleander quieted
the tumulL The attempt also of the daring highwayman
Maternus to seize the empire was betrayed; but at last Eclectus
the emperor's chamberlain, Laetus the praefect of the praetorians,
and his mistress Marcia, finding their names on the list of those
doomed to death, united to destroy him. He was poisoned, and
then strangled by a wrestler named Narcissus, on the 31st of
December 1 9a. During his reign unimportant wars were success-
fully carried on by his generals Clodius Albinus, Pescennius
Niger and Ulpius Marcellus. The frontier of Dacia was success-
fully defended against the Scythians and Sarmatians, and a tract
of territory reconquered in north Britain. In 1874 a statue of
Commodus was dug up at Rome, in which he is represented as
Hercules — a lion's skin on his head, a club in his right and the
apples of the Hesperides in his left hand.
Sec Aclius Lampridius, Hcrodian, and fragments in Dio Cassius;
H. Schiller, Cescktchte ier rdmischen Kaiserzeit; J. Zttrcher, " Com-
modus " (1868, in Budingcr's Untersuchungen xur rdmischen Kaiser-
teschichte, a criticism of Herodian's account); Pauly-Wissowa,
ReaUncyclop&die, ii. 2464 ff. (von Rohden) ; Heer, " Dor historische
Wert des Vita Commodi " (Philologus, Supplcmcntband ix.).
COMMON LAW, like " civil law," a phrase with many shades of
meaning, and probably best defined with reference to the various
things to which it is opposed. It is contrasted with statute law,
as law not promulgated by the sovereign body; with equity, as
the law prevailing between man and man, unless when the court
of chancery assumed jurisdiction; and with local or customary
law, as the general law for the whole realm, tolerating variations
in certain districts and under certain conditions. It is also
sometimes contrasted with civil, or canon, or international law,
which are foreign systems recognized in certain special courts
only and within limits defined by the common law. As against
all these contrasted kinds of law, it may be described broadly as
the universal law of the realm, which applies wherever they have
not been introduced, and which is supposed to have a principle
for every possible case. Occasionally, it would appear to be used
in a sense which would exclude the law developed by at all events
the more modern decisions of the courts.
Blackstone divides the civil law of England into lex scripta or
statute law, and lex non scripla or common law. The latter, he
says, consists of (1) general customs, which arc the common law
strictly so called, (2) particular customs prevailing in certain
districts, and (3) laws used in particular courts. The first is the
law by which " proceedings and determinations in the king's
ordinary courts of justice are guided and directed." That the
eldest son alone is heir to his ancestor, that a deed is of no validity
unless sealed and delivered, that wills shall be construed more
favourably and deeds more strictly, arc examples of common law
doctrines, " not set down in any written statute or ordinance, but
depending on immemorial usage for their support." The validity
of these usages is to be determined by the judges—" the de-
positaries of the law, the living oracles who must decide in all
cases of doubt, and who are bound by an oath to decide according
to the law of the land." Their judgments arc preserved as
records, and " it is an established rule to abide by former pre-
cedents where the same points come again in litigation." The
extraordinary deference paid to precedents is the source of the
most striking peculiarities of the English common law. Tbm*
77 8
COMMON LODGING-HOUSE— COMMON ORDER
which was not deemed satisfactory, but which on his ita:«j]
to Geneva he published in 1 556 for the use of the Engiisa :u>
gregations in that city. The Geneva book made its wzy u
Scotland, and was used here and there by Reformed congregant:!
Knox's return in 1559 strengthened its position, and in ift: u*
General Assembly enjoined the uniform use of it as the ' Boot
of Our Common Order " in " the administration of the Sin*
ments and solemnization of marriages and burials of the dm '
In 1564 a new and enlarged edition was printed in Edinburgh,
and the Assembly ordered that " every Minister, extorter 1:1
reader " should have a copy and use the Order contained the.\.s
not only for marriage and the sacraments but also M in Praw: '
thus ousting the hitherto permissible use of the Second Bock d
Edward VI. at ordinary service. " The rubrics as rtttuii
from the Book of Geneva made provision for an cxieir.pre
prayer before the sermon, and allowed the minister some Latitude
in the other two prayers. The forms for the special service*
were more strictly imposed, but liberty was also given to vary
some of the prayers in them. The rubrics of the Scot lish poruua
of the book are somewhat stricter, and, indeed, one or two d
the Geneva rubrics were made more absolute in the Scotteh
emendations; but no doubt the 'Book of Common Order'
is best described as a discretionary liturgy."
It will be convenient here to give the contents of the cditica
printed by Andrew Hart at Edinburgh in 161 1, and described
(as was usually the case) as The Psaimes of David in Af trier, i-ji
the Prose, whereunto is added Prayers commonly used in the Kiru.
and private houses; with a perp<luall Kalcndar and all the Cfceja
of the Moone thai shall happen for the space of Six Y teres to came.
They are as follows: —
(i.) The Calendar; (ii.) The names of the Faircs of Scotland:
(iii.) The Confession of Faith used at Geneva and received by
the Church of Scotland; (iv.-vii.) Concerning the election zrA
duties of Ministers, Elders and Deacons, and Superintendent;
(viii.) An order of Ecclesiastical Discipline; (ix.) The Order of
Excommunication and of Public Repentance; (x.) The Visita-
tion of the Sick; (xi.) The Manner of Burial; (xii.) The Order of
Public Worship— Forms of Confession and Prayer after Sermon;
(am) Other Public Prayers; (xiv.) The Administration of the
Lord's Supper; (xv.) The Form of Marriage; (xvi.) The Order
of Baptism; (xvii.) A Treatise on Fasting with the order thereof.
(xviii.) The Psalms of David ; (xix.) Conclusions or Doxologk^:
(xx.) Hymns— metrical versions of the Decalogue, Magnifies:!
Apostles' Creed, &c; (xxi.) Calvin's Catechism; (xxii. ar.i
xxiii.) Prayers for Private Houses and Miscellaneous Prayers, e.r.
for a man before he begins his work.
The Psalms and Catechism together occupy more than half
the book. The chapter on burial is significant. In place of the
long office of the Catholic Church we have simply this statement:
— " The corpse is reverently brought to the grave, accompanied
with the Congregation, without any further ceremonies: which
being buried, the Minister (if he be present and required) gocth
to the Church, if it be not far off, and makcth some com fori ill*
exhortation to the people, touching death and resurrection.**
This (with the exception of the bracketed words) was taken over
from the Book of Geneva. The Westminster Directory which
superseded the Book of Common Order also enjoins interment
" without any ceremony," such being stigmatised as " no «ay
beneficial to the dead and many ways hurtful to the living."
Civil honours may, however, be rendered.
Revs. G. \V. Sprott and Thomas Leishman.in the introduction
to their edition of the Book of Common Order, and of the West-
minster Directory published in x$65. collected a valuable series
of notices as to the actual uvagc of the former book for the period
(» $04-164.0 during which it was enjoined by ecclesiastical lav.
Where niini>ter» were not available suitable persons (often old
piiiMs. sometime* schoolmaster^ were selected as readers. Good
lontempoiaiv accounts of $vv:::*h worship are those of W.
i'o*l*r u N M icioi. hi%h»»p of Calloway, in his Sum, JtapT
(VV<*»*# tun*** * (\ifi.Jk ChhaUn end m CttkmWs JtfcM
I. iAi 0. sin! AU Miulri ItriutrmM in The I
*f It* I aw,* «f ,V4U«J lt*4i> Then was 1
can he little doubt that it was the rigid adherence of the
law <ourt» to established precedent which caused the rise of aa
liid< (jriwJnit tribunal administering justice on more equitable
priii' iph-s - the tribunal of the chancellor, the court of chancery.
And the old common law courts— the king's bench, common
pleas and eic he'juer —were always, as compared with the court
of 1 haw.ery, distinguished fur a certain narrowness and techni-
cality of reasoning. At tlie same time the common law was never
• find or rigid system. In the application of old precedents to
the (hanging lircumstaiircs of society, and in the development
of nt w prim ipli-s to m<-ct new cases, the common law courts
diApljyrd an immense amount of subtlety and ingenuity, and a
great d«ul of sound sense. The continuity of the system was not
Iras remarkable tlun its elasticity. Two great defects of form
long diifigund the Knglish law. One was the separation of
common law ami equity. The Judicature Act of 1873 remedied
lln\ by merging the jurisdiction of all the courts in one supreme
court, and causing equitable principle* to prevail over those of the
common law where they differ. The other is the overwhelming
mass of precedents in whit h the law is embedded. This can only
be removed by some wcll-coiireived scheme of the nature of a
code or digest ; to some extent this difficulty has been overcome
by but h arts as the Hills of Exchange Act 1882, the Partnership
Ai I iHcjo ami the Side of Good* Act 180J.
The Knglibh common law may Ix- desrriljcd as a pre-eminently
national system, liused on Saxon customs, moulded by Norman
lawyers, ami jraloits of fon-ign systems, it is, as Bacon says, as
mixed as the Knglish language ami as truly national. And like the
language, It has been taken into other Knglish speaking countries,
•ml is the foundation of the law in the United States.
COMMON LODGING-HOUSE, " a house, or part of a house,
where |>efM»iis of the jioorer classes are received for gain, and in
wluih liny use our or more rooms in common with the rest of
the I111u.it en, who are not meml>rrs of one family, whether for
eating or slerping " (hin^lon v. Rroadbrnt, 1877, 37 L.T. 434;
J!,h«fa v. Femlt, iK«jo, 35 Q.II.D. 87). There is no statutory
definition of the class of houses in Kngland intended to be iu-
clmleil in the expression " common lodging-house," but the above
di Minium i> vi 1 y generally accepted as embracing those houses
wlm h. under the Public Health and other Acts, must be registered
and ii^iK-ited. The provisions of the Public Health Act 187$
are that eveiy urlun and rural district council must keep registers
showing the names ainl residences of the keepers of all common
lodging house* in their di-tri* ts. the situation of every such house,
and the uunuVr of lodger* authorized by them to be received
llu-iein. They may require the keeper to affix and keep undc-
f.urd and legiMc a not no with the words " registered common
lodging Ihuihi- " in Mttuc toiiNpuuous place on the outside of the
hoiiM', And may make by laws fixing the number of lodgers,
for 1 he Mp.11.it ion of the M'xes, for promoting cleanliness and
veniil.iiu'ii, li«i the giving of noticesund the taking of precautions
In i.u- «•( anv iMlntioiis disease, and generally for the well
order iiijc «>t siu h !-..iu->ev The keeper of a 1 ummon lodging-house
Is rvi|iiiii-d lo liiiirwash the walls und ceiling* twice a year —
in April and tMokr and to provide a proper water-supply.
The whoh- oi ilk- house must W open at all times lo the inspection
of any oHin-i «•! .1 louiuil. The toitnty of London (except the
city) is uiiilei ihv I'miunou Lodging House* Acts 1S51 and 1853.
with the Sanil.il> V t iSi-o and the Sanitary Law Amendment
Act 1874. The .i.lmni 1 :. it ion of these act* was, from 1851 to
1891, in the hands ,<i i» u - 4 y k .f iommi»ioncr of police, when it
« a* transfer ted to tin- I ,-..!.n i"«ti.ntv 1'ouiuil
COMMON ORDER. BOOK OF. <oim times called The Order
*f fj'Ktta or K'N.-t'i / ■-.■<». a diu\iorv for public worship
ir -Jaf Reformed fhuuii 11 N.»ilmd In i N s: the Scottish
Fw.n'JM lords In fount il mioiiwd the i;*e of the Knglish
*-_... . . fjr y nyrf ^ P tnf s»-„.iid Mo»»k ot 1 Jwaid M Mean
* ■ -^ ^* 1'rar.kfort, smm\£ Unu^h l'iotv«t.iiit utu^ee*. s ton
'.r. ..-._. « u puni ^ h rUtTtt ih, iipS.>I.K-i« ol the I n t h*h
^:.srf tT> .the blench Rrlomml Old. 1 ol W «M»lu|i iv«tn-i tiwlv
** »r » y '.S." r <tom\* John (KM ai»»l »•■*»■ »»»l»»lvi» diew up
* ^* --^Xf '-*Mdtip9ntMiikrCwiillHnt*l N%lumiu| V^uvi,
COMMONPLACE— COMMONS
779
deal of variety at different times and in different localities.
Early in the 17th century under the twofold influence of the
Dutch Church, with which the Scottish clergy were in close
connexion, and of James I.'s endeavours to "justle out" a
liturgy which gave the liberty of " conceiving " prayers, ministers
began in prayer to read less and extemporize more.
Turning again to the legislative history, in 1567 the prayers
were done into Gaelic; in 1579 parliament ordered all gentlemen
and yeomen holding property of a certain value to possess copies.
The assembly of 1601 declined to alter any of the existing
prayers but expressed a willingness to admit new ones. Between
1606 and 1618 various attempts were made under English and
Episcopal influence, by assemblies afterwards declared unlawful,
to set aside the " Book of Common Order." The efforts of
James I., Charles I. and Archbishop Laud proved fruitless;
in 1637 the reading of Laud's draft of a new form of service
based on the English prayer book led to riots in Edinburgh and to
general discontent in the country. The General Assembly of
Glasgow in 1638 abjured Laud's book and took its stand again
by the Book of Common Order, an act repeated by the assembly
of 1639, which also demurred against innovations proposed by
the English separatists, who objected altogether to liturgical
forms, and in particular to the Lord's Prayer, the Gloria Petri
and the minister kneeling for private devotion in the pulpit.
An Aberdeen printer named Raban was publicly censured for
having on his own authority shortened one of the prayers.
The following years witnessed a counter attempt to introduce
the Scottish liturgy into England, especially for those who in the
southern kingdom were inclined to Presbyterianism. This
effort culminated in the Westminster Assembly of divines
- which met in 1643, at which six commissioners from the Church
of Scotland were present, and joined in the task of drawing up
a Common Confession, Catechism and Directory for the three
kingdoms. The commissioners reported to the General Assembly
of 1644 that this Common Directory " is so begun . . • that we
could not think upon any particular Directory for our own Kirk."
The General Assembly of 1645 after careful study approved
the new order. An act of Assembly on the 3rd of February and
an act of parliament on the 6th of February ordered its use in
every church, and henceforth, though there was no act setting
aside the " Book of Common Order," the Westminster Directory
was of primary authority. The Directory was meant simply
to make known " the general heads, the sense and scope of the
Prayers and other parts of Public Worship," and if need be,
" to give a help and furniture." The act of parliament recogniz-
ing the Directory was annulled at the Restoration and the book
has never since been acknowledged by a civil authority in Scot-
land. But General Assemblies have frequently recommended its
use, and worship in Presbyterian churches is largely conducted
on the lines of the Westminster Assembly's Directory.
The modern Book of Common Order or Euckologion is a com-
pilation drawn from various sources and issued by the Church
Service Society, an organization which endeavours to promote
liturgical usages within the Established Church of Scotland.
COMMONPLACE, a translation of the Gr. m¥ot rfaof,
i.e. a passage or argument appropriate to several cases; a
" common-place book " is a collection of such passages or
quotations arranged for reference under general heads either
alphabetically or on some method of classification. To such a
book the name adversaria was given, which is an adaptation of
the Latin adversaria scripta, notes written on one side, the side
opposite (adversus), of a paper or book. From its original mean-
ing the word came to be used as meaning something hackneyed,
a platitude or truism, and so, as an adjective, equivalent to
trivial or ordinary. It was first spelled as two words, then with
a hyphen, and so still in the sense ©fa" common-place book."
COMMON PLEAS, COURT OP, formerly one of the three
English common law courts at Westminster— the other two
being the king's bench and exchequer. The court of common
pleas was an offshoot of the Curia Regit or king's council.
Previous to Magna Quia, tWkfafr council, especially that
poriha€lfciiftfej|y#sjp|j^
and revenue business, followed the king's person. This, as far as
private litigation was concerned, caused great inconvenience
to the unfortunate suitors whose plaints awaited the attention
of the court, for they had, of necessity, also to follow the king
from place to place, or lose the opportunity of having their
causes tried. Accordingly, Magna Carta enacted that common
pleas (communia placita) or causes between subject and subject,
should be held in some fixed place and not follow the court.
This place was fixed at Westminster. The court was presided
over by a chief (capiiaiis justiciarius de communi banco) and four
puisne judges. The jurisdiction of the common pleas was, by the
Judicature Act 1873, vested in the king's bench division of the
High Court of Justice.
COMMONS, 1 the term for the lands held in commonalty, a
relic of the system on which the lands of England were for the
most part cultivated during the middle ages. The Km .
country was divided into vills, or townships — often, uZrj,
though not necessarily, or always, coterminous with
the parish. In each stood a cluster of houses, a village, in which
dwelt the men of the township, and around the village lay the
arable fields and other lands, which they worked as one common
farm. Save for a few small inclosurcs near the village — for
gardens, orchards or paddocks for ycung stock — the whole town-
ship was free from permanent fencing. The arable lands lay in
large tracts divided into compartments or fields, usually three
in number, to receive in constant rotation the triennial succession
of wheat (or rye), spring crops (such as barley, oats, beans or
peas), and fallow. Low-lying lands were used as meadows, and
there were sometimes pastures fed according to fixed rules.
The poorest land of the township was left waste— to supply feed
for the cattle of the community, fuel, wood for repairs, and any
other commodity of a renewable or practically inexhaustible
character. 1 This waste land is the common of our own days.
It would seem likely that at one time there was no division,
as between individual inhabitants or householders, of any of the
lands of the township, but only of the products. But so far back
as accurate information extends the arable land is found to be
parcelled out, each householder owning strips in each field.
These strips are always long and narrow, and lie in sets parallel
with one another. The plough for cultivating the fields was
maintained at the common expense of the village, and the draught
oxen were furnished by the householders. From the time when
the crop was carried till the next sowing, the field lay open to the
cattle of the whole vill, which also had the free run of the fallow
field throughout the year. But when two of the three fields were
under crops, and the meadows laid up for hay, it is obvious that
the cattle of the township required some other resort for pastur-
age. This was supplied by the waste or common. Upon it the
householder turned out the oxen and horses which he contributed
to the plough, and the cows and sheep, which were useful in
manuring the common fields, — in the words of an old law case:
" horses and oxen to plough the land, and cows and sheep to
compester it." Thus the use of the common by each householder
was naturally measured by the stock which he kept for the service
of the common fields; and when, at a later period, questions
arose as to the extent of the rights on the common, the necessary
practice furnished the rule, that the commoner could turn out
as many head of cattle as he could keep by means of the lands
which were parcelled out to him,— the rule of levancy and cou-
cbancy, which has come down to the present day.
In the earliest post-conquest times the villjor township is
found to be associated with an over-lord. There has been much
controversy on the question, whether the vill originally statUM ^
owned its lands free from any control, and was subse- tomuthip.
quently reduced to a state of subjection and to a large
extent deprived of its ownership, or whether its whole history
has been one of gradual emancipation, the ownership of the waste,
1 For the commons UommtmitaUs) in a socio-political sense see
Representation and Parliament.
* There is an entry on the court rolls of the manor of Wimbledon
of the division amongst the inhabitants of the vill of the crab-apples
growing oa the common.
ft,'
COMMONS
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tr, f *i*,r.* *A 'h« 4a/. ihxl \*r%t ir.<!vu.r» 'tr» =a_^» n -^ i=«.
kt.A i>Mt ih«> f/f'^*t% w«» effv.l*d -with =-i:r Lr.ir..^ ir.
«/ "»«,;#•'•(*'! l/y cri»r h«r'i*.h;p. " U"h»re. r " **>* £jccp Lir=:tr
In '*r.r of hit '//«jf j|r^#!rt «i»'l i»i?of/iS *ier.ur.e^a:>:^i cf " iscow?
• n't #* rii r^iyrt," " ihrre h*ve l/«n nur.y hv-aebci;«n tr-i
lrih^l#i*4«ii«, ih*:r»! \\ now but a shepherd a^d fc:s def .** Is tie
lull ti'l* 'A tliU rrifrvr-mrmt, and despite Latxtr.er's appcaJs. ihe
htjitfir«fif Mt-rion and Wr^l minster the Second were cencrrti
Mfid rfuuitfi]. fioih common fields and commons do do*t!
<IUii|'ff«-jirri| in many plates; and the country saw the first
nirUlilr |»«f Mlrrir-nl of imloMire. Kut from the evidence of later
ymr» If 1% ilrar that a very large area of the country was still
nililviilrd on I he < amnion -field system for another couple of
irhlmln. When in< Insure on any considerable scale agjia
« mil** lulu fuvotir, it w:is effected on quite different principles;
mnl In-fine <Ic«m riiiinx what was essentially a modern movenicr.i.
H will Ik* iimveiiirnt to give a brief outline of the principles <A
In tv npplii nhlr to (oinmons at the present day.
low. The dill iiiRiiishinji feature in law of common land is,
id til It U litiid thr miil of which belongs to one person, and frca
whlih irilnin othrr |tersons take certain profits — for
m ample. I he bile of the grass by the mouth of cattle, ?£!■»
in R'M»r, buthm or heather for fuel or litter. The
light to Idke »m'h a profit is a right of common; the right to feed
ctillt on i-ommon land is a right of common of pasture; «^:
I ho ugh! of tutting bushes, gone or heather (more rarelvcf
lo|M* M1 l! Ucrnl i» known a,« n right of common of eslczrrs (cslcYr!t~:
oi Mu (i«-»peeiivrly ltx»m the Norman-French esirufer, andL"i
Srt\,»w Ni',iif. to (iirniNhl. Another right of coarron is tia: ^
lic.Si'v. oi the right to cut turf or peat for fuel. There are i£
light* ol uking saikI. grawl or loam for the re^iir ari r>-. — -.
amr »M Uml. 'l*he penen* who enjoy ar.y c: liese rifi-j Irs
« *\\t\\ «N*miwonrr«.
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COMMONS
781
represents rights which grew up between neighbouring townships,
or, in later times, by direct grant from the owner of the soil of the
common to some other landowner, or (in the case of copyholders)
by local custom.
The characteristic of connexion with house or land also marks
other rights of common. Thus a right of taking gorse or bushes,
or of lopping wood for fuel, called fire-oote, is limited to the taking
of such fuel as may be necessary for the hearths of a particular
house, and no more may be taken than is thus required. The
same condition applies to common of turbary, which in its more
usual form authorizes the commoner to cut the heather, which
grows thickly upon poor soils, with the roots and adhering earth,
to a depth of about 9 in. Similarly, wood taken for the repairs
of buildings (house-bole), or of hedges (hedge-bote or key-bole),
must be limited in quantity to the requirements of the house,
farm buildings and hedges of the particular property to which
the right is attached. And heather taken for litter cannot be
taken in larger quantities than is necessary for manuring the
lands in respect of which the right is enjoyed. It is illegal to
take the wood or heather from the common, and to sell it to any
one who has not himself a right to take it. So, also, a right of
digging sand, gravel, clay or loam is usually appurtenant to
land, and must be exercised with reference to the repair of the
roads, or the improvement of the soil, of the particular property
to which the right is attached.
We have already alluded to the fact that, in Norman and later
days, every vill or township was associated with some over-lord, —
some one responsible to the crown, either directly or through
other superior lords, for the holding of the land and the per-
formance of certain duties of defence and military support.
To this lord the law has assigned the ownership of the soil of the
common of the vill; and the common has for many centuries
been styled the waste of the manor. The trees and bushes on
the common belong to the lord, subject to any rights of lopping
or cutting which the commoners may possess. The ground, sand
and subsoil are his, and even the grass, though the commoners
have the right to take it by the mouths of their cattle. To the
over-lord, also, was assigned a scignory over all the other lands
of the vill; and the vill came to be termed his manor. At the
present day it is the manorial system which must be invoked in
most cases as the foundation of the curiously conflicting rights
which co-exist on a common. (See Manor.)
Within the bounds of a manor, speaking generally, there
m_~* # * re tnrce c ksses °f person* possessing an interest
cm!L in the had > viz: —
(a) Persons holding land freely of the manor, or
freehold tenants.
(b) Persons holding land of the manor by copy of court roll,
or copyhold tenants.
(c) Persons holding from the lord of the manor, by lease or
agreement, or from year to year, land which was originally
demesne, or which was once freehold or copyhold and has come
into the lord's hands by escheat or forfeiture.
Amongst the first two classes we usually find the majority
of the commoners on the wastes or commons of the manor
To every freehold tenant belongs a right of common of pasture
on the commons, such right being " appendant " to the land
which he holds freely of the manor. This right differs from most
other rights of common in the characteristic that actual exercise
of the right need not be proved. When once it is shown that
certain land is held freely of the manor, it follows of necessity
that a right of common of pasture for commonable cattle attaches
to the land, and therefore belongs to its owner, and may be
exercised by its occupant. " Common appendant," said the
Blisahcthan judges, "is of common right, and commences by
operation of law and in favour of tillage,"
Now this is exactly what we saw to be the case with reference
to the use of the common of ths vill by the householder cultivating
the liable iekb» The ase wee a necessity, not depending upon
aha habflta of thai or that hoaaaaolder; it was a use for common-
able rajlhl aa|fraa4,aes aaiujaani «*& the tillage of the arable
'.sMtkii at»aBjfritaBat,BeavBV*Vt0 fouow that the freehold J
tenants of the manor are the representatives of the householders
of the vilL However this may be, it is amongst the freehold
tenants of the manor that we must first look for commoners oa
the waste of the manor.
Owing, however, to the light character of the services rendered
by the freeholders, the connexion of their lands with the manor
is often difficult to prove. Copyhold tenure, on the other hand,
cannot be lost sight of; end in many manors copyholders are
numerous, or were, till quite recently. Copyholders almost
invariably possess a right of common on the waste of the manor;
and when (as is usual) they exist side by side with freeholders,
their rights are generally of the same character. They do not,
however, exist as of common right, without proof of usage, but
by the custom of the manor. Custom has been denned by a
great judge (Sir George Jesse], M.R., in HammcrUm v. Honey)
as local law. Thus, while the freehold tenants enjoy their rights
by the general law of the land, the copyholders have a similar
enjoyment by the local law of the manor. This, again, is what
one might expect from the ancient constitution of a village
community. The copyholders, being originally serfs, had no
rights at law; but as they had a share in the tillage of the land,
and gradually became possessed of strips in the common fields,
or of other plots on which they were settled by the lord, they were
admitted by way of indulgence to the use of the common; and
the practice hardened into a custom. As might be expected,
there is more variety in the details of the rights they exercise.
They may claim common for cattle which arc not commonable,
if the custom extends to such cattle; and their claim is not
necessarily connected with arable land.
In the present day large numbers of copyhold tenements have
been enfranchised, i.e. converted into freehold. The effect of
this step is to sever all connexion between the land enfranchised
and the manor of which it was previously held. Technically,
therefore, the common rights previously enjoyed in respect of
the land would be gone. When, however, there is no indication
of any intention to extinguish such rights, the courts protect
the copyholders in their continued enjoyment; and when an
enfranchisement is effected under the statutes passed in modern
years, the rights arc expressly preserved. The commoners on
a manorial common then will be, prima facie, the freeholders
and copyholders of the manor, and the persons who own lands
which were copyhold of the manor but have been enfranchised.
The occupants of lands belonging to the lord of the manor,
though they usually turn out their cattle on the common, do so
by virtue of the lord's ownership of the soil of the common, and
can, as a rule, make no claim to any right of common as against
the lord, even though the practice of turning out may have
obtained in respect of particular lands for a long series of years.
When, however, lands have been sold by the lord of the manor,
although no right of common attached by law to such lands in
the lord's hands, their owners may subsequently enjoy such a
right, if it appears from the language of the deeds of conveyance,
and all the surrounding circumstances, that there was an
intention that the use of the common should be enjoyed by the
purchaser. The rules on this point are very technical; it is
sufficient here to indicate that lands bought from a lord of a
manor are not necessarily destitute of common rights.
So far we have considered common rights as they have arisen
out of the manorial system, and out of the still older system of
village communities. There may, however, be rights
of common quite unconnected with the manorial
system. Such rights may be proved cither by producing
a specific grant from the owner of the manor or by
long usage. It is seldom that an actual grant is
produced, although it would seem likely that such
grants were not uncommon at one time. But a claim
founded on actual user is by no means unusual Such a claim
may be based (a) on immemorial usage, i.e. usage for which'
no commencement later than the coronation of Richard I.
(kiSo) can be shown, (b) on a presumed modern grant which
has been lost, or (c) (in some cases) on the Prescription Act 183*.
There are special rules applicable 1a casAn. kisAtsk «&*xn^
Wtaot
with
782
COMMONS
A right of common not connected with the manorial system
may be, and usually is, attached to land; it may be measured,
like a manorial right, by levancy and couchancy, or it may be
limited to a fixed number of animals. Rights of the latter
character seem to have been not uncommon in the middle ages.
In one of his sermons against inclosure, Bishop Latimer tells us
his father " had walk (i.e. right of common) for 100 sheep." This
may have been a right in gross, but was more probably attached
to the " farm of £3 or £4 by year at the uttermost " which his
father held. A right of common appurtenant may be sold
separately, and enjoyed by a purchaser independently of the
tenement to which it was originally appurtenant. It then
becomes a right of common in gross.
A right of common in gross is a right enjoyed irrespective of
the ownership or occupancy of any lands. It may exist by
express grant, or by user implying a modern lost grant, or by
immemorial usage. It must be limited to a certain number of
cattle, unless the right is claimed by actual grant. Such rights
seldom arise in connexion with commons in the ordinary sense,
but are a frequent incident of regulated or stinted pastures;
the right is then generally known as a cattle-gate or beast-gate.
There may be rights over a common which exclude the owner
of the soil from all enjoyment of some particular product of the
common. Thus a person, or a class of persons, may be entitled
to the whole of the corn, grass, underwood, or sweepage, (i.e.
everything which falls to the sweep of the scythe) of a tract of
land, without possessing any ownership in the land itself, or
In the trees or mines. Such a right is known as a right of sole
vesture.
A more limited right of the same character is a right of sole
pasturage — the exclusive right to take everything growing on
the land in question by the mouths of cattle, but not in any other
way. Either of these rights may exist throughout the whole
year, or during part only. A right of sole common pasturage
and herbage was given to a certain class of commoners in Ash-
down Forest on the partition of the forest at the end of the iSth
century.
We have seen that the common arable fields and common
meadows of a vill were thrown open to the stock of the community
between harvest and seed-time. There is still to be
eommJa ' oun( *» ncrc am * th crc t a group of arable common
flWrf fc fields, and occasionally a piece of grass bnd with many
of the characteristics of a common, which turns out
to be a common field or meadow. The Hackney Marshes and
the other so-called commons of Hackney are really common
fields or common meadows, and along the valley of the Lea a
constant succession of such meadows is met with. They are
still owned in parcels marked by metes; the owners have the
right to grow a crop of hay between Lady day and Lammas
day; and from Lammas to March the lands are subject to the
depasturage of stock. In the case of some common fields and
meadows the right of feed during the open time belongs exclusively
to the owners; in others to a larger class, such as the owners
and occupiers of all lands within the bounds of the parish.
Anciently, as we have seen, the two classes would be identical.
In some places newcomers not owning strips in the fields were
admitted to the right of turn out; in others, not. Hence the
distinction. Similar divergences of practice will be found to
exist in Switzerland at the present day; niedcr-gdasscne, or
newcomers, arc in some communes admitted to all rights,
while, in others, privileges are reserved to the biirgcr, or old
inhabitant householders.
Some of the largest tracts of waste land to be found in England
■« the waste or commonable lands of royal forests or chases.
OfeftfeAi The thickets and pastures of Epping Forest, now
wy«f Jjjppily preserved for London under the guardianship
***■*». of the dty corporation, and the noble woods and far-
Mind cS**^ 1 * healhs of lhe Ncw Forcst » v,m ** aUcd to
tboamh fo?*?fc? Q***! unhappily inclosed according to law,
AaAclown fJ2T. **«*■« «tfl lying waste, Dartmoor, and
"fefat be »SL^ Sumat » "» other instance*; and the Ust
•"■■^ «ttttaied. Space ,wfll not pennit oi any
description of the forest system; it is enough, in this connexion,
to say that the common rights in a forest were usually enjoyed
by the owners and occupiers of land within its bounds (the class
may differ in exact definition, but is substantially equivalent
to this) without reference to manorial considerations. Epping
Forest was saved by the proof of this right. It is often said that
the right was given, or confirmed, to the inhabitants in conskkn-
tion of the burden of supporting the deer for the pleasure of the
king or of the owner of the chase. It seems more probable
that the forest law prevented the growth of the manorial system,
and uith it those rules which have tended to restrict the dug
of persons entitled to enjoy the waste lands of the district
We have seen that in the case of each kind of common there is
a division of interest. The soil belongs to one person; other
persons are entitled to take certain products of the
soil. This division of interest preserves the common JJjJp
as an open space. The commoners cannot inclose, mLm»
because the land docs not belong to them. The owner
of the soil cannot inclose, because indosurc is inconsistent with
the enjoyment of the commoners' rights. At a very early date
it was held that the right of a commoner proceeded out of every
part of the common, so that the owner of the soil could not set
aside part for the commoner and inclose the rest. The Statutes
of Merlon and Westminster the Second were passed to get over
this difficulty. But under these statutes the burden of proving
that sufficient pasture was. left was thrown upon the owner oi
the soil; such proof can very seldom be given. Moreover, the
statutes have never enabled an inclosure to be made against
commoners entitled to estovers or turbary. It seems dear that
the statutes had become obsolete in the time of Edward VI., or
they would not have been re-enacted. And we know that the
zealous advocates of indosurc in the iSth century considered
them worthless for their purposes. Practically it may be takes
that, save where the owner of the soil of a common acquires all
the lands in the township (generally coterminous with the
parish) with which the common is connected, an inclosure cannot
legally be effected by him. And even in the latter case it may
be that rights of common arc enjoyed in respect of lands outside
the parish, and that such rights prevent an inclosure.
Modern Indosurc. — When, therefore, the common-field system
began to fall out of gear, and the increase of population brought
about a demand for an increased production of corn, 7^
it was felt to be necessary to resort to parliament fci
for power to effect inclosure. The legislation which /■**■■«
ensued was based on two principles. One was that AA
all persons interested in the open land to be dealt with shook!
receive a proportionate equivalent in inclosed land; the other,
that inclosure should not be prevented by the opposition, or
the inability to act, of a small minority. Assuming that inclosure
was desirable, no more equitable course could have been adopted,
though in details particular acts may have been objectionable.
The first act was passed in 1700; but the precedent was followed
but slowly, and not till the middle of the iSth century did the
annual number of acts attain double figures. The high-water
mark was reached in the period from 1765 to 1785, when on at
average forty-seven acts were passed every year. From acme
cause, possibly the very considerable expense attending upon the
obtaining of an act, the numbers. then began slightly to fall off.
In the year 1793 a board of agriculture, apparently similar ia
character to the chambers of commerce of our own day, was
established. Sir John Sinclair was its president, and Arthur
Young, the well-known agricultural reformer, was its secretary.
Owing to the efforts of this body, and of a select committee
appointed by the House of Commons on Sinclair's motion, the
first General Inclosure Act was passed in z8ot. This act would
at the present day be called an Inclosure Clauses Act. It coa-
taincd a number of provisions applicable to mclosures, which
could be incorporated by reference, in a private bUL By this
meajis,itwaihoped,tliebn^andcoinplexity l i *
the expense, of fadoftm Mb
Uwte lhe
Intittycu
bo greatly
COMMONS
783
area inclosed probably exceeded 300,000 acres. Three indosurcs
in the Lincolnshire Fens account for over 53.000 acres. As
"before, the movement after a time spent its force, the annual
average of acts falling to about twelve in the decade 1830-1840.
Another parliamentary committee then sat to consider how
inclosure might be promoted; and the result was the Inclosure
Act 1845, which, though much amended by subsequent legisla-
tion, still stands on the statute-book. The chief feature of that
act was the appointment of a permanent commission to make
in each case all the inquiries previously made (no doubt
capriciously and imperfectly) by committees of the two Houses.
The commission, on being satisfied of the propriety of an inclosure
was to draw up a provisional order prescribing the general
conditions on which it was to be carried out, and this order
was to be submitted to parliament by the government of the day
for confirmation. It is believed that these inclosure orders
afford the first example of the provisional order system of legisla-
tion, which has attained such large proportions.
Again inclosure moved forward, and between 1845 and 1869
(when it received a sudden check) 600,000 acres passed through
the hands of the inclosure commission. Taking the whole period
of about a century and a half, when parliamentary inclosure was
in favour, and making an estimate of acreage where the acts do
not give it, the result may be thus summarized: —
Acres.
From 1709 to 1797 2,744,926
„ 1801 to 1842 ...... I.307.964
„ 1845 to i860 618,000
Add for Forest* inclosed under Special Acts . 100,000
4J70.890
The total area of England being 37,000,000 acres, we shall
probably not be far wrong in concluding that about one acre
in every seven was inclosed during the period in question.
During the first period, the lands inclosed consisted mainly of
common arable fields; during the second, many great tracts of
moor and fen were reduced to severalty ownership. In the third
period, inclosure probably related chiefly to the ordinary manorial
common; and it seems likely that, on the whole, England would
have gained, had inclosure stopped in 1845.
As a fact it stopped in 1869. Before the inclosure commission
had been in existence twenty years the feeling of the nation
towards commons began to change. The rapid growth
JjJJ^ of towns, and especially of London, and the awakening
Mvmi^.scnsc of the importance of protecting the public health,
brought about an appreciation of the value of commons
as open spaces. Naturally, the metropolis saw the birth of this
sentiment. An attempted inclosure in 1864 of the commons at
Epsom and Wimbledon aroused strong opposition; and a select
committee of the House of Commons was appointed to consider
bow the London commons could best be preserved. The Metro-
politan Board of Works, then in the vigour of youth, though
eager to become the open-space authority for London, could
make no better suggestion than that all persons interested in
the commons should be bought out, that the board should defray
the expense by selling parts for building, and should make parks
of what was left. Had this advice been followed, London would
probably have lost two- thirds of the open space which she now
enjoys. Fortunately a small knot of men, who afterwards
formed the Commons Preservation Society, took a broader and
wiser view. Chief amongst them were the late Philip Lawrence,
who acted as solicitor to the Wimbledon opposition, and subse-
quently organized the Commons Preservation Society, George
Shaw-LefcYre, chairman of that society since its foundation,
the late John Locke, and the late Lord Mount Temple (then
Mr W. F. Cowpcr). They urged that the conflict of legal interests,
which is the special characteristic of a common, might be trusted
to preserve it as an open space, and that all that parliament
could usefully do, was to restrict parliamentary inclosure, and
to pan a measure of police for the protection of commons as
open spaces. The select committee adopted this view. On their
report, wis passed the Metropolitan Commons Act 1866, which
prohibited any further parliamentary indosurcs within the
metropolitan police area, and provided means by which a common
could be put under local management. The lords of the manors
in which the London commons lay felt that their opportunity
of making a rich harvest out of land, valuable for building,
though otherwise worthless, was slipping away; and a battle
royal ensued. Indosurcs were commenced, and the Statute of
Merton prayed in aid. The public retorted by legal proceedings
taken in the names of commoners. These proceedings— which
culminated in the mammoth suit as to Epping Forest, with the
corporation of London as plaintiffs and fourteen lords of manors
as defendants— were uniformly successful; and London
commons were saved. By degrees the manorial lords, seeing that
they could not hope to do better, parted with their interest for a
small sum to some local authority; and a large urea of the
common land, not only in the county of London, but in the sub-
urbs, is now in the hands of the representatives of the ratepayers,
and is definitely appropriated to the recreation of the public.
Moreover, the Commons Preservation Society was able to
base, upon the uniform success of the commoners in the law
courts, a plea for the amendment of the law. The xawarf-
Statute of Merton, we have seen, purports to enable memtot
the lord of the soil to inclose a common, if he leaves sutmttwi
sufficient pasture for the commoners. This statute M * rtoa '
was constantly vouched in the litigation about London commons;
but in no single instance was an inclosure justified by virtue of
its provisions. It thus remained a trap to lords of manors, and
a source of controversy and expense. In the year 1803 Lord
Thring, at the instance of the Commons Preservation Society,
carried through parliament the Commons Law Amendment Act,
which provided that in future no inclosure under the Statute of
Merton should be valid, unless made with the consent of the
Board of Agriculture, which was to consider the expediency of
the inclosure from a public point of view.
The movement to preserve commons as open spaces soon
spread to the rural districts. Under the Inclosure Act of 1845
provision was made for the allotment of a part of the
bnd to be inclosed for field gardens for the labouring ,
poor, and for recreation. But those who were interested
in effecting an inclosure often convinced the inclosure com-
missioners that for some reason such allotments would be
useless. To such an extent did the reservation of such allotments
become discredited that, in 1869, the commission proposed to
parliament the inclosure of 13,000 acres, with the reservation
of only one acre for recreation, and none at all for field gardens.
This proposal attracted the attention of Henry Fawcelt, who,
after much inquiry and consideration, came to the conclusion
that indosurcs were, speaking generally, doing more harm than
good to the agricultural labourer, and that, under such conditions
as the commissioners were prescribing, they constituted a serious
evil. With characteristic intrepidity he opposed the annual
inclosure bill (which had come to be considered a mere form)
and moved for a committee on the whole subject. The ultimate
result was the passing, seven years later, of the Commons Act
1876. This measure, introduced by a Conservative government,
laid down the principle that an inclosure should not be allowed
unless distinctly shown to be for the benefit, not merely of
private persons, but of the neighbourhood generally and the
public. It imposed many checks upon the process, and following
the course already adopted in the case of metropolitan commons,
offered an alternative method of making commons more useful
to the nation, via. their management and regulation as open
spaces. The effect of this legislation and of the changed attitude
of the House of Commons towards inclosure has been almost
to stop that process, except in the case of common fields or
extensive mountain wastes.
We have alluded to the regulation of commons as open spaces.
The primary object of this process is to bring a common under
the jurisdiction of some constituted authority, which Ifawfe-
may make by-laws, enforceable in a summary way **»"•
before the magistrates of the district, for its protection,
and may appoint watchers or keepers to preserve order and
prevent wanton mischief. There arc several mauast <& *s&&s&b^
7H
COMMONWEALTH— COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL
this object. Commons within the metropolitan police district—
the Greater London of the registrar-general — are in this respect
in a position by themselves. Under the Metropolitan Commons
Acts, schemes for their local management may be made by the
Board of Agriculture (in which the inclosure commission is now
merged) without the consent either of the owner of the soil or
the commoners — who, however, are entitled to compensation
if they can show that they are injuriously affected. Outside
the metropolitan police district a provisional order for regulation
may be made under the Commons Act 1876, with the consent
of the owner of the soil and of persons representing two-thirds
in value of all the interests in the common. And under an act
passed in 1800 the council of any urban or rural district may,
with the approval of the Board of Agriculture and without
recourse to parliament, make a scheme for the management of
any common within its district, provided no notice of dissent is
served on the board by the lord of the manor or by persons
representing one-third in value of such interests in the common
as are affected by the scheme. There is yet another way of
protecting a common. A parish council may, by agreement,
acquire an interest in it, and may make by-laws for its
regulation under the Local Government Act 1894. The acts of
1894 and 1809 undoubtedly proceed on right lines. For, with
the growth of efficient local government, commons naturally
fall to be protected and improved by the authority of the
district.
It remains to say a word as to the extent of common land
still remaining open in England and Wales. In 1843 it was
matMfrri estimated that there were still 10,000,000 acres of
common bnd and common-field land. In 1874 another
return madeby the inclosure commission made a guess of 2,632,772.
These two returns were made from the same materials, viz.
the tithe commutation awards. As less than 700,000 acres had
been inclosed in the intervening period, it is obvious that the
two estimates arc mutually destructive. In July 1S75 another
version was given in the Return of Landowners (generally
known as the Modern Domesday Book), compiled from the
valuation lists made for the purposes of rating. This return
put the commons of the country (not including common fields)
. at 1,542,648 acres. It is impossible to view any of these returns
as accurate. Those compiled from the tithe commutation awards
arc based largely on estimates, since there arc many parishes
where the tithes had not been commuted. On the other hand,
the valuation lists do not show waste and unoccupied land
(which is not rated), and consequently the information as to
such lands in the Return of Landowners was based on any
materials which might happen to be at the disposal of the clerk
of the guardians. All we can say, therefore, is that the acreage
of the remaining common land of the country is probably some-
where between 1,500,000 and 2,000,000 acres. It is most
capriciously distributed. In the Midlands there is very little
to be found, while in a county of poor soil, like Surrey, nearly
ovcry parish lias its common, and there arc large tracts of heath
and moor. In 1866, returns were made to parliament by the
overseers of the poor of the commons within 1 5 and within 25 m.
of Charing Cross. The acreage within the larger area was put
•* 3&t450 acres, and within the smaller at 13,301; but owing
to the difference of opinion which sometimes prevails upon the
question, whether land is common or not, and the carelessness
of some parish authorities as to the accuracy of their returns,
even these figures cannot be taken as more than approximately
correct. The metropolitan police district, within which the
Metropolitan Commons Acts are in force, approaches in extent
to a circle of 15 miles' radius. Within this district nearly
1 2,000 acres of common land have been put under local manage-
went, either by means of the Commons Acts or under special
legislation. London is fortunate in having secured so much
recreation ground on its borders. But when the enormous
popu,atio V«f the capital and its rapid growth and expansion
June considered, the conclusion is inevitable, that not one acre
w common land within an easy railway journey of the metropolis
Authorities. — Marshall, Elementary and Practical Treatise «•
Landed Properly (London, 1804): F. W. Maitland, Domesday Beek
and Beyond (Cambridge, 1897); Borough and Township (Cambrkip.
1898); F. Seebohm, The English Village Community (Lomka.
1883); Williams, Joshua. Rights of Common (London, 1880); C. 1.
Elton, A Treatise on Commons and Waste Lands (1868); T. L
Scrutton. On Commons and Common Fields (1887) ; H. R. Woolryth.
Rights of Common (1850); G. Shaw-Lefcvre. English Commons c*i
Forests (London, 1894) ; Sir W. Hunter, The Preservation of Open
Spaces (London, 1896); "The Movements for the Inclosure and
Preservation of Open Lands," Journal of the Royal Statistical Secuij,
voL Ix. part ii. (June 1897); Returns to House of Commons (1&4/.
No. 325; (1870), No. 326; (1874), No. 85; Return of Laxdtmwn
(1875); Annual Reports of Inclosure Commission and Board c/
Agriculture; Revised Statutes and Statutes at large (R. H.')
COMMONWEALTH, a term generally synonymous with
commonweal, i.e. publk welfare, but more particularly signify Ltj
a form of government in which the general public have a dim?
voice. " The Commonwealth " is used in a special sense w
denote the period in English history between the execution of
Charles I. in 1649 and the Restoration in 1660. Commonwealth is
also the official designation in America of the states of Massa-
chusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Kentucky. The Comiroa-
wcalth of Australia is the title of the federation of Australian
colonics carried out in 190a
COMMUNE (Med. Lat. commuvia, Lat. communis, common),
in its most general sense, a group of persons acting together lor
purposes of self-government, especially in towns. (Sec Boeoicr.
and Commune, Medieval, below.) " Commune " (Fr. comtstM,
Ital. comunc, Ger. Gcmcinde, &c.) is now the term generally applk«i
to the smallest administrative division in many Eumpcin
countries. (Sec the sections dealing with the administration c:
these countries under their several headings.) " The Commuav
is the name given to the period of the history of Fans free
March 18 to May 28, 1871, during which the commune of Paris
attempted to set up its authority against the National AsscirUy
at Versailles. It was a political movement, intended to replace
the centralized national organization by one based on a federal kra
of communes. Hence the " communists " were also ealkd
" federalists." It had nothing to do with the social theories of
Communism (q.v.). (Sec France: History.)
COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL. Under this head it is proposed to
give a short account of the rise and development of towns is
central and western continental Europe since the downfall of
the Roman Empire. All these, including also the British torn*
(for which, however, see Borough), may be said to have formed
one unity, inasmuch as all arose under similar conditior*.
economic, legal and political, irrespective of local peculiarity's.
Kindred economic conditions prevailed in all the former provinces
of the Western empire, while new law concepts were everywhere
introduced by the Germanic invaders. It is largely for the lai:cr
reason that it seems advisable to begin with an account of the
German towns, the term German to correspond to the limits of the
old kingdom of Germany, comprising the present empire, German
Austria, German Switzerland, Holland and a large portion of
Belgium. In their development the problem, as it were, worked
out least tainted by foreign interference, showing at the same
lime a rich variety in detail; and it may also be said that their
constitutional and economic history has been more thoroughly
investigated than any other.
Like the others, the German towns should be considered from
three points of view, viz. as jurisdictional units, as self-adminis-
trative units and as economic units. One of the chief distinguish-
ing features of early as opposed to modern town-life is that ewh
town formed a jurisdictional district distinct from the country
around. Another trait, more in accordance with the conditions
of to-day, is that local self-government was more fully developed
and strongly marked in the towns than without. And, thirdly,
each town in economic matters followed a policy as independent
as possible of that of any other town or of the country in general
The problem is, how this state of things arose.
From this point of view the German towns may be divided into
two main classes: those that gradually resuscitated on the ruins
> oC lotmet Roman dtiesia the Rhine and Danube countries, and
COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL
78S
those that were newly founded at a later date in the interior. 1
Foremost in importance among the former stand the episcopal
cities. Most of these had never been entirely destroyed during
the Germanic invasion. Roman civic institutions perished; but
probably parts of the population survived, and small Christian
congregations with their bishops in most cases seem to have
weathered all storms. Much of the city walls presumably re-
mained standing, and within them German communities soon
settled.
In the 10th century it became the policy of the German
emperors to hand over to the bishops full jurisdictional and
administrative powers within their cities. The bishop hence-
forward directly or indirectly appointed all officers for the town's
government. The chief of these was usually the advocatus or
Vogt, some neighbouring noble who served as the proctor of the
church in all secular affaire. It was his business to preside three
times a year over the chief law-court, the so-called eckte or
ungebotene Ding, under the cognizance of which fell all cases
relating to real property, personal freedom, bloodshed and
robbery. For the rest of the legal business and as president of
the ordinary court he appointed a Schuttheiss, centenarius or
cousidicus. Other officers were the Burggraf* or proefectus for
military matters, including the preservation of the town's
defences, wails, moat, bridges and streets, to whom also apper-
tained some jurisdiction over the craft-gilds in matters relating
to their crafts; further the customs-officer or tdeonarius and the
mint-master or monetae magister. It was not, however, the fact
of their being placed under the bishop that constituted these
towns as separate jurisdictional units. The chief feature rather
b the existence within their walls of a special law, distinct in
important points from that of the country at large. The towns
enjoyed a special peace, as it was called, i.e. breaches of the peace
were more severely punished if committed in a town than
elsewhere. Besides, the inhabitants might be sued before the
town court only, and to fugitives from the country who had taken
refuge in the town belonged a similar privilege. This special
legal status probably arose from the towns being considered in
the first place as the king's fortresses* or burgs (see Borough),
and, therefore, as participating in the special peace enjoyed by
the king's palace. Hence the terms " burgh," " borough " in
English, baurgs in Gothic, the earliest Germanic designations for a
town; " burgher," " burgess " for its inhabitants. What struck
the townless early Germans most about the Roman towns was
their mighty walls. Hence they applied to all fortified habita-
tions the term in use for their own primitive fortifications; the
walls remained with them the main feature distinguishing a town
from a village; and the fact of the town being a fortified place
likewise necessitated the special provisions mentioned for
maintaining the peace.
The new towns in the interior of Germany were founded on
land belonging to the founder, some ecclesiastical or. lay lord,
and frequently adjoining the cathedral close of one of the new sees
or the lord's castle, and they were laid out according to a regular
plan. The most important feature was the market-square, often
surrounded by arcades with stalls for the sale of the principal
commodities, and with a number of straight streets leading
thence to the city gates. 4 As for the fortifications, some
time naturally passed before they were completed. Furthermore,
the governmental machinery would be less complex than in the
older towns. The legal peculiarities distinguishing town and
country, on the other hand, may be said to have been conferred
I As to the former, see S. Rietsehcl, Die Chitas auf deutschem
Beden bis turn A us gang* der Karolingericit (Leipzig, 1894); and. for
the newly founded towns, the same author, Marht und Stadt in intern
rethtUehen Verhdltnis (Leipzig. 1897).
• About the Burggraf. see S. Rfet _
die hohe GerichtsbarheU in den deutschen BischofsstddUn wdkrend des
' About the Burggraf. see S. Rwtschcl, Das Burggrafenamt und
frtheren MUteiaUers (Leipzig, 1905).
* As to the towns as fortresses, see also F. Keutgcn, Untersuchungen
Cher dm Ur sprung der deutschen Siadtoerfassung (Leipzig. 1895) ; and
M Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtvcrfassung " (Neue Jahrbucher
fm>dasUassische AUertum. Ac., N.F. vol. v.).
. «9m £ Rietschel, Marht und Stadt, and J. Fritz, Deutsche Stadt-
M0ajt» (Scnssburg, 1894).
V1.18*
on the new towns in a more clearly defined form from the
beginning.
An important difference lay in the mode of settlement. There
is evidence that in the quondam Roman towns the German
newcomers settled much as in a village, i.e. each full member of
the community had a certain portion of arable land allotted to
him and a share in the common. Their pursuits would at first be
mainly agricultural. The new towns, on the other hand,
general economic conditions having meanwhile begun to undergo
a marked change, were founded with the intention of establishing
centres of trade. Periodical markets, weekly or annual, had
preceded them, which already enjoyed the special protection of
the king's ban, acts of violence against traders visiting them or on
their way towards them being subject to special punishment.
The new towns may be regarded as markets made permanent.
The settlers- invited were merchants (mercatores personati) and
handicraftsmen. The land now allotted to each member of the
community was just large enough for a house and yard, stabling
and perhaps a small garden (50 by 100 ft. at Freiburg, 60 by 100
ft. at Bern). These building plots were given as free property or,
more frequently, at a merely nominal rent (Wurtxins) with the
right of free disposal, the only obligation being that of building a
house. All that might be required besides would be a common
for the pasture of the burgesses' cattle.
The example thus set was readily followed in the older towns.
The necessary land was placed at the disposal of new settlers,
either by the members of the older agricultural community, or
by the various churches. The immigrants were of widely
differing status, many being serfs who came either with or
without their lords' permission. The necessity of putting a
stop to belated prosecutions on this account in the town court
led to the acceptance of the rule that nobody who had lived in a
town undisturbed for the term of a year and a day could any
longer be claimed by a lord as his serf. But even those who
had migrated into a town with their lords' consent could not
very well for long continue in serfdom. When, on the other
hand, certain bishops attempted to treat all new-comers to their
city as serfs, the emperor Henry V. in charters for Spires and
Worms proclaimed that in these towns all serf-like conditions
should cease. This ruling found expression in the famous
saying: Stadiluft mackt fret, " town-air renders free." As may
be imagined, this led to a rapid increase in population, mainly
during the nth to 13th centuries. There would be no difficulty
for the immigrants to find a dwelling, or to make a living, since
most of them would be versed in one or other of the crafts in
practice among villagers.
The most important further step in the history of the towns
was the establishment of an organ of self-government, the town-
council (Rat, consilium, its members, Ratmdnner, confutes, less
frequently consiliarit), with one, two or more burgomasters
{Biit germeister, magistri civium, proconsuks) at its head. (It
was only after the Renaissance that the town-council came to
be styled senate, and the burgomasters in Latin documents,
consults.) As units of local government the towns must be con-
sidered as originally placed on the same legal basis as the villages,
viz. as having the right of taking care of all common interests
below the cognizance of the public courts or of those of their
lord.* In the towns, however, this right was strengthened at
an early date by the jus negotiate. At least as early as the
beginning of the nth century, but probably long before that
date, mercantile communities claimed the right, .confirmed by
the emperors, of settling mercantile disputes according to a law
of their own, to the horror of certain conservative-minded clerics.*
Furthermore, in the rapidly developing towns, opportunities
for the exercise of self-administrative functions constantly
increased. The new self-governing body soon began to legislate
in matters of local government, imposing fines for the breach
1 G. von Below, Die Enistehung der deutschen Stadtgemeinda
(Dusseldorf, 1889); and Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung
(Dusseldorf, 1892).
•F. Keuteen, Urhunden mr stddtischen Verfassuntstfickidhuu
No. 74 *°d No. 7$ <£exU&, vy»\V
786
COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL
of its by-laws. Thus it assumed a jurisdiction, partly concurrent
with that of the lord, which it further extended to breaches
of the peace. And, finally, it raised funds by means of an
excise-duty, Ungcld (cf. the English malatolta) or Accise, Zeise.
In the older and larger towns it soon went beyond what the bishops
thought proper to tolerate; conflicts ensued; and in the 13th
century several bishops obtained decrees in the imperial court,
either to suppress the Rat altogether, or to make it subject to
their nomination, and more particularly to abolish the Ungetd,
as detrimental to episcopal finances. In the long run, however,
these attempts proved of little avail.
Meanwhile the tendency towards self-government fcpread even
to the lower ranks of town society, resulting in the establishment
of craft-gilds. From a very early period there is reason to believe
merchants among themselves formed gilds for social and religious
purposes, and for the furtherance of their economic interests.
These gilds would, where they existed, no doubt also influence
the management of town affairs; but nowhere has the Rat, as
used to be thought, developed out of a gild, nor has the latter
anywhere in Germany played a part at all similar in importance
to that of the English gild merchant, the only exception being
for a time the Richencche, or Gild of the Rich of Cologne, from
early times by far the largest, the richest, and the most important
trading centre among German cities, and therefore provided
with an administration more complex, and in some respects more
primitive, than any other. On the other hand, the most important
commodities offered for sale in the market had been subject to
official examination already in Carolingian times. Bakers',
butchers', shoemakers' stalls were grouped together in the
market-place to facilitate control, and with the same object in
view a master was appointed for each craft as its responsible
representative. By and by these crafts or " offices " claimed
the right of electing their master and of assisting him in examin-
ing the goods, and even of framing by-laws regulating the quality
of the wares and the process of their manufacture. The bishops
at first resented these attempts at self-management, as they had
done in the case of the town council, and imperial legislation
in their interests was obtained. But each craft at the same time
formed a society for social, beneficial and religious purposes,
and, as these were entirely in accordance whh the wishes of the
clerical authorities, the other powers could not in the long run
be withheld, including that of forcing ail followers of any craft
to join the gild {Zunjtzwang). Thus the official inspection of
markets, community of interests on the part of the craftsmen,
and co-operation for social and religious ends, worked together
in the formation of craft-gilds. It is not suggested that in each
individual town the rise of the gilds was preceded by an organiza-
tion of crafts on the part of the lord and his officers; but it is
maintained that as a general thing voluntary organization could
hardly have proceeded on such orderly lines as on the whole it
did, unless the framework had in the first instance been hid
down by the authorities: much as in modern times the working
together in factories has practically been an indispensable
preliminary to the formation of trade unions. Much less would
the principle of forced entrance have found such ready acceptance
both on the part of the authorities and on that of the men,
unless it had previously been in full practice and recognition
under the system of official market-control. The different names
for the societies, viz. fraternitas, Briidcrschaft, ojficium, Ami,
condutum, Zutift, unio, Innung, do not signify different kinds
of societies, but only different aspects of the same thing. The
word Cilie alone forms an exception, inasmuch as, generally
speaking, it was used by merchant gilds only. 1
From an early date the towns, more particularly the older
episcopal cities, took a part in imperial politics. Legally the
bishops were in their cities mere representatives of the imperial
government. This fact found formal expression mainly in two
Ity^tt k' r * 1 f» X **' although appointed by the bishop, received
the ban," i.e. the power of having justice executed, which
dbJct^lL?! 1 t0 ^ ^ csser °^' ccn ' from lhe king or emperor
.Broadly, whenever the emperor held a cwria general is
F. Keutgen, Amler undZunJU Jena, 1903).
(or general assembly, or diet) in one of the episcopal cities, and
for a week before and after, all jurisdictional and administrative
power reverted to him and his immediate officers. The cituens
on their part clung to this connexion and made use of it whenever
their independence was threatened by their bishops, who strongly
inclined to consider themselves lords of their cathedral cities,
much as if these had been built on church-lands. As early is
1073, therefore, we find the citizens of Worms successfully risirj
against their bishop in order to provide the emperor Henry IV
with a refuge against the rebellious princes. Those of Cobgr:
made a similar attempt in 1074. But a second class of imperial
cities (Reicksslddtc), much more numerous than the former,
consisted of those founded on demesne-land belonging either
to the Empire or to one of the families who rose to impcriii
rank. This class was largely reinforced, when after the extinc-
tion of the royal house of Hohcnstaufen in the 13th century,
a great number of towns founded by them on their demesne
successfully claimed immediate subjection to the crown. Abou*.
this time, during the interregnum, a federation of more than
a hundred towns was formed, beginning on the Rhine, but
spreading as far as Bremen in the north, Zurich in the south,
and Regcnsburg in the east, with the object of helping to present
the peace. After the death of King William in 1756, the)
resolved to recognize no king unless unanimously elected. Tb&
league was joined by a powerful group of princes and nc-bks
and found recognition by the prince-electors of the Empire.
but for want of leadership it did not stand the test, when Richard
of Cornwall and Alphonso of Castile were elected rival kings a
1257.* In the following centuries the imperial cities in south
Germany, where most of them were situated, repeatedly formed
leagues to protect their interests against the power of the
princes and the nobles, and destructive wars were waged; but
no great political issue found solution, the relative position cf
the parties after each war remaining much what it had beta
before. On the part of the towns this was mainly due to lack
of leadership and of unity of purpose. At the time of tae
Reformation the imperial towns, like most of the others, stood
forward as champions of the new cau^e and did valuable service
in upholding and defending it. After that, however, their
political part was played out, mainly because they proved unable
to keep up with modern conditions of warfare. It should be
stated that seven among the episcopal cities, viz. Cologne, Mains.
Worms, Spires, Strassburg, Basel and Regcnsburg, claimed ft
privileged position as " Free Cities," but neither is the ground
for this claim clearly established, nor its nature well defined.
The general obligations of the imperial cities towards the Empire
were the payment of an annual fixed tax and the furnishing
of a number of armed men for imperial wars, and from these
the above-named towns claimed some measure of exemption-
Some of the imperial cities lost their independence at an early
date, as unredeemed pledges to some prince who had advanced
money to the emperor. Others seceded as members of tbe
Swiss Confederation. But a considerable number survhed
until the reorganization of the Empire in 1803. At the peace
in 1 81 5, however, only four were spared, namely, Frankfort.
Bremen, Hamburg and Lubcck, these being practically the only
ones still in a sufficiently flourishing and economically independ-
ent position to warrant such preferential treatment. But finally
Frankfort, having chosen the wrong side in the war of 1866,
was annexed by Prussia, and only the three seaboard towns
remain as full members of the new confederate Empire under
the style of Frcic und Hanscsliidtc. But until modern times
most of the larger Landslddte or mesne- towns for all intents
and purposes were as independent under their lords as the im-
perial cities were under the emperor. They e\cn followed a
foreign policy of their own, concluded treaties with foreign
powers or made war upon them. Nearly all the Hanseaiic town
belonged to this category. With others like Bremen, Hamburf
and Magdeburg, it was long in the balance which class they be-
longed to. All towns of any importance, however, were for a
considerable time far ahead of the principalit ies in administration.
1 * \ . Yiosi&Ktas , Dcf f keiwutke But* iTubuQen, 1879).
COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL
787
It was largely this fact that gave them power. When,
therefore, from about the 15th century the princely territories
came to be better organized, much of the raison d'Hre for the
exceptional position held by the towns disappeared. The towns
from an early date made it their policy to suppress the exercise
of all handicrafts in the open country. On the other hand, they
sought an increase of power by extending rights of citizenship
to numerous individual inhabitants of the neighbouring villages
(Pfalbiirger, a term not satisfactorily explained). By this and
other means, e.g. the purchase of estates by citizens, many
towns gradually acquired a considerable territory. These
tendencies both princes and lesser nobles naturally tried to
thwart, and the mediate towns or Land si ad te were finally brought
to stricter subjection, at least in the greater principalities such
as Austria and Brandenburg. Besides, the less favourably
situated towns suffered through the concentration of trade in
the hands of their more fortunate sisters. But the economic
decay and consequent loss of political influence among both
imperial and territorial towns must be chiefly ascribed to inner
causes.
Certain leading political economists, notably K. Biicher
(Die Bevdlkerung ton Frankfurt a. M. im 14101 uttd i$len Jakr-
kundcrt, i., Tubingen, 1886; Die Entstchung der Volkrurirt-
sckaft, 5th ed., Tubingen, 1906), and, in a modified form, W.
Sombart (Der modern* KapilaJismus, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1902),
have propounded the doctrine of one gradual progression from
an agricultural state to modern capitalistic conditions. This
theory, however, is nothing less than an outrage on history.
As a matter of fact, as far-as modern Europe is concerned, there
has twice been a progression, separated by a period of retrogression,
and it is to the latter that Bucher's picture of the agricultural
and strictly protectionist town (the gcscklossene Stadlwirlschajl)
of the 14th and 15th centuries belongs, while Sombart's notion
of an entire absence of a spirit of capitalistic enterprise before
the middle of the 1 5th century in Europe north of the Alps, or
the 14th century in Italy, is absolutely fantastic. 1 The period
of the rise of cities till well on in the 13th century was naturally
a period of expansion and of a considerable amount of freedom
of trade. It was only afterwards that a protectionist spirit
gained the upper hand, and each town made it its policy to
restrict as far as possible the trade of strangers. In this re-
volution the rise of the lower strata of the population to power
played an important part.
The craft-gilds had remained subordinate to the Rat, but
by -and -by they claimed a share in the government of the towns.
Originally any inhabitant holding a certain measure of land,
freehold or subject to the mere nominal ground-rent above-
mentioned, was a full citizen independently of his calling, the
clergy and the lord's retainers and servants of whatever rank,
who claimed exemption from scot and lot, to use the English
formula, alone excepted. The majority of the artisans, however,
were not in this happy position. Moreover, the town council,
Instead of being freely elected, filled up vacancies in its ranks by
co-optation, with the result that all power became vested in a
limited number of rich families. Against this state of things
the crafts rebelled, alleging mismanagement, malversation and
the withholding of justice. During the 14th and 15th centuries
revolutions and counter-revolutions, sometimes accompanied
by considerable slaughter, were frequent, and a great variety
of more democratic constitutions were tried. Zurich, however,
is the only German place where a kind of tyrannis, so frequent
in Italy, came to be for a while established. On the whole it
must be said that in those towns where the democratic party
gained the upper hand an unruly policy abroad and a narrow-
minded protection at home resulted. An inclination to hasty
measures of war and an unwillingness to observe treaties among
the democratic towns of Swabia were largely responsible for the
1 G. v. Below, Der Untergang der ntiUelalterlichen Stadtwirtschafl;
Ober Theorien der vnrtuhaf (lichen Entwicklung der Votker; F.
Keutgen, " Hansiscbe HandeJsgcsellschaften. vornchmlich des 14 ten
jahrhunderta," in Vifrteljokrwhnft fur Saxial- und WirlsckafU-
--"-• ^.voLiv. (1906).
disasters of the war of the Swabian League in the 14th century.
At home, whereas at first markets had been free and open to
any comer, a more and more protective policy set in, traders
from other towns being subjected more and more to vexatious
restrictions. It was also made increasingly difficult to obtain
membership in the craft-gilds, high admission fees and so-called
masterpieces being made a condition. Finally, the number of
members became fixed, and none but members' sons and sons-in-
law, or members' widows' husbands were received. The first
result was the formation of a numerous proletariate of life-long
assistants and of men and women forcibly excluded from follow-
ing any honest trade; and the second consequence, the economic
ruin of the town to the exclusive advantage of a limited number.
From the end of the 15th century population in many towns
decreased, and not only most of the smaller ones, but even some
once important centres of trade, sank to the level almost of
villages. Those cities, on the other hand, where the mercantile
community remained in power, like Nuremberg and the seaboard
towns, on the whole followed a more enlightened policy, although
even they could not quite keep clear of the ever-growing
protective tendencies of the time. Many even of the richer
towns, notably Nuremberg, ran into debt irretrievably, owing
partly to an exorbitant expenditure on magnificent public
buildings and extensive fortifications, calculated to resist modem
instruments of destruction, partly to a faulty administration
of the public debt. From the 13 th century the towns had issued
(" sold," as it was called)annuitics, either for life or for perpetuity
in ever-increasing number, until it was at last found impossible
to raise the funds necessary to pay them.
One of the principal achievements of the towns by in the
field of legislation. Their law was founded originally on the
general national (or provincial) law, on custom, and on special
privilege. New foundations were regularly provided by their
lord with a charter embodying the most important points of the
special law of the town in question. This miniature code would
thenceforth be developed by means of statutes passed by the
town council. The codification of the law of Augsburg in 1276
already fills a moderate volume in print (ed. by Christian Meyer,
Augsburg, 1872). Later foundations were frequently referred
by their founders to the nearest existing town of importance,
though that might belong to a different lord. Afterwards, if
a question in law arose which the court of a younger town found
itself unable to answer, the court next senior in affiliation was
referred to, which in turn would apply to the court above, until
at last that of the original mother town was reached, whose
decision was final. This system was chiefly developed in the
colonial east, where most towns were affiliated directly or
indirectly either to Lubcck or to Magdeburg; but it was by no
means unknown in the home country. A number of collections
of such judgments (SchdfensprUche) have been published. It is
also worth mentioning that it was usual to read the police by-laws
of a town at regular intervals to the assembled citizens in a
morning-speech (M or gens pr ache)*
To turn to Italy, the country for so many centuries in dose
political connexion with Germany, the foremost thing to be
noted is that here the towns grew to even greater independence,
many of them in the end acknowledging no overlord whatever
after the yoke of the German kings had been shaken off. On
the other hand, nearly all of them in the long run fell under the
sway of some local tyrant-dynasty.
From Roman times the country had remained thickly studded
with towns, each being the seat of a bishop. From this arose
their most important peculiarity. For it was largely due to an
identification of dioceses and municipal territories that the nobles
of the surrounding country took up their headquarters in the
cities, either voluntarily or because forced to do so by the citizens,
who made it their policy thus to turn possible opponents into
partisans and defenders. In Germany, on the other hand,
'On this whole subject tee Richard Schroder, Lehrbueh der
deutschen Rechtseeschiehte (5th ed., Leipzig. 1907), ft 56. " Die Stadt-
rechte." Also Charles Gross. The Gild Merchant. (Oxford, 1690),
voL i. Appendix E. " Affiliation «( Mc.dvcx«L Rat<su$&r
788
COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL
nobles and knights were carefully shut out so long as the town's
independence was at stake, the members of a princely garrison
being required to take up their abode in the citadel, separated
from the town proper by a wall. Only in the comparatively
few cathedral cities this rule does not obtain. It will be seen
that, in consequence of this, municipal life in Italy was from the
first more complex, the main constituent parts of the population
being the capitani, or greater nobles, the nhassori, or lesser
nobles (knights) and the people (popoio). Furthermore, the
bishops being in most cases the exponents of the imperial power,
the struggle for freedom from the latter ended in a radical rid-
dance from all temporal episcopal government as welL Foremost
in this struggle stood the cities of Lombardy, most of which all
through the barbarian invasions had kept their walls in repair
and maintained some importance as economic centres, and whose
popoio largely consisted of merchants of some standing. As
early as the 8th century the laws of the Langobard King Aistulf
distinguished three classes of merchants (negotiants) t among
whom the majores et poUntes were required to keep themselves
provided with horse, lance, shield and a cuirass. The valley of
the Po formed the main artery of trade between western Europe
and the East, Milan being besides the point of convergence for
all Alpine passes west of the Brenner (the St Gotthard, however,
was not made accessible until early in the 13th century). Lom-
bard merchants soon spread all over western Europe, a chief
source of their ever-increasing wealth being their employment
as bankers of the papal see.
The struggle against the bishops, in which a clamour for a
reform of clerical life and a striving for local self-government
were strangely interwoven, had raged for a couple of generations
when King Henry V., great patron of municipal freedom as he
was, legalized by a series of charters the status quo (Cremona,
kna, Mantua, 11 16). But under his weak successors the inde-
pendence of the cities reached such a pitch as to be manifestly
intolerable to an energetic monarch like Frederick I. Besides,
the more powerful among them would subdue or destroy their
weaker neighbours, and two parties were formed, one headed
by Milan, the other by Cremona. Como and Lodi complained
of the violence used to them by the former city. Therefore in
1158 a commission was appointed embracing four Roman legists
as representatives of the emperor, as well as those of fourteen
towns, to examine into the imperial and municipal rights. The
claims of the imperial government, jurisdictional and other,
were acknowledged, only such rights of self-government being
admitted as could be shown to be grounded on imperial charters.
But when it came to carrying into effect these Roncaglian decrees,
a general rising resulted. Milan was besieged by the emperor
and destroyed in 1x62 in accordance with the verdict of her
rivals. Nevertheless, after a defeat at Lcgnano in 1 1 76, Frederick
was forced to renounce all pretensions 10 interference with the
government of the cities, merely retaining an over lordship that
was not much more than formal (peace of Constance in 1183).
All through this war the towns had been supported by Pope
Alexander III. Similarly under Frederick II. the renewal of the
Struggle between emperor and pope dovetailed with a fresh out-
break of the war with the cities, who feared lest an imperial
triumph over the church would likewise threaten their independ-
ence. The emperor's death finally decided the issue in their favour.
Constitutionally, municipal freedom was based on the forma-
tion of a commune headed by elected consuls, usually to the
number of twelve, representing the three orders of capitani,
•ohos wri and popoio. Frequcntly,howcvcr,the number actually
wielding power was much more restricted, and their |m*ition
altogether may rather be likened to that of their Roman prrdc-
cessors than to that of their German contemporaries. In all
Important matters they asked the advice and supiKtrt nf " whe
mm" npktties, discretions, pr admits, an n Iwnly ml led the
erraenso, while the popular assembly (p*irlomrntum, concio,
tout Mum vneroU) was the t rue sovereign. The consuls with the
s— island of judical also presided in the law-courts; but besides
tW «MHMb of the commune there were consults do ptaoMs
VKialyappstaierffBrJnriMficCionaipufposes. '
In spite of these multifarious safeguards, however, (amir/
factions early destroyed the fabric of liberty, especially as, jurt
as there was an imperial, or GhibeUine, and a papal, or Guelph
party among the cities as a whole, thus also within each torn
each faction would allege adherence to and claim support by
one or other of the great world-powers. To get out of the dikmai
of party-government, resort was thereupon had to the appeal*
ment as chief magistrate of a podestd from among the noble* oc
knights of a different part of the country not mixed up with the
local feuds. But the end was in most cases the establishment of
the despotism of some leading family, such as the Yisconii at
Milan, the Gonxaga at Mantua, the della Seal* in Verona and
the Carrara in Padua.
In Tuscany, the historic role of the cities, with the exception
of Pisa, begins at a later date, largely owing to the ovcrlordship
of the powerful margraves of the house of CanosM and their
successors, who here represented the emperor. Pisa, however,
together with Genoa, all through the nth century distinguished
itself by war waged in the western Mediterranean and its isks
against the Saracens. Both cities, along with Venice, but especi-
ally the Genoese, also did excellent service in reducing the
Syrian coast towns still in the hands of the Turks in the reign
of Kings Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. of Jerusalem, while more
particularly Pisa with great constancy placed her fleet at the
disposal of the Hohenstaufen emperors for warfare with Sicily.
Meanwhile communes with consuls at their head were fanned
in Tuscany much as elsewhere. On the other hand the Tuscu
cities managed to prolong the reign of liberty to a much lata
epoch, no podestd ever quite succeeding here in his attempts to
establish the rule of his dynasty. Even when in the second hiS
of the 15th century the Medici in Florence attained to pomr,
the form at least of a republic was still maintained, and not nU
1 531 did one of them, supported by Charles V., assume the deal
title.
Long before the last stage, the rule of signori, was reached
however, the commune as originally constituted had evcrywben
undergone radical changes. As early as the 13th century the
lower orders among the inhabitants formed an organiialitt
under officers of their own, side by side with that of the commuK,
which was controlled by the great and the rich ; e.g. at Florence
the people in 1250 rose against the turbulent nobles and chose 1
capitano del popoio with twelve anziani, two from each of Ux
six city-wards (scslicri), as his council. The popoio itself wis
divided into twenty armed companies, each under a gonjalimet.
But later the arti (craft-gilds), some of whom, however, can be
shown to have existed under consuls of their own as early is
1203, attained supreme importance, and in 1282 the government
was placed in the hands of their priori, under the name of the
signoria. The Guelph nobles were at first admitted to a shaxr
in the government, on condition of their entering a gild, but a
1 393 even this privilege was withdrawn. The ordinamenti d<Ui
giustixia of that year robbed the nobility of all political power.
The lesser or lower arti on the other hand, were conceded s
full share in it, and a gon/alonicre delta giustizia was placed at
the head of the militia. In the 14th century twelve bucmi ucmtu
representing the wards (sestieri) were superadded, all these
dignitaries holding office for two months only. And besides all
these, there existed three competing chief justices and com-
manders of the forces called in from abroad and holding office far
six months, viz. the podestd, the capitano del popoio, and tat
esecutore della giustizia. In spite of all this complicated machinery
of checks and balances, revolution followed; upon revolution,
nor could an occasional reign of terror be prevented like that sf
the Signore Gauthier de Brienne, duke of Athens (1341-13431
It was not till after a rising of the lowest order of aB, the ft»
dustrial labourers, had been su ppresse d in 1378 (fsnsmnw da
Ciompi, the wool-combers), that quieter times ensued ussder tit
wise leadership, first of the Albbal and finally of the HeeSd.
The history of the othsr Tuscan towns wasc
all of them save Loses, altar many Atfri 1
under the sway of Ftertwti, or IM jnnif rtlnftj uf "
thaa uu was now n i o s rl Pfat,*
COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL
789
crushed between its inland neighbour and its maritime rival
Genoa (battle of Meloria, 1282).
Apart in its constitutional development from all other towns
in Italy, and it might be added, in Europe, stands Venice.
Almost alone among Italian cities its origin does not go back to
Roman times. It was not till the invasions of Hun and Lango-
bard that fugitives from the Venetian mainland took refuge
among the poor fishermen on the small islands in the lagoons
«nd on the lido— the narrow stretch of coast-line which separates
the lagoons from the Adriatic — some at Grado, some at Mala-
mocco, others on Rialto. A number of small communities was
formed under elected tribunes, acknowledging as their sovereign
the- emperoL at Constantinople. Treaties of commerce were
concluded with the Langobard kings, thus assuring a market
for the sale of imports from the East and for the purchase of
agricultural produce. Just before or after A.D. 700 the young
republic seems to have thrown off the rule of the Byzantine dux
Histriaeet Venetiae and elected a duke (doge) of its own, in whom
was vested the executive power, the right to convoke the popular
assembly (concio) and appoint tribunes and justices. Political
unity was thus established, but it was not till after another
century of civil war that Rialto was definitely chosen the seat
of government and thus the foundation of the present city laid.
After a number of attempts to establish a hereditary dukedom,
Duke Domenico Flabianico in 1032 passed a law providing that
no duke was to appoint his successor or procure him to be elected
during his own lifetime. Besides this two councils were appointed
without whose consent nothing of importance was to be done.
After the murder by the people of Duke Vitale Michiel in 11 72,
who had suffered naval defeat, it was deemed necessary to
introduce a stricter constitutional order. According to the
orthodox account, some details of which have, however, recently
been impugned, 1 the irregular popular meeting was replaced by a
great council of from 450 to 480 members elected annually by
special appointed electors in equal proportion from each of
the six wards. One of the functions of this body was to appoint
most of the state officials or their electors. There was also an
executive council of six, one from each ward. Besides these,
the duke, who was henceforward elected by a body of eleven
electors from among the aristocracy, would invite persons of
prominence (the frcgadi) in order to secure their assent and co-
operation, whenever a measure of importance was to be placed
before the great council. Only under extraordinary circum-
stances the concio was still to be called. The tenure of the duke's
office was for life. The general tendency of constitutional
development in Venice henceforward ran in an exactly opposite
direction to that of all other Italian cities towards a growing
restriction of popular rights, until in 1206 the great council
was for all future time closed to all but the descendants of a
limited number of noble families, whose names were in that year
entered in the Golden Book. It still remained to appoint a
board to superintend the executive power. These were the
owvogadori di commune, and, since Tiepolo's conspiracy in 13 10,
the Consigiio dei Died, the Council of Ten, whkh controlled the
whole of the state, and out of which there developed in the z6th
century the state inquisition.
While in all prominent Italian cities the leading classes of the
community were largely made up of merchants, in Venice the
nobility was entirely commercial. The marked steadiness in the
evolution of the Venetian constitution is no doubt largely due to
this fact. Elsewhere the presence of large numbers of turbulent
country nobles furnished the first germ for the unending dis-
sensions which ruined such promising beginnings. In Venice, on
the contrary, its businesslike habits of mind led the ruling class
to make what concessions might seem needful, while both the
imsjn and the head of the state were kept in due subjection to
the laws. Too much stability, however, finally changed into
stagnation* and decay followed. The foreign policy of Venice
was likewise mainly dictated by commercial motives, the chief
ob j e ctiv e s being commecdal privilege in the Byxantine empire
and is theFnuakish states in the Fast, domination of the Adriatic,
•H. Kretsdusayr. O w k U kHw m Martfe <v*l> I. (Gotha. 190$).
occupation of a sufficient hinterland on the terra firma, non-
sufferance of the rivalry of Genoa, and, finally, maintenance of
trade-supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean through a series of
alternating wars and treaties with Turkey, the lasting monument
of which was the destruction of the Parthenon in 1685 by a
Venetian bomb. At last the proud republic surrendered to
Napoleon without a stroke.
The cities of southern Italy do not here call for special attention.
Several of them developed a certain amount of independence
and free' institutions, and took an important part in trade
with the East, notably so Amalfi. But after incorporation in
the Norman kingdom all individual history for them came to
an end.
Rome, finally, derived its importance from being the capital of
the popes and from its proud past. From time to time spasmodic
attempts were made to revive the forms of the ancient republic,
as under Arnold of Brescia in the 12th and by Niccold di Rienao
in the 14th century, but there was no body of stalwart, self-
reliant citizens to support such measures: nothing but turbulent
nobles on the one hand and a rabble on the other.
In no country is there such a clear grouping of the towns on
geographical lines as in France, these geographical lines, of course,
having in the first instance been drawn by historical causes
Another feature is the extent to v'.ich, in the unruly times
preceding the civic movement, serfdom had spread among the
inhabitants even of the towns throughout the greater part of the
country, and the application of feudal ideas to town government.
In some other respects the constitution of the cities in the south
of France, as will be seen, has more in common with that of the
Italian communes, and that of the northern French towns with
those of Germany, than the constitutions of the various groups of
French towns have among each other
In the group of the lilies consulaires, comprising all important
towns in the south, the executive was, as in Italy, in the hands of
a body of consults, whose number in most cases rose to twelve.
They were elected for the term of one year and re-eligible only
after an interval, and they were supported by a municipal council
(commune consilium, consilium magnum or secrelum or generate, or
colloquium) and a general assembly {parlamentum, concio, commune
consilium, commune, universitas civiutn), which, however, as a
rule was far from comprising the whole body of citizens. Another
feature whkh these southern towns had in common with their
Italian neighbours was the prominent part played by the native
nobility. The relations with the clergy were generally of a more
friendly character than in the north, and in some cases the bishop
or archbishop even retained a considerable influence in the
management of the town's affairs. Dissensions among the
citizens, or between the nobles and the bourgeois, frequently
ended in the adoption of a podestal. And in several cities of the
Languedoc, each of the two classes composing the population
retained its separate laws and customs. It is matter of dispute
whether vestiges of Roman institutions had survived in these
parts down to the time when the new constitutions sprang into
being; but all investigators are pretty well agreed that in no
case did such remnants prove of any practical importance.
Roman law, however, was never quite superseded by Germanic
law, as appears from the slat ids municipaux. In the improvement
and expansion of these statutes a remarkable activity was dis-
played by means of an annual correctio staiutorum carried out by
specially appointed slalutores. In the north, on the other hand,
the carta communiae, forming as it were the basis of the com-
mune's existence, seems to have been considered almost as
something sacred and unchangeable.
The constitutional history of the communes in northern France
in a number of points widely differed from that of these miles
consulages. First of all the movement for their establishment in
most cases was to a far greater degree of a revolutionary character.
These revolutions were in the first place directed against the
bishops; but the position both of the higher clergy and of the
nobility was here of a nature distinctly more hostile to the
aspirations of the citiaens than it was in the «au.th~ &s> vwk&Jl
the okrgy anA tint mft tes" < m&« ^O &A^fcVromaSL \M«ap«x6ig» A
79°
COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL
the commune, except inasmuch as that those residing in the town
might be required to swear not to conspire against it. The
commune (communia, communa, communio, communitas, con-
juratio, confoederatio) was formed by an oath of mutual help
(sacramentum, juramentum communiae). The members were
described Mjurali (also burgenses, vicini, amici), although in some
communes that term was reserved for the members of the govern-
ing body. None but men of free and legitimate birth, and free
from debt and contagious or incurable disease were received.
The members of the governing body were styled juris 0'nra/i),
pairs (pares) or ichevins (scabini). The last was, however, as in
Germany, more properly the title of the jurors in the court of
justice, which in many cases remained in the hands of the lord.
In some cases the town council developed out of this body; but
in the larger cities, like Rouen, several councils worked and all
these names were employed side by side. The number of the
members of the governing body proper varies from twelve to a
hundred, and its functions were both judicial and administrative.
There was also known an arrangement corresponding to the
German alle und sitzende Rat, viz. of retired members who could
be called in to lend assistance on important occasions. The most
striking distinction, however, as against the villcs consulaire* was
the elevation of the president of the body to the position of maire
or nayeur (sometimes also called prttbl, praepositus). As else-
where, at first none but the civic aristocracy were admitted to
take part in the management of the town's affairs; but from the
end of the 13th century a share had to be conceded to representa-
tives of the crafts. Dissatisfaction, however, was not easily
allayed; the lower orders applied for the intervention of the
king; and that effectively put an end to political freedom. This
tendency of calling in state help marks a most striking difference
as against the policy followed by the German towns, where all
classes appear to have been always far too jealous of local
independence. The result for the nation was in the one case
despotism, equality and order, in the other individual liberty
and an inability to move as a whole. At an earlier stage the king
had frequently come to the assistance of the communes in their
struggle with their lords. By-and-by the king's confirmation
came to be considered necessary for their lawful existence.
This proved a powerful lever for the extension of the king's
authority. It may seem strange that in France the towns never
had recourse to those intcrurban leagues which played so im-
portant a part in Italian and in German history.
These two varieties, the communes and the villcs consulages
together form the group of villcs libres. As opposed to these
'stand the villcs f ranches, also called villcs prevolalcs after the
chief officer, villcs de bourgeoisie or villcs soumiscs. They make
up by far the majority of French towns, comprising all those
situated in the centre of the kingdom, and also a large number
in the north and the south. They are called titles /ranches on
account of their possessing a franchise, a charter limiting the
services due by the citizens to their lord, but political status they
had little or none. According to the varying extent of the
liberties conceded them, there may be distinguished towns
governed by an elective body and more or less fully authorized
to exercise jurisdiction; towns possessing some sort of municipal
organization, but no rights of jurisdiction, except that of simple
police; and, thirdly, those governed entirely by scignorial
officers. To this last class belong some of the most important
cities in France, wherever the king had power enough to withhold
liberties deemed dangerous and unnecessary. On the other
band, towns of the first category often come close to the villcs
libres. A strict line of demarcation, however, remains in the
mutual oath which forms the basis of the civic community in
both varieties of the latter, and in the fact that the ville libre
stands to its lord in the relation of vassal and not in that of
Si mm ^? ate r ° MfM ' P - But however complclcmcnl assujettie
Pari* might be, its organization, naturally, was immensely more
complex than that of hundreds of smaller places which, formally,
JS? "J?" - , ** ° *fc«fcai relationship to their lords. Like
£ZL TZJS^" «■** ^e king, Paris was governed by a
*%**» (provost;, bu certain /unctions of self -goyerameat fox
the city were delegated to the company of the marckands it
Veau, marcalores aquae, also called mcrcaiorcs ansati, that a,
the gild of merchants whose business by down the river Seise,
in other words, a body naturally exclusive, not, however, to
the citizens as such. At their head stood a prtodt des mcrckasdi
and four eschevins de la merchandise. Other prud'kvmma were
occasionally called in, and from 1296 prevdt and ichevins ap>
pointed twenty-four councillors to form with themselves a
parloir aux bourgeois. The crafts of Paris were organized is
miliars, whose masters were appointed, some by the prMt ii
Paris, and some by certain great officers of the court- la lie
tax rolls of a.d. 1292 to 1300 no fewer than 448 names of oafs
occur, while the Livre des milters written in 1 268 by £tienne de
Boileau, then prtvM de Paris, enumerates xoz organized bodies
of tradesmen or women and artisans. Among the duties of these
bodies, as elsewhere, was the guct or night-watch, which neces*
sitatcd a military organization under quartiniers, cinquantainim
and dixainiers. This gave them a certain power. But both
their revolutions, under the prtvM des marckands, fitienne Mixed
after the battle of Maupertuis, and again in 13S2, were extremely
short-lived, and the only tangible result was a stricter subjects
to the king and his officers.
An exceptional position among the cities of France is takes
up by those of Flanders, more particularly the three " Grut ,
Towns," Bruges, Ghent and Ypres, whose population wi [
Flemish, i.e. German. They sprang up at the foot of the court*
castles and rose in close conjunction with his power. On ths
accession of a new house they made their power felt as erly
as 1 1 28. Afterwards the counts of the house of Dampierre H
into financial dependence on the burghers, and therefore aCicd
themselves with the rising artisans, led by the weavers. These,
however, proved far more unruly, bloody conflicts ensued, arc"
for a considerable period the three great cities ruled the wt«
of Flanders with a high hand. Their influence in the tenia
relations of the country was likewise great, it being in their
interest to keep up friendly relations with England, on whoa
wool the flourishing state of the staple industry of FlanJen
depended. It is a remarkable fact that the historical posnxa
taken up by these cities, which politically belonged to France,
is much more akin to the part played by the German towns,
whereas Cambrai, whose population was French, is the only c'ft
politically situated in Germany, where a commune came to «
established.
In the Spanish peninsula, the chief importance of the numenra
small towns lay in the part they played as fortresses during the
unceasing wars with the Moors. The kings therefore exteffiW
special privileges (Jucros) to the inhabitants, and they were era
at an early date admitted to representation in the Cortes (parfo-
ment). Of greater individual importance than all the rest *»
Barcelona. Already in 1068 Count Bcrcngaxius gave the city
a special law (usalici) based on its ancient usages, and from \ht
14th century its commercial code (libro del consolal dd mst\
became influential all over southern Europe.
The constitutions of the Scandinavian towns were largely
modelled on those of Germany, but the towns never attained
anything like the same independence. Their dependence c*
the royal government most strongly comes out in the fact d
their being uniformly regulated by royal law in each of the
three kingdoms. In Sweden particularly, German merchants
by law took an equal share in the government of the tons
In Denmark their influence was also great, and only in Norway
did they remain in the position of foreigners in spite of their
famous settlement at Bergen. The details, as well as those of the
German settlement at Wisby and on the east coast of the Baltic,
belong rather to the history of the Hanseatic League <f a).
Denmark appears to be the only one of the three fcfc^ g***
where gflds at an early date played a part of importance.
Bibliography.— The ooty book dealing whh the aafcssct ii
Ssneral, vie. K. D. Hullmann, SiidtemmTiu UiUtUUtn 2«JSw
onn, 1826-1 828). bquite anrionatsd. ForGcmsra It WW M
Bonn. 1826-1828). is quire anriqnafd. I
consult Richard Sr h rod er , Lekimmk dm wmmmm jms«sssm
tan ed., Ldon* 1007). |(sij sad fft. wWs * UUfaSZESE
COMMUNISM
79 *
Mpects of the question, and of world on the history of individual
towns. The latter alone covers two lane octavo pages of small
print. As a sort of complement to Schroder's chapters may be con*
sidered, F. Keutgen, Urkunden tur stddtischen VerfassunrsgescMchte
(Berlin; tool - Ausgetodhlie Urkunden but deulschen Verfassungs- \
gesckichU, o% G. von Below and F. Keutgen, vol. I), a collection of
437 select charters and other documents, with a very full index.
The great work of G. L. von Maurer, Gtschichtt der Siddteverfauung
won Deutschland U thick vols., Eiiaogcn, 1869-187 1), contains an
enormous mass of information not always treated quite so critically
as the present age requires. There is an excellent succinct account
for general readers by Georg von Below," Das altere deutsche Stadte-
wesen und Burgertura," Monojtrapkien but WeUgesckickte, voL vi.
(Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1898, illustrated). A number of the most
important recent monographs have been mentioned above. As
toe I Lily, the most valuable general work for ihe early limes is still
Carl Hegel, Gwckicklr der St&dtetxrf aiiung von Itaiien seii der Zeil
der romiizken It err seta: ft his ium A usgang rfri zwiflften Jahrhundera (3
im j 1 [ vol? . , Lf Epiig ( 1 S^ 7 . price tceana- ha n d „ M . 41 j) „ i 11 w h it h i t •+• a a for
the first time fully proved that there is no connexion between Roman
and modern municipal constitutions. For the period from, the 13 th
century it will perhaps be best to consult W. Aumann, Gt^chichtt
fat Mutrlalten, 3rd ed. f by L. Viereck, drittr A bt filling, Die Icbtcn
beiden Jahrhurtdcris dei Mitielalters: Dtxiitkland, die Zktwviz, und
Isalien. by R. Fischer , R, Schepptg and L- Vierrck (Brunswick, 1906),
In this volume, pp. 079-94 3 contain an excel lent account of the various
Italian state? and cities during that period, with a Ml bibliography
for each. Among recent critical contributions to the history of
individual towns, the following works deserve to be specially men*
tioited: Ttoberi Davuisahn. Geiektckie wit Flown (Berlin, 1H96-
too*); down to the beginning of the 14th century); the tame.
ForhikuKzen tur GtahUhte ma Ftortn* (vols. L-iv,, Berlin, iSoo-
I90&) ; Heinrich Kretschmay^ Geschichte, von Vencdit (voL L, Got ha,
1905. to I J05). For France, thtre are the works by Ac hi lie Luchalre,
Xyj Comtnuw jfruncdisr 1 A I'fpoquedct Copctienj directs (Paris, I B90),
and Paul Viol tot. " Let Communes franraises au moyen age,"
Mfnurirts dt I'Aftid&mU dtt Inscription* et BcUci-lttlrti, tome xxxvu
(Paris* (900). There arc, of courts r also accounts in the great works
on French institutions by Flach, Glasson, Viollet, Luchaire. but
perhaps the one in Lucli^tre's Manttel dei initiiudtmi fran^aius,
pericde dei Ccpctiftti directs (Paris, I&92) deserves special recom-
mendatton. Another valuable account for France north of the Loire
is that contained in the great work by Karl Hegel, Stadic und Giidtn
der ttrmaniKhtn Votkcr im MitttioJttt (3 vol*-, Leipzig, 1891; sec
English llistorkaj Rtvieitr, viii. 1 2 0-137), Of course, there arc
also numerous monographs, among which J he fallowing may
be ineot iotied i Edouarri Boavalot, L* Tim Emt d'aprte to dtartt
dt flrtivmhnt tt at filiates (Pana, L&84); and A, Girv, L*s
EtobUssements dc Rouen {2 vols., Paris. iSHj-iBS^r also a cotlection
of documents by Gustave Fannies, Document! relatiji A i'kiiivire
dt I' Industrie tt du commerce en France (ivoIl. Paris, J #98, 1000).
Some valuable works on the commercial histnfy of southern Europe
should still be mentioned, such as W. Keyd. Ghckichlt dts Levant*-
handelr im MittelulUt (j vols,, Stuttgart, IB79; French edition by
Furcy Raynaud, 2 vots., Paris, iH$ scq-, improved by the author },
recognized a* a standard work; Atiolf Schttube, Ibindttwc.whiikt*
der tomanitthtn Voiker des Miitdnitettebielti his tarn Jinde der
KftMitUg* (Munich and Berlin, 1906); Aloys Schultc, Geicfachte
dtt milteiaittrlkhrn Handtli und Vtrkehrt run it hen Wtitdet/Uchland
and Italitn mit Austchluss Vtntdit,! (2 vols., Leiprig, tgoo); L.
Cotdschmidt, UniivrieJ^cschichte da Jlandthrtxhii (vol. 1., Stuttgart,
*&9i). As for the Scandinavian towns, the best guide is perhaps
the book by K. I lege I, Stodte und Giiden dcr jrtrmanii&hen Vutkcr,
already mentioned; out see also Dietrich Sthafer, *' Der Stand dcr
CesebKhtswisMoschaJt im skandinavischco Nordcn," IjittmoliQn*ie
Wochtnsckrift. November 16. 1907. r - K,)
COMMUNISM, the name loosely given to schemes oj social
organizations depending on the abolition of private property
and its absorption into the property of a community as such.
It is a form of what is now generally called socialism (tf.tv), the
terminology of which has varied a good deal according to time
and place; but the expression " communism " may be con-
veniently used, as opposed to " socialism " in its wider political
sense, or to the political and municipal varieties known as
" collectivism," " state socialism," &c, in order to indicate more
particularly the historical schemes propounded or put into
practice for establishing certain ideally arranged communities
composed of individuals living and working on the basis of
holding their prop e rty in common. It has nothing, of course,
to do with the Paris Commune, overthrown in May 1871, which'
wma a political and not an econ omic movement Communistic
>atntsn« have been advocated in almost every age and country,
and amvnto ho diattngaiaVd foam mere anarchism or from the
o oytanafar o th e r p eo p le 's property into one's own
Bh'OjootetlMt aofioaMaist k merely a man who
has no property to lose, and therefore advocates a redistribution
of wealth, is contrary to the established facts as to those who
have historically supported the theory of communism. The
Corn-law Rhymer's lines on this subject are amusing, but only
apply to the baser sort:-
" What is a Communist I One thaf hath yearnings
For equal division of unequal earnings.
Idler or bungler, or both, he is willing
To fork out his penny and pocket your shilling."
This is the communist of hostile criticism— a criticism, no doubt,
ultimately based on certain fundamental facts in human nature,
which have usually wrecked communistic schemes of a purely
altruistic type in conception. But the great communists, like
Plato, More, Saint-Simon, Robert Owen, were the very reverse
of selfish or idle in their aims; and communism as a force in
the historical evolution of economic and social opinion must be
regarded on its ideal side, and not merely in its lapses, however
natural the latter may be in operation, owing to the defects of
human character. As a theory it has inspired not only some of
the finest characters in history, but also much of the gradual
evolution of economic organization — especially in the case of
co-operation (q.v.); and its opportunities have naturally varied
according to the state of social organization in particular
countries. The communism of the early Christians, for instance,
was rather a voluntary sharing of private property than any
abnegation of property as such] The Esscnes and the Thera-
pcutae, however, in Palestine, had a stricter form of communism,
and the former required the surrender of individual property;
and in the middle ages various religious sects, followed by the
monastic orders, were based on the communistic principle.
Communistic schemes have found advocates in almost every
age and in many different countries. The one thing that is
shared by all communists, whether speculative or practical, is
deep dissatisfaction with the economic conditions by which they
are surrounded. In Plato's Republic the dissatisfaction is not
limited to merely economic conditions. In his examination of the
body politic there is .hardly any part which he can pronounce to
be healthy. He would alter the life of the citizens of his state
from the very moment of birth. Children arc to be taken away
from their parents and nurtured under the supervision of the
state. The old nursery tales, " the blasphemous nonsense with
which mothers fool the manhood out of their children," are to be
suppressed. Dramatic and imitative poetry are not to be allowed.
Education, marriage, the number of births, the occupations of the
citizens arc to be controlled by the guardians or heads of the state.
The most perfect equality of conditions and careers is to be
preserved; the women are to have similar training with the men,
no careers and no ambition arc to be forbidden to them; the
inequalities and rivalries between rich and poor are to cease,
because all will be provided for by the state. Other cities are
divided against themselves. " Any ordinary city, however small,
is in fact two cities, one the city of the poor, the other of the rich,
at war with one another "{Republic, bk. iv. p. 249, Jowctt's trans-
lation). But this ideal state is to be a perfect unit, although the
citizens arc divided into classes according to their capacity and
ability, there is none of the exclusivcness of birth, and no in-
equality is to break the accord which binds all the citizens, both
male and female, together into one harmonious whole. The
marvellous comprehensiveness of the scheme for the government
of this ideal state makes it belong as much to the modern as to the
ancient world. Many of the social problems to which Plato draws
attention are yet unsolved, and some are in process of solution in
the direction indicated by him. He is not appalled by the
immensity of the task which he has sketched out for himself and
his followers. He admits that there arc difficulties to be over-
I come, but he says in a sort of parenthesis, " Nothing great is
! easy." He refuses to be satisfied with half measures and patch-
I work reforms. " Enough, my friend I but what is enough while
anything remains wanting?" These sentences indicate the
spirit in which philosophical as distinguished from practical
communists from the time of Plato till to-day have undertaken
I to reconstruct human society.
792
COMMUNISM
Sir Thomas More's Utopia has very many of the characteristics
of The Republic. There is in it the same wonderful power of
shaking off the prejudices of the place and time in which it was
written. The government of Utopia is described as founded on
popular election; community of goods prevailed, the magistrates
distributed the instruments of production among the inhabitants,
and the wealth resulting from their industry was shared by all.
The use of money and all outward ostentation of wealth were
forbidden. All meals were taken in common, and they were
rendered attractive by the accompaniment of sweet strains of
music, while the air was filled by the scent of the most delicate
perfumes. More's ideal state differs in one important respect
from Plato's. There was no community of wives in Utopia.
The sacredness of the family relation and fidelity to the marriage
contract were recognized by More as indispensable to the well-
being of modem society. Plato, notwithstanding all the extra-
ordinary originality with which he advocated the emancipation of
women, was not able to free himself from the theory and practice
of regarding the wife as part and parcel of the property of her
husband. The fact, therefore, that he advocated community of
property led him also to advocate community of wives. He
speaks of " the possession and use of women and children," and
proceeds to show how this possession and use must be regulated
in his ideal state. Monogamy was to him mere exclusive posses-
sion on the part of one man of a piece of property which ought
to be for the benefit of the public. The circumstance that he
could not think of wives otherwise than as the property of their
husbands only makes it the more remarkable that he claimed
for women absolute equality of training and careers. The circum-
stance that communists have so frequently wrecked their pro-
jects by attacking marriage and advocating promiscuous inter-
course between the sexes may probably be traced to the notion
which regards a wife as being a mere item among the goods and
chattels of her husband. It is not difficult to find evidence of
the survival of this ancient habit of mind. " I will be master of
what is mine own," says Petruchio. " She is my goods, my
chattels."
The Perfectionists of Oneida, on the other hand, held that
there was " no intrinsic difference between property in persons
and property in things; and that the same spirit which abolished
exclusiveness in regard to money would abolish, if circumstances
allowed full scope to it, exclusiveness in regard to women and
children" (Nordhoff's Communistic Societies of the United States).
It is this notion of a wife as property that is responsible for the
wild opinions communists have often held in favour of a com-
munity of wives and the break-up of family relations. If they
could shake off this notion and take hold of the conception of
marriage as a contract, there is no reason why their views on the
community of property should lead them to think that this
contract should not include mutual fidelity and remain in force
during the life of the contracting parties. It was probably not
this conception of the marriage relation so much as the influence
of Christianity which led More to discountenance community of
wives in Utopia. It is strange that the same influence did not
make him include the absence of slavery as one of the character-
istics of his ideal state. On the contrary, however, we find in
Utopia the anomaly of slavery existing side by side with institu-
tions which otherwise embody the most absolute personal,
political and religious freedom. The presence of slaves in Utopia
is made use of to get rid of one of the practical difficulties of
communism, viz. the performance of disagreeable work. In a
society where one man is as good as another, and the means of
subsistence are guaranteed to all alike, it is easy to imagine that
it would be difficult to ensure the performance of the more
laborious, dangerous and offensive kinds of labour. In Utopia,
therefore, we arc expressly told that " all the uneasy and sordid
services " are performed by slaves. *The institution of slavery
was also made supplementary to the criminal system of Utopia,
as the slaves were for the most part men who had been convicted
of crime; slavery for life was made a substitute for capital
puni3hm eDt
to^ynspttfyAomer.Mon'ivkiwton the labour question
were vastly in advance of his own time. He repeats the indignant
protest of the Republic that existing society is a warfare between
rich and poor. " The rich," he says, " desire every means by
which they may in the first place secure to themselves what they
have amassed by wrong, and then take to their own me and
profit, at the lowest possible price, the work and labour of tie
poor. And so* soon as the rich decide on adopting these devices
in the name of the public, then they become law." One aught
imagine these words had been quoted from the programme of
The International fa.*.), so completely is their tone in sympathy
with the hardships of the poor in all ages. More shared to the nil
the keen sympathy with the hopeless misery of the poor which
has been the strong motive power of nearly all speculative
communism. The. life of the poor as he saw it wassowretebd
that he said, " Even a beast's life seems enviable I" Bead*
community of goods and equality of conditions. More advocated
other means of ameliorating the condition of the peopb.
Although the hours of labour were limited to six a day there wis
no scarcity, for in Utopia every one worked; there was no idk
class, no idle individual even. The importance of this from u
economic point of view is insisted on by More in a pasnje
remarkable for the importance which he attaches to the industrial
condition of women. " And this you will easily apprehend," be
says, " if you consider how great a part of all other nations is
quite idle. First, women generally do little, who are the half d
mankind." Translated into modern language his propouli
comprise universal compulsory education, a reduction of the bout
of labour to six a day, the most modern principles of sanitary
reform, a complete revision of criminal legislation, and the mot:
absolute religious toleration. The romantic form which &
Thomas More gave to his dream of a new social order found nasy
imitators. The Utopia may be regarded as the prototype of
Campanella's City of the Sun, Harrington's Oceana, Bacon's Sm
Atlantis, Defoe's Essay on Projects, Fenclon's Voyage dansfU
des Plaisirs, and other works of minor importance.
All communists have made a £rcat point of the importance of
universal education. All ideal communes have been provided by
their authors with a perfect machinery for securing the ednaboi
of every child. One of the first things done in every attempt ta
carry communistic theories into practice has been to establish i
good school and guarantee education to every child. The fist
impulse to national education in the 19th century probabfy
sprang from the very marked success of Robert Owen's schools a
connexion with the cotton mills at New Lanark. Compubar;
education, free trade, and law reform, the various movemnts
connected with the improvement of the condition of women, ban
found their earliest advocates among theoretical and practical
communists. The communists denounce the evils of the presest
state of society; the hopeless poverty of the poor, side by side
with the self-regarding luxury of the rich, seems to them to 07
aloud to Heaven for the creation of a new social organizatxo.
They proclaim the necessity of sweeping away the institution of
private property, and insist that this great revolution, accoa-
panicd by universal education, free trade, a perfect administra-
tion of justice, and a due limitation of the numbers of the
community, would put an end to half the self-made distress of
humanity.
The various communistic experiments in America are the most
interesting in modern times, opportunities being naturally
greater there for such deviations from the normal forms of
regulations as compared with the closely organized states of
Europe, and particularly in the means of obtaining land cheaply
for social settlements with peculiar views. They have been classi-
fied by Morris Hillquit (History of Socialism in the United Slates.
1903) as (1) sectarian, (a) Owenite, (3) Fourieriatic, (4) Icariao.
x. The oldest of the sectarian group was the society of the
Shakers (».?.), whose first settlement at Watervliet was founded
in 1776. The Harmony Society or Rappiit Community wss
introduced into Pennsylvania by George Rapp (1770-1847) from
Wttrttemberg in 1804, and in 1815 they moved to a settlement
(New Harmony) fa Indiana, ntorafag to Peimsy lvania agsin ia
is*4,«ndion*a3>gth«vaa > wpfE
COMMUTATION— COMO
793
also known as Economites. Emigrants from Wttrttembcrg also
founded the community of Zoar in Ohio in x 8 1 7 , being incorporated
in 183a as the Society of Separatists of Zoar; it was dissolved
in 1898. The Amana (q.v.) community, the strongest of all
American communistic societies, originated in Germany in the
early part of the 18th century as "the True Inspiration Society,"
and some* 600 members removed to America in 1842-1844. The
Bethel (Missouri) and Aurora (Oregon) sister communities were
founded by Dr Keil (1812-1877) in 1844 and 1856 respectively,
and were dissolved in 1880 and x88x. The Oneida Community
(q.v.), created by John Humphrey Noyes (181 1-1886), the author
of a famous History of A merican Socialisms ( x 8 70) , was established
In x 848 as a settlement for the Society of Perfection ists. All these
bodies had a religious basis, and were formed with the object of
enjoying the free exercise of their beliefs, and though communistic
in character they had no political or strictly economic doctrine
to propagate,
a. The Owenite communities rose under the influence of
Robert Owen's work at New Lanark, and his propaganda in
America from 1824 onwards, the principal being New Harmony
(acquired from the Rappists in 1825); Yellow Springs, near
Cincinnati, 1824; Nashoba, Tennessee, 1825; Havcrstraw, New
York, 1826; its short-lived successors, Coxsackie, New York,
and the Kendal Community, Canton, Ohio, 1826. All these had
more or less short existences, and were founded on Owen's
theories of labour and economics.
3. The Fourierist communities similarly were due to the
Utopian teachings of the Frenchman Charles Fourier (q.v.),
introduced into America by his disciple Albert Brisbane (1800-
1890), author of The Social Destiny of Man (1840), who was
efficiently helped by Horace Greeley, George Ripley and others.
The North American Phalanx, in New Jersey, was started in
1843 and lasted till 1855. Brook Farm (q.v.) was started as a
Fourierist Phalanx in 1844, after three years' independent career,
and became the centre of Fourierist propaganda, lasting till 1847.
The Wisconsin Phalanx, or Ceresco, was organized in 1844, and
lasted till 1850. In Pennsylvania seven communities were
established between 1843 and 1845, the chief of which were the
Sylvania Association, the Peace Union Settlement, the Social
Reform Unity, and the Leraysville Phalanx. In New York
state the chief were the Clarkson Phalanx, the Sodus Bay
Phalanx, the Bloomfield Association, and the Ontario Union.
In Ohio the principal were the Trumbull Phalanx, the Ohio
Phalanx, the Clermont Phalanx, the Integral Phalanx, and the
Columbian Phalanx; and of the remainder the Alphadelphia
Phalanx, in Michigan, was the best-known. It is pointed out by
Morris Hillquit that while only two Fourierist Phalanxes were
established in France, over forty were started in the United States.
4. The Icarian communities were due to the communistic
teachings of another Frenchman, £tienne Cabct (q.v.) (1788-
1856), the name being derived from his social romance, Voyage en
Jcarie (1840), sketching the advantages of an imaginary country
called Icaria, with a co-operative system, and criticizing the
existing social organization. It was his idea, in fact, of a Utopia.
Robert Owen advised him to establish his followers, already
numerous, in Texas, and thither about 1500 went in 1S48. But
disappointment resulted, and their numbers dwindled to less
than 500 in 1849; some 280 went to Nauvoo, Illinois; after a
schism in 1856 some formed a new colony (1858) at Cheltenham,
near St Louis; others went to Iowa, others to California. The
last branch was dissolved in 1895.
See also the articles Socialism; Owen; Saint-Simon; Fourier,
Ac; and the bibliography to Socialism. The whole subject is
admirably covered in Morris Hillquit's work, referred to above:
and see also Noyes't History of American Socialisms (1870) : Charles
Nordboff's Communistic Societies of the United States (1875); and
W. A: Hinds's American Co m m uni ties (1878; and edition, 1902), a
very complete account.
OOXHUTATIOII (from Lat commularc, to change), a process
of nrhingmg one thing for another, particularly of one method of
payment for another, such as payment in money for payment in
kind or by service, or of payment of a lump sum for periodical
a; lor various kinds of such substitution see Annuity;
Copyhold and Tithes. The word is also used similarly of the
substitution of a lesser sentence on a criminal for a greater. In
electrical engineering, the word is applied to the reversal of the
course of an electric current, the contrivance for so doing being
known as a "commutator" (see Dynamo). In America, a
"commutation ticket" on a railway is one which allows a person
to travel at a lower rate over a particular route for a certain
time or for a certain number of times; the person holding such a
ticket is known as a " commuter."
COMNENUS, the name of a Byaantine family which from 1081
to 1 185 occupied the throne of Constantinople. It claimed a
Roman origin, but its earliest representatives appear as landed
proprietors in the district of Castamon (mod. Kastamuni) in
Paphlagonia. Its first member known in Byzantine history
is Manuel Eroticus Comnenus, an able general who rendered
great services to Basil II. (976-1025 ) in the East. At his death
he left his two sons Isaac and John in the care of Basil, who gave
them a careful education and advanced them to high official
positions. The increasing unpopularity of the Macedonian
dynasty culminated in a revolt of the nobles and the soldiery of
Asia against its feeble representative Michael VI. Stratioticus,
who abdicated after a brief resistance. Isaac was declared
emperor, and crowned in St Sophia on the 2nd of September 1057.
For the rulers of this dynasty see Roman Empire, Late*, and
separate articles.
With Andronicus I. (1183-1 185) the rule of the Comneni
proper at Constantinople came to an end. A younger line of the
original house, after the establishment of the Latins at Constanti-
nople in 1204, secured possession of a fragment of the empire in
Asia Minor, and founded the empire of Trebizond (q.v.), which
lasted till 146 1, when David Comnenus, the last emperor, was
deposed by Mahommed II.
For a general account of the family and its alleged survivors see
article " Komnenen," by G. F. Hertzbcrg, in Ersch and Grubcr's
AUgtmeine Encyklopddie, and an anonymous monograph, Pricis
historique de la maison impiriale des Carnitines (Amsterdam, 1784);
and, for the history of the period, the works referred to under
Roman Empire, Later.
COMO (anc. Comum), a city and episcopal see of Lombardy,
Italy, the capital of the province of Como, situated at the S.
end of the W. branch of the Lake of Como, 30 m. by rail N. by
W. of Milan. Pop. (1881) 25,560; (1005) 34,272 (town), 41,124
(commune). The city lies in a valley enclosed by mountains,
the slopes of which command fine views of the lake. The old
town, which preserves its rectangular plan from Roman times,
is enclosed by walls, with towers constructed in the 12th century.
The cathedral, built entirely of marble, occupies the site of an
earlier church, and was begun in 1396, from which period the
nave dates: the facade belongs to 1457-1486, while the east
of the exterior was altered into the Renaissance style, and richly
decorated with sculptures by Tommaso Rodari in 1487-1526.
The dome is an unsuitable addition of 1731 by the Sicilian
architect Filippo Juvara (1685-1735), and its baroque decorations
spoil the effect of the fine Gothic interior. It contains some good
pictures and fine tapestries. In the same line as the facade of
the cathedral arc the Broletto (in black and white marble),
dating from 12x5, the seat of the original rulers of the commune,
and the massive clock- tower. The Romanesque church of
S.Abondio outside the town was founded in 1013 and consecrated
in 1095; it has two fine campanili, placed at the ends of the aisles
close to the apse. It occupies the site of the sth-ccntury church
of SS. Peter and Paul. Near it is the Romanesque church of
S. Carpoforo. Above it is the ruined castle of Baradello. The
churches of S. Glacomo (1095-1117) and S. Fedelc (12th century),
both in the town, are also Romanesque, and the apses have
external galleries. The Palazzo Giovio contains the Museo
Civico. Como is a considerable tourist resort, and the steamboat
traffic on the lake is largely for travellers. A climate station
is established on the hill of Brunate (2350 ft.) above the town
to the E., reached by a funicular railway. The Milanese possess
many villas here. Como is an industrial town, having large silk
factories and other industries (see Lombardy). It is connected
with Milan by two lines of railwvj ^^HYtVVtta^V^vati^fes*^
794
COMO, LAKE OF— COMORO ISLANDS
which goes on to Chiasso— Swiss frontier— and the St Cotthard),
the other via Saronno and also with Lecco and Varese.
Of the Roman Comum little remains above ground; a portion
of its S.E. wall was discovered and may be seen in the garden
of the Liceo Volta, 83 ft. within the later walls: later fortifica-
tions (but previous to 1127), largely constructed with Roman
inscribed sepulchral urns and other fragments, had been super-
imposed on it. Thermae have also been discovered (see V.
Barelli in Notizie dcgli scan, 1880, 333; 1881, 333; 1882, 285).
The inscriptions, on the other hand, are numerous, and give an
idea of its importance. The statements as to the tribe which
originally possessed it are various. It belonged to Gallia Cis-
alpina, and first came into contact with Rome in 106 B.C., when
M. Claudius Marccllus conquered the Insubres and the Comenses.
In 89 B.C., having suffered damage from the Raetians, it was
restored by Cn. Pompeius Strabo, and given Latin rights with
the rest of Gallia Transpadana. Shortly after this 3000 colonists
seem to have been sent there; 5000 were certainly sent by
Caesar in 59 B.C., and the place received the name Novum
Comum. It appears in the imperial period as a municipium,
'and is generally spoken of as Comum simply. The place was
prosperous; it had an important iron industry; and the banks
of the lake were, as now, dotted with villas. It was also im-
portant as the starting-point for the journey across the lake
in connexion with the Splugen and Septimcr passes (see Chia-
venna). It was the birthplace of both the elder and the younger
Pliny, the latter of whom founded baths and a library here and
gave money for the support of orphan children. There was a
pracfcclus classis Comcnsis under the late empire, and it was
regarded as a strong fortress. See Ch. Hulsen in Pauly- Wissowa,
Rcalcncyclop&dic, Suppl. Heft i. (Stuttgart, 1903), 326.
Como suffered considerably from the early barbarian invasions,
many of the inhabitants taking refuge on the Isola Comacina
off Sala, but recovered in Lombard times. It was from that
period that the magislri Comacini formed a privileged corporation
of architects and sculptors, who were employed in other parts
of Italy also, until, at the end of the nth century, individuals
began to come more to the front (G. T. Rivoira, Origini del-
F arckitettura Lombarda, Rome, 1901, i. 127 f.). Como then
became subject to the archbishops of Milan, but gained its
freedom towards the end of the nth century. At the beginning
of the 1 2th century war broke out between Como and Milan,
and after a ten years' war Como was taken and its fortifications
dismantled in 1127. In 1154, however, it took advantage of
the arrival of Barbarossa, and remained faithful to him through-
out the whole war of the Lombard League. After frequent
struggles with Milan, it fell under the power of the Visconli in
1335. In 1535, like the rest of Lombardy, it fell under Spanish
dominion, and in 17 14 under Austrian. Thenceforth it shared
the fortunes of Milan, becoming in the Napoleonic period the
chief town of the department of the Lario. Its silk industry
and its position at the entrance to the Alpine passes gave it
some importance even then. It bore a considerable part in the
national risings of 1848-1859 against Austrian rule. (T. As.)
COMO, Lake of (the Locus Larius of the Romans, and so
sometimes called Lario to the present day, though in the 4th
century it is already termed Lacus Comacinus), one of the
most celebrated lakes in Lombardy, Northern Italy. It lies due
N. of Milan and is formed by the Adda that flows through the
Valtelline to the north end of the lake (here falls in the Maira
or Mera, coming from the Val Brcgaglia) and flows out of it
at its south-eastern extremity, on the way to join the To. Its
area is 55} sq. m., it is about 43 m. from end to end (about 30}
m. from the north end of Bellagio), it is from 1 to 2} m. in breadth,
its surface is 653 ft. above the sea, and its greatest depth is 136s
ft. A railway line now runs along its eastern shore from Colico
to Lecco (24I m.), while on its western shore Mcnaggio is reached
by a steam tramway from Porlezza on the Lake of Lugano (8 m.).
Colico, at the northern extremity, is by rail 17 m. from Chiavenna
and 42 m. from Tirano, while at its southern end Como (on the
St Cotthard line) is 32 m. from Mihn, and Lecco about the
same distance. The Jake GUs a remarkable depression, wbkh
has been cut through the limestone ranges that enclose it, sad
once doubtless extended as far as Chiavenna, the Lake of Meaok
being a surviving witness of its ancient bed. Towards the south
the promontory of Bellagio divides the lake into two arms.
That to the south-east ends at Lecco and is the true outlet, for
the south-western arm, ending at Como, is an enclosed bay.
During the morning the Tivcno wind blows from the north,
while in the afternoon the Breva wind blows from the south.
But, like other Alpine lakes, the Lake of Como is exposed to
sudden violent storms. Its beauties have been sung by Virgil
and Claudian, while the two Plinys are among the celebrities
associated with the lake. The shores are bordered by splendid
villas, while perhaps the most lovely spot on it ia Bellagio, built
in an unrivalled position. Among the other villages that line
the lake, the best-known are Varenna (£.) and Menaggio (W.),
nearly opposite one another, while Cadenabbia (W.) faces
Bellagio. (W. A. B. C.)
COMONFORT, IGNACIO (18x2-1863), & Mexican soldier and
politician, who, after occupying a variety of civil and military
posts, was in December 1855 made provisional president by
Alvarez, and from December 1857 was for a few weeks consti-
tutional president. (See Mexico.)
COMORIN, CAPE, a headland in the state of Travancore,
forming the extreme southern point of the peninsula of India.
It is situated in 8° 4' 20' N., 77 35' 35* E., and is the terminatinf
point of the western Ghats. The village of Comorin, with tat
temple of Kanniyambal, the " virgin goddess," on the coast at
the apex of the headland, is a frequented place of pilgrimage.
COMORO ISLANDS, a group of volcanic islands belonging to
France, in the Indian Ocean, at the northern entrance of the
Mozambique Channel midway between Madagascar and the
African continent. The following table of the area and popula-
tion of the four largest islands gives one of the sets of figures
offered by various authorities: —
Areasq. m.
Population.
Great Comoro ....
Anjuan or Johanna . . .
Mayotte % . . . .
Moheli
Total . .
385
H5
140
90
50,000
12,000
11,000
9,000
760
82,000
There are besides a large number of islets of coral formation.
Particulars of the four islands named follow.
x. Great Comoro, or Angaria, the largest and most westerly,
has a length of about 38 m., with a width of about 12 m. Near
its southern extremity it rises into a fine dome-shaped volcanic
mountain, Kartola (Karthala), which is over 8500 ft. high, and
is visible for more than 100 m. Up to about 6000 ft. it is clothed
with dense vegetation. Eruptions are recorded for the years
1830, 1855 and 1858; and another eruption occurred in 1904.
In the north the ground rises gradually to a plateau some 2000 ft.
above the sea; from this plateau many regularly shaped
truncated cones rise another 2000 ft. The centre of the island
consists of a desert field of lava streams, about 1600 ft. high.
The chief towns are Maroni (pop. about 2000), Itzanda and
Mitsamuli; the first, situated at the head of a bay in xx° 40' S..
being the scat of the French administrator.
2. Anjuan, or Johanna, next in size, lies E. by S. of Comoro.
It is some 30 m. long by 20 at its greatest breadth. The land
rises in a succession of richly wooded heights till it culminates in a
central peak, upwards of 5000 ft. above the sea, in 12° 14' S., 44°
27' E. The former capital, Mossamondu, on the N.W. coast,. is
substantially built of stone, surrounded by a wall, and com-
manded by a dilapidated citadel; it is the residence of the
sultan and of the French administrator. There is a small but
safe anchorage at Pomony, on the S. side, formerly used, as a
coal depot by ships of the British navy.
3. Mayotte, about 21 m. long by 6 or 7 m. broad, is surrounded
by an extensive and dangerous coral reef. The principal heights
on its extremely irregular surface are: Mavegani Mountain,
which rises in two peaks vo *ma»m\imot 2164 ft., and Uchongui,
COMPANION— COMPANY
795
2x00 ft. The French headquarters are on the islet of Zaudzi,
which lies within the reef in ia° 46' S., 45° 20' E. There arc
substantial government buildings and store-houses. On the
mainland opposite Zaudzi is Msaplrt, the chief centre of trade.
Mayotte was devastated in 1808 by a cyclone of great severity.
4. Moheli or Mohilla lies S. of and between Anjuan and Grand
Comoro. It is x 5 m. long and 7 or 8 m. at its maximum breadth.
Unlike the other three it has no peaks, but rises gradually to a
central ridge about 1900 ft. in height. Fomboni (pop. about
scoo) in the N.W. and Numa Choa in the S.W. are the chief towns.
All the islands possess a very fertile soil; there are forests of
coco-nut palms, and among the products are rice, maize, sweet-
potatoes, yams, coffee, cotton, vanilla and various tropical
fruits, the papaw tree being abundant. The fauna is allied to that
of Madagascar rather than to the mainland of Africa; it includes
some land birds and a species of lemur peculiar to the islands.
Large numbers of cattle and sheep, the former similar to the
small species at Aden, are reared as well as, in Great Comoro, the
zebra. Turtles are caught in abundance along the coasts, and
form an article of export. The climate is in general warm, but
not torrid nor unsuitable for Europeans. The dry season lasts
from May to the end of October, the rest of the year being rainy.
The natives are of mixed Malagasy, Negro and Arab blood.
The majority are Mahommedans. The European inhabitants,
mostly French, number about 600. There are some 200 British
Indians, traders, in the islands. The external trade of the islands
has developed since the annexation of Madagascar to France, and
is of the value of about £100,000 a year. Sugar refineries,
distilleries of rum, and sawmills are worked in Mayotte by French
settlers. Cane sugar and vanilla are the chief exports. The
islands are regularly visited by vessels of the Messagerics Man-
times fleet, and a coaling station for the French navy has been
The islands were first visited by Europeans in the x6th century;
they are marked on the map of Diego Ribero made in 1 527. At
that time, and for long afterwards, the dominant influence
in, and the civilization of, the islands was Arab. According to
tradition the islands were first peopled by Arab voyagers driven
thither by tempests. The petty sultans who exercised authority
were notorious slave traders. A Sakalava chief who had been
driven from Madagascar by the Hovas took refuge in Mayotte
c 1830, and, with the aid of the sultan of Johanna, conquered the
island, which for a century had been given over to civil war.
French naval officers having reported on the strategic value of
Mayotte, Admiral de Hell, governor of Reunion, sent an officer
there in 1841, and a treaty was negotiated ceding the island to
France. Possession was taken in 1843, the sultan of Johanna
renouncing his claims in the same year. In 1886 the sultans of
the other three islands were placed under French protection,
France fearing that otherwise the islands would be taken by
Germany. The French experienced some difficulty with the
natives, but by 1892 had established their position. The islands,
as regulated by the decree of the 9th of April 1908, are under the
supreme authority of the governor-general of Madagascar. The
local administration is in the hands of an official who himself
governs Mayotte but is represented in the other islands by
administrators. On the council which assists the governor are
two nominated native notables. In 1910 the sultan of Great
Comoro ceded his sovereign rights to France. In Anjuan the
native government is continued under French supervision.
The budgets of the four islands in 1904 came to some £30,000,
that of Mayotte being about half the total. The chief sources of
revenue are poll and house taxes, and, in Mayotte, a land tax.
The IUs Glorieuses, three islets 160 m. N.E. of Mayotte, with
a population of some 20 souls engaged in the collection of guano
and the capture of turtles, were in 1892 annexed to France and
placed under the control of the administrator of Mayotte.
See Notice sur Mayotte el Us Contorts, by Emile Vicnne, one d
the memoirs on the French colonies prepared for the Paris Exhibition
of 1900; Le Sultanat d'Aniouan, by Jules Repiquct (Paris, 1901),
a systematic account of the geography, ethnology and history ol
Johanna; Les colonies Jrancflius (.Paris, 1900), vol. ii. pp. 179-1971
in which the story of the archipelago is set forth by various writers}
an account of the islands by A. Voeltxkow in the Zeitschrift of the
Berlin Gcog. Soc (No. 9, 1906), and Carle its IUs Comorci, by A,
Meunier (Paris, 1904).
COMPANION (through the 0. Fr. comfaignon or compagnon,
from the Late Lat. com panto, — cum, with, and ftroii, bread, — one
who shares meals with another; the word nas been wrongly
derived from the Late Lat. com pa gnus, one of the same pagus or
district), a mess-mate or "comrade " (a term which itself has a
similar origin, meaning one who shares the same camera or room).
"Companion" is particularly used of soldiers, as in the ex-
pression " companion in arms," and so is the title of the lowest
rank in a military or other order of knighthood; the word is also
used of a person who lives with another in a paid position for the
sake of company, and is looked on rather as a friend than a
servant; and of a pair or match, as of pictures and the like.
Similar in ultimate origin but directly adapted from the Fr.
chambre de la compagne, and Ital. camera della compagna, the
storeroom for provisions on board ship, is the use of "companion "
for the framed windows over a hatchway on the deck of a ship,
and also for the hooded entrance-stairs to the captain's cabin.
COMPANY, one of a number of words like "partnership,"
"union," "gild," "society," "corporation," denoting— each
with its special shade of meaning — the association of individuals
in pursuit of some common object. The taking of meals together
was, as the word signifies {cum, with, pants, bread,) a character-
istic of the early company. Gild had a similar meaning: but
this characteristic, though it survives in the Livery company
(see Livery Companies), has in modern times disappeared.
The word " company " is now monopolized — in British usage—
by two great classes of companies — (1) the joint stock company,
constituted under the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1008,
which consolidated the various acts from 1862 to 1907, and (2)
the " public company," constituted under a special act to carry
on some work of public utility, such as a railway, docks, gas-
works or waterworks, and regulated by the Companies Clauses
Acts 1845 and 1863.
x. Joint Stock Companies,
The joint stock company may be defined as an association of
persons incorporated to promote by joint contributions to a
common stock the carrying on of some commercial enterprise.
Associations formed not for "the acquisition of gain" but to
promote art, science, religion, charity or some other useful or
philanthropic object, though they may be constituted under the
Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, seldom call themselves
companies, but adopt some name more appropriate to express
their objects, such as society, club, institute, college or chamber. ""
The joint stock company has had a long history which can only
be briefly sketched here. The name of " joint stock company "
is — or was — used to distinguish such a company from the
"regulated company," which did not trade on a joint stock but
was in the nature of a trade gild, the members of which had a
monopoly of foreign trade with particular countries or places (see
Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations, bk. v. ch. i. pt. Hi.).
The earliest kind of joint stock company is the chartered (see
Chaptered Companies). The grant of a charter is one of the
exclusive privileges of the crown, and the crown has from time to
time exercised it in furtherance of trading enterprise. Examples
of such grants arc the Merchant Adventurers of England,
chartered by Richard II. (1300); the East India Co., chartered
by Queen Elizabeth (1600); the Bank of England, chartered by
William and Mary (1694); the Hudson's Bay Co.; the Royal
African Co.; the notorious South Sea Co.; and in later times the
I New Zealand Co., the North Borneo Co., and the Royal Niger Co.
Chartered companies had, however, several disadvantages. A
charter was not easily obtainable. It was costly. The members
could not be made personally liable for the debts of the company:
land once created — though only for defined objects — such a
company was invested with entire independence and could not be
kept to the conditions imposed by the grant, which was against
public policy. A new form of commercial association was wanted,
free from these defects, and it was found in the commas U»
COMPANY
, «=r=K^a- c ise
- *"■ ■
:-^ it'-
ac*
3= 3
COMPANY
97
company's M :. • r.u.'l'im <>f \- m i.ui.in. 1 hey arc the essential
conditio;. s of incorjMjration, ami a* such they must not only be
•tatcd t but the policy of the legislature has made them with
^TPTt* iw exceptions unalterable.
The most important of these five conditions is the third, and
its importance consists in this, that the objects defined in the
memorandum circumscribe the sphere of the company's activities.
This principle, which is one of public policy and convenience,
- mnd is known as the " ultra vires doctrine," carries with it im-
portant consequences, because every act done or contract made
by a company ultra vires, i.e. in excess of its powers, is absolutely
null and void. The policy, too, is a sound one. Shareholders
contribute their money on the faith that it is to be employed in
prosecuting certain objects, and it would be a violation of good
faith if the company, i.e. the majority of shareholders, were to be
allowed to divert it to something quite different. So strict is the
rule that not even the consent of every individual shareholder can
give validity to an ultra vires act.
The articles of association are the regulations for internal
management of the company — the terms of the partnership
^ MMm -m agreed upon by the shareholders among themselves.
J2JJJ. A model or specimen set of articles known as Table A
Aha. was given by the Companies Act 1862, and is appended
in a revised form to the Companies (Consolidation) Act
1908. When a company is to be registered the memorandum of
association accompanied by a copy of the articles is taken to the
effice of the registrar of joint stock companies at Somerset House,
- together with the following documents:—
1. A list of persons who have consented to be directors of the
company (fee stamp 5s.).
9. A statutory declaration by a solicitor of the High Court
engaged in the formation of the company, or by a person named
in the articles of association as a director or secretary of the
company, that the requisitions of the act in respect of registration
and of matters precedent and incidental thereto have been
complied with (fee stamp 5s.).
3. A statement as to the nominal share capital (stamped with
an ad valorem duty of 5s. per £100).
4. If no prospectus is to be issued, a company must now
(Companies Act 1907, s. x ; Consolidation Act 1908, s. 82) in lieu
thereof file with the registrar a statement, in the form prescribed
by the xst schedule to the act, of all the material facts relating to
the company. Till this has been done the company cannot allot
any shares or debentures.
If these documents arc in order the registrar registers the
company and issues a certificate of incorporation (see Companies
(Consolidation) Act 1008, sect. 82); on registration, the
memorandum and articles of association become public docu-
ments, and any person may inspect them on payment of a fee of
one shilling. This has important consequences, because every
person dealing with the company is presumed to be acquainted
with its constitution, and to have read its memorandum and
articles. The articles also, upon registration, bind the company
and its members to the same extent as if each member had
subscribed his name and affixed his seal to them.
The total cost of registering a company with a capital of
£1000 is about £7; £10,000 about £34; £100,000 about £280.
The capital which is required to be stated in the memorandum
of association, and which represents the amount which the
CipMmL company is empowered to issue, is what is known as
the nominal capital. This nominal capital must be
distinguished from the subscribed capital. Subscribed capital
is the aggregate amount agreed to be paid by those who have
taken shares in the company. Under the Companies Act 1900,
Companies Act 1008, s. 8$, a " minimum subscription " may be
fixed by the articles, and if it is the directors cannot go to allot-
ment on less: if it is not, then the whole of the capital offered
for subscription must be subscribed. A company may increase
its capital, consolidate it, subdivide it into shares of smaller
amount and convert paid-up shares into stock. It may also,
with the sanction of the court, otherwise reorganize its capital
(Companies Act 1907, s. 39; Companies (Consolidation) Act
\',o<. s 4.O, and for tl.i- purp»...i modify its M« mora r.-i vim .jf
Association; l>ut a limited company cannot reduce its capital
either by direct or indirect means without the sanction of the
court. The inviolability of the capital is a condition of incorpora-
tion— the price of the privilege of trading with limited liability,
and by no subterfuge will a company be allowed to evade this
cardinal rule of policy, either by paying dividends out of capital,
or buying its own shares, or returning money to shareholders.
But the prohibition against reduction means that the capital
must not be reduced by the voluntary act of the company, not
that a company's capital must be kept intact. It is embarked in
the company's business, and it must run the risks of such business.
If part of it is lost there is no obligation on the company to
replace it and to cease paying dividends until such lost capital
is repaid. The company may in such a case write off the lost
capital and go on trading with the reduced amount. But for
this purpose the sanction of the court must be obtained by
petition.
A share is an aliquot part of a company's nominal capital
The amount may be anything from is. to £1000. The tendency
of late years has been to keep the denomination low, stun*
and so to appeal to a wider public. Shares of £100, or
even £10, are now the exception. The most common amount
is either £1 or £5. Shares arc of various kinds— ordinary,
preference, deferred, founders' and management. Into what
classes of shares the original capital of the company shall be
divided, what shall be the amount of each class, and their
respective rights, privileges and priorities, arc matters for the
consideration of the promoters of the company, and must depend
on its special circumstances and requirements.
A company may issue preference shares even if there is no
mention of them in the Memorandum of Association, and any
preference or special privilege so given to a class of shares cannot
be interfered with on any reorganization of capital except by a
resolution passed by a majority of shareholders of that class
representing three-fourths of the capital of that class (Companies
(Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 45). The preference given may be
as to dividends only, or as to dividends and capital. The
dividend, again, may be payable out of the year's profits only,
or it may be cumulative, that is, a deficiency in one year is to
be made good out of the profits of subsequent years. Prima
facie, a preferential dividend is cumulative. For issuing pre-
ference shares the question for the directors is, what must be
offered to attract investors. Preference shareholders are given
by the Companies Act 1907, s. 23; Companies (Consolidation)
Act 1008, s. 114, the right to inspect balance sheets. Founders'
shares — which originated with private companies — are shares
which usually take the whole or half the profits after payment of
a dividend of 7 or 10% to the ordinary shareholders. They arc
much less in favour than they used to be.
The machinery of company formation is generally set in
motion by a person known as a promoter. This is a term of
business, not law. It means, to use Chief Justice
Cockburn's words, a person " who undertakes to form \
a company with reference to a given project and to j
set it going, and who takes the necessary steps to
accomplish that purpose." Whether what a person has done
towards this end constitutes him a promoter or not, is a question
of fact; but once an affirmative conclusion is reached, equity
clothes such promoter with a fiduciary relation towards the
company which he has been instrumental in creating. This
doctrine is now well established, and its good sense is apparent
when once the position of the promoter towards the company
is understood. Promoters — to use Lord Cairns's language in
Er longer v. New Sombrero Phosphate Co., 3 A. C. 1236 — "have
in their hands the creation and moulding of the company.
They have the power of defining how and when and in what shape
and under what supervision it shall start into existence and begin
to act as a trading corporation." Such a control over the
destinies of the company involves correlative obligations towards
it, and one of these obligations is that the promoter must not
take advantage of the company's kl^\»»«s&. K ^vks**s3.
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f.^'J tt.,''.r \:t- t.i.ir.t */ iV-.t.'..-.i fri- :--Jtsuy. The DirKt^"
l.iM».:.«y A" ^r.:"''l in s.\.:.-/.ar.ce that »hi-r. or.:* a pro^pcAJ
J-. |.r«i /• «l to "/f,»;iiri a rr.a*. trial ELatcrr.txt o: ixc. "R hlch is MZtoz:
ih* |*« iv»ii . r'i|iori .iljl<: for the pros fit', t us are to be liable top;-
"*rn|f< ii-i.iN'jfi iv any one who las subscribed on the fairh cf -e
j.fo-.j^i iij-., iinlfj Ihry an prove that they had reason^-*
jrruiiiKl to lulif-vr, aiul did in fact believe, the statement tofc
inn. A'li'iin undtr this act have been rare, but their nri:y
m.iy be 'Jin lo tin- art having had the effect of making diitct:3
innri i.inliil in llinr slntements.
Ilifuri- 1 he |hi-.siiiK <if the Companies Act iQoo, it was a mat -ff
fui iliiriiuiH 1 di'^ntiiin on what subscription they should |0
in iilluimmt. Tln-y often did so on a scandalously
iiifiili f|ii.ttr huIim lipiion. To remedy this abuse the Bfl ^,,
l iiinluiiiin Ait k/x> (Companies (Consolidation)
Ai I npiti, k. S ; ,) provided th.it no allotment of any share cap'jl
iillriiil in the publii- for subscription is to be made unless ti*
ciiiitiiiiii liM-d by the memorandum and articles of assocbtici
iiiid n.iinrd iii the prospectus as " the minimum subscription "
upon whuli the diu-otors may proceed to allotment has ben
mi!»i, iiUd and the application moneys — which must not ie
Ii ■■% th.ui n*',. of tl»r nominal amount of the share — paid torsi
int in .-.I b\ the companv. It no minimum is rlxed the ml'-cle
aniiMiiit ol the jdi.ue iap;tal oSercd for subscription must kctt
!•!•» s:d«N»i;l'id Ivioie the directors can po to allotment. 1-*
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COMPANY
799
the regulations under them, treat the directors of a company as
JiMtffaM. the persons in whom the management of the com-
pany's affairs is vested. But they also comtemplate the
ultimate controlling power as residing in the shareholders. A
controlling power of this kind can only assert itself through
general meetings; and that it may have proper opportunities
of doing so, every company is required to hold a general meeting,
commonly called the statutory meeting, within — as fixed by the
Companies Act x 900— three months from the date at which it
is entitled to commence business. This first statutory meeting
acquired new significance under the Companies Act of 1000 and
marks an important stage in the early history of a company.
Seven days before it takes place the directors are required to
send round to the members a certified report informing them
of the general state of the company's affairs — the number of
shares allotted, cash received for them, and names and addresses
of the members, the amount of preliminary expenses, the par-
ticulars of any contract to be submitted to the meeting, &c.
Furnished with this report the members come to the meeting
in a position to discuss and exercise an intelligent judgment
upon* the state and prospects of the company. Besides the
statutory meeting a company must hold one general meeting
at least in every calendar year, and not more than fifteen months
after the holding of the last preceding general meeting (Com-
panies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 64). This annual general
meeting is usually called the ordinary general meeting. Other
meetings are extraordinary general meetings. Notices convening
a general meeting must inform the shareholders of the particular
business to be transacted; otherwise any resolutions passed at
the meeting will be invalidated. Voting is generally regulated
by the articles. Sometimes a vote is given to a shareholder for
every share held by him, but more often a scale is adopted;
for instance, one vote is given for every share up to ten, with an
additional vote for every five shares beyond the first ten shares
up to one hundred, and an additional vote for every ten shares
beyond the first hundred. In default of any regulations, every
member has one vote only. Sometimes preference shareholders
are given no vote at all A poll may be demanded on any
special resolution by three persons unless the articles require
five (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s 69).
A contract to take shares is like any other contract. It is
constituted by offer, acceptance and communication of the
^^ acceptance to the offerer. The offer in the case of
tSTkurt shares is usually in the form of an application in
writing to the company, made in response to a pro-
spectus, requesting the company to allot the applicant a certain
number of shares in the undertaking on the terms of the pro-
spectus, and agreeing to accept the shares, or any smaller
number, which may be allotted to the applicant. An allottee
is under the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 86, entitled
to rescind his contract where the allotment is irregular, e.g.
where the minimum subscription has not been obtained. When
an application is accepted the shares are allotted, and a letter
of allotment is posted to the applicant. Allotment is the usual,
but not the only, evidence of acceptance. As soon as the letter
of allotment is posted the contract is complete, even though the
letter never reaches the applicant. An application for shares
can be withdrawn at any time before acceptance. As soon as
the contract is complete, it is the duty of the company to enter
the shareholder's name in the register of members, and to issue
to him a certificate under the seal of the company, evidencing
his title to the shares.
The register of members plays an important part in the
scheme of the company system, under the Companies Act 1862.
, The principle of limited liability having been once
adopted by the legislature, justice required not only
that such limitation of liability should be brought
home by every possible means to persons dealing with the
company, but also that such persons should know as far as
possible what was the limited capital which was the sole fund
available to satisfy their claims — what amount had been called
up, what remained uncalled, who were the persons to pay,
and in what amounts. These data might materially assist
a person dealing with the company in determining- whether
he would give it credit or not; in any case they are matters
which the public had a right to know. The legislature, recog-
nizing this, has exacted as a condition of the privilege of trading
with limited liability that the company shall keep a register
with those particulars in it, which shall be accessible to the public
at all reasonable times. In order that this register may be
accurate, and correspond with the true liability of membership
for the time being, the court is empowered under the Companies
Act 1862, and the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 32,
to rectify it In a summary way, on application by motion, by
ordering the name of a person to be entered on or removed
therefrom. This power can be exercised by the court, whether
the dispute as to membership is one between the company
and an alleged member, or between one alleged member and
another, but the machinery of the section is not meant to be
used to try claims to rescind agreements to take shares. The
proper proceeding in such cases is by action.
The same policy of guarding against an abuse of limited
liability is evinced in the Companies Act 1862, which required
that shares in the case of a limited company should
be paid for in fulL The legislature has allowed £?*"
such companies to trade with limited liability, but
the price of the privilege is that the limited capital to which
alone the creditors can look shall at least be a reality. It is
therefore ultra vires for a limited company to issue its shares at a
discount; but there was nothing in the Companies Act 186a
which required that the shares of a limited company, though
they must be paid up in full, must be paid up in cash. They
might be paid " in meal or in malt," and it accordingly became
common for shares to be allotted in payment for furniture,
plate, advertisements or services. The result was that the
consideration was often illusory, shares being issued to be paid
for in some commodity which had no certain criterion of value.
To remedy this evil the legislature enacted in the Companies
Act 1867, s. 25, that every share in any company should be held
subject to the payment of the whole amount thereof in cash,
unless otherwise determined by a contract in writing filed with
the registrar of joint stock companies at or before the issue
of the shares. This section not infrequently caused hardship
where shares had been honestly paid for in the equivalent o!
cash, but owing to inadvertence no contract had been filed;
and it was repealed by the Companies Act 1000, and the old law
restored. In reverting to the earlier law, and allowing shares
to be paid for in any adequate consideration, the legislature
has, however, exacted a safeguard. It has required the company
to file with the registrar of joint stock companies a return
stating, in the case of shares allotted in whole or in part for a
consideration other than cash, the number of the shares so
allotted, and the nature of the consideration — property, services,
&c— for which they have been allotted.
Though every share carries with it the liability to pay up the
full amount in cash or its equivalent, the liability is only to pay
when and if the directors call for it to be paid up. A call must
fix the time and place for payment, otherwise it is bad.
When a person takes shares from a company on the faith of a
prospectus containing any false or fraudulent representations
of fact material to the contract, he is entitled to rescind ^ a
the contract. The company cannot keep a contract 2n5!wn*
obtained by the misrepresentation or fraud of its mnmu
agents. This is an elementary principle of law.
The misrepresentation, for purposes of rescission, need not be
fraudulent; it is sufficient that it is false in fact: fraud or
recklessness of assertion will give the shareholder a further
remedy by action of deceit, or under the Directors' Liability Act
1890 (see supra); but, to entitle a shareholder to rescind, he
must show that he took the shares on the faith or partly on
the faith of the false representation: if not, it was innocuous.
A shareholder claiming to rescind must do so promptly. It
is too late to commence proceedings after a winding-up has
begun.
8oo
COMPANY
' The shares or other interest of any member in a company are
personal estate and may be transferred in the manner provided
Trmma . by the regulations of the company. As Lord Blackburn
VH^HL said, one of the chief objects when joint stock com-
panies were established was that the shares should be
capable of being easily transferred; but though every share-
holder has a prima facie right to transfer his shares, this right
is subject to the regulations of the company, and the company
may and usually does by its regulations require that a transfer
shall receive the approval of the board of directors before being
registered,— the object being to secure the company against
having an insolvent or undesirable shareholder (the nominee
perhaps of a rival company) substituted for a solvent and
acceptable one. This power of the directors to refuse a transfer
must not, however, be exercised arbitrarily or capriciously.
If it were, it would amount to a confiscation of the shares.
Directors, for instance, cannot veto a transfer because they
disapprove of the purpose for which it is being made (e.g. to
multiply votes), if there is no objection to the transferee.
It is a common and convenient practice to deposit share or
stock certificates with bankers and others to secure an advance.
R . t When this is done the share or stock certificate b usually
tnnnn accompanied by a blank transfer— that is, a transfer
executed by the shareholder borrower, but with a blank
left for the name of the transferee. The handing over by the
borrower of such blank transfer signed by him is an implied
authority to the banker, or other pledgee, if the loan is not paid,
to fill in the blank with his name and get himself registered as
the owner.
A company can only pay dividends out of profits — which have
been defined as the " earnings of a concern after deducting the
expenses of earning them." To pay dividends out of
capital is not only ultra tires but illegal, as constituting
a return of capital to shareholders. Before paying dividends,
directors must take reasonable care to secure the preparation of
proper balance-sheets and estimates, and must exercise their
judgment as business men on the balance-sheets and estimates
submitted to them. If they fail to do this, and pay dividends
out of capital, they will not be held excused, unless the court
should think that they ought to be under the new discretion given
to the court by ss. 32-34 of the Companies Act 1907 (Companies
(Consolidation) Act 1008, s. 279). The onus is on them to show
that the dividends have been paid out of profits. The court as a
rule does not interfere with the discretion of directors in the
matter of paying dividends, unless they are doing something
ultra wires.
By the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, ss. 112, 113, in-
corporating provisions of the act of 1000 (ss. 21-23), &s amended
AwiKifa. by the act of 1007 (»• 10) • the legislature has made strict
provisions for the appointment and remuneration of
auditors by a company, and has denned their rights and duties.
Prior to the act of 1000 audit clauses, except in the case of
banking companies, were left to the articles of association and
were not matter of statutory obligation.
The " private company " may best be described as an incor-
porated partnership. The term is statutorily defined— for the
first time— by s. 37 of the Companies Act 1007 (s. 1 21 of
£££*• the Consolidating Act of 1008). Individual traders and
ftttn trading firms have in recent years become much more
alive to the advantages offered by incorporation. They
have discovered that incorporation gives them the protection of
limited liability; that it prevents dislocation of a business by the
death, bankruptcy or lunacy of any of its members; that it
enables a trader to distribute among the members of his family
interests in his business on his decease through the medium of
shares; that it facilitates borrowing on debentures or debenture
stock, and with a view to secure these advantages thousands of
traders have converted their businesses into limited companies.
To to large an extent has this been done that private companies
now Zona one-third of the whole number of companies registered.
A prf YMte company docs not appeal to the public to subscribe
*■ c **itaJ, bat in the main features oi its constitution a private
company differs little from a public one. It is only fa one or t*o
particulars that special provisions are requisite. It is generally
desired for instance: (1) to keep all the shares among the
members — the partners or the family — and not to let then get
into the hands of the public; and (2) to give the principal share-
holders, the original partners, a paramount control over tat
management. For this purpose it is usual to provide specially m
the articles that no share shall be transferred to a stranger so long
as any member is willing to purchase it at a fair value; that 1
member desirous of transferring his shares shall give notice to the
company; that the company shall offer the shares to the other
members; that if within a certain period the company finds 1
purchaser the shares shall be transferred to him, and that in case
of dispute the value shall be settled by arbitration or shall be
such a sum as the auditor certifies to be in his opinion the far
value. So in regard to the management it is common to provide
that the owner or owners of the business shall be entitled to hold
office as directors for a term of years or for life, provided he or
they continue to hold a certain number of shares; or an owner
is empowered to authorize his executors or trustees whilst hold-
ing a certain number of shares to appoint directors. Directed
holding office on these special terms are described as " governing"
or " permanent " or u life " directors. This union of interest
and management in the same persons gives a private compuj
an unquestionable advantage over a public company.
The so-called " one-man company " is merely a variety of the
private company. The fact that a company is formed by oae
man, with the aid of six dummy subscribers, is not in itself (as
was at one time supposed) a fraud on the policy of the Companies
Act, but it is occasionally used for the purpose of commiltfc{t
fraud, as where an insolvent trader turns himself into a limited
company in order to evade bankruptcy; and it is to an abase of
this kind that the term " one-man company " owes its opprobrioi]
signification.
Companies Limited by Guarantee. — The second rf»fr of limited
companies are those limited by guarantee, as distinguished frcK
those limited by shares. In the company limited by guarantee
each member agrees, in the event of a winding-up, to contribute!
certain amount to the assets,— £5, £1 or 10s. — whatever may be
the amount of the guarantee. The peculiarity of this form d
company is that the interests of the members of a guaraofer
company are not expressed in any terms of nominal money
value like the shares of other companies, a form of constifr
tion designed, as stated by Lord Thring, the draftsman of lk
Companies Act 1862, to give a superior elasticity to the company.
The property of the company simply belongs to the company k
certain fractional amounts. This makes it convenient for dubs,
syndicates and other associations which do not require the
interest of members to be expressed in terms of cash.
Companies not for Cain.— Associations formed to promote
commerce, art, science, religion, charity or any other useful
object may, with the sanction of the Board of Trade, register
under the Companies Act 1862, with limited liability, tat
without the addition of the word " Limited," upon proving to
the board that it is the intention of the association to apply the
profits or income of the association in promoting its objects, and
not in payment of dividends to members (C.A. 1867, s. 23). This
licence was made revocable by s. 42 of the Companies Act 1907
(Consolidation Act of 1008, ss. 19. 20). In lieu of the word
" Company," the association may adopt as part of its "■«*
some such title as chamber, club, college, guild, institute or
society. The power given by this section has proved very useful
and many kinds of associations have availed themselves of it,
such as medical institutes, law societies, nursing homes, chambers
of commerce, clubs, high schools, archaeological, horticultural
and philosophical societies. The guarantee form (see smpn)
is well adapted for associations of this kind intended as they
usually arc to be supported by annual subscriptions. No mca
association can hold more than two acres of land without lk
licence of the Board of Trade. ^^^
Cost-Bwk hfining Companies.— These are in substance
mining partnerships. Tncy derive their name from the fact oi
COMPANY
801
Ike partnership agreement, die expenses and receipts of the
■rise, the names of the shareholders, end any transfers of shares
being entered in a M cost-book." The affairs of the company
axe managed by an agent known as a " purser/' who from time
to time makes calls on the members for the expenses of working.
A cost-book company is not bound to register under the Com-
panies Act 1862, but it may do so.
A company once incorporated under the Companies Act 1862
cannot be put an end to except through the machinery of a
winding-up, though the name of a company which is
commercially defunct may be struck off the register of
Joint stock companies by the registrar (s. 242 of the
Companies (Consolidation) Act 1008, incorporating s. 7 of the act
of 1880, as amended by a 26 of the act of 1000). Winding-up
U of two kinds: (x) voluntary winding-up, either purely volun-
tary or carried on under the supervision of the court; and (2)
winding-up by the court. Of these voluntary winding-up is
by far the more common. Of the companies that come to an end
V^MtMry. 00% are so wound up; and this is in accordance
* with the policy of the legislature, evinced throughout
the Companies Acts, that shareholders should manage their
own affairs— winding-up being one of such affairs. A voluntary
winding-up is carried out by the shareholders passing a special
resolution requiring the company to be wound up voluntarily,
or an extraordinary resolution (now defined by s. 182 of the
Companies (Consolidation) Act 1008) to the effect that it has
been proved to the shareholders' satisfaction that the company
cannot, by reason of its liabilities, continue its business, and that
it is advisable to wind it up (C.A. 1862, s. 129). The resolution
is generally accompanied by the appointment of a liquidator.
In a purely voluntary winding-up there is a power given by s. 138
for the company or any contributory to apply to the court in
any matter arising in the winding-up, but seemingly by an
oversight of the legislature the same right was not given to
creditors. This was rectified by the Companies Act 1000, a. 25.
Section 27 of the Companies Act 1907 (s. 188 of the Consolidation
Act 1008) further provides for the liquidator under a voluntary
winding-up summoning a meeting of creditors to determine on
the choice of a liquidator. A creditor may also in a proper case
obtain an order for continuing the voluntary winding-up under
the supervision of the court Such an order has the advantage
of operating ss a stay of any actions or executions pending
against the company. Except in these respects, the winding-up
remains a voluntary one. The court does not actively intervene
unless set in motion; but it requires the liquidator to bring his
accounts into chambers every quarter, so that it may be in-
formed how the liquidation is proceeding. When the affairs
of the company are fully wound up, the liquidator calls a meeting,
lays his accounts before the shareholders, and the company is
dissolved by operation of law three months after the date of the
meeting (C.A 1862, ss. 142, 143).
Irrespective of voluntary winding-up, the legislature has
defined certain events in which a company formed under the
Companies Act 1862 may be wound up by the court.
2Lrt These events are: (1) when the company has passed
a resolution requiring the company to be wound up
by the court; (2) when the company does not commence its
business within a year or suspends it for a year; (3) when the
members are reduced to less than seven; (4) when the company
is unable to pay its debts, and (5) whenever the court is of
opinion that it is just and equitable that the company should be
wound up (C.A 1862, s. 79; s. 129 of the Consolidation Act
1008). A petition for the purpose may be presented either by a
creditor, a contributory or the company itself. Where the
petition is presented by a creditor who cannot obtain payment
of his debt, a winding-up order is ex dtbiic justiiio* as against
the company or shareholders, but not as against the wishes of a
majority of creditors. A winding-up order is not to be refused
because the company's assets are over mortgaged (Companies
Act 1007, s. 29; s. X41 of Consolidation Act xoo8).
The procedure on the making of a winding-up order is now
governed by ss. 7, 8, 9 of the Winding-up Act . 1800. The official
receiver, as liquidator fr* km., requires a statement of the
affairs of the company verified by the directors, and on it reports
to the court as to the causes of the company's failure and
whether further inquiry is desirable. If he further reports that
in his opinion fraud has been committed in the promotion or
formation of the company by a particular person, the court may
order such person to be publicly examined.
A liquidator's duty is to protect, collect, realize and distribute
the company's assets in due course of administration; and foe
this purpose he advertises for creditors, makes calls on contribu-
tories, sues debtors, takes misfeasance proceedings, if necessary,
against directors or promoters, and carries on the company's
business—supposing the goodwill to be an asset of value — with
a view to selling it as a going concern. He may be assisted, like
a trustee in bankruptcy, by a committee of inspection, composed
of creditors and contributories.
When the affairs of the company have been completely wound
up the court is, by s. xxi of the Companies Act 1862 (s. 127 of
the act of 1008), to make an order that the company be dissolved
from the date of such order, and the company is dissolved accord-
ingly. A company which has been dissolved may, where neces-
sary, on petition to the court be reinstated on the register
(Companies Act 1880, a. x).
A huge number of companies now wind up only to reconstruct.
The reasons for a reconstruction are generally either to raise
fresh capital, or to get rid of onerous preference shares, -,,__
or to enlarge the scope of the company's objects, which , ftBfftea
is otherwise impracticable owing to the unalterability
of the Memorandum of Association. Reconstructions are carried
out in one of three ways: (1) by sale and transfer of the com-
pany's undertaking and assets to a new company, under a power
to sell contained in the company's memorandum of association,
or (2) by sale and transfer under s. 161 of the Companies Act
1862; or (3) by a scheme of arrangement, sanctioned by the
court, under the Joint Stock Companies Arrangements Act
1870, as amended by the Companies Act 1907, s. 38 (C.A. 1908,.
s. 192).
The first of these modes is now the most in favour.
A company, though a mere legal abstraction, without mind
or will, may, it is now well settled, be liable in damages for
malicious prosecution, for nuisance, for fraud, for
negligence, for trespass. The sense of the thing is JJJJ M "
that the " company " is a *<m*n coUtctitum for the rr-r~u~
members. It is they who have put the directors
there to carry on their business and they must be answerable,
collectively, for what is done negligently, fraudulently or
maliciously by their agents.
2. Public Companies.
Besides trading companies there is another large class,
exceeding in their number even trading companies, which for
shortness may be called public companies, that is to say, com-
panies constituted by special act of parliament for the purpose
of constructing and carrying on undertakings of public utility,
such as railways, canals, harbours, docks, waterworks, gasworks,
bridges, ferries, tramways, drainage, fisheries or hospitals.
The objects of such companies nearly always involve an inter-
ference with the rights of private persons, often necessitate
the commission of a public nuisance, and require therefore the.
sanction of the legislature. For this purpose a special act has
to be obtained. A private bill to authorize the undertaking is
introduced before one or other of the Houses of Parliament,
considered in committee, and either passed or rejected like a
public bill. These parliamentary (private bill) committees are
tribunals acknowledging certain rules of policy, taking evidence
from witnesses and hearing arguments from professional advo-
cates. In many of these special acts, dealing as they do with a
similar subject matter, similar provisions are required, and to
avoid repetition and secure uniformity the legislature has passed
certain general acts— codes of law for particular subject mattera
frequently recurring— which can be incorporated by reference
in any special act with the necessary modifications. Thus the
8o2
COMPANY
Companies Clauses Acts 1845, 1863 and 1869 supply the general
powers and provisions which are commonly inserted in the
constitution of such public company, regulating the distribution
of capital, the transfer of shares, payment of calls, borrowing
and general meetings. The Lands Clauses Consolidation Act
1845 supplies the machinery for the compulsory taking of
land incident to most undertakings of a public character. The
Railway Clauses Consolidation Act, the Waterworks Clauses Acts
1847 and 1863, the Gasworks Clauses Act 1847, and the Electric
Lighting (Clauses) Act 1800 are other codes of law designed
for incorporation in special acts creating companies for the
construction of railways or the supply of water, gas or electric
light. A distinguishing feature of these companies is that, being
sanctioned by the legislature for undertakings of public utility,
the policy of the law will not allow them to be broken up or
destroyed by creditors. It gives creditors only a charge— by a
receiver— on the earnings of the undertaking— the " fruit of the
tree."
3. British Companies Abroad.
The status of British companies trading abroad, so far as
Germany, France, Belgium, Greece, Italy and Spain are con-
cerned, is expressly recognized in a series of conventions entered
into between those countries and Great Britain. The value of
the convention with France has been much impaired by the
interpretation put upon the words of it by the court of cassation
in La Construction Lim. According to this case the nationality
of a company depends not on its place of origin but on where it
has its centre of affairs, its principal establishment The result
is that a company registered in Britain under the Companies
Acts may be transmuted by a French court into a French
company in direct violation of the convention. The convention
with Germany, which is in similar terms to that with France,
has also been narrowed by judicial construction. The "power of
exercising all their rights " given by the convention to British
companies has been construed to mean that a British company
will be recognized as a corporate body in Germany, but it docs
not follow from the terms of the convention that any British
company may as a matter of course establish a branch and
carry on business within the German empire. It must still get
permission to trade, permission to hold land. It must register
itself in the communal register. It must pay stamp duties.
Foreign companies may found an affiliated company or have
a branch establishment in Italy, provided they publish their
memorandum and articles and the names of their directors.
Where no convention exists the status of an immigrant corpora-
tion depends upon international comity, which allows foreign
corporations, as it does foreign persons, to sue, to make contracts
and hold real estate, in the same way as domestic corporations
or citizens; provided the stranger corporation does not offend
against the policy of the state in which it seeks to trade.
There is, however, a growing practice now for states to impose
by express legislation conditions on foreign corporations com-
ing to do business within their territory. These conditions arc
mainly directed to securing that the immigrant corporation
shall make known its constitution and shall be amenable to the
jurisdiction of the courts of the country where it trades. Thus,
by the law of Western Australia— to take a typical instance, —
a foreign company is not to commence or carry on business until
it empowers some person to act as its attorney to sue and be
sued and has an office or place of business within the state, to be
approved of by the registrar, where all legal proceedings may be
served. New Zealand, Manitoba and many other states have
adopted similar precautions; and by the Companies Act 1907,
s. 35; C.A. 1908, s. 274 foreign companies having a place
of business within the United Kingdom are required to file with
the registrar of joint stock companies a copy of the company's
charter or memorandum and articles, a list of directors, and the
names and addresses of one or more persons authorized to accept
service of process. Special conditions of a more stringent nature
*rc often imposed In the case of particular classes of companies
or* qugsi-puoijc dmctcr, such u banking companies, building
societies or insurance companies. Regulations of this kiwi Art
perfectly legitimate and necessary. They are in truth only is
application of the law of vagrancy to corporations, and ha*
their analogy in the restrictions now generally imposed by sUts
on the immigration of aliens.
4. Company Law outside the Untied Kingdom.
Australia. — Company law in Australia and in New ZeanaA
follows very closely the lines of company legislation ia tk
United Kingdom.
In New South Wales the law is consolidated by Act No. 40 of
1890, amended 1900 and 1906. In Victoria the law is contained a
the Acts Nos. 1074 of 1890 and 355 of 1896; in Queensland ia
a series of Acts — No. 4 of 1863, No. 18 of 1899, No. to of 1891,
No. 24 of 1892, No. 3 of 1893, No. 19 of 1894 and No. ai of 1896;
in South Australia in No. 56 of 1892, amended by No. 576 d
1893; in Tasmania by Nos. 22 of 1869, 19 of 1895 and 3 of 1896,
in Western Australia by No. 8 of 1893, amended 1897 and 2898.
In New Zealand the law was consolidated in 2003.
Canada. — The act governing joint stock companies in Cauda
is the Companies Act 1902, amended 2904. It empowers tk
secretary of state by letters patent to grant a charter to uy
number of persons not less than five for any objects other ihn
railway or telegraph lines, banking or insurance.
Applicants must file an application — analogous to the British
memorandum of association — showing certain particulars— the
purposes of incorporation, the place of business, the amount cl
the capital stock, the number of shares and the amount of each,
the names and addresses of the applicants, the amount of stock
taken by each and the amount and mode of payment. Other
provisions may also be embodied. A company cannot commence
business until 10% of its authorized capital has been subscribed
and paid for. The word " limited " as part of the company*!
name is — as in the case of British companies — to be conspicu-
ously exhibited and used in all documents. The directors an
not to be less than three or more than fifteen, and must be hoicks
of stock. Directors are jointly and severally liable to the data,
labourers and servants of the company for six months' wsjes.
Borrowing powers may be taken by a vote of holders of two-
thirds in value of the subscribed stock of the company.
South Africa.— In Cape Colony the law is contained in No. 1$
of 1892, amended 1895 and 1906; it follows English law.
In Natal the law is contained in Nos. xo of 1864, x8 of 1865,
19 of 1893 and 3 of 1896.
In the Orange Free State in Law Ch. 100 and Nos. a and 4 of
2892.
For the Transvaal see Nos. 5 of 1874, 6 of 1874, 1 of 1894 and
30 of X004.
In Rhodesia companies are regulated by the Companies
Ordinance 1895 — a combination of the Cape Companies Ad
1892, and the British Companies Acts 1862-1890.
France. — There are two kinds of limited liability companies
in France — the sociiti en commandite and the sociiti anonyme.
The sociiti en commandite corresponds in some respects to the
British private company or limited partnership, but with this
difference, that in the sociiti en commandite the managing partner
is under unlimited liability of creditors; the sleeping partner's
liability is limited to the amount of his capital. The French
equivalent of the English ordinary joint stock company is the
sociiti anonyme. The minimum number of subscribers necessary
to form such a company is (as in the case of a British trading
company) seven, but, unlike a British company, the sociiti
anonyme is not legally constituted unless the whole capital is
subscribed and one-fourth of each share paid up. Another
precaution unknown to British practice is that assets, not ia
money, brought into a company are subject to verification of
value by a general meeting. The minimum nominal value of
shares, where the company's capital is less than 200,000 fcs.,
is 25 fcs.; where the capital is more than 200,000 fcs., too fcs.
The sociiti is governed by articles which appoint the directors,
and there is one general meeting held every year. A sociiti
anonyme may, since 1902, issue preference shares. The doctrine
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY— COMPARETTI
803
that * corporation never dies has no place in French law. A
socUU anonym* may come to an end.
: Germany.— In Germany the class of companies most nearly
corresponding to English companies limited by shares are
"share companies" (Aktiengescllschoften) and "commandite
companies " with a share capital (KommandilgeseUschoften auf
Akticn). Since 1802 a new form of association has come into
existence known by the name of partnership with limited
liability (GeseUschaflen mil beschrankter Haftung), which has
largely superseded the commandite company.
Tbm " Bkmn In forming this paid-up company certain preliminary
w » « y«" steps have to be taken before registration:—
1. The article* mutt be agreed on;
3. A managing board and a board of supervision must be
appointed:
3. The whole of the share capital must be allotted and 25% at
least, must be paid up in coin or legal tender notes;
4. Reports on the formation of the company must be made by
certain persons; and
5. Certain documents must be filed in the registry.
In all cases where shares are issued for any consideration,
not being payment in full in cash, or in which contracts for the
purchase of property have been entered into, the promoters
must sign a declaration in which they must state on what grounds
the prices agreed to be given for such property appear to be
justified. In the great majority of cases shares are issued in
certificates to bearer. The amount of such a share — to bearer —
must as a general rule be not less than £50, but registered shares
of £10 may be issued. Balance sheets have to be published
periodically.
Partnerships with limited liability may be formed by two or
more members. The articles of partnership must be signed by
all the members, and must contain particulars as to
the amount of the capital and of the individual shares.
If the liability on any shares is not to be satisfied in
cash this also must be stated. The capital of a limited
partnership must amount to £1000. Shares must be registered.
Insolvent companies in Germany are subject to the bankruptcy
law in the same manner as natural persons.
For further information see a memorandum on German
companies printed in the appendix to the Report of Lord Davey's
Committee on the Amendment of Company Law, pp. 13-26.
Italy. — Commercial companies in Italy are of three kinds: —
(1) General partnerships, in which the members are liable for all
debts incurred; (2) companies in occomodUa, in which some
members are liable to an unlimited extent and others within
certain limits; (3) joint stock companies, in which the liability
is limited to the capital of the company and no member is liable
beyond the amount of his holding. None of these companies
needs authority from the government for its constitution; all
that is needed is a written agreement brought before the public
in the ways-indicated in the code (Art. 00 ct seq.). In joint stock
companies the trustees (directors) must give security. They are
appointed by a general meeting for a period not exceeding four
years (Art. x 24) . The company is not constituted until the whole
of its capital is subscribed, and until three-tenths of the capital
at least has been actually paid up. When a company's capital is
diminished by one-third, the trustees must call the members
together and consult as to what is to be done.
An ordinary meeting is held once at least every year. Shares
may not be made payable " to bearer " until fully paid up
(Art. 166). A company may issue debentures if this is agreed
to by a certain majority (Art. 172). One-twentieth, at least, of
the dividends of the company must be added to the reserve fund,
until this has become equal to one-fifth of the company's capital
(Art. 182). Three or five assessors— members or non-members —
keep watch over the way in which the company is carried on.
United States.— In the United States the right to create
corporations is a sovereign right, and as such is exercisable by
the several states of the Union. The law of private corporations
must therefore be sought in some fifty collections or groups of
statutory and case-made rules. These collections or groups of
rules differ in many cases essentially from each other. The acta
regulating business corporations generally provide that the
persons proposing to form a corporation shall sign and acknow-
ledge an instrument called the articles of association, setting
forth the name of the corporation, the object for which it is
to be formed, the principal place of business, the amount of its
capital stock, and the number of shares into which it is to be
divided, and the duration of its corporate existence. These
articles are filed in the office of the secretary of state or in
designated courts of record, and a certificate is then issued
reciting that the provisions of the act have been complied with,
and thereupon the incorporators are vested with corporate
existence and the general powers incident thereto. This certi-
ficate is the charter of the corporation. The power to make
bylaws is usually vested in the stockholders, but it may be
conferred by the certificate on the directors. Stockholders
remain liable until their subscriptions are fully paid. Nothing
but money is considered payment of capital stock except where
property is purchased. Directors must usually be stockholders.
The right of a state to forfeit a corporation's charter for
misuser or non-user of its franchises is an implied term of the
grant of incorporation. Corporations are liable for every wrong
they commit, and in such cases cannot set up by way of protection
the doctrine of ultra vires.
See for authorities Commentaries on the Law of Private Corporations,
by Seymour D. Thompson, LL.D., 6 vols.; Beach on Corporations,
and the American Encyclopaedia of Law. (E. Ma.)
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, a term employed to designate the
study of the structure of man as compared with that of lower
animals, and sometimes the study of lower animals in contra-
distinction to human anatomy; the term is now falling into
desuetude, and lingers practically only in the titles of books or in
the designation of university chairs. The change in terminology
is chiefly the result of modern conceptions of zoology. From the
point of view of structure, man is one of the animals; all in-
vestigations into anatomical structure must be comparative,
and in this work the subject is so treated throughout See
Anatomy and Zoology.
COMPARETTI, DOMKNICO (1835- ), Italian scholar, was
born at Rome on the 27th of June 1835. He studied at the
university of Rome, took his degree in 1855 in natural science
and mathematics, and entered his uncle's pharmacy as assistant.
His scanty leisure was, however, given to study. He learned
Greek by himself, and gained facility in the modern language
by conversing with the Greek students at the university. In
spite of all disadvantages, he not only mastered the language,
but became one of the chief classical scholars of Italy. In 1857
he published, in the JUteinisches Museum, a translation of some
recently discovered fragments of Hypereides, with a dissertation
on that orator. This was followed by a notice of the annalist
Granius Licinianus, and one on the oration of Hypereides on
the Lamian War. In 1859 he was appointed professor of Greek
at Pisa on the recommendation of the duke of Sermoneta. A
few years later he was called to a similar post at Florence,'
remaining emeritus professor at Pisa also. He subsequently
took up his residence in Rome as lecturer on Greek antiquities
and greatly interested himself in the Forum excavations. He
was a member of the governing bodies of the academies of
Milan, Venice, Naples and Turin. The list of his writings is
long and varied. Of his works in classical literature, the best
known are an edition of the Euxenippus of Hypereides, and
monographs on Pindar and Sappho. He also edited the great
inscription which contains a collection of the municipal laws of
Gortyn in Crete, discovered on the site of the ancient city. In
the Kalewala and the Traditional Poetry of the Finns (English
translation by L M. Anderton, 1898) he discusses the national
epic of Finland and its heroic songs, with a view to solving the
problem whether an epic could be composed by the interweaving
of such national songs. He comes to a negative conclusion, and
applies this reasoning to the Homeric problem. He treats this
question again in a treatise on the so-called Peisistratean edition
of Homer (La Commission* omerica di Pisistrato, 1881). His
Researches concerning the Booh ofSindibad have been ttairxfarttA
804
COMPASS
In the Proceedings of the FoUc-Lore Society. His Vergil in the
Middle Ages (translated into English by E. F. Benecke, 1805)
traces the strange vicissitudes by which the great Augustan
poet became successively grammatical fetich, Christian prophet
and wizard. Together with Professor Alessandro d'Ancona,
Comparetti edited a collection of Italian national songs and
stories (9 vols., Turin, 1870-1891), many of which had been
collected and written down by himself for the first time.
COMPASS (Fr. compos, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and
fcssus, step), a term of which the evolution of the various
meanings is obscure; the general sense is "measure" or
" measurement," and the word is used thus in various derived
meaning s ar ea , boundary, circuit. It is also more particularly
Applied to a mathematical instrument (" pair of compasses ")
for measuring or for describing a circle, and to the mariner's
compass.
The mariner's compass, with which this article is concerned,
is an instrument by means of which the directive force
of that great magnet, the Earth, upon a freely-suspended
needle, is utilized for a purpose essential to navigation. The
needle is so mounted that it only moves freely in the horizontal
plane, and therefore the horizontal component of the earth's
force alone directs it. The direction assumed by the needle is not
generally towards the geographical north, but diverges towards
the east or west of it, making a horizontal angle with the true
Fro. 1 -—Compass Card.
meridian, called the magnetic variation or declination; amongst
mariners this angle is known as the variation of the compass.
In the usual navigable waters of the world the variation alters
from 30° to the east to 45° to the west of the geographical
meridian, being westerly in the Atlantic and Indian oceans,
easterly in the Pacific The vertical plane passing through the
longitudinal axis of such a needle is known as the magnetic
meridian. Following the first chart of lines of equal variation
compiled by Edmund Halley in 1700, charts of similar type have
been published from time to time embodying recent observations
and corrected for the secular change, thus providing seamen
with values of the variation accurate to about 30' of arc. Possess-
ing these data, it is easy to ascertain by observation the effects
of the iron in a ship in disturbing the compass, and it will be
found for the most part in every vessel that the needle is deflected
from the magnetic meridian by a horizontal angle called the
deviation of the compass; in some directions of the ship's head
adding to the known variation of the place, in other directions
subtracting from it. Local magnetic disturbance of the needle
due to magnetic rocks is observed on land in all parts of the
world, and in certain places extends to the land under the sea,
mfiectiag the compasses on board the ships passing over it. The
general direction of these disturbances in the northern hemispbe*
is an attraction of the north-seeking end of the needle; in the
southern hemisphere, its repulsion. The approaches to Cossack,
North Australia; Cape St Francis, Labrador; the* coasts of
Madagascar and Iceland, are remarkable for such disturbance
of the compass.
The compass as we know it is the result of the necessities of
navigation, which have increased from century to century. It
consists of five principal parts— the card, the needles, the bo«L
a jewelled cap and the pivot. The card or " fly," formerly made
of cardboard, now consists of a disk either of mica covered with
paper or of paper alone, but in all cases the card is divided into
points and degrees as shown in fig. r. The outer margin is
divided into degrees with o° at north and south, and 90° at east
(Frame and Needles)!^ " Compass (Frame and Needles),
and west; the 32 points with half and quarter points are seen
immediately within the degrees. The north point is marked
with afteur de lis, and the principal points, N.E., E., S.E., Ac.,
with their respective names, whilst the intermediate points is
the figure have also their names engraved for present information.
The arc contained between any two points is 1 x° x 5*. The mica
card is generally mounted on a brass framework, F F, with a
brass cap, C, fitted with a sapphire centre and carrying four
magnetized needles, N, N, N, N, as in fig. 2. The more modern
form of card consists of a broad ring of paper marked with degrees
and points, as in fig. x, attached to a frame like that in fig. 3,
where an outer aluminium ring, A A, is connected by 32 radial
Fie. 4.— Section of Thomson's Compass Bowl. C, aluminium cap
with sapphire centre; N, N\ needks; P, pivot stem with pivot.
silk threads to a central disk of aluminium, in the centre of which
is a round hole designed to receive an aluminium cap with a
highly polished sapphire centre worked to the form of an open
cone. To direct the card eight short light needles, N N, are
suspended by silk threads from the outer ring. The magnetic
axis of any system of needles must exactly coincide with the
axis passing through the north and south points of the card.
Single needles are never used, two being the least number, and
these so arranged that the moment of inertia about every
diameter of the card shall be the same. The combination of
card, needles and cap is generally termed " the card "; on the
continent of Europe it is called the " rose." The section of a
compass bowl in fig. 4 shows the mounting of a Thomson card
on its pivot, which in common with the pivots of most other
compasses is made of brass, tipped with osmium-iiidium, which
although very hard can be sharply pointed and does not corrode.
COMPASS
805
Fig. 4 shows the general arrangement of mounting all compass
cards in the bowl In fig. 5 another form of compass called a
liquid or spirit compass is shown partly in section. The card
nearly floats in a bowl filled with distilled water, to which. 35%
of alcohol is added to prevent freezing; the bowl is hermetically
sealed with pure india-rubber, and a corrugated expansion
chamber is attached to the bottom to allow for the expansion
and contraction of the liquid. The card is a mica disk, either
painted as in fig. 1, or covered with linen upon which the degrees
and points are printed, the needles being enclosed in brass.
Great steadiness of card under severe shocks and vibrations,
combined with a minimum of friction in the cap and pivot, is
obtained with this compass. All compasses are fitted with a
gimbal ring to keep the bowl and card level under every circum-
stance of a ship's motion in a seaway, the ring being connected
with the binnacle or pedestal by means of journals or knife
edges. On the inside of every compass bowl a vertical black
line is drawn, called the " lubber's point/' and it is imperative
Fie. 5.-*-Liqutd Compass.
A, Bowl, portly in section.
B, Expansion chamber.
D, The glass.
G, Gimbal ring.
L, Nut to expand chamber when
filling bowl.
M, Screw connector.
N, Hole for filling, with
O, O, Magnetic needles.
P, Buoyant chamber.
Q, Iridium pivot.
K, Sapphire cap.
S, Mica card.
that when the compass is placed in the binnacle the line joining
the pivot and the lubber's point be parallel to the keel of the
vessel. Thus, when a degree on the card is observed opposite
the lubber's point, the angle between the direction in which the
ship is steering and the north point of the compass or course
is at once seen; and if the magnetic variation and the disturbing
effects of the ship's iron are known, the desired angle between
the ships's course and the geographical meridian can be computed.
In every ship a position is selected for the navigating or standard
compass as free from neighbouring iron as possible, and by this
compass all courses are shaped and bearings taken. It is also
provided with an azimuth circle or mirror and a shadow pin or
style placed in the centre of the glass cover, by either of which
the variable angle between the compass north and true north,
called the " total error," or variation and deviation combined,
can be observed. The binnacles or pedestals for compasses are
generally constructed of wood about 45 in. high, and fitted to
receive and alter at pleasure the several magnet and soft iron
correctors. They are also fitted with different forms of suspen-
sion in which the compass is mounted to obviate the mechanical
disturbance of the card caused by the vibration of the hull
in ships driven by powerful engines.
The effects of the iron and steel used in the construction of
ships upon the compass occupied the attention of the ablest
physicists of the 19th century, with results which enable navi-
gators to conduct their ships with perfect safety. The hull of
an iron or steel ship is a magnet, and the distribution of its
magnetism depends upon the direction of the ship's head when
building, this result being produced by induction from the
earth's magnetism, developed and impressed by the hammering
of the plates and frames during the process of building. The
disturbance of the compass by the magnetism of the hull
is generally modified, sometimes favourably, more often un-
favourably, by the magnetized fittings of the ship, such as
masts, conning towers, deck bouses, engines and boilers. Thus
in every ship the compass needle is more or less subject to
deviation differing in amount and direction for every azimuth
of the ship's head. This was first demonstrated by Commander
Matthew Flinders by experiments made in H.M.S. " Investi-
gator " in 1800^-1803, and in 1810 led that officer to Introduce
the practice of placing the ship's head on each point of the
compass, and noting the- amount of deviation whether to the
east or west of the magnetic north, a process which is in full
exercise at the present day, and is called " swinging ship."
When speaking of the magnetic properties of iron it ii usual
to adopt the terms " soft " and " hard." Soft iron is iron which
becomes instantly magnetized by induction when exposed to
any magnetic force, but has no power of retaining its magnetism.
Hard iron is less susceptible of being magnetized, but when
once magnetized it retains its magnetism permanently. The
term " iron " used in these pages includes the " steel " now
commonly employed in shipbuilding. If an iron ship be swung
when upright for deviation, and the mean horizontal and vertical
magnetic forces at the compass positions be also observed in
different parts of the world, mathematical analysis shows that
the deviations are caused partly by the permanent magnetism
of hard iron, partly by the transient induced magnetism of soft
iron both horizontal and vertical, and in a lesser degree by iron
which is neither magnetically hard nor soft, but which becomes
magnetized in the same manner as hard iron, though it gradually
loses its magnetism on change of conditions, as, for example,
in the case of a ship, repaired and hammered in dock, steaming
in an opposite direction at sea. This latter cause of deviation
is called sub-permanent magnetism. The horizontal directive
force on the needle on board is nearly always less than on land,
sometimes much less, whilst in armour-plated ships it ranges
from -8 to -a when the directive force on land- 10. If the
ship be inclined to starboard or to port additional deviation
will be observed, reaching a maximum on north and south points,
decreasing to zero on the east and west points. Each ship
has its own magnetic character, but there arc certain conditions
which are common to vessels of the same type.
Instead of observing the deviation solely for the purposes of
correcting the indications of the compass when disturbed by the
iron of the ship, the practice is to subject all deviations to
mathematical analysis with a view to their mechanical correction.
The whole of the deviations when the ship is upright may be
expressed nearly by five co-efficients, A. B, C, D, E. Of these A
is a deviation constant in amount for every direction of the ship's
head. B has reference to horizontal forces acting in a longi-
tudinal direction in the ship, and caused partly by the permanent
magnetism of hard iron, partly by vertical induction in vertical
soft iron either before or abaft the compass. C has reference
to forces acting in a transverse direction, and caused by hard iron.
D is due to transient induction in horizontal soft iron, the direc-
tion of which passes continuously under or over the compass.
E is due to transient induction in horizontal soft iron unsym-
metrically placed with regard to the compass. When data of
this character have been obtained the compass deviations may
be mechanically corrected to within i°— ialways adhering to the
principal that " like cures like." Thus the part of B caused by
the permanent magnetism of hard iron must be corrected by
permanent magnets horizontally placed in a fore and aft direc-
tion; the other part caused by vertical soft iron by means of
bars of vertical soft iron, called Flinders bars, before or abaft
the compass. C is com pensated by permanent magnets athwart-
ships and horizontal; D by masses of soft iron on both sides of
the compass, and generally in the form of cast-iron spheres,
with their centres in the same horizontal plane as the needles;
E is usually too small to require correction; A is fortunately
rarely of any value, as it cannot be corrected. The deviation
observed when the ship inclines to either side is due — (1) to hard
iron acting vertically upwards or downwards; (2) to vertical
soft iron immediately below the compass; (s) to v*x&ak <«>&»»>
tion in hotfomt&l wAv vkhi , w\nt\i vaOkNtk. "\* woksks»»x*. V£*
8o6
COMPASS
vertical magnets are used; (3) is partly corrected by the soft
iron correctors of D; (2) and the remaining part of (3) cannot be
conveniently corrected for more than one geographical position
at a time. Although a compass may thus be made practically
correct for a given time and place, the magnetism of the ship
is liable to changes on changing her geographical position, and
especially so when steaming at right angles or nearly so to the
magnetic meridian, for then sub-permanent magnetism is
developed in the hull. Some vessels are more liable to become
sub-permanently magnetized than others, and as no corrector
has been found for this source of deviation the navigator roust
determine its amount by observation. Hence, however carefully
a compass may be placed and subsequently compensated, the
mariner has no safety without constantly observing the bearings
of the sun, stars or distant terrestrial objects, to ascertain its
deviation. The results of these observations are entered in a
compass journal for future reference when fog or darkness
prevails.
Every compass and corrector supplied to the ships of the
British navy is previously examined in detail at the Compass
Observatory established by the admiralty at Dcptford. A
trained observer acting under the superintendent of compasses
is charged with this important work. The superintendent, who
is a naval officer, has to investigate the magnetic character of
the ships, to point out the most suitable positions for the com-
passes when a ship is designed, and subsequently to keep himself
informed of their behaviour from the time of the ship's first trial.
A museum containing compasses of various types invented
during the 19th century is attached to the Compass Observatory
at Dcptford.
The mariner's compass during the early part of the 19th century
was still a very imperfect instrument, although numerous inventors
had tried to improve it. In 1837 the Admiralty Compass Committee
was appointed to make a scientific investigation of the subject, and
propose a form of compass suitable alike Tor azimuth and steering
purposes. The committee reported in July 1840, and after minor
improvements by the makers the admiralty compass, the card of
which is shown in figs. 1 and 2, was adopted by the government.
Until 1876, when Sir William Thomson introduced his patent com-
Biss, this compass was not only the regulation compass of the
ritish navy, but was largely used in other countries in the same
or a modified form. The introduction of powerful engines causing
serious vibration to compass cards of the admiralty type, coupled
with the prevailing desire for larger cards, the deviation of which
could also be more conveniently compensated, led to the gradual
introduction of the Thomson compass. Several important points
were gained in the latter; the quadrantal deviation could be finally
corrected for all latitudes; frictional error at the cap and pivot was
reduced to a minimum, the average weight of the card being 200
grains; the long free vibrational period of the card was found to be
favourable to its steadiness when the vessel was rolling. The first
liquid compass used in England was invented by Francis Crow, of
Faversham, in 1813. It is said that the idea of a liquid compass was
suggested to Crow by the experience of the captain of a coasting
vessel whose compass card was oscillating wildly until a sea broke
on board filling the compass bowl, when the card became steady.
Subsequent improvements were made by E. J. Dent, and especially
by E. S. Ritchie, of Boston. Massachusetts. In 1888 the form of
liquid compass (fig. 5) now solely used in torpedo boats and torpedo
boat destroyers was introduced. It has also proved to be the most
trustworthy compass under the shock of heavy gun fire at present
available. The deflector is an instrument designed to enable an
observer to reduce the deviations of the compass to an amount not
exceeding a" during fogs, or at any time when bearings of distant
objects are not available. It is certain that if the directive forces
on the north, east, south and west points of a compass are equal,
there can be no deviation. With the deflector any inequality in the
directive force can be detected, and hence the power of equalizing
the forces by the usual soft iron and magnet correctors. Several
kinds of deflector have been invented, that of Lord Kelvin (Sir
William Thomson) being the simplest, but Dr Waehorn's is also very
effective. The use of the deflector is generally confined to experts.
The Magnetism of Skips.— \n 1814 Flinders first showed (see
Fhnders'i Voyage, vol. ii. appx. it.) that the abnormal values of
the variation observed in the wood-built ships of his day was due
to deviation of the compass caused by the iron in the ship: that the
deviation was aero when the ship's head was near the north and
south points; that* it attained its maximum on the east and west
points, and varied as the sine of the azimuth of the ship's head 1
reckoned from the zero point*. He also described a method of
oomact/n^ deviation by means of a bar of vertical iron so placed \
** to comet the dexiatioa aeaxly ia ail latitude* This bar, now \
known as a M Flinders bar," is still in general use. In 1820 DrT.
Young (tec Brandt's Quarterly Journal, 1 820) investigated nutbe»
matically the magnet Km of ships. In 1824 Professor Peter Barlov
(17?6-iH6j) introduced his correcting plate of soft iron. Trials is
certain ship* showed that their magnetism consisted partly of hud
iron, and the use of the plate was abandoned. In 1835 Captain
E,J, J^hivwn, K r N.. showed from experiments in the iron steamship
** t*afry Owen M that the vessel acted on an external compass is 1
magnet. In i9j8 Sir G- B. Airy magnetically examined the iron
steamship " Rainbow " at Deptford. and from his mathematical
in ventilations {xc Fhti, Trans., 1839) deduced his method of correct-
ing the compass by permanent magnets and soft iron, giving practical
rules for the same in 1840. Airy's and Flinders's correctors form the
basis of all compass correctors to this day. In 1838 S. D. Poisscn
?ublished his Memoir on the Deviations of the Compass caused by ik
ron in a Vessel. In this he gave equations resulting from the hyr
thesis that the magnetism of a ship is partly due to the pcrma'
magnetism of hard iron and partly to the transient induced m?
ism of soft iron; that the latter is proportional to the intensin
inducing force, and that the length of the needle is infinif
small compared to the distance of the surrounding iror
Poisson's equations Archibald Smith deduced the form-
in the Admiralty Manual for Deviations of the Compass (is»
a work which has formed the basis of numerous other rr
published in Great Britain and othcrcountrics. In view
difficulties connected with the inclining of every
formulae for ascertaining and providing for the co
heeling error with the ship upright continue to be r
safe navigation. In 1855 the Liverpool Compass C
its work of investigating the magnetism of snips
marine, resulting in three reports to the Board of
value, the last being presented in 1861.
See also Magnetism, and Navigation; art
of Ships and Deviations of the Compass, Phil
Journal United Service Inst.. 1 859-1889, Trar
1860-1861-1862, Retort of Brit. Assoc, 18
Rev., 1865: also Admiralty Manual, edit.
1000; and Towson's Practical Jnformatio-
Compass (1886).
History of the Mariner's Compass.
The discovery that a lodestonc, or a piece of iron which has
been touched by a lodestonc, will direct itself to point in a north
and south position, and the application of that discovery to
direct the navigation of ships, have been attributed to various
origins. The Chinese, the Arabs, the Greeks, the Etruscans,
the Finns and the Italians have all been claimed as originators
of the compass. There is now little doubt that the claim formerly
advanced in favour of the Chinese is ill-founded. In Chinese
history we are told how, in the sixty-fourth year of the reign of
Hwang-ti (2634 B.C.), the emperor Hiuan-yuan, or Hwang-ti,
attacked one Tchi-yeou, on the plains of Tchou-lou, and finding
his army embarrassed by a thick fog raised by the enemy, con-
structed a chariot (Tchi-nan) for indicating the south, so as to
distinguish the four cardinal points, and was thus enabled to
pursue Tchi-yeou, and take him prisoner. (Julius Klaproth,
Lettre a M. le Baron Humboldt sur l' invention de la boussole,
Paris, 1834. See also Mailla, Hisloire generate de la Chine,
torn. i. p. 316, Paris, 1777.) But, as other versions of the story
show, this account is purely mythical. For the south-pointing
chariots are recorded to have been first devised by the emperor
Hian-tsoung (a.d. 806-820) ; and there is no evidence that they
contained any magnet. There is no genuine record of a Chinese
marine compass before a.d. 1297, as Klaproth admits. No
sea-going ships were built in China before 139 B.C. The earliest
allusion to the power of the lodestone in Chinese literature
occurs in a Chinese dictionary, finished in a.d. 121, where the
lodestone is defined as " a stone with which an attraction can
be given to a needle," but this knowledge is no more than that
existing in Europe at least five hundred years before. Nor is
there any nautical significance in a passage which occurs in the
Chinese encyclopaedia, Poei-wcn-yun-fou, in which it is stated
that under the Tsin dynasty, or between AJ>. 265 and 410,
" there were ships indicating the south."
The Chinese, Sir J. F. Davis informs us, once navigated as Car
as India, but their most distant voyages at present extend not
farther than Java and the Malay Islands to the south (Tkt
Chinese, vol. iii. p. 14, London, 1844). According to an Arabic
manuscript, a translation of which was published by Easebhn
Rena-udov. (£ati* v v|\S) > taey Vratoiva.4bioa to the Persian Gvtf
8o8
COMPASS
Eastern manufacture (Travels of Vartkema, Introd. xciv, and
p. 249). We have already seen that the Chinese as late as the
end of the 18th century made voyages with compasses on which
but little reliance could be placed; and it may perhaps be
assumed that the compasses early used in the East were mostly
too imperfect to be of much assistance to navigators, and were
therefore often dispensed with on customary routes. The Arab
traders in the Levant certainly used a floating compass, as did
the Italians before the introduction of the pivoted needle; the
magnetized piece of iron being floated upon a small raft of cork
or reeds in a bowl of water. The Italian name of calamita, which
still persists, for the magnet, and which literally signifies a frog,
is doubtless derived from this practice.
The simple water-compass is said to have been used by the
Coreans so late as the middle of the 18th century; and Dr T.
Smith, writing in the Philosophical Transactions for 1683-1684,
■ays of the Turks- (p. 439), " They have no genius for Sea-
voyages, and consequently are very raw and unexperienced
in the art of Navigation, scarce venturing to sail out of sight of
land. I speak of the natural Turks, who trade either into the
black Sea or some part of the Morea, or between Constantinople
and Alexandria, and not of the Pyrats of Barbary, who are for
the most part Renegado's, and learnt their skill in Christendom.
. . . The Turkish compass consists but of 8 points, the four
Cardinal and the four Collateral." That the value of the
compass was thus, even in the latter part of the 17th
century, so imperfectly recognized in the East may serve
to explain bow in earlier times that instrument, long after
the first discovery of its properties, may have been generally
neglected by navigators.
The Arabic geographer, Edrisi, who lived about 1100, is said
by Boucher to give an account, though in a confused manner,
of the polarity of the magnet (Hallam, Mid. Ages, vol. iii. chap.
9, part 2); but the earliest deflnite mention as yet known of
the use of the mariner's compass in the middle ages occurs in a
treatise entitled De utensilibus, written by Alexander Neckam
in the 12th century. He speaks there of a needle carried on
board ship which, being placed on a pivot, and allowed to take
its own position of repose, shows mariners their course when
the polar star is hidden. In another work, De naturis rerum,
lib. ii. c. 89, he writes, — " Mariners at sea, when, through
cloudy weather in the day which hides the sun, or through the
darkness of the night, they lose the knowledge of the quarter
of the world to which they are sailing, touch a needle with the
magnet, which will turn round till, on its motion ceasing, its
point will be directed towards the north " (W. Chappell, Nature,
No. 346, June 15, 1876). The magnetical needle, and its suspen-
sion on a stick or straw in water, are clearly described in La
Bible Cuiei, a poem probably of the 13th century, by Guiot de
Provins, wherein we are told that through the magnet (la manetu
or Famemiire), an ugly brown stone to which iron turns of its,
own accord, mariners possess an art that cannot fail them.
A needle touched by it, and floated by a stick on water, turns its
point towards the pole-star, and a light being placed near the
needle on dark nights, the proper course is known (Hist. litUrairt
4§ la Prance, torn. ix. p. 109 ; Barbazan, Fabliaux, torn. ii.
p. 328). Cardinal Jacques de Vitry, bishop of Aeon in Palestine,
in his History (cap. 89), written about the year 1218, speaks
of the magnetic needle as " most necessary for such as sail the
sea w ;' and another French crusader, his contemporary, Vincent
de Beauvais, states that the adamant (lodestone) is found in
Arabia, and mentions a method of using a needle magnetized
by it which is similar to that described by Kibdjaki. In 1248
Hugo de Bercy notes a change in the construction of compasses,
which ait now supported on two floats in a glass cup. From
quotations given by Antonio Capmany (Questiones Criiicas)
from the De eontempiatione of Raimon Lull, of the date 1272,
it appears that the latter was well acquainted with the use of
. Ferrufn occulta quadara natun
quam adamantcm contigerit, ad
afe-Uamseptentrionalein . . '. semper con vert itur.undcval
emruts eat OMvigmatibu* ia marl
• Adamas in India reperiti
ad se trahit. Acos lerrea poftquam adamantcm contiger
the magnet at sea;* and before the middle of the 13th century
Gauthier d'Espinois alludes to its polarity, as if generally
known, in the lines. —
44 Tout autresi comme l'aimant deceit [detoumel
L'aiguillette par force de vertu,
A ma dame tor le mont [monde] retenue
Qui sa beaute connoit et apercptt."
Guido Cuinizzelli, a poet of the same period, writes:—* 1 In
those parts under the north are the mountains of lodestone,
which give the virtue to the air of attracting iron; bat because
it (the lodestone] is far off, [it] wishes to have the help of a sunflu
Stone to make it [the virtue] work, and to direct the needle
towards the star."* Brunetto Latini also makes reference to
the compass in his encyclopaedia Litres dou trtscr, composed
about 1260 (Livre i. pt. ii. ch. cxx.) : — " Por cc nagent li marinier
a l'enseigne des estoiles qui i sont, que il apelent tramontanes,
et les gens qui sont en Europe et es parties dec* nagent a 1*
tramontaine de septentrion, et li autre nagent i cele de midL
Et qui n'en set la verity, praigne une pierre d'aimant, et troverez
que ele a ij faces: Tune qui gist vers l'une tramontaine, et
1'autre gist vers 1'autre: Et a chascune des ij faces la pointe
d'une aguille vers cele tramontaine a cui cele face gist. Et por
ce seroient li marinier deceu se il ne se preissent garde " (p. 147,
Paris edition, 1863). Dante (Paradiso, xii. 28-30) mentions the
pointing of the magnetic needle toward the pole star. In
Scandinavian records there is a reference to the nautical use of
the magnet in the Hauksb6k, the last edition of the Lamdnd-
tnabdk (Book of the Colonization of Iceland) : — " Floki, son of
Vilgerd, instituted a great sacrifice, and consecrated three ravens
which should show him the way (to Iceland); for at that time
no men sailing the high seas had lodestones up in northern lands.* 1
Haukr Erlendsson, who wrote this paragraph about 1300,
died in 1334; his edition was founded on material in two earlier
works, that of Styrmir Karason (who died 1245)1 which is lost,
and that of Hurla Thordson (died 1284) which has no such
paragraph. All that is certain is a knowledge of the nautical
use of the magnet at the end of the 13th century. From T.
Torfaeus we learn that the compass, fitted into a box, was
already in use among the Norwegians about the middle of the
13th century (Hist. rcr. Nortcgicarnm, jv. c. 4, p. 345, Hafniae,
1711); and it is probable that the use of the magnet at sea was
known in Scotland at or shortly subsequent to that time, though
Ring Robert, in crossing from Arran to Carrick in 1306. as
Barbour writing in 1375 informs us, " na nedill had na stane,"
but steered by a fire on the shore. Roger Bacon (Opus mojus
and Opus minus, 1266-1267) was acquainted with the properties
of the lodestone, and wrote that if set so that it can turn freely
(swimming on water) it points toward the poles; but he stated
that this was not due to the pole-star, but to the influence of
the northern region of the heavens.
The earliest unquestionable description of a pivoted compass
is that contained in the remarkable Epistola de magnete of Petrus
Peregrinus de Maricourt, written at Lucera in 1260 to Sigerus
de Foncaucourt. (First printed edition Augsburg, 1558. See
also Bertelli in Boncompagni's Bottettino di bibliogrqfia, t. i.,
or S. P. Thompson in Proc. British Academy, vol. ii.) Of this
work twenty-eight MSS. exist; seven of them being at Oxford.
The first part of the epistle deals generally with magnetic
attractions and repulsions, with the polarity of the stone, and
with the supposed influence of the poles of the heavens upon
the poles of the stone. In the second part Peregrinus describes
first an improved floating compass with fiducial line, a circle
graduated with 90 degrees to each quadrant, and provided
with movable sights for taking bearings. He then describes a
new compass with a needle thrust through a pivoted axis, placed
in a box with transparent cover, cross index of brass or silver,
divided circle, and an external " rule " or alhidade provided
with a pair of sights. In the Leiden MS. of this work, which for
long was erroneously ascribed to one Peter Adsiger, is a spurious
passage, long believed to mention the variation of the compass.
* Sicut acus per naturam vcrtitur ad septentrionem dum sic tacta a
magnete. — Sicut acus nautica dirigit marinarios in sua uavigatlonc.
• Cinguene, Hist. lit. de Mai it, t. i. p. 413.
COMPASS PLANT— COMPENSATION
809
Prior to this dear description of a pivoted compass by Pere-
grinus in 1269, the Italian sailors had used the floating magnet,
probably introduced into this region of the Mediterranean by
traders belonging to the port of Amain, as commemorated in
the line of the poet PanormiU:—
" Prima dedit nautis usum magnetis Amalphis."
This opinion is supported by the historian Flavius Blondus
in his Italia iUustrata, written about 1450, who adds that its
certain origin is unknown. In 151 1 Baptista Pio in his Com-
mentary repeats the opinion as to the invention of the use of
the magnet at Amain as related by Flavius. Gyraldus, writing
in 1540 (Libellus de re nautica), misunderstanding this reference,
declared that this observation of the direction of the magnet
to the poles had been handed down as discovered " by a certain
Flavius." From this passage arose a legend, which took shape
only in the 17th century, that the compass was invented in
the year 130a by a person to whom was given the fictitious
name of Flavio Gioja, of AmalfL
From the above it will have been evident that, as Barlowe
remarks concerning the compass, " the lame tale of one Flavius
at Amelphus, in the kingdome of Naples, for to have devised it,
h of very slender probabilitie"; and as regards the assertion
of Dr Gilbert, of Colchester (De magneU, p. 4, 1600), that Marco
Polo introduced the compass into Italy from the East in 1 260, 1 we
need only quote the words of Sir H. Yule (Book of Marco Polo) :—
M Respecting the mariner's compass and gunpowder, I shall say
nothing, as no one now, I believe, imagines Marco to have bad
anything to do with their introduction."
When, and by whom, the compass card was added is a matter
of conjecture. Certainly the Rosa Ventorum, or Wind-rose, is
far older than the compass itself; and the naming of the eight
principal " winds " goes back to the Temple of the Winds in
Athens built by Andronicus Cyrrhestes. The earliest known
wind-roses on the portulani or sailing charts of the Mediterranean
pilots have almost invariably the eight principal points marked
with the initials of the principal winds, Tramontano, Greco,
Levante, Scirocco, Ostro, Africo (or Libcccio), Ponente and
Maestro, or with a cross instead of L, to mark the east point.
The north point, indicated in some of the oldest compass cards
with a broad arrow-bead or a spear, as well as with a T for
Tramontano, gradually developed by a combination of these,
shout 1492, into a flew de lis, still universal. The cross at the
cast continued even in British compasses till about 1 700. Wind-
loses with these characteristics arc found in Venetian and
Genoese charts of early 14th century, and are depicted similarly
by the Spanish navigators. The naming of the intermediate
subdivisions making up the thirty -two points or rhumbs of
the compass card is probably due to Flemish navigators ; but
they were recognized even in the time of Chaucer, who in 1391
wrote, " Now is thin Orisonte departed in xxiiii parties by thi
azymuts, in signification of xxiiii partiez of the world: al be it
so that ship men rikne thilke partiez in xxxii " (Treatise on the
Astrolabe, ed. Skeat, Early English Text Soc., London, 1872).
The mounting of the card upon the needle or " flie," so as to
turn with it, is probably of Amalphian origin. Da Buti, the
Dante commentator, in 1380 says the sailors use a compass at
the middle of which is pivoted a wheel of light paper to turn
on its pivot, on which wheel the needle is fixed and the star
(wind-rose) painted. The placing of the card at the bottom of
the box, fixed, below the needle, was practised by the compass-
makers of Nuremberg in the i6tb century, and by Stevinus of
Bruges about 1600. The gimbals or rings for suspension hinged
at right-angles to one another, have been erroneously attributed
to Cardan, the proper term being cardine, that is hinged or
pivoted. The earliest description of them is about 1604. The
term binnacle, originally bittacle, is a corruption of the Portuguese
mbitacolo, to denote the housing enclosing the compass, probably
originating with the Portuguese navigators.
The improvement of the compass has been but a slow process.
* ■• According to all the texts he returned to Venice in 1295 or.
as is more probable, in 1296."— Yule.
The Libel of English Policu, a poem 6f the first half of the 15th
century, says with reference to Iceland (chap, a.)—
" Out of Bristowe. and costet many one.
Men haue practised by nedle and by stone
Thider wardes within a litle while.'
Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, p. 301 (London, 1599).
From this it would seem that the compasses used at that time
by English mariners were of a very primitive description.
Barlowe, in his treatise Magnetical Advertisements, printed in
1616 (p. 66), complains that M the Compasse needle, being the
most admirable and usefull instrument of the whole world, is
both amongst ours and other nations for the most part, so
bungerly and absurdly contrived, as nothing more." The form
he recommends for the needle is that of " a true circle, having
his Axis going out beyond the circle, at each end narrow and
narrower, unto a reasonable sharpe point, and being pure Steele
as the circle it selfe is, having in the middest a convenient
receptacle to place the capitell in." In 1750 Dr Gowan Knight
found that the needles of merchant-ships were, made of two
pieces of steel bent in the middle and united in the shape of a
rhombus, and proposed to substitute straight steel bars of small
breadth, suspended edgewise and hardened throughout. He
also showed that the Chinese mode of suspending the needle
conduces most to sensibility. In 1820 Peter Barlow reported
to the Admiralty that half the compasses in the British Navy
were mere !umbcr«and ought to be destroyed. He introduced
a pattern having four or five parallel straight strips of magnetized
steel fixed under a card, a form which remained the standard
admiralty type until the introduction of the modern Thomson
(Kelvin) compass in 1876. (F.H.B.; S.P.T.)
COMPASS PLANT, a native of the North American prairies,
which takes its name from the position assumed by the leaves.
These turn their edges to north and south, thus avoiding the
excessive mid-day heat, while getting the full benefit of the
morning and evening rays. The plant is known botanically as
Silphiumlaciniaium, and belongs to the natural order Compoaitae.
Another member of the same order, Lactuca Scariola, which has
been regarded as the origin of the cultivated lettuce (L. saliva),
behaves in the same way when growing in dry exposed places ;
it is a native of Europe and northern Asia which has got introduced
into North America.
COMPAYRE, JULES GABRIEL (1843- )> French educa-
tionalist, was bom at Albi. He entered the £cole Nonnale
Superieure in 1862 and became professor of philosophy. In
1876 he was appointed professor in the Faculty of Letters of
Toulouse, and upon the creation of the £cole normale d'insti tu-
trices at Fontenay aux Roses he became teacher of pedagogy
(1880). From 1 88 1 to 1889 he was deputy for Lavaur in the
chamber, and took an active part in the discussions on public
education. Defeated at the elections of 1889, he was appointed
rector of the academy of Poitiers in 1890, and five years later
to the academy of Lyons. His principal publications are his
Histoire critique des doctrines de Viducation en Prance (1879);
Aliments d'tducation cinque (1881), a work placed on the index
at Rome, but very widely read in the primary schools of France;
Cours> de ptdagogie thiorique el pratique (1885, 13th ed., 1897);
The Intellectual and Moral Development of the Child, in English
(2 vols., New York, 1806-1002); and a series of monographs
on Les Grands £ducaiews.
COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensate, to weigh one thing
against another), a term applied in English law to a number
of different forms of legal reparation; e.g. under the Forfeiture
Act 1870 (s. 4), for loss of property caused by felony, or— under
the Riot (Damages) Act 1886— to persons whose property has
been stolen , destroyed or injured by rioters (see Riot). It is due,
under the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1906, for agricultural
improvements (see Landlord and Tenant; cf. also Allot-
ments and Shall Holdings), and under the Workmen's
Compensation Act 1006 to workmen, in respect of accidents in
the course of their employment (see Employees' Liability);
and under the Licensing Act njoa, to ti«. v*Y<Me6&A , vsk\*. ,,s *^*
\ on the extinction. 41 Yumxk» \» «2k vel\»»r»s&*- *Vt*. ^*»
8io
COMPENSATION
" Compensation water " is used to describe the water given from
a reservoir in compensation for water abstracted from a stream,
under statutory powers, in connexion with public works (see
Watek Supply). As to the use of the word " compensation " in
horology, see Clock; Watch.
Compensation, in its most familiar sense, is however z.nomen
juris for the reparation or satisfaction made to the owners of
property which is taken by the state or by local authorities or by
the promoters of parliamentary undertakings, under statutory
authority, for public purposes. There are two main legal theories
on which such appropriation of private property is justified.
The American may be taken as a representative illustration of
the one, and the English of the other. Though not included in
the definition of " eminent domain," the necessity for compensa-
tion is recognized as incidental to that power. (See Eminent
Dokain, under which the American law of compensation, and
the closely allied doctrine of expropriation pour cause d'utiliU
publique ol French law, and the law of other continental countries,
are discussed.) The rule of English constitutional law, on the
other hand, is that the property of the citizen cannot be seized
for purposes which are really " public " without a fair pecuniary
equivalent being given to him; and, as the money for such
compensation must come from parliament, the practical result
is that the seizure can only be effected under legislative authority.
An action for illegal interference with the property of the subject
is not maintainable against officials of the crown or government
sued in their official capacity or as an official body. But crown
officials may be sued in their individual capacity for such inter-
ference, even if they acted with the authority of the government
(cp Raleigh v. Coscken [1898L i Ch. 73).
Law of England.— Down to 1845 every act authorizing the
purchase of lands had, in addition to a number of common form
clauses, a variety of special clauses framed with a view to
meeting the particular circumstances with which it dealt. In
1845, however, a statute based on the recommendations of a select
committee, appointed in the preceding year, was passed; the
object being to diminish the bulk of the special acts, and to
introduce uniformity into private bill legislation by classifying
the common form clauses, embodying them in general statutes,
and facilitating their incorporation into the special statutes by
reference. The statute by which this change was initiated was
the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1845; *nd the policy has
been continued by a series of later statutes which, together with
the act of 1845 . are now grouped under the generic title of the
Lands Clauses Acts.
The public purposes for which lands are taken are threefold.
Certain public departments, such as the war office and the
admiralty, may acquire lands for national purposes (see the
Defence Acts 1842 to 1873; and the Lands Clauses Consolida-
tion Act i860, s. 7). Local authorities are enabled to exercise
similar powers for an enormous variety ol municipal purposes,
e.g. the housing of the working classes, the improvement of
towns, and elementary and secondary education. Lastly, the
promoters of public undertakings of a commercial character,
such as railways and harbours, carry on their operations under
statutes in which the provisions of the Lands Clauses Acts are
incorporated.
Lands may be taken under the Lands Clauses Acts cither by
agreement or compulse* rily. The first step in the proceedings
ba" notice to treat," or intimation by the promoters of their
readiness to purchase the land, coupled with a demand for
particulars as to the estate and the interests in it. The land-
owner on whom the notice is served may meet it by agreeing to
•ell, and the terms may then be settled by consent of the parties
themselves, or by arbitration, if they decide to have recourse
to that mode of adjusting the difficulty. If the property claimed
b a house, or other building or manufactory, the owner has a
statutory right to require the promoters by a counternotice to
take the whole, even although a part would serve their purpose.
Tkh rale, however, is, in modern acts, often modified by special
On receipt of the counter-notice the promoters must
■nf to the requirement contained in it, or abandon
their notice to treat. On the other hand, if the landowner faQs
within twenty-one days after receipt of the notice to treat to
give the particulars which it requires, the promoters may proceed
to exercise their compulsory powers and to obtain assessment
of the compensation to be paid. As a general rule, it is a condi-
tion precedent to the exercise of these powers by a company
that the capital of the undertaking should be fully subscribed.
Compensation, under the Lands Clauses Acts, is assessed in four
different modes:— (1) by justices, where the claim does not
exceed £50, or a claimant who has no greater interest than ibit
of a tenant for a year, or from year to year, is required to give op
possession before the expiration of his tenancy; (1) by arbitra-
tion (a) when the claim exceeds £50, and the claimant desires
arbitration, and the interest is not a yearly tenancy, (b) when Uk
amount has been ascertained by a surveyor, and the claimant is
dissatisfied, (c) when superfluous lands are to be sold, and tie
parties entitled to pre-emption and the promoters cannot agree as
to the price. (Lands become " superfluous " if taken com-
pulsorily on an erroneous estimate of the area needed, or if part
only was needed and the owner compelled the promoters under
the power above mentioned to take the whole, or in coses of
abandonment); (3) by a jury, when the claim exceeds £50, and
(a) the claimant does not signify his desire for arbitration, or ao
award has been made within the prescribed time, or (0) tac
claimant applies in writing for trial by jury; (4) by surveyors,
nominated by justices, where the owner is under disability, or
does not appear at the appointed time, or the claim is in respect
of commonable rights, and a committee has not been appointed
to treat with the promoters.
Promoters are not allowed without the consent of the owner to
enter upon lands which are the subject of proceedings under the
Lands Clauses Acts, except for the purpose of making a survey,
unless they have executed a statutory bond and made a deposit,
at the Law Courts Branch of the Bank of England, as security
for the performance of the conditions of the bond.
Measure of Value. — (1) Where land is taken, the basis on
which compensation is assessed is the commercial value of the
land to the owner at the date of the notice to treat. Potential
value may be taken into account, and also good-will of the
property in a business. This rule, however, excludes any con-
sideration of the principle of " betterment." (2) Where land,
although not taken, is " injuriously affected " by the works of the
promoters, compensation is payable for loss or damage resulting
from any act, legalized by the promoters' statutory powers,
which would otherwise have been actionable, or caused by
the execution (not the use) of the works authorized by the
undertaking.
The following examples of how land may be " injuriously
affected," so as to give a right to compensation under the acts,
may be given: — narrowing or obstructing a highway which is
the nearest access to the lands in question; interference with
a right of way; substantial interference with ancient lights;
noise of children outside a board school.
Scotland and Ireland. — The Lands Clauses Act 1845 extends
to Ireland. There is a Scots enactment similar in character
(Lands Clauses [Scotland] Act 1 845) . The principles and practice
of the law of compensation arc substantially the same throughout
the United Kingdom.
India and the British Colonies.— Legislation analogous to the
Lands Clauses Acts is in force in India (Land Acquisition Act
1894 [Act x of 1894]) and in most of the colonies (see western
Australia, Lands Resumption Act 1804 [58 Vict. No. 33], Victoria,
Lands Compensation Act 1800 [54 Vict. No. ixool; New Zealand,
Public Works Act 1894 [58 Vict. No. 42]; Ontario [Revised
Stats. 1897, c. 37I).
Authorities. — English Lav: Balfour Browne and Allan, Com-
pensation (2nd ed., London, 1903); Cripps, Compensation (5th
edition, London, 1905); Hudson, Compensation (London, 1906);
Boyle and Waghorn, Compensation (London, 1003); Lloyd, Com-
pensation (6th ed. by Brooks. London. J 895); Clifford, Private Bill
, ;5);CI .
Legislation, London, 1885 (vol. i.), i88j (vol. ii.) Scots Law: Oeas,
urgh, 1897);
(Arw.R.y'
18* (vol. i.), 1887 (
Low of Railways in Scotland (ed. by Ferguson; Edinburgh. 18
Rankme, Low oj Landownmtat (&& «d. % 1891). '* *" "
COMPlfeGNE— COMPOSITAE
811
COMPlfeOHB, a town of northern France, capital of an arrond-
issement in the department of Oise, 52 m. N.N.E. of Paris on
the Northern raOway between Paris and St Quentin. Pop.
(1906) 14,0s 2. The town, which is a favourite summer resort,
stands on the north-west border of the forest of Compiegne and
on the left bank of the Oise, less than 1 m. below its confluence
with the Aisnc. The river is crossed by a bridge built in the
reign of Louis XV. The Rue Solfenno, a continuation of the
bridge ending at the Place de PHotel de Ville, is the busy street
of the town; elsewhere, except on market days, the streets are
quiet. The h6tel de ville, with a graceful facade surmounted
by a lofty belfry, is in the late Gothic style of the early 16th
century and was completed in modern times. Of the churches,
St Antoine (13th and 16th centuries) with some fine Renaissance
stained glass, and St Jacques (13th and 15th centuries), need
alone be mentioned. The remains of the ancient abbey of St
Corneille are used as a military storehouse. Compiegne, from
a very early period until 1870, was the occasional residence of the
French kings. Its palace, one of the most magnificent structures
of its kind, was erected, chiefly by Louis XV and Louis XVI., on
the site of a chateau of King Charles V. of France It now serves
as an art museum. It has two facades, one overlooking the Place
du Palais and the town, the other, more imposing, facing towards
a fine park and the forest, which is chiefly of oak and beech and
covers over 36,000 acres. Compiegne is the seat of a subprefect,
and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a communal
college, library and hospital. The industries comprise boat-
building, rope- making, steam-sawing, distilling and the manu-
facture of chocolate, machinery and sacks and coarse coverings,
and at Margny, a suburb, there are manufactures of chemicals
and felt hats. Asparagus is cultivated in the environs. There
is considerable trade in timber and coal, chiefly river-borne.
Compiegne, or as it is called in the Latin chronicles, Com-
pendium, seems originally to have been a hunting-lodge of the
early Prankish kings. It was enriched by Charles the Bald with
two castles, and a Benedictine abbey dedicated to Saint Corneille,
the monks of which retained down to the 18th century the
privilege of acting for three days as lords of Compiegne, with full
power to release prisoners, condemn the guilty, and even inflict
sentence of death. It was in Compiegne that King Louis I. the
Debonair was deposed in 833; and at the siege of the town in
1430 Joan of Arc was taken prisoner by the English. A monu-
ment to her faces the h6tel de ville. In 1634 the town gave its
name to a treaty of alliance concluded by Richelieu with the
Dutch; and it was in the palace that Louis XV. gave welcome
to Marie Antoinette, that Napoleon I. received Marie Louise of
Austria, that Louis XVIII. entertained the emperor Alexander
of Russia, and that Leopold I., king of the Belgians, was married
to the princess Louise. In 1814 Compiegne offered a stubborn
resistance to the Prussian troops. Under Napoleon III. it was
the annual resort of the court during the hunting season. From
1870 to 1 87 1 it was one of the headquarters of the German army.
COMPLEMENT (Lat. complemenlum, from complete, to fill
up), that which fills up or completes anything, e.g. the number
of men necessary to man a ship. In geometry, the complement
of an angle is the difference between the angle and a right angle;
the complements of a parallelogram are formed by drawing
parallel to adjacent sides of a parallelogram two lines intersecting
on a diagonal; four parallelograms are thus formed, and the
two not about the diagonal of the original parallelogram are the
complements of the parallelogram. In analysis, a complementary
function is a partial solution to a differential equation (?.«.);
complementary operators are reciprocal or inverse operators,
i.e. two operations A and B are complementary when both
operating on the same figure or function leave it unchanged.
A " complementary colour " is one which produces white when
mixed with another (see Colour). In Spanish the word cum-
plimenio was used in a particular sense of the fulfilment of the
duties of polite behaviour and courtesy, and it came through the
French and Italian forms into use in English, with a change in
spelling to " compliment," with the sense of an act of politeness,
especially of a polite expression of praise, or of social regard and
greetings. The word " comply," meaning to act in accordance
with wishes, orders or conditions, is also derived from the same
origin, but in sense is connected with " ply " or " pliant," from
Lat. plicare, to bend, with the idea of subserviently yielding to
the wishes of another.
COMPLUV1UM (from Lat. cotnpluere, to flow together, i.e.
in reference to the rain being collected and falling through), in
architecture, the Latin term for the open space left in the roof of
the atrium of a Roman house for lighting it and the rooms round
(see Cavaeoicm).
COMPOSITAE, the name given to the largest natural order of
flowering plants, containing about one-tenth of the whole number
and characterized by the crowding of the flowers into heads.
The order is cosmopolitan, and the plants show considerable
variety in habit. The great majority, including most British
representatives, are herbaceous, but in the warmer parts of the
world shrubs and arborescent forms also occur; the latter are
characteristic of the flora of oceanic islands. In herbaceous
plants the leaves are often arranged in a rosette on a much
shortened stem, as in dandelion, daisy and others; when the
stem is elongated the leaves are generally alternate. The root
is generally thickened, sometimes, as in dahlia, tuberous; root
and stem contain oil passages, or, as in lettuce and dandelion,
a milky white latex. The flowers are crowded in heads (capiltda)
which are surrounded by an involucre of green bracts,— these
Fig. 1.
1. Flower head of Marigold, | nat. size. 3. Head of fruits, nat. size.
2. Same in vertical section. 4. A single fruit,
protect the head of flowers in the bud stage, performing the usual
function of a calyx. The enlarged top of the axis, the receptacle,
is flat, convex or conical, and the flowers open in centripetal
succession. In many cases, as in the sunflower or daisy , the outer
or ray-florets are larger and more conspicuous than the inner,
or disk-florets; in other cases, as in dandelion, the florets are
all alike. Ray-florets when present are usually pistillate, but
neuter in some genera (as Centawea); the disk-florets are herma-
phrodite. The flower is epigynous; the calyx is sometimes
absent, or is represented by a rim on the top of the ovary, or
takes the form of hairs or bristles which enlarge in the fruiting
stage to form the pappus by means of which the seed is dispersed.
The corolla, of five united petals, is regular and tubular in shape
as in the disk-florets, or irregular when it is either strap-shaped
(ligulate), as in the ray-florets of daisy, &c, or all the florets of
dandelion, or more rarely two-lipped. The five stamens are
attached to the interior of the corolla-tube; the filaments are
free; the anthers are joined (syngenesious) to form a tube round
the single style, which ends in a pair of stigmas. The inferior
ovary contains one ovule (attached to the base of the chamber),
and ripens to form a dry one-seeded fruit; the seed is filled with
the straight embryo.
The flower-heads are an admirable example of an adaptation
for pollination by aid of insects. The crowding of the flowers
in heads ensures the pollination of a large number as the result
of a single insect visit. Honey is secreted at the base of the
style, and is protected from rain or dew and the visits of short-
lipped insects by the corolla-tube, the length. oX <«&s& <e*
1POUND— COMPROMISE MEASURES
813
iced arrangement of the parts
ure or a building, so that they
kole. The word also means an
lifferences between two or more
eral term to describe the agree-
cnt German word " Ausgleich,"
n 1867. A more particular use
t by which a creditor agrees to
than his debt in satisfaction of
In logic " composition " b the
invocation, where what is true
a class is inferred to be true of
ie fallacy of " division " is the
:rue of a term used collectively
eral parts. A common source
confusion between the collective
be word "all" Composition,
ie name given to many materials
instance, and b used in various
wilding, for a mixture, such as
rovering walls, &c, often made
similar moulded compound b
at, to combine or put together),
nts, substances or ingredients,
ole. A " chemical compound "
olved into simple constituents,
& cannot be so resolved (see
be a " compound " when it b
parts of different words. The
1 form with many applications;
lere the expansion of the steam
see Steam-engine); in zoology,
by insects and Crustacea b one
f or simple eyes, set together so
ice of being faceted (see Eye);
l n has two or more separate
in surgery, in a "compound
wtU as the bone, and there b a
There are many mathematical
i t particularly of those forms of
<n and subtraction which deal
•ne denomination. Compound
est, the accumulation of interest
principal. The verb " to cont-
ent or settlement of differences,
made to accept or to pay part
whole, and thus of the arrange-
lebtor with his creditors (see
substitution of one payment
ttyments,— thus subscriptions,
may be "compounded"; a
be system of "compounding"
•remises pays an increased rent,
ponsible for the payment of the
is compounds with the owner of
lasa " compound householder."
ning part of the qualification
•anchise in the United Kingdom,
ie Compound Householders Act
n to claim to be placed on the
iony b to agree with the felon
me, in return for valuable con-
ft, on return of the goods stolen,
eanour and b punishable with
vat given during the reign of
members of a Jacobite faction,
unes II. to the throne, on the
a undertaking to preserve the
be university of Oxford, those
1 certain amount paid special
dues. for their degrees, and were known as Grand and Petty
Compounders.
The corruption " compound " (from the Malay kampung or
kempong, a quarter of a village) b the name applied to the en-
closed ground, whether garden or waste, which surrounds an
Anglo-Indian bouse. In India the European quarter, as a rule,
b separate from the native quarter, and consists of a number of
single houses, each standing in a compound, sometimes many
acres in extent
COMPOUND PIER, the architectural term given to a clustered
column or pier which consists of a centre mass or newel, to which
engaged or semi-detached shafts have been attached, in order
to perform, or to suggest the performance of, certain definite
structural objects, such as to carry arches of additional orders,
or to support the transverse or diagonal ribs of a vault, or the tie
beam of an important roof. In these cases, though performing
different functions, the drums of the pier are often cut out of
one stone. There are, however, cases where the shafts are
detached from the pier and coupled to it by annulets at regular
heights, as in the Early Englbh period.
COMPRADOR (a Portuguese word used in the East, derived
from the Lat. com par are, to procure), originally a native servant
in European households in the East, but now the name given
to the native managers in European business houses in China,
and also to native contractors supplying ships in the Philippines
and elsewhere in the East.
COMPRESSION, in astronomy, the deviation of a heavenly
body from the spherical form, called also the " elliptic ity."
It b numerically expressed by the ratio of the differences of the
axes to the major axb of the spheroid. The compression or
" flattening " of the earth b about 1/298, which means that the
ratio of the equatorial to the polar axb b 298:297 (see Earth,
Figure op the). In engineering the term b applied to the
arrangement by which the exhaust valve of a steam-engine b
made to close, shutting a portion of the exhaust steam in the
cylinder, before the stroke of the pbton b quite complete. This
steam being compressed as the stroke b completed, a cushion b
formed against which the pbton does work while its velocity b
being rapidly reduced, and thus the stresses in the mechanism
due to the inertia of the reciprocating parts are lessened. Thb
compression, moreover, obviates the shock which would otherwise
be caused by the admission of the fresh steam for the return
stroke. In internal combustion engines it b a necessary condition
of economy to compress the explosive mixture before it b ignited:
in the Otto cycle, for instance, the second stroke of the pbton
effects the compression of the charge which has been drawn into
the cylinder by the first forward stroke.
COMPROMISE (pronounced c6mprdmht\ through Fr. from
Lat compromittcre), a term, meaning strictly a joint agreement,
which has come to signify such a settlement as involves a mutual
adjustment, with a surrender of part of each party's claim.
From the element of danger involved has arisen an invidious
sense of the word, imputing discredit, so that being "com-
promised " commonly means injured in reputation.
COMPROMISE MEASURES OP I860, in American history, a
scries of measures the object of which was the settlement of five
questions in dispute between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery
factions in the United States. Three of these questions grew out
of the annexation of Texas and the acquisition of western territory
as a result of the Mexican War. The settlers who had flocked to
California after the discovery of gold in 1848 adopted an anti-
slavery state constitution on the 13th of October 1849, and
applied for admission into the Union. In the second place it was
necessary to form a territorial government for the remainder of
the territory acquired from Mexico, including that now occupied
by Nevada and Utah, and parts of Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona
and New Mexico. The fundamental issue was in regard to the
admission of slavery into, or the exclusion of slavery from, this
region. Thirdly, there was a depute over the western boundary
of Texas. Should the Rio Grande be the line of division north of
Mexico, or should an arbitrary boundary be established farther
to the eastward; in other words, ihodbi v **K&>&ra&ta. 'v**^
814
COMPSA— COMTE
the new territory be certainly opened to slavery as a part of
Texas, or possibly closed to it as a part of the organized territorial
section? Underlying all of these issues was of course the great
moral and political problem as to whether slavery was to be
confined to the south-eastern section of the country or be per-
mitted to spread to the Pacific. The two questions not growing
out of the Mexican War were in regard to the abolition of the
slave trade in the District of Columbia, and the passage of a new
fugitive slave law.
Congress met on the 3rd of December 1849. Neither faction
was strong enough in both houses to carry out its own programme,
and it seemed for a time that nothing would be done. On the
29th of January 1850 Henry Clay presented the famous resolution
which constituted the basis of the ultimate compromise. His
idea was to combine the more conservative elements of both
sections in favour of a settlement which would concede the
Southern view on two questions, the Northern view on two, and
balance the fifth. Daniel Webster supported the plan in his great
speech of the 7th of March, although in doing so he alienated
many of his former admirers. Opposed to the conservatives
were the extremists of the North, led by William H. Seward and
Salmon P. Chase, and those of the South, led by Jefferson Davis.
Most of the measures were rejected and the whole plan seemed
likely to fail, when the situation was changed by the death of
President Taylor and the accession of Millard Fillmore on the
9th of July 1850. The influence of the administration was now
thrown in favour of the compromise. Under a tacit understand-
ing of the moderates to vote together, five separate bills were
passed, and were signed by the president between 9th and 20th
September 1850. California was admitted as a free state, and
the slave trade was abolished in the District of Columbia; these
were concessions to the North. New Mexico (then including the
present Arizona) and Utah were organized without any prohibi-
tion of slavery (each being left free to decide for or against, on
admission to statehood), and a rigid fugitive' slave law was
enacted; these were concessions to the South. Texas (q.v.) was
compelled to give up much of the western land to which it had a
good claim, and received in return $10,000,000.
This legislation had several important results. It helped to
postpone secession and Civil War for a decade, during which time
the North-West was growing more wealthy and more populous,
and was being brought into closer relations with the North-East.
It divided the Whigs into " Cotton Whigs " and " Conscience
Whigs," and in time led to the downfall of the party. In the
third place, the rejection of the Wilmot Proviso and the accept-
ance (as regards New Mexico and Utah) of " Squatter Sove-
reignty " meant the adoption of a new principle in dealing with
slavery in the territories, which, although it did not apply to
the same territory, was antagonistic to the Missouri Compromise
of 1820. The sequel was the repeal of the Missouri Compromise
in the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. Fourthly, the enforcement
of the fugitive slave law aroused a feeling of bitterness in the
North which helped eventually to bring on the war, and helped
to make it, when it came, quite as much an anti-slavery crusade
as a struggle for the preservation of the Union. Finally, although
Clay for his support of the compromises and Seward and Chase
for their opposition have gained in reputation, Webster has been
selected as the special target for hostile criticism. The Com-
promise Measures are sometimes spoken of collectively as the
Omnibus Bill, owing to their having been grouped originally —
when first reported (May 8) to the Senate— into one bill.
The best account of the above Compromises is to be found in J. F.
Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850.
vol. i. (New York, 1896). (W. R. S.*)
COMPSA (mod. Coma), an ancient city of the Hirpini, near the
sources of the Aufidus, on the boundary of Lucania and not far
from that of Apulia, on a ridge 1998 ft. above sea-level. It was
betrayed to Hannibal in 216 n.c. after the defeat of Cannae,
but recaptured two years later. It was probably occupied by
Sulla in 89 B.C., and was the scene of the death of T. Annius
Milo in 48 B.C. Most authorities (cf. Httlsen in Pauly-Wissowa,
&a/r*£y*/0fff<fie, Stuttgart, 1901, iv. 797) refer Caes. BtU.
civ. 11 j - 22, and Plin. Hist. Not. 11. 147, to this place, supposing
the MSS. to be corrupt The usual identification of the site of
Milo's death with Cassano on the Gulf of Taranto must therefore
be rejected. In imperial times, as inscriptions show, it was a
munkipium, but it lay far from any of the main high-roads.
There are no important ancient remains.
COMPTON, HENRY (1632-1713), English divine, was the sixth
and youngest son of the second earl of Northampton. He was
educated at Queen's College, Oxford, and then travelled in
Europe. After the restoration of Charles II. he became cornet
in a regiment of horse, but soon quitted the army for the church.
After a further period of study at Cambridge and again at Oxford,
he held various livings. He was made bishop of Oxford in 1674,
and in the following year was translated to the see of London.
He was also appointed a member of the Privy Council, and
entrusted with the education of the two princesses — Mary and
Anne. He showed a liberality most unusual at the time to
Protestant dissenters, whom he wished to reunite with the
established church. He held several conferences on the subject
with the clergy of his diocese; and in the hope of influencing
candid minds by means of the opinions of unbiassed foreigners,
he obtained letters treating of the question (since printed at the
end of Stillingfleet's Unreasonableness of Separation) from Le
Moyne, professor of divinity at Leiden, and the famous French
Protestant divine, Jean Claude. But to Roman Catholicism he
was strongly opposed. On the accession of James II. he conse-
quently lost his seat in the council and his deanery in the Chape)
Royal; and for his firmness in refusing to suspend John Sharp,
rector of St Giles*s-in-the-Fields, whose anti-papal writings had
rendered him obnoxious to the king, he was himself suspended.
At the Revolution Compton embraced the cause of William and
Mary; he performed the ceremony of their coronation; his old
position was restored to him; and among other appointments,
he was chosen as one of the commissioners for revising the liturgy.
During the reign of Anne he remained a member of the privy
council, and was one of the commissioners appointed to arrange
the terms of the union of England and Scotland; but, to his
bitter disappointment, his claims to the primacy were twice*
passed over. He died at Fulham on the 7th of July 17 13. He
had conspicuous defects both in spirit and intellect, but was
benevolent and philanthropic. He was a successful botanist
He published, besides several theological works, A Translation
from the Italian of llie Life of Donna Olympia Maladichini, vko
governed Ike Church during the time of Pope Innocent X., which vat
from the year 1644 to 1655 (1667), and A Translation from the
French of the Jesuits' Intrigues (1669).
COMPTROLLER, the title of an official whose business
primarily was to examine and take charge of accounts, hence to
direct or control, e.g. the English comptroller of the household,
comptroller and auditor-general (head of the exchequer and audit
department), comptroller-general of patents, &c, comptroller-
general (head of the national debt office). On the other hand,
the word is frequently spelt controller, as in controller of the
navy, controller or head of the stationery office. The word is
used in the same sense in the United States, as comptroller of
the treasury, an official who examines accounts and signs
drafts, and comptroller of the currency, who administers the
law relating to the national banks.
COMPURGATION (from LaL compurgare, to purify com-
pletely), a mode of procedure formerly employed in ecclesiastical
courts, and derived from the canon law (compurgalio canenka),
by which a clerk who was accused of crime was required to make
answers on the oath of himself and a certain number of other
clerks (compurgators) who would swear to his character or
innocence. The term is more especially applied to a somewhat
similar procedure, the old Teutonic or Anglo-Saxon mode of trial
by oath-taking or oath-helping (see Juav).
COMTE, AUGUSTS [ISIDORE AUGUSTS MARIS FRANCOIS
XAVIER] (1798-1857), French Positive philosopher, was born
on the 19th of January 1798 at Montpellier, where his father was
a receiver-general of taxes for the district. He was sent for
his earliest instruction to the school of the town, and in 1814
COMTE
8iS
was admitted to the ficole Polytechnique. His youth was
marked by a constant willingness to rebel against merely official
authority; to genuine excellence, whether moral or intellectual,
he was always ready to pay unbounded deference. That stren-
uous application which was one of his most remarkable gifts in
manhood showed itself in his youth, and his application was
backed or inspired by superior intelligence and aptness. After
he had been two years at the Ecole Polytechnique he took a
foremost part in a mutinous demonstration against one of the
masters; the school was broken up, and Comte like the other
scholars was sent home. To the great dissatisfaction of his
parents, he resolved to return to Paris (1816), and to earn his
living there by giving lessons in mathematics. Benjamin
Franklin was the youth's idol at this moment. "I seek to
imitate the modern Socrates," he wrote to a school friend, " not in
talents, but in way of living. You know that at fivc-and-twenty
he formed the design of becoming perfectly wise and that he
fulfilled his design. I have dared to undertake the same thing,
though I am not yet twenty." Though Comte's character and
aims were as far removed as possible from Franklin's type, neither
Franklin nor any man that ever lived could surpass him in the
heroic tenacity with which, in the face of a thousand obstacles,
he pursued his own ideal of a vocation.
For a moment circumstances led him to think of seeking a
career in America, but a friend who preceded him thither warned
him of the purely practical spirit that prevailed in the new
country. " If Lagrange were to come to the United States, he
could only earn his livelihood by turning land surveyor. 1 ' So
Comte remained in Paris, living as. he best could on something
less than £80 a year, and hoping, when he took the trouble to
break his meditations upon greater things by hopes about himself,
that he might by and by obtain an appointment as mathematical
master in a school. A friend procured him a situation as tutor in
the house of Casimir Pcrier. The salary was good, but the duties
were too miscellaneous, and what was still worse, there was an
end of the delicious liberty of the garret. After a short experience
of three weeks Comte returned to neediness and contentment.
He was not altogether without the young man's appetite for
pleasure; yet when he was only nineteen we find him wondering,
amid the gaieties of the carnival of 1817, how a gavotte or a
minuet could make people forget that thirty thousand human
beings around them had barely a morsel to eat.
Towards 181 8 Comte became associated as friend and disciple
with Saint-Simon, who was destined to exercise a very decisive
influence upon the turn of his speculation. In after years he so
far forgot himself as to write of Saint-Simon as a depraved quack,
and to deplore his connexion with him as purely mischievous.
While the connexion lasted he thought very differently. Saint-
Simon is described as the most estimable and lovable of men,
and the most delightful in his relations; he is the worthiest of
philosophers. Even at the very moment when Comte was con-
gratulating himself on having thrown off the yoke, he honestly
admits that Saint-Simon's influence has been of powerful service
in his philosophic education. " I certainly," he writes to his most
intimate friend, " am under great personal obligations to Saint-
Simon; that is to say, he helped in a powerful degree to launch
me in the philosophical direction that I have now definitely
marked out for myself, and that I shall follow without looking
back for the rest of my life." Even if there were no such un-
mistakable expressions as these, the most cursory glance into
Saint-Simon's writings is enough to reveal the thread of connexion
between the ingenious visionary and the systematic thinker.
We see the debt, and we also see that when it is stated at the
highest possible, nothing has really been taken either from
Comte's claims as a powerful original thinker, or from his im-
measurable pre-eminence over Saint-Simon in intellectual grasp
and vigour and coherence. As high a degree of originality may
be shown in transformation as in invention, as Moliere and
Shakespeare have proved in the region of dramatic art. In
philosophy the conditions are not different. 11 faut prendre son
bicn oil on lc irouve.
It it no detriment to Comte's fame that some of the ideas
which he recombined and incorporated in a great philosophic
structure had their origin in ideas that were produced almost
at random in the incessant fermentation of Saint-Simon's brain.
Comte is in no true sense a follower of Saint-Simon, but it was
undoubtedly Saint-Simon who launched him, to take Comte's
own word, by suggesting the two starting-points of what grew
into the Comtist system— first, that political phenomena are as
capable of being grouped under laws as other phenomena; and
second, that the true destination of philosophy must be social, and
the true object of the thinker must be the reorganization of the
moral, religious and political systems. We can readily see what
an impulse these far-reaching conceptions would give to Comte's
meditations. There were conceptions of less importance than
these, in which it is impossible not to feel that it was Saint-Simon's
wrong or imperfect idea that put his young admirer on the
track to a right and perfected idea. The subject is not worthy
of further discussion. That Comte would have performed some
great intellectual achievement, if Saint-Simon had never been
bom, is certain. It is hardly less certain that the great achieve-
ment which he did actually perform was originally set in motion
by Saint-Simon's conversation, though it was afterwards directly
filiated with the fertile speculations of A. R. J. Turgot and
Cbndorcet. Comte thought almost as meanly of Plato as he did
of Saint-Simon, and he considered Aristotle the prince of all
true thinkers; yet their vital difference about Ideas did not
prevent Aristotle from calling Plato master.
After six years the differences between the old and the young
philosopher grew too marked for friendship. Comte began to
fret under Saint-Simon's pretensions to be his director. Saint-
Simon, on the other hand, perhaps began to fell uncomfortably
conscious of the superiority of his disciple. The occasion of the
breach between them (i824)wasan attempt on Saint-Simon's part
to print a production of Comte's as ifitwereinsomesortconnected
with Saint-Simon's schemes of social reorganization. Not only
was the breach not repaired, but Jong afterwards Comte, as we
have said, with painful ungraciousness took .to. calling the
encourager of his youth by very hard names.
In 1825 Comte married a Mdlle Caroline Massin; His marriage
was one of those of which " magnanimity owes no account to
prudence," and it did not turn out prosperously.
His family were strongly Catholic and royalist, and
MMrrUtf.
they were outraged by his refusal to have the marriage performed
other than civilly. They consented, however, to receive his
wife, and the pair went on a visit to Montpellier. Madame
Comte conceived a dislike to the circle she found there, and this
was the too early beginning of disputes which lasted for the
remainder of their union. In the year of his marriage we find
Comte writing to the most intimate of his correspondents: — " 1
have nothing left but to concentrate ray whole moral existence
in my intellectual work, a precious but inadequate compensation;
and so I must give up, if not the most dazzling, still the sweetest
part of my happiness." He tried to find pupils to board with
him, but only one pupil came, and he was soon sent away for
lack of companions. "I would rather spend an evening,"
wrote the needy enthusiast, " in solving a difficult question, than
in running after some empty-headed and consequential million-
aire in search of a pupil." A little money was earned by an
occasional article in Le Producteur, in which he began to expound
the philosophic ideas that were now maturing in his mind.
He announced a course of lectures (1826), which it was hoped
would bring money as well as fame, and which were to be the
first dogmatic exposition of the Positive Philosophy. A friend
had said to him, " You talk too freely, your ideas are getting
abroad, and other people use them without giving you the
credit; put your ownership on record." The lectures attracted
hearers so eminent as Humboldt the cosmologist, Poinsot the
geometer and Blainville the physiologist.
Unhappily, after the third lecture of the course, Comte
had a severe attack of cerebral derangement, brought on by
intense and prolonged meditation, acting on a system that was
already irritated by the chagrin of domestic discomfort. H^^A.
not recover his he&Ub lot tmr* ^mx * ^wt % *»&> ** «»■ 1Bk
8i6
COMTE
convalescence set in he was seised by so profound a melancholy at
the disaster which had thus overtaken him, that he threw himself
into the Seine. Fortunately he was rescued, and the
shock did not stay his return to mental soundness.
One incident of this painful episode is worth mention-
ing. Lamennais, then in the height of his Catholic exaltation,
persuaded Comte's mother to insist on her son being married
with the religious ceremony, and as the younger Madame Corate
apparently did not resist, the rite was duly performed, in spite
of the fact that Comte was at the time raving mad. Philosophic
assailants of Comtism have nor always resisted the temptation
to recall the circumstance that its founder was once out of his
mind. As has been justly said, if Newton once suffered a cerebral
attack without forfeiting our veneration for the Principia,
Comte may have suffered in the same way, and still not have
forfeited our respect for Positive Philosophy and Positive
Polity.
In 1828 the lectures were renewed, and in 1830 was published
the first volume of the Course of Positive Philosophy. The
sketch and ground plan of this great undertaking had
appeared in 1826. The sixth and last volume was
published in 1842. The twelve years covering the
publication of the first of Comte's two elaborate works were
years of indefatigable toil, and they were the only portion of
bis life in which he enjoyed a certain measure, and that a very
modest measure, of material prosperity. In 1833 he was ap-
pointed examiner of the boys who in the various provincial
schools aspired to enter the Ecole Polytechnique at Paris. This
and two other engagements as a teacher of mathematics secured
him an income of some £400 a year. He made M. Guizot, then
Louis Philippe's minister, the important proposal to establish
a chair of general history of the sciences. If there are four
chairs, he argued, devoted to the history of philosophy, that is to
say, the minute study of all sorts of dreams and aberrations
through the ages, surely there ought to be at least one to explain
the formation and progress of our real knowledge? . This wise
suggestion, still unfulfilled, was at first welcomed, according to
Comte's own account, by Guizot's philosophic instinct, and then
repulsed by his " metaphysical rancour."
Meanwhile Comte did his official work conscientiously, sorely
as he grudged the time which it took from the execution of the
great object of his thoughts. " I hardly know if even to you,"
be writes to his wife, " I dare disclose the sweet and softened
feeling that comes over me when I find a young man whose
examination is thoroughly satisfactory. Yes, though you may
smile, the emotion would easily stir me to tears if I were not
carefully on my guard." Such sympathy with youthful hope,
in union with industry and intelligence, shows that Comte's
dry and austere manner veiled the fires of a generous social
emotion. It was this which made him add to his labours the
burden of delivering every year from 1831 to 1848 a course of
gratuitous lectures on astronomy for a popular audience. The
social feeling that inspired this disinterested act showed itself
in other ways. Ue suffered imprisonment rather than serve in
the national guard; his position was that though he would not
take arms against the new monarchy of July, yet being a re-
publican he would take no oath to defend it. The only amuse-
ment that Comte permitted himself was ? visit to the opera.
In his youth he had been a playgoer, but he shortly came to the
conclusion that tragedy is a stilted and bombastic art, and after
a time comedy interested him no more than tragedy. For the
opera he had a genuine passion, which he gratified as often as
he could, until his means became too narrow to afford even that
single relaxation.
Of his manner and personal appearance we have the following
account from one who was his pupil: — " Daily as the dock
.struck eight on the horologe of the Luxembourg, while the
ringing hammer on the bell was yet audible, the door of my
room opened, and there entered a man, short, rather stout,
almost what one might call sleek, freshly shaven, without
vestige of whisker or moustache. He was invariably dressed
£0 m suit of the most spotless black, 9s if going to a dinner party ;
his white neck-cloth was fresh from the laundress's bands, and
his hat shining like a racer's coat. He advanced to the arm-chair
prepared for him in the centre of the writing-table, laid his hit
on the left-hand corner; his snuff-box was deposited on the
same side beside the quire of paper placed in readiness for his
use, and dipping the pen twice into the ink-bottle, then bringing
it to within an inch of his nose to make sure it was properly
filled, he broke silence: ' We have said that the chord AB,' &c
For three-quarters of an hour he continued his demonstration,
making short notes as he went on, to guide the listener in repeat-
ing the problem alone; then, taking up another cahier which
lay beside him, he went over the written repetition of the former
lesson. He explained, corrected or commented till the dock
struck nine; then, with the little finger of the right hand brushing
from his coat and waistcoat the shower of superfluous snuff
which had fallen on them, he pocketed his snuff-box, and resum-
ing his hat, he as silently as when he came in made his exit by
the door which I rushed to open for him."
In 1842, as we have said, the last volume of the Positive
Philosophy was given to the public Instead of that content*
ment which we like to picture as the reward of twelve f^,^
years of meritorious toil devoted to the erection of a ttoa mt
high philosophic edifice, Comte found himself in the " ******
midst of a very sea of small troubles, of that uncom- QO* „
pensated kind that harass without elevating, and *****'
waste a man's spirit without softening or enlarging it. First,
the jar of temperament between Comte and his wife had becomt
so unbearable that they separated (1842). We know too littlt
of the facts to allot blame to either of them. In spite of one or
two disadvantageous facts in her career, Madame Comte seems
to have uniformly comported herself towards her husband with
an honourable solicitude for his well-being. Comte made her
an annual allowance, and for some years after the separation
they corresponded on friendly terms. Next in the list of the
vexations was a lawsuit with his publisher*. The publisher had
inserted in the sixth volume a protest against a certain footnote,
in which Comte had used some hard words about Arago. Comte
threw himself into the suit with an energy worthy of Voltaire
and won it. Third, and worst of all, he had prefixed a preface to
the sixth volume, in which he went out of his way to rouse the
enmity of the men on whom depended his annual re-election
to the post of examiner for the Polytechnic school. The result
was that he lost the appointment, and with it one-half of his very
modest income. This was the occasion of an episode, which is of
more than merely personal interest.
Before 1842 Comte had been in correspondence with J. S. Mill,
who had been greatly impressed by Comte's philosophic ideas; Mill
admits that his own System of Logic owes many valuable A & MaL
thoughts to Comte, and that, in the portion of that
work which treats of the logic of the moral sdences, a radical
improvement in the conceptions of logical method was derived
from the Positive Philosophy. Their correspondence, which was
full and copious, turned principally upon the two great questions
of the equality between men and women, and of the expediency
and constitution of a sacerdotal or spiritual order. When Comte
found himself straitened, he confided the entire circumstances
to Mill. As might be supposed by those who know the affec-
tionate anxiety with which Mill regarded the welfare of any one
whom he believed to be doing good work in the world, he at once
took pains to have Comte's loss of income made up to him, until
Comte should have had time to repair that loss by his own en-
deavour. Mill persuaded Grote, Molesworth, and Raikes Currie
to advance the sum of £240. At the end of the year (184 s)
Comte had taken no steps to enable himself to dispense with the
aid of the three Englishmen. Mill applied to them again, but
with the exception of Grote, who sent a small sum, they gave
Comte to understand that they expected him to earn his own
living. Mill had suggested to Comte that he should write
articles for the English periodicals, and expressed his own
willingness to translate any such artides from the French.
Comte at first fell in with the plan, but he speedily surprised and
disconcerted Mill by boldly taking up the position of " high moral
COMTE
8i 7
magistrate," and accusing the three defaulting contributors of
4 scandalous falling away from righteousness and a high mind.
Mill was chilled by these pretensions; and the correspondence
came to an end. There is something to be said for both sides.
Comte, regarding himself as the promoter of a great scheme
for the benefit of humanity, might reasonably look for the support
of his friends in the fulfilment of his designs. But Mill and the
others were fully justified in not aiding the propagation of a
doctrine in which they might not wholly concur. Comte's sub-
sequent attitude of censorious condemnation put him entirely
in the wrong.
From 1845 to 1848 Comte lived as best he could, as well as
made his wife her allowance, on an income of £200 a year. His
little account books of income and outlay, with every item
entered down to a few hours before his death, are accurate and
neat enough to have satisfied an ancient Roman householder.
In 1848, through no fault of his own, his salary was reduced to
£80. Littre and others, with Comte's approval, published an
appeal for subscriptions, and on the money thus contributed
Comte subsisted for the remaining nine years of his life. By
185a the subsidy produced as much as £200 a year. It is worth
noticing that Mill was one of the subscribers, and that Littrd
continued his assistance after he had been driven from Comte's
society by his high pontifical airs. We are sorry not to be able
to record any similar trait of magnanimity on Comte's part.
His character, admirable as it is for firmness, for intensity, for
inexorable will, for iron devotion to what he thought the service
of mankind, yet offers few of those softening qualities that make
us love good men and pity bad ones.
It is best to think of him only as the intellectual worker,
pursuing in uncomfortcd obscurity the laborious and absorbing
gj . ta& k t0 which he had given up his whole life. His
2J3JJ singularly conscientious fashion of elaborating his
ideas made the mental strain more intense than even
so exhausting a work as the abstract exposition of the principles
of positive science need have been. He did not write down a
word until he had first composed the whole matter in his mind.
When he had thoroughly meditated every sentence, he sat down
to write, and then, such was the grip of his memory, the exact
order of his thoughts came back to him as if without an effort,
and he wrote down precisely what he had intended to write,
without the aid of a note or a memorandum, and without check
or pause. For example, he began and completed in about six
weeks a chapter in the Positive Philosophy (voL v. ch. 55)
which would fill forty pages of this Encyclopaedia. When we
reflect that the chapter is not narrative, but an abstract exposi-
tion of the guiding principles of the movements of several cen-
turies, with many threads of complex thought running along
side by side all through the speculation, then the circumstances
under which it was reduced to literary form are really astonishing.
It is hardly possible, however, to share the admiration expressed
by some of .Comte's disciples for his style. Wc are not so
unreasonable as to blame him for failing to make his pages
picturesque or thrilling; we do not want sunsets and stars and
roses and ecstasy; but there is a certain standard for the most
serious and abstract subjects. When compared with such
philosophic writing as - Hume's, Diderot's, Berkeley's, then
Comte's manner is heavy, laboured, monotonous, without relief
and without light There is now and then an energetic phrase,
but as a whole the vocabulary is jejune; the sentences are
overloaded; the pitch is flat. A scrupulous insistence on making
his meaning clear led to an iteration of certain adjectives and
adverbs, whichat length deadened the effect beyond theendurance
of all but the most resolute students. Only the interest of the
matter prevents one from thinking of Rivarol's ill-natured
remark upon Condorcet, that he wrote with opium on a page of
lead. The general effect is impressive, not by any virtues of
style, for we do not discern one, but by reason of the magnitude
and importance of the undertaking, and the visible conscien-
tiousness and the grasp with which it is executed. It is by sheer
strength of thought, by the vigorous perspicacity with which
be strikes the lines of cleavage of his subject, that he makes hb
VI. 14
way into the mind of the reader; in the presence of gifts of this
power wc need not quarrel with an ungainly style.
Comte pursued one practice which ought to be mentioned in
connexion with his personal history, the practice of what he
style hygiene Urtbrale. After he had acquired what .
he considered to be a sufficient stock of material, and eAnSrafe
this happened before he had completed the Positive
Philosophy, he abstained from reading newspapers, reviews,
scientific transactions and everything else, except two or three
poets (notably Dante) and the I mitotic Ckristi. It is true that
his friends kept him informed of what was going on in the
scientific world. Still this partial divorce of himself from the
record of the social and scientific activity of his time, though
it may save a thinker from the deplorable evils of dispersion,
moral and intellectual, accounts in no small measure for the
exaggerated egoism, and the absence of all feeling for reality,
which marked Comte's later days.
In 1845 Comte made the acquaintance of Madame ClotHde
de Vaux, a lady whose husband had been sent to the galleys
for life. Very little is known about her qualities.
She wrote a little piece which Comte rated so pre- jlvZmw.
posterously as to talk about George Sand in the same
sentence; it is in truth a flimsy performance, though it contains
one or two gracious thoughts. There is true beauty in the
saying — " It is unworthy of a noble nature to diffuse its pain."
Madame de Vaux's letters speak well for her good sense and
good feeling, and it would have been better for Comte's later
work if she had survived to exert a wholesome restraint on
his exaltation. Their friendship had only lasted a year when
she died (1846), but the period was long enough to give her
memory a supreme ascendancy in Comte's mind. Condillac,
Joubert, Mill and other eminent men have shown what the
intellectual ascendancy of a woman can be. Comte was as
inconsolable after Madame de Vaux's death as D'Alembcrt
after the death of Mademoiselle L'Espinasse. Every Wednesday
afternoon he made a reverential pilgrimage to her tomb, and
three times every day he invoked her memory in words of
passionate expansion. His disciples believe that in time the
world will reverence Comte's sentiment about Clotilde de Vaux,
as it reveres Dante's adoration of Beatrice— a parallel that
Comte himself was the first to hit upon. Yet we cannot help
feeling that it is a grotesque and unseemly anachronism to
apply in grave prose, addressed to the whole world, those
terms of saint and angel which arc touching and in their place
amid the trouble and passion of the great mystic poet. What-
ever other gifts Comte may have had — and he had many of the
rarest kind, — poetic imagination was not among ihcra, any more
than poetic or emotional expression was among them. His was
one of those natures whose faculty of deep feeling is unhappily
doomed to be inarticulate, and to pass away without the magic
power of transmitting itself.
Comte lost no time, after the completion, of his Course of
Positive Philosophy, in proceeding with the System of Positive
Polity, for which the earlier work was designed to
be a foundation. The first volume was published in
1851, and the fourth and last in 1854. In 1848, when
the political air was charged with stimulating elements, he
founded the Positive Society, with the expectation that it
might grow into a reunion as powerful over the new revolution
as the Jacobin Club had been in the revolution of 1789. The
hope was not fulfilled, but a certain number of philosophic
disciples gathered round Comte, and eventually formed them-
selves, under the guidance of the new ideas of the latter half
of his life, into a kind of church, for whose use was drawn up the
Positivist Calendar (1849), in which the names of those who had
advanced civilization replaced the titles of the saints. Guten-
berg and Shakespeare were among the patrons of the thirteen
months in this calendar. In the years 1849, 1850 and 1851
Comte gave three courses of lectures at the Palais RoyaL They
were gratuitous and popular, and in them he boldly advanced
the whole of his doctrine, as well as the direct and immediate
pretensions of himself and his system. The thixdcflMSM.«&4*Ai
8i8
COMTE
In the following uncompromising terms— "In the name of the
Past and of the Future, the servants of Humanity— both its
philosophical and its practical servants — come forward to claim
as their due the general direction of this world. Their object
is to constitute at length a real Providence in all departments, —
moral, intellectual and material. Consequently they exclude
once for all from political supremacy all the different servants
of God— Catholic, Protestant or Deist— as being at once behind-
hand and a cause of disturbance." A few weeks after this
invitation, a very different person stepped forward to constitute
himself a real Providence.
In 1852 Comte published the Catechism of Positivism. In the
preface to it he took occasion to express his approval of Louis
Napoleon's coup d'etat of the 2nd of December, — " a fortunate
crisis which has set aside the parliamentary system and insti-
tuted a dictatorial republic" Whatever we may think of the
political sagacity of such a judgment, it is due to Comte to say
that he did not expect to see his dictatorial republic transformed
into a dynastic empire, and, next, that he did expect from the
Man of December freedom of the press and of public meeting.
His later hero was the emperor Nicholas, "the only statesman in
Christendom,"— as unlucky a judgment as that which placed
Dr Franda in the Comtist Calendar.
In 1857 he was attacked by cancer, and died peaceably on
the 5th of September of that year. The anniversary is celebrated
Prtff, by ceremonial gatherings of his French and English
followers, who then commemorate the name and
the services of the founder of their religion. By his will he
appointed thirteen executors who were to preserve his rooms
at 10 rue Monsieur-le-Prince as the headquarters of the new
religion of Humanity.
In proceeding to give an outline of Comte's system, we
shall consider the Positive Polity as the more or less legitimate
ComU'e s*! 1 ^ °f tnc Positive Philosophy, notwithstanding
#*//<>- the deep gulf which so eminent a critic as J. S. Mill
npMo insisted upon fixing between the earlier and the later
***- work. There may be, as we think there is, the greatest
•W""** • difference in their value, and the temper is not the
same, nor the method. But the two are quite capable of being
regarded, and for the purposes of an account of Comte's career
ought to be regarded, as an integral whole. His letters when he
was a young man of one-and-twenty, and before he had published
a word, show how strongly present the social motive was in his
mind, and in what little account he should hold his scientific
works, if he did not perpetually think of their utility for the
species. " I feel," he wrote, " that such scientific reputation
as I might acquire would give more value, more weight, more
useful influence to my political sermons." In 1822 he published
a Plan of the Scientific Worhs necessary to reorganise Society.
^ In this he points out that modern society is passing
rrtuag. through a great crisis, due to the conflict of two oppos-
ing movements,— the first, a disorganizing movement
owing to the break-up of old institutions and beliefs; the second,
a movement towards a definite- social state, in which all means
of human prosperity will receive their most complete develop-
ment and most direct application. How is this crisis to be dealt
with? What are the undertakings necessary in order to pass
successfully through it towards an organic state? The answer
to this is that there are two scries of works. The first is theoretic
or spiritual, aiming at the development of a new principle of
co-ordinating social relations, and the formation of the system
of general ideas which are destined to guide society. The second
work is practical or temporal; it settles the distribution of
power, and the institutions that are most conformable to the
spirit of the system which has previously been thought out in
the course of the theoretic work. As the practical work depends
on the conclusions of the theoretical, the latter must obviously
come, first in order of execution.
In 1826 this was pushed farther in a most remarkable piece
called Considerations on the Spiritual Power— the main object
of which b to demonstrate the necessity of instituting a spiritual
s; distinct horn the temporal power and independent of it. J
In examining the conditions of a spiritual power proper formodem
times, he indicates in so many terms the presence in his mind
of a direct analogy between his proposed spiritual power and
the functions of the Catholic clergy at the time of its greatest
vigour and most complete independence, — that is to say, from
about the middle of the nth century until towards the end of
the 13th. He refers to de Maistre's memorable book, Dm Pcpe,
as the most profound, accurate and methodical account of the
old spiritual organization, and starts from that as the model to
be adapted to the changed intellectual and social conditions
of the modern time. In the Positive Philosophy, again (vol. v.
p. 344), he distinctly says that Catholicism, reconstituted as a
system on new intellectual foundations, would finally preside
over the spiritual reorganization of modern society. Much else
could be quoted to the same effect. If unity of career, thco,
means that Comte, from the beginning designed the institution
of a spiritual power, and the systematic reorganization of life,
it is difficult to deny him whatever credit that unity may be
worth, and the credit is perhaps not particularly great. Even
the rcadaptation of the Catholic system to a scientific doctrine
was plainly in his mind thirty years before the final execu-
tion of the Positive Polity, though it is difficult to believe
that he foresaw the religious mysticism in which the task was
to land him. A great analysis was to precede a great synthesis,
but it was the synthesis on which Comte's vision was centred
from the first Let us first sketch the nature of the analysis.
Society is to be reorganized on the base of knowledge. What
is the sum and significance of knowledge? That is the question
which Comte's first master-work professes to answer.
The Positive Philosophy opens with the statement of a certain
law of which Comte was the discoverer, and which has always
been treated both by disciples and dissidents as the
key to his system. This is the Law of the Three States. ^ZJ?**
It is as follows. Each of our leading conceptions, sum.
each branch of our knowledge, passes successively
through three different phases; there are three different ways
in which the human mind explains phenomena, each way
following the other in order. These three stages are the Theo-
logical, the Metaphysical and the Positive. Knowledge, or a
branch of knowledge, is in the Theological state, when it supposes
the phenomena under consideration to be due to immediate
volition, either in the object or in some supernatural being. In
the Metaphysical state, for volition is substituted abstract force
residing in the object, yet existing independently of the object;
the phenomena are viewed as if apart from the bodies manifesting
them; and the properties of each substance have attributed to
them an existence distinct from that substance. In the Positive
state, inherent volition or external volition and inherent force
or abstraction personified have both disappeared from men's
minds, and the explanation of a phenomenon means a reference
of it, by way of succession or resemblance, to some other
phenomenon, — means the establishment of a relation between
the given fact and some more general fact. In the Theological
and Metaphysical state men seek a cause or an essence; in the
Positive they are content with a law. To borrow an illustration
from an able English disciple of Comte: — " Take the phenomenon
of the sleep produced by opium. The Arabs are content to
attribute it to the 'will of God.' Moliere's medical student
accounts for it by a soporific principle contained in the opium.
The modern physiologist knows that he cannot account for it
at all. He can simply observe, analyse and experiment upon
the phenomena attending the action of the drug, and classify
it with other agents analogous in character."— (Dr Bridges.)
The first and greatest aim of the Positive Philosophy is to
advance the study of society into the third of the three stages, —
to remove social phenomena from the sphere of theological and
metaphysical conceptions, and to introduce among them the
same scientific observation of their laws which has given us
physics, chemistry, physiology. Social physics will consist of
the conditions and relations of the facts of society, and will have
two departments,— one, statical, containing the laws of order;
the other dynamical, containing the laws of progress. While
COMTE
819
men's minds were in the theological state, political events, for
example, were explained by the will of the gods, and political
authority based on divine right. In the metaphysical state of
mind, then, to retain our instance, political authority was based
on the sovereignty of the people, and social facts were explained
by the figment of a falling away from a state of nature. When
the positive method has been finally extended to society, as it
has been to chemistry and physiology, these social facts will be
resolved, as their ultimate analysis, into relations with one
another, and instead of seeking causes in the old sense of the
word, men will only examine the conditions of social existence.
When that stage has been reached, not merely the greater part,
but the whole, of our knowledge will be impressed with one
character, the character, namely, of positivity or scicntificalness;
and all our conceptions in every part of knowledge will be
thoroughly homogeneous. The gains of such a change are
enormous. The new philosophical unity will now in its turn
regenerate all the elements that went to its own formation. The
mind will pursue knowledge without the wasteful jar and friction
of conflicting methods and mutually hostile conceptions; educa-
tion will be regenerated; and society will reorganize itself on the
only possible solid base — a homogeneous philosophy.
The Positive Philosophy has another object besides the
demonstration of the necessity and propriety of a science of
society. This object is to show the sciences as branches
2jJJ t jJ lc *" from a single trunk, — is to give to science the ensemble
trt t irrrt or spirit or generality hitherto confined to philosophy,
and to give to philosophy the rigour and solidity of
science. Comte's special object is a study of social physics, a
science that before his advent was still to be formed; his second
object is a review of the methods and leading generalities of all
the positive sciences already formed, so that we may know both
what system of inquiry to follow in our new science, and also
where the new science will stand in relation toother knowledge.
The first step in this direction is to arrange scientific method
and positive knowledge in order, and this brings us to another
cardinal element in the Comtist system, the classification of the
sciences. In the front of the inquiry lies one main division; that,
namely, between speculative and practical knowledge. With
the latter we have no concern. Speculative or theoretic know-
ledge is divided into abstract and concrete. The former is
concerned with the laws that regulate phenomena in all conceiv-
able cases: the latter is concerned with the application of these
laws. Concrete science relates to objects or beings; abstract
science to events. The former is particular or descriptive; the
latter is general. Thus, physiology is an abstract science; but
zoology is concrete. Chemistry is abstract; mineralogy is
concrete. It is the method and knowledge of the abstract
sciences that the Positive Philosophy has to reorganize in a great
whole.
Comte's principle of classification is that the dependence and
order of scientific study follows the dependence of the phenomena.
Thus, as has been said, it represents both the objective dependence
of the phenomena and the subjective dependence of our means of
knowing them. The more particular and complex phenomena
depend upon the simpler and more general. The latter are the
more easy to study. Therefore science will begin with those
attributes of objects which are most general, and pass on gradually
to other attributes that are combined in greater complexity.
Thus, too, each science rests on the truths of the sciences that
precede it, while it adds to them the truths by which it is itself
constituted. Comte's series or hierarchy is arranged as follows : —
(1) Mathematics (that is, number, geometry, and mechanics),
(a) Astronomy, (3) Physics, (4) Chemistry, (5) Biology, (6)
Sociology. Each of the members of this series is one degree more
special than the member before it, and depends upon the facts of
all the members preceding it, and cannot be fully understood
without them. It follows that the crowning science of the
hierarchy, dealing with the phenomena of human society, will
remain longest under the influence of theological dogmas and ab-
stract figments, and will be the last to pass into the positive stage.
You cannot discover the relations of the facts of human society
without reference to the conditions of animal life; you cannot
understand the conditions of animal life without the laws of
chemistry; and so with the rest.
This arrangement of the sciences, and" the Law of the Three
States, are together explanatory of the course of human thought
and knowledge. They are thus the double key of rjkf in , ||i>
Comte's systematization of the philosophy of all the uyf
sciences from mathematics to physiology, and hisp©«/tfr#
analysis of social evolution, which is the base of ***•"
sociology. Each science contributes its philosophy. —***•
The co-ordination of all these partial philosophies produces
the general Positive Philosophy. " Thousands had cultivated
science, and with splendid success; not one had conceived
the philosophy which the sciences when organized would
naturally evolve. A few had seen the necessity of extending the
scientific method to all inquiries, but no one had seen how this
was. to be effected. . . The Positive Philosophy is novel as a
philosophy, not as a collection of truths never before suspected.
Its novelty is the organization of existing elements. Its very
principle implies the absorption of all that great thinkers had
achieved; while incorporating their results it extended their
methods. . . . What tradition brought was the results; what
Comte brought was the organization of these results. He always
claimed to be the founder of the Positive Philosophy. That he
had every right to such a title is demonstrable to all who dis-
tinguish between the positive sciences and the philosophy which
co-ordinated the truths and methods of these sciences into a
doctrine."— C. if. Lewes.
Comte's classification of the sciences has been subjected to a
vigorous criticism by Herbert Spencer. Spencer's two chief
points are these:— (1) He denies that the principle of CrMckm
the development of the sciences is the principle of •* Comtra
decreasing generality; he asserts that there are as «*■*•***•
many examples of the advent of a science being tiM *
determined by increasing generality as by .increasing speciality.
(2) He holds that any grouping of the sciences in a succession
gives a radically wrong idea of their genesis and their inter-
dependence; no true filiation exists; no science develops itself
in isolation; no one is independent, either logically or historically.
Littre, by far the most eminent of the scientific followers of
Comte, concedes a certain force to Spencer's objections, and
makes certain secondary modifications in the hierarchy in
consequence, while still cherishing his faith in the 'Comtist
theory of the sciences. J. S. Mill, while admitting the objections
as good, if Comte's arrangement pretended to be the* only one
possible, still holds the arrangement as tenable for the purpose
with which it was devised. G. H. Lewes asserts against Spencer
that the arrangement in a series is necessary, on grounds similar
to those which require that the various truths constituting a
science should be systematically co-ordinated although in nature
the phenomena are intermingled.
The first three volumes of the Positive Philosophy contain an
exposition of the partial philosophies of the five sciences that
precede sociology in the hierarchy. Their value has usually been
placed very low by the special followers of the sciences concerned;
they say that the knowledge is second-hand, is not coherent, and
is too confidently taken for final. The Comtist replies that the
task is philosophic, and is not to be judged by the minute
accuracies of science. In these three volumes Comte took the
sciences roughly as he found them. His eminence as a man of
science must be measured by his only original work in that
department, — the construction, namely, of the new science of
society. This work is accomplished in the last three volumes of
the Positive Philosophy, and the second and third volumes of the
Positive Polity. The Comtist maintains that even if these five
volumes together fail in laying down correctly and finally the
lines of the new science, still they are the first solution of a great
problem hitherto unattempted. ".Modern biology has got
beyond Aristotle's conception; but in the construction of the
biological science, not even the most unphilosophical biologist
would fail to recognize the value of Aristotle's attempt. So for
sociology. Subsequent sociologists may have c0ncei.va.bl3 **
$20
COMTE
remodel the whole idence, yet not the less will they recognise the
merit of the first work which has facilitated their labours."—
Congreve.
We shall now briefly describe Comte's principal conceptions in
sociology, his position in respect to which is held by himself, and by
others, to raise him to the level of Descartes or Leibnitz.
Of course the first step was to approach the phenomena
of human character and social existence with the
expectation of finding them as reducible to general
laws as the other phenomena of the universe, and with the hope of
exploring these laws bf the same instruments of observation and
verification as had done such triumphant work in the case of the
latter. Comte separates the collective facts of society and history
from the individual phenomena of biology; then he withdraws
these collective facts from the region of external volition, and
places them in the region of law. The facts of history must be
explained, not by providential interventions, but by referring
them to conditions inherent in the successive stages of social
existence. This conception makes a science of society possible.
jl lfi> X What is the method? It comprises, besides observa-
tion and experiment (which is, in fact, only theobserva-
tion of abnormal social states) , a certain peculiarity of verification.
We begin by deducing every well-known historical situation from
the series of its antecedents. Thus we acquire a bodyof empirical
generalisations as to social phenomena, and then we connect the
generalizations with the positive theory of human nature. A
sociological demonstration lies in the establishment of an accord-
ance between the conclusions of historical analysis and the
preparatory conceptions of biological theory. As Mill puts it: —
" If a sociological theory; collected from historical evidence,
contradicts the established general laws of human nature; if (to
use M. Comte's instances) it implies, in the mass of mankind, any
very decided natural bent, either in a good or in a bad direction;
if it supposes that the reason, in average human beings, pre-
dominates over the desires, or the disinterested desires over the
personal,— we may know that history has been misinterpreted,
and that the theory is false. On the other hand, if laws of social
phenomena, empirically generalised from history, can, when once
suggested, be affiliated to the known laws of human nature; if
the direction actually taken by the developments and changes of
human society, can be seen to be such as the properties of man and
of his dwelling-place made antecedently probable, the empirical
generalisations are raised into positive laws, and sociology
becomes a science," The result of this method is an exhibition of
the events of human experience in co-ordinated series that
manifest their own graduated connexion.
Next, as all investigation proceeds from that which is known
best to that which is unknown or less well known, and as, in social
states, it is the collective phenomenon that is more easy of access
to the observer than its parts, therefore we must consider and
pursue all the elements of a given social state together and in
common. The social organization must be viewed and explored
as a whole. There is a nexus between each leading group of
social phenomena and other leading groups; if there is a change
in one of them, that change is accompanied by a corresponding
modification of all the re»t. " Not only must political institutions
and social manners, on the one hand, and manners and ideas, on
the other, be always mutually connected; but further, this
consolidated whole must be always connected by its nature with
the corresponding state of the integral development of humanity,
considered in all its aspect* of intellectual, moral and physical
activity."— Comte.
Is there any one element which communicates the decisive
impulse to all the rest.— any predominating agency in the course
of social evolution? The answer is that all the other
parts of social existence are associated with, and
drawn along by, the contemporary condition of
intellectual development The Reason is the superior
L and preponderant element which settles the direction
' in which all the other faculties shall expand. " It is
only through the more and more marked influence of the reason
otrrthcfcccrj] cvmluct of nun and of society, that the gradual
inarch of our race has attained that regularity and i
continuity which distinguish it so radically from the desultory and
barren expansion of even the highest animal orders, which share,
and with enhanced strength, the appetites, the passions, and even
the primary sentiments of man." The history of intellectual
development, therefore, is the key to social evolution, and the key
to the history of intellectual development is the Law of the Three
States.
Among other central thoughts in Comte's explanation of
history are these: — The displacement of theological by positive
conceptions has been accompanied by a gradual rise of an
industrial regime out of the military regime; — the great
permanent contribution of Catholicism was the separation which
it set up between the temporal and the spiritual powers,-— the
progress of the race consists in the increasing preponderance of
the distinctively human elements over the animal elements;—
the absolute tendency of ordinary social theories will be replaced
by an unfailing adherence to the relative point of view, and from
this it follows that the social state, regarded as a whole, has been
as perfect in each period as the co-existing condition of humanity
and its environment would allow.
The elaboration of these ideas in relation to the history of the
civilization of the most advanced portion of the human race
occupies two of the volumes of the Positive Philosophy, and has
been accepted by very different schools as a masterpiece of rich,
luminous, and far-reaching suggestion. Whatever additions it
may receive, and whatever corrections it may require, this
analysis of social evolution will continue to be regarded as one of
the great achievements of human intellect,
The third volume of the Positive Polity treats of social
dynamics, and takes us again over the ground of historic evolu-
tion. It abounds with remarks of extraordinary ^„ rl . f
fertility and comprehensiveness; but it is often tjttmtia
arbitrary; and its views of the past are strained into *■**♦
coherence with the statical views of the preceding 22?*
volume. As it was composed in rather less than six **'**'
months, and as the author honestly warns us that he has gives
all his attention to a more profound co-ordination, in«»qH of
working out the special explanations more fully, as he had
promised, we need not be surprised if the result is disappointing
to those who had mastered the corresponding portion o£ the
Positive Philosophy. Comte explains the difference between his
two works. In the first his " chief object was to discover and
demonstrate the laws of progress, and to exhibit in one unbroken
sequence the collective destinies of mankind, till then invariably
regarded as a series of events wholly beyond the reach of ex-
planation, and almost depending on arbitrary will. The present
work, on the contrary, is addressed to those who are already
sufficiently convinced of the certain existence of social laws, and
desire only to have them reduced to a true and conclusive
system."
The main principles of the Comtian system are derived from
the Positive Polity and from two other works, — the Posithist
Catechism: a Summary Exposition of the Universal
Religion, in Twelve Dialogues between a Woman and a J^j^^f
Priest of Humanity; and, second, The Subjective mymem*
Synthesis ( 1856) , which is the first and only volume of a
work upon mathematics announced at the end of the Positim
Philosophy. The system for which the Positive Philosophy is
alleged to have been the scientific preparation contains a Polity
and a Religion; a complete arrangement of life in all its aspects,
giving a wider sphere to Intellect, Energy and Feeling than could
be found in any of the previous organic types,— Greek, Roman or
Catholic-feudal Comte's immense superiority over such prae-
Revolutionary Utopians as the Abbe Saint Pierre, no less than
over the group of post-revolutionary Utopians, is especially
visible in this firm grasp of the cardinal truth that the improve-
ment of the social organism can only be effected by a moral
development, and never by any changes in mere political
mechanism, or any violences in the way of an artificial redistri-
bution of wealth. A moral transformation must precede any
real advance. The aim, both in public and private life, is to
COMTE
821
secure to the utmost possible extent the victory of the social
feeling over self-love, or Altruism over Egoism. 1 This is the key
to the regeneration of social existence, as it is the key to that
unity of individual life which makes all our energies converge
freely and without wasteful friction towards a common end.
What are the instruments for securing the preponderance of
Altruism? Clearly they must work from the strongest element
in human nature, and this element is Feeling or the Heart. Under
the Catholic system the supremacy of Feeling was abused, and the
Intellect was made its slave. Then followed a revolt of Intellect
against Sentiment. The business of the new system will be to
bring back the Intellect into a condition, not of slavery, but of
willing ministry to the Feelings. The subordination never was,
and never will be, effected except by means of a religion, and a
religion, to be final, must include a harmonious
/frfoflo/ s y ntncs i s °f *M our conceptions of the external order of
bmmzaity. tne universe. The characteristic basis of a religion
is the existence of a Power without us, so superior to
ourselves as to command the complete submission of our whole
life. This basis is to be found in the Positive stage, in Humanity,
past, present and to come, conceived as the Great Being.
''A deeper study of the great universal order reveals to us at
length the ruling power within it of the true Great Being, whose
destiny it is to bring that order continually to perfection by con-
stantly conforming to its laws, and which thus best represents to
us that system as a whole. This undeniable Providence, the supreme
dispenser of our destinies, becomes in the natural course the common
centre of our affections, our thoughts, and our actions. Although
this Great Being evidently exceeds the utmost strength of any, even
of any collective, human force, its necessary constitution and its
peculiar function endow it with the truest sympathy towards all its
servants. The least amongst us can and ought constantly to aspire
to maintain and even to improve this Being. This natural object
of all our activity, both public and private, determines the true
general character of the rest of our existence, whether in feeling
or in thought ; which must be devoted to love, and to know, in order
rightly to serve, our Providence, by a wise use of all the means which
it furnishes to us. Reciprocally this continued service, whilst
strengthening our true unity, renders us at once both happier and
better."
The exaltation of Humanity into the throne occupied by the
Supreme Being under monotheistic systems made all the rest
of Comte's construction easy enough. Utility remains
the test of every institution, impulse, act; his fabric
becomes substantially an arch of utilitarian proposi-
tions, with an artificial Great Being inserted at the top
to keep them in their place. The Com List system is utilitarianism
crowned by a fantastic decoration. Translated into the plainest
English, the position is as follows: " Society can only be re-
generated by the greater subordination of politics to morals,
by the moralixation of capital, by the renovation of the family,
by a higher conception of marriage and so on. These ends can
only be reached by a heartier development of the sympathetic
instincts. The sympathetic instincts can only be developed by
the Religion of Humanity." Looking at the problem in this
way, even a moralist who does not expect theology to be the
instrument of social revival, might still ask whether the sym-
pathetic instincts will not necessarily be already developed to
their highest point, before people will be persuaded to accept the
religion, which is at the bottom hardly more than sympathy
under a more imposing name. However that may be, the whole
battle — into which we shall not enter — as to the legitimateness
of Comtism as a religion turns upon this erection of Humanity
into a Being. The various hypotheses, dogmas, proposals, as to
the family, to capital, &c, are merely propositions measurable
by considerations of utility and a balance of expediencies.
Many of these proposals are of the highest interest, and many of
them are actually available; but there does not seem to be one
of them of an available kind, which could not equally well be
approached from other sides, and even incorporated in some
radically antagonistic system. Adoption, for example, as a
practice for improving the happiness of families and the welfare
of society, is capable of being weighed, and can in truth only be
weighed, by utilitarian considerations, and has been commended
1 For Comte's place in the history of ethical theory see Ethics.
by men to whom the Comtist religion is naught. The singularity
of Comte's construction, and the test by which it must be tried,
is the transfer of the worship and discipline of Catholicism to
a system in which " the conception of God is superseded " by
the abstract idea of Humanity, conceived as a kind of Personality.
And when all is said, the invention docs not help us. We have
still to settle what is for the good of Humanity, and we can only
do that in the old-fashioned way. There is no guidance in the
conception. No effective unity can follow from it, because you
can only find out the right and wrong of a given course by
summing up the advantages and disadvantages, and striking
a balance, and there is nothing in the Religion ot Humanity to
force two men to find the balance onthesame side. The Comtists
are no better off than other utilitarians in judging policy, events,
conduct.
. The particularities of the worship, its minute and truly
ingenious re-adaptations of sacraments, prayers, reverent signs,
down even to the invocation of a New Trinity, need
not detain us. They are said, though it is not easy to JjT W £T
believe, to have been elaborated by way of Utopia. gt f r^Sm»
If so, no Utopia has ever yet been presented in a style
so little calculated to stir the imagination, to warm the feelings,
to soothe the insurgency oi the reason. It is a mistake to present
a great body of hypotheses — if Comtc meant them for hypotheses
— in the most dogmatic and peremptory form to which language
can lend itself. And there is no more extraordinary thing in
the history of opinion than the perversity with which Comte
has succeeded in clothing a philosophic doctrine, so intrinsically
conciliatory as his, in a shape that excites so little sympathy
and gives so much provocation. An enemy defined Comtism
as Catholicism minus Christianity, to which an able champion
retorted by calling it Catholicism plus Science. Comte's Utopia
has pleased the followers of the Catholic, just as little as those of
the scientific, spirit.
The elaborate and minute systcmatization of life, proper to the
religion of Humanity, is to be directed by a priesthood . The priests
are to possess neither wealth nor material power; they rjk# .
are not to command, but to counsel; their authorityisto Aoo ^
rest on persuasion, not on force. When religion has be-
come positive, and society industrial, then the influence of the
church upon the state becomes really freeandindependent, which
was not the case in the middle ages. The power of the priesthood
rests upon special knowledge of man and nature; but to this
intellectual eminence must also be added moral power and a
certain greatness of character, without which force of intellect
and completeness of attainment will not receive the confidence
they ought to inspire. The functions of the priesthood are of this
kind: — To exercise a systematic direction over education; to
hold a consultative influence over all the important acts of actual
life, public and private; to arbitrate in cases of practical conflict;
to preach sermons recalling those principles of generality and
universal harmony which our special activities dispose us to
ignore; to order the due classification of society; to perform
the various ceremonies appointed by the founder of the religion.
The authority of the priesthood is to rest wholly on voluntary
adhesion, and there is to be perfect freedom of speech and
discussion. This provision hardly consists with Comte's con-
gratulations to the tsar Nicholas on the " wise vigilance " with
which he kept watch over the importation of Western books.
From his earliest manhood Comte had been powerfully im-
pressed by the necessity of elevating the condition of women.
(See remarkable passage in his letters to M. Valat, pp. «,._._
84-87.) His friendship with Madame de Vaux had W9mem
deepened the impression, and in the reconstructed society
women are to play a highly important part. They are to be
carefully excluded from public action, but they are to do many
more important things than things political. To fit them for
their functions, they are to be raised above material cares, and
they arc to be thoroughly educated. The family, which is so
important an element of the Comtist scheme of things, exists
to carry the influence of woman over man to the highest point
of cultivation. Through affection she purifies tfc*. v^xv* *&.
822
COMUS— CONANT
man. " Superior in power of affection, more able to keep both
the intellectual and the active powers in continual subordination
to feeling, women are fcr=ed as the natural intermediaries
between Humanity and ran. The Great Being confides specially
to tbem its moral Prrr>ie=ce, maintaining through them the
direct and constant rti'rrUKg, cf universal affection, in the midst
of all the distracts ~J. '±£tz£& or action, which are for ever
withdrawing men frxz ru i^fuence. . . . Beside the uniform
influence of every wjcxz. on every man, to attach him to
Humanity, such is Tie rrpoetance and the difficulty of this
ministry that each of to. sbrJd be placed under the special
guidance of or* of tiies* trjris, to answer for him, as it were, to
the Great Brirg This sacra! guardianship may assume thrct
types,— the mother, the wife and the daughter; each having
several mod_£.?aljocs, as shown in the concluding volume.
Together they fores the three simple modes of solidarity, 01
unity with coctesporaries.— obedience, union and protection—
as wefl as the three degrees of continuity between ages, by
nailing ss wi:fc the past, the present and the future. In accord-
ance with =7 theory of the brain, each corresponds with one ol
vj ibsnt ahr-^sric instincts — veneration, attachment and
bewr»ea«.*
Hvw -Sit y&l'ive method of observation and verification
«C* aa, lads Lu Landed as in this, and much else of the same
Cm0 ^ *~^*- ii extremely hard to guess. Seriously to examine
m ^ i ix encyclopaedic system, that touches life, society
im £Z£i-u\td%t at every point, is evidently beyond the
vuarptx. 'A s&ch an article as this. There is in every chapter
a wW* grv-p of speculative suggestions, each of which would
liw> t *s-% chapter to itself to elaborate or to discuss. There is
is*, jsut. w 'biological speculation of astounding audacity,
ft*,* tvj* be examined in nothing less than a treatise. Perhaps
*e tar* said enough to show that after performing a great and
?*a. vrrv.ie to thought Comte almost sacrificed his claims to
tTVJL^^i by the invention of a system that, as such, and in-
4cpt?Ac7Sly ot detached suggestions, is markedly retrograde.
fcrt the world will take what is available in Comte, while for-
geiunf thii in his work which is as irrational in one way as
Uegd is in another.
See alto the article Posttivi&Kh
BiatrcwuAPHV— Works. Eaiii*** and Translations: Cours it
phitetophie positive {6 vols., l*ari*, 1830-1*42: »nd ed. with preface
ly E. Lhire. Paris, j«6j; jth ed., i8ft3-»8v4: " "
_ , „ j Eng. trans. Harriet
1853; j volt London and New York,
Di uours sur V esprit poutif (I
M*nincju. 2 vols.* London,
IA96}; Unururj 4"bt V esprit
e*ph nation E. S, Betsley,
raris, 1844; Eng. trans, with
tqOJ); t>t/"* */ progres (16.1848);
£>f ir^iiri jMrf fnsi-nrWf ^ tHuitit+sxt* [ I B^s, Eng. trans. I. H. Bridges,
London, 1852); System* de pMJWw fM&f(, on TraiU de sociologie
(4 vol*,, Paris, 1153-1854; cd. 1&>9; Eng, trans, with analysis and
explanatory summary by Bridge*, F. Harrison. E. S. Bccslcy and
otWi, 1875-1 870) 1 ; Gj*f**t:n«f puitinilt (Paris, 1852: 3rd ed..
1890; Enff. tfarti R. Cofi«cve + Lond. 1858, 3rd ed., 1891):
Appri *nx Coritervaieuri (Pan*, 1855 and 1898); Syuthese subjective
(1856 and 187B); £jiiij i< phitoi. mothi malique (Paris, 1878); P.
t>L-<«]Lirs inJ H. Cardan Johl-v. Fut\J,i'n<ntal PrincipUs of Positive
:.S. Bccsley. The Letters
of Comte have been published as follows. — the letters to M. Valat
and J. S. Mill, in La Critique philosophique (1877); correspondence
with Mde. de Vaux (ib., 1884); Carres pondance tnidite d'Aug. Comte
(1903 foil.) ; LeUres inidites de J. S. Mill a Aug. Comte publ. avec Us
ristonscs de Comte (1800).
Criticism. — J, S. Mill, Avgusle _Ccmte arul Potitirism; J. H,
Bridge?" reply to Mill, The Unity 0/ Coma's Lift and Doctrines i f G66) ;
Her ben Speftft-r't cinay on the Gene lit of Scientt and pamphlet on
The Ctawhcation of the Sciences; Huxley'* "Scientific Aspect* oJ
& . :M.,:^'i i _ i_ : _ t *. _ ^ . . U rt. t*^ ,■ .. „*. A _*.-j f- _ f
d/ Cvtmtii PAilotopky
it. ii. i Edward Caird,
Pi>MHvi4m r ' h in his £^7 itrnwiiJ: R, Confreve, Ejjujrf Potiticat.
Social and thtifiom (1874) £ J- Fiwe* Om^*(kj ^ "
(1874)^ G, II. Lewes, History of Philosophy, vol. i
r*« 5ncfdf Philosophy and tteligion of ComU (Glasgow, iS-Sif-,
Hermann Cruber, ^f m^* Comte dtr Begritnder 4rt PcniiVitmus. Sein
Ltben und seine Ltkre (Freiburg, Ifctt^) and D^r Poiith'ismui vom
Tod* Aug. Corntrs bit auf nnstrr Tage. t&fj-f&pi (Frcib. 1H9O:
L. Levy Rrtihl, La Philasophte d'Aug, Comte (Pari*, iqqo}; 11, D^
Hut ton, Comte" s Theory of Man's Future (1H77), Comic , the Ma* $*d
the Fwundtr (i8<}i}, Gjwi^i i'/r and ir^A (1895): E. de Roberty,
Aug, Comte ct Herbert Spenitr (Paris, 1^4) • J. Witwn, Comte, Mill
and Spntstr. At* outline of Phths. {1895 and iSoq); Millet, Ld
S^mrrijTnr^ d'apres A ut. Comte ( 1OU5) ; L. dc Montesquieu FuenMc,
^ S_vjJr*w p&littoue d Aug. Comte (1907); G. Duila* t Pijchetagit
COMOS (from «wpot, revel, or a company of revellers), in the
[ btcr mythology of the Greeks, the god of festive mirth. In
classic mythology the personification does not exist; but Comus
appears in the Eusowt , or Descriptions of Pictures, of i*hilostratus,
a writer of the 3rd century a.d. as a winged youth, slumbering in
a standing attitude, his legs crossed, his countenance flushed with
wine, bis head — which is sunk upon his breast — crowned with
dewy flowers, his left hand feebly grasping a hunting spear, his
right an inverted torch. Ben Jonson introduces Comus. in his
masque entitled Pleasure reconciled to -Virtue (1619), as the portly
jovial patron of good cheer. " First father of sauce and deviser of
jelly." In the Comus, site Phagtsiposia Cimmeria; Somntum
(160S, and at Oxford, 1634), a moral allegory by a Dutch author,
Hendrik van der Put ten, or Erycius Puteanus. the conception is
more nearly akin to Milton's, and Comus is a being whose
enticements are more disguised and delicate than those of
Jonson 's deity. But Milton's Comus is a creation of his own.
His story bone
" Which never yet was heard in tale or song
From old or modern bard, in hall or bower.**
Born from the loves of Bacchus and Circe, he is " much like his
father, but his mother more "—a sorcerer, like her, who gives to
travellers a magic draught that changes their human face into
the " brutal form of some wild beast/' and, hiding from them
their own foul disfigurement, makes them forget all the pure ties
of life, " to roll with pleasure in a sensual sty."
COMYN, JOHN (d. c. 1300), Scottish baron, was a son of John
Comyn (d. 1274)* justiciar of Galloway, who was a nephew of the
constable of Scotland, Alexander Comyn, earl of Buchan (d.
1289), and of the powerful and wealthy Walter Comyn, earl of
Mentieth (d. 1258). With his uncle the earl of Buchan, the elder
Comyn took a prominent part in the affairs of Scotland during
the latter part of the 13th century, and he had interests and
estates in England as well as in his native land. He fought for
Henry III. at Northampton and at Lewes, and was afterwards
imprisoned for a short time in London. The younger Comyn, who
had inherited the lordship of Badenoch from his great- uncle the
earl of Mentieth, was appointed one of the guardians of Scotland
in 1286, and shared in the negotiations between Edward I. and
the Scots in 1280 and 1200. When Margaret, the Maid of
Norway, died in 1200, Comyn was one of the claimants for the
Scottish throne, but he did not press his candidature, and like the
other Comyns urged the claim of John de BalioL After support-
ing Baliol in his rising against Edward L, Comyn submitted to
the English king in 1206; he was sent to reside m England, but
returned to Scotland shortly before his death.
Comyn's son, John Comyn (d. 1306), called the " red Comyn,"
Ss more famous. Like his father he assisted Baliol in his rising
against Edward I., and he was for some time a hostage in
England. Having been made guardian of Scotland after the
battle of Falkirk in 129S he led the resistance to the English
|cing for about five years, and then early in 1304 made an honour-
able surrender. Comyn is chiefly known for bis memorable
quarrel with Robert the Bruce. The origin of the dispute is
uncertain. Doubtless the two regarded each other as rivals;
Comyn may have refused to join in the insurrection planned by
Bruce. At all events the pair met at Dumfries in January 1306;
{during a heated altercation charges of treachery were made, and
Comyn was stabbed to death cither by Bruce or by his followers.
Another member of the Comyn family who took an active part
fn Scottish affairs during these troubled times is John Comyn,
earl of Buchan (d. c. 13 13). This carl, a son of Earl Alexander,
was constable of Scotland, and was first an ally and then an
lenemy of Robert the Bruce.
• CONACRE (a corruption of corn-acre), in Ireland, a system of
felting land, mostly in small patches, and usually for the growth
of potatoes as a kind of return instead of wages. It is now
practically obsolete.
CONANT, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1802-1801), American
Biblical scholar, was born at Brandon, Vermont, on the 13th
of December 1802. Graduating at Middlebury College in 1823,
he became tutor in the Columbian University (now George
CONATION— CONCEPCION
823
Washington University) from 1825 to 1827, professor of Greek,
Latin and German at Watervilie College (now Colby College)
from 1827 to 1833, professor of biblical literature and criticism in
Hamilton (New York) Theological Institute from 1835 to 185 1,
and professor of Hebrew and of Biblical exegesis in Rochester
Theological Seminary from 1851 to 1857. From 1857 to 1875
he was employed by the American Bible Union on. the revision
of the New Testament (1871). He married in 1830 Hannah
O'Brien Chaplin (1809-1865), who was herself the author of
The Earnest Man, a biography of Adoniram Judson (1855),
and of The History of the English Bible (1859), besides being
"her husband's able assistant in his Hebrew studies. He died in
Brooklyn, New York, on the 30th of April 1891. Conant was
the foremost Hebrew scholar of his time in America. His
treatise, The Meaning and Use of " Bcpliztin " PhilologUally
and Historically Investigated (i860), an " appendix to the revised
version of the Gospel by Matthew," is a valuable summary of
the evidence for Baptist doctrine. He translated and edited
Gesenius's Hebrew Grammar (1839; 1877), and published
revised versions with notes of Job (1856), Genesis (1868), Psalms
(1871), Proverbs (1872), Isaiah i.-xiii. 22 (1874), and Historical
glooks of the Old Testament, Joshua to II. Kings (1884).
CONATION (from Lat. conari % to attempt, strive), a psycho-
logical term, originally chosen by Sir William Hamilton {Lectures
on Metaphysics, pp. 127 foil.), used generally of an attitude of
mind involving a tendency to take action, e.g. when one decides
to remove an object which is causing a painful sensation, or to
try to interrupt an unpleasant train of thought. This use of
the word tends to lay emphasis on the mind as self-determined
in relation to external objects. Another less common use of the
word is to describe the pleasant or painful sensations which
accompany muscular activity; the conative phenomena, thus
regarded, are psychic changes brought about by external causes.
The chief difficulty in connexion with Conation is that of
distinguishing it from Feeling, a term of very vague significance
both in technical and in common usage. Thus the German
psychologist F. Brcntano holds that no real distinction can
be made. He argues that the mental process from sorrow or
dissatisfaction, through hope for a change and courage to act,
up to the voluntary determination which issues in action, is
a single homogeneous whole (Psychology, pp. '308-309). The
mere fact, however, that the series is continuous is no ground
for not distinguishing its parts; if it were so, it would be im-
possible to distinguish by separate names the various colours
in the solar spectrum, or indeed perception from conception.
A more material objection, moreover, is that, in point of (act,
the feeling of pleasure or pain roused by a given stimulus is
specifically different from, and indeed may not be followed by,
the determination to modify or remove it. Pleasure and pain,
{.e.hedonic sensation per rc,are essentially distinct fromappctition
and aversion; the pleasures of hearing music or enjoying sun-
shine are not in general accompanied by any volitional activity.
It is true that painful sensations are generally accompanied by
definite aversion or a tendency to take action, but the cases of
positive pleasure are amply sufficient to support a distinction.
Therefore, though in ordinary language such phrases as " feeling
•version " are quite legitimate, accurate psychology compels
us to confine " feeling " to states of consciousness in which no
conative activity is present, i.e. to the psychic phenomena of
pleasure or pain considered in and by themselves. The study
of such phenomena is specifically described as Hcdonics (Gr.
Iliovti, pleasure) or Algedonics (Gr. aXyibw, pain); the latter
term was coined by H. R. Marshall (in Pain, Pleasure and
Aesthetics, 1804), but has not been generally used.
The problem of conation is closely related to that of Attention
(q.v.), which indeed, regarded as active consciousness, implies
conation (G. T Ladd, Psychology, 1804. p. 213). Thus, whenever
the mind deliberately focusses itself upon a particular object,
there is implied a psychic effort (for the relation between Atten-
tion and Conation, see G. F. Stout, Analytic Psychology, book i.
chap. vi.). All conscious action, and in a less degree even
unconscious or reflex action, implies attention; whep the mind
"attends" to any given external object, the organ through tht
medium of which information regarding that object is conveyed
to the mind is set in motion. (See Psychology.)
CONCA, SEBASTIANO (1670-1764), Italian painter of the
Florentine school, was born at Gaeta, and studied at Naples
under Francesco Solimena. In 1706, along with his brother
Giovanni, who acted as his assistant, he settled at Rome, where
for several years he worked in chalk only, to improve his drawing.
He was patronized by the Cardinal Ottoboni, who introduced
him to Clement XI.; and a Jeremiah painted in the church of
St John Lateran was rewarded by the pope with knighthood
and by the cardinal with a diamond cross. His fame grew
quickly, and he received the patronage of most of the crowned
heads of Europe, He painted till near the day of his death, and
left behind him an immense number of pictures, mostly of a
brilliant and showy kind, which are distributed among the
churches of Italy. Of these the Probatica, or Pool of Siloarn,
in the hospital of Santa Maria della Scala, at Siena, is considered
the finest.
CONCARNEAU, a fishing port of western France in the depart-
ment of Finistere, 14 m. by road S.E. of Quimper. Pop. ( 1906)
7887. The town occupies a picturesque situation on an inlet
opening into the Bay of La For£t. The old portion stands on
an island, and is surrounded by ramparts, parts of which are
believed to date from the 14th century. It is an important centre
of the sardine, mackerel and lobster fisheries. Sardine-preserv-
ing, boat-building and the manufacture of sardine-boxes are
carried on.
CONCEPCI6N, a province of southern Chile, lying between
the provinces of Mauleand ftublc on the N. and Bio-Bio on the
S., and extending from the Pacific to the Argentine boundary.
Its outline is very irregular, the Itata river forming its northern
boundary, and the Bio-Bio and one of its tributaries a part of
its southern boundary. Area (estimated) 3252 sq. m.; pop.
(1895) 188,19a Concepcion is the most important province
of southern Chile because of its advantageous commercial
position, fertility and productive industries. Its coast is indented
by two large well-sheltered bays, Talcahuano and Arauco, the
former having the ports of Talcahuano, Pcnco and El Torn*,
and the latter Coronel and Lota. Its railway communications
are good, and the Bio-Bio, which crosses its S.W. corner, has
100 m. of navigable channel The province produces wheat
and manufactures flour for export; its wines axe reputed the
best in Chile, cattle are bred in large numbers, wool is produced,
and considerable limber is shipped. Near the coast are extensive
deposits of coal, which is shipped from Lota and Coronel, the
former being the site of the most productive coal-mine in South
America. The climate is mild and the rainfall is abundant-
Large copper-smelting and glass works have been established
at Lota because of its coal resources. The valley of the Itata is
largely devoted to vine cultivation, and the port of this district,
El Tomt, is noted for its wine vaults and trade. It also possesses
a small woollen factory. The principal towns are on the coast
and had in 1895 the following populations: Talcahuano, 10,431;
Lota. 9797 (largely operatives in the mines and smelting works);
Coronel, 457s; and El Tome, 3977.
CONCEPCION, a city of southern Chile, capital of a province
and department of the same name, on the right bank of the
Bio-Bio river, 7 m. above its mouth, and 355 m. S. S.W. of Santiago
by rail. Pop. (1895) 39,837; (1902, estimated) 49,3 51. It is
the commercial centre of a rich agricultural region, but because
of obstructions at the mouth of the Bio-Bio its trade passes in
great part through the port of Talcahuano, 8 m. distant by rail.
The small port of Pcnco, situated on the same bay and 10 m.
distant by rail, also receives a part of the trade because of
official restrictions at Talcahuano. Concepci6n is one of the
southern termini of the Chilean central railway, by which it is
connected with Santiago to the N., with Valdivia and Puerto
Montt to the S., and with the port of Talcahuano. Another line
extends southward through the Chilean coal-producing districts
to Curanilhut, crossing the Bio-Bio by a steel viaduct 6000 ft
long on 62 skeleton piers; and a short line of u* «&. tubs*
824
CONCEPCION— CONCERTINA
northward to Pence The Bio-Bio is navigable above the city for
too m. and considerable traffic comes through this channel. The
districts tributary to Concepci6n produce wheat, wine, wool,
cattle, coal and timber, and among the industrial establishments
of the city are flour mills, furniture and carriage factories, dis- -
tilkries and breweries. The city is built on a level plain but
little above the sea-level, and is laid out in regular squares with
broad streets. It is an episcopal see with a cathedral and several
fine churches, and is the seat of a court of appeal. The city
was founded by Pedro de Valdivia in 15 so, and received the
singular title of " La Concepci6n del Nuevo Extremo." It was
located on the bay of Talcahuano where the town of Penco now
stands, about 9 m. from its present site, but was destroyed by
earthquakes in 1570, 1730 and 1751, and was then (175s) re-
moved to the margin of the Bio-Bio. In 1835 it was again laid
In ruins, a graphic description of which is given by Charles
Darwin in The Voyage of H.MS. Beagle. The city was twice
burned by the Araucanians during their long struggle against
the Spanish colonists.
G0NCEPCI6n, or Villa Concepci6n, the principal town and
a river port of northern Paraguay, on the Paraguay river, 138 m.
(234 m. by river) N. of Asunci6n, and about 345 ft. above sea-
levcl. Pop. (1895, estimate) 10,000, largely Indians and mestizos.
It is an important commercial centre, and a port of call for the
river steamers trading with the Brazilian town of Corumba,
Matto Grosso. It is the principal point for the exportation of
Paraguay tea, or "verba mat* " (Ilex paraguayensis). The
town has a street railway and telephone service, a national
college, a public school, a market, and some important com-
mercial establishments. The neighbouring country is sparsely
settled and produces little except forest products. Across the
river, in the Paraguayan Chaco, is an English missionary station,
whose territory extends inland among the Indians for many
miles.
CONCEPT 1 (Lat. conceptus, a thought, from coneipere. to
take together, combine in thought; Cer. Begriff), in philosophy,
a term applied to a general idea derived from and considered
Apart from the particulars observed by the senses. The mental
process by which this idea is obtained is called abstraction (q.v.).
jjy the comparison, for instance, of a number of boats, the mind
abstracts a certain common quality or qualities in virtue of which
the mind affirms the general idea of " boat." Thus the connota-
tion of the term *' boat/* being the sum of those qualities in
ftspect of which all boats are regarded as alike, whatever their
Individual peculiarities may be, is described as a " concept."
The psychic process by which a concept is affirmed is called
•» Conception," a term which is often loosely used in a concrete
§ense for " Concept " itself. It is also used even more loosely
a $ synonymous in the widest sense with " idea," " notion."
Stric^y* however, it is contrasted with "perception," and
implies the mental reconstruction and combination of sense-
given data. Thus when one carries one's thoughts back to a
series of events, one constructs a psychic whole made up of parts
which lake definite shape and character by their mutual inter-
relations. This process is called conceptual synthesis, the possi-
bility of which is a sine qua non for the exchange of information
by speech and writing. It should be noticed that this (very
common) psychological interpretation of " conception " differs
from the metaphysical or general philosophical definition given
above, in so far as it includes mental presentations in which the
universal is not specifically distinguished from the particulars.
Some psychologists prefer to restrict the term to the narrower
use which excludes all mental states in which particulars are
cognized, even though the universal be present also.
In biology conception is the coalescence of the male and female
generative elements, producing pregnancy.
1 The word " conceit " in its various senses (" idea," " plan."
** fancy," " imagination." and, by modern extension, an over-
weening vnse of one's own value) is likewise derived ultimately
from the Latin coneipere. It appears to have been formed directly
from the English derivative " conceive " on the analogy of " deceit # '
from " deceive." According to the New English Dictionary there is
no intermediate form in Old French.
CONCEPTUAUSM (from "Concept"), In philosophy, a
term applied by modern writers to a scholastic theory of the
nature of universals, to distinguish it from the two extremes of
Nominalism and Realism. The scholastic philosophers took up
the old Greek problem as to the nature of true reality — whether
the general idea or the particular object is more truly real.
Between Realism which asserts that the genus is more real than
the species, and that particulars have no reality, and Nominalism
according to which genus And species are merely names {nominn,
flatus tocis), Conceptualism takes a mean position. The con-
ceptualist holds that universals have a real existence, but only
in the mind, as the concepts which unite the individual things:
e.g. there is in the mind a general notion or idea of boats, by
reference to which the mind can decide whether a given object
is, or is not, a boat. On the one hand " boat " is something
more than a mere sound with a purely arbitrary conventional
significance; on the other it has, apart from particular things
to which it applies, no reality; its reality is purely abstract or
conceptual. This theory was enunciated by Abelard in opposi-
tion to Roscellinus (nominalist) and William of Champeanx
(realist). He held that it is only by becoming a predicate that
the class-notion or general term acquires reality. Thus similarity
(conformitas) is observed to exist between a number of objects
in respect of a particular quality or qualities. This quality
becomes real as a mental concept when it is predicated of all the
objects possessing it (" quod de pluribus natum eat praedicari ").
Hence Abelard 's theory is alternatively known as Sermonisn
(sermo, " predicate "). His statement of this position oscillates
markedly, inclining sometimes towards the nominalist, some-
times towards the realist statement, using the arguments of the
one against the other. Hence he is described by some as a
realist, by others as a nominalist. When he comes to explain
that objective similarity in things which is represented by the
class-concept or general term, he adopts the theological Platonic
view that the ideas which are the archetypes of the qualities
exist in the mind of God. They are, therefore, ante row, i« rt
and post rem, or, as Aviccnna stated it, universal ia ante mutti-
plicitatcm, in multipticilotr* post multiplicilalan. (See Lock,
Metaphysics.)
CONCERT (through tht French from Lat. con- with, a&o
cer tare, to strive), a term meaning, in general, co-operation,
agreement or union; the more specific usages being, in music,
for a public performance by instrumentalists, vocalists or both
combined, and in diplomacy, for an understanding or agreement
for common action between two or more states, whether defined
by treaty or not. The term " Concert of Europe " has been
commonly applied, since the congress of Vienna (1814-1815),
to the European powers consulting or acting together in questions
of common interest. (See Alliance and Europe: History.)
CONCERTINA, or Melodion (Fr. concertina, Ger. Zieh-
harmonica or Bandoneon), a wind instrument of the scraphine
family with free reeds, forming a link in the evolution of the
harmonium from the mouth organ, intermediate links being the
cheng and the accordion. The concertina consists of two
hexagonal or rectangular keyboards connected by a long ex-
pansible bellows of many folds similar to that of the accordion.
The keyboards are furnished with rows of knobs, which, on being
pressed down by the fingers, open valves admitting the air
compressed by the bellows to the free reeds, which are thus set
in vibration. These free reeds consist of narrow tongues of
brass riveted by one end to the inside surface of the keyboard,
and having their free ends slightly bent, some outwards, some
inwards, the former actuated by suction when the bellows are
expanded, the latter by compression. The pitch of the note
depends upon the length and thickness of the reeds, reduction
of the length tending to sharpen the pitch of the note, while
reduction of the thickness lowers it. The bellows being unpro-
vided with a valve can only draw in and emit the air through the
reed valves. In order to produce the sound, the concertina is
held horizontally between the hands, the bellows being by turns
compressed and expanded. The English concertina, invented
and patented by Sir Charles Whcatstonc in 1829, the year of the
CONCERTO
825
reputed invention of the accordion (q.v.) t is constructed with a
double action, the same note being produced on compressing
and expanding the bellows, whereas in the German concertina
or accordion two different notes are given out. Concertinas
are made in complete families—treble, tenor, bass and double
bass, having a combined total range of nearly seven octaves.
The compass is as follows: —
Treble concertina, double action ft — --
Tenor concertina, single action ^=^-&fe|E=
Bass concertina, single action
mg
Double bass concertina, single action g"---^^g
The timbre of the concertina is penetrating but soft, and
capable of the most delicate gradations of tone. This quality
is due to a law of acoustics governing the vibration of free reeds
by means of which fortes and pianos are obtained by varying
the pressure of the wind, as is also the case with the double reed
or the single or beating reed, while the pressure of the reed with
the lips combined with greater pressure of wind produces the
harmonic overtones which are not given out by free reeds.
The English concertina possesses, one peculiarity which renders
it unsuitable for playing with instruments tuned according to
the law of equal temperament, such as the pianoforte, har-
monium or mclodion, %*. it has enharmonic intervals between
G# and A# and between Db and Eb. The German concertina
is not constructed according to this system; its compass extends
down to C or even Bb, but it is not provided with double action.
It is possible on the English concertina to play diatonic and
chromatic passages or arpeggios in legato or staccato style with
rapidity, shakes single and double in thirds: it is also possible
to play in parts as on the pianoforte or organ and to produce
very rich chords. Concertos were written for concertina with
orchestra by Molique and Regondi, a sonata with piano by
Molique, while Tschaikowsky scored in his second orchestral
suite for four accordions.
The aeola, constructed by the representatives of the original
firm of Wheatstone, is a still more artistically developed con-
certina, having among other improvements steel reeds instead
of brass, which increase the purity and delicacy of the timbre.
See also Accordion; Cheng; Harmonium; Frbb-Rsrd
Vibrator. (K. S.)
CONCERTO (Lat. concertus, from certore, to strive, also con-
fused with conccntus), in music, a term which appears as early
as the beginning of the 17th century, at first as a title of
no very definite meaning, but which early acquired a sense
justified by its etymology and became applied chiefly to com-
positions in which unequal instrumental or vocal forces are
brought into opposition.
Although by Bach's time the concerto as a polyphonic instru-
mental form was thoroughly established, the term frequently
appears in the autograph title-pages of his church cantatas,
even when the cantata contains no instrumental prelude. Indeed,
so entirely docs the actual concerto form, as Bach understands it,
depend upon the opposition of masses of tone unequal in volume
with a compensating inequality in power of commanding atten-
tion, that Bach is able to rewrite an instrumental movement
as a chorus without the least incongruity of style. A splendid
example of this is the first chorus of a university festival cantata,
Vereinigte Zwktracht dcr wchsclndcn Saiten, the very title of
which (" united contest of turn-about strings ") is a perfect
definition of the earh'er form of concerto grosso, in which the
chief mass of the orchestra was opposed, not to a mere solo
instrument, but to a small group called the concertino, or else
vi. I*-
the whole work was for a large orchestral mass in which tutti
passages alternate with passages in which the whole orchestra
is dispersed in every possible kind of grouping. But the special
significance of this particular chorus is that it is arranged from
the second movement of the first Brandenburg concerto; and
that while the orchestral material is unaltered except for trans-
position of key, enlargement of force and substitution of trumpets
and drums for the original horns, the whole chorus part has been
evolved from the solo part for a kit violin {violino piccolo). This
admirably illustrates Bach's grasp of the true idea of a concerto,
namely, that whatever the relations may be between the forces
in respect of volume or sound, the whole treatment of the form
must depend upon the healthy relation of function between
that force which commands more and that which commands
less attention. Ceteris paribus the individual, suitably placed,
will command more attention than the crowd, whether in real
life, drama or instrumental music And in music the human
voice, with human words, will thrust any orchestral force into
the background, the moment it can make itself heard at alL
Hence it is not surprising that the earlier concerto forms should
show the closest affinity (not only in general aesthetic principle,
but in many technical details) with the form of the vocal aria,
as matured by Alessandro Scarlatti. And the treatment of the
orchestra is, mutatis mutandis, exactly the same in both. The
orchestra is entrusted with a highly pregnant and short summary
of the main contents of the movement, and the solo, or the
groups corresponding thereto, will either take up this material
or first introduce new themes to be combined with it, and, in
short, enter into relations with the orchestra very like those
between the actors and the chorus in Greek drama. If the
aria before Mozart may be regarded as a single large melody
expanded by the device of the ritornello so as to give full ex-
pression to the power of a singer against an instrumental accom-
paniment, so the polyphonic concerto form may be regarded as
an expansion of the aria form to a scale worthy of the larger and
purely instrumental forces employed, and so rendered capable
of absorbing large polyphonic and other types of structure
incompatible with the lyric idea of the aria. The da capo form,
by which the aria had attained its full dimensions through the
addition of a second strain in foreign keys followed by the
original strain da capo, was absorbed by the polyphonic concerto
on an enormous scale, both in first movements and finales (see
Bach's Klavier concerto in E, Violin concerto in E, first movement) ,
while for slow movements the ground bass (see Variations),
diversified by changes of key (Klavier concerto in D minor),
the more, melodic types of binary form, sometimes with the
repeats ornamentally varied or inverted (Concerto for 3 klaviera
in D minor, Concerto for klavier, flute and violin in A minor),
and in finales the rondo form (Violin concerto in E major,
Klavier concerto in F minor) and the binary form (3rd Branden-
burg concerto) may be found.
When conceptions of musical form changed and the modern
sonata style arose, the peculiar conditions of the concerto gave
rise to problems the difficulty of which only the highest classical
intellects could appreciate or solve. The number and contrast
of the themes necessary to work out a first movement of a sonata
are far too great to be contained within the single musical
sentence of Bach's and Handel's ritornello, even when it is as
long as the thirty bars of Bach's Italian concerto (a work in
which every essential of the polyphonic concerto is reproduced
on the harpsichord by means of the contrasts between its full
register on the lower of its two keyboards and its solo stops on
both). Bach's sons had taken shrewd steps in forming the
new style; and Mozart, as a boy, modelled himself closely on
Johann Christian Bach, and by the time he was twenty was
able to write concerto ritornellos that gave the orchestra admir-
able opportunity for asserting its character and resource In the
statement in charmingly epigrammatic style of some five or
six sharply contrasted themes, afterwards to be worked out with
additions by the solo with the orchestra's co-operation and
intervention. As the scale of the works increases the problem
becomes very difficult, because the alternation VtowM^vJ*****.
826
CONCH— CONCHOID
tutti easily produces a sectional type of structure incompatible
with the high degree of organization required in first movements;
yet frequent alternation is evidently necessary, as the orchestral
solo is audible only above a very subdued orchestral accompani-
ment, and it would be highly inartistic to use the orchestra for no
other purpose. Hence in the classical concerto the ritomcllo
is never abandoned, in spite of the enormous dimensions to
which the sonata style expanded it And though from the
time of Mendelssohn onwards most composers have seemed to
regard it as a conventional impediment easily abandoned, it
may be doubted whether any modern concerto, except the four
magnificent examples of Brahms, and Dr Joachim's Hungarian
concerto, possesses first movements in which the orchestra
seems to enjoy breathing space. And certainly in the classical
concerto the entry of the solo instrument, after the long opening
tutti, is always dramatic in direct proportion to its delay. The
great danger in handling so long an orchestral prelude is that
the work may for some minutes be indistinguishable from a
symphony and thus the entry of the solo may be unexpected
without being inevitable. This is especially the case if the
composer has treated his opening tutti like the exposition of a
sonata movement, and made a deliberate transition from his
first group of themes to a second group in a complementary key,
even if the transition is only temporary, as in Beethoven's C
minor concerto. Mozart keeps his whole tutti in the tonic,
relieved only by his mastery of sudden subsidiary modulation;
and so perfect is his marshalling of his resources that in his
hands a tutti a hundred bars long passes by with the effect of a
splendid pageant, of which the meaning is evidently about to be
revealed by the solo. After the C minor concerto, Beethoven
grasped the true function of the opening tutti and enlarged it
to his new purposes. With an interesting experiment of Mozart's
before him, he, in his G major concerto, Op. 53, allowed the solo
player to state the opening theme, making the orchestra enter
pianissimo in a foreign key, a wonderful incident which has led
to the absurd statement that he "abolished the opening tutti,"
and that Mendelssohn in so doing has " followed his example."
In this concerto he also gave considerable variety of key to the
opening tutti by the use of an important theme which executes
a considerable series of modulations, an entirely different thing
from a deliberate modulation from material in one key to material
in another. His fifth and last pianoforte concerto, in £ flat,
commonly called the " Emperor," begins with a rhapsodical
introduction of extreme brilliance for the solo player, followed
by a tutti of unusual length which is confined to the tonic major
and minor with a strictness explained by the gorgeous modula-
tions with which the solo subsequently treats the second subject
In this concerto Beethoven also dispenses with the only really
conventional feature of the form, namely, the cadenza, a custom
elaborated from the operatic aria, in which the singer was allowed
to extemporize a flourish on a pause near the end. A similar
pause was made in the final ritornello of a concerto, and the
soloist was supposed to extemporize what should be equivalent
to a symphonic coda, with results which could not but be deplor-
able unless the player (or cadenza writer) were either the com-
poser himself, or capable of entering into his intentions, like
Joachim, who has written the finest extant cadenza of classical
violin concertos.
Brahms's first concerto in D minor, Op. 15, was the result of
an immense amount of work, and, though on a mass of material
originally intended for a symphony, was nevertheless so perfectly
assimilated into the true concerto form that in his next essay,
the violin concerto, Op. 77, he had no more to learn, and was free
to make true innovations. He succeeds in presenting the con-
trasts even of remote keys so immediately that they are service-
able in the opening tutti and give the form a wider range in
definitely functional key than any other instrumental music.
Thus in the opening tutti of the D minor concerto the second
Subject is announced in B flat minor. In the B flat pianoforte
concerto, Op. 83, it appears in D minor, and in the double
concerto, Of. 102, lor violin and violoncello in A minor it appears
in F major. In none of these cases is it in the key in which the
solo develops it, and it is reached with a directness sharply
contrasted with the symphonic deliberation with which il is
approached in the solo. In the violin concerto, Op. 77, Brahms
develops a counterplot in the opposition between solo and
orchestra, inasmuch as after the solo has worked out its second
subject the orchestra bursts in, not with the opening ritornello,
but with its own version of the material with which the solo
originally entered. In other words we have now not only the
development by the solo of material stated by the orchestra
but also a counter-development by the orchestra of material
stated by the solo. This concerto is, on the other hand, remark-
able as being the last in which a blank space is left for a cadenz^
Brahms having in his friend Joachim a kindred spirit worthy
of such trust. In the pianoforte concerto in B flat, and in the
double concerto, 1 Op. 102, the idea of an introductory statement
in which the solo takes part before the opening tutti is carried
out on a large scale, and in the double concerto both first and
second subjects are thus suggested. It is unnecessary to speak
of the other movements of concerto form, as the sectional
structure that so easily results from the opposition between solo
and orchestra is not of great disadvantage to slow movemenu
and finales, which accordingly do not show important differences
from the ordinary types of symphonic and chamber musk.
The scherzo, on the other hand, is normally of too small a range
of contrast for successful adaptation to concerto form, and the
solitary great example of its use is the second movement of
Brahms's B flat pianoforte concerto.
Nothing is more easy to handle with inartistic or pseudo-
classic effectiveness than the opposition between a brilliant
solo player and an orchestra; and, as the inevitable tendency
of even the most artistic concerto has been to exhaust the
resources' of the solo instrument in the increased difficulty of
making a proper contrast between solo and orchestra, so the
technical difficulty of concertos has steadily increased until even
in classical times it was so great that the orthodox definition
of a concerto is that it is " an instrumental composition designed
to show the skill of an executant, and one which is almost
invariably accompanied by orchestra." This idea is in flat
violation of the whole history and aesthetics of the form, which
can never be understood by means of a study of averages. In
art the average is always false, and the individual organization
of the greatest classical works is the only sound basis for general-
izations, historic or aesthetic. (D. F. T.)
CONCH (Lat. concha, Gr. K&yxn), a shell, particularly one of
a mollusc; hence the term " conchology," the science which
deals with such shells, more used formerly when molluscs were
studied and classified according to the shell formation; the word
is chiefly now used for the collection of shells (see Mollusca,
and such articles as Gastropoda, Malacostkaca, &c). Large
spiral conchs have been from early times used as a form of
trumpet, emitting a very loud sound. They are used in the
West Indies and the South Sea Islands. The Tritons of ancient
mythology are represented as blowing such " wreathed horns."
In anatomy, the term concha or " conch " is used of the external
ear, or of the hollowed central part leading to the meatus; and,
in architecture, it is sometimes given to the half dome over
the semicircular apse of the basilica. In late Roman work at
Baalbek and Palmyra and in Renaissance buildings shells are
frequently carved in the heads of circular niches. A low class
of the negro or other inhabitants of the Bahamas and the Florida
Keys are sometimes called " Conches " or " Conks " from the
shell-fish which form their staple food
CONCHOID (Gr. K&rxn, she!!, and cftof, form), a plane curve
invented by the Greek mathematician Nicomedes, who devised
a mechanical construction for it and applied it to the pro-
blem of the duplication of the cube, the construction of two
mean proportionals between two given quantities, and possibly
to the triscction of an angle as in the 8th lemma of Archimedes.
Proelus grants Nicomedes the credit of this last application, but
it is disputed by Pappus, who claims that his own discovery was
1 Double and triple concertos are concertos with two or three solo
players. A concerto for several solo players is called a concertantc
CONCIERGE— CONCLAVE
827
original. The conchoid has been employed by Uter mathe-
maticians, notably Sir Isaac Newton, in the construction of
various cubic curves.
The conchoid is generated as follows.-— Let O be a fixed point
and BC a fixed straight line; draw any line through O inter-
secting BC in P and take on the line PO two points X, X', such
that PX - PX' - a constant quantity.
Then the locus of X and X' is the
conchoid. The conchoid is also the
locus of any point on a rod which
is constrained to move so that it
always passes through a fixed point,
while a fixed point on the rod travels
along a straight line. To obtain the
equation to the curve, draw AO
perpendicular to BC, and let AO-a; let the constant quantity
PX-PX'-&. Then taking O as pole and a line through O
parallel to BC as the initial line, the polar equation is r — a cosec
+», the upper sign referring to the branch more distant from
O. The cartesian equation with A as origin and BC as axis of
x is xV-fa+y) 1 (6»— y*). Both branches belong to the same
curve and are included in this equation. Three forms of the
curve have to be distinguished according to the ratio of a to b.
If a be less than b, there will be a node at O and a loop below the
initial point (curve 1 in the figure); if a equals b there will be
a cusp at O (curve 2); if a be greater than b the curve will not
pass through O, but from the cartesian equation it is obvious
that O is a conjugate point (curve 3). The curve is symmetrical
about the axis of y and has the axis of x for its asymptote.
CONCIERGE (a French word of unknown origin; the
Latinized form was conccrgius or concergcrius), originally the
guardian of a house or castle, in the middle ages a court official
who was the custodian of a royal palace. In Paris, when the
Palais de la Ciit ceased about 1360 to be a royal residence and
became the scat of the courts of justice, the Caneicrgcrie was
turned into a prison. In modern usage a "concierge" is a
hall-porter or janitor.
CONCINI, CONCINO (d. 1617), Count Delia Penna, Marshal
d'Ancxe, Italian adventurer, minister of Xing Louis XIII. of
France, was a native of Florence. He came to France in the
train of Marie de' Medici, and married the queen's lady-in-
waiting, Leonora Dori, known as Galigai. The credit which
his wife enjoyed with the queen, his wit, cleverness and boldness
made his fortune. In 1610 he had purchased the marquisate of
Ancre and the position of first gcntleman-in-waiting. Then he
obtained successively the governments of Amiens and of Nor-
mandy, and in 1614 the baton of marshal. From then first
minister of the realm, he abandoned the policy of Henry IV., com-
promised his wise legislation, allowed the treasury to be pillaged,
and drew upon himself the hatred of all classes. The nobles
were bitterly hostile to him, particularly Conde, with whom he
negotiated the treaty of Loudun in 161 6, and whom he had
arrested in September 16 16. This was done on the advice of
Richelieu, whose introduction into politics was favoured by
Concini. But Louis XIII. , incited by his favourite Charles
d'Albcrt, due de Luyncs, was tired of Concini's tutelage. The
baron de Vitry received in the king's name the order to imprison
him. Apprehended on the bridge of the Louvre, Concini was
killed by the guards on the 24th of April 16x7. Leonora
was accused of sorcery and sent to the- stake in the same
year.
In 1767 appeared at Brescia a De Concini vita, by D. Sandellius.
On the role of Concini sec the Histoire de France, published under the
direction of E. Lavissc, vol. vi. (1905), by Martejol.
CONCLAVE (Lat. conclave, from cum, together, and clavis,
a key), strictly a room, or set of rooms, locked with a key; in
this sense the word is now obsolete in English, though the New
English Dictionary gives an example of its use so late as 1753.
Its present loose application to any private or close assembly,
especially ecclesiastical, is derived from its technical application
to the assembly of cardinals met for the election of the pope,
with which this article is concerned.
Conclave is the name applied to that system of strict seclusion
to which the electors of the pope have been and are submitted,
formerly as a matter of necessity, and subsequently as the
result of a legislative enactment; hence the word has come to
be used of the electoral assembly of the cardinals. This system
goes back only as far as the 12 th century.
, Election of the Popes in Antiquity. — The very earliest episcopal
nominations, at Rome as elsewhere, seem without doubt to have
been made by the direct choice of the founders of the apostolic
Christian communities. But this exceptional method was re-
placed at an early date by that of election. At Rome the method
of election was the same as in other towns: the Roman clergy
and people and the neighbouring bishops each took part in it
in their several capacities. The people would signify their
approbation or disapprobation of the candidates more or less
tumultuously, while the clergy were, strictly speaking, the
electoral body, met to elect for themselvos a new head, and the
bishops acted as presidents of the assembly and judges of the
election. The choice had to meet with general consent; but
we can well imagine that in an assembly of such size, in which
the candidates were acclaimed rather than elected by counting
votes, the various functions were not very distinct, and that
persons of importance, whether clerical or lay, were bound to
influence the elections, and sometimes decisively. Moreover,
this form of election lent itself to cabals; and these frequently
gave rise to quarrels, sometimes involving bloodshed and schisms,
i\*. the election of antipopes, as they were later called. Such
was the case at the elections of Cornelius (251), Damasus (366),
Boniface (418), Symmachus (498), Boniface II. (530) and others.
The remedy for this abuse was found in having recourse, more
or less freely, to the support of the civil power. The emperor
Honorius upheld Boniface against his competitor Eulalius, at the
same time laying down that cases of contested election should
henceforth be decided by a fresh election; but this would have
been a dangerous method and was consequently never applied.
Theodoric upheld Symmachus against Laurentius because he
had been elected first and by a greater majority. The accepted
fact soon became law, and John II. recognized (532) the right
of the Ostrogothic court of Ravenna to ratify the pontifical
elections. Justinian succeeded to this right together with the
kingdom which he had destroyed; he demanded, together with
the payment of a tribute of 3000 golden solidi, that the candidate
elected should not receive the episcopal consecration till he had
obtained the confirmation of the emperor. Hence arose long
vacancies of the See, indiscreet interference in the elections by
the imperial officials, and sometimes cases of simony and venality.
This bondage became lighter in the 7th century, owing rather to
the weakening of the imperial power than to any resistance on
the part of the popes.
gth to 12th Centuries. — From the emperors of the East the
power naturally passed to those of the West, and it was exercised
after 824 by the descendants of Charlemagne, who claimed
that the election should not proceed until the arrival of their
envoys. But this did not last long; at the end of the 9th
century, Rome, torn by factions, witnessed the scandal of the
posthumous condemnation of Formosus. This deplorable state
of affairs lasted almost without interruption till the middle of the
x ith century. When the emperors were at Rome, they presided
over the elections; when they were away, the rival factions of
the barons, the Crescentii and the Alberici especially, struggled
for the spiritual power as they did for the temporal. During
this period were seen cases of popes imposed by a faction rather
than elected, and then, at the mercy of sedition, deposed,
poisoned and thrown into prison, sometimes to be restored by
force of arms.
The influence of the Ottos (962-1002) was a lesser evil; that
of the emperor Otto III. was even beneficial, in that it led to the
election of Gerbert (Silvester II., in 999). But this was only
a temporary check in the process of decadence, and in 1x46
Clement II., the successor of the worthless Benedict IX., admitted
that henceforth not only the consecration but even the election
of the Roman pontiffs could only take place in. o^swac*. <aflL>3fi*v
828
CONCLAVE
emperor. In fact, after the death of dement II. the delegates
of the Roman clergy did actually go to Polden to ask Henry III.
to give them a pope, and similar steps were taken after the
death of Damasus II., who reigned only twenty days. Fortu-
nately on this occasion Henry III. appointed, just before his
death, a man of high character, his cousin Bruno, bishop of Tout,
who presented himself in Rome in company with Hildebrand.
From this time began the reform. Hildebrand had the elections
of Victor II. (ioss), Stephen DC (1057), and Nicholas n. (1058)
carried out according to the canonical form, including the
imperial ratification. The celebrated bull In nomine Domini
of the 13th of April 1059 determined the electoral procedure;
rjbittm it is curious to observe how, out of respect for tradition ,
rvMnwtf it preserves all the former factors in the election
f *ffi^ f . though their scope is modified: " In the first place,
•"""■"^ the cardinal bishops shall carefully consider the
election together, then they shall consult with the cardinal
clergy, and afterwards the rest of the clergy and the people
shall by giving their assent confirm the new election." The
election, then, is reserved to the members of the higher clergy,
to the cardinals, among whom the cardinal bishops have the
preponderating position. The consent of the rest of the clergy
and the people is now only a formality. The same was the case
of the imperial intervention, in consequence of the phrase:
" Saving the honour and respect due to our dear son Henry
(Henry IV.), according to the concession we have made to him,
and equally to his successors, who shall receive this right person-
ally from the Apostolic See." Thus the emperor has no rights
save those he has received as a concession from the Holy See.
Gregory VII., it is true, notified his election to the emperor;
but as he set up a series of five antipopes, none of Gregory's
successors asked any more for the imperial sanction. Further,
by this bull, the emperors would have to deal with the fait
accompli] for it provided that, in the event of disturbances
aroused by mischievous persons at Rome preventing the election
from being carried out there freely and without bias, the cardinal
bishops, together with a small number of the clergy and of the
laity, should be empowered to go and hold the election where
they should think fit; that should difficulties of any sort prevent
the enthronement of the new pope, the pope elect would be
empowered immediately to act as if he were actually pope.
This legislation was definitely accepted by the emperor by the
concordat of Worms (1 1 19).
A limited electoral body lends itself to more minute legislation
than a larger body; the college for electing the pope, thus
reduced so as to consist in practice of the cardinals only, was
subjected as time went on to laws of increasing severity. Two
points of great importance were established by Alexander III.
at the Lateran Council of 11 79. The constitution Licet de
vitanda discordia makes all the cardinals equally electors, and
no longer mentions the lower clergy or the people; it also
requires a majority of two-thirds of the votes to decide an
election. This latter provision, which still holds good, made
imperial antipopes henceforth impossible.
Abuses nevertheless arose. An electoral college too small in
numbers, which no higher power has the right of forcing to
haste, can prolong disagreements and draw out the
J^ frrji course of the election for a long time. It is this
period during which we actually find the Holy See left
vacant most frequently for long spaces of time. The longest of
these, however, gave an opportunity for reform and the remedy
was found in the conclave, i.e. in the forced and rigid seclusion
of the electors. As a matter of fact, this method had previously
been used, but in a mitigated form: in 1216, on the death of
Innocent HI., the people of Perugia had shut up the cardinals;
and in 1241 the Roman magistrates had confined them within
the " Septironium "; they took two months, however, to perform
the election. Celcstine IV. died after eighteen days, and this
time, in spite of the seclusion of the cardinals, there was an
Interregnum of twenty months. After the death of Clement IV.
In iM, the cardinals, of whom seventeen were gathered together
*t VJterbo, allowed two years to pass without coming to an
agreement ; the magistrates of Viterbo again had recourse to the
method of seclusion: they shut up the ejectors in the episcopal
palace, blocking up all outlets; and since the election still
delayed, the people removed the roof of the palace and allowed
nothing but bread and water to be tent in. Under the pressure
of famine and of this strict confinement, the cardinals finally
agreed, on the xst of September 1*71, to elect Gregory X., after
an interregnum of two years, nine months and two days.
Taught by experience, the new pope considered what steps
could be taken to prevent the recurrence of such abuses; in
1974, at the council of Lyons, he promulgated the •
constitution Ubi periculum, the substance of which ~^.
was as follows: At the death of the pope, the cardinals ong*?X.
who were present are to await their absent colleagues
for ten days; they are then to meet in one of the papal palaces
in a closed conclave; none of them is to have to wait on him
more than one servant, or two at most if he were fll; in the
conclave they are to lead a life in common, not even having
separate cells; they are to have no communication with the
outer world, under pain of excommunication for any who should
attempt to communicate with them; food is to be supplied
to the f»Tritntt1» through a window which would be under watch;
after three days, their meals are to consist of a single dish
only; and after five days, of bread and water, with a little
wine. During the conclave the cardinals are to receive no
ecclesiastical revenue. No account is to be taken of those
who are absent or have left the conclave. Finally, the election
is to be the sole business of the conclave, and the magistrates
of the town where it was held are called upon to see that these
provisions be observed. Adrian V. and John XX. were weak
enough to suspend the constitution Ubi periculum; but the
abuses at once reappeared; the Holy See was again vacant for
long periods; this further proof was therefore decisive, and
Celestine V., who was elected after a vacancy of more than
two years, took care, before abdicating the pontificate, to
revive the constitution of Gregory X., which was inserted in the
Decretals (lib. i. tit. vi., de election, cap. 3).
Since then the laws relating to the conclave have been observed,
even during the great schism; the only exception was the
election of Martin V., which was performed by the cardinals of
the three obediences, to which the council of Constance added
five prelates of each of the six nations represented in that
assembly. The same was the case up to the x6th century. At
this period the Italian republics, later Spain, and finally the
other powers, took an intimate interest in the choice of the
holder of what was a considerable political power; and each
brought more or less honest means to bear, sometimes that of
simony. It was against simony that Julius II. directed the bull
Cum tarn divino (x 503), which directed that simoniacal ^.^ -
election of the pope should be declared null; that any
one could attack it; that men should withdraw themselves from
the obedience of a pope thus elected; that simoniacal agreements
should be invalid; that the guilty cardinals should be excom-
municate till their death, and that the rest should proceed
immediately to a new election. The purpose of this measure
was good, but the proposed remedy extremely dangerous; it was
fortunately never applied. Similarly, Paul IV. endeavoured
by severe punishments to check the intriguing and plotting for
the election of a new pope while his predecessor was still living;
but the bull Cum secundum (1558) was of no effect
Pius IV. undertook the task of reforming and completing
the legislation of the conclave. The bull In digendis (of October
xst, 1562), signed by all the cardinals, is a model of p^iv
precision and wisdom. In addition to the points
already stated, we may add the following: that every day
there was to be a scrutiny, i.e. a solemn voting by specially
prepared voting papers (concealing the name of the voter, and
to be opened only in case of an election being made at that
scrutiny), and that this was to be followed by the " accessa,"
i.e. a second voting, in which the cardinals might transfer their
suffrages to those who had obtained the greatest number of
votes in the first, Except in case of urgent matters, the election
CONCLAVE
829
was to form the whole business of the conclave. The crib were
to be assigned by lot. The functionaries of the conclave were
to be elected by the secret vote of the Sacred College. The
most stringent measures were to be taken to ensure seclusion.
The bull Actcrni Patris of Gregory XV. (15th of November 1621)
is a collection of minute regulations. In it is the rule
xyf*** compelling each cardinal, before giving his vote, to
take the oath that he will elect him whom he shall
judge to be the most worthy; it also makes rules for the forms of
voting and of the voting papers, for the counting, the scrutiny,
and in fact all the processes of the election. A second bull, Deed
Romanum Pontificem, of the xath of March 1622, fixed the
ceremonial of the conclave with such minuteness that it has not
been changed since.
All previous legislation concerning the conclave was codified
and renewed by Pius X.'s bull, Vacante Sede ApostolUo (Dec.
25, X004), which abrogates the earlier texts, except Leo XIII.'s
constitution Praedecessores Nostri (May 24, 1882), authorizing
occasional derogations in circumstances of difficulty, e.g. the
death of a pope away from Rome or an attempt to interfere
with the liberty of the Sacred College. The bull of Pius X. is
rather a codification than a reform, the principal change being
the abolition of the scrutiny of accession and the substitution
of a second ordinary scrutiny during the same session.
On some occasions exceptional circumstances have given rise
to transitory measures. In 1797 and 1708 Pius VI. authorized
the cardinals to act contrary to such of the laws concerning the
conclave as a majority of them should decide not to observe,
as being impossible in practice. Similarly Phis DC, by means
of various acts which remained secret up till 1802, had taken
the most minute precautions in order to secure a free and rapid
election, and to avoid all interference on the part of the secular
powers. We know that the conclaves in which Leo XIII. and
Pius X. were elected enjoyed the most complete liberty, and the
hypothetical measures foreseen by Pius DC were not applied.
Until after the Great Schism the conclaves were held in
various towns outside of Rome; but since then they
^2dmro navc *N * )ccn ^ c ^ m ^ ome ' ^^i lDe sm 8lc exception
mtRom* of the conclave of Venice (1800), and in most cases
in the Vatican.
There was no place permanently established for the purpose,
but removable wooden cells were installed in the various apart-
ments of the palace, grouped around the Sistine chapel, in which
the scrutinies took place. The arrangements prepared in the
Quirinal in 1823 did duty only three times, and for the most
recent conclaves it was necessary to arrange an inner enclosure
within the vast but irregular palace of the Vatican. Each
rpr rKnnl is accompanied by a clerk or secretary, known for this
reason as a conclavist, and by one servant only. With the j
officials of the conclave, this makes about two hundred and
fifty persons who enter the conclave and have no further com-
munication with the outer world save by means of turning-boxes.
Since 1870 the solemn ceremonies of earlier times have naturally
not. been seen; for instance the procession which used to celebrate ;
the entry into conclave; or the daily arrival in pro- 1
£££2L* cession of the clergy and the brotherhoods to enquire
at the " rota " (turning-box) of the auditors of the
Rota: " Habcmusnc Pontificem? " and their return accompanied
by the chanting of the " Veni Creator "; or the " Marshal of the
Holy Roman Church and perpetual guardian of the conclave "
visiting the churches in state. But a crowd still collects morning
and evening in the great square of St Peter's, towards the time
of the completion of the vote, to look for the smoke which rises
from the burning of the voting-papers after each session; when
the election has not been effected, a little straw is burnt with
the papers, and the column of smoke then apprises the spectators
that they have still no pope. Within the conclave, the cardinals,
alone in the common hall, usually the Sistine chapel, proceed
morning and evening to their double vote, the direct vote and
the "acccssit. M Sometimes these sessions have been very
numerous; for example, in 1740, Benedict XIV. was only
elected after 255 scrutinies; on other occasions, however, and
notably in the case of the last few popes, a well-defined majority
has soon been evident, and there have been but few scrutinies.
Each vote is Immediately counted by three scrutators, appointed
in rotation, the most minute precautions being taken to ensure
that the voting shall be secret and sincere. When one cardinal
has at East obtained two-thirds of the votes, the dean of the car-
dinals formally asks him whether he accepts his election, and
what name he wishes to assume. As soon as he has accepted, the
J] nit " obedience " or " adoration " takes place, and immediately
after the first cardinal deacon goes to the Loggia of St Peter's
and announces the great news to the assembled people. The
conclave is dissolved; on the following day take place the two
other " obediences/' and the election is officially announced to
the various governments. If the pope be not a bishop (Gregory
XVX was not), he is then consecrated; and finally, a few days
after his election, takes place the coronation, from which the ponti-
ficate is officially dated. The pope then receives the tiara with
the triple crown, the sign of his supreme spiritual authority. The
ceremony of the coronation goes back to the 9th century, and the
tiara, in theformofahighconicalcap,fscquaUyandent(seeTiAaA).
In conclusion, a few words should be said with regard to the
right of veto. In the 16th and 17th centuries the character of
the conclaves was determined by the influence of what
frcre then known as the " factions," i.e. the forma- tirtti*
tion of the cardinals into groups according to their
nationality cr their relations with one of the Catholic courts
of Spain, France or the Empire, or again according as they
favoured the political policy of the late pope or his predo*
cesser. These groups upheld or opposed certain candidates. The
Catholic courts naturally entrusted the cardinals " of the crown,"
i.e. those of their nation, with the mission of removing, as far
as lay in their power, candidates who were distasteful to their
party; the vcirious governments could even make public their
desire to exclude certain candidates. But they soon claimed an
actual right of formal and direct exclusion, which should be
notified in the conclave in their name by a cardinal charged
with this misibn, and should have a decisive effect; this is
what has been called the right of veto. We cannot say pre-
cisely at what time during the 16th century this transformation
of the practice into* a right, tacitly accepted by the Sacred
College, took place; it was doubtless felt to be less dangerous
formally to recognize the right of the three sovereigns each to
object to one candidate, tlum to face the inconvenience of
objections, such as were formulated on several occasions by
Philip IL, which, though less legal in form, might apply to an
Indefinite number of candidates. The fact remains, however,
that it was a right based on custom, and was not supported by
any text or written concession; but the diplomatic right was
straightforward And definite, and was better than the intrigues
oF former days. During the 19th century Austria exercised,
or tried to exercise, the right of veto at all the conclaves, except
that which elected Leo XIII. (1878); it did so again at the
conclave of 1003. On the and of August Cardinal Rampolla
had received twenty-nine votes, when Cardinal Kolzielsko
PuzinAj bishop of Cracow, declared that the Austrian government
opposed the election of Cardinal Rampolla; the Sacred College
considered that it ought to yield, and on the 4th of August
elected Cardinal Sarto, who took the name of Phis X. By thl
bull Cotiimiuum Nobis Qanuary 20, 1004), Phis X. suppressed
all right of " veto " or " exclusion " on the part of the secular
governments, and forbade, under pain of excommunication
reserved to the future pope, any cardinal or conclavist to accept
from his government the charge of proposing a " veto/' or to
exhibit it to the conclave under any form.
BtauoGHAPHv.— The best and most complete work is Lucius
Lector, Le Condave, online, kistoire, organisation, Unslaiion ancient**
tl modtme (Paris, 1894). See also Ferraris, Prompts Bibliotheco,
t. v, Fopa t arL i r ; Moroni. Didonario di erudizione storUo-ecdesi-
ustica. 1. v. CjK'-JruY, Conelawisti, Cello, Elexione, Esdustwa; Bouix,
D* Curia Humana, part L c. x.; De Papa, part vii. (Paris, 1859,
1870): forbier dc Montault, Le Conclave (Paris, 1878). On the
conrtavt «if l-c*> X 1 1 T., R. dc Cc.-urc, Cor clave di Leant. ICttl .^ssssik^
1 S&6 1 - On the coutaNe vA Y\>x* Y„.\ ,. v» o;^-^\xoK»'^-w^AKviK««tN
830
CONCORD
Les Demurs Jours de Lion XIII et U conclave (Paris, 1904). See
further, for the right of veto: Phillips, Kirchenrecht, V v. p. 138;
SagmGller, Die PapstwahUn und die Staate (Tubingen, 1800); Die
PapstwaUbullen und das staatliche Recht des Exclusive (Tubingen,
1892); Wahrmund, AusschHcssunesrccht der katholischen StaaUn
(Vienna, 1888). (A. Bo.*)
CONCORD* a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., about so m. N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1000) 5652; (1910,
U.S. census) 6421. Area 25 sq.m. It is traversed by the Boston
& Maine railway. Where the Sudbury and Assabct unite to
form the beautiful little Concord river, celebrated by Thoreau,
is the village of Concord, straggling, placid and beautiful, full
of associations with the opening of the War of Independence
and with American literature. Of particular interest is the
" Old Manse/ 1 built in 1765 for Rev. William Emerson, in which
Us grandson R. W. Emerson wrote Nature, and Hawthorne
his Mosses from an Old Manse, containing a charming descrip-
tion of the building and its associations. At Concord there is a
state reformatory, whose inmates, about 800 in number,
are employed in manufacturing various articles, but otherwise
the town has only minor business and industrial interests. The
Introduction of the " Concord " grape, first produced here by
Ephraim Bull in 1853, is said to have marked the beginning of
the profitable commercial cultivation of table grapes in the
United States. Concord was settled and incorporated as a
township in 1635, and was (with Dcdham) the first settlement
in Massachusetts back from the sea-coast. A county convention
at Concord village in August 1774 recommended the calling of
the first Provincial Congress of Massachusetts*— one of the first
independent legislatures of America — which assembled here on
the nth of October 1774, and again in March and April 1775.
The village became thereafter a storehouse of provisions and
munitions of war, and hence became the objective of the British
expedition that on the 19th of April 1775 opened with the
armed conflict at Lexington (q.v.) the American War of Inde-
pendence. As the British proceeded to Concord the whole
country was rising, and at Concord about 500 minute-men
confronted the British regulars who were holding the village
and searching for arms and stores. Volleys were exchanged,
the British retreated, the minute-men hung on their flanks and
from the hillsides shot them down, driving their columns on
Lexington. A granite obelisk, erected in 1837, when Emerson
wrote his ode on the battle, marks the spot where the first
British soldiers fell; while across the stream a fine bronze
" Minute-Man " (1875) by D - C. French (a native of Concord)
marks the spot where once " the embattled farmers stood and
fired the shot heard round the world " (Emerson). Concord was
long one of the shire-townships of Middlesex county, losing this
honour in 2867. The village is famous as the home of R. W.
Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry D. Thoreau, Louisa M.
Alcott and her father, A. Branson Alcott, who maintained
here from 2879 to 2888 (in a building still standing) the Concord
school of philosophy, which counted Benjamin Pcirce, W. T.
Harris, Mrs J. W. Howe, T. W. Higginson, Professor William
James and Emerson among its lecturers. Emerson, Hawthorne,
Thoreau and the Alcotts are buried here in the beautiful Sleepy
Hollow Cemetery. Of the various orations (among others one
by Edward Everett in 2825) that have been delivered at Concord
anniversaries perhaps the finest is that of George William
Curtis, delivered in 2875.
Sec A. S. Hudson, The History of Concord, vol. i. (Concord, 1904) ;
C. B. Bartlctt, Concord: Historic, Literary and Picturesque (Boston,
I885); and Mrs J. L. Swayne, Story of Concord (Boston, 1907).
CONCORD, a city and the county-scat of Cabarrus county,
North Carolina, U.S.A., on the Rocky river, about 250 m.
W.S.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 4339; ( IO oo) 7910 (2789 nc-
groei); (10 10) 87 15. It is served by the Southern railway.
Concord is situated In a cotton-growing region, and its chief
interest is in the manufacture of cotton goods. The city is the
K&t of Scotia seminary (for negro girl*), founded in 1870 and
under the care of I he Presbyterian llom.l nf Mh*l<m< fur Freed-
men, JVlhhwg, I 'a. Concord w*» Ultl mil |ti i;u.| and was
Mai iacarporslcd 7a i8$i'
CONCORD, the capital of New Hampshire, VS. A., and the
county-seat of Merrimack county, on both sides of the Merrimac
river, about 75 m. N.W. of Boston, Massachusetts. Pop. (1800)
27,004; (2900) 29,632, of whom 3823 were foreign-born;
(2920, census) 21, 49 7- Concord is served by the Boston
81 Maine railway. The area of the city in 2006 was 45- 26 sq. m.
Concord has broad streets bordered with shade trees; and has
several parks, including Penacook, White, Rollins and the
Contoocook river. Among the principal buildings are the state
capitol, the state library, the city hall, the county court-house,
the post-office, a public library (27,000 vols.), the state hospital,
the state prison, the Centennial home for the aged, the Margaret
Pillsbury memorial hospital, the Rolfe and Rumford asylum for
orphan girls, founded by Count Rumford's daughter, and some
fine churches, including the Christian Science church built by
Mrs Eddy. There are a soldiers' memorial arch, a statue of
Daniel Webster by Thomas Ball, and statues of John P. Hale,
John Stark, and Commodore George H. Perkins, the last by
Daniel C. French; and at Penacook, 6 m. N.W. of Concord,
there is a monument to Hannah Dustin (see Haverhill) . Among
the educational institutions are the well known St Paul's school
for boys (Protestant Episcopal, 2853), about 2 m. W. cf the city,
and St Mary's school for girls (Protestant Episcopal, 2885).
From 2847 to 2867 Concord was the seat of the Biblical Institute
(Methodist Episcopal), founded in Newbury, Vermont, in 2841,
removed to Boston as the Boston Theological Seminary in 2867,
and after 2872 a part of Boston University. The city has
various manufactures, including flour and grist mill products,
silver ware, cotton and woollen goods, carriages, harnesses and
leather belting, furniture, wooden ware, pianos and clothing;
the Boston & Maine Railroad has a large repair shop in the city,
and there are valuable granite quarries in the vicinity. In
1005 Concord ranked third among the cities of the state in the
value of its factory products, which was $6,387,372, being
an increase of 52-7% since 2900. When first visited by the
English settlers, the site of Concord was occupied by Penacook
Indians; a trading post was built here about 1660. In 2725
Massachusetts granted the land in this vicinity to some of her
citizens; but this grant was not recognized by New Hampshire,
whose legislature issued (2727) a grant (the Township of Bow)
overlapping the Massachusetts grant, which was known as
Penacook or Penny Cook. The New Hampshire grantees
undertook to establish here a colony of Londonderry Irish;
but the Massachusetts settlers were firmly established by the
spring of 2727, Massachusetts definitely assumed jurisdiction
in 2732, and in 1734 her general court incorporated the settle-
ment under the name of Rumford. The conflicting rights of
Rumford and Bow gave rise to one of the most celebrated of
colonial land cases, and although the New Hampshire authorities
enforced their claims of jurisdiction, the privy council in 2755
confirmed the Rumford settlers in their possession. In 2765
the name was changed to the " parish of Concord," and in 2784
the town of Concord was incorporated. Here, for some years
before the War of American Independence, lived Benjamin
Thompson, later Count Rumford. In 2778 and again in 2782-.
2782 a state constitutional convention met here; the first New
Hampshire legislature met at Concord in 2782; the convention
which ratified for New Hampshire the Federal Constitution met
here in 2788; and in 2808 the state capital was definitely estab-
lished here. The New Hampshire Patriot, founded here in 2808
(and for twenty years edited) by Isaac Hill (2788-2852), who
was a member of the United States Senate in 2832-2836, and
governor of New Hampshire in 2836-2839, became one of the
leading exponents of Jacksonian Democracy in New England.
In 2824 the Middlesex Canal, connecting Concord with Boston,
was completed. A city charter granted by the legislature in
1849 was not accepted by the city until 2853.
Lyford. The History of Concord, New Hampshire (City
, _.mmisaion) (1 vols.. pmooroV 1903); Co*""* Town
Hnm/,, m*-iteo (Concord, IW: J. B. Moore.Xi^tf ^»rf.
"' ■"-- (Concord, 1824) ; and Nathaniel Bouton, The History of
See J. O. _,. .
HUtfiry Commission)
//^-//T2i (Conco
1 CoHtofd (Concord,
2856).
CONCORD, BOOK OF— CONCORDANCE
831
CONCORD, BOOK OP (Liber Coneordiae), the collective
documents of the Lutheran confession, consisting of the Confessio
Augustana, the Apologia Confessions Augustanae, the Artictda
Smalcaldici, the Cateckismi Major et Minor and the Formula
Coneordiae. This last was a formula issued on the 25th of June
1580 (the jubilee of the Augsburg Confession) by the Lutheran
Church in an attempt to heal the breach which, since the death
of Luther, had been widening between the extreme Lutherans
and the Crypto-Calvinists. Previous attempts at concord had
been made at the request of different rulers, especially by Jacob
Andrei with his Swabian Concordia in 1573, and Abel Scher-
dingcr with the Maulbronn Formula in 1575. In 1576 the elector
of Saxony called a conference of theologians at Torgau to discuss
these two efforts and from them produce a third. The Book of
Torgau was evolved, circulated and criticized; a new committee,
prominent on which was Martin Chemnitz, sitting at Bergen
near Magdeburg, considered the criticisms and finally drew up
the Formula Coneordiae. It consists of (a) the "Epitome,"
(6) the " Solid Repetition and Declaration," each part comprising
twelve articles; and was accepted by Saxony, WUrttemberg,
Baden among other states, but rejected by Hesse, Nassau and
Holstein. Even the free cities were divided, Hamburg and
Llibeck for, Bremen and Frankfort against. Hungary and
Sweden accepted it, and so finally did Denmark, where at first
it was rejected, and its publication made a crime punishable by
death. In spite of this very limited reception the Formula
Coneordiae has always been reckoned with the five other docu-
ments as of confessional authority.
See P. Schaff, Creeds of Christendom, i. 258-340, iii. 92-180.
CONCORDANCE (Late Lat concordantia, harmony, from cum,
with, and cor, hc?rt), literally agreement, harmony; hence
derivatively a citation of parallel passages, and specifically an
alphabetical arrangement of the words contained in a book with
citations of the passages in which they occur. Concordances
in this last sense were first made for the Bible. Originally the
word was only used in this connexion in the plural concordantiae,
each group of parallel passages being properly a coneordaniia.
The Germans distinguish between concordances of things and
concordances of words, the former indexing the subject matter
of a book (" real " concordance), the latter the-words (" verbal "
concordance).
The original impetus to the making of concordances was due to
the conviction that the several parts of the Bible are consistent
with each other, as parts of a divine revelation, and may be com-
bined as harmonious elements in one system of spiritual truth.
To Anthony of Padua (1195-1231) ancient tradition ascribes
the first concordance, the anonymous Concordantiae Morales,
of which the basis was the Vulgate. The first authentic work
of the kind was due to Cardinal Hugh of St Cher, a Dominican
monk (d. 1263), who, in preparing for a commentary on the
Scriptures, found the need of a concordance, and is reported to
have used for the purpose the services of five hundred of his
brother monks. This concordance was the basis of two which
succeeded in time and importance, one by Conrad of Halbcrstadt
(fl. c. 1 200) and the other by John of Segovia in the next century.
This book was published in a greatly improved and amplified
form in the middle of the 19th century by David Nutt, of London,
edited by T. P. Dutripon. The first Hebrew concordance was
compiled in 1437-1445 by Rabbi Isaac Nathan b. Kalonymus
of Aries. It was printed at Venice in 1523 by Daniel Bomberg,
in Basel in 1556, 1560 and 1581. It was published under the
title Meir Natib, "The Light of the Way." In 1556 it was
translated into Latin by Johann Rcuchlin, but many errors
appeared in both the Hebrew and the Latin edition. These were
corrected by Marius dc Calasio, a Franciscan friar, who published
a four volume folio Concordantiae Sacr. BiU. Hcbr. el Latin, at
Rome, 1621, much enlarged, with proper names included. An-
other concordance based on Nathan's was Johann Buxtorf the
elder's Concordantiae Bibl. Ebraieae nova et arlificiosa mcthodo
dispositae, Basel, 1632. It marks a stage in both the arrangement
and the knowledge of the roots of words, but can only be used by
those who know the massoretic system, as the references are
made by Hebrew letters find relate to rabbinical divisions of the
Old Testament. Calasio's concordance was republished ia
London under the direction of William Romaine in x 747-1 749,
in four volumes folio, under the patronage of all the monarch*
of Europe and also of the pope. In 1754 John Taylor, D.D., a
Presbyterian divine in Norwich, published in two volumes the
Hebrew Concordance adapted to the English Bible, disposed after
the manner of Buxtorf. This was the most complete and con-
venient concordance up to the date of its publication. In the
middle of the 19th century Dr Julius Filrst issued a thoroughly
revised edition of Buxtorf's concordance. The Hebr&iscken
und chalddischen Concordant tu den- Heiligen Schriflen Allen
Testaments (Leipzig, 1840) carried forward the development of
the concordance in several directions. It gave (1) a corrected
text founded on Hahn's Vanderhoogt's Bible; (2) the Rabbinical
meanings; (3) explanations in Latin, and illustrations from,
the three Greek versions, the Aramaic paraphrase, and the
Vulgate; (4) the Greek words employed by the Scptuagint
as renderings of the Hebrew; (5) notes on philology and archae-
ology, so that the concordance contained a Hebrew lexicon.
An English translation by Dr Samuel Davidson was published
in 1867. A revised edition of Buxtorf's work with additions
from Furst's was published by B. Bar (Stettin, 1862). A new
concordance embodying the matter of all previous* works with
lists of proper names and particles was published by Solomon
Mandclkern in Leipzig (1896); a smaller edition of the same,
without quotations, appeared in 1900. There are also concord-
ances of Biblical proper names by G. Brecher (Frankfort-on-
Main, 1876) and Schusslovicz (Wilna, 1878).
A Concordance to the Sepluagint was published at Frankfort
in 1602 by Conrad Kirchcr of Augsburg; in this the Hebrew
words arc placed in alphabetical order and the Greek words by
which they are translated are placed under them. A Scptuagint
concordance, giving the Greek words in alphabetical order, was
published in 1 718 in two volumes by Abraham Tromm, a learned
minister at Groningcn, then in the eighty-fourth year of his age.
It gives the Greek words in alphabetical order; a Latin transla-
tion; the Hebrew word or words for which the Greek term is
used by the Scptuagint; then the places where the words occur
in the order of the books and chapters; at the end of the quota-
tions from the Scptuagint places are given where the word occur?
in Aquila, Symmachus and Thcodotion, the other Greek
translations of the 0. T.; and the words of the Apocrypha
follow in each case. Besides an index to the Hebrew and
Chaldaic words there is another index which contains a lexicon
to the Hcxapla of Origen. In 1887 (London) appeared the
Handy Concordance of the Scptuagint giving various readings
from Codices Vaticanus, AlcxanJrinus, Sinaiticus and Ephracmi,
with an appendix of words from Origcn's Hcxapla, not found in
the above manuscripts, by G. M., without quotations. A work
of the best modern scholarship was brought out in 1897 by the
Clarendon Press, Oxford, entitled A Concordance to the Scptuagint
and the other Creek versions of the Old Testament including the
Apocryphal Books, by Edwin Hatch and H. A. Rcdpath, assisted
by other scholars; this was completed in 1900 by a list of proper
names.
Tlie first Greek concordance to the New Testament was published
at Basel in 1546 by Sixt Birck or Xystus Bctuleius (1500-1554)0
a philologist and minister of the Lutheran Church. This was
followed by Stephen's concordance (1594) planned by Robert
Stephens and published by Henry, his son. Then in 1638 came
Schmied's Tafutiov, which has been the basis of subsequent
concordances to the New Testament. Erasmus Schmicd or
Schmid was a Lutheran divine who was professor of Greek in
Wittenberg, where he died in 1637. Revised editions of the
rajumop were published at Gotha in 1717, and at Glasgow in
18 19 by the University Press. In the middle of the 19th century
Charles Hermann B ruder brought out a beautiful edition (Tauch-
nitz) with many improvements. The apparatus criticus was a
triumph of New Testament scholarship. It collates the readings
of Erasmus, R. Stephens' third edition, the "Ekevirs, Mill,
JJengel, Webster, Knapp, Tittman, Scholz, Lachmaiw. Vwt&at*
832
CONCORDAT
gives a selection from the most indent patristic MSS. and from
various interpreters. No various reading of critical value is
omitted. An edition of Bruder with readings of Samuel
Prideaux Tregelles was published in x888 under the editorship
of Westcott and Hort. The Englishman's Greek Concordance
of the New Testament, and the Englishman's Hebrew and Chaldee
Concordance, are books intended to put the results of the above-
mentioned works at the service of those who know little Hebrew
or Greek. Every word in the Bible is given in Hebrew or Greek,
the word is transliterated, and then every passage in which it
occurs is given — the word, however it may be translated, being
italicized. They are the work of George V. Wigram assisted
by W. Burgh and superintended by S. P. Tregelles, B. Davidson
and W. Chalk (1843; 2nd ed. i860). Another book which
deserves mention is, A Concordance to the Greek Testament with
the English version to each word; the principal Hebrew roots
corresponding to ike Greek words of the Septuagint, with short
critical notes and an index, by John Williams, LL.D., Lond. 1767.
In 1884 Robert Young, author of an analytical concordance
mentioned below, brought out a Concordance to the Greek New
Testament with a dictionary of Bible Words and Synonyms: this
contains a concise concordance to eight thousand changes made
in the Revised Testament Another important work of modern
scholarship is the Concordance to the Greek Testament, edited by
the Rev. W. F. Moulton and A. £. Geden, according to the texts
adopted by Westcott and Hort, Tischendorf, and the English
revisers.
The first concordance to the English version of the "New
Testament was published in London, 1535, by Thomas Gybson.
It is a black-letter volume entitled The Concordance of the New
Testament most necessary to be had in the hands of all soche as ddyte
in the communication of any place contayned in ye New Testament.
The first English concordance of the entire Bible was John
Marbeck's, A Concordance, that is to saie, a worhe wherein by the
order of the letters of the A. B.C. ye maie redely find any worde
conteigned in the whole Bible, so often as it is there expressed or
mentioned, Lond. 255a Although Robert Stephens had divided
the Bible into verses in 1545, Marbetk docs not seem to have
known this and refers to the chapters only. In 2550 also ap-
peared Walter Lynne's translation of the concordance issued
by Bullinger, Jude, Pellican and others of the Reformers.
Other English concordances were published by Cotton, Newman,
and in abbreviated forms by John Downham or Downame
(cd. 1652), Vavasor Powell (161 7-1670), Jackson and Samuel
Clarke (1626-1 701). In 1 737 Alexander Cruden (?.».), a London
bookseller, born and educated in Aberdeen, published his
Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New
Testainent, to which is added a concordance to the books called
Apocrypha. This book embodied, was based upon and super-
seded all its predecessors. Though the first edition was not
remunerative, three editions were published during Cruden 's
life, and many since his death. Cniden's work is accurate and
full, and later concordances only supersede his by combining
an English with a Greek and Hebrew concordance. This is
done by the Critical Greek and English Concordance prepared
by C. F. Hudson, H. A. Hastings and Ezra Abbot, LL.D.,
published in Boston, Mass., and by the Critical Lexicon and
Concordance to the English and Greek New Testament, by E. L.
Bullinger, 1892. The Interpreting Concordance to the New
Testament, edited by James Gall, shows the Greek original of
every word, with a glossary explaining the Greek words of the
New Testament, and showing their varied renderings in the
Authorized Version. The most convenient of these is Young's
Analytical Concordance, published in Edinburgh in 1879, and
since revised and reissued. It shows (1) the original Hebrew
or Greek of any word in the English Bible; (3) the literal and
primitive meaning of every such original word; (3) thoroughly
reliable parallel passages. There is a Students' Concordance to
the Revised Version of the New Testament showing the changes
embodied in the revision, published under licence of the uni-
versities; and a concordance to the Revised Version by J. A.
Thorn* lot the Christian Knowledge Society.
Biblical concordances having familiarized students with
the value and use of such books for the systematic study of
an author, the practice of making concordances) has now become
common. There are concordances to the works of Shakespeare.
Browning and many other Writers. (D. MjO
CONCORDAT (lit. concordatum, agreed upon, from cen-,
together, and cor, heart), a term originally denoting an agreement
between ecclesiastical persons or secular persona, but later
applied to a pact concluded between the ecclesiastical authority
and the secular authority on ecclesiastical matters which concern
both, and, more specially, to a pact concluded between the pope,
as head of the Catholic Church, and a temporal sovereign for the
regulation of ecclesiastical affairs in the territory of such sove-
reign. It is to concordats in this later sense that this article
refers.
No. one now questions the profound distinction that exists
between the two powers, spiritual and temporal, between the
church and the state. Yet these two societies are none the
less in inevitable relation. The same men go to compose both;
and the church, albeit pursuing a spiritual end, cannot dispense
with the aid of temporal property, which in its nature depends
on the organisation of secular society. It follows of necessity
that there are some matters which may be called " mixed,' 1
and which are the legitimate concern of the two powers, such as
church property, places of worship, the appointment and the
emoluments of ecclesiastical dignitaries, the temporal rights and
privileges of the secular and regular clergy, the regulation of
public worship, and the like. The existence of such mixe4
matters gives rise to inevitable conflicts of jurisdiction, which
may lead, and sometimes have led, to civil war. It is, therefore,
to the general interest that all these matters should be settled
pacifically, by a common accord; and hence originated those
conventions between the two powers which are known by the
significant name of concordat, the official name being pactum
concordatum or solemnis conventio. In theory these agreements
may result from the spontaneous and pacific initiative of the
contracting parties, but in reality their object has almost always
been to terminate more or less acute conflicts and remedy more
or less disturbed situations. It is for this reason that concordats
always present a dearly marked character of mutual concession,
each of the two powers renouncing certain of its claims in the
interests of peace.
For the purposes of a concordat the state recognizes the
official status of the church and of its ministers and tribunals;
guarantees it certain privileges; and sometimes binds itself to
secure for it subsidies representing compensation for past
spoliations. The pope on his side grants the temporal sovereign
certain rights, such as that of making or controlling the appoint-
ment of dignitaries; engages to proceed in harmony with the
government in the creation of dioceses or parishes; and regular-
izes the situation produced by the usurpation of church property
&c. The great advantage of concordats— indeed their principal
utility— consists in transforming necessarily unequal unilateral
claims into contractual obligations analogous to those which
result from an international convention. Whatever the obliga-
tions of the state towards the ecclesiastical society may be in
pure theory, in practice they become more precise and stable
when they assume the nature of a bilateral convention by which
the state engages itself with regard to a third party. And
reciprocally, whatever may be the absolute rights of the ecclesi-
astical society over the appointment of its dignitaries, the
administration of its property, and the government of its ad-
herents, the exercise of these rights is limited and restricted
by the stable engagements and concessions of the concordatory
pact, which bind the head of the church with regard to the
nations.
A concordat may assume divers forms,— historically, three.
The most common in modem times is that of a diplomatic
convention debated between the authorized mandatories of
the high contracting parries and subsequently ratified by the
latter; as, for example, the French concordat of 2801. Or,
secondly, the concordat may result from two identical separate
CONCORDAT
«33
acts, one emanating from the pope and the other from the
sovereign; this was the form of the first true concordat, that of
Worms, in 1122. A third form was employed in the case of the
concordat of 1516 between Leo X. and Francis I. of France;
a papal bull published the concordat in the form of a concession
by the pope, and it was afterwards accepted and published by
the king as law of the country. The shades which distinguish
these three forms are not without significance, but they in bo
way detract from the contractual character of concordats.
Since concordats are contracts they give rise to that special
mutual obligation which results from every agreement freely
entered into; for a contract is binding on both parties to it.
Concordats are undoubtedly conventions of a particular nature.
They may make certain concessions or privileges once given
without any corresponding obligation; they constitute for a
given country a special ecclesiastical law; and it is thus that
writers have sometimes spoken of concordats as privileges.
Again, it is quite certain that the spiritual matters upon which
concordats bear do not concern the two powers in the same
manner and in the same degree; and in this sense concordats
are not perfectly equal agreements. Finally, they do not
assume the contracting parties to be totally independent, i.e.
regard is had to the existence of anterior rights or duties. But
with these reservations it must unhesitatingly be said that
concordats are bilateral or synallagmatic contracts, from which
results an equal mutual obligation for the two parties, who enter
into a juridical engagement towards each other. Latterly
certain Catholics have questioned this equality of the concor-
datory obligation, and have aroused keen discussion. According
to Maurice de Bonald (Deux questions sur It concordat de 180 j,
Geneva, 1871), who exaggerates the view of Cardinal Tarquini
(Inst it. juris publ. eccl., 1862 and 1868), concordats would be
pure privileges granted by the pope; the pope would not be
able to enter into agreements on spiritual matters or impose
restraints upon the power of his successors; and consequently
he would not bind himself in any juridical sense and would be
able freely to revoke concordats, just as the author of a privilege
can withdraw it at his pleasure. This exaggerated argument
found a certain number of supporters, several of whom neverthe-
less sensibly weakened it But the best canonists, from the
Roman professor De Angclis (Prael. juris canon, i. 106) onwards,
and all jurists, have victoriously refuted this theory, either by
insisting on the principles common to all agreements or by
citing the formal text of several concordats and papal acts,
which are as explicit as possible. They have thus upheld the
true contractual nature of concordats and the mutual juridical
obligation which results from them.
The foregoing statements must not be taken to mean that
concordats are in their nature perpetual, and that they cannot
be broken or denounced. They have the perpetuity of conven-
tions which contain no time limitation; but, like every human
convention, they can be denounced, in the form in use for
international treaties, and for good reasons, which are summed
up in the exigencies of the general good of the country. Never-
theless, there is no example of a concordat having been denounced
or broken by the popes, whereas several have been denounced
or broken by the civil powers, sometimes in the least diplomatic
manner, as in the case of the French concordat in 1905. The
rupture of the concordat at once terminates the obligations
which resulted from it on both sides; but it does not break off
all relation between the church and the state, since the two
societies continue to coexist on the same territory. To the
situation defined by concordat, however, succeeds another
situation, more or less uncertain and more or less strained,
in which the two powers legislate separately on mixed matters,
sometimes not without provoking conflicts.
We cannot describe in detail the objects of concordatory
conventions. They bear upon very varied matters, 1 and we
must confine ourselves here to a brief risumi. In the first place
is the official recognition by the state of the Catholic religion
1 These are arranged under thirty-five distinct heads in Nussi's
Qminquazinta cqmentionts de rebus c ccU t iatHcis (Rome, 1869).
and its ministers. Sometimes the Catholic religion is declared
to be the state religion, and at least the free and public exercise
of its worship is guaranteed. Several conventions guarantee the
free communication of the bishops, clergy and laity with the
Holy See; and this admits of the publication and execution of
apostolic letters in matters spiritual Others define those affairs
of major importance which may be or must be referred to the
Holy See by appeal, or the decision of which is reserved to the
Holy See. On several occasions concordats have established a
new division of dioceses, and provided that future erections or
divisions should be made by a common accord. Analogous
provisions have been made with regard to the territorial divisions
within the dioceses; parishes' have been recast, and the consent
of the two authorities has been required for the establishment
of new parishes. As regards candidates for ecclesiastical offices,
the concordats concluded with Catholic nations regularly give
the sovereign the right to nominate or present to bishoprics,
often also to other inferior benefices, such as canonries, important
parishes and abbeys; or at least the choice of the ecclesiastical
authority is submitted to the approval of the civil power. In
all cases canonical institution (which confers ecclesiastical
jurisdiction) is reserved to the pope or the bishops. In countries
where the head of the state is not a Catholic, the bishops are
regularly elected by the chapters, but the civil power has the
right to strike out objectionable names from the list of candidates
which is previously submitted to it. Other conventions secure
the exercise of the jurisdiction of the bishops in their diocese,
and determine precisely their authority over seminaries and
other ecclesiastical establishments of instruction and education,
as well as over public schools, so far as concerns the teaching
of religion. Certain concordats deal with the orders and
congregations of monks and nuns with a view to subjecting them
to a certain control while securing to them the legal exercise of
their activities. Ecclesiastical immunities, such as reservation
of the criminal cases of the clergy, exemption from military
service and other privileges, are expressly maintained in a cer-
tain number of pacts. One of the most important subjects is that
of church property. An agreement is come to as to the conditions
on which pious foundations are able to be made; the measure
in which church property shall contribute to the public expenses
is indicated; and, in the 19th century, the position of those
who have acquired confiscated church property is regularized.
In exchange for this surrender by the church of its ancient
property the state engages to contribute to the subsistence of the
ministers of public worship, or at least of certain of them.
Scholars agree in associating the earliest concordats with the
celebrated contest about investitures (q.v.) t which so profoundly
agitated Christian Europe in the nth and 12th centuries. The
first in date is that which was concluded for England with Henry
I. in 1 107 by the efforts of St Anselro, The convention of Sutri
of rin between Pope Paschal II. and the emperor Henry V.
having been rejected, negotiations were resumed by Pope
Calixtus II. and ended in the concordat of Worms (naa), which
was confirmed in n 77 by the convention between Alexander IIL
and the emperor Frederick I. In this concordat a distinction
was made between spiritual investiture, by the ring and pastoral
staff, and lay or feudal investiture, by the sceptre. The emperor
renounced investiture by ring and staff, and permitted canonical
elections; the pope on his part recognized the king's right to
perform lay investiture and to assist at elections. Analogous to
this convention was the concordat concluded between Nicholas
IV. and the king of Portugal in x 289.
The lengthy discussions on ecclesiastical benefices in Germany
ended finally in the concordat of Vienna, promulgated by
Nicholas V. in 1448. Already at the council of Consianos
attempts had been made to reduce the excessive papal reserva-
tions and taxes in the* matter of benefices, privileges which had
been established under the Avignon popes and during the Great
Schism; for example, Martin V. had had to make with the
different nations special arrangements which were valid for five
years only, and by which he renounced the revenues of vacant
benefices. The council of Basel ^txvV tat&«x\ \\- w^nsttfe.
CONCRETE
835
inscriptions, the majority belonging to the end of the 4th and
the beginning of the 5th centuries, have been discovered. It
was taken and destroyed by Attila in a.d. 452. Considerable
remains of the ancient town have been found—parts of the
city walls, the sites of the forum and the theatre, and probably
that of the arms factory. The objects found are preserved at
Portogruaro, 1 J m. to the N. The see of Concordia was founded
at an early period, and transferred in 1339 to Portogruaro,
where it still remains. The baptistery of Concordia was probably
erected in n 00.
See Ch. Hillsen in Pauly-Winowa, Rtaltncychpddie, iv. (Stuttgart,
1901) 830. (T. As.)
CONCRETE (Lat. concretus, participle of concreseere, to grow
together), a term used in various technical senses with the
general significance of combination, conjunction, solidity. Thus
the building material made up of separate substances combined
into one is known as concrete (see below). In mathematics and
music, the adjective has been used as synonymous with " con-
tinuous " as opposed to " discrete, " i.e. " separate, " " discon-
tinuous." This antithesis is no doubt influenced by the idea
that the two words derive from a common origin, whereas
" discrete " is derived from the Latin discrmert. In logic and
also in common language concrete terms arc those which signify
persons or things as opposed to abstract terms which signify
qualities, relations, attributes (so J. S. Mill). Thus the term
"man" is concrete, while "manhood" and "humanity"
arc abstract, the names of the qualities implied. Confusions
between abstract and concrete terms are frequent; thus the
word " relation," which is strictly an abstract term implying
connexion between two things or persons, is often used instead
of the correct term " relative " for people related to one another.
Concrete terms are further subdivided as Singular, the names
of things regarded as individuals, and General or Common, the
names which a number of things bear in common in virtue of
their possession of common characteristics. These latter
terms, though concrete in so far as they denote the persons or
things which are known by them (sec Denotation), have also
an abstract sense when viewed connotatively, i.e. as implying
the quality or qualities in isolation from the individuals. The
ascription of adjectives to the class of concrete terms, upheld
by J. S. Mill, has been disputed on the ground that adjectives
are applied both to concrete and to abstract terms. Hence
some logicians make a separate class for adjectives, as being
the names neither of things nor of qualities, and describe them
as Attributive terms.
CONCRETE, the name given to a building material consisting
generally of a mixture of broken stone, sand and some kind of
cement To these is added water, which combining chemically
with the cement conglomerates the whole mixture into a solid
mass, and forms a rough but strong artificial stone. It has thus
the immense advantage over natural stone that it can be easily
moulded while wet to any desired shape or size. Moreover, its
constituents can be obtained in almost any part of the world,
and its manufacture is extremely simple. On account of these
properties, builders have come to give it a distinct preference over
stone, brick, timber and other building materials. So popular
has it become that besides being used for massive constructions
like breakwaters, dock walls, culverts, and for foundations of
buildings, lighthouses and bridges, it is also proving its usefulness
to the archi tcct and engineer in many other ways. A remarkable
extension of the use of concrete has been made possible by the
introduction of scientific methods of combining it with steel or
iron. The floors and even the walls of important buildings are
made of this combination, and long span bridges, tall factory
chimneys, and large water-tanks are among the many novel uses
to which it has been put. Piles made of steel concrete are driven
into the ground with blows that would shatter the best of timber.
A fuller description of the combination of steel and concrete will
be given later.
The constituents of concrete are sometimes spoken of as the
matrix and the aggregate, and these terms, though somewhat old-
fashioned, are convenient. The matrix is the lime or cement,
whose chemical action with the added water causes the concrete to
solidify; and the aggregate is the broken stone or hard material
which is embedded in the matrix. The matrix most
commonly used is Portland cement, by far the best and
strongest of them all. The subject of its manufacture
and examination is a most important and interesting one, and the
special article dealing with it should be studied (see Cement).
Here It will only be said that before using Portland cement very
careful tests should be made to ascertain its quality and con-
dition. Moreov e r, it should be kept in a damp-proof store for a
few weeks; and when taken out for use it should be mixed and
placed in position as quickly as possible, because rain, or even
moist air, spoils it by causing it to set prematurely. The oldest
of all the matrices is lime, and many splendid examples of its use
by the Romans still exist It has been to a great extent super-
seded by Portland cement, on account of the much greater
strength of the latter, though lime concrete is still used in many
places for dry foundations and small structures. To be of ser-
vice the lime should be what is known as " hydraulic," that is,
not pure or " fat," but containing some argillaceous matter,
and should be carefully slaked with water before being mixed
with the aggregate. To ensure this being properly done, the
lumps of lime should be broken up small, and enough water to
slake them should be added, the lime then being allowed to rest
for about forty-eight hours, when the water changes the particles
of quicklime to hydrate of lime, and breaks up the hard lumps
into a powder. The hydrated lime, after being passed through a
fine screen to sort out any lumps unaffected by the water, is
ready for concrete making, and if not required at once should be
stored in a dry place. Other matrices arc slag cement, a com-
paratively recent invention, and some other natural and artificial
cements which find occasional advocates. Materials like tar and
pitch are sometimes employed as a matrix; they are used hot
and without water, the solidifying action being due to cooling
and to evaporation of the mineral oils contained in them. What-
ever matrix is used, it is almost invariably " diluted " with sand,
the grains of which become coated with the finer particles of the
matrix. The sand should be coarse-grained and hard. It should
be free from dirt — that is to say, free from clay or soft mud, for
instance, which prevents the cement adhering to its particles, or
again from sewage matter or any substance which will chemically
destroy the matrix. The grains should show no signs of decay,
and by preference should be of an angular shape. The sand
obtained by crushing granite and hard stones is excellent. When
lime is used as a matrix, certain natural earths such as pozzuolana
or trass, or, failing these, powdered bricks or tiles, may be used
instead of sand with great advantage. They have the property
of entering into chemical combination with the lime, forming a
hard setting compound, and increasing the hardness of the
resulting concrete.
The commonest aggregates are broken stone and natural flint
gravel. Broken bricks or tiles and broken furnace slag are some-
times used, the essential points being that the aggregate should
be hard, clean and sound. Generally speaking,brokcn stones will
be rough and angular, whereas the stones in flint gravel will be
comparatively smooth and round. It might be supposed, thcre-
fore,that the broken stone will necessarily be the better aggregate,
but this does not always follow. Experience shows that, although
spherical pebbles arc to be avoided, Portland cement adheres
tightly to smooth flint surfaces, and that rough stones often give
a less compact concrete than smooth ones on account of the
difficulty of bedding them into the matrix when laying the con-
crete. In mixing concrete there is always a tendency for the
stones to separate themselves from the sand and cement, and to
form " pockets " of honeycombed concrete which are neither
water-tight nor strong. These are much more liable to occur when
the stones are flat and angular than when they are round.
Modern engineers favour the practice of having the stones of
various sizes instead of being uniform, because if these sizes are
wisely proportioned the whole mixture can be made more solid,
and the rough "pockets" Avoided. For first-class work, however,
and especially in steel concrete, it is customary tAt^o^^N**^
i'.i
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sand after the shutters have been rcsoved, but this is Uatie
to peel off and should be avoided.
'I he method of depositing depends on the situation. If fcr
important walls, or for small scantlings such as steel concrete
generally involves, the concrete should be deposited
in quite small quantities and very carefully rammed
into position. If for massive walls, it is usual to tip ~" r
it out in large quantities from a barrow or wagon, and simpi?
spread it in layers about a foot thick. Depositing concreu
under water for breakwaters and bridge foundations require)
sjietial skill and special appliances. It is usually done in one
of three ways:— (<j) By moulding the concrete ashore icto
large blocks, which, when sufficiently hard, are lowered through
the water into position by a crane or similar machine with the
aid of divers. The most notable instance of this type of con-
struction was at the port of Dublin, where Mr B. B. Storey
made blocks no less than 350 tons in weight. Each block
formed a piece of the quay wall 12 ft. long and 27 ft. hiffa.
bring mndc on shore and then deposited in position by floati&f
shirrs of special design. (6) By moulding the concrete into
what are called " bag-blocks." In this system the concrete
it filled into bap, which are at once lowered through the water
like the blocks. But in this case the concrete being still wet
can atlapt itself more or less to the shape of the adjoining bags,
and strong rough walls can be built in this way. Sometimes
the bags arc made of enormous size, as at Aberdeen breakwater,
where the contents of each bag weighed '50 tons. The canvas
wa* laid in a hopper barge and there filled with the concrete
ami sewn up. The enormous bag was then dropped through a
door in the bottom of the barge upon the breakwater foundation
(J By depositing the wet concrete through the water between
trm|ior,iry upright limber frames which form the two faces of
the wall. In this case very great care has to be taken to prevent
the lement from being washed away from the other constituents
* hen paving t hrotigh the water. Indeed, this is bound to happen
nioiv 01 lt'*v but ii is guarded against by lowering the concrete
«lowh hi a tprvul box. the bottom of which is opened as it
itM. n.-» the fii'iind on uhioh the concrete is to be laid. Th ; s
miihud 1. tn only he vjrncd out in still water, and where strong
«n,l iikM fMiiiirta tan br built which will prevent the concrete
' "**»""* * rtr * ma " •"* «h« b« can », c replaced by a
CONCRETE
837
canvas bag secured by a special tripping noose which can be
loosened when the bag has reached the ground. The concrete
escapes from the bag, which is then drawn up and refilled.
Concrete may be compared with other building materials
like masonry or timber from various points of view, such as
StnaHb. 8tren S t k» durability, convenience of building, firc-
°*^ resistance, appearance and cost. Its strength varies
within very wide limits according to the quality and proportions
of the constituents, and the skill shown in mixing and placing
them. To give a rough idea, however, it may be said that its
safe crushing load would be about J cwt. per sq. in. for lime
concrete, and 1 to 5 cwt. for Portland cement concrete. The
safe tensile strength of Portland cement concrete would be some-
thing like one-tenth of its compressive strength, and might be
far less. On this account it is usual to neglect the tensile strength
of concrete in designing structures, and to arrange the material
in such a way that tensile stresses are avoided. Hence slabs
or beams of long span should not be built of plain concrete,
though when reinforced with steel it is admirably adapted for
these purposes.
In regard to durability good Portland cement concrete is one
of the most durable materials known. Neither hot, cold, nor
U^ >mo wet weather has practically any effect whatever upon
it. Frost will not injure it after it has once set, though
it if essential to guard it from frost during the opera-
tions of mixing and depositing. The same praise cannot, how-
ever, be given to lime concrete. Even though the best hydraulic
lime be used it is wise to confine it to places where it is not
exposed to the air, or to running water, and indeed for important
structures the use of lime should be avoided. Good Portland
cement is so much stronger than any lime that there are few
situations where it is not cheaper as well as better to use the
former, because, although cement is the more expensive matrix,
a smaller proportion of it will suffice for use. Lime should
neve/ be used in work exposed to sea-water, or to water containing
chemicals of any kind. Portland cement concrete, on the other
hand, may be used without fear in sea-water, provided that
certain reasonable precautions are taken. Considerable alarm
was created about the year 1887 by the failure of two or three
large structures of Portland cement concrete exposed to sea-
water, both in England and other countries. The matter was
carefully investigated, and it was found that the sulphate of
magnesia in the sea-water has a decomposing action on Portland
cements, especially those which contain a large proportion of
lime or even of alumina. Indeed, no Portland cement is free
from the liability to be decomposed by sea-water, and on a
moderate scale this action is always going on more or less. But
to ensure the permanence of structures in sea-water the great
object is to choose a cement containing as little lime and alumina
as possible, and free from sulphates such as gypsum; and more
important still to proportion the sand and stones in the concrete
in such a way that the structure is practically nou-porous. If
this is done there is really n Ahing to fear. On the other hand,
if the concrete is rough and porous the sea-water will gradually
eat into the heart of the structure, especially in a case like a
dam, where the water, being higher on one side than the other,
constantly forces its way through the rough material, and
decomposes the Portland cement it contains.
As regards its convenience for building purposes it may be
said roughly that in " mass " work concrete is vastly more
Cvmrta- convenient than any other material. But concrete is
hm**m4 hampered by the fact that the surface always has to
«APMf» be formed by means of wooden or other framing, and
**"* in the case of thin walls or floors this framing becomes
a serious item, involving expense and delay. In appearance
concrete can rarely if ever rival stone or brickwork. It is true
that it can be moulded to any desired shape, but mouldings in
concrete generally give the appearance of being unsatisfactory
imitations of stone. Moreover, its colour is not pleasing. These
defects will no doubt be overcome as concrete grows in popu-
larity as a building material and its aesthetic treatment is better
understood. Concrete pavings are being used in buildings of
first importance, the aggregate being very carefully selected,
and in many cases the whole mixture coloured by the use of
pigments. Care must be taken in their selection, however, as
certain colouring matters such as red lead are destructive to the
cement. One of the great objections to the appearance of
concrete is the fact that soon after its erection irregular cracks
invariably appear on its surface. These cracks are probably
due to shrinkage while setting, aggravated by changes in tempera-
ture. They occur no less in structures of masonry and brickwork,
but in these cases tbey generally follow the joints, and are almost
imperceptible. In the case of a smooth concrete face there are
no joints to follow, and the cracks become an ugly feature.
They are sometimes regulated by forming artificial " joints "
in the structure by embedding strips of wood or sheet iron at
regular intervals, thus forming " lines of weakness," at which
the cracks therefore take place. A pleasing " rough " appearance
can be given to concrete by brushing it over soon after it has set
with a stiff brush dipped in water or dilute acid. Or, if bard,
its surface can be picked all over with a bush hammer.
At one time Portland cement concrete was considered to be
lacking in fireproof qualities, but now it is regarded as one of the
best fire-resisting materials known. Although experi- t ^ mlmtmm0m
menu on this matter arc badly needed, there is little ZjH^ 00
doubt that good steel concrete is very nearly indestruc-
tible by fire. The matrix should be Portland cement, and the
nature of the aggregate is important! Cinders have been and
are still much favoured for this purpose. The reason for this
preference lies in the fact that being porous and full of air, they
are a good non-conductor. But they are weak, and modern
experience goes to show that a strong concrete is the best,
and tliat probably materials like broken clamp bricks or burnt
clay, which are porous and yet strong, are far better than cinders
as a fireproof aggregate. Limestone should be avoided, as it
soon splits under heat. The steel reinforcement is of immense
importance in fireproof work, because, if properly designed,
it enables the concrete to hold together and do its work even
when it has been cracked by fire and water. On the other hand,
the concrete, being a non-conductor, preserves the steel from
being softened and twisted by excessive temperature.
Only very general remarks can be made on the subject of
cost, as this item varies greatly in different situations and with
the market price of the materials used. But in England .^ m4
it may be said that for massive work such as big walls
and foundations concrete is nearly always cheaper than brickwork
or masonry. On the other hand, for reasons already given,
thin walls, such as house walls, will cost more in concrete.
Steel concrete is even more difficult to generalize about, as its
use is comparatively new, but even in the matter of first cost
it is proving a serious rival to timber and to plate steel work,
in floors, bridges and tanks, and to brickwork and plain concrete
in structures such as culverts and retaining walls, towers and
domes.
Artificial Stones.— Then are many varieties of concrete
known as " artificial stones " which can now be bought ready
moulded into the form of paving slabs, wall blocks and pipes:
they are both pleasing in appearance and very durable, being
carefully made by skilled workmen. Granolithic, globe granite
and synthetic stone are examples of these. Some, such as
victoria stone, imperial stone and others, are hardened and
rendered non-porous after manufacture by immersion in a
solution of silicate of soda. Others, like Ford's silicate of lime-
stone, are practically lime mortars of excellent quality, which
can be carved and cut like a sandstone of fine quality.
Steel Concrete.— Th& introduction of steel concrete (also
known as ferroconcrete, armoured concrete, or reinforced
concrete) is generally attributed to Joseph Monier, a French
gardener, who about the year 1868 was anxious to build some
concrete water basins. In order to reduce the thickness of the
walls and floor he conceived the idea of strengthening them by
building in a network of iron rods. As a matter of fact other
inventors were at work before Monier, but he deserves much
credit for having pushed his u\n«l\umi "w*2dl nK^s*»*"»»&.N»
8 3 8
CONCRETE
having popularized the use of this invaluable combination.
The important point of his idea was that it combined steel and
concrete in such a way that the best qualities of each material
were brought into play. Concrete is readily procured and
Fig. i.— 'Expanded Steel Concrete Slab.
easily moulded into shape. It has considerable compressive
or crushing strength, but is somewhat deficient in shearing
strength, and distinctly weak in tensile or pulling strength.
Steel, on the other hand, is easily procurable in simple forms
such as long bars, and is exceedingly strong. But it is difficult
and expensive to work up into various forms. Concrete has been
avoided for making beams, slabs and thin wills, just because
its deficiency in tensile strength doomed it to failure in such
structures. But if a concrete slab be "reinforced" with a
network of small steel rods on its under surface where the
tensile stresses occur (see fig. i) its strength will be enormously
increased. Thus the one point of weakness in the concrete
slab is overcome by the addition of steel in its simplest form,
and both mateaals are used to their best advantage. The
scientific and practical value of this idea was soon seized upon
by various inventors and others, and the number of patented
systems of combining steel with concrete is constantly increasing.
Many of them are but slight modifications of the older systems,
and no attempt will be made here to describe them in full. In
England it is customary to allow the patentee of one or other
system to furnish his
I own designs, but this is
as much because he has
gained the experience
needed for success as
because of any special
\ virtue in this or that
system. The majority of
these systems have
emanated from France,
where steel concrete is
I largely used. America
I and Germany adopted
I them readily, and in
England some very targe
structures have been
| erected with this material.
The concrete itself
| should always be the very
best quality, and Portland
cement should be used on
account of its superiority
to all others. The aggregate should be the best obtainable and
of different sizes, the stones being freshly crushed and screened
to pass through a \ in. ring. Very special care should be taken
so to proportion the sand as to make a perfectly impervious
mixture. The proportions generally used are 4 to x and 5 to x
in the case of gravel concrete, or 1:2: 4 or x:a|: 6 in the case
of broken stone concrete. But, generally speaking, in steel
concrete the cost of the cement is but a small item of the whole
expense, and it is worth while to be generous with it. If it b
used in pDes or structures where it is likely to be bruised the
proportion of cement should be increased. The mixing and
Section through Intersection.
Fie. a.
laying should all be done very thoroughly; the concrete should
be rammed in position, and any old surface of concrete which has
to be covered should be cleaned and coated with fresh cement.
The reinforcement mostly consists of mild steel and sometimes
of wrought iron: steel, however, is stronger and
generally cheaper, so that in English practice it holds
the field. It should be mild and is usually specified to
have a breaking (tensile) strength of 28 to j a tons per
sq. in., with an elongation of at least *o% in 8 in. Any
bar should be capable of being bent cold to the shape
of the lettcrU without breaking it. The steel is generally
used in the form of long bars of circular section. At
first it was feared that such bars would have a tendency
to slip through the concrete in which they were em-
bedded, but experiments have shown that if the bar
is not painted but has a natural rusty surface a very
considerable adhesion between the concrete and steel
— as much as 2 cwt. per sq. in. of contact surface-
may be relied upon. Many devices are used, however,
to ensure the adhesion between concrete and bar being
perfect. (1) In the Hennebique system of construction the
bars are flattened at the end and split to form a " fish tail."
(2) In the Ransome system round bars are rejected in favour
of square bars, which have been twisted in a lathe in " barley
Fie. 3. — Hennebique System.
sugar" fashion, (j) In the Habrick system a flat bar simi-
larly twisted is used. (4) In the Thacher system a flat bar with
projections like rivet heads is specially rolled for this purpose.
(5) In the Kahn system a square bar with " branches " is used.
(6) In the "expanded metal " system no bars are used, but instead
a strong steel netting is manufactured in large sheets by special
machinery. It is made by cutting a series of long slots at regular
intervals in a plain steel plate, which is then forcibly stretched
out sideways until the slots become diamond-shaped openings,
and a trellis work of steel without any joints is the result
(fig. 2).
The structures in which steel concrete is used may be analysed
as consisting essentially of (1) walls, (?) columns, (3) piles, (4)
beams, (5) slabs, (6) arches. The designs
differ considerably according to which of
these purposes the structure is to fulfil.
The effect of reinforcing walls with steel
is that they can be made much thinner.
The steel reinforcement is generally applied
in the form of vertical rods built in the
wall at intervals, with lighter horizontal
rods which cross the vertical ones, and
thus form a network of steel which is buried
in the concrete. These rods assist in taking
the weight, and the whole network binds
the concrete together and prevents it from p |(J
cracking under a heavy load. The vertical Hennebique Syttem.
rods should not be quite in the middle of " cnncDK * ue ^y««n-
the wall but near the inner and outer faces alternately. Care must
be taken, however, that all the rods are covered by at least an
CONCRETE
839
! i I I oi i
TTTT
i
• j i 9: ! i : i i i !<>i : : ; :
yn/Xiiti.L-Mi..».i.>« r it~^i- ...^>>»
Tftt~Tlfi«f,
LoogitwUiul Section.
%ft*4Win
Fig. 5.— Steel and Concrete Pile (Williams System).
inch of concrete to preserve them from damage by rust or fire.
In the Cottancin system the concrete is replaced by bricks
pierced with holes through which the vertical rods are threaded;
the horizontal tie-rods are also used, but these do not merely
cross the vertical ones, but are woven in and out of them.
Columns have generally to bear a heavier weight than walls,
and have to be correspondingly stronger. They have usually
been made square with a vertical steel rod at each corner. To
prevent these rods from spreading apart they must be tied together
at frequent intervals.
In some systems this is
done by loops of stout
wire connecting each
rod to its neighbour,
and placed one above
the other about every
K^" 10 in. up the column
F10.7. (figs. 3 and 4). In other
systems a stout wire is
wound continuously in a spiral form round the four rods.
Modern investigation goes to prove that the latter is theoretically
the more economical way of using the steel, as the spiral
binding wire acts like the binding of a wire gun, and prevents the
concrete which it encloses from bursting even under very great
loads.
That steel concrete can be used for piles is perhaps the roost
astonishing feature in this invention. The fact that a compara-
tively brittle material like concrete can be subjected not only to
heavy loads but also
igp'' to the jar and vibra-
, v ( . . p^^-y^ ^ tion from the blows
^ of a heavy pile ram
makes it appear as
if its nature and pro-
perties had been
changed by the steel
reinforcement In a
sense this is un-
doubtedly the case
_, A. G. Considered cx-
,c * 9 ' periments have shown
that concrete when reinforced is capable of being stretched,
without fracture, about twenty times as much as plain concrete.
Most of the piles driven in Great Britain have been made on the
Hennebique system with four or six longitudinal steel rods tied
together by stirrups or loops at frequent intervals. Piles made
on the Williams system have a steel rolled joist of I section
buried in the heart of the pile, and round it a series of steel
wire hoops at regular int ervals (fig. 5) . Whatever system is used,
■ 1 .j care must be taken not
^53" ' ' "fgp'piJe to pieces^ with the
'My'*,"".'')!
Fig 10.
Fig. 11.
heavy ram. To prevent
this an iron " helmet "
containing a lining of
sawdust is fitted over
the head of the pile
The sawdust adapts it-
self to the rough shape
of the concrete, and deadens the blow to some extent.
But it is in the design of steel concrete beams that the greatest
ingenuity, has been shown, and almost every patentee of a
" system " has some new device for arranging the steel reinforce-
ment to the best advantage. Concrete by itself, though strong
in compression, can offer but little resistance to tensile and shear-
ing stresses, and as these stresses always occur in beams the
fc&&&J&*&£*lXAV±T±Ml
problem arises how best to arrange the steel so as to assist the
concrete in bearing them. To meet tensile stresses the steel is
nearly always inserted in the form of bars running along the beam.
Figs. 6 to 9 show how they are arranged for different loading.
In each case the object is to place the bars as nearly as possible
where the tensile stresses occur. In cases where all the stresses
are heavy, that portion of the beam which is under compression
is similarly reinforced, though with smaller bars (figs, xo and xx).
But as these tension and
compression bars are
generally placed near the *
under and upper surface
of the beam they are of Fig. 12.
little use in helping to 1 ■ . .. — ..... ■ ,. ,.,..,.iu
resist the shearing hi !■- I; ) V '• ,jf ,1 , I T ,j
stresses which are great- N^| B^*
est at its neutral axis. ^ Ff _ __
(See Bridces.) These no. 13.
shearing stresses in a heavily loaded beam would cause it to
split horizontally at or near the centre. To prevent this many
ingenious devices have been introduced. (1) Perhaps one of
the most efficient is a diagonal bracing of steel wire passing to
and fro between the upper and lower bars and firmly secured
to each by lapping or otherwise (fig. 12); this device is used
in the Coignet and other French systems. (2) In the Hennebique
system (which has found great favour in England) vertical
bands or " stirrups," as they are generally called, of hoop
steel are used (fig. 13). They are of U shape, and passing round
the tension bars ^. ^—
extend to the top ^^ iW
of the beam (figs.
14 and 3). They
are exceedingly
thin, but being
buried in concrete
no danger of their
perishing from
rust is to be feared.
(3) In the Bous-
siron system a __ _. ,....„
similar stirrup is Fic ' »4-— Stirrup (Hennebique System),
used, but instead of being vertical the two parts are spread so that
each is slightly inclined. (4) In the Coularon system, the stirrups
are inclined as in fig. x 5, and consist of rods, the ends of which are
booked over the tension and compression bars. (5) In the Kahn
system the stirrups are similarly arranged, but instead of being
merely secured to the tension bar, they form an integral part of
it like branches on a stem, the bar being rolled to a special section
to admit of this. (6) In many systems such as the " expanded
metal" system, the
tension and compres-
sion rods together with '
the stirrups are all
abandoned in favour of Fig. 15.
a single rolled steel
joist of I section, buried in concrete (see fig. 16). Probably the
weight of steel used in this w,ay is excessive, but the joists are
cheap, readily procurable and easy to handle.
Floor slabs may be regarded as wide and shallow beams, and
the remarks made about the stresses in the one apply to the
other also; accordingly, the various devices which are used
for strengthening beams recur in the slabs. But in a thin slab,
with its comparatively small span and light load, the concrete
is generally strong enough to bear the shearing stresses unaided,
and the reinforcement is devoted to assisting it where the
tensile stresses occur. For this purpose maa^ d«&%p«sR»^a93e*
840
CONCRETION
use the modification of the Monier system, consisting of a
horizontal network of crossed steel rods buried in the concrete.
" Expanded metal " too is admirably adapted for the purpose
(fig. 1). In the Matrai system thin wires are used instead of
rods, and are securely fastened to rolled steel joists, which form
the beams on which the slabs rest; moreover, the wires instead
of being stretched tight from side to side of the slab are allowed
to sag as much as the thickness of the concrete will allow. In
fhwmmSraL
Fic. 16.
the Williams system small flat bars are used, which arc not
quite horizontal, but pass alternately over and under the rolled
joists -which support the slabs.
A concrete arch is reinforced in much the same way as a wall,
the stresses being somewhat similar. The reinforcing rods are
generally laid both longitudinally and circumferentially. In the
case of a culvert the circumferential rods are sometimes laid
continuously in the form of a spiral as in the Bordenave system.
• To those wishing to pursue the subject further, the following books
among others may be suggested . — Sabin, Cement and Concrete (New
York); Taylor and Thompson, Concrete, Plain and Reinforced
(London) ; Sutcliffe, Concrete, Nature and Uses (London) ; Marsh
and Dunn, Reinforced Concrete (London); Twclvctrocs, Concrete
Steel (London) ; Paul Christophe, Le Beton armi (Paris) ; Bucl and
Hill, Reinforced Concrete Construction (London). (F. E. W.-S.)
CONCRETION, in petrology, a name applied to nodular or
irregularly shaped masses of various size occurring in a great
variety of sedimentary rocks, differing in composition from the
main mass of the rock, and in most cases obviously formed by
some chemical process which ensued after the rock was deposited.
As these bodies present so many variations in composition and
in structure, it will conduce to clearness if some of the commonest
be briefly adverted to. In sandstones there are often hard
rounded lumps, which separate out when the rock is broken or
weathered. They are mostly siliceous, but sometimes calcareous,
and may differ very little in general appearance from the bulk
of the sandstone. Through them the bedding passes unin-
terrupted, thus showing that they are not pebbles; often in their
centres shells or fragments of plants are found. Argillaceous
sandstones and flagstones very frequently contain " clay galls "
or concretionary lumps richer in clay than the remainder of the
rock. Nodules of pyrites and of marcasite arc common in many
clays, sandstones and marls. Their outer surfaces are tubcr-
culate; internally they commonly have a radiate fibrous
structure. Usually they are covered with a dark brown crust
of limonite produced by weathering; occasionally imperfect
crystalline faces may bound them. Not infrequently {e.g. in the
Gault) these pyritous nodules contain altered fossils. In clays
also siliceous and calcareous concretions are often found.
They present an extraordinary variety of shapes, often
grotesquely resembling figures of men or animals, fruits, &c. f
and have in many countries excited popular wonder, being
regarded as of supernatural origin (" fairy-stones," &c), and
used as charms.
Another type of concretion, very abundant in many clays and
shales, is the " sept a ri an nodule." These are usually flattened
disk-shaped or ovoid, often tabulate externally like the surface
of a kidney. When split open they prove to be traversed by
a network of cracks, which arc usually filled with calcite and
other minerals. These white infillings of the fissures resemble
partitions; hence the name from the Latin septum, a partition.
Sometimes the cracks are partly empty. They vary up to half
an inch in breadth, and are best seen when the nodule is cat
through with a saw-. These concretions may be calcareous or
may consist of carbonate of iron. The former are common in
some beds of the London Clay, and were formerly used for
making cement. The clay-ironstone nodules or sphaerosideriits
are very abundant in some Carboniferous shales, and have served
in some places as iron ores. Some of the largest specimens are
3 ft. in diameter. In the centre of these nodules fossils are often
found, e.g. coprolites, pieces of plants, fish teeth and scales.
Phosphatic concretions are often present in certain limestones,
clays, shelly sands and marls. They occur, for example, in the
Cambridge Greensand,and at the base of certain of the Pliocene
beds in the east of England. In many places they have been
worked, under the name of " coprolite-beds," as sources of
artificial manures. Bones of animals more or less completely
mineralized are frequent in these phosphatic concretions, the
commonest being fragments of extinct reptilia. Their presence
points to a source for the phosphate of lime.
Another very important series of concretionary structures are
the flint nodules which occur in chalk, and the patches and
bands of chert which are found in limestones. Flints consist of
dark-coloured CTyptocrystalline silica. They wcathergrey or white
by the removal of their more soluble portions by percolating
water. Their shapes are exceedingly varied, and often they are
studded with tubcrculcs and nodosities. Sometimes they have
internal cavities, and very frequently they contain shells of
echinoderms, molluscs, Ike, partly or entirely replaced by silica,
but preserving their original forms. Chert occurs in bands arri
tabular masses rather than in nodules; it often replaces consider-
able portions of a bed of limestone (as in the Carboniferocs
Limestones of Ireland). Corals and other fossils frequently occur
in chert, and when sliced and microscopically examined both
flint and chert often show silicified foraminifcra, polyzoa &c.
and sponge spicules. Flints in chalk frequently lie along joints
which may be vertical or may be nearly horizontal and parallel
to the bedding. Hence they increase the stratified appearance
of natural exposures of chalk.
It will be seen from the details given above that concretions
may be calcareous, siliceous, argillaceous and phosphatic, and
they may consist of carbonate or sulphide of iron. In the red day
of the deep sea bottom concretionary masses rich in manganese
dioxide are being formed, and are sometimes brought up by the
dredge. In clays large crystals of gypsum, having the shape of
an arrow-head, are occasionally found in some numbers. They
bear a considerable resemblance to some concretions, e.g. crystal-
line marcasite and pyrite, nodules. These examples will indicate
the great variety of substances which may give rise to con-
cretionary structures.
Some concretions are amorphous, e.g. phosphatic nodules;
others are cryptocrystalline, e.g. flint and chert; others
finely crystalline, e.g. pyrites, sphacrosiderite; others consist
of large crystals, e.g. gypsum, barytcs, pyrites and marcasite.
From this it is clear that the formation of concretions is not
closely dependent on any single inorganic substance, or on any
type of crystalline structure. Concretions seem to arise from
the tendency of chemical compounds to be slowly dissolved by
interstitial water, either while the deposit is unconsolidated or
at a later period. Certain nuclei, present in the rock, thtn
determine reprecipitation of these solutions, and the deposit oner
begun goes on till either the supply of material for growth is
exhausted, or the physical character of the bed Is changed by
pressure and consolidation till it is no longer favourable to
further accretion. The process resembles the growth of a crystal
in 1 solution by slowly attracting to itself molecules of suitable
nature from the surrounding medium. But in the majority of
cases it is not the crystalline forces, or not these alone, which
attract the particles. The structure of a flint, for example,
shows that the material had so little tendency to crystallize
that it remained permanently in cryptocrystalline or sub-
crystalline state. That the concretions grew in the solid sediment
is proved by the manner in which lines of bedding pass through
CONCUBINAGE— CONDE
84.1
them and not round them. This !s beautifully shown by many
siliceous and calcareous nodules out of recent days. That the
sediment was in a soft condition may be inferred from the purity
and perfect crystalline form of some of these bodies, e.g. gypsum,
pyrites, marcasite. The crystals must have pushed aside the
yielding matrix as they gradually enlarged. In deep-sea dredg-
ings concretions of phosphate of lime and manganese dioxide
are frequently brought up; this shows that concretionary action
operates on the sea floor in muddy sediments, which have only
recently been laid down. The phosphatic nodules seem to
originate around the dead bodies of fishes, and manganese
incrustations frequently enclose teeth of sharks, ear-bones of
whales, &c. This recalls the occurrence of fossils in septarian
nodules, flints, phosphatic concretions, &c, in the older strata.
Probably the decomposing organic matter partly supplied sub-
stances for the growth of the nodules (phosphates, carbonates,
&c), partly acted as reducing agents, or otherwise determined
mineral precipitation in those places where organic remains
wc/c mingled with the sediment. (J. S. F.)
CONCUBINAGE (Lat. concubino, a concubine; from con-, with,
and cubare, to lie), the state of a man and woman cohabiting as
married persons without the full sanctions of legal marriage.
In early historical times, when marriage laws had scarcely
advanced beyond the purely customary stage, the concubine
was definitely recognized as a sort of inferior wife, differing from
those of the first rank mainly by the absence of permanent
guarantees. The history of Abraham's family shows us clearly
that the concubine' might be dismissed at any time, and her
children were liable to be cast off equally summarily with gifts,
in order to leave the inheritance free for the wife's sons (Genesis
lad. grff., xxv. s ff.).
The Roman law recognized two classes of legal marriage:
(x) with the definite public ceremonies of confarreatio or coemptio,
and (2) without any public form whatever and resting merely
on the ajfeclio moritalis, i.e. the fixed intention of taking a
particular woman as a permanent spouse. 1 Next to these
strictly lawful marriages came concubinage as a recognized
legal status, so long as the two parties were not married and had
no other concubines. It differed from the formless marriage in
the absence (1) of ojfectio marilalis, and therefore (2) of full
conjugal rights. For instance, the concubine was not raised,
like the wife, to her husband's rank, nor were her children
legitimate, though they enjoyed legal rights forbidden to mere
bastards, e.g. the father was bound to maintain them and to
leave them (in the absence of legitimate children) one-sixth
of his property; moreover, they might be fully legitimated
by the subsequent marriage of their parents.
In the East, the emperor Leo the Philosopher (d. 911) insisted
on formal marriage as the only legal status; but in the Western
Empire concubinage was still recognized even by the Christian
emperors. The early Christians had naturally preferred the
formless marriage of the Roman law as being free from all taint
of pagan idolatry; and the ecclesiastical authorities recognized
concubinage also. The first council of Toledo (398) bids the
faithful restrict himself " to a single wife or concubine, as it
shall please him ";' and there is a similar canon of the Roman
synod held by Pope Eugcnius II. in 826. Even as late as the
Roman councils of X052 and 1063, the suspension from com-
munion of laymen who had a wife and a concubine at the same
time implies that mere concubinage was tolerated. It was also
recognized by many early civil codes. In Germany " left-handed "
or "morganatic" marriages were allowed by the Salic law
between nobles and women of lower rank. In different states
of Spain the laws of the later middle ages recognized concubinage
'The difference between English and Scottish law, which once
made " Gretna Green marriages " so frequent, is due to the fact that
Scotland adopted the Roman law (which on this particular point was
followed by the whole medieval church).
but in 398 a church council can scarcely so have misused the technical
terms of the then current civil law (Gratian, Decrttum, port i. dist.
sxiv. c. 4).
under the name of barraganio, the contract being lifelong, the
woman obtaining by it a right to maintenance during life, and
sometimes also to part of the succession, and the sons ranking
as nobles if their father was a noble. In Iceland, the concubine
was recognized in addition to the lawful wife, though it was
forbidden that they should dwell in the same house. The Nor-
wegian law of the later middle ages provided definitely that
in default of legitimate sons, the kingdom should descend to
illegitimates. In the Danish code of Valdemar IL, which was
in force from 1280 to 1683, it was provided that a concubine
kept openly for three years shall thereby become a legal wife;
this was the custom of hand vesten, the " handfasting " of the
English and Scottish borders, which appears in ScoiX's Monastery.
In Scotland, the laws of William the Lion (d. 1214) speak of
concubinage as a recognized institution; and, in the same
century, the great English legist Bracton treats the " concubine
Icgilima " as entitled to certain rights. 1 There seems to have
been at times a pardonable confusion between some quasi-
legitimate unions and those marriages by mere word of mouth,
without ecclesiastical or other ceremonies, which the church,
after some natural hesitation, pronounced to be valid. 4 Another
and more serious confusion between concubinage and marriage
was caused by the gradual enforcement of clerical celibacy (see
Celibacy). During the bitter conflict between laws which
forbade sacerdotal marriages and long custom which had per-
mitted them, it was natural that the legislators and the ascetic
party generally should studiously speak of the priests' wives as
concubines, and do all in their power to reduce them to this
position. This very naturally resulted in a too frequent sub-
stitution of clerical concubinage for marriage; and the resultant
evils form one of the commonest themes of complaint in church
councils of the later middle ages. 1 Concubinage in general was
struck at by the concordat between the Pope Leo X. and Francis
I. of France in 1516; and the council of Trent, while insisting
on far more stringent conditions for lawful marriage than those
which had prevailed in the middle ages, imposed at last heavy
ecclesiastical penalties on concubinage and appealed to the secular
arm for help against contumacious offenders (Sessio xxiv. cap. 8).
Authorities. — Besides those quoted in the notes, the reader may
consult with advantage Du Cangc's Clossarium, s.v. Concubina,
the article " Concubinat " in Wetzcr and Welte's Kirchenlexikom
(2nd ed. t Freiburg i/B., 1884), and Dr H. C. Lea's History of Sacer*
dotal Celibacy (3rd ed., London, 1907). (G. G. Co.)
COND& PRINCES OF. The French title of prince of Conde\
assumed from the ancient town of CondC-sur-l'Escaut, was borne
by a branch of the house of Bourbon. The first who assumed it
was the famous Huguenot leader, Louis de Bourbon (see below),
the fifth son of Charles de Bourbon, duke of Vcndome. His
son, Henry, prince of Condt (1 552-1588), also belonged to the
Huguenot party. Fleeing to Germany he raised a small army
with which in 1575 he joined Alcncon. He became leader of the
Huguenots, but after several years' fighting was taken prisoner
of war. Not long after he died of poison, administered, according
* Bracton, De Lcgibus, lib. iii. tract, ii. c. 28, S 1, and fib. 'rv. tract,
vi. e. 8. 5 4.
* F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, Hist, of English Law. 2nd ed.
vol. ii. p. 37a In the. case of Richard de Ancsty, decided by pajul
rescript in 1143, "a marriage solemnly celebrated in church, a
marriage of which a child had been born t was set aside a* null in
favour of an earlier marri.i£r constituted by a mere eschanRe of
consenting words" {ibid. p. 367; cf. the similar decretal of Alex-
ander III. on p. 371). The gfeat medieval canuri lawyer LyndwoocL
illustrates the difficulty of distinguishing, even as late as the middle
of the 15th century, between concubinage and a eland*.-? tint. ihoiiph
legal, marriage. He falls back en the definition of an earlier canon 1*.
that if the woman eats out of the same dish with the man, and ii he
takes her to church, she nuiy be presumed to be his wife ; if. however,
he sends her to draw^ water and dresses her in vite clothing, ,'hc
is probably a concubine {Pr<rrirtdait t ed. 0\on. tdji), p. io, j.ty
concubinartos).
» It may be gathered from the Dominican C L. Richard's Analysis
Conciliorum (vol. ii., 1778) that there were more than 2x0 such
complaints in councils and synods between the years 1009 and 1528.
" "\ddte Ages, y
— „, ,. -. — - — — rsity 01 Prague, L .^,.
complained openly to the authorities against a bachelor for assaulting
Dr Kashdali ( Un&ersities of Europe in the Mit
note) points out that a ""
Arcs, vol. S. p. 691*
of the university of Prague, in 1499,
his concubine.
842
CONDE
to the belief of his contemporaries, by his wife, Catherine de la
Trernouillc. This event, among others, awoke strong suspicions
as to the legitimacy of his heir and namesake, Henry, prince of
Cond6 (1588-1646). King Henry IV., however, did not take
advantage of the scandal. In 1609 he caused the prince of Conde
to marry Charlotte de Montmorency, whom shortly after Condi
was obliged to save from the king's persistent gallantry by a
hasty flight, first to Spain and then to Italy. On the death of
Henry, Conde returned to France, and intrigued against the
regent, Marie de 1 Medici; but he was seized, and imprisoned
for three years (1616-1619). There was at that time before the
court a plea for his divorce from his wife, but she now devoted
herself to enliven his captivity at the cost of her own liberty.
During the rest of his life Condt was a faithful servant of the
king. He strove to blot out the memory of the Huguenot
connexions of his house by affecting the greatest zeal against
Protestants. His old ambition changed into a desire for the safe
aggrandizement of his family, which he magnificently achieved,
and with that end he bowed before Richelieu, whose niece he
forced his son to marry. His son Louis, the great Conde, is
separately notice* below.
The next in succession was Henry Jules, prince of Conde
(1643-1709), the son of the great Conde and of ClemcnccdcMailll,
niece of Richelieu. He fought with distinction under his father
in Franche-ComU* and the Low Countries; but he was heartless,
avaricious and undoubtedly insane. The end of his life was
marked by singular hypochondriacal fancies. He believed at
one time that he was dead, and refused to eat till some of his
attendants dressed in sheets set him the example. His grandson,
Louis Henry, duke of Bourbon (1692-1 740), Louis XV. 's minister,
did not assume the title of prince of Conde which properly
belonged to him.
The son of the duke of Bourbon, Louis Joseph, prince of
Cond6(i736-i8i8),aftcrrcceivinga good education, distinguished
himself in the Seven Years' War, and most of all by his victory
at Johannisbcrg. As governor of Burgundy he did much to
improve the industries and means of communication of that
province. At the Revolution he took up arms in behalf of the
king, became commander of the " army of Cond£," and fought
m conjunction with the Austrians till the peace of Campo
Formio in x 797, being during the last year in the pay of England.
He then served the emperor of Russia in Poland, and after that
(1800) returned into the pay of England, and fought in Bavaria.
In 180O Condi arrived in England, where he resided for several
years. On the restoration of Louis XVIII. he returned to France.
He died in Paris in x8z8. He wrote Essai sur la vie du grand
Condi (1708).
Louis Henry Joseph, duke of Bourbon (1756-1830), son of
the last named, was the last prince of Conde. Several of the
earlier events of his life, especially his marriage with the princess
Louise of Orleans, and the duel that the comte d'Artois provoked
by raising the veil of the princess at a masked ball, caused much
scandal. At the Revolution he fought with the army of the
emigres in Liege. Between the return of Napoleon from Elba
and the battle of Waterloo, he headed with no success a royalist
rising in La Vendee. In 1829 he made a will by which he ap-
pointed as his heir the due d'Aumalc, and made some considerable
bequests to his mistress, the baronne de Feucheres (<?.*.). On
the 27th of August 1830 he was found hanged on the fastening
of his window. A crime was generally suspected, and the princes
de Rohan, who were relatives of the deceased, disputed the will.
Their petition, however, was dismissed by the courts.
Two cadet branches of the house of Conde played an important
part: those of Soissons and Conti. The first, sprung from
Charles of Bourbon (b. 1566), son of Louis I., prince of Condi,
became extinct in the legitimate male line in 1641. The second
took its origin from Armand of Bourbon, born in 1629, son of
Henry II., prince of Conde, and survived up to 18x4.
See Muret, L'Hisloire de Varmie de Condi; Chambolland, Vie de
Lew Joseph, prince de Condi; Cretincau-Joly, Hutoire dee trvis
der*iers pnmats dt la maison de Condi \ and Histoire des princes de
Gnidt. by the due d'Aumalc (translated by R. B. Borthwfck, J872).
CONDl LOUIS DE BOURBON, Prince of (1530-1569). fifth
son of Charles de Bourbon, duke of Vend6me, younger brother
of Anionic, king of Navarre (1518-1562), was the first of the
famous house of Condi (sec above). After his father's death
in 1537 Louis was educated in the principles of the reformed
religion. Brave though deformed, gay but extremely poor for
his rank, Condi was led by his ambition to a military career.
He fought with distinction in Piedmont under Marshal d«
Bri&sac; in 1552 he forced his way with reinforcements into
Metz, then besieged by Charles V.; he led several brilliant sorties
from that town; and in 1554 commanded the light cavalry on
the Mcuse against Charles. In 1557 he was present at the battle
of St Quentin, and did further good service at the head of the
light horse. But the descendants of the constable de Bourbon
were still looked upon with suspicion in the French court, and
Conde s services were ignored. The court designed to reduce his
narrow means still further by despatching him upon a costly
mission to Philip II. of Spain. His personal griefs thus combined
with his religious views to force upon him a role of political
opposition. He was concerned in the conspiracy of Amboise,
which aimed at forcing from the king the recognition of the
reformed religion. He was consequently condemned to death,
and was only saved by the decease of Francis II. At the accession
of the boy-king Charles IX., the policy of the court was changed,
and Conde received from Catherine de' Medici the government
of Picardy. But the struggle between the Catholics and the
Huguenots soon began once more, and henceforward the career
of Conde is the story of the wars of religion (see Fiance: History).
He was the military as well as the political chief of the Huguenot
party, and displayed the highest generalship on many occasions,
and notably at the battle of St Denis. At the battle of Jarnac,
with only 400 horsemen, Conde rashly charged the whole
Catholic army. Worn out with fighting, he at last gave up his
sword, and a Catholic officer named Montcsquiou treacherously
shot him through the head on the 13th of March 1569.
COND& LOUIS II. DB BOURBON, Prince of (1621-1686),
called the Great Conde, was the son of Henry, prince of Conde,
and Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency, and was born at
Paris on the 8th of September 1621. As a boy, under his father's
careful supervision, he studied diligently at the Jesuits' College
at Bourgcs, and at seventeen, in the absence of his father, he
governed Burgundy. The due d'Enghicn, as he was styled
during his father's lifetime, took part with distinction in the
campaigns of 1640 and 1641 in northern France while yet under
twenty years of age.
During the youth of Enghicn all power in France was in the
hands of Richelieu; to him even the princes of the blood had to
yield; and Henry of Conde sought with the rest to win the
cardinal's favour. Enghicn was forced to conform. He was
already deeply in love with Mile. Marine du Vigean, who in
return was passionately devoted to him, yet, to flatter the
cardinal, he was compelled by his father, at the age of twenty,
to give his hand to Richelieu's niece, Claire Clcmence de Mailll-
Brczl, a child of thirteen. He was present with Richelieu during
the dangerous plot of Cinq Mars, and afterwards fought in the
siege of Perpignan (1642).
In 1643 Enghicn was appointed to command against the
Spaniards in northern France. He was opposed by experienced
generals, and the veterans of the Spanish army were accounted
the finest soldiers in Europe; on the other hand, the strength
of the French army was placed at his command, and under him
were the best generals of the service. The great battle of Rocroy
(May iS) put an end to the supremacy of the Spanish army and
inaugurated the long period of French military predominance.
Enghicn himself conceived and directed the decisive attack, and
at the age of twenty-two won his place amongst the great
captains of modern times. After a campaign of uninterrupted
success, Enghicn returned to Paris in triumph, and in gallantry
and intrigues strove to forget his enforced and hateful marriage.
In 1644 he was sent with reinforcements into Germany to the
assistance of Turcnnc, who was hard pressed, and took com-
mand of the whole army. The battle of Freiburg (Aug.) was
CONDfi
*+3
desperately contested, but in the end the French army won a
great victory over the Bavarians and Imperialists commanded
by Count Mercy. As after Rocroy, numerous fortresses opened
their gates to the duke. The next winter Enghien spent, like
every other winter during the war, amid the gaieties of Paris.
The summer campaign of 1645 opened with the defeat of Turenne
by Mercy, but this was retrieved in the brilliant victory of
Ndrdlingen, in which Mercy was killed, and Enghien himself
received several serious wounds. The capture of Philipsburg
was the most important of his other achievements during this
campaign. In 1646 Enghien served under the duke of Orleans
in Flanders, and when, after the capture of Mardyck, Orleans
returned to Paris, Enghien, left in command, captured Dunkirk
(October nth).
It was in this year that the old prince of Condi died. The
enormous power that fell into the hands of his successor was
naturally looked upon with serious alarm by the regent and her
minister. Condi's birth and military renown placed him at the
head of the French nobility; but, added to that, the family of
which he was chief was both enormously rich and master of no
small portion of France. Condi himself held Burgundy, Berry
and the marches of Lorraine, as well as other less important
territory; his brother Conti held Champagne, his brother-in-law,
Longucvillc, Normandy. The government, therefore, determined
to permit no increase of his already overgrown authority, and
Mazarin made an attempt, which for the moment proved success-
ful, at once to find him employment and to tarnish his fame as
a general. He was sent to lead the revolted Catalans. Ill-
supported, he was unable to achieve anything, and, being forced
to raise the siege of Lcrida, he returned home in bitter indigna-
tion. In 1648, however, he received the command in the
important field of the Low Countries; and at Lens (Aug. 19th)
a battle took place, which, beginning with a panic in his own
regiment, was retrieved by Condi's coolness and bravery, and
ended in a victory that fully restored his prestige.
In September of the same year Conde was recalled to court,
for the regent Anne of Austria required his support. Influenced
by the fact of his royal birth and by his arrogant scorn for the
bourgeois, Condi lent himself to the court party, and finally,
after much hesitation, he consented to lead the army which was
to reduce Paris (Jan. 1649).
On his side, insufficient as were his forces, the war was carried
on with vigour, and after several minor combats their substantial
losses and a threatening of scarcity of food made the Parisians
weary of the war. The political situation inclined both parties to
peace, which was made at Rueil on the 20th of March (see Fronde,
The). It was not long, however, before Condi became estranged
from the court. His pride and ambition earned for him universal
distrust and dislike, and the personal resentment of Anne in
addition to motives of policy caused the sudden arrest of Condi,
Conti and Longucvillc on the 18th of January 1650. But others,
including Turenne and his brother the duke of Bouillon, made
their escape. Vigorous attempts for the release of the princes
began to be made. The women of the family were now its heroes.
The dowager princess claimed from the parlement of Paris the
fulfilment of the reformed law of arrest, which forbade imprison-
ment without trial. The duchess of Longucvillc entered into
negotiations with Spain; and the young princess of Condi,
having gathered an army around her, obtained entrance into
Bordeaux and the support of the parlement of that town. She
alone, among the nobles who took part in the folly of the Fronde,
gains our respect and sympathy. Faithful to a faithless husband,
she came forth from the retirement to which he had condemned
her, and gathered an army to fight for him. But the delivery of
the princes was brought about in the end by the junction of the
old Fronde (the party of the parlement and of Cardinal dc Retz)
and the new Fronde (the party of the Condis); and Anne was at
last, in February 1651, forced to liberate them from their prison
at Havre. Soon afterwards, however, another shifting of parties
left Condi and the new Fronde i«*latcd. With the court and the
old Fronde in alliance against him, Condi found no resource but
that of making common cause with the Spaniards, who were at
war with France. The confused civil war which followed this
step (Sept. 165 1) was memorable chiefly for the battle of
the Faubourg St Antoinc, in which Condi and Turenne, two
of the foremost captains of the age, measured their strength
(July 2, 1652), and the army of the prince was only saved by
being admitted within the gates of Paris. La Grande Made-
moiselle, daughter of the duke of Orleans, persuaded the Parisians
to act thus, and turned the cannon of the Bastille on Turcnne's
army. Thus Condi, who as usual had fought with the most
desperate bravery, was saved, and Paris underwent a new
investment. This ended in the flight of Condi to the Spanish
army (Sept. 1652), and thenceforward, up to the peace, he
was in open arms against France, and held high command in the
army of Spain. But his now fully developed genius as a com-
mander found little scope in the cumbrous and antiquated
system of war practised by the Spaniards, and though he gained
a few successes, and manoeuvred with the highest possible skill
against Turenne, his disastrous defeat at the Dunes near Dunkirk
(14th of June 1658), in which an English contingent of Cromwell's
veterans took part on the side of Turenne, led Spain to open
negotiations for peace. After the peace of the Pyrenees in 1659,
Condi obtained his pardon (January 1660) from Louis, who
thought him less dangerous as a subject than as possessor of the
independent sovereignty of Luxemburg, which had been offered
him by Spain as a reward for his services.
Condi now realized that the period of agitation and party
warfare was at an end,- and he accepted, and loyally maintained
henceforward, the position of a chief subordinate to a masterful
sovereign. Even so, some years passed before he was recalled
to active employment, and these years he spent on his estate at
Chantilly. Here he gathered round him a brilliant company,
which included many men of genius — Moliere, Racine, Boileau,
La Fontaine, Nicole, Bourdaloue and Bossuct. About this time
negotiations between the Poles, Condi and Louis were carried
on with a view to the election, at first of Condi's son Enghien,
and afterwards of Condi himself, to the throne of Poland. These,
after a long series of curious intrigues, were finally closed in 1674
by the veto of Louis XIV. and the election of John Sobieski.
The prince's retirement, which was only broken by the Polish
question and by his personal intercession on behalf of Fouquct
in 1664, ended in 1668. In that year he proposed to Louvois, the
minister of war, a plan for seizing Franche-Comti, the execution
of which was entrusted to him and successfully carried out.
He was now completely re-established in the favour of Louis, and
with Turenne was the principal French commander in the cele-
brated campaign of 167 2 against the Dutch. At the forcing of the
Rhine passage at Tollhuis (June 12) he received a severe wound,
after which he commanded in Alsace against the Imperialists.
In 1673 he was again engaged in the Low Countries, and in 1674
he fought his last great battle at Scncff against the prince of
Orange (afterwards William III. of England). This battle, fought
on the nth of August, was one of the hardest of the century, and
Condi, who displayed the reckless bravery of his youth, had three
horses killed under him. His last campaign was that of 1675 on
the Rhine, where the army had been deprived of its general by
the death of Turenne; and where by his careful and methodical
strategy he repelled the invasion of the Imperial army of Monte-
cucculi. After this campaign, prematurely worn out by the toils
and excesses of his life, and tortured by the gout, he returned to
Chantilly, where he spent the eleven years that remained to him
in quiet retirement. In the end of his life he specially sought the
companionship of Bourdaloue, Nicole and Bossuet, and devoted
himself to religious exercises. He died on the nth of November
1686 at the age of sixty-five. Bourdaloue attended him at his
death-bed, and Bossuet pronounced his tioge.
The earlier political career of Condi was typical of the great
French noble of his day. Success in love and war, predominant
influence over his sovereign and universal homage to his own
exaggerated pride, were the objects of his ambition. Even as
an exile he asserted the precedence of the royal house of France
over the princes of Spain and Austria, with whom he was allied
for the moment. But the Condi of 1668 was no kmgpc «.^&s&s&&.
8 4 4
CONDE-£ONDENSATION OF GASES
and a marplot; to be first in war and in gallantry was still his
aim, but for the rest he was a submissive, even a subservient,
minister of the royal will. It is on his military character,
however, that his fame rests. This changed but little. Unlike
his great rival Turenne, Conde* was equally brilliant in his first
battle and in his last. The one failure of his generalship was in
the Spanish Fronde, and in this everything united to thwart
his genius; only on the battlefield itself was his personal leader-
ship as conspicuous as ever. That he was capable of waging a
methodical war of positions may be assumed from his campaigns
against Turenne and Montecucculi, the greatest generals of the
predominant school. But it was in his eagerness for battle, his
quick decision in action, and the stern will which sent his regiments
to face the heaviest loss, that Condi is distinguished above ail
the generals of his time. In private life he was harsh and
unamiable, seeking only the gratification of his own pleasures
and desires. His enforced and loveless marriage embittered
his life, and it was only in his last years, when he had done
with ambition, that the more humane side of his character
appeared in his devotion to literature.
Condi's unhappy wife had some years before been banished
to Chateaurouz. An accident brought about her ruin. Her
contemporaries, greedy as they were of scandal, refused to
believe any evil of her, but the prince declared himself convinced
of her unfaithfulness, placed her in confinement, and carried
his resentment so far that his last letter to the king was to request
him never to allow her to be released.
Ai-'THCrRiriF-^ — Sec, besides the numerous Mhnoirtt of the time,
Pugct de la bcrrc, Lei Stcies,. Ifi batailfcs* tfc, de Air. ie prince da
Conde (Pari* h 1651); J- de M Drune h Ilisfoire de A* ?iV t (fc. t de Lvuis
da Bourbon t prince de Condi (Cologne, 1694): P. Caste, Hisimre dt
Louii de Bourbon. &c. (Hague, i?tA)\ DreorrneauK. Histoire de
Loan de Bourbon, ere. (Paris, 1 768) : Turpi n, Vic de Loui* de Bvitrlxtn,
&c. (Paris and Amstcrdjm, J 767): Etorc mifitoire de Loait dt
BQurbvn (Dijon, I77J) : ItUtttirc du grand Condi, by A. Lcmercier
(Tonra. 1862): J. j, E, Roy {Lille, I8w); L, de VoivitrmL {Tours,
Ity&k Fitrpotriclf, The Great C&ndc r arid Lord Mahon, Life of Louis,
pnme of Condi (London, 1645)- Works on the Condfc J.imily by the
prince dt Conde and tic Scvuingca t Par it, lSjo), the due d'AumaLc,
and Guibout (, Rouen, t&jfj), should also be consulted,.
CONDfi, the name of some twenty villages in France and of
two towns of some importance. Of the villages, Conde-en-Brie
(Lat. Condeium) is a place of great antiquity and was in the
middle ages the seat of a principality, a sub-fief of that of
Montmirail; Conde-sur-Aisnc (Condalus) was given in 870 by
Charles the Bald to the abbey of St Oucn at Rouen, gave its
name to a seigniory during the middle ages, and possessed a
priory of which the church and a 12th-century chapel remain;
Condc-sur-Marne (Condole), once a place of some importance,
preserves one of its parish churches, with a fine Romanesque
tower. The two towns are: —
x. Cond£-sur-l'Escaut, in the department of Nord, at the
junction of the canals of the Scheldt and of Condc-Mons. Pop.
(1006) town, 2701; commune, 5310. It lies 7 m. N. by E. of
Valenciennes and 2 m. from the Belgian frontier. It has a church
dating from the middle of the 1 8th century. Trade is in coal and
cattle. The industries include brewing, rope-making and boat-
building, and there is a communal college. Conde {Condole) is
of considerable antiquity, dating at least from the later Roman
period. Taken in 1676 by Louis XIV., it definitely passed into
the possession of France by the treaty of Nijmwegen two years
later, and was afterwards fortified by Vauban. During the
revolutionary war it was besieged and taken by the Austrians
(i793)» and in 1815 it again fell to the allies. It was from
this place that the princes of Conde (q.v.) took their title. See
Perron-Gclineau, Condi ancicn et moderne (Nantes. 1887).
2. Cond£-su£-Noi*eau, in the department of Calvados, at
the confluence of the Noireau and the Drouance, 33 m. S.S.W. of
Caen on the Ouest-fitat railway. Pop. (1906) 5709. The town
is the seat of a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade-arbitration
and a chamber of arts and manufactures, and has a communal
college. It is important for its cotton-spinning and weaving, and
carries on dyeing, printing and machine-construction; there are
numerous nursery -gardens in the vicinity. Important fairs
are held in the town. The church of St Martin has a choir of
the 1 2th and 15th centuries, and a stained-glass window (151b
century) representing the Crucifixion. There is a statue to
Duraont d'Urville, the navigator (b. 1700), a native of the tovn.
Throughout the middle ages Condi (Condatum, Condeium) was
the seat of an important castellany, which was held by a long
succession of powerful nobles and kings, including Robert, count
of Mortain, Henry II. and John of England, Philip Augustus
of France, Charles IL (the Bad) and Charles III. of Navarre.
The place was held by the English from 1417 to 1449- Of the
castle some ruins of the keep survive. See L. Huct, Hist, dt
Condi-sur-Noircau, scs seigneurs, son industric t &c. (Caen, 1883).
CONDE, JOSfi ANTONIO (1 766-1820), Spanish Orientalist,
was born at Peralcja (Cuenca) on the 28th of October 1766,
and was educated at the university of Alcald. His translation of
Anacrcon (1791) obtained him a post in the royal library in 1795,
and in 1 796-1 797 he published paraphrases from Theocritus,
Bion, Moschus, Sappho and Melcager. These were followed by
a mediocre edition of the Arabic text of Edrisi's Desctipt.j*
of Spain (1799), with notes and a translation. Conde became
a member of the Spanish Academy in 1802 and of the Academy
of History in 1804, but his appointment as interpreter to Joseph
Bonaparte led to his expulsion from both bodies in 1814. lie
escaped to France in February 1813, and returned to Spain in
1814, but was not allowed to reside at Madrid till 1816. Two
years later he was re-elected by both academics; he died in
poverty on the 1 2th of June 1820. His Historic dt la Domination
de los Arabcs en Espaha was published in 1820-1821. Only the
first volume was corrected by the author, the other two being
compiled from his manuscript by Juan Tineo. This work was
translated into German (1824-1825), French (1825) and English
(1854). Conde's pretensions to scholarship have been severely
criticized by Dozy, and his history is now discredited. It had.
however, the merit of stimulating abler workers in the same field.
CONDENSATION OF OASES. If the volume of a gas con-
tinually decreases at a constant temperature, for which an
increasing pressure is required, two cases may occur: —
(x) The volume may continue to be homogeneously J^JJjJ^
filled. (2) If the substance is contained in a certain **,,
volume, and if the pressure has a certain value,
the substance may divide into two different phases, each
of which is again homogeneous. The value of the tempera-
ture T decides which case will occur. The temperature which
is the limit above which the space will always be homo-
geneously filled, and below which the substance divides into
two phases, is called the critical temperature of the substance.
It differs greatly for different substances, and if we represent it by
T„ the condition for the condensation of a gas is that T must
be below T c . If the substance is divided into two phases, two
different cases may occur. The denser phase may be either a
liquid or a solid. The limiting temperature for these two cases,
at which the division into three phases may occur, is called the
triple point. Let us represent it by Ti; if the term " condensation
of gases " is taken in the sense of " liquefaction of gases "—
which is usually done — the condition for condensation isT,>T>Tj.
The opinion sometimes held that for all substances T> is the same
fraction of T« (the value being about J) has decidedly not been
rigorously confirmed. Nor is this to be expected on account of
the very different form of crystallization which the solid state
presents. Thus for carbon dioxide, CO», for which T c *»304°
on the absolute scale, and for which we may put T»« 21 6°, this
fraction is about 07; for water it descends down to 042, and
for other substances it may be still lower.
If we confine ourselves to temperatures between T e and Tj, the
gas will pass into a liquid if the pressure is sufficiently increased.
When the formation of liquid sets in we call the gas a saturated
vapour. If the decrease of volume is continued, the gas pressure
remains constant till all the vapour has passed into liquid. The
invariability of the properties of the phases is in close connexion
with the invariability of the pressure (called maximum tension).
Throughout the course of the process of condensation these
properties remain unchanged, provided the temperature remain
CONDENSATION OF GASES
«4S
constant; only the relative quantity of the two phases changes.
Until all the gas has passed into liquid a further decrease of
volume will not require increase of pressure. But as soon as
the liquefaction is complete a slight decrease of volume will
require a great increase of pressure, liquids being but slightly
compressible.
The pressure required to condense a gas varies with the
temperature, becoming higher as the temperature rises. The
CrlUca l highest pressure will therefore be found at T« and
pnuum the lowest at T». We shall represent the pressure at
T« by p e . It is called the critical pressure. The
pressure at Ta we shall represent by pi. It is called the pressure
of the triple point. The values of T« and p t for different substances
will be found at the end of this article. The values of Ti and pi
are accurately known only for a few substances. As a rule pi
is small, though occasionally it is greater than x atmosphere.
This is the case with COt, and we may in general expect it if the
value of Ta/T c is large. In this case there can only be a question
of a real boiling-point (under the normal pressure) if the liquid
can be supercooled.
We may find the value of the pressure of the saturated vapour
for each T in a geometrical way by drawing in the theoretical
isothermal a straight line parallel to the v-axis in such a way
that jp t pdt will have the same value whether the straight
line or the theoretical isothermal is followed. This construction,
given by James Clerk Maxwell, may be considered as a result
of the application of the general rules for coexisting equilibrium,
which we owe to J. Willard Gibbs. The construction derived
from the rules of Gibbs is as follows:— Construe the free energy at
a constant temperature, i.e. the quantity -fpdv as ordinate, if the '
abscissa represents v, and determine the inclination of the double
tangent. Another construction derived from the rules of Gibbs
might be expressed as follows:— Construe the value of pw-fpdw
as ordinate, the abscissa representing p, and determine the point
of intersection of two of the three branches of this curve.
As an approximate half -empirical formula for the calculation
of the pressure, -logw f, = J\^~) mav ^ uscc ** ** wo ^
follow from the law of corresponding states that in this formula
the value of / is the same for all substances, the molecules of
which do not associate to form larger molecule-complexes.
In fact, for a great many substances, we find a value for /, which
differs but little from 3, e.g. ether, carbon dioxide, benzene,
benzene derivatives, ethyl chloride, ethane, &c. As the chemical
structure of these substances differs greatly, and association,
if it takes place, must largely depend upon the structure of the
molecule, we conclude from this approximate equality that the
fact of this value of/ being equal to about 3 is characteristic for
normal substances in which, consequently, association is ex-
cluded. Substances known to associate, such as organic acids
and alcohols, have a sensibly higher value of/. Thus T. Estreicher
(Cracow, 1896) calculates that for fluor-benzene/ varies between
3*07 and 294; for ether between 30 and 31; but for water
between 3*2 and 3*33, and for methyl alcohol between 3*65 and
3 84, &c. For isobutyl alcohol / even rises above 4. It is,
however, remarkable that for oxygen / has been found almost
invariably equal to 2-47 from K. Olszewski's observations, a
value which is appreciably smaller than 3. This fact makes us
again seriously doubt the correctness of the supposition that/= 3
is a characteristic for non-association.
It is a general rule that the volume of saturated vapour
decreases when the temperature is raised, while that of the
coexisting liquid increases. We know only one
exception to this rule, and that is the volume of water
below 4 C. If we call the liquid volume vt, and the
vapour r„ v, - vi decreases if the temperature rises, and becomes
zero at T«. The limiting value, to which Vt and v, converge at T«,
is called the critical volume, and we shall represent it by v*.
According to the law of corresponding states the values both of
vi/r, and v\jv, must be the same for all substances, if T/T. has been
taken equal for them alL According to the investigations of |
Sydney Young, this holds good with a high degree of approxima-
tion for a long series of substances. Important deviations from
this rule for the values of %/vi arc only found for those substances
in which the existence of association has already been discovered
by other methods. Since the lowest value of T, for which
investigations on vj and v w may be made, is the value of T»;
and since Ta/T« as has been observed above, is not the same
for all substances, we cannot expect the smallest value of n/r,
to be the same for all substances. But for low values of T, vis.
such as are near Ta, the influence of the temperature on the
volume is but slight, and therefore we are not far from the truth
if we assume the minimum value of the ratio ti/r, as being
identical for all normal substances, and put it at about |.
Moreover, the influence of the polymerization (association) on
the liquid volume appears to be small, so that we may even
attribute the value \ to substances which are not normal. The
value of »,/*, at T-Tj differs widely for different substances.
If we take p» so low that the law of Boyle-Gay Lussac may be
applied, we can calculate t»/*« by means of the formula
Ep^Jk^j? 2 , provided k be known. According to the observa-
tions of Sydney Young, this factor has proved to be 3 • 7 7 for normal
substances. In consequence ^=3-77 ^y 2 . A similar formula,
but with another value of k, may be given for associating sub-
stances, provided the saturated vapour docs not contain any
complex molecules. But if it does, as is the case with acetic
acid, we must also know the degree of association. It can,
however, only be found by measuring the volume itself.
£. Mathias has remarked that the following relation exists
between the densities of the saturated vapour and of
the coexisting liquid:— frnmmnr
Pi+P. - ap. J 1 +« (1 tJ j » 4S*wton
and that, accordingly, the curve which represents the densities
at different temperatures possesses a rectilinear diameter.
According to the law of corresponding states, a would be the
same for all substances. Many substances, indeed, actually
appear to have a rectilinear diameter, and the value of a appears
approximatively to be the same. In a Mimoire priscnti a la
soctiU royale d Liege, 15th June 1899, £. Mathias gives a list of
some twenty substances for which o has a value lying between
0-95 and 1*05. It had been already observed by Sydney Young
that a is not perfectly constant even for normal substances.
For associating substances the diameter is not rectilinear.
Whether the value of a, near 1, may serve as a characteristic
for normal substances is rendered doubtful by the fact that for
nitrogen a is found equal to 06813 and for oxygen to o-8. At
T-T./2, the formula, of £. Mathias, if p, be neglected with respect
to pi t gives the value 2 -fa for PiIp».
The heat required to convert a molecular quantity of liquid
coexisting with vapour into saturated vapour at the same
temperature is called molecular latent heat. It decreases
with the rise of the temperature, because at a higher
temperature the liquid has already expanded, and
because the vapour into which it has to be converted is denser.
At the critical temperature it is equal to zero on account of the
identity of the liquid and the gaseous states. If we call the
molecular weight m and the latent heat per unit of weight r,
then, according to the law of corresponding states, mr/T is the
same for all normal substances, provided the temperatures are
corresponding. According to F. T. Trouton, the value of mr/T
is the same for all substances if we take for T the boiling-point.
As the boiling-points under the pressure of one atmosphere are
generally not equal fractions of T«, the two theorems are not
identical; but as the values of p* for many substances do not
differ so much as to make the ratios of the boiling-points under
the pressure of one atmosphere differ greatly from the ratios
of T«, an approximate confirmation of the law of Trouton may
be compatible with an approximate confirmation of the conse-
quence of the law of corresponding states. If we take the term
boiling-point in a more general sense, and put T in the law at
CONDENSATION OF GASES
847
observed density of the vapour with that which is calculated
from the hypothesis of such an association to double-molecules,
makes this supposition almost a certainty. In such cases the
molecules in the much denser liquid state must therefore be
considered as double- molecules, either completely so or in a
variable degree depending on the temperature. The given
equation of state cannot hold for such substances. Even though
we assume that a and b are not modified by the formation of
double-molecules, yet RTis modified, and, since it is proportional
to the number of the molecules, is diminished by the combina-
tion. The laws found for normal substances will, therefore,
not hold for such associating substances. Accordingly for
substances for which we have already found an anormal density
of the vapour, we cannot expect the general laws for the liquid
State, which have been treated above, to hold good without
modification, and in many respects such substances will therefore
not follow the law of corresponding states. There are, however,
also substances of which the anormal density of vapour has not
been stated, and which yet cannot be ranged under this law,
§.g. water and alcohols. The most natural thing, of course,
b to ascribe the deviation of these substances, as of the others,
to the fact that the molecules of the liquid arc polymerized.
In this case we have to account for the following circumstance,
that whereas for XOi and acetic acid in the state of saturated
Vapour the degree of association increases if the temperature
falls, the reverse must take place for water and alcohols. Such
a difference may be accounted for by the difference in the
quantity of heat released by the polymerization to double-
molecules or larger molecule-complexes. The quantity of heat
gven out when two molecules fall together may be calculated
r NO] and acetic acid from the formula of Gibbs for the
density of vapour, and it proves to be very considerable. With
this the following fact is closely connected. If in the pv diagram,
Starting from a point indicating the state of saturated vapour,
a geometrical locus is drawn of the points which have the same
degree of association, this curve, which passes towards iso-
thennals of higher T if the volume diminishes, requires for the
tame change in T a greater diminution of volume than is indicated
by the border-curve. For water and alcohols this geometrical
locus will be found on the other side of the border-curve, and
the polymerization heat will be small, i.e smaller than the
latent heat. For substances with a small polymerization heat
the degree of association will continually decrease if we move
along the border-curve on the side of the saturated vapour in
the direction towards lower T. With this, it is perfectly com-
patible that for such substances the saturated vapour, e.g. under
the pressure of one atmosphere, should show an almost normal
density. Saturated vapour of water at ioo° has a density which
seems nearly 4% greater than the theoretical one, an amount
which is greater than can be ascribed to the deviation from
the gas-laws. For the relation between v, T, and x, if x represents
the fraction of the number of double-molecules, the following
formula has been found (" Molcculartheorie," Zetis. Phys. Chcm.,
1890, vol. v) :
,o S(T^0 1 - 2 -R7r +C *
from which _
r^VrfT/. -"RTT'
which may elucidate what precedes.
By far the majority of substances have a value of T, above
the ordinary temperature, and diminution of volume (increase
CtadtaiM °* P r «sure) »* sufficient to condense such gaseous
itoflo/ substances into liquids. If T, is but little above the
Bmb»taoc9$ ordinary temperature, a great increase of pressure is
with low i n general required to effect condensation. Substances
' for which T« is much higher than the ordinary tempera-
ture To, e.g. T<> 5 To, occur as liquids, even without increase of
pressure; that is, at the pressure of one atmosphere. The
Talue I is to be considered as only a mean value, because of the
Inequality of p c The substances for which T« is smaller than
the ordinary temperature are but few in number. Taking the
temperature of melting ice as a limit, these gases are in successive
order: CH4, NO, Oi, CO, N* and Hi (the recently discovered
gases argon, helium, &c, arc left out of account). If these gases
are compressed at o° centigrade they do not show a trace of
liquefaction, and therefore they were long known under the
name of " permanent gases." The discovery, however, of the
critical temperature carried the conviction that these substances
would not be " permanent gases " if they were compressed at
much lower T. Hence the problem arose how " low tempera-
tures " were to be brought about. Considered from a general
point of view the means to attain this end may be described as
follows: we must make use of the above-mentioned circum-
stance that heat disappears when a substance expands, cither
with or without performing external work. According as this
heat is derived from the substance itself which is to be condensed,
or from tlie substance which is used as a means of cooling, we
may divide the methods for condensing the so-called permanent
gases into two principal groups.
In order to use a liquid as a cooling bath it must be placed
in a vacuum, and it must be possible to keep the pressure of the
vapour in that space at a small value. According to
the boiling-law, the temperature of the liquid must
descend to that at which the maximum tension of the
vapour is equal to the pressure which reigns on the
surface of the liquid. If the vapour, cither by means of absorp-
tion or by an air-pump, is exhausted from the space, the tempera-
ture of the liquid and that of the space itself depend upon the
value of the pressure which finally prevails in the space. From
a practical point of view the value of Tj may be regarded as the
limit to which the temperature falls. It is true that if the air
is exhausted to the utmost possible extent, the temperature
may fall still lower, but when the substance has become solid,
a further diminution of the pressure in the space is of little
advantage. At any rate, as a solid body evaporates only on
the surface, and solid gases are bad conductors of heat, further
cooling will only take place very slowly, and will scarcely
neutralize the influx of heat. If the pressure p% is very small,
it is perhaps practically impossible to reach T»; if so, Ta in the
following lines will represent the temperature practically attain-
able. There is thus for every gas a limit below which it is not
to be cooled further, at least not in this way. If, however,
we can find another gas for which the critical temperature is
sufficiently above T» of the first chosen gas, and if it is converted
into a liquid by cooling with the first gas, and then treated in
the same way as the first gas, it may in its turn be cooled down
to (Ti)j. Going on in this way, continually lower temperatures
may be attained, and it would be possible to condense all gases,
provided the difference of the successive critical temperatures
of two gases fulfils certain conditions. If the ratio of the absolute
critical temperatures for two gases, which succeed one another
in the scries, should be sensibly greater than 2, the value of T»
for the first gas is not, or not sufficiently, below the T« of the
second gas. This is the case when one of the gases is nitrogen,
on which hydrogen would follow as second gas. Generally,
however, we shall take atmospheric air instead of nitrogen.
Though this mixture of N« and Oa will show other critical
phenomena than a simple substance, yet we shall continue to
speak of a T« for air, which is given at — 140° C, and for which,
therefore, T« amounts to 133 absolute. The lowest T which
may be expected for air in a highly rarefied spare may be
evaluated at 6o° absolute — a value which is higher than the T,
for hydrogen. Without new contrivances it would, accordingly,
not be possible to reach the critical temperature of Hi. The
method by which we try to obtain successively lower temperatures
by making use of successive gases is called the " cascade method."
It is not self-evident that by sufficiently diminishing the pressure
on a liquid it may be cooled to such a degree that the temperature
will be lowered to T 3 , if the initial temperature was equal to T«,
or but little below it, and we can even predict with certainty
that this will not be the case for all substances. It is possible,
too. that long before the triple point is reached the whole liquid
will have evaporated. The most favourable coudUia-ca. ^rji^a*
848
CONDENSATION OF GASES
course, be attained when the influx of heat is reduced to a
minimum. As a limiting case we imagine the process to be
isentropic. Now the question has become, Will an isentropic
line, which starts from a point of the border-curve on the side
of the liquid not far from the critical-point, remain throughout
Its. descending course in the heterogeneous region, or will it
leave the region on the side of the vapour? As early as 1878
van der Waals {Verslagen Ken. A had. Amsterdam) pointed out
that the former may be expected to be the case only for sub*
stances for which c p \c* is large, and the latter for those for which
it is small; in other words, the former will take place for sub-
stances the molecules of which contain few atoms, and the latter
for substances the molecules of which contain many atoms.
Ether is an example of the latter class, and if we say that the
quantity k (specific heat of the saturated vapour) for ether is
found to be positive, we state the same thing in other words.
It is not necessary to prove this theorem further here, as the
molecules of the gases under consideration contain only two
atoms and the total evaporation of the liquid is not to be feared.
In the practical application of this cascade-method some
variation is found in the gases chosen for the successive stages.
Thus methyl chloride, ethylene and oxygen are used in the
cryogenic laboratory of Leiden, while Sir James Dewar has used
air as the last term. Carbonic acid is not to be recommended
on account of the comparatively high value of Tj. In order to
prevent loss of gas a system of " circulation " is employed.
This method of obtaining low temperatures is decidedly laborious,
and requires very intricate apparatus, but it has the great
advantage that very constant low temperatures may be obtained,
and can be regulated arbitrarily within pretty wide limits...
In order to lower the temperature of a substance down to Ti,
it is not always necessary to convert it first into the liquid state
^^^ by means of another substance, as was assumed
JJjSJjJL in the last method for obtaining low temperatures.
Its own expansion is sufficient, provided the initial
condition be properly chosen, and provided we take care, even
more than in the former method, that there is no influx of heat.
Those conditions being fulfilled, we may, simply by adiabatic
expansion, not only lower the temperature of some substances
down to Ti, but also convert them into the liquid state. This
is especially the case with substances the molecules of which
contain few atoms.
Let us imagine the whole net of isothermals for homogeneous
phases drawn in a pc diagram, and in it the border-curve.
Within this border-curve, as in the heterogeneous region, the
theoretical part of every isothermal must be replaced by a straight
line. The isothermals may therefore be divided into two groups,
viz. those which keep outside the heterogeneous region, and
those which cross this region. Hence an isothermal, belonging
to the latter group, enters the heterogeneous region on the liquid
tide, and leaves it at the same level on the vapour side. Let us
imagine in the same way all the isentropic curves drawn for
homogeneous states. Their form resembles that of isothermals
in so far as they show a maximum and a minimum, if the entropy-
constant is below a certain value, while if it is above this value,
both the maximum and the minimum disappear, the isentropic
line in a certain point having at the same time^- and 5^"0
for this particular vahie of the constant. This point, which we
might call the critical point of the isentropic lines lies in the
heterogeneous region, and therefore cannot be realized, since
as soon as an isentropic curve enters this region its theoretical
part will be replaced by an empiric part. If an isentropic curve
crosses the heterogeneous region, the point where it enters this
region must, just as for the isothermals, be connected with the
point where it leaves the region by another curve. When
<V/«r, = A (the limiting value of c?jc, for infinite rarefaction is
meant) approaches unity, the isentropic curves approach the
isothermals and vice, versa. In the same way the critical point
of the isentropic curves comes nearer to that of the isothermals.
And if k is not much greater than i, e.g. A<i-o8, the following
property of the isothermals i* aJso preserved, viz. that an
isentropic curve, which enters the heterogeneous region on the
side of the liquid, leaves it again on the side of the vapour, not
of course at the same level, but at a lower point. If, however, k
is greater, and particularly if it is so great as it is with molecules
of one or two atoms, an isentropic curve, which enters on the
side of the liquid, however far prolonged, always remains within
the heterogeneous region. But in this case all isentropic curves,
if sufficiently prolonged, will enter the heterogeneous region
Every isentropic curve has one point of intersection with iht
border-curve, but only a small group intersect the border-curve
in three points, two of which arc to be found not far from the top
of the border-curve and on the side of the vapour. Whether
the sign of h (specific heat of the saturated vapour) is negative
or positive, is closely connected with the preceding facts. For
substances having k great, h will be negative if T is low, positive
if T rises, while it will change its sign again before T c is reached.
Tlie values of T, at which change of sign takes place, depend
on k. The law of corresponding states holds good for this value
of T for all substances which have the same value of k.
Now the gases which were considered as permanent are
exactly those for which k has a high value. From this it would
follow that every adiabatic expansion, provided it be sufficiently
continued, will bring such substances into the heterogeneous
region, i.e. they can be condensed by adiabatic expansion. But
since the final pressure must not fall below a certain limit,
determined by experimental convenience, and since the quantity
which passes into the liquid state must remain a fraction as
large as possible, and since the expansion never can take place
in such a manner that no heat is given out by the walls or the
surroundings, it is best to choose the initial condition in such a
way that the isentropic curve of this point cuts the border-curve
in a point on the side of the liquid, lying as low as possible. The
border-curve being rather broad at the top, there are many
isentropic curves which penetrate the heterogeneous region
under a pressure which differs but little from p t . Availing
himself of this property, K. Olszewski has determined p, for
hydrogen at 15 atmospheres. Isentropic curves, which lie oa
the right and on the left of this group, will show a point of con-
densation at a lower pressure. Olszewski has investigated this
for those lying on the right, but not for those on the left.
From the equation of state (P+^i) (»— &)*»RT, the equation
of the isentropic curve follows as (p+91) (»—&)* —C, and
from this we may deduce T(»— W*^-C. This latter rela-
tion shows in how high a degree the cooling depends on the
amount by which k surpasses unity, the change in v — b being
the same.
What has been said concerning the relative position of the
border-curve and the isentropic curve may be easily tested for
points of the border-curve which represent rarefied gaseous states,
in the following way. Following the border-curve we found
before /'j 1 for the value of « Jr- Following the isentropic curve
the value of ^5^ is equal to jrj. If £Zt<fY» tnc isentropic
curve rises more steeply than the border-curve. If we take f « 7
ami choose the value of T,/a for T — a temperature at which the
saturated vapour may be considered to follow the gas-laws — then
k,\k — i) « 14, or k = 107 would be the limiting value for the tv
cases. At any rate *=» 1-41 is great enough to fulfil the condition,
even for other values of T. Catlletct and Pictct have availed
themselves of this adiabatic expansion for condensing some
permanent gases, and it must also be used when, in the cascade
method, Ta of one of the gases lies above T« of the next.
A third method of condensing the permanent gases is applied
in C. P. G. Lindc's apparatus for liquefying air. Under a high
pressure P\ a current of gas is conducted through a mM _^_.
narrow spiral, returning through another spiral which ratlin f
surrounds the first. Between the end of the first spiral
and the beginning of the second the current of gas is reduced
to a much lower pressure pz by passing through a tap with a fine
CONDENSER— CONDILLAC
849
orifice. On account of the expansion resulting from this sudd™
decrease of pressure, the temperature of the gas, and conse-
quently of the two spirals, falls sensibly. If this process is
repeated with another current of gas, this current, having been
cooled in the inner spiral, will be cooled still further, and I he
temperature of the two spirals will become still lower. If I he
pressures Pi and p% remain constant the cooling will increase
with the lowering of the temperature. In Lindc't apparatus
this cycle is repeated over and over again, and after some tame
(about two or three hours) it becomes possible to draw off liquid
air.
The cooling which is the consequence of such a decrease of
pressure was experimentally determined in 1854 by Lord Kelvin
(then Professor W. Thomson) and Joule, who represent die
result of their experiments in the formula
Ti-T,-Aj£..
In their experiments p* was always x atmosphere, and the amount
of P\ was not large. It would, therefore, be certainly wrong,
even though for a small difference in pressure the empiric
formula might be approximately correct, without closer investi-
gation to make use of it for the differences of pressure used in
Linde's apparatus, where pi" 200 and £j»i8 atmospheres.
For the existence of a most favourable value of p\ is in contra-
diction with the formula, since it would follow from It that
Ti— T« would always increase with the increase or p ir Nor
would it be right to regard as the cause for the existence of this
most favourable value of p x the fact that the heat produced in
the compression of the expanded gas, and therefore pjp* t must
be kept as small as possible, for the simple reason that the heat
is produced in quite another part of the apparatus, and might
be neutralized in different ways.
Closer examination of the process shows that if p t is given < a
most favourable value of pi must exist for the cooling itself.
If P\ is taken still higher, the cooling decreases again, and we
might take a value for pi for which the cooling would be zero,
or even negative.
If we call the energy per unit of weight c and the specific volume
r,.the following equation holds:—
or ii+fiPi-ts+/>jri.
According to the symbols chosen by Gibbs, xi™x»-
As x\}i determined by Ti and pi, and » by T t and (% we obtain,
if we take Ti and pt as being constant,
(!f:) T ^-(^),;
<nv
If Tt is to have a minimum value, we have
From this follows
(£) Tl +ra.r,- -
As (£) is positive, we shall have to take for the
cooling such a pressure that the product pv decreases with ?, vj*.
a pressure larger than that at which pv has the minimum value.
By means of the equation of state mentioned already, we find for
the value of the specific volume that gives the greatest cooling the
formula
RT,» 9a
and for the value of the pressure ______«_
If we take the value aT« for Ti, as we may appro* ittij My for
air when we begin to, wqrk with the apparatus, we find for pt about
8p c , or more than 300 atmospheres. If we take Ti -T#. as we may
at the end of the process, we find Pi«a*5P«. or 100 atmosphere^
The constant pressure which has been found the most favourable
in Linde's apparatus is a mean of the two calculated preiuirn
In a theoretically perfect apparatus we ought, therefore, to be able
to regulate pi according to the temperature in the inner wpa*\.
The critical temperatures and pressures of the permanent
gases are given in the following table, the former being expressed
00 the absolute scale and the latter in atmospheres: —
NO
O,
Argon
191 -a*
1795°
155 f
P*
55
712
50 *
50*6
CO
N,
Air
H,
IMS*
1271
3a*
355
35
39
15
The values of T« and p, for hydrogen are those of Dewar.
They are in approximate accordance with those given by K.
Olszewski. Liquid hydrogen was first collected by J. Dewar in
1898. Apparatus for obtaining moderate and small quantities
have been described by M. W. Travcrs and K. Olszewski. H.
Kamcrlingh Onnes at Leiden has brought about a circulation
yielding more than 3 litres per hour, and has made use of it to
keep baths of 1-5 litre capacity at all temperatures between
20-2° and 13*7° absolute, the temperatures remaining constant
within o-oi°. (See also Liquid Gases.) (J. D. v. d. W.)
CONDENSER, the name given to many forms of apparatus
which have for their object the concentration of matter, or
bringing it into a smaller volume, or the intensification of energy.
In chemistry the word is applied to an apparatus which cools
down, or condenses, a vapour to a liquid; reference should be
made to the article Distillation for the various types in use,
and also to Gas (Gas Manufacture) and Coal Tab; the device
for the condensation of the exhaust steam of a steam-engine Is
treated in the article Steam-Engine. In woollen manufactures,
" condensation " of the wool is an important operation and is
accomplished by means of a " condenser/' The term is also
given— generally as a qualification, e.g. condensing-syringe,
condensing-pump, — to apparatus by which air or a vapour may
be compressed. In optics a " condenser " is a lens, or system
of lenses, which serves to concentrate or bring the luminous
rays to a focus; it is specially an adjunct to the optical lantern
and microscope. In electrostatics a condenser is a device for
concentrating an electrostatic charge (see Electrostatics ;
LeydenJar; Electkopiiorus).
CONDER, CHARLES (1868-1009), English artist, son of a
civil engineer, was born in London, and spent his early years
in India. After an English education he went into the govern-
ment service in Australia, but in 1800 determined to devote
himself to art, and studied for several years in Paris, where in
1893 he became an associate of the Sotiete* Nationalc des Beaux-
Arts. About 1895 his reputation as an original painter, par-
ticularly of Watteau-like designs for fans, spread among a limited
circle of artists in London, mainly connected first with the New
English Art Club, and later the International Society; and
his unique and charming decorative style, in dainty pastoral
scenes, gradually gave him a peculiar vogue among connoisseurs.
Examples of his work were bought for the Luxembourg and other
art galleries. Conder suffered much in later years from ill-health,
and died on the 9th of February 1909.
CONDILLAC tiTIENNE BONNOT DE (17x5-1780), French
philosopher, was born at Grenoble of a legal family on the 30th
of September 17x5, and, like bis elder brother, the well-known
political writer, abbe" de Mably, took holy orders and became
abbe" de Mureau. 1 In both cases the profession was hardly
more than nominal, and Condillac's whole life, with the exception
of an interval as tutor at the court of Parma, was devoted to
speculation. His works are Essai sur V origin* des connaissances
humaines (1746), Traili des systhnes (1749), Traiti des sensations
(1754), Traitides animaux (1755), a comprehensive Cours d % itudes
(1767-1773) in 13 vols., written for the young Duke Ferdinand
of Parma, a grandson of Louis XV., Le Commerce el le gouxerne-
ment t considirts relativcment Vun d l' autre (1776), and two
posthumous works, Logique (1781) and the unfinished Langue
des calculs (1798). In his earlier days in Paris he came much
into contact with the circle of Diderot A friendship with
Rousseau, which lasted in some measure to the end, may have
been due In the first instance to the fact that Rousseau had been
domestic tutor in the family of Condillac's uncle, M. de Mably,
' • U. abbot in cpmrnenaam ot the Premonstratensian abbey of
Hwfssw M ifcsj Vosgea (Ed.)
atMSM Jaiui* .XT .
850
CONDILLAC
at Lyons. Thanks to his natural caution and reserve, Condillac's
relations with unorthodox philosophers did not injure his career;
and he justified abundantly the choice of the French court in
sending him to Parma to educate the orphan duke, ihcn a child
of seven years. In x 768, on his return from Italy, he was elected
to the French Academy, but attended no meeting after his recep-
tion. He spent his later years in retirement at Flux, a small
property which he had purchased near Beaugency, and died there
on the 3rd of August 1780.
Though Condillac's genius was not of the highest order, he
is important both as a psychologist and as having established
systematically in France the principles of Locke, whom Voltaire
had lately made fashionable. In setting forth his empirical
sensationism, Condillac shows many of the best qualities of his
age and nation, lucidity, brevity, moderation and an earnest
striving after logical method. Unfortunately it must be said of
him as of so many of his contemporaries, " cr hat die Thcile in
seiner Hand, fchlt lcider nur dcr geistiger Band "; in the analysis
of the human mind on which his fame chiefly rests, he has missed
out the active and spiritual side of human experience. His first
book, the Essai sur Vorigine des connaissances humaines, keeps
dose to his English master. He accepts with some indecision
Locke's deduction of our knowledge from two sources, sensation
and reflection, and uses as his main principle of explanation the
association of ideas. His next book, the Traiti des systemes,
is a vigorous criticism of those modern systems which are based
upon abstract principles or upon unsound hypotheses. His
polemic, which is inspired throughout with the spirit of Locke,
is directed against the innate ideas of the Cartesians, Male-
branche's faculty — psychology, Leibnitz's monadism and pre-
established harmony, and, above all, against the conception of
substance set forth in the first part of the Ethics of Spinoza. By
far the most important of his works is the Traiti des sensations,
in which he emancipates himself from the tutelage of Locke and
treats psychology in his own characteristic way. He had been
led, he tells us, partly by the criticism of a talented lady, Made-
moiselle Ferrand, to question Locke's doctrine that the senses
give us intuitive knowledge of objects, that the eye, for example,
judges naturally of shapes, sizes, positions and distances. His
discussions with the lady had convinced him that to clear up such
questions it was necessary to study our senses separately, to
distinguish precisely what ideas we owe to each sense, to observe
how the senses are trained, and how one sense aids another.
The result, he was confident, would show that all human faculty
and knowledge are transformed sensation only, to the exclusion
of any other principle, such as reflection. The plan of the book
is that the author imagines a statue organized inwardly like a
man, animated by a soul which has never received an idea,
into which no sense-impression has ever penetrated. He then
unlocks its senses one by one, beginning with smell, as the sense
that contributes least to human knowledge. At its first ex-
perience of smell, the consciousness of the statue is entirely
occupied by it; and this occupancy of consciousness is attention.
The statue's smell-experience will produce pleasure or pain;
and pleasure and pain will thenceforward be the master-principle
which, determining all the operations of its mind, will raise it
by degrees to all the knowledge of which it is capable. The next
stage is memory, which is the lingering impression of the smell-
experience upon the attention: " memory is nothing more than
a mode of feeling." From memory springs comparison: the
statue experiences the smell, say, of a rose, while remembering
that of a carnation; and " comparison is nothing more than
giving one's attention to two things simultaneously." And
' as soon as the statue has comparison it has judgment." Com-
parisons and judgments become habitual, are stored in the mind
and formed into scries, and thus arises the powerful principle
of the association of ideas. From comparison of past and present
experiences in respect of their pleasure-giving quality arises
desire; it is desire that determines the operation of our faculties,
stimulates the memory and imagination, and gives rise to the
psxuoas. The passions, also, are nothing but sensation trans-
Aatmed. These, indications will suffice to show the general course
of the argument in the first section of the Traiti des J
To show the thoroughness of the treatment it will be enough to
quote the headings of the chief remaining chapters: M Of the
Ideas of a Man limited to the Sense of Smell," " Of a Man limited
to the Sense of Hearing," " Of Smell and Hearing combined,"
" Of Taste by itself, and of Taste combined with Smell and
Hearing," " Of a Man limited to the Sense of Sight." In the
second section of the treatise Condillac invests his statue vita
the sense of touch, which first informs it of the existence d
external objects. In a very careful and elaborate analysis, he
distinguishes the various elements in our tactile experiences—
the touching of one's own body, the touching of objects other
than one's own body, the experience of movement, the explora-
tion of surfaces by the hands: he traces the growth of the statue's
perceptions of extension, distance and shape. The third sectioa
deals with the combination of touch with the other senses. The
fourth section deals with the desires, activities and ideas of aa
isolated man who enjoys possession of all the senses; and endi
with observations on a " wild boy " who was found living among
bears in the forests of Lithuania. The conclusion of the whole
work is that in the natural order of things everything has its
source in sensation, and yet that this source is not equally
abundant in all men; men differ greatly in the degree of vividness
with which they feel; and, finally, that man is nothing but
what he has acquired; all innate faculties and ideas are to be
swept away. The last dictum suggests the difference that has
been made to this manner of psychologizing by modern theories
of evolution and heredity.
Condillac's work on politics and history, contained, for the
most part, in his Cows d'itudes, offers few features of interest,
except so far as it illustrates his close affinity to English thought:
he had not the warmth and imagination to make a good historian.
In logic, on which he wrote extensively, he is far less successful
than in psychology. He enlarges with much iteration, but with
few concrete examples, upon the supremacy of the analytic
method; argues that reasoning consists in the substitution of
one proposition for another which is identical with it; and lays
it down that science is the same thing as a well-constructed
language, a proposition which in his Langue des calculs he tries
to prove by the example of arithmetic. His logic has in fact
the good and bad points that we might expect to find in a
sensationist who knows no science but mathematics. He rejects
the medieval apparatus of the syllogism; but is precluded by
his standpoint from understanding the active, spiritual character
of thought; nor had be that interest in natural science and
appreciation of inductive reasoning which form the chief merit
of J. S. Mill. It is obvious enough that Condillac's anti-spiritual
psychology, with its explanation of personality as an aggregate
of sensations, leads straight to atheism and determinism. There
is, however, no reason to question the sincerity with which he
repudiates both these consequences. What he says upon religion
is always in harmony with his profession; and he vindicated
the freedom of the will in a dissertation that has very little in
common with the Traiti des sensations to which it is appended.
The common reproach of materialism should certainly not be
made against him. He always asserts the substantive reality
of the soul; and in the opening words of his Essai, "Whether
we rise to heaven, or descend to the abyss, we never get outside
ourselves — it is always our own thoughts that we perceive,"
we have the subjectivist principle that forms the starting-point
of Berkeley.
As was fitting to a disciple of Locke, Condillac's ideas have
had most importance in their effect upon English thought. In
matters connected with the association of ideas, the supremacy
of pleasure and pain, and the general explanation of all mental
contents as sensations or transformed sensations, his influence
can be traced upon the Mills and upon Bain and Herbert Spencer.
And, apart from any definite propositions, Condillac did a notable
work in the direction of making psychology a science; it is a
great step from the desultory, genial observation of Locke to
the rigorous analysis of Condillac, short-sighted and defective
as that analysis may seem to us in the light of fuller knowledge.
CONDITION— CONDOM
85'
His method, however, of imaginative reconstruction was by no
means suited to English ways of thinking. In spite of his
protests against abstraction, hypothesis and synthesis, his
allegory of the statue is in the highest degree abstract, hypo-
thetical and synthetic. James Mill, who stood more by the
study of concrete realities, put Condillac into the hands of his
youthful son with the warning that here was an example of what
to avoid in the method of psychology. In France Condillac's
doctrine, so congenial to the tone of 18th century philosophism,
reigned in the schools for over fifty years, challenged only by a
few who, like Maine de Biran, saw that it gave no sufficient
account of volitional experience. Early in the 19th century,
the romantic awakening of Germany had spread to France, and
sensationism was displaced by the eclectic spiritualism of Victor
Cousin.
Condillac's collected works were published in 1798 (33 vols.) and
two or three times subsequently; the last edition (1822) has
an introductory dissertation by A. F. Thery. The Encyclopedic
mitkodiquo has a very long article on Condillac (Naigeon). Bio-
graphical details and criticism of the TraiU des syslinus in J. P.
Damiron's Mimoires pour servir a Vhistoire dt la phtlosopkit au dix-
huilieme siicle, tome iii.: a full criticism in V. Cousin's Court de
Vhistoire dt la philosophic modernt } ser. i. tome iii. Consult also
F. Rethore, Condillac ou Vempirume et le rationalism* (1864);
L. Dcwaule, Condillac el la psychologic angfaisecontemporaineiiBgi);
histories of philosophy. (H. St.)
CONDITION (Lat. conditio, from condicere, to agree upon,
arrange; not connected with conditio, from eondere, conditum,
to put together), a stipulation, agreement. The term is applied
technically to any circumstance, action or event which is
regarded as the indispensable prerequisite of some other circum-
stance, action or event. It is also applied generally to the sum
of the circumstances in which a person is situated, and more
specifically to favourable or prosperous circumstances; thus a
person of wealth or birth is described as a person " of condition,"
or an athlete as being " in condition," i.e. physically fit, having
gone through the necessary course of preliminary training. In
all these senses there is implicit the idea of limitation or restraint
imposed with a view to the attainment of a particular end.
(1) In Logic, the term "condition" is closely related to
" cause " in so far as it is applied to prior events, &c, in the
absence of which another event would not take place. It is,
however, different from "cause" inasmuch as it has a pre-
dominantly negative or passive significance. Hence the adjective
" conditional " is applied to propositions in which the truth of
the main statement is made to depend on the truth of another;
these propositions are distinguished from categorical propositions,
which simply state a fact, as being " composed of two categorical
propositions united by a conjunction," e.g. if A is B, C is D.
The second statement (the "consequent") is restricted or
qualified by the first (the " antecedent "). By some logicians
these propositions are classified as (1) Hypothetical, and (2).
Disjunctive, and their function in syllogistic reasoning gives
rise to the following classification of conditional arguments:— (o)
Constructive hypothetical syllogism {modus ponens, " affirma-
tive mood "): If A is B, C is D; but A is B; therefore C
is D. (b) Destructive hypothetical syllogism (modus toll ens,
mood which " removes," i.e. the consequent): if A is B, C is D;
but C is not D; therefore A is not B. In (a) the antecedent
must be affirmed, in (b) the consequent must be denied; other-
wise the arguments become fallacious. A second class of con-
dilional arguments are disjunctive syllogisms consisting of (r)
the modus ponendo tollens: A is either B or C; but A is B;
therefore C is not D; and (d) modus toUendo ponens: A is either
B or C; A is not B; therefore A is C. A more complicated
conditional argument is the dilemma (q.v.). 1
The limiting or restrictive significance of " condition " has
led to its use in metaphysical theory in contradistinction to the
conception of absolute being, the aseilas of the Schoolmen.
•The terminology used above has not been adopted by all
logicians, " Conditional " has been used as equivalent to " hypo-
thetical " in the widest sense (including ''disjunctive"); or
narrowed down to be synonymous with " conjunctive " (the con-
dition being there more explicit), as a subdivision of "hypothetical."
Thus all finite things exist in certain relations not only to all
other things but also to thought; in other words, all finite
existence is " conditioned." Hence Sir Wm. Hamilton speaks
of the " philosophy of the unconditioned," i.e. of thought in
distinction to things which are determined by thought in relation
to other things. An analogous distinction is made (cf. H. W. B.
Joseph, Introduction to Logic, pp. 380 foil.) between the so-called
universal laws of nature and conditional principles, which,
though they are regarded as having the force of law, are yet
dependent or derivative, i*. cannot be treated as universal truths.
Such principles hold good under present conditions, but other
conditions might be imagined under which they would be
invalid; they bold good only as corollaries from the laws of
nature under existing conditions.
(2) In Law, condition in its general sense is a restraint annexed
to a thing, so that by the non-performance the party to it shall
receive prejudice and loss, and by the performance commodity
or advantage. Conditions may be either: (1) condition in a
deed or express condition, %jc. the condition being expressed in
actual words; or (2) condition in law or implied condition, i*.
where, although no condition is actually expressed, the law
implies a condition. The word is also used indifferently to mean
either the event upon the happening of which some estate or
obligation is to begin or end, or the provision or stipulation that
the estate or obligation will depend upon the happening of the
event. A condition may be of several kinds: (1) a condition
precedent, where, for example, an estate is granted to one for life
upon condition that, if the grantee pay the grantor a certain
sum on such a day, he shall have the fee simple; (2) a condition
subsequent, where, for example, an estate is granted in fee upon
condition that the grantee shall pay a certain sum on a certain
day, or that his estate shall cease. Thus a condition precedent
gets or gains, while a condition subsequent keeps and continues.
A condition may also be affirmative, that is, the doing of an act;
negative, the not doing of an act; restrictive, compulsory, &c.
The word is also used adjectivally in the sense set out above, as
in the phrases " conditional legacy," " conditional limitation,"
" conditional promise," &c.; that is, the legacy, the limitation,
the promise is to take effect only upon the happening of a
certain event.
CONDITIONAL FEB, at English common law, a fee or estate
restrained in its form of donation to some particular heirs, as,
to the heirs of a man's body, or to the heirs male of Jus body.
It was called a conditional fee by reason of the condition expressed
or implied in the donation of it, that if the donee died without
such particular heirs, the land should revert to the donor. In
other words, it was a fee simple on condition that the donee had
issue, and as soon as such issue was born, the estate was supposed
to become absolute by the performance of the condition. A
conditional fee was converted by the statute De Donis Condi"
lionalibus into an estate tail (see Real Property).
CONDITIONAL LIMITATION, in law, a phrase used in two
senses. (1) The qualification annexed to the grant of an estate
or interest in land, providing for the determination of that grant
or interest upon a particular contingency happening. An estate
with such a limitation can endure only until the particular
contingency happens; it is a present interest, to be divested
on a future contingency. The grant of an estate to a man so
long as he is parson of Dale, or while he continues unmarried, are
instances of conditional limitations of estates for life. (2) A
future use or interest in land limited to take effect upon a given
contingency. For instance, a grant to X. and his heirs to the
use of A., provided that when C. returns from Rome the land
shall go to the use of B. in fee simple. B. is said to take under a
conditional limitation, operating by executory devise or springing
or shifting use (see Remainder, Reversion).
CONDOM, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Gers, on the right bank of
the Balsc, at its junction with the Gele, 27 m. by road N.N.W.
of Auch. Pop. (1006) town, 4046; commune, 6435. Two
stone bridges unite Condom with its suburb on the left bank of
the river. The streets ace small and nsxrow vuL vcraofe. <&sV.
852
CONDOR— CONDORCET
houses still remain, but to the east the town is bordered by
pleasant promenades. The Gothic church of St Pierre, its
chief building, was erected from 1506 to 1521, and was till
1700 a cathedral. The interior, which is without aisles or
transept, is surrounded by lateral chapels. On the south is a
beautifully sculptured portal. An adjoining cloister of the 16th
century is occupied by the hotel de ville. The former episcopal
palace with its graceful Gothic chapel is used as a law-court.
The sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a communal
college, are among the public institutions. Brandy-distilling,
wood-sawing, iron-founding and the manufacture of stills are
among the industries. The town is a centre for the sale of
Armagnac brandy and has commerce in grain and flour, much
of which is river-borne.
Condom (Condomus) was founded in the 8th century, but in
840 was sacked and burnt by the Normans. A monastery built
here c. 900 by the wife of Sancho of Gascony was soon destroyed
by fire, but in xox 1 was rebuilt by Hugh, bishop of Agen. Round
this abbey the town grew up, and in 13 17 was made into an
episcopal see by Pope John XXII. The line of bishops, which
included Bossuet (1668-1671), came to an end in 1700 when the
see was suppressed. Condom was, during the middle ages, a
fortress Ji considerable strength. During the Hundred Years'
War, after several unsuccessful attempts, it was finally captured
and held by the English. In 1569 it was sacked by the Huguenots
under Gabriel, count of Montgomery.
A list of monographs, &c, on the abbey, see and town of Condom
is given s.v. in U. Chevalier, Ripcrtoirt des sources. Topobttdiogr.
(Montbeuard, 1894-1899).
CONDOR {Sarcorkamphus gryphus), an American vulture, and
almost the largest of existing birds of flight, although by no
means attaining the dimensions attributed to it by early writers.
It usually measures about 4 ft. from the point of the beak to the
extremity of the tail, and 9 ft. between the tips of its wings,
while it is probable that the expanse of wing never exceeds 12 ft.
The head and neck are destitute of feathers, and the former,
which is much flattened above, is in the male crowned with a
caruncle or comb, while the skin of the latter in the same sex
Ues in folds, forming a wattle. The adult plumage is of a uniform
black, with the exception of a frill of white feathers nearly
surrounding the base of the neck, and certain wing feathers
which, especially in the male, have large patches of white. The
middle toe is greatly elongated, and the hinder one but slightly
developed, while the talons of all the toes are comparatively
straight and blunt, and are thus of little use as organs of pre-
hension. The female, contrary to the usual rule among birds of
prey, is smaller than the male.
The condor is a native of South America, where it is confined
to the region of the Andes, from the Straits of Magellan to 4
north latitude,— the largest examples, it is said, being found
about the volcano of Cayambi, situated on the equator. It is
often seen on the shores of the Pacific, especially during the
rainy season, but its favourite haunts for roosting and breeding
are at elevations of 10,000 to 16,000 ft. There, during the
months of February and March, on inaccessible ledges of rock,
it deposits two white eggs, from 3 to 4 in. in length, its nest
consisting merely of a few sticks placed around the eggs. The
period of incubation lasts for seven weeks, and the young arc
covered with a whitish down until almost as large as their
parents. They are unable to fly till nearly two years old, and
continue for a considerable time after taking wing to roost and
hunt with their parents. The white ruff on the neck, and the
similarly coloured feathers of the wing, do not appear until the
completion of the first moulting. By preference the condor
feeds on carrion, but it does not hesitate to attack sheep, goats
and deer, and for this reason it is hunted down by the shepherds,
who, it is said, train their dogs to look up and bark at the con-
dors as they fly overhead. They are exceedingly voracious, a
single condor of moderate size having been known, according
to Orion, to devour a calf, a sheep and a dog in a single week.
When thus gorged with food, they are exceedingly stupid, and
may then be readily caught. For this purpose a horse or mule
is killed, and the carcase surrounded with palisades to which tit
condors are soon attracted by the prospect of food, for the
weight of evidence seems to favour the opinion that thoa
vultures owe their knowledge of the presence of carrion mot
to sight than to scent. Having feasted themselves to excess,
they are set upon by the hunters with sticks, and being usable,
owing to the want of space within the pen, to take the run
without which they are unable to rise on wing, they are readOj
killed or captured. They sleep during the greater part of Uk
day, searching for food in the clearer light of morning and
evening. They are remarkably heavy sleepers, and are readily
captured by the inhabitants ascending the trees on which they
roost, and noosing them before they awaken. Great numbers
of condors are thus taken alive, and these, in certain districts,
are employed in a variety of bull-fighting. They are exceedingly
tenacious of life, and can exist, it is said, without food for over
forty days. Although the favourite haunts of the condor are
at the level of perpetual snow, yet it rises to a much greater
height, Humboldt having observed it flying over Cbimboraxo
at a height of over 23,000 ft. On wing the movements of the
condor, as it wheels in majestic circles, are remarkably gracefoL
The birds flap their wings on rising from the ground, but after
attaining a moderate elevation they seem to sail on the air,
Charles Darwin having watched them for half an hour without
once observing a flap of their wings.
CONDORCET, MARIE JEAN ANTOINB NICOLAS CABITAT.
Marquis de (i 743-1 794) » French mathematician, philosopher
and Revolutionist, was born at Ribemont, in Picaxdy, on the
1 7th of September 1 743. He descended from the ancient family
of Caritat, who took their title from Condorcet, near Nyons in
Dauphine, where they were long settled. His father dying
while he was very young, his mother, a very devout woman,
had him educated at the Jesuit College in Reims and at the
College of Navarre in Paris, where he displayed the most varied
mental activity. His first public distinctions were gained in
mathematics. At the age of sixteen his performances in analysis
gained the praise of D'Alembert and A. C. Clairaut, and at the
age of twenty-two he wrote a treatise on the integral calculus
which obtained warm approbation from competent judges.
With his many-sided intellect and richly-endowed emotionil
nature, however, it was impossible for him to be a specialist,
and least of all a specialist in mathematics. Philosophy and
literature attracted him, and social work was dearer to him thin
any form of intellectual exercise. In 1769 he became a member
of the Academy of Sciences. His contributions to its memoirs
are numerous, and many of them are on the most abstruse and
difficult mathematical problems.
Being of a very genial, susceptible and enthusiastic disposition,
he was the friend of almost all the distinguished men of his time,
and a zealous propagator of the religious and political views
then current among the literati of France. D'Alembert, Turgot
and Voltaire, for whom he had great affection and veneration,
and by whom he was highly respected and esteemed, contributed
largely to the formation of his opinions. His Lettre d'un lobourtur
de Picordie &M. N. . . (Necker) was written under the inspira-
tion of Turgot, in defence of free internal trade in corn. Condorcet
also wrote on the same subject the inflexions sur It commerce
des bits (1776). His Lettre d'un thdologien, &c, was attributed
to Voltaire, being inspired throughout by the Voltairian anti-
clerical spirit. He was induced by D'Alembert to take an active
part in the preparation of the Encyclopedic. His £iogcs da
Acadimiciens de V Acadlmie Royale des Sciences marts depuis
1666 jusqu'en 1699 (1773) gained him the reputation of being an
eloquent and graceful writer. He was elected to the perpetual
secretaryship of the Academy of Sciences in 1777, and to the
French Academy in x 783. He was also member of the academies
of Turin, St Petersburg, Bologna and Philadelphia. In 1785
he published his Essai sur l' application de V analyse aux pro-
babilitts des decisions prises A la plurality des mix,— a remarkable
work which has a distinguished place in the history of the doctrine
of probability; a second edition, greatly enlarged and completely
recast, appeared in 1804 under the title of Aliments du calcul
CONDORCET
853
des probabilitis et son application auxjeux de hazard, & la lotcrie,
et aux jugcmenls des hommcs, 6>c. In 17S6 he married Sophie
de Grouchy, a sister of Marshal Grouchy, said to have been
one of the most beautiful women of her time. Her salon at the
Hotel des Monnaics, where Condorcct lived in his capacity as
inspector-general of the mint, was one of the most famous of
the time. In 1786 Condorcet published his Vie de Turgot, and
in 1787 bis Vie de Voltaire. Both works were widely and eagerly
read, and are perhaps, from a merely literary point of view,
the best of Condorcct's writings.
The political tempest which had been long gathering over
France now began to break and to carry everything before it.
Condorcct was, of course, at once hurried along by it into the
midst of the conflicts and confusion of the Revolution. He
greeted with enthusiasm the advent of democracy, and laboured
hard to secure and hasten its triumph. He was indefatigable
in writing pamphlets, suggesting reforms, and planning constitu-
tions. He was not a member of the Slates-General of 1789,
but he had expressed his ideas in the electoral assembly of the
noblesse of Mantes. The first political functions which he
exercised were those of a member of the municipality of Paris
(1790). He was next chosen by the Parisians to represent
them in the Legislative Assembly, and then appointed by that
body one of its secretaries. In this capacity he drew up most
of its addresses, but seldom spoke, his pen being more effective
than his tongue. He was the chief author of the address to the
European powers when they threatened France with war. He
was keenly interested in education, and, as a member of the
committee of public instruction, presented to the Assembly
(April 21 and 22, 1792) a bold and comprehensive scheme for
the organization of a system of state education which, though
more urgent questions compelled its postponement, became the
basis of that adopted by the Convention, and thus laid the
foundations on which the modern system of national education
in France is built up. After the attempted flight of the king,
in June 1791, Condorcct was one of the first to declare in favour
of a republic, and it was he who drew up the memorandum
which led the Assembly, on the 4th of September 1792, to decree
the suspension of the king and the summoning of the National
Convention. He had, meanwhile, resigned his offices and left the
Hotel des Monnaies; his declaration in favour of republicanism
had alienated him from his former friends of the constitutional
party, and he did not join the Jacobin Club, which had not yet
declared against the monarchy. Though attached to no powerful
political group, however, his reputation gave him great influence.
At the elections for the Convention he was chosen for five
departments, and took his seat for that of Aisne. He now
became the most influential member of the committee on the
constitution, and as " reporter " he drafted and presented to the
Convention (February 15, 1793) a constitution, which was, how-
ever, after stormy debates, rejected in favour of that presented
by Htrault de Slchelles. The work of constitution-making had
been interrupted by the trial of Louis XVI. Condorcet objected
to the assumption of judicial functions by the Convention, ob-
jected also on principle to the infliction of the death penalty; but
he voted the king guilty of conspiring against liberty and worthy
of any penalty short of death, and against the appeal to the people
advocated by the Girondists. In the atmosphere of universal
suspicion that inspired the Terror his independent attitude could
not, however, be maintained with impunity. His severe and
Sublic criticism of the constitution adopted by the Convention,
is denunciation of the arrest of the Girondists, and his opposi-
tion to the violent conduct of the Mountain, led to his being
accused of conspiring against the Republic. He was condemned
and declared to be hors la hi. Friends, sought for him an
asylum in the house of Madame Vcmet, widow of the sculptor
and a near connexion of the painters of the same name.
Without even asking his name, this heroic woman, as soon as
she was assured that he was an honest man, said, " Let him come,
and lose not a moment, for while we talk he may be seized."
When the execution of the Girondists showed him that his
presence exposed his protectress to a terrible danger, he resolved
to seek a refuge elsewhere. " I am outlawed," he said, u and if
I am discovered you will meet the same sad end as myself. I
must not stay." Madame Vernct's reply deserves to be immortal,
and should be given in her own words: " La Convention,
Monsieur, a le droit de mettre hors la loi: die n'a pas le pouvoir
de mettre hors de l'humanit6; vous resterez." From that
time she had his movements strictly watched lest he should
attempt to quit her house. It was partly to turn his mind from
the idea of attempting this, by occupying it otherwise, that his
wife and some of his friends, with the co-operation of Madame
Vernct, prevailed on him to engage in the composition of the
work by which he is best known — the Esquisse d'un tableau
historique des progres de V esprit humain. In his retirement
Condorcet wrote also his justification, and several small works,
such as the Moyen d'apprendre & compter surement et avee facilili,
which he intended for the schools of the republic. Several of
these works were published at the time, thanks to his friends;
the rest appeared after his death. Among the latter was the
admirable Avis d'un proscrit & safille. While in hiding he also
continued to take an active interest in public affairs. Thus, he
wrote several important memoranda on the conduct of the war
against the Coalition, which were laid before the Committee off
Public Safety anonymously by a member of the Mountain named
Marcoz, who lived in the same house as Condorcet without
thinking it his duty to denounce him. In the same way he for-
warded to Arbogast, president of the committee for public instruc-
tion, the solutions of several problems in higher mathematics.
Certain circumstances having led him to believe that the
house of Madame Vernct, 21 rue Scrvandoni, was suspected
and watched by his enemies, Condorcct, by a fatally successful
artifice, at last baffled the vigilance of his generous friend and
escaped. Disappointed in finding even a night's shelter at the
chateau of one whom he had befriended, he had to hide for three
days and nights in the thickets and stone-quarries of Clamait.
On the evening of the 7th of April 1794— not, as Carlyle says,-
on a " bleared May morning," — with garments torn, with
wounded leg, with famished looks, be entered a tavern in the
village named, and called for an omelette. " How many eggs in
your omelette?" "A dozen." "What is your trade?" "A
carpenter." " Carpenters have not hands like these, and do
not ask for a dozen eggs in an omelette." When his papers were
demanded he had none to show; when his person was searched
a Horace was found on him. The villagers seized him, bound
him, haled him forthwith on bleeding feet towards Bourg-la-
Rcinc; he fainted by the way, was set on a horse offered in pity
by a passing peasant, and, at the journey's end, was cast into
a cold damp cell. Next morning he was found dead on the floor.
Whether he bad died from suffering and exhaustion, from
apoplexy or from poison, is an undetermined question.
Condorcct was undoubtedly a most sincere, generous and noble-
minded man. He was eager in the pursuit of truth, ardent in his
love of human good, and ever ready to undertake labour or
encounter danger on behalf of the philanthropic plans which
his fertile mind contrived and his benevolent heart inspired.
It was thus that he worked for the suppression of slavery, for
the rehabilitation of the chevalier de La Barre, and in defence
of Lally-TollcndaL He lived at a time when calumny was rife,
and various slanders were circulated regarding him, but fortu-
nately the slightest examination proves them to have been
inexcusable fabrications. That while openly opposing royalty he
was secretly soliciting the office of tutor to the Dauphin; that be
was accessory to the murder of the due de la Rochefoucauld;
or that he sanctioned the burning of the literary treasures of the
learned congregations, are stories which can be shown to be
utterly untrue.
His philosophical fame is chiefly associated with the Esquisst
. . .des progres mentioned above. With the vision of the guillo-
tine before him, with confusion and violence around him, he com-
forted himself by trying to demonstrate that the evils of life had
arisen from a conspiracy of priests and rulers against their fellows,
and from the bad laws and institutions which they had succeeded
in creating, but that tht tascoxt w«t <w&&feNfife| ^mm***."'**
*54
CONDOTTIERE
enemies and free itself of its evils. His fundamental idea is that
of a human perfectibility which has manifested itself in con-
tinuous progress in the past, and must lead to indefinite progress
in the future. He represents man as starting from the lowest
stage of barbarism, with no superiority over the other animals
savethatofbcdilyorganizauon,andasadvancinguiuntcrruptcdly,
at a more or less rapid rate, in the path of enlightenment, virtue
and happiness. The stages which the human race has already
gone through, or, in other words, the great epochs of history, are
regarded as nine in number. The first three can confessedly be
described only conjecturally from general observations as to the
development of the human faculties, and the analogies of savage
life. In the first epoch, men are united into hordes of hunters and
fishers, who acknowledge in some degree public authority and
the claims of family relationship, and who make use of an
articulate language. In the second epoch— the pastoral state —
property is introduced, and along with it inequality of conditions,
and even slavery, but also leisure to cultivate intelligence, to
invent some of the simpler arts, and to acquire some of the more
elementary truths of science. In the third epoch— the agricul-
tural state— as leisure and wealth arc greater, labour better
distributed and applied, and the means of communication
increased and extended, progress is still more rapid. With the
invention of alphabetic writing the conjectural part of history
closes and the more or less authenticated part commences.
The fourth and fifth epochs are represented as corresponding to
Greece and Rome. The middle ages are divided into two epochs,
the former of which terminates with the Crusades, and the latter
with the invention of printing. The eighth epoch extends from
the invention of printing to the revolution in the method of philo-
sophic thinking accomplished by Descartes. And the ninth epoch
begins with that great intellectual revolution, and ends with the
great political and moral revolution of 1789, and is illustrious,
according to Condorcet, through the discovery of the true system
of the physical universe by Newton, of human nature by Locke
and Condillac, and of society by Turgot, Richard Price and
Rousseau. There is an epoch of the future — a tenth epoch, —
and the most original part of Condorcet's treatise is that which
is devoted to it. After insisting that general laws regulative
of the past warrant general inferences as to the future, he argues
that the three tendencies which the entire history of the past
shows will be characteristic features of the future are:— (1) the
destruction of inequality between nations; (2) the destruction
of inequality between classes; and (3) the improvement of
individuals, the indefinite perfectibility of human nature itself
—intellectually, morally and physically. These propositions
have been much misunderstood. The equality to which he re-
presents nations and individuals as tending is not absolute
equality, but equality of freedom and of rights. It is that
equality which would make the inequality of the natural advant-
ages and faculties of each community and person beneficial to all.
Nations and men, he thinks, arc equal, if equally free, and are
all tending to equality because all tending to freedom. As to
indefinite perfectibility, he nowhere denies that progress is
conditioned both by the constitution of humanity and the char-
acter of its surroundings. But be affirms that these conditions
are compatible with endless progress, and that the human mind
can assign no fixed limits to its own advancement in knowledge
and virtue, or even to the prolongation of bodily life. This
theory explains the importance he attached to popular education,
to which he looked for all sure progress.
The book is pervaded by a spirit of excessive hopefulness, and
contains numerous errors of detail, which are fully accounted
for by the circumstances in which it was written. Its value lies
entirely in its general ideas. Its chief defects spring from its
author's narrow and fanatical aversion to all philosophy which
did not attempt to explain the world exclusively on mechanical
and sensational principles, to all religion whatever, and especially
to Christianity and Christian institutions, and to monarchy.
His ethical position, however, gives emphasis to the sympathetic
impulses and social feelings, and had considerable influence
upon Auguste Comic
Madame de Condorcet (b. 1764), who was some twenty yew
younger than her husband, was rendered penniless by ba
proscription, and compelled to support not only herself and her
four years old daughter but her younger sister, Charlotte de
Grouchy. After the end of the Jacobin Terror she published
an excellent translation of Adam Smith's Theory of Ucd
Sentiments; in 1798 a work of her own, LeUres sur la sympcSkk;
and in 1700 her husband's £loges des acadSmicicns. Later she
co-operated with Cabanis, who had married her sister, and
with Carat in publishing the complete works of Condorcet
(1801-1804). She adhered to the last to the political viems of
her husband, and under the Consulate and Empire her sdc%
became a meeting-place of those opposed to the autocratic
regime. She died at Paris on the 8th of September 1822. Her
daughter was married, in 1807, to General O'Connor.
A Biograpkie de Condorcet, by M. F. Arago. is prefixed to A
Condorcct-O'Connor's edition of Condorcet's works, in 12 volumes
(1847-1849). There is an able essay on Condorcet tn Lord Moriey
of Blackburn's Critical Miscellanies. On Condorcet as an historical
philosopher see Comic's Court de philosopkie positive, iv. 252-253.
and Systlwe de politique pvniivc, iv. Appendice General. 109-111;
F. Laurent, Ilindet. xii. 121-126, 89-110; and R. Flint, Pkibsepki
of Hillary in France and Ctrmany i i. 125- 1 38. The Mhnoires it
Condorcet sur la Revolution franc,otse, extraits de sa correspondenct
ft dc cdlrs dc MS am i* [2 vols,, Paris, Ponthieu, 1824), which were ia
fact erihul hy K (m. « I ■ - l.i Kchcfoucauld-Liancourt, are spurioui
S« also Dr J. F* E* Robinet, Condorcet, sa vie ci son oeuvre. and more
especially L Calien. C&nJortrttt la Revolution francaise (Paris, 1904).
On. Mil dame de Condoml see Antoine Guillois. La Marquise de
Ccndorcti, sa famitfe. son talon el ses auvres (Paris, 1897).
CONDOTTIERE (plural, condoUuri), an Italian term, derived
ultimately from Latin conducere, meaning either " to conduct "
or " to hire," for the leader of the mercenary military companies,
often several thousand strong, which used to be hired out to
carry on the wars of the Italian states. The word is often ex-
tended so as to include the soldiers as well as the leader of a
company. The condotticri played a very important part ia
Italian history from the middle of the 13th to the middle of the
15th century. The special political and military circumstances
of medieval Italy, and in particular the wars of the Guelphs
and Ghibellines, brought it about that the condottieri and -their
leaders played a more conspicuous and important part in history
than the " Free Companies " elsewhere. Amongst these circum-
stances the absence of a numerous feudal cavalry, the relative
luxury of city life, and the incapacity of city militia for wars of
aggression were the most prominent. From this it resulted
that war was not merely the trade of the condottiere, but also
his monopoly, and he was thus able to obtain whatever terms
he asked, whether money payments or political concessions.
These companies were recruited from wandering mercenary
bands and individuals of all nations, and from the ranks of the
many armies of middle Europe which from time to time overran
Italy.
Montreal d'Albarno, a gentleman of Provence, was the first
to give them a definite form. A severe discipline and an elaborate
organization were introduced within the company itself, while
in their relations to the people the most barbaric licence was
permitted. Montreal himself was put to death at Rome by
Ricnzi, and Conrad Lando succeeded to the command. The
Grand Company, as it was called, soon numbered about 7000
cavalry and 1500 select infantry, and was for some years the
terror of Italy. They seem to have been Germans chiefly. On
the conclusion (1360) of the peace of Bretigny between England
and France, Sir John Hawkwood (q.v.) led an army of English
mercenaries, called the White Company, into Italy, which took
a prominent part in the confused wars of the next thirty years.
Towards the end of the century the Italians began to organize
armies of the same description. This ended the reign of the
purely mercenary company, and began that of the semi-national
mercenary army which endured in Europe till replaced by the
national standing army system. The first company of importance
raised on the new basis was that of St George, originated by
Albcrigo, count of Barbiano, many of whose subordinates and
pupils conquered principalities for themselves. Shortly after.
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
855
the organization of these mercenary armies was carried to the
highest perfection by Sforza Attendolo, condottiere in the
service of Naples, who had been a peasant of the Romagna, and
by his rival Brancaccio di Montonc in the service of Florence.
The army and the renown of Sforza were inherited by his son
Francesco Sforza, who eventually became duke of Milan (1450).
Less fortunate was another great condottiere, Carmagnola, who
first served one of the Visconti, and then conducted the wars of
Venice against his former masters, but at last awoke the suspicion
of the Venetian oligarchy, and was put to death before the palace
of St Mark (1432). Towards the end of the 1 5th century, when
the large cities had gradually swallowed up the small states,
and Italy itself was drawn into the general current of European
politics, and became the. battlefield of powerful armies — French,
Spanish and German — the condotticri, who in the end proved
quite unequal to the gendarmerie of France and the improved
troops of the Italian states, disappeared.
The soldiers of the condotticri were almost entirely heavy
armoured cavalry (men-at-arms). They had, at any rate before
1400, nothing in common with the people among whom they
fought, and their disorderly conduct and rapacity seem often to
have exceeded that of other medieval armies. They were always
ready to change sides at the prospect of higher pay. They were
connected with each other by the interest of a common profession,
and by the possibility that the enemy of to-day might be the
friend and fellow-soldier of to-morrow. Further, a prisoner
was always more valuable than a dead enemy. In consequence
of all this their battles were often as bloodless as they were
theatrical. Splendidly equipped armies were known to fight
for hours with hardly the loss of a man (Zagonara, 1423;
Molinella, 1467).
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC. The electric conductivity of a
substance is that property in virtue of which all its parts come
spontaneously to the same electric potential if the substance is
kept free from the operation of electric force. Accordingly, the
reciprocal quality, electric resistivity, may be defined as a
quality of a substance in virtue of which a difference of potential
can exist between different portions of the body when these are
in contact with some constant source of electromotive force, in
such a manner as to form part of an electric circuit.
All material substances possess in some degree, large or small,
electric conductivity, and may for the sake of convenience be
broadly divided into five classes in this respect. Between these,
however, there is no sharply-marked dividing line, and the
classification must therefore be accepted as a more or less
arbitrary one. These divisions are: (1) metallic conductors,
(2) non-metallic conductors, (3) dielectric conductors, (4) electro-
lytic conductors, (5) gaseous conductors. The first class com-
prises all metallic substances, and those mixtures or combinations
of metallic substances known as alloys. The second includes
such non-metallic bodies as carbon, silicon, many of the oxides
and peroxides of the metals, and probably also some oxides of
the non-metals, sulphides and sclenidcs. Many of these sub-
stances, for instance carbon and silicon, are well-known to have
the property of existing in several allotropic forms, and in some
of these conditions, so far from being fairly good conductors,
they may be almost perfect non-conductors. An example of
this is seen in the case of carbon in its three allotropic conditions
— charcoal, graphite and diamond. As charcoal it possesses a
fairly well-marked but not very high conductivity in comparison
with metals; as graphite, a conductivity about onc-four-hun-
dredth of that of iron; but as diamond so little conductivity
that the substance is included amongst insulators or non-
conductors. The third class includes those substances which are
generally called insulators or non-conductors, but which are
better denominated dielectric conductors; it comprises such
solid substances as mica, ebonite, shellac, india-rubber, gutta-
percha, paraffin, and a large number of liquids, chiefly hydro-
carbons. These substances differ greatly in insulating power,
and according as the conductivity is more or less marked, they
are spoken of as bad or good insulators. Amongst the latter
many of the liquid gases hold a high position. Thus, liquid
oxygen and liquid air have been shown by Sir James Dewar
to be almost perfect non-conductors of electricity.
The behaviour of substances which fall into these three classes
is discussed below in section I., dealing with metallic conduction.
The fourth class, namely the electrolytic conductors comprises
all those substances which undergo chemical decomposition
when they form part of an electric circuit traversed by an
electric current. They are discussed in section II., dealing with
electrolytic conduction.
The fifth and last class of conductors includes the gases. The
conditions under which this class of substance becomes possessed
of electric conductivity are considered in section III., on con-
duction in gases.
In connexion with metallic conductors, it is a fact of great
interest and considerable practical importance, that, although
the majority of metals when in a finely divided or powdered
condition are practically non-conductors, a mass of metallic
powder or filings may be made to pass suddenly into a conductive
condition by being exposed to the influence of an electric wave.
The same is true of the loose contact of two metallic conductors.
Thus if a steel point, such as a needle, presses very lightly
against a metallic plate, say of aluminium, it is found that this
metallic contact, if carefully adjusted, is non-conductive, but
that if an electric wave is created anywhere in the neighbourhood,
this non-conducting contact passes into a conductive state.
This fact, investigated and discovered independently by D. E.
Hughes, C. Onesti, E. Branly, O. J. Lodge and others, is applied
in the construction of the " coherer," or sensitive tube employed
as a detector or receiver in that form of " wireless telegraphy "
chiefly developed by Marconi. Further references to it are
made in the articles Electric Waves and Telegraphy:
Wireless.
International Ohm. — The practical unit of electrical resistance
was legally defined in Great Britain by the authority of the queen
in council in 1894, as the " resistance ottered to an invariable electric
current by a column of mercury at the temperature of melting ice,
14-4521 grammes in mass, of a constant cross-sectional area, and a
length 106-3 centimetres." The same unit has been also legalized
as a standard in France, Germany and the United States, and is
denominated the " International or Standard Ohm." It is intended
to represent as nearly as possible a tvsi stance equal to 10' a lr.-c lute
C-Cj.S, units of electric resistance. Convenient multiple* and sub-
divisions of the ohm are the microhm and the megohm, the former
being a millionth part of an ohm. and the latter a million ohms.
The resistivity of substance* is! hen numerically expressed by stating
the resistance of one cubic centimetre of the su bit a nee taken between
opposed faces, and expressed in ohms, microhms or megohm*, a*
may be most convenient. The reciprocal of the ohm is called tin
mho, which is the unit of conductivity, and is defined as the con-
ductivity of a substance whose resistance is one ohm. The absolute
unit ol conductivity is the conductivity of a substance whose tl-us-
tivity is one absolute C.G.5. unit, or qne-thousandth^millionth part
of an ohm. Resistivity is a quality in which material substances
differ very widely. The metals and alloys, broadly speaking, an
good conductors, and their resistivity is conveniently expressed in
microhms per cubic centimetre or in absolute COS. unit*. Very
small iJiflercTicc* in demit y and in chemical purity make, however,
immense differences in electric resist ivity; hence the values given
by different experimentalist* for the resistivity of known metals
differ to a considerable extent.
L Conduction in Solids
It is found convenient to express the resistivity of metals in two
different ways: (1) We may state the resistivity of one cubic
centimetre of the material in microhms or absolute units taken
between opposed faces. This is called the volume-resistivity; (2)
we may express the resistivity by stating the resistance in ohms
offered by a wire of the material in question of uniform cross-
section one metre in length, and one gramme in weight. This
numerical measure of the resistivity is called the mass-resistivity.
The mass-resistivity of a body is connected with its volume-
resistivity and the density of the material in the following
manner: — The mass-rcsisti vity, expressed in mierohmsperrnetre-
grammc, divided by 10 times the density is numerically equal to
the volume-resistivity per centimetre-cube in absolute C.G.S.
units. The mass-resistivity per metre-gramme can always be
obtained by measuring the rcsUtatxct^^Nk^xsaw^^^x^^^aRA
856
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
uniform cross-section of which the length is known, and if the
density of the substance is then measured, the volume-resistivity
can be immediately calculated.
If R is the resistance in ohms of a wire of length /, uniform cross-
section *, and density d, then taking p for the volume-resistivity we
have l0»R-p//«; but wd-M. where M is the mass of the wire.
Hence io*R-prfP/M. If /- 100 and M = 1. then R-=p'« resistivity in
ohms per metre-gramme, and 10V - tofioodp, or p-io*p'fd, and
p'-io,oooMR//-.
The following rules, therefore, are useful m connexion with
these measurements. To obtain the maswtajitivity per metre-
gramme of a substance in the form of a uniform, metallic wire;—
Multiply together 10,000 times the ma?-* in gramme* and the Total
resistance in ohms, and then divide by the square of the length in
centimetres. Again, to obtain the volum l •- rt si .- 1 : v i 1 y in C.G. S. units
per centimetre-cube, the rule is to multiply the mau-rrtbtiviiy in
ohms by 100,000 and divide by the density- These rulrs. of course,
apply only to wires of uniform cross- sect ion. In the following
Tables I., II. and III. are given the mass and volume resistivity of
ordinary metals and certain alloys expe. tw.iJ in term* of the inter-
national ohm or the absolute CG.S. unit <rf resistance, the values
being calculated from the experiments of A. MLstthkstefl (iSU-
1870) between i860 and 1865, and from later results obtained by
J. A. Fleming and Sir James Dewar in 1893.
Table \.— Electric Mass-Resistivity of Various Metals at o* C, or
Resistance per Metre-gramme in International Ohms at o* C.
(Matthicssen.)
Remittance at 0*C
in In te-r national
Approximate Tem-
Ohms of a Wire
pvnxiurc Co-
Metat
I Metre Jong and
ciikient near
Weighing
Jo'C
1 Gramme,
Silver (annealed!
■IM3
OOOJ77
Silver (hard-drawn)
Copper (annealed) . .
■I657
1421
0-00388
Copper (hard -drawn) ,
Cold faflflenJed} T .
T -+49 {MaUhiesstn 1 *
■40*5
Standard)
O00365
Cold fhjrd- drawn.)
■4094
Aluminium (annealed)
■o?57
,,
Zinc (pressed) , . ,
4013
,,
PUiiaum (annealed) ,
Iron (annealed) . .
I-93J7
■?6S
■-
Nickel (annealed) , .
I BCl-
j ,
Tin (pressed/ . r ♦
cjfog
O-O0365
Lead (prw**.IJ , , .
3- J 3 tot
O*oojl7
Antimony (pressed) .
257S7
0-003*19
tiUmutb (prvtvd . .
IJ'blS*
0-00354
Mercury (liquid) .
0-00073
The data commonly used for calculating metallic resistivities
were obtained by A. Matthiessen, and his results are set out in the
Table II. which is taken from Cantor lectures given by Fleeming
Jenkin in 1866 at or about the date when the researches were made.
The figures given by Jenkin have, however, been reduced to inter-
national ohms and CG.S. units by multiplying by (r/a) X0-9866X
10*- 77r4B5*
Subsequently numerous determinations of the reststfvityof various
pore metals were made by Fleming and Dewar, whose results are
set out in Table III.
Resistivity of Mercury. — The volume-resistivity of pure mercury
is a very important electric constant, and since 1880 many of the
most competent experimentalists have directed their attention to
the determination of its value. The experimental process has
usually been to fill a glass tube of known dimensions, having large
cup-like extensions at the ends, with pure mercury, and determine
the absolute resistance of this column of metal. For the practical
details of this method the following references may be consulted. —
" The Specific Resistance of Mercury," Lord Rayleigh and Mrs Sidg-
_L.I. DL.'f t__- .oo. _..-* : «. .-. _«j o *r /*l«„l -I- Dili
wick, Phil. Trans., 1883, part i. p. 173, and R. t. Glazchrook, PhU.
Mat., l88 5. P- >o; " On the Specific Resistance of Mercury," R. T.
Glazebrook and T. C. Fitzpatnck, Phil. Trans., 1888, p. 179. or Proc.
ffilv Alt. iRfiR n aa or Fl+rlrisinm lRKtt ->T n ciS> " Xttx^nt
Roy. Soc, 1888, p. 44. or Electrician, 1888, 21, p. 538; " Recent
Determinations of the Absolute Resistance of Mercury/' R. T. Glaze*
brook. Electrician, 1800, 25. pp. 54.I and 588. Also see J. V. Jones,
" On the Determination of the Specific Resistance of Mercury in
Absolute Measure," Phil. Trans., 1891, A, p, 2. Table IV. gives
the values of the v olume-resistivity of mercury as determined by
1 The values for nickel and bismuth given in the table are much
higher than later values obtained with pure electrolytic nickel and
bismuths
■The value here given, namely 12-885, for the electric mass-
resistivity of liquid mercury as determined by Matthiessen is now
known to be too high by nearly 1 % The value at present accepted
if 12-789 ohms per metre-gramme at # C.
(SOLIDS
Table II.— Electric Volume-Resistivity of Varies Mekxlsmto* C,
flr Remittance f*f CcniimttrtHitb* in C.G.S^ Units m o* C
Uetal
aio'C. in cos
SUver (annealed) . „ . . .
Silver (hard -drawn)
Copper (annealed) * . * • <
Copper (hard'drawu) ....
Cold (annealed) . . „ .
Odd {hard-drawn) , ,
Aluminium (anm-aled) ■ » .
Zinc (pressed ) * . . . ,
rt-itinum (.innritcd) ....
Iron (annealed) ,
Nickel (annealed)
Tin (pressed) ,,..**
Lead (pressed)
Antimony (pressed)
hitrnuth (pressed)
Mcrtury (liquid) * ,
I.SQJ
1,6*9
IiOM
i.6jo-
2.052
3.006
5.6? [
9.035
10,5**
".4J9 1
13.17*
t9,58o
35^1*
»30,*73
94.S96*
various observers, the constant being exp r esse d (a) in terms of the
resistance in ohms of a column of mercury one millimetre in cross*
section and 100 centimetres in length, taken at o* C. ; and (b) in terras
of the length in centimetres of a column of mercury one square milli-
metre in cross-section taken at o* C The result of all the most care-
ful determinations has been to show that the resistivity of pure
mercury at o* C. is about 94*070 CG.S electromagnetic units of
resistance, and that a column of mercury 106*3 centimetres in length
having a cross se c tional area of one square millimetre would have a
Table IU.— Electric Volume-Resistivity of Various Metal* at o* C,
t Resistance per Centimetre-cube ai o* C. m CCS. Units.
(Fleming and Dewar. Phil. Mag., September 1893.)
Metal.
Resistance at 0* C,
per Centimetre-
cube in CG.S.
Units.
Mean Temperature
Coefficient between
o* C. and ioo # C
Silver (electrolytic and
well annealed) 4
Copper (electrolytic and
well annealed) 4 . .
Gold (annealed) . .
Aluminium (annealed)
Magnesium (pressed) .
Zinc
Nickel (electrolytic) 4 .
Iron (annealed) . .
Cadmium ....
Palladium ....
Platinum (annealed) .
Tin (pressed) . . ,
Thallium (pressed)
Lead (pressed) . . .
Bismuth (electrolytic)*
1,468
.1,561
3,197
3,665
4455
5.751
6.945
9,065
10,023
10,219
10,917
13.048
I7.6J3
•10,380
Iio.ooo
0-00400
0*00428
0-00377
0-00435
0-00381
0*00406
000618
0*00625
0*00419
0-003669
0*00440
0-00398
0*00411
0*00433
resistance at o° C. of one international ohm. These values have
accordingly been accepted as the official and recognized values for
the specific resistance of mercury, and the definition of the ohm.
The table also states the methods which have been adopted by the
different observers for obtaining the absolute value of the resistance
of a known column of mercury, or of a resistance coil afterwards
•The value (1630) here given for hard-drawn copper is about
|% higher than the value now adopted, namely. 1626. The differ-
ence is due to the fact that either Jenkin or Matthiessen did not
employ precisely the value at present employed for the density of
hard-drawn and annealed cooper in calculating the volume-resis-
tivities from the mass-resistivities.
* Matthicsscn's value for nickel is much greater than that obtained
in more recent researches. (Sec Matthiessen and Vogt, Phil. Trans.,
1863, and ). A. Fleming, Proc. Roy. Soc.. December 1899.)
1 Matthicsscn's value for mercury is nearly 1 % greater than the
value adopted at present as the mean of the best results, namely
94,070.
• The samples of silver, copper and nickel employed for these tests
were prepared elcctrolytically by Sir J. W. Swan, and were exceed-
ingly pure and soft. The value for volume-resistivity of nickel as
given in the above table (from experiments by J. A. Fleming, Proc.
Roy. Soc., December 1809) is much less (nearly 40%) than the value
given by Matthiessen's researches.
*The electrolytic bismuth here used was prepared by Hartmana
and Draun, and the resistivity taken by J. A. Fleming. The value
is nearly 20% less than tliat given by Matthiessen.
SOLIDS)
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
857
Table IV.
-Determinations of the Absolute Value of Ike Volume-Resistivity of
Mercury and Ike Mercury Equivalent of the Ohm.
Value cT
Value of
Value of
too Crnti-
Ohm in
Observer.
Date
Method.
B-A.U. id
mmgf
Centt-
Oh in*.
Mercury
in Ohms.
metres of
Mercury,
Lord RaylcEgh
IBS;
Rotating roil
V*l
-94*33
106-31
Lord Raylcigh t
IBB j
Lonpm mrlhod
98677
106-17
C Wiedemann
1884
knij l i 1 .1 n Eh r 1 ji. 1 jjh I So 4
i- '.. 19
E. F. N Mastart ,
r&M
IpdufrJ current
■uB6l 1
♦94096
lofrjj
11, A, Rewind
16*7
Mean oF several
mrthnd«
■yMu
►04071
fOO-j?
F. Kohlrausch
1M7
Dampine; of magnets
■9&06O
'94001
iofi*j2
R. T, Cbiebrook .
i istta
induced currents
**«*5
*94°74
loo-ag
Wuiltcumcicr
ifrjn
9*6*6
-94^77
IQ6'3T
Duncan and Wilkes
199a
Lnrpni
■98634
♦94067
106-J4
J. V. Jonn
1891
Lortni
Mean value
94007
10&3I
9*&53
Strekcr
Itti
An abwtufe rielermin.
-94f>Sft
106-3 1
Hutchinson . .
ation ol resist a rico
-94074
106- \0
£, Salvfonf -
1&90
wait not ma* (e, Thf
-9407*
I0*\tf
L. Satviont . .
value 9HG56 baa
106-30
been used
can value
-94O7S
106-31
H. F. Weber ■ ,
J"M
Induced current
105-37
H, F. Weber - .
Kotatiniscoil
Mean effect uF in-
Absolute
irrWuiv-
106-16
A. Roiti
L8S4
menu
enmnared
105-89
duced current
with Ge
rmin silver
F. H imstedt , , .
18S5
wire coils
Siemens ;
jssucd by
tnd Sticker
10590
F R. Dorn , -
18M
Dampinp of a magnei
10634
Wild
18ft J
Damping of a magnci
106*03
L, V- Loren*
18G5
Lorvnz method
ir-5-93
compared with a known column of mercury.
" 1 addeC
._._, _„_.... __.__ .. # A column of figures
tided showing the value in fractions of an international ohm of
the British Association Unit (B.A.U.), formerly supposed to represent
the true ohm. The real value of the B.A.U. is now taken as -9866
of an international ohm.
For a critical discussion of the methods which have v
been adopted in the absolute determination of the IAB, ,f_y-
metre long, weighing one gramme which at
6o # F. is 0-153858 international ohms."
Matthiessen also measured the mass-resis-
tivity of annealed copper, and found that Its
conductivity is greater than that of hard*
drawn copper by about 2*23% to 2*3%
As annealed copper may vary considerably
in its state of annealing, and is always
somewhat hardened by bending and winding,
it is found in practice that the resistivity of
commercial annealed copper is about i|%
less than that of hard-drawn copper. The
standard now accepted for such copper, on
the recommendation of the 1&99 Committee,
is a wire of pure annealed copper one metre
long, weighing one gramme, whose resistance
at o° C. is -1421 international ohms, or at
60 ° F., 0-150822 international ohms. The
specific gravity of cot>pcr varies from about
8-89 to 8-95, and the standard value accepted
for high conductivity commercial copper If
8-912, corresponding to a weight of 553 lb
per cubic foot at 60 F. Hence the volume*
resistivity of pure annealed copper at o* C. it
1-594 microhms percc. or 1594 C.G.S. units,
and that of pure hard-drawn copper at o" C- if
I;6i6 microhms perc.c. Or 162ft C.G.S. units*
Sirce Mauhicssen * researches, the most care-
ful scientific investigation on the conduc-
tivity of copper is thnt or T. C Fit rpa trick,
carried out in 1890. {Brit. Aitoc. Report. 1890*
Appendix ji_ p, i*o.) Fitzpat rick, confirmed
Nf.it rhrcsscu's chief result, and obtained values
for the netttl Why of harcl-drawn copper which,
when corrected for temperature variation, arc
in en tine agreement with those of Matthiases
at the same temperature.
The volume resistivity of alloys is, gener-
ally speaking, much higher tlian that of purs
metals. Table V. shows the volume resis-
tivity at o° C. of a number of well-known
alloys, with their chemical composition.
Generally speaking, an alloy having high resistivity has poor
mechanical dualities, that is to say, its tensile strength and ductility
are small. It is possible to form alloys having a resistivity as libra
as 100 microhms per cubic centimetre; but, on the other hand, the
value of an alloy lor electro-technical purposes is judged not merely
Volume-Resistivity of Alloys of known Composition al o* C. in C.G.S.
Units per Centimetre-cube.
(Fleming and Dcwar.)
Mean Temperature Coefficients taken at 15* C
resistivity of mercury, and the value of the British
Association unit of resistance, the reader may be re-
ferred to the British Association Reports for 1800 and
1892 (Report of Electrical Standards Committee), and to
the Electrician, 25 p. 456, and 29, p. 462. A discussion
of the relative value of the results obtained between
1882 and 1890 was given bv R. T. Glazcbrook
in a paper presented to the British Association at
Leeds, 1890.
Resistivity of Copper. — In connexion with electro-
technical work the determination of the conductivity
or resistivity values of annealed and hard-drawn copper
wire at standard temperatures is a very important <
matter. Matthicssen devoted considerable attention
to this subject between the years i860 and 1864 (see ]
Phil. Trans., i860, p. 150), and since that time much
additional work has been carried out. Matthtesscn's
value, known as Matthiessen' s Standard, for the mass-
resistivity of pure hard-drawn copper wire, is the
resistance of a wire # of pure hard-drawn copper one
metre long and weighing one gramme, and this is
equal to 0-14493 international ohms at o* C. For
many purposes it is more convenient to express tem-
perature in Fahrenheit degrees, and the recommenda-
tion of the 1899 committee on copper conductors l is as
follows: — " Matthicssen's standard for hard-drawn con-
ductivity commercial copper shall be considered to be
the resistance of a wire of pure hard-drawn copper one
- by its resistivity, but also by the degree to which its resistivity varies
1 In 1899 a committee was formed of representatives from eight with temperature, and by its capability of being easily drawn into
of the leading manufacturers of insulated copper cables with delegates fine wire of not very small tensile strength. Some pure metals when
from the Post Office and Institution of Electrical Engineers, to alloyed with a small proportion of another metal do not suffer much
consider the question of the values to be assigned to the resistivity — — — -
of hard-drawn and annealed copper. The sittings of the committee ' Platinoid is an alloy introduced by Martino, said to be similar
were held in London, the secretary being A. II. Howard. The values in composition to German silver, but with a little tungsten added,
given in the above paragraphs are in accordance with the decision It varies a good deal in composition according to manufacture, and
of this committee, and its recommendations have been accepted by the resistivity of different specimens is not identical Its electric pre*
the General Post Office and the leading manufacturers of insulated peittes were first made known by J. T. Bottomley, in a paper read
copper wire and cables. at the Royal Society, May 5, 1885.
Tempera-
Alloy*
Rc-kiivitv
at 0* O
ture Co-
efficient at
CompoMtion in per
cents.
Platinum 'Silver .
3*,5fl
30,(596
'00024J
Pt33tt.Agtty.
Ptio%, lr20%
Ptco%. Rd 10%
An 90% Ay 10%
Mn tj% ( Fe78%
Platinum -indium
'O00&21
i'liiiniim-rhodLLim ,
2l,Tp
'OOIJJ
Gotd-silvrr .
ft, J WO
-00124
Mana*nuso-5iccl . . .
67148
-00127
Nickcl-stee) ,»«,.,
39,452
■0020 [
Ni 4-35 "li remain-
ing percentage
chiefly iron, but
uncertain
German silver . . , .
29,98a
-000273
CuiZnjNii
Platinoid 1 , . , . «
41.731
-00031
Manganin .,..<..
4&,&73
-0000
Cu 84%. Mn rj%.
Nj 4 %
Al94%,Agfi%
Al umini um -silver
4-641
00238
'003&I
Aluminium -copper .
a, 90+
Al.94%Cu*%
Cuw%.Al3%
CbS^NIo-jX
Copper-aluminium .
8,847
-000897
Coppcr-nltkd-aluQunium t
14^12
00064J
AJ 6-3%'
Titanium-aluminium . .
tm
■00290
858
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
change in resistivity, but in other cases the resultant alloy has a
much higher resistivity. Thus an alloy of pure copper with 3% of
aluminium has a resistivity about 5) times that of copper; but if
pure aluminium is alloyed with 6% of copper, the resistivity of the
product is not more than 20% greater than that of pure aluminium.
The presence of a very small proportion of a non-metallic element in
a metallic mass, such as oxygen, sulphur or phosphorus, has a very
great effect in increasing the resistivity. Certain metallic elements
also have the same power; thus platinoid has a resistivity 30%
greater than German silver, though it differs from it merely in
containing a trace of tungsten.
The resistivity of non-metallic conductors is in all cases higher
than that of any pure metal The resistivity of carbon, for
instance, in the forms of charcoal or carbonized organic material
and graphite, varies from 600 to 6000 microhms per cubic
centimetre, as shown in Table VI.: —
Table \\.— Electric Volume-Resistivity in Microhms tor
Centimetre-cube of Various Forms of Carbon at 15* C.
Substance.
Resistivity.
Arc lamp carbon rod
Jablochkoff candle carbon ....
Carre carbon
Carbonised bamboo .
Carbonized parchmentized thread
Ordinary carbon filament from glow-lamp
" treated " or flashed
Deposited or secondary carbon ....
Graphite *
8000
4000
3400
6000
4000105000
2400 to 2500
600 to 900
400 to 500
The resistivity of liquids is, generally speaking, much higher
than that of any metals, metallic alloys or non-metallic con-
ductors. Thus fused lead chloride, one of the best conducting
liquids, has a resistivity in its fused condition of 0-376 ohm per
centimetre-cube, or 376,000 microhms per centimetre-cube,
whereas that of metallic alloys only in few cases exceeds 100
microhms per centimetre-cube. The resistivity of solutions of
metallic salts also varies very largely with the proportion of the
diluent or solvent, and in some instances, as in the aqueous
solutions of mineral acids, there is a maximum conductivity
corresponding to a certain dilution. The resistivity of many
liquids, such as alcohol, ether, benzene and pure water, is so high,
in other words, their conductivity is so small, that they are
practically insulators, and the resistivity can only beappropriately
ex pre sse d in megohms per centimetre-cube.
In Table VII. are given the names of a few of these badly-
conducting liquids, with the values of their volume-resistivity in
megohms per centimetre-cube: —
Table Vll.— Electric Volume-Resistivity of Various Badly-
Conducting Liquids in Megohms per Centimetre-cube.
Substance.
Resistivity
in Megohms
per ex.
Observer.
Ethyl alcohol ....
Ethyl ether
Bcozene
Absolutely pure water ap-
proximates probably to
All very dilute aqueous salt
solutions having a concen-
tration of about 000001
of an equivalent gramme
molecule 1 per litre ap-
proximate to
05
I 175 to 3760
4700
25-0 at 18° C.
l*oo at 18* C.
Pfciffcr.
W. Kohlrausch.
Value estimated
by F. Kohl-
rausch and A.
Heydwcfler.
From results by
F. Kohlrausch
and others.
The resistivity of all those substances which are generally
called dielectrics or insulators is also so high that it can only be
appropriately expressed in millions of megohms per centimetre-
cube, or in megohms per quadrant-cube, the quadrant being a
cube the side of which is 10* cms. (see Table VIII.).
Effects of Heat.— Temperature affects the resistivity of these
different classes of conductors in different ways. In all cases, so
1 An equivalent gramme molecule Is a weight in grammes equal
numerically to the chemical equivalent of the salt. For instance, one
equivalent gramme molecule of sodium chloride is a mast of 585
NaCl-585.
far as Is yet known, the resistivity of a pure metal is ianewdJ
its temperature is raised, and decreased if the tempmums
lowered, so that if it could be brought to the absolute an d
temperature ( - 273° C.) its resistivity would be reduced toiwj
small fraction of its resistance at ordinary temperatares. Vsi
metallic alloys, however, rise of temperature does not ataa
increase resistivity; it sometimes diminishes it, so taitauj
alloys are known which have a maximum reststivityconenxsAq
to a certain temperature, and at or near this point they vtrjrwj
little in resistance with temperature. Such alloys have, tstmst
a negative temperature-variation of resistance at and ibsx
fixed temperatures, rromincnt amongst these metallic cm
pounds are alloys of iron, manganese), nickel and copper. **
of which were discovered by Edward Weston, in the life*?
States. One well-known alloy of copper, manganese and afcfei
now called manganin, which was brought to the noticed
electricians by the careful investigations made at the Bens
Physikalisch - Technische Reichsanstalt, is characteriied bj
having a zero temperature coefficient at or about a certii
temperature in the neighbourhood of 15° C. Hence vitas 1
certain range of temperature on either side of this critical vtht
the resistivity of manganin is hardly affected at all by tempo-
ture. Similar alloys can be produced from copper and fen>
Table VIII.— Electric Volume-Resistivity of Dielectrics retlemi*
Millions of Megohms (Mega-megohms) fir Centime tre-cuU.***
Megohms per Quadrant-cube, i.e. a Cube xekose Side is ic* cms.
Substance.
Bohemian glass . . .
Mica ....
Gutta-percha ....
Flint glass
Glover's vulcanized india-
rubber . . .
Siemens' ordinary pure
vulcanized indiarubber
Shellac . . .
Indiarubber . . .
Siemens' high-insulating
fibrous material . .
Siemens' special high-
insulating indiarubber.
Flint glass . . . .
Ebonite . .
Paraffin . .
Resistivity.
Mega-
megohms
per ex.
61
84
450
1,020
1,630
2.280
9,000
10,900
11.900
16,170
20,000
28.000
34.000
Megohms
per Quad-
rant-cube.
•061
084
*45
l-oa
163
228
90
10-9
U-9
16-17
200
28-
34-
tore
Ceat
6o*
<
6o*
15*
ij:
*4*
15*
**:
20*
46*
manganese. An alloy formed of 80% copper and to%
manganese in an annealed condition has a nearly aero tem-
perature-variation of resistance between 20 C. and ioo* C. In
the case of non-metals the action of temperature is generally
to diminish the resistivity as temperature rises, though this is not
universally so. The interesting observation has been recorded by
J. W. Howell, that "treated" carbon filaments and graphite are
substances which have a minimum resistance corresponding to a
certain temperature approaching red heat (Electrician, vol
xxxviii. p. 835). At and beyond this temperature increased
heating appears to increase their resistivity; this phenomenon
may, however, be accompanied by a molecular change and not be
a true temperature variation. In the case of dielectric conductors
and of electrolytes, the action of rising temperature is to reduce
resistivity. Many of the so-called insulators, such as mica,
ebonite, indiarubber, and the insulating oils, paraffin, &c,
decrease in resistivity with great rapidity as the temperature
rises. With guttapercha a rise in temperature from o* C. to
24° C. is sufficient to reduce the resistivity of one-twentieth part
of its value at o° C, and the resistivity of flint glass at 140 C.
is only one-hundredth of what it is at 60* C
A definition may here be riven of the meaning of the term Tempera-
ture Coefficient. If, in the first place, we suppose that the resistivity
(/>,) at any temperature (0 is a simple linear function of the resistivity
GOat <>• C. then we can write p, -*,(i +•/), or a- (a-*)/W.
The quantity « is then called the temperature-coeflkient, and its
reciprocal is the temperature at which the resistivity would become
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
SOLIDS!
aero. By an extension of this notion we can call the quantity
dpfpdi the temperature coefficient corresponding to any temperature
I at which the resistivity is p. In all cases the relation between the
resistivity of a substance and the temperature is best set out in the
form of a curve called a temperature-resistance curve. If a series of
such curves are drawn for various pure metals, temperature being
taken as abscista and resistance as ordinate, and if the temperature
range extends from the absolute zero of temperature upwards, then
it is found that these temperature-resistance lines are curved lines
having their convexity either upwards or downwards. In other
words, the second differential coefficient of resistance with respect
to temperature is either a positive or negative quantity. An exten-
sive series of observations concerning the form of tne resistivity
curves for various pure metals over a range of temperature extending
from -200 # C. to +200° C. was carried out in 1892 and 1893 by
Fleming and Dewar (Phil. Mag. Oct. 1892 and Sept. 1893).
The resistance observations were taken with resistance coils con-
structed with wires of various metals obtained in a state of great
chemical purity. The length* ami mean diameters of the wires were
carefully measured, and their resistance was then taken at certain
known temperatures obtained by immersing the .coils in boiling
aniline, boiling water, melting ice, melting carbonic acid in ether,
and boiling liquid oxygen, the temperatures thus given being
+ i84"-5 C +ioo # C. o # C. -7V2 C and -182*5 C. The
resistivities of the various metals were then calculated and set out-
in terms of the temperature. From these data a chart was pre-
pared showing the temperature-resistance curves of these metals
throughout a range of 400 degrees. The exact form of these curves
through the region of temperature lying between — 20O # C. and
""273 C is not yet known. As shown on the chart* the curves
evidently do not converge lo precisely the same point. It is* how-
ever, much le*s probable that the rcsi^anie tA any metal should
vanish at a temperature above the absolute zero than at the abwlute
zero itself, and the precise path of these curve* at their lowrr ends
cannot be delineated until means are found for filing independently
the temperature of some region* in which the resist a net of metallic
wires can be measured. Sir J* Dewar *ub*equcflity showed that far
certain pure metals it is clear 1h.1t the reliance would pot vanish
at the absolute zero but would be- reduced to a finite hut small value
(see " Electric Resistance Thermometry at the Temperature of
Boiling Hydrogen." Proc. Roy. Soc. 1904, 73. p. 244).
The resistivity curves of the magnetic metals are also remarkable
for the change of curvature they exhibit at the magnetic critical
temperature. Thus J. Hopkinson and D. K. Morris {Phil. Mag.
September 1897, p. 213) observed the remarkable alteration that
takes place in the iron resistance temperature curve in the neigh-
bourhood of 780° C. At that temperature the direction of the
curvature of the curve changes so that it becomes convex upwards
instead of convex downwards, and in addition the value of the
temperature coefficient undergoes a great reduction. The mean
temperature coefficient of iron in the neighbourhood of o° C. is
0*0057; at 765° C. it rises to a maximum value 0-0204; but at
looo C. it falls again to a lower value, 0-00244. A similar rise to
• maximum value and subsequent fall are also noted in the case of
the specific heat of iron. The changes in the curvature of the resis-
tivity curves arc undoubtedly connected with the molecular changes _
that occur in the magnetic metals at their critical temperatures.
A fact of considerable interest in connexion with resistivity is the
Influence exerted by a strong magnetic field in the case of some
metals, notably bismuth. It was discovered by A. Righi and con-
firmed by S. A. Leduc (Jourtt. de Phys. 1886. 5. p. 116, and 1887,
6» p- 189) that if a pure bismuth wire is placed in a magnetic field
transversely to the direction of the magnetic field, its resistance is
considerably increased. This increase is greatly affected by the
temperature of the metal (Dewar and Fleming, Proc Roy. Soc. 1897,
60, p. 427) The temperature coefficient of pure copper is an im-
portant constant, and its value as determined by Messrs Clark,
Forde and Taylor in terms of Fahrenheit temperature is
* -Pa(l +OOO23708U-32) +0-000OO34S48(*-J3) t |.
Time Effects. — In the case of dielectric conductors, commonly
called insulators, such as indiarubbcr, guttapercha, glass and
mica, the electric resistivity is not only a function of the tem-
perature but also of the time during which the electromotive
force employed to measure it is imposed. Thus if an indiarubber-
covered cable is immersed in water and the resistance of the
dielectric between the copper conductor and the water measured
by ascertaining the current which can be caused to flow through
it by an electromotive force, this current is found to vary very
rapidly with the time during which the electromotive force is
applied. Aj»rt from the small initial effect due to the electro-
static capacity of the cable, the application of an electromotive
force to the dielectric produces a current through it which
rapidly falls in value, as if the electric resistance of the dielectric
were increasing. The current, however, does not fall con-
tinuously but tends to a limiting value, and it appears that if the
859
electromotive force is kept applied to the cable for a prolonged
time, a small and nearly constant current will ultimately bo
found flowing through iL It is customary In electro-technical
work to consider the resistivity of the dielectric as the value it has
after the electromotive force has been applied for one minute, the
standard temperature being 75° F. This, however, is a purely
conventional proceeding, and the number so obtained does not
necessarily represent the true or ohmic resistance of the dielectric.
If the electromotive force is increased, in the case of a large
number of ordinary dielectrics the apparent resistance at the end
of one minute's electrification decreases as the electromotive
force increases.
Practical Standards.— -The practical measurement of re-
sistivity involves many processes and instruments (see Wheat-
stone's Bridge and Ohmmeteb). Broadly speaking, the
processes are divided into Comparison Methods and Absolute
Methods. In the former a comparison is effected between the
resistance of a material in a known form and some standard
resistance. In the Absolute Methods the resistivity is determined
without reference to any other substance, but with reference
only to the fundamental standards of length, mass and time.
Immense labour has been expended in investigations concerned
with the production of a standard of resistance and its evaluation
in absolute measure. In some cases the absolute standard is
constructed by filling a carefully-calibrated tube of glass with
mercury, in order to realize .in a material form the official defini-
tion of the ohm; in this manner most of the principal national
physical laboratories have been provided with standard mercury
ohms. (For a full description of the standard mercury ohm of
the Berlin Physikalisch-Tcchnische Reichsanstalt, see the
Electrician, xxxvii. 569.) For practical purposes it is more con-
venient to employ a standard of resistance made of wire.
Opinion is not yet perfectly settled on the question whether a
wire made of any alloy can be considered to be a perfectly unalter-
able standard of resistance, but experience has shown that a platinum
silver alloy (66% silver, 33% platinum), and also the alloy called
manganin, seem to possess the qualities of permanence essential for
a wire-resistance standard. A comparison made in 1892 and 1894
of all the manganin wire copies of the ohm made at the Keichsanstalc
in Berlin, showed that these standards had remained constant for
two years* to within one or two parts in 100,000. It appears, however,
that in order that manganin may remain constant in resistivity when
used in the manufacture of a resistance coil, it is necessary that the
alloy should be aged by heating it to a temperature of 140° C. for ten
hours; and to prevent subsequent changes in resistivity, solders
containing zinc must be avoided, and a silver solder containing 75%
of silver employed in soldering the manganin wire to its connexions.
The authorities of the Berlin Reichsanstalt have devoted
considerable attention to the question of the best form for a wire
standard of electric resistance. In that now adopted the re-
sistance wire is carefully insulated and wound on a brass cylinder,
being doubled on itself to annul inductance as much as possible.
In the coil two wires are wound on in parallel, one being much
finer than the other, and the final adjustment of the coil to an
exact value is made by shortening the finer of the two. A
standard of resistance for use in a laboratory now generally
consists of a wire of manganin or platinum-silver carefully
insulated and enclosed in a brass case. Thick copper rods are
connected to the terminals of the wire in the interior of the case,
and brought to the outside, being carefully insulated at the same
time from one another and from the case. The coil so constructed
can be placed under water or paraffin oil, the temperature of
which can be exactly observed during the process of taking a
resistance measurement. Equalization of the temperature of
the surrounding medium is effected by the employment of a
stirrer, worked by hand or by a small electric motor. The
construction of a standard of electrical resistance consisting of
mercury in a glass tube is an operation requiring considerable
precautions, and only to be undertaken by those experienced
in the matter. Opinions are divided on the question whether
greater permanence in resistance can be secured by mercury-in-
glass standards of resistance or by wire standards, but the latter
are at least more portable and less fragile.
A full description of the construction of a standard wire-resktw^
coil on the plan adopted b* ttot fesftsx YVfsSssSasSs***" % -
86o
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
Rekhsanstak is given in the Report of the British Association Com-
mittee on Electrical Standards, presented at the Edinburgh Meeting
In iBoj. For the design and construction of standard* of electric
usiiUnrrs adapted for employment in the comparison and measure-
ment 0/ very low or very high resistances, the reader may be referred
to standard treatises on electric measurements.
Bibliography.— See also J. A. Ueming, A Handbook Jor the
Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room, vol. 1. (London, 1001);
Reports of the British Association Committee on EUctrlcal Standards,
edited by Fleeming Jenlcin (London, 1873); A. Matthiessen and C
Vogt. " On the Influence of Temperature on the Conducting Power
of Alloys,- Phil. Trans., 1864. 154. p. 167. and Phil. Mat.. 1*65.
*9. P- 363; A. Matthiessen and M. Holtzmann, " On the Effect of
the Presence of Metals and Metalloids upon the Electric Conducting
Power of Pure Copper," Phil. Trans., i860, 150. p. 85; T. C. Fitf-
patrick. " On the Specific Resistance of Copper," BnL Assoc Report,
1890, p. 1 30, or Electrician, 1890. 25. p. 608; R. Apptcyard. The
Condnetometer and Electrical Condnctiviry; Clark, Forde and Taylor,
Temperature Coefficients of Copper (London, 1901). (J- A. F.)
n. Conduction in Liquids
Through liquid metals, such as mercury at ordinary tem-
peratures and other metals at temperatures above their melting
points, the electric current flows as in solid metals without
changing the state of the conductor, except in so far as heat is
developed by the electric resistance. But another class of liquid
conductors exists, and in them the phenomena are quite
different. The conductivity of fused salts, and of solutions of
salts and acids, although less than that of metals, is very great
compared with the traces of conductivity found in so-called non-
conductors. In fused salts and conducting solutions the passage
of the current is always accompanied by definite chemical
changes; the substance of the conductor or electrolyte is
decomposed, and the products of the decomposition appear at the
electrodes, i.e. the metallic plates by means of which the current
is led into and out of the solution. The chemical phenomena are
considered in the article Electrolysis; we are here concerned
solely with the mechanism of this electrolytic conduction of the
current.
To explain the appearance of the products of decomposition at
the electrodes only, while the intervening solution is unaltered.
we suppose that, under the action of the electric forces, the
opposite parts of the electrolyte move in opposite directions
through the liquid. These opposite parts, named ions by
Faraday, must therefore be associated with electric charges, and
it is the convective movement of the opposite streams of ions
carrying their charges with them that, on this view, constitutes
the electric current.
In metallic conduction it is found that the current is pro-
portional to the applied electromotive force — a relation known by
the name of Ohm's law. If we place in a circuit with a small
electromotive force an electrolytic cell consisting of two platinum
electrodes and a solution, the initial current soon dies away, and
we shall find that a certain minimum electromotive force must be
applied to the circuit before any considerable permanent current
passes. The c hemkal changes which are Initiated on the surfaces
pi the electrodes set up a reverse electromotive force of polariza-
tion, ami, until this is overcome, only a minute current, probably
due to the slow but »teady removal of the products of decom-
position from the chvlrodes by a process of diffusion, will pass
through the (til. Thus it is evident that, considering the
clevlrolytit tell as a *holc, the passage of the current through it
cannot uutlorm to Ohm's law. But the polarization is due to
thi'miidl 1 lunges, which arc confined to the surfaces of the
tJrttroth'Si an»l it » necessary to inquire whether, if the polariza-
tion at the ih'itrmles lie eliminated, the passage of the current
thiough I he bulk of the solution itself is proportional to the
ttoliomolivt' lniir uetually applied to that solution. Rough
tiperinu'Hl ■hovi;i lli.it the current is proportional to the excess of
iW (bOW* 1 ! 1 ** i"i"' «vcr a constant value, and thus verifies
tW U» ju/iwtliu-tlnlv, the constant electromotive force to be
ovrtvvtffc ist'-A ■» mi-inuii- of the polarization. A more satis-
Itt'tNN ^wi'Mltou oi thv question was made by F. Kohlrausch
iMht v*** *' 1 Ut 4S ■ u * l,,,,,, * ,,IW 6tatcs lhat lhe current C
*> firqiwtt*"' a 1 ^' A- 1 " 1 l i w* force E. or C-AR, where* is
ifmndmmi-amtN »** •»■«**•"• '" Jl > ul l ' ,c tircu Jt. '»'!»« equation
may also be written as C-E/R, where R a a rxc
reciprocal of ft, known as the resistar::; cf 15* =
essence of the law is the proportionality bstw n^ Z u
means that the ratio E/C is a constant. B-i L. C » i
the law may be tested by examining ire c-ri'
measured resistance of a conductor wher: dlr^rtr: c
passing through it. In this way Ohm 's Li w ba_? Lees a
the case of metallic conduction to a very high «pr* a
A similar principle was applied Ly Koh!rx.uc£ is :
electrolytes, and he was the first to show ?—.: u
possesses a definite resistance which hzs a c:rjiis: 1
measured with different currents and by dircrtil ex;
methods.
Measurement of the Resistance of ElectreZy!~ — Tie
effects of the passage of an electric currem v L:^t ;
possibility of measuring electrolytic resisL&sr* Lr ti
methods with the direct currents which are used is :
metals. The products of the chemical dece — posst
electrolyte appear at the electrodes and sc: up a Jx
electromotive force of polarization, and unev-aJ 2lr~
solution may occur in the neighbourhood of : he rwo ■
The chemical and electrolytic aspects of thc^e pbea
treated in the article Electrolysis, but from o— pee
of view also it is evident that they are ag.*in of ic
importance. The polarization at the surface cf lie
will set up an opposing electromotive force. a_^i li
dilution of the solution will turn the electrolyte Lr.:. a
tion cell and produce a subsidiary electromotive lore
the same direction as that applied or in the reverse
as the anode or the cathode solution becomes the r>
Both effects thus involve internal electromotive ft
prevent the application of Ohm's law to the electrolyt
whole. But the existence of a definite measurable resa
characteristic property of the system depends on the ;
of the system to Ohm's law, and it is therefore ne
eliminate both these effects before attempting to su
resistance.
The usual and most satisfactory method of me*
resistance of electrolytes consists in eliminating the
polarization by the use of alternating currents, thai i
th.it are reversed in direction many times a seco
chemical action produced by the first current is thus n
the second current in the opposite direction, and the p<
caused by the first current on the surface of the ek
destroyed before it rises to an appreciable value. Tin
tion is also diminished in another way. The electron
of polarization is due to the deposition of films of the p
chemical decomposition on the surface of the elect]
only reaches its full value when a continuous film is f<
the current be stopped before such a film is comp
reverse electromotive force is less than its full value,
current flowing for a given time deposits a definite ;
substance on the electrodes, and therefore the amour,
area is inversely proportional to the area of the eJec
the area of contact, that is, between the electrode and
Thus, by increasing the area of the electrodes, the polaxi
to a given current is decreased. Now the area of free s
platinum plate can be increased enormously by coat in;
with platinum black, which is metallic platinum in
state, and with such a plate as electrode the effects of p*
arc diminished to a very marked extent. The coating
by passing an electric current firs' one way and thee
between two platinum plates immersed in a 3% 1
platinum chloride to which a trarc of lead acetate is
added. The platinized plates thus obtained are quite s
for the investigation of strong solutions. They have
however, of absorbing a certain amount of salt from th
and of giving it up again when water or more dilute
placed in contact with them. The measurement of 1
solutions is thus made difficult, but, if the plates be
1 F. Kohlr.uisch and L. Holborn, Das Lcilvcrmcrrn drr
lLei|ir.i t , 1 .*>$). *
Fig. i.
LIQUIDS*
redness after being platinized, a grey surface is obtained which
possesses sufficient area fur use with dilute solutions and yet docs
not absorb an appreciable quantity of salt.
Any convenient source of alternating current may be used.
The currents from the secondary circuit of a small induction coil
arc satisfactory, or the currents of an alternating electric light
supply may be transformed down to an electromotive force of one
or two volts. With such currents it is necessary to consider the
effects of self-induction in the circuit and of electrostatic capacity.
In balancing the resistance of the electrolyte, resistance coils may
be used in which self-induction and the capacity are reduced
to a minimum by winding the wire of the coil backwards and
forwards in alternate layers.
With these arrangements the usual method of measuring
resistance by means of Wheat stone's bridge may be adapted to
the case of electrolytes. With alternating currents, however,
it is impossible to use a galvanometer in the usual way. The
galvanometer was therefore replaced by Kohlrausch by a
telephone, which gives a sound
when an alternating current
passes through it. The most com-
mon plan of the apparatus is
\ shown diagrammatically in fig. x.
\ The electrolytic cell and a resist-
'ance box form two arms of the
bridge, and the sliding contact is
moved along the metre wire which
forms the other two arms till no
sound is heard in the telephone.
The resistance of the electrolyte is to that of the box as that
of the right-hand end of the wire is to that of the left-hand
end. A more accurate method of using alternating currents,
and one more pleasant to use, gets rid of the telephone
{Phil. Trans., iooo, 194, p. 321). The current from one or two
voltaic cells is led to an ebonite drum turned by a motor or
a band-wheel and cord On the drum are fixed brass strips
with wire brushes touching them in such a manner that the
. current from the brushes is reversed several times in each
revolution of the drum. The wires from the brushes are con-
nected with the Whcalstonc's bridge. A moving coil galvano-
meter is used as indicator, its connexions being reversed in time
with those of the battery by a slightly narrower set of brass
•trips fixed on the other end of the ebonite commutator. Thus
any residual current through the galvanometer is direct and nut
alternating. The high moment of inertia of the coil makes the
period of swing slow compared with the period of alternation of
the current, and the slight periodic disturbances are thus pre-
vented from aflccting the galvanometer. When the measured
resistance is not altered by increasing the speed of the com-
mutator or changing the ratio of the arms of the bridge, the
disturbing effects may be considered to be eliminated.
The form of vessel chosen to contain the electrolyte depends
on the order of resistance to be measured. For dilute solutions
the shape of cell shown In
fig. 2 will be found convenient,
' while for more concentrated
solutions, that indicated in fig.
3 is suitable. The absolute
resistances of certain solutions
have been determined by
Kohlrausch by comparison
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
861
J
Fie. 2.
Fig. 3.
with mercury, and, by using one of these solutions in any
cell, the constant of that cell may be found once for all.
From the observed resistance of any given solution in the
cell the resistance of a centimetre cube— the so-called specific
resistance— may be calculated. The reciprocal of this, or
the conductivity, is * more generally useful constant;
' It is conveniently expressed in terms of a unit equal to the
, reciprocal of an ohm. Thus Kohlrausch found that a solution of
potassium chloride, containing one-tenth of a gram equivalent
(7-46 grams) per litre, has at 1S C. a specific resistance of 89-37
ohms per centimetre cube, or a conductivity of i-iioXio"*
mhos or i-ixoXio -11 C.G.S. units. As the temperature varia-
tion of conductivity is large, usually about 2% per degree, it is
necessary to place the resistance cell in a paraffin or water bath,
and to observe its temperature with some accuracy.
Another way of eliminating the effects of polarization and of
dilution has been used by W. Stroud and J. B. Henderson
(Phil. Mag., 1897 [5], 43, p. 19). Two of the arms of a Wheat-
stone's bridge are composed of narrow tubes filled with the
solution, the tubes being of equal diameter but of different
length. The other two arms arc made of coils of wire of equal
resistance, and metallic resistance is added to the shorter tube
till the bridge is balanced. Direct currents of somewhat high
electromotive force arc used to work the bridge. Equal currents
then flow through the two tubes; the effects of polarization and
dilution must be the same in each, and the resistance added to the
shorter tube must be equal to the resistance of a column of liquid
the length of which is equal to the difference in length of the two
tubes.
A somewhat different principle was adopted by £. Bouty in
1884. If a current be passed through two resistances in scries by
means of an applied electromotive force, the electric potential
falls from one end of the resistances to the other, and, if wc apply
Ohm's law to each resistance in succession, wc see that, since for
each of them E= CR, and C the current is the same through both,
E the electromotive force or fall of potential between the ends of
each resistance must be proportional to the resistance between
them. Thus by measuring the potential difference between the
ends of the two resistances successively, we may compare their
resistances. If, on the other hand, wc can measure the potential
difference in some known units, and similarly measure the current
flowing, wc can determine the resistance of a single electrolyte.
The details of the apparatus may vary, but its principle is
illustrated in the following description. A narrow glass tube is
fixed horizontally into side openings in two glass vessels, and an
electric current passed through it by means of platinum electrodes
and a battery of considerable electromotive force. In this way a
steady fall of electric potential is set up along the length of the
tul>e. To measure the potential difference brtween the ends of
the tube, tapping electrodes are constructed, e.g. by placing zinc
rods in vessels with zinc sulphate solution and connecting these
vessels (by means of thin siphon tubes also filled with solution)
with the vessels at the ends of the long tube which contains the
electrolyte to be examined. Whatever be the contact potential
difference between zinc and its solution, it is the same at both
ends, and thus the potential difference between the zinc rods is
equal to that between the liquid at the two ends of the tube.
This potential difference may be measured without passing any
appreciable current through the tapping electrodes, and thus the
resistance of the liquid deduced.
Equivalent Conductivity of Solutions. — As is the case in the
other properties of solutions, the phenomena arc much more
simple when the concentration is small than when it is great, and
a study of dilute solutions is therefore the best way of getting an
insight into the essential principles of the subject. The foundation
of our knowledge was laid by Kohlrausch when he had developed
the method of measuring electrolyte resistance described above.
He expressed his results in terms of " equivalent conductivity,"
that is, the conductivity (*) of the solution divided by the number
(m) of gram-equivalents of electrolyte per litre. He finds that, as
the concentration diminishes, the value of k/m approaches a
limit, and eventually becomes constant, that is to say, at great
dilution the conductivity is proportional to the concentration.
Kohlrausch first prepared very pure water by repeated distillation
and found that its resistance continually increased as the process
of purification proceeded. The conductivity of the water, and of
the slight impurities which must always remain, was subtracted
from that of the solution made with it, and the result, divided
by m, gave the equivalent conductivity of the substance dissolved.
This procedure appears justifiable, for as long as conductivity is
proportional to concentration it is evident that each part of the
dissolved matter produces its own independent effect, so that the
total conductivity is the sum of the conductivities of the oattSA
862
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
when this ceases to hold, the concentration of the solution has in
general become so great that the conductivity of the solvent may
be neglected. The general result of these experiments can i>
represented graphically by plotting k/m as ordinates and fn
as abscissae, $m being a number proportional to the reciprocal
of the average distance between the molecules, to which it seem
likely that the molecular conductivity may be related. Th<
general types of curve for a simple neutral salt like potassium or
sodium chloride and for a caustic alkali or acid are shown in fig. 4
The curve for the neutral salt comes to a limiting value; that for
the acid attains a maximum at a certain very small concentration
and falls again when the dilution
is carried farther. It has usually
been considered that this destruc-
tion of conductivity is due to
' chemical action between the acid
and the residual impurities in th<
water. At such great dilution these
impurities are present in quantities
comparable with the amount of acid
which they convert into a less
highly conducting neutral salt. In
the case of acids, then, the maxi-
mum must be taken as the limiting
value. The decrease in equivalent conductivity at great dilution;
is, however, so constant that this explanation seems insufficient.
The true cause of the phenomenon may perhaps be connected
with the fact that the bodies in which it occurs, acids and
alkalis, contain the ions, hydrogen in the one case, hydroxyl in
the other, which are present in the solvent, water, and have,
perhaps because of this relation, velocities higher than those of any
other ions. The values of the molecular conductivities of all
neutral salts arc, at great dilution, of the same order of magnitude,
while those of acids at their maxima are about three times as
large. The influence of increasing concentration is greater in the
case of salts containing divalent ions, and greatest of all in such
cases as solutions of ammonia and acetic acid, which arc sub-
stances of very low conductivity.
Theory of Moving Ions. — Kohlrausch found that, when the
polarization at the electrodes was eliminated, the resistance of a
solution was constant however determined, and thus established
Ohm's Law for electrolytes. The law was confirmed in the case
of strong currents by G. F. Fitzgerald and F. T. Trouton (B.A.
Report, 1886, p. 312). Now, Ohm's Law implies that no work is
done by the current in overcoming reversible electromotive
forces such as those of polarization. Thus the molecular inter-
change of ions, which must occur in order that the products may
be able to work their way through the liquid and appear at the
electrodes, continues throughout the solution whether a current is
flowing or not. The influence of the current on the ions is
merely directive, and, when it flows, streams of electrified ions
travel in opposite directions, and, if the applied electromotive
force is enough to overcome the local polarization, give up their
charges to the electrodes. We may therefore represent the facts
by considering the process of electrolysis to beakindof convection.
Faraday's classical experiments proved that when a current
flows through an electrolyte the quantity of substance liberated
at each electrode is proportional to its chemical equivalent
weight, and to the total amount of electricity passed. Accurate
determinations have since shown that the mass of an ion de-
posited by one electromagnetic unit of electricity, i.e. its electro-
chemical equivalent, is roj6Xio~ 4 X its chemical equivalent
weight. Thus the amount of electricity associated with one
gram-equivalent of any ion is 1071-036 = 9653 units. Each
monovalent ion must therefore be associated with a certain
definite charge, which we may take to be a natural unit of
electricity; a divalent ion carries two such units, and so on.
A cation, i.e. an ion giving up its charge at the cathode, as the 1
electrode at which the current leaves the solul.^n is called, carries I
a positive charge of electricity; an anion, travelling in the I
opposite direction, carries a negative charge. It will now be seen |
tiut tit* quantity of electricity Bowing per second, i.c. the current <
(LIQUIDS
through the solution, depends on (1) the number of the km
concerned, (2) the charge on each ion, and (3) the velocity «u&
which the ions travel past each other. Now, the number of i*cs
is given by the concentration of the solution, for even if all (be
ions are not actively engaged in carrying the current at the sine
instant, they must, on any dynamical idea of chemical equi-
librium, be all active in turn. The charge on each, as we have
seen, can be expressed in absolute units, and therefore the
velocity with which they move past each other can be calculated.
This was first done by Kohlrausch (GdUittgen NackrichUn, 1874,
p. 213, and Das Lcihtrmigen der EUkirolyte, Leipzig, 1S9S)
about 1879.
In order to develop Kohlrausch 's theory, let us take, as an example,
the case of an aqueous solution of potassium chloride, of concen-
tration » gram-equivalents per cubic centimetre. There will tbea
be h gram-equivalents of potassium ions and the same number <i
chlorine ions in this volume. Let us suppose that on each gram-
equivalent of potassium there reside +e units of electricity, and en
each gram-equivalent of chlorine ions — # units. If at denotes the
average velocity of the potassium ions, the positive charge canirri
per secend across unit area normal to the flow is m e u. Similarly, if
v be the average velocity of tbe chlorine ions* ihc rjcgyativt darje
carried in the opposite direction in f r. Hut positive elect rarity
moving in one direction it equivalent to negative electricity jnowr.g
in the other, so that, before changes in concentration sensibly >ufw-
vene, the total current. C. is jw («+r). Now let us crt-iE^er the
amounts of potassium and chlorine liberated at the electrode* by
this current. At the eath«de T if the chlorine ion* were at rest, the
excess of potassium ions would he simply those a ni vine in one M-cond.
namely, nu. But si nee the chlorine j.?ns move al?o. a TurtheT u pac-
tion occurs, and itr potassium, ions, are left without [wrtners. The
total number of grnnv equivalents liberated is therefore *f*+r).
By Faraday's law, the number of [rams liberated is equal to the
Eroduct of the current and the electron-chemical equivalent of the
>n; the number of gram -equivalent! therefore must be equal to
«C. where 9 denol - the electrochemical equivalent of hvdhjgcn ifl
C.G.S. units. Thus we get
■(»+») -iC-n«e(*+r),
and it follows that the charge, e. on 1 gram-equivalent of each kind
of ion is equal to i/«. Wc know that Ohm's Law holds good for
electrolytes, so that the current C is also given by kdP/dx. where
k denotes the conductivity of the solution, and dP/dx the potential
gradient, i.e. the change in potential per unit length along the lines U
current flow. Thus
=(*+*)
»+•>
• kdP/dx;
*rfP
therefore
Now * is t-036Xto~ , l and the concentration of a solution is usually
Expressed in terms of the number, m. of gram-equivalents per litre
instead of per cubic centimetre. Therefore
«-f-»-t -036X10-^^.
When the potential gradient b one volt (10 9 CGS. units) per
centimetre tins becomes
«+*-i-036Xio-»X*/«.
Thus by measuring the value of k/m, which is known as the
equivalent conductivity of the solution, we can find *+», the
velocity of the ions relative to each other. For instance, the equiva-
lent conductivity of a solution of potassium chloride containing one-
tenth of a gram-equivalent per litre is 1119X10"" C.C.S. units at
18° C Therefore
«+»« i036Xio'Xi 1 19X10-**
-l*i59Xio-»-0'OOH59cm. per sec
In order to obtain the absolute velocities u and v, we must find
tome other relation between them. Let us resolve u into i(H-f-r)
n one direction, say to the right, and 4(«— r) to the left. Similarly
v can be resolved into J(r-f-ii) to the left and Mv— u) to the right.
On pairing these velocities we have a combined movement of the
ions to the right, with a speed of \(u—v) and a drift right and left,
ust each other, each ion travelling with a speed of i(w+r). conf-
uting the electrolytic separation. If u is greater than t», the combined
novement involves a concentration of salt at the cathode, and a
corresponding dilution at the anode, and vice versa. The rate at
which salt is electrolysed, and thus removed from the solution at
ach electrode, is J(a-f-v). Thus the total loss of salt at the cathode
p i(«+*0— s(» — v) or r. and at the anode, i (*+•) — {(» — st), or u.
Therefore, as is explained in the article Electrolysis, by measuring
the dilution of the liquid round the electrodes when a current passed,
W. Hittorf (Pou. A ■».. 1853-1850, 89, p, 177:98, p. 1 ; 103, p, t ; 106,
pp. $37 and 513) was able to deduce the ratio of the two velocities
.or simple salts when no complex ions are present, and many further
LIQUIDS)
experiment* have been made on the subject (tee Das Utoemdffu
By combining the results thus obtained with the sum of the
velocities, as determined from the conductivities, Kohlrausch cal-
culated the absolute velocities of different ions under stated condi-
tions. Thus, in the case of the solution of potassium chloride
considered above, Hittorfs experiments show us that the ratio of
the velocity of the anion to that of the cation in this solution is
•51 :>49. The absolute velocity of the potassium ion under unit
potential gradient is therefore 0-000567 cm. per sec., and that of
the chlorine ion 0-000592 cm. per sec Similar calculations can
be made for solutions of other concentrations, and of different
substances.
Tabic DC. shows Kohlrausch's values for the ionic velocities of
three chlorides of alkali metals at 18 C, calculated for a potential
gradient of 1 volt per cm.; the numbers are in terms of a unit
equal to io"« an. per sec.:—
Table IX.
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
863
KCI
NaCl
LiU
m
s+w 11 »
*+r st* *■
US"
a»
690
1140 450
»
1030
360 6qq
o-ooor
1J35
654
6ffi
Ui9 44&
ioj7
336 68 J
■001
JJU
64,1
*?o
[||Q tjn
070
1013
343 6-0
3>S 644
*di
ta6i
ml
619
644
tarn 415
6+4
96*
-03
!W7
6jj
1013 3W
Wi
, 9t7
J9* 619
io8fl
3^4
5*9
9£* 360
765 J?8
s^»
*53
239 594
■J
531
557
35^
4«7
774
3' 7 557
I-O
1011
h"I
!5^
651
169 48-*
3-0
91 1
44J
4 bo
$Sj 106
37*
46j
"5 34*
5-0
43* 153
3*5
334
«o 154
lO'O
J17
35 92
These numbers show clearly that there is an increase in ionic
velocity as the dilution proceeds. Moreover, if we compare the
values for the chlorine ion obtained from observations on these
three different salts, we see that as the concentrations diminish
the velocity of the chlorine ion becomes the same in all of them.
A similar relation appears in other cases, and, in general, we may
say that at great dilution the velocity of an ion is independent of
the nature of the other ion present. This introduces the con-
ception of specific ionic velocities, for which some values at 18° C.
are given by Kohlrausch in Table X.:—
Table X.
K
66X 10" 1 cms. pericc.
CI
6oXlor»cms. per sec
Na
. 45
1
69 ..
Li
: It :: ::
NOi .
64 ..
NH,
OH
162
H
. 3 30 » »
C.H.O,
36 „ I
Ag
. 57
CiH.0,
33 MM
a velocity of 1 centimetre per second through a very dilute solution
nust be equal to the weight of 38 million kilograms.
Table XI.
Having obtained these numbers we can deduce the conductivity
of the dilute solution of any salt, and the comparison of the
calculated with the observed values furnished the first confirma-
tion of Kohlrausch's theory. Some exceptions, however, arc
known. Thus acetic acid and ammonia give solutions of much
lower conductivity than is indicated by the sum of the specific
ionic velocities of their ions as determined from other compounds.
An attempt to find in Kohlrausch's theory some explanation of
this discrepancy shows that it could be due to one of two causes
Either the velocities of the ions must be much less in thesi
solutions than in others, or else only a fractional part of the
number of molecules present can be actively concerned in con-
veying the current. We shall return to tLis point later.
Friction on the /on*.— It is interesting to calculate the magnitude
of the forces required to drive the ions with a certain velocity, li
we have a potential gradient of I volt per centimetre the elector*
force is 10* in CCS units. The charge of electricity on 1 gram
equivalent of any ion is 1/-0001036 ""9653 units, hence the mechanical
force acting on this mass is 9653X10* dynes. This, let us say
produces a velocity u; then the force required to produce unit
velocity is p A - 9 6 53X ^ dynn ^^y 10' ld y vutH ^ n ^ ktm
If the ion have an equivalent weight A, the force producing unit velo-
city when acting on 1 gram is Pi-9*84Xj^ kilograms-weight. Thu
the aggregate force required to drive 1 gram of potassium ions with
Kilograms- weight.
Kilograms- weight.
Pa Pi
Pa P.
K .
. . I5XIC* 38XIO"
CI . . . 14X10* 40X10*
Na .
. . 23 .. 95 ~
I ... 14 ., » ..
Li .
NH.
. . 27 .. 390 N
15 M 83 „
NO. . . 15 .. 23 „
OH . . 54 •• 3* ..
H .
. . 3*1 .. 3«° .*
CH.O,. . vt „ 46 ..
Ag .
. . 17 » >6 „
CiH,Oi . 30 „ 41 „
Since the ions move with uniform velocity, the frictional resist-
ances brought into play must be equal and opposite to the driving
forces, and therefore these numbers also represent the ionic friction
coefficients in very dilute solutions at 18* C.
Direct Measurement of Ionic Velocities.— Sir Oliver Lodge was
the first to directly measure the velocity of an ion (B.A. Report,
1 886, p. 389). In a horizontal glass tube connecting two vessels
filled with dilute sulphuric acid he placed a solution of sodium
chloride in solid agar-agar jelly. This solid solution was made
alkaline with a trace of caustic soda in order to bring out the red
colour of a little phcnol-phthalein added as indicator. An
electric current was then passed from one vessel to the other. The
hydrogen ions from the anode vessel of acid were thus carried
along the tube, and, as they travelled, decolourized the pbcnol-
phthalcin. By this method the velocity of the hydrogen ion
through a jelly solution under a known potential gradient was
observed to about 0-0026 cm. per sec, a number of the same
order as that required by Kohlrausch's theory. Direct determina-
tions of the velocities of a few other ions have been made by
W. C. D.Whctham {Phil. Trans, vol. 184, A, p. 337; vol. 186, A,
p. 507; Phil. J fag., October 1894). Two solutions having one
ion in common, of equivalent concentrations, different densities,
different colours, and nearly equal specific resistances, were
placed one over the other in a vertical glass tube. In one case,
for example, dccinormal solutions of potassium carbonate and
potassium bichromate were used. The colour of the latter is due
to the presence of the bichromate group, CrjOj. When a current
was passed across the junction, the anions CO, and Cr&r
travelled in the direction opposite to that of the current, and
their velocity could be determined by measuring the rale at which
the colour boundary moved. Similar experiments were made
with alcoholic solutions of cobalt salts, in which the velocities of
the ions were found to be much less than in water. The behaviour
of agar jelly was then investigated, and the velocity of an ion
through a solid jelly was shown to be very little less than in
an ordinary liquid solution. The velocities could therefore be
measured by tracing the change in colour of an indicator or the
formation of a precipitate. Thus dccinormal jelly solutions of
barium chloride and sodium chloride, the latter containing a trace
of sodium sulphate, were placed in contact. Under the influence
of an electromotive force the barium ions moved up the
tube, disclosing their presence by the trace of insoluble barium
sulphate formed. Again, a measurement of the velocity of
the hydrogen ion, when travelling through the solution of an
acetate, showed that its velocity was then only about the
one-fortieth part of that found during its passage through
chlorides. From this, as from the measurements on aicohoi
solutions, it is clear that where the equivalent conductivities are
very low the effective velocities of the ions are reduced in the
same proportion. •
Another scries of direct measurements has been made by Orme
Masson (Phil. Trans, vol. 19?, A, p. 331). He placed the gelatine
solution of a salt, potassium chloride, for example, in a horizontal
glass tube, and found the rate of migration of the potassium and
chlorine ions by observing the speed at which they were replaced
when a coloured anion, say, the CrjOt from a solution of potassium
■ bichromate, entered the tube at one end, and a coloured cation,
' say, the Cu from copper sulphate, at the other. The coloured
ions are specifically slower than the colourless ions which they
I follow, and in this case it follows that the coloured solulkm has.*
864.
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
higher resistance than the colourless. For the same current,
therefore, the potential gradient is higher in the coloured solution
and lower in the colourless one. Thus a coloured ion which gets
in front of the advancing boundary finds itself acted on by a
smaller force and falls back into line, while a straggling colourless
ion b pushed forward again. Hence a sharp boundary is pre-
served. D. D. Steele has shown that with these sharp boundaries
the use of coloured ions is unnecessary, the junction line being
visible owing to the difference in the optical refractive indices of
two colourless solutions. Once the boundary is formed, too, no
gib tine is necessary, and the motion can be watched through
KiluM aqueous solutions (see R. B. Dccison and B. D. Steele,
All the direct measurements which have been made on simple
binary electrolytes agree with Kohirausch's results within the
limits of experimental error. His theory, therefore, probably
hoM* good in such cases, whatever be the solvent, if the proper
values are given to the ior.ic velocities, i.e. the values expressing
the velocities with which the sons &ctua!!y move in the solution
of the strength takf\ and ur..!cr the conditions of the experiment.
If we know the spociiic velocity of ar.y or.e ion, we can deduce,
from the oonduct:vi:y of very d Jute solutions, the velocity of any
tMner ion with which it rrjsy be associated, a proceeding which
d»vs not in wive the d: Scull task 0: dcorrrir^g the migration
couttant of the compound. Thus, tokirg the specific ionic
velocity of hxdrogen as o-cccjjj ctt.. per second, we can Lad. by
4 { rU . r ...;i.:.»£ \»! conductivity of d.Iute sections of any arid, the
sjvv ;iie vekvitv of the acid n£\cl< involved. Or a^ain. sir.ee ye
know the spivir.o wVeity of *i!v*r. we o-r. cr.d the verities 0: a
s.-rc* of aeii r.id\\r* at pre^t dvjlicr. by ceasurirg the cta-
d-.u-t:\ !ty of their *i'.ver w'.:s.
!*v o.-.-S ••*:•. S\:»\V CV: «.'.!'. 0. r»rvv ,r s and i ::Srr observer* have
f .:■•.. I i'v *i^sr.o w'.v: c- ■•! r.-.;— . ;. -* S.'.h <t i-..:^:\\z arJ
J».jr,l cx.irr. ;:•-»? ;' e i\!.;. .1 !<:»«r. c-.t>:.::.::<-:i
■IP. ■>•.:. _ .- _
w;.mi\. Yt-c **l.x-.:\ .. ! i'.^r.-nsjrN i.^r-s i* f:urc! 10
v'jo i'.::\c;>r. <i 1! a: •:'••*' »*;,;. L :i. siHiLir clenxr.ts S> in,;
-•p-Ji.-j; p>T:i.-:'» ■ 1 a i-r\c v!w»r. u express the txlsi' ■-
K* .1 \\r
v»:i „"Wi"i , «!i. , S p. ■«!.-:•# ■ l J
li-t»een the*e 1 wo rrvjvnc*. ^uch a anc mi.-.h rc^en-.tk'S that
iCixt-^ the nl.nion lvt*«n atomic weight and riscowty in solution.
l\x i : «Mnple\ i>"*n* the vtlxity is Lirgily an additive "property ; to
a co!i:ip..:-.*w* .iJ»!i:ive rh-r.^e in the iorrfo>iTu.n of the ion ccfic-
.■.^v:, 1 * j c,»n:ir.':.»i;* l".:t i!i\rv.*::r,; change in trc \<i.xi:y. The
folL-» in^ tabic ^i\ \ * 0»t wjM"* rc.-uks «c r the formic acid atri.-s : —
TadieXII.
Formic a< id .
. . no\.
.\ cciic .,
H.tV 1 !
Propionic ..
. 11 A' -J^
Hut>rie .,
. M:< ".<>.•
VaK-rk
. . H,<\0,
Caprionie ..
■ Hi:C t O:
Yc U« : : > i Dulcet nv c i.r ill;
JI -2
**-j
-13.9
o4\l
- 40
J«-«
- V5
2S-8
- 20
27*
- i-4
X at lire of Electrolytes. — We have as yet vsi>l r:M hi r.£ a Lout the
fundamental cause of elcctrolytk activity, nor ton-.i'!« r* A why,
for example, a solution of potassium < hlvridc i.% a g'jod t Mid';Mor,
while a solution of sugar allows practically no current to p.i./i.
All the preceding account of the subjert i», th«.n, indri»«n»l<r.t
of any view we may take of the nature of i.ltrt t rolyits, and stand?.
on the basis of direct experiment. Nevertheless, the fails
consiilcrcd point to a very definite com lusion. 'rhc spciifie
velocity of an ion b independent of the nature of the opposite ion
present, ind this suggests that the iont themselves, while
travelling through the liquid, arc disv* Mini from ct h other.
Further evidence, pointing in the same il.'rtf lion, l. fiirnished by
the f.ut that since the conductivity is proportional to the
concentration at great dilution, theequivalent-rondui livity, and
therefore the ionic velocity, is indcrx ndent of it. The imt>ortancc
.if this relation will be seen by considering the alternative to the
jr>sociation hypothesis. If the ions ore not permanently free
:~.n aih other their mobility as parts of the dissolved molecules
r-a-: ^« secured by continual interchanges. The velocity with
~. . ^, v vcr ^ t ht:r way through the liquid must then increase
4 "^ -"_. ^.^a,- ^ lrnncements become more frequent, and will
" ~jis*^i ua 'Jic acmber of solute molecules, i.e. on the
[CASES
concentration. On this suppeshre t*« r-bsc-^i r^i^tcy •.:
velocity would be impesiibie. We r-.i ~ \xr\ in t::?t »t
working h>ix)lhebis the thecry. c:a=r=tf-2 ry ctii- Tirxireri
(sec Electrolysis), that anelectrs .1-1- rtrssa r :' 1^.-. -:::^i:r«.
It will be noticed that ne::L:r lb? e- iizz.=£ ^ :. : _r ci 'i;
dissociation theory which is tire cc=Ajiirr-i. :ce ^.: ■^:rl<:
in the article Electiolysb. r<-r_ir» nroe -'--«- it: e *-:■>'
dissociation of the ions from eari oii*r. Tbsy =^y » -'. \*
connected in some way wiii acl. ir: r>:or^.«." zzi :terc z-.
several indications that an ion ccr-si-it c: z.z. ijrrrr_5ei pan c; :'•'
molecule of the dissolved salt ui± lz. l:i±.lLlz- i^^csiiin <.
solvent round it. The cond ucu* vr.y c f l sc." : *: : . zl-z z i*i<7 is .:
two factors— ( 1 ) the fraction of the s=J: >: ziri-f . : :Le \t Ic% . : >
with which the ions, when free frc^: each ether =^\ = ■_: i.r '.b-.
electric forces. 1 When a solut ion is heziti K: -.i -_r.e« "i^r-r : }
change. The coefficient of ionization -^s^Hy . \1l -c> ^c : *:•■:;.*
decreases; the specific ionic velocities isrrris*. N""; x :i: :i';; ;
increase with temperature of these icnic \xI-jc:;cs is %cr>- r f ;:..
identical with the rate of decrease of lie vis-::*:! v cf -J-.". ;.■■.■;■
If the curves obtained by observation? it crcszry '.tzr^-.rz'..-^
be carried on they indicate a zero of tSil'.zy ss.z a r c :o ;;" i :ic
velocity about the same point, jS-5* C. t<!c v iht :"retr>g ;*..i : -V
water (Kohlrausch, Sitz. prcus*. Akzd. Wist . ::c:. xz ;■. i::'.'
Such relations suggest that the frictior.al resiitirce :c :he r \ :
of an ion is due to the ordinary viscosity c :" the " : ^ _J i a r. J : Yz. : ; -e
ion is analogous to a body of some size urged ihrc-gr. a v.sc. js
medium rather than to a particle of molecular dirr.tniisr.s ft-:.'?
its way through a crowd of molecules of si=ii!ar zri^r.'V.i:
From this point of view \V. K. Bousfield has Cic-Jiui L w .f ji:rt
cf iocs on the assumption that Stokes's theory of the xro'Jer. o: a
?p.:I! sphere through a viscous medium might be applied (,£.-';
* :;. s. Ckm., 1005. 53. p. 2$7\ Phil- Trans. A, 1906. 106. p, is: 1
The radius of the potassium or chlorine ion with iis cCvcLpt «.:
water appears to be about 1-2X10"* centimetres.
For the brbiiorraphy of electrolytic conduction ice El ectbolysr
The books which ij'il more e*pecially with the panicuUr tLbjcct
of the prc>cr.t anicle are Das Ijeititrmcsfn d<r E.'tk^A\u. I-
V. K. h'rauK-h and L. Hi Iborn (Lei prig. ifciS*. and Tkr'Ther*
cf Scluiun end Necrolysis, by W. C. D. \Yhitham fCafrbnCee'.
*'/o.\. (YY. C. D. \\.)
III. Electric Conduction through Gases
A pas such as air when it is under normal conditions conduct*
electricity to a small but only to a very small extent, however
smr.'.l the electric force acting on the gas may be. The elecuicJ
conductivity cf gases not exposed to special conditions b so
5rr.-U th..t it v.is enly definitely established in the early y«r$
of the -:« h ctriiury. although it had engaged the atunti..n ct
physicists for more than a hundred years. It had been knc*r.
for a long time that a body charged with electricity slowly k>:
i:5 charge even w hen insubtcd with the greatest catc, ai.d though
for.* ?jro some j-hy^icists believed that part of the Ie.tk ci
cledrkity took plaie through the air, the general view seems to
have been that it was due to almost unavoidable defect? in the
insulation or to dust in the air, which after striking the ch.irgu:
WAy was repelled from it and went off with some of the ch.irp..
C. A. Coulomb, v. ho made some very careful experiments w !.\1;
were published in i;S5 (Mem. de I'Acad. des Scitu«s. 17^5. p.
612), came to the conclusion that after allowing for the lc:ik:ifc
along the threads which supported the charged body there v.u
a balance over, which he attributed to leak.igc through the air.
His viiw was that when the molecules of air come into cont-r-
with a charged body some of the electricity goes on to the mole-
cules, which arc then repelled from the body carrying tbir
charge with them. We shall sec later that this explan-.tio^ i*
not tenable. C. Malteucci (Ann. ehim. phys., 1850. 7?. p. /.
in 1S50 also came to the conclusion that the electric it v fn-m a
charged body passes through the air; he was the first "to pro\e
1 It should be noticed that the velocities calculated in K-.-Mr.;-:M-h's
theory and observed cxperimi-ntariy arc the average vrU-itk*. ar.d
involve both the f.irtors mentioned above; they include the time
Hastwl by the ion* in combination with each other, and. except at
great dilution, are Jew than the velocity with which the ions move
when tree from each other.
GASES)
that the rale at which electricity escapes a less when the pressure
of the gas is low than when it is high. He found that the rate
was the same whether the charged body was surrounded by air,
carbonic acid or hydrogen. Subsequent investigations have
shown that the rate in hydrogen is in general much less than in
air. Thus in 1872 E. G. Warburg (Pogg. Ann., 1872, 145, p. 578)
found that the leak through hydrogen was only about one-half
of that through air: he confirmed Matteucci's observations on
the effect of pressure on the rate of leak, and also found that it
was the same whether the gas was dry or damp. He was inclined
to attribute the leak to dust in the air, a view which was
strengthened by an experiment of J. W. Hittorf's (Wied. Ann.,
1879, 7, p. 595), in which a small carefully insulated electroscope,
placed in a small vessel filled with carefully filtered gas, retained
its charge for several days; we know now that this was due to
the smallness of the vessel and not to the absence of dust, as it
has been proved that the rate of leak in small vessels is less than
in large ones.
Great light was thrown on this subject by some experiments
on the rates of leak from charged bodies in closed vessels made
almost simultaneously by H. Geitel (Phys. Zeit., 1900, 2, p. 116)
and C. T. R. Wilson (Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc, 1900, 11, p. 32).
These observers established that (1) the rate of escape of elec-
tricity in a closed vessel is much smaller than in the open, and
the larger the vessel the greater is the rate of leak; and (2) the rate
of leak does not increase in proportion to the differences of
potential between the charged body and the walls of the vessel:
the rate soon reaches a limit beyond which it does not increase,
however much the potential difference may be increased, provided,
of course, that this is not great enough to cause sparks to pass
from the charged body. On the assumption that the maximum
leak is proportional to the volume, Wilson's experiments, which
were made in vessels less than x litre in volume, showed that in
dust-free air at atmospheric pressure the maximum quantity
of electricity which can escape in one second from a charged
body in a closed volume of V cubic centimetres is about xo-»V
electrostatic units. E. Rutherford and S. T. Allan (Phys. Zeit.,
1902, 3, p. 225), working in Montreal, obtained results, in close
agreement with this. Working between pressures of from
43 to 743 millimetres of mercury, Wilson showed that the
maximum rate of leak is very approximately proportional to
the pressure; it is thus exceedingly small when the pressure
is low— a result illustrated in a striking way by an experiment
of Sir W. Crookes (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1879, 28, p. 347) in which a
pair of gold leaves retained an electric charge for several months
in a very high vacuum.- Subsequent experiments have shown
that it is only in very small vessels that the rate of leak is pro-
portional to the volume and to the pressure; in large vessels
the' rate of leak per unit volume is considerably smaller than in
small ones. In small vessels the maximum rate of leak in different
gases, is, with the exception of hydrogen, approximately propor-
tional to the density of the gas. Wilson's results on this point are
shown in the following table (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1 901, 60, p. 277): —
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
865
Gas.
Relative Rate of Leak.
Rate of Leak.
Sp. Gr.
Ai- . . .
H, . . .
CO, . . .
SO, . . .
CH,C1 . .
Ni(CO)« . .
i-oo
.184
169
2 64
47
5-«
I
a-7
110
1*21
109
•867
The rate of leak of electricity through gas contained in a closed
vessel depends to some extent on the material of which the walls
of the vessel are made; thus it is greater, other circumstances
being the same, when the vessel is made of lead than when it is
made of aluminium. It also varies, as Campbell and Wood
(Phil. Mag. [6], 13, p. 265) have shown, with the time of the day,
having a well-marked minimum at about 3 o'clock in the morning:
it also varies from month to month. Rutherford (Phys. Rev.,
1903, 16, p. 183), Cooke (Phil. Mag., 1903 (6], 6, p. 403) and
M* German and Burton (Phys. Rev., 1903, 16, p. 184) have shown
VI. 15
that the leak in a dosed vessel can be reduced by about 30%
by surrounding the vessel with sheets of thick lead, but that the
reduction is not increased beyond this amount, however thick
the lead sheets may be. This result indicates that part of the
leak is due to a very penetrating kind of radiation, which can get
through the thin walls of the vessel but is stopped by the thick
lead. A large part of the leak we are describing is due to the
presence of radioactive substances such as radium and thorium
in the earth's crust and in the walls of the vessel, and to the
gaseous radioactive emanations which diffuse from them into
the atmosphere. This explains the very interesting effect
discovered by J. Elster and H. Geitel (Phys. Zeit., ioox, 2, p. 560),
that the rate of leak in caves and cellars when the air is stagnant
and only renewed slowly is much greater than in the open air.
In some cases the difference is very marked; thus they found
that in the cave called the Baumannshtthle in the Harz mountains
the electricity escaped at seven times the rate it did in the air
outside. In caves and cellars the radioactive emanations from
the walls can accumulate and are not blown away as in the
open air.
The electrical conductivity of gases in the normal state is,
as we have seen, exceedingly small, so small that the investigation
of its properties is a matter of considerable difficulty; there
are, however, many ways by which the electrical conductivity
of a gas can be increased so greatly that the investigation
becomes comparatively easy. Among such methods are raising
the temperature of the gas above a certain point. Gases drawn
from the neighbourhood- of flames, electric arcs and sparks, or
glowing pieces of metal or carbon are conductors, as are also
gases through which Rontgen or cathode rays or rays of positive
electricity are passing; the rays from the radioactive metals,
radium, thorium, polonium and actinium, produce the same
effect, as does also ultra-violet light of exceedingly short wave*
length. The gas, after being made a conductor of electricity
by any of these means, is found to possess certain properties;
thus it retains its conductivity for some little time after the agent
which made it a conductor has ceased to act, though the con-
ductivity diminishes very rapidly and finally gets too small
to be appreciable.
This and several other properties of conducting gas may
readily be proved by the aid of the apparatus represented in fig. 5.
Tf
fi
1
«=©— :
Fig. 5.
V is a testing vessel in which an electroscope is placed. Two tubes
A and C are fitted into the vessel, A being connected with a water
pump, while the far end of C is in the region where the gas is
exposed to the agent which makes it a conductor of electricity.
Let us suppose that the gas is made conducting by Rdntgen rays
produced by a vacuum tube which is placed in a box, covered
except for a window at B with lead so as to protect the electro-
scope from the direct action of the rays. If a slow current of air
is drawn by the water pump through the testing vessel, the charge
on the electroscope will gradually leak away. The leak, however,
ceases when the current of air is stopped. This result shows that
the gas retains its conductivity during the time taken by it to pass
from one end to the other of the tube C.
The gas loses its conductivity when filtered through a plug of
glass-wool, or when it is made to bubble through water. This
can readily be proved by inserting in the tube C a plug of glass-
wool or a water trap; then if by working the pump a little
harder the same current of air is produced as before, it will be
found that the electroscope will now retain its charge, showing
that the conductivity can, as it wttt.ta^^m^ <*&.*& 'feut.^gew
866
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
The conductivity can also be removed from the gas by making
tht gas traverse a strong electric field. We can show this by
replacing the tube C by a metal tube with an insulated win
passing down the axis of the tube. If there is no potential
difference between the wire and the tube then the electroscope
will leak when a current of air is drawn through the vessel, but
the leak will stop if a considerable difference of potential is
maintained between the wire and the tube: this shows that a
strong electric field removes the conductivity from the gas.
The fuct that the conductivity of the gas is removed by
filtering shows that it is due to something mixed with the gas
which is removed from it by filtration, and since the conductivity
Is also removed by an electric field, the cause of the conductivity
must br charged with electricity so as to be driven to the sides
of the IuIkj by the electric force. Since the gas as a whole is not
eln irified pit her positively or negatively, there must be both
negative uml (MMitive chnrges in the gas, the amount of electricity
of urn- sign being equal to that of the other. We are thus led to
the mm liihimi I tint the conductivity of the gas is due to electrified
pan him bring mixed up with the gas, some of these particles
mtvdiK i barges of [Mwitivc electricity, others of negative. Thcso
fin nififil pin tit Irs are called tour, and the process by which the*
gN* iii iiniflf n conductor is called the ionization of the gas. We
hIimII fclmw l.i in that the charges and masses of the ions can be
iliiuiiiliiid, mid that the gaseous ions are not identical with
Um.bi imiI with in I he electrolysis of solutions.
I)in> vriy i Imrartcristic property of conduction of electricity
lliioiif.li « gns is the relation between the current through the
gnu iiml the electric force which gave rise to it. This relation
I* mil In general that expressed by Ohm's law, which always,
H« fur im our present knowledge extends, expresses the relation
fur i < im !u< lion through metals and electrolytes. With gases, on
the oilier hand, it is only when the current is very small that
Ohm'* law is true. If we represent graphically by means of a
iiirve the relation between the current passing between two
liiinillil metal plates separated by ionized gas and the difference
of |Hili a ntial between the plates, the curve is of the character
khown in fig 6 when (he onlinatcs represent the current and
Ihr nhsussac the difference of potential between the plates.
We nee that when the potential difference is very small, i.e.
i lose to the origin, the curve is approximately straight, but that
soon the current increases much
less rapidly than the potential
difference, and that a stage is
reached when no appreciable
increase of current is produced
when the potential difference is
increased; when this stage is
reached the current is constant,
and this value of the current is
called the " saturation " value.
When the potential difference
approaches the value at which
sparks would pass through the
gin, the current again increases with the potential difference;
limit the curve representing the relation between the current
uml |mlriifial difference over very wide ranges of potential
ilillriiiiie has the shape shown in fig. 7; curves of this kind
liavii hern obtained by von Schwcidlcr (IV tat. Ber., 1899,
ihN, p. J7 l), and J. E. S. Townsend Phil. Mag., 1901 [6], 1,
|i mil) We hlmll discuss later the causes of the rise in the
1 mn hi with Urge potential differences, when we consider
hmi ml inn by collision.
I tie i;i mild fratnres of the earlier part of the curve are readily
i.«i<liihnil mi 1 In- iiini/.ition hypothesis. On this view the Rontgcn
ima in nihil i.uti/inc agent acting on the gas between the plates,
(•iftliti 1 • |h Miner 11 nil negative ion* at a definite rate. Let us sup-
|hiM 1I1 ii if iHi'<UiM' mid q negative ions arc by this means produced
with the plum; these under the electric force will
(in. I in nmve, l he |mniiivr ones to the negative plate, the negative
uni «in llu- |Hii|tlvi a . Sum* of these ions will reach the plate, others
JhI.i In iic ihr pl.it i* will K«*t «« near one of the opposite sign that
llu •tin.ii uml tietwei 11 them will cauae them to unite and form an
• Ultimlly iMiituI system; when they do this they end their
existence as ions. The current between the ph
to the number of ions which reach the plates per
evident that we cannot go on taking- more ions t
are produced; thus we cannot, when the cant
more than q positive ions driven to the ncgathn
and the same number of negative ions to the posit
positive ions carries a charge of e units of posit
if there is an equal and opposite charge on each p-*»t- 151I
the maximum amount of electricity which can be
per second is qe, and this is equal to the saturation a
if we measure the saturation current, we get a di
40
r
rr.
;
tt>
I, 1
91
t«
/
*■
V
1
Gtf
losKwseoiMSMSoswo
Fig.
aw sea mm mq 1- 11 ibrnc a
ionization, and this docs not require us* to know t\e \i\jsmt\
quantity except the constant charge on the ion. If *c PSS-'I
to deduce the amount of ionization by measurements U tfeefcl
before it was saturated, we should require to know i»ad£**l
velocity with which the ions move under a given electric r?a a I
time that elapses between the liberation of an Ian and e**J|
bination with uiic of the opposite sign, and the pptcntal C^er '
between ihc plates. Thus if we wish to measure the id
ionization in a gas we should be careful to see that the e
saturated. Wfc
The difference between conduction through gases and L-.
metals is shown in a striking way when wc use potential diners?
large enough to produce the saturation current. Suppose
have got a potential difference between the plaMt mtf«ifc
sufficient to produce the saturation current, and let ui ums
the distance between the plates. If the gas were to act lie-
metallic conductor this would diminish the current bectee^
greater length would involve a greater resistance id tbeus.
In the case we are considering the separation of the vteiml
increase the current, because now there is a larger volume &?
exposed to the rays; there arc therefore more ions profoffi
and as the saturation current is proportional to the nacobrtt
ions the saturation current is increased. If the potential fifc-
ence between the plates were much less than that required :i
saturate the current, then increasing the distance
the current; the gas for such potential difference* obeys Ohc'i
law and the behaviour of the gaseous resistance is titfrftf
similar to that of a metallic one.
In order to produce the saturation current the electric &1>
must be strong enough to drive each ion to the electrode bciw
U has time to enter into combination with one of the oppc&i
sign. Thus when the plates in the preceding example art £
apart, it will take a larger potential difference to produce uY-
Current than when the plates arc close together. The porcni^
difference required to saturate the current will increase as it*
Square of the distance between the plates, for if the ions are »
be delivered in a given time to the plates their speed roust be
proportional to the distance between the plates. But the spml
Es proportional to the electric force acting on the ion; hence the
«lcctric force must be proportional to the distance between the
plates, and as in a uniform field the potential difference is equal
lo the electric force multiplied by the distance between the plait?,
the potential difference will vary as the square of ihis distance
The potential difference required to produce saturation will,
flthcr circumstances being the same, increase with the tnoitt
of ionization, for when the number of ions is large and they are
crowded together, the time which will elapse before a positive
one combines with a negative will be smaller than when the
number of ions is small. The ions have therefore to be removed
more quickly from the gas when the ionization is great than
when it is small; thus they must move at a higher speed and
must therefore be acted upon by a larger force.
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
86-
When the ions arc not removed from the gas they wtfj increa-L'
- r jntil the number of ions of one sign which combine with ion*
^*tf the opposite sign in any time is equal to the number produced
^*hf the ionising agent in that time. We can easily calculate the
K "jumber of fzee ions at any time 1 after the ionizing agent has
recommenced to act.
""-■ Let q be the number of ions (positive or negative) produced In
: one cubic centimetre of the gas per second by the ionizing agent,
" ■" Hit i«fi the number of free positive and negative ions respectively per
ifn 1 ^- centimetre of the gas. The number of colti-uan* between
positive and negative ions per second in one cubic centimetre irfrhc
"—pas is prop>)rtion.il to ti\*i. If a certain friction of the coitions
Between the positive and negative ions result in the formation of an
~"~ electrically neutral system, the number of ions which disappear per
■ceo no 1 on a cubic centimetre will lie equal to aiii n* t whfre an a
quantity which in independent of *i. «,; hence if / is the lime since
, the ionizing agent was applied to the gas. we have
d ttjdl " q - afli «t, dntfdt - q — an x m
Thu* ni — *i is constant, so if the gas is uncharged to begin wil h, n,
— Hill always equal n t . Putting »,=«,-» we have
dnldt=q-*n* ....... (i),
*• the solution of which is. since n =»o when / -o,
if V-q.'a. Now the number of ions when the gas ha* rejehrd a
- steady state is got by putting / equal to infinity in the preceding
equation, and is therefore given by the equation
n -A = V( ? /tt).
We sec from equation (i) that the gas will not approximate to it*
steady state until 2kai is large, that is until / is large compared with
l/jfcaor with 1/2 V (qa). We may thus take 1/2 V (tfa) asa measure of
: " the time taken by the gas to reach a steady *t.ite when cupeled to
an ionizing agent: as this time varies inversely as \'q w«c thai
- %hcn the ionization i- fv:blc it may lake .1 very considerable rime for
the gas to re.i* h a steadv state. Thus in the ease of our atmmphere
where the production of ions is only at the rate of about jo per cubic
centimetre per M-cond. ami when-, as we shall sec, a is ol—ur lo" 1 .
it would take some minutes for the ionization in the air to gel into
a stt-ady state if the ionizing agent were suddenly applied.
We may use equation (1 ) to determine the rate at which the iom
disappear wh.n the ionizing agent is removed. Putting q-o in
that equation wc get d*/oi» —on'.
Hence n-n»/(i+ii.a/) ....... [3?.
where n« is the number of ions when / -o. Thus the number of irms
falls to one-half its initial value in the time i/n«a. 1 he Quantity n is
called the coefficient of recombination, and its value for different Easci
has been determined by Rutherford (Phil. Mat. 1807 |g|, 44, ft jjij,
Townscnd {Phil. Trans., ioaw, 19.1, p. 139), McCluna {Phil. Jf^.,
1902 6), 3, p. 283), Lar.gcvin {Ann. ihim. phys. jj), jS k j^ &qU
Retschinsky {Aim. d. Phys., 1905, 17. p. 518). Mended {Phys Kc?, t
1905, 21. p. 314). The value* of a.'e, t being the charge on an ion in
electrostatic nwaturc as determined by these observe 1* fur different
gases, is given in the following table —
Towns'.- ml.
McClung.
Langcvin.
Rctschinbky.
I- lend red.
Air .
0, .
CO, .
Hi .
3420
33»o
35<x>
30-0
338o
3490
2940
3200
3400
4140
3S*»
The gases in these experiments were carefully dried acid ftw ftom
dust; the apparent value of a is much increased when dual or small
drops of wv.ter arc present in the gas. for then the ions get caught
by the dust iKirtick-s, the mass of a particle is so great tampaned
action of the electric field, and so tne ions clinging to ihcm escape
detection when electrical methods are used. Taking r as 3 ■jXitr' - .
wc see that « is alxmt I-2X10"*, so that the numbor of recom-
binations in unit time Ik: I ween n positive and n negative ions in unit
volume is i-2Xio~*n*. The kinetic theory of ga*cs show* that
if wc have n molecules of air per cubic centimetre, the number of
collisions per second is 12 X lO^M'at a temperature of o"C Thus
ue see that the number of recombinations between oppositely
charged ions is enormously greater than the number of collision*
between the same number of neutral molecules. We shall tec that
the difference in size between the ion and the molecule is not nearly
sufficient to account for the difference between the collisions in the
two cases; the difference is due to the force between the oppositely
chirged ions, which dragj ions into collisions which but for this force
\Mu.'> I have misled each other.
^O'-eral methods have been used to measure a. In one method
air. exposed to some ionizing agent at one end of a Long tiibc t is
d«.\\Iv s -. l.i-.l \\\; i./h f h«» t i:t 1 .ir.d i»i-- -viviati >n rum-nt m.\i;iir.»d
at d liferent points along the tube. Thcac currents are proportional
to the values of n at the place of observation: if we know the
distance of this place from the end of the tube when the gas was
•ionized and the velocity of the stream of gas, we can find t in equation
(3), and knowing the value of n we can deduce the value of a from
the equation
l/»i-i/ni-a(/|-<0.
where n u *j are the values of n at the times t t , 4 respectively. In this
method the tubes ought to be so wide that the loss of ions by diffusion
to the sides of the tube is negligible. There are other methods which
involve the knowledge of the speed with which the ions move under
the action of known electric forces; we shall defer the consideration
of these methods until wc have discussed the question of these
speeds.
In measuring the value of a it should be remembered that the
theory of the methods suppose* that the ionization is uniform
throughout the gas. If the total ionization throughout a gas remain*
constant, but instead of being uniformly distributed is concentrated
in patches, it is evident that the ions will recombine more quickly
in the second case than in the first, and that the value of a will be
different in the two cases. This probably explains the large values
of a obtained by Retschinsky, who ionized the gas by the a rays
from radium, a method which produces very patchy ionization.
Variation of a with the Pressure of the Gas. — All observers agree
that there is little variation in a with the pressures for pressures of
between 5 and I atmospheres; at lower pressures, however, the
value of a seems to diminish with the pressure: thus Langevin
{Ann, chim. phys., 1903, 28, p. 287) found that at a pressure of |
of an atmosphere the value of a was about { of its value at
atmospheric pressure.
Variation uf a with the Temperature. — Erikson {Phil. Mag., Aug.
1909) had shown that the value of a for air increases as the tempera-
ture diminishes, and that at the temperature of liquid air — 180 C,
it is more than twice as great as at +12° C.
Since, as we have seen, the recombination is due to the coming
together of the positive and negative ions under the influence of the
1 leitrical attraction between them, it follows that a large electric
foicc sutlicient to overcome this attraction would keep the ions apart
'and hence diminish the cocftuic-nt of recombination. Simple con-
1 side rat ions, however, will show that it would require exceedingly
strong electric fields to produce an appreciable effect. The value of
I a indicates that for two oppositely cliargcd ions to unite they must
come within a distance of about I-JXIO"* centimetres; at this
distance the attraction between them 19 e a Xio li l2-2$, and if X is the
external electric force, the force tending to null them apart cannot
t>e greater than Xe; if this, is to be comparable with the attraction,
X iiiuil lie comparable with «Xio"/J-25. or putting «-4XlO~ , »,
with i-HXro*; this i» 54.000 volts p»-r centimetre, a force which
could r.-jt be applied to gas at atmospheric pressure without pro-
ducing a spark.
Diffusion of the Ions. — The ionired gas acts like a mixture of gases,
the ions cor res | ending to two different gases, the non-ionized gas
to a third. If the concentration of the ions is not uniform, they will
diffuse through the non- ionized gas in such a way as to produce a
more uniform distribut ion. A very valuable series of determinations
of the coefficient of diffusion of ions through various gav* has been
made by Townscnd {Phil. Trans., 1 900, A, 193, p. 1 29). The method
used was to suck the ionized ga» through narrow tubes; by measur-
ing the loss of both the positive and negative ions after the gases
had passed through a known length of tube, and allowing for the loss
by recombination, the loss by diffusion and hence the coefficient of
diffusion could be determined. The following tables give the values
of the coefficients of diffusion D on the C.O.S. system of units as
determined by Townsend: —
Table I.— Coefficients of Diffusion (D) in Dry Cases.
Gas.
D for + ions.
D for — ions.
Mean Value
of D.
Ratio of D for
— to D for + ions
Air
0,
CO,
fit
•028
•025
-023
•123
043^
•0306
•026
•190
0347
•03*3
0245
•156
»-54
1-58
«»3
« 54
Table II.
—Coefficients c
/ Diffuiion in
Moist Cases.
Gas.
D for + ions.
D for — ions.
Mean Value
of D.
Ratio of D for
— to D for + ions.
Air
0,
CO,
lit
•03a
•oj88
•0245
•128
•037
•0358
0255
142
•0335
0323
025
•135
1 09
124
104
i-ii
It is interesting to compare with these coefficients the values of D
when various gases diffuse through each other. D for hydrogen
through air is '634, for oxygen through air -177, for the va.Qau.t<A
868
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
tsobutyl amide through air -04^. We thus see that the velocity
of diffusion of ions through air is much less than that of the simple
gas, but that it is quite comparable with that of. the vapours of tome
complex organic compounds.
The pr ■ ' 'Mes show that the negative ions diffuse more
rapidly than the positive, especially in dry Eases. The superior
mobility of the negative ions was observed tint by Zeleny {PkiL J/ag.,
1898 [5], 46* p. 120), who showed that the velocity of the negative
ions under an electric; force is greater than that of the positive. It
will be noticed that the difference between the mobility of the
negative and the positive iom is much more pronounced in dry
gases than in moist. The difference in the rates of diffusion of the
positive and negative ions is the reason why ionized gas. in which,
to begin with, the positive and negative charges were of equal
amounts, sometimes becomes electrified even although the gas is not
acted upon by electric forces. Thus, for example* if such gas be
blown through narrow tubes, it will be positively electrified when
it comes out. Tor since the negative ions diffuse more rapidly than
the positive, the gas in its passage through the tubes will lose by
diffusion more negative than positive ions and hence will emerge
positively electrified. Zeleny showed that this effect does not occur
when, as in carbonic acid gas, the positive and negative ions diffuse
at the same rates. Town send (/of, t it-) showed that the coefficient
of diffusion of the ions is the same whether the ionization is produced
by Rdntgen rays, radioactive substances, ultra-violet light, or
electric sparks. The ions produced by chemical reactions and in
flames are much Icm mobile; thus, for example, ftloch {Ann. tkim.
phys., 1905 [&], 4, p- 35) found that for the ions produced by drawing
air over phosphorus the value of a/c was between 1 and 6 instead
of over 3000, the value when the air was ion tied by Rontgen rays.
Velocity of Ions in an Eltctric Field.— The velocity of ions in an
electric field, which is of fundamental importance in conduction,
is very closely related to the coefficient of diffusion. Measure-
ments of this velocity for ions produced by Rdntgen rays have
been made by Rutherford (Phil. Mag. [5I, 44, p. 422), Zeleny
(PhU. Mag. I5], 46, p. 120), Langevin (Ann.Chim. PAyj.,1903,
28, p. 280), Phillips (Proc. Roy. Soc. 78, A, p. 167), and Wellisch
(Phil. Trans., 1909, 209, p. 249). The ions produced by radio-
active substance have been investigated by Rutherford {Phil.
Mag. Isl, 47, p. 109) and by Franck and Pohl ( Verh. deutsch. phys.
GescU.y 1907, 9, p. 69), and the negative ions produced when ultra-
violet light falls on a metal plate by Rutherford (Proc. Camb.Phil.
Soc. 9, p. 401). H. A. Wilson {Phil. Trans. 192, p.409) ,Marx (A nn.
de Phys. 11, p. 765), Moreau (J own. dc Phys. 4, 11, p. 558; Ann.
Chim. Phys. 7, 30, p. 5) and Gold (Proc. Roy. Soc. 79, p. 43) have
investigated the velocities of ions produced by putting various
salts into flames; McClelland (Phil. Mag. 46, p. 29) the velocity
of the ions in gases sucked from the neighbourhood of flames and
arcs; Townscnd (Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 9, p. 345) and Bloch
(loc. cit.) the velocity of ions produced by chemical reaction; and
Chattock (PhU. Mag. [5], 48, p. 401) the velocity of the ions pro-
duced when electricity escapes from a sharp needle point into a gas.
Several methods have been employed to determine these
velocities. The one most frequently employed is to find the
electromotive intensity required to force an ion against the
stream of gas moving with a known velocity parallel to the lines
of electric force. Thus, of two perforated plane electrodes
vertically over each other, suppose the lower to be positively,
the upper negatively electrified, and suppose that the gas is
streaming vertically downwards with the velocity V; then unless
the upward velocity of the positive ion is greater than V, no
positive electricity will reach the upper plate. If we increase
the strength of the field between the plates, and hence the upward
velocity of the positive ion, until the positive ions just begin to
reach the upper plate, we know that with this strength of field the
velocity of the positive ion is equal to V. By this method, which
has been used by Rutherford, Zeleny and H. A. Wilson, the
velocity of ions in fields of various strengths has been determined.
The arrangement used by Zeleny is represented in fig. 8. P and
Q arc square brass plates. They arc bored through their centres,
and to the openings the tubes R and S arc attached, the space
between the plates being covered in so as to form a closed box.
K is a piece of wire gauze completely covering the opening in Q;
T is an insulated piece of wire gauze nearly but not quite filling the
opening in the plate P, and connected with one pair of quadrants of an
electrometer E. A plug of glass wool G filters out the dust from a
stream of gas which enters the vessel by the tube D and leaves it by
F; this plug also makes the velocity of the flow of the gas uniform
across the section of the tube. The Rontgen rays to ionize the gas
were produced by a bulb at O, the bulb and coil being in a lad-
covered box, with an aluminium window through which the an
passed. Q is connected with one pole of a battery of cells, P aadtk
other pole of the battery are put to earth. The changes in dr
potential of T are due to ions giving up their charges tort. Wins
given velocity of air-blast the potential of T was found not todbaa
unless the difference of potential between P and Q exceeded acritkal
value. The field corresponding to this critical value thus »™h tk
ions move with the known velocity of the blast.
, EARTH
r^?
Fig. 8.
Another method which has been employed by Rutherford and
McClelland is based on the action of an electric field in destroys
the conductivity of gas streaming through it. Suppose that BAfi.
DCD (fig. 9) are a system of parallel plates boxed in so that a stream
of gas, after flowing between BB, passes between DD without any
loss of gas in the interval. Suppose the plates DD are insulated, tod
connected with one pair of quadrants of an electrometer, by charg-
ing up C to a sufficiently high potential we can drive all the posrovf
ions which enter the system DCD against the plates D; this wiu
cause a deflexion of the electrometer, which in one second will he
proportional to the number of positive ions which have entered the
system in that time. If we charge A up to a high potential. B ^"g
put to earth, we shall find m
that the deflexion of the elec- — — ^^—
trometer connected with * c
DD is less than it was when #
A and B were at the same — ■ ■ ■
Fig. 9.
potential, because some of
the positive ions in their
passage through BAB are driven against the plates B. If a is the
velocity along the lines of force in the uniform electric field between
A and B, and / the time it takes for the gas to pass through BAB, then
all tin: v thin a distance ut of the plates B will be driven
\i] 1 ,i: lli: -t these btatH, and thus if the positive ions are equally distri-
buted through the gas, the number oY positive ions which emerge
from the system whtn the electric field is on will bear to the number
which emerge when the field is off the ratio of 1 : — uifl to unity, where
I is the distance between A and B. This ratio is equal to the ratio of
the deflexions in one second of the electrometer attached to D, hence
the observations of this instrument give 1 —«///. If we know the
velocity of the pi and the length of the plates A and B, we can
determine f. ana since / can be easily measured, we can find a, the
velocity of the positive ion in a field of given strength. iBy charg-
ing A and C negatively instead of positively we can arrive at the
velocity of the nog.it ive ion. In practice it is more convenient to use
cylindrical tubes with coaxial wires instead of the systems of parallel
plates, though in this case the calculation of the velocity of the ions
(rum the observations is a little more complicated, inasmuch as the
electric field is not uniform between the tubes.
A method which gives vrry accurate results, though it is only
applicable in certain rases, la the one used by Rutherford to n asure
the velocity of the negative ions produced close to 3 metal pi te by
the incidence on the piste of ultra-violet light. The principle >f the
method is as follows 3— AB (fig. to) is an insulated horizons plate
of well- polished stinc, which can be
moved vertically up and down by
means of a screw; it is connected with
one pair of quadrants of an electro-
meter, the other pair of quadrants being
Eut to earth. CD is a base-plate with a
ole EF in it ; this hole is covered with
fine wire gauze, through which ultra-
violet light passes and falls on the plate £ , * __ __ _ ^
AB. The plate CD it connected with ( r
4JI alternating current dynamo, which pj^, m
produces a lirnpty- periodic potential
difference between AB and CD, the other pole being put to arth.
Supixiv that at any instant the plate CD is at a higher potential than
All, then thr negative ions from AB will move towards CD. and will
contiinir to ck> *a 4* long as the potential of CD is higher than that of
A B . If, howr vt r t he 1 1 u> ml ial difference changes ^ n 1 .<_■ |"o re tin nega-
tive tuna wtmvh ID, tW»r I>m* will go back to AB. Thus AB * , II not
l Nun
1
CASES)
lose any negative charge unless the distanccbctwcenthcplatesAB ami
CD is less than the distance traversed by the negative ion during the
time the potential of CD is higher than that of AB. By altering- the
distance between the plates until CD just begins to lose a negative
charge, we find the velocity of the negative ion under unit electro-
motive intensity. For suppose the difference of potential between J
AB and CD is equal to a sin pt, then if d is the distance between the
plates, the electric intensity is equal to a sin ptfd; if we suppose the
velocity of the ion is proportional to the electric intensity, snd if u
is the velocity for unit electric intensity, the velocity of the negative
ion will be ua sin pt/d. Hence if x represent the distance of the ion
from AB
dx va . ..
*»Tg(i— cospO. if x*o whcnf»o.
Thus the greatest distance the ion can get from the plate b equal
to 2au/pd, and if the distance between the plates is gradually reduced
to this value, the plate AB will begin to lose a negative charge; hence
when this happens
d = 2au/pd, or « - pd*/2a,
an equation by means of which we can find «.
In this form the method is not applicable when ions of both signs !
are present. Franck and Pohl (Verk.' dcutsck. pkysik. Cescli. 1907,
9. p. 69) have by a slight modification removed this restriction.
The modification consists in confining the ionization to a layer of gas
below the gauze EF. If the velocity of the positive ions is to be
determined, these ions are forced through the gauze by applying
to the ionized gas a small constant electric force acting upwards;
if negative ions are required,. the constant force is reversed. After
pacing through the gauze the ions are acted upon by alternating
forces as in Rutherford's method.
Langcvin (Ann. chim. phyt., 1903, 28, p. 289) devised a method
of measuring the velocity of the ions which has been extensively
used: ithas the advantage of not requiring the rate of ionization
to remain uniform. The general idea is as follows. Suppose that
we expose the gas between two parallel plates A, B to Rftntgen rays
or some other ionizing agent, then stop tnc rays and apply a uniform
electric field to the region between tnc plates. If the force on the
positive ion is from A to B, the plate B will receive a positive charge
of electricity. After the electric force has acted for a time T reverse
it. B will now begin to receive negative electricity and will go on
doing so until the supply of negative ions is exhausted. Let us
consider how the quantity of positive electricity received by B will
vary with T. To fix our ideas, suppose the positive ions move more
slowly than the negative; let T» and Ti be respectively the times
taken by the positive and negative ions t-> m->\^ under the electric
field through a distance equal to AB, the distance between the
planes. Then if T is grrater than T» all the ion* will have been
driven from between the plates before the field h rrvened. and there-
fore the positive charge received by B *ull m.t .1. -pend upon T.
• Next let T be a lc» than T* but greater ttian TV then at the time
when the field U reversed all the negative Ions will have been driven
from between th- plates, so that the posit uv charge received by B
will not be neutralised by the arrival of fresh ion? coming to it after
th* reversal of the field. The number of positive ion* driven against
the plate B will be proportional to i\ Thus if * u measure the value
of the positive charge an B for a series of vatu.es of T, each value being
less than the preceding, we <»hall find that until T reaches a certain
value the charge remains constant, but as soon as we reduce the
time below thfo value the change diminishes. 'I in: value of T when
the diminution in the field begins is T i4 the time taken for a positive
ion to cross from A M B under the electric field; thus from T» we
can calculate the velocity of the positive ion in this, fit Id. If we still
further diminish T, we *hall find that we reach a value when the
diminution of the positive charge on B with the time suddenly
becomes much more rapid ; this change occurs when T falls below Ti
the time taken for the negative ions* to ko from om- pla ce to the other,
for now when the field is reversed there are still some negative ions
left between the plates, and these will be driven against B and rob it
of some of the positive charge it had acquired before the field was
reversed. By observing the time when the increase in the rate of
diminution of the positive charge with the time suddenly sets in
we can determine T\. and hence the velocity of the negative ions.
The velocity of the ions produced by the discharge of electricity
from a fine point was determined by Chattock by an entirely different
method. In this case the electric field is so strong and the velocity
of the ion so great that the preceding methods arc not applicable.
Suppose P represents a vertical needle discharging electricity into
air. consider the force acting on the ions included between two
horizontal planes A, B. If P is the density of the electrification,
and Z the vertical component of the electric intensity, F the resultant
force on the ions between A and B is vertical and equal to
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
869
JJ/Zprfx,
dxdydz.
Let us suppose that the velocity of the ion is proportional to the
electric intensity, so that if wis the vertical velocity of the ions,
which ue su pposed all to be of one sign, w- RZ.
Substituting this value of Z. the Vertical fort* on the ions between
A and U is equal to
jiffftopisdyds*
Rnt-ffapdidy= i.< where 1 is the current streaming from the point.
This current, which can be easily measured by putt ins; a gaivano*
meter in serin with the discharging point, it independent of s.
the vertical distance tA a plane between A and B below the charging
point. Hence m have
Mi/* -it*
This force mu*[ be counterbalanced by the difference of gaseous
pressure* over the planes A and B; hence if pt and o A denote
respectively the pressures over B and A, we have
Hence by the measurement of these pressures we can determine
R h and, hence the \tIocity with which an ion moves under a given
electric intensity*
There are other methods of determining the velocities of the
ions, but as these depend on the theory of the conduction of electricity
through a gas cun taming charged tons, we shall consider them in our
discussion of that theory*
By the use of these methods it has been shown that Use velocities
of the ions in a given gas are the &&nic whether the ionization is
produced by Rontgcn rayi* radioactive substances, ultra-violet
light, or by the discharge of electricity from points. When the
ionization is produced by chemical action the ions are very much
less mobile* moving in the same electric field with a velouty less
than one-thousandth part of the velocity of the fii>t kind of ions.
On the other hand, as we shall sec later, the vchxity of the tvtfativc
ioiui in flames h enormously greater than that of even the first kind
of ion under similar dec (nc fields and at the mnr preworc. Bui
when these negative ions get into the cold port of the flame, they
move sturcishly with velocities of the order of those possessed by
the second kin J ; The results of the various determinations of the
velocities of the ions are given in the tallowing table. The velocities
art in centimetres per second under an elect nc force of one voir, per
centime I re. the pressure of the gas being I atmosphere, V+
denotes the velocity cif the positive ion, V— that of trie negative.
V Is the mean velocity of the positive and negative ions.
Velocities cf Ions, — Ions
produced by Ronton Rayi.
Can,
\ , ,
V-.
V,
Observer*
Air .... .
I'd
Rut htrf ord
Air (dry). . * -
l'J*»
i-«7
Zeleny
■ r * , * ■
J-tJO
I 70
{ M
La nue v in
i'h^i:,,..
t
\y>
1-7*
*p * . * .
i-«
i-7»
Wellisch
Alf (moisr) . * .
t-37
i-ai
Zelcny
Oxygen (dry) . ,
1*3*
l r<t
, .
„
Oxygon (moist) ,
1-29
1-5*
„
Carbonic acid.ldry)
0-76
0*11
ip
H ■*
086
O'CJQ
Langevln
WrlDsch
0<S]
0»5
Carbonic acid (moist)
Hj
07s
Zdeny
Hydrogen (dry)
b-ftt
7*9S
ri
Hjdrogcn (moist) .
S + 3<>
560
,
Nitmgcn
16
Rutherford
Sulphur dioxide
<*i*
04I
UcHiwh
Hydrochloric acid .
t-37
Rutherford
Chlorine ....
l-O
Hi'lrmi (dry) . .
S09
^31
Franck and Pohl
Carbon monoxide .
t !■■
III
WelUsch
Nitrous oxide . *
uSj
O'OO
H
Ammonia
n-74
OHO
Aldehyde . . .
.31
"3°
ft
Ethyl alcohol . .
o\U
0-17
*!
Acetone ,
0-31
30
-„
tt
Ethyl chloride . .
U-33
U'j.1
1*
[Yntanc ....
i 0*36
O'aS
»
Methyl acetate . .
Ethyl formate . A
°33
30
..
30
031
tl
Ethyl ether . , .
20
031
tl
Ethyl acetate . .
031
0-28
Methyl bromide
0'39
0'J»
n
Methyl iodide . _ .
001
022
Carbon tetrachloride
O JO
031
„
Ethyl iodide
0-17
(6
M
Air . §
Hydrofen
Carbonic add
Ion* produced by Wtn+Vtittl t#0t
. . w . 14 Rutherford
0-78
Rutherford
870
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
Ions in Cases sucked from Flames.
Velocities varying from *04 to «23 McOelland
Ions in Flames containing Salts.
Negative ions ..... 12-9 cm./scc Gold
+ions for salts of Li, Na,
K,Rb,Cs ... 62 H. A. Wilson
11 ... 200 Marx
,, ... 80 Moreau
Ions liberated by Chemical Action.
Velocities of the order of 0-0005 cm./sec Bloch
Ions from Point Discharge.
Hydrogen . . .
Carbonic acid . .
Air
Oxygen ....
0-83
132
130
7*43
0-925
1-80
1*5
o$8
1*55
1-57
Chattock
Chattock
Chattock
Chattock
It will be seen from this table that the greater mobility of the
-negative ions is very much more marked in the case of the lighter
and simpler cases than in that of the heavier and more complicated
ones; with the vapours of organic substances there seems but little
difference between the mobilities of the positive and negative ions,
Indeed in one or two cases the positive one seems slightly but very
itly the more mobile of the two. In the case of the simple gases
the difference is much greater when the gases are dry than when they
are moist. It has been shown by direct experiment that the velocities
are directly proportional to the electric force.
Variation of Velocities with Pressure.— Until the pressure gets low
the velocities of the ions, negative as well as positive, vary inversely
' 11 (foe. cit.) was the first to show that at very
as the pressure. Langevin ,
low pressures the velocity of the negative ions increases more
rapidly as the pressure is diminished than this law indicates. If the
nature of the ion did not change with the pressure, the kinetic theory
of gases indicates that the velocity would vary inversely as the
pressure, so that langevin's results indicate a change in the nature
of the negative ion when the pressure is diminished below a certain
value. Langevin's results are given in the following table, where p
represents the pressure measured in centimetres of mercury, V+
and V— the velocities of the positive and negative ions in air under
unit electrostatic force, i.e. 300 volts per centimetre: —
Negative Ions.
Positive Ions.
P>
V-.
*V-/76.
P-
v+.
pv+w.
75
20-0
41-5
76-0
142*0
6560
2204
994
5IO
270
530
5io
505
7-5
20*0
41-5
76*0
142*0
4430
1634
480
225
437
430
427
420
425
The increase in the case of pV— indicates that the structure of the
negative ton gets simpler as the pressure is seduced. Wallisch in
some experiments made at the Cavendish Laboratory found that the
diminution in the value of pV— at low pressures is much more marked
fn some gases than in others, and in some gases he failed to detect
it; but it must be remembered that it is difficult to get measurements
at pressures of only a few millimetres, as the amount of ionization
is so exceedingly small at such pressures that the quantities to be
observed are hardly large enough to admit of accurate measurements
by the methods available at higher pressures.
Effect of Temperature on the Velocity of the Ions.— Phillips (Proc.
Roy. Soc., 1906, 78, p. 167) investigated, using Langevin's method,
the velocities of the + and — ions through air at atmospheric 1
pressure at temperatures ranging from that of boiling liquid air to
41 1 • C. ; Ri and Ri are the velocities of the + and - ions respectively
when the force is a volt per centimetre.
Ri.
Ri.
Temperature Absolute.
2-CO
2-495
* n :
i-95
2*40
399;
185
230
383;
1-81
1*67
2-21
2125
$
160
200
333°
1-39
•785
2V
0945
1-23
2 °9!
0235
O235
94°
We see that except in the case of the lowest temperature, that of
liquid air, where there is a great drop in the velocity, the velocities
of the ions are proportional to the absolute temperature. On the
hypothesis of an ion of constant size we should, from the kinetic
theory of gases, expect the velocity to be proportional to the square
root of the absolute temperature, if the charge on the ion did not
affect the number of collisions between the ion and the molecules of
rGASES
the gas through which it is moving. If the coUtsions were brougst
about by the electrical attraction between the ions and the mokcuks.
the velocity would be proportional to the absolute temperature.
H. A. Wilson (Phil. Trans. 192, p. 499), in his experiments on tk
conduction of flames and hot gases into which salts had been pm,
found that the velocity of the positive ions in flames at a temperature
of 2000° C. containing the salts of the alkali metaht- was 62 cm./sec.
under an electric force of one volt per centimetre, while the velocity
of the positive ions in a stream of hot air at 1000* C. containing th*
same salts was only 7 cm./sec. under the same force. The great effect
of temperature is also shown in some experiments of McCtellaod
(Phil. Mag. [5I, 46, p. 29) on the velocities of the ions in gases dravs
from Bunsen flames and arcs; he found that these depended upoa
the distance the gas had travelled from the flame. Thus, the velocit)
of the ions at a distance of 5*5 cm. from the Bunsen flame when the
temperature was 230° C. was -23 cm./sec. for a volt per centimetre;
at a distance of 10 cm. from the flame when the temperature wa*
160° C. the velocity was «2i cm./sec.; while at a distance of 145
cm. from the flame when the temperature was 105* C. the velocit)
was only -04 cm./sec If the temperature of the gas at this distance
from the flame was raised by external means, the velocity of the iom
increased.
We can derive some information as to the constitution of the
ions by calculating the velocity with which a molecule of the ga*
would move in the electric field if it carried the same charge as the
ion. From the theory of the diffusion of gases, as developed by
Maxwell, we know that if the particles of a gas A are surrounded
by a gas B, then, if the partial pressure of A is small, the velocity «
with which its particles will move when acted upon by a force He
is given by the equation
where D represents the coefficient of inter-diffusion of A into B,
and Ni the number of particles of A per cubic centimetre when the
pressure due to A is pi. Let us calculate by this equation the
velocity with which a molecule of hydrogen would move through
hydrogen if it carried the charge carried by an ion, which we shall
prove shortly to be equal to the charge carried by an atom 0! hydrogen
in the electrolysis of solutions. Since fi/Ni is independent of the
pressure, it is equal to II/N, where II is the atmospheric pressure and
N the number of molecules in a cubic centimetre of gas at atmo-
spheric pressure. Now Ne"*i*22Xlo K , if e is measured in electro-
static units; II - io* and D in this case is the coefficient of diffusion
of hydrogen into itself, and is equal to 1 7. Substituting these values
we find
sj-i*97XioOC
If the potential gradient is 1 volt per centimetre, X*l/300v Sub-
stituting this value for X, we find u ■*66 cm.jfsec,. for the velocity of
a hydrogen molecule. We have seen that the velocity of the ion in
hydrogen is onlv about 5 tmM., 60 that the ion moves more slowly
ili an it would ft it were a single mn1«u[c. One way of explaining
this U to suppose that the ion a bigger than the molecule, and »
in fact an aggregation, of molecule*, the charged ion acting as a
nucleus arc una which molecules collect like dust round a charged
body. This view {s supported by the effect produced by moisture in
di mmUhing the velocity of the negative ion. for, as C. T. R. Wilson
{Phil. Trans* 193 ► P- jS 9) ha* shown, moisture tends to collect
round the ions, and condenses more easily on the negative than on
the po^iive ion. In connexion with the velocities of ions in the
gates drawn from flames* we find other instances which suggest
thai condensation takes place found the ions. An increase in the
size o. the system is not, however, the only way by which the velocity
might fall below that calculated for the hydrogen molecule, for we
must remember that the hydrogen molecule, whose coefficient of
diffusion is 1-7, ts not charged, while the ion is. The forces exerted
by the ion on the other molecules of hydrogen are not the same as
those which would be exerted by a molecule of hydrogen, and as the
coefficient of diffusion depends on the forces between the molecules,
the coefficient of diffusion of a charged molecule into hydrogen might
be very different from that of an uncharged one.
Welusch (foe. cit.) has shown that the effect of the charge on the
ion is sufficient in many cases to explain the small velocity of the ions,
even if there were no aggregation.
Mixture of Cases. — The ionization of a mixture of gases raises
some very interesting questions. If we ionise a mixture of two
very different gases, say hydrogen and carbonic acid, and investigate
the nature of the ions by measuring their velocities, the question
arises, shall we find two kinds of positive and two kinds of negative
ions moving with different velocities, as we should do if some of the
positive ions were positively charged hydrogen molecules, while
others were positively charged molecules of carbonic acid; or shall
we find only one velocity for the positive ions and one for the nega-
tive? Many experiments have been made on the velocity of ions
in mixtures of two gases, but as yet no evidence has been found of
the existence of two different kinds of either positive or negative
ions in such mixtures, although some of the methods for determining
the velocities of the ions, especially Langevin's, ought to give
evidence of this effect, if it existed. The experiments seem to show
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
CASES]
that the positive (and (he si me is true for the negative) ions in a
mixture of gases are all of the same kind. Thi? conclusion is one of
considerable importance, as it wnuld not be true if the iom consisted
of single molecules of the gas from which they are produced.
Recombination. — Sc*ml methods enable u* to deduce the co*
efficient of recombination of (he ions ivheo we know their velocities,
Perhaps the simplest of these consists in determining the relation
between the current passing between two para lie! jjLirr* immersed
in ionized gas and the potential difference between the plates. For
let q be the amount cF ionization, i.e. the number of ions produced
per second per unit volume of the gat, A the area of one of the plates,
and d the distance between them; then if the ionization is constant
through the volume, the number of ions of one sign produced per
second in the gas is qSd, Now if i j» the current per unit area of
the plate, e the charge on an ion, i\ft ions of each sign Are driven
out of the gas by the current per second. In addition to this source
of loss of ions there is the loss due to the recombination; if « is the
number of positive or negative ions per unit volume, then the
number which rccombine per second is «»* per cubic centimetre,
and if n is constant through the volume of the gas, as will approxi-
mately be the case if the current through the gas is only a small
fraction of the saturation current, the number of ions which disappear
per second through recombination is an*. Ad. Hence, since when
the gas is in a steady state the number of ions produced must be
equal to the number which disappear, we have
«Ai-jA/e+on«.A(f.
qiifed+an*.
If «i and Mi are the velocities with which the positive and negative
ions move, nu\t and nu# arc respectively the quantities of positive
electricity passing in one direction through unit area of the gas per
second, and of negative in the opposite direction, hence
i-nuie-j-HMj*.
If X is the electric force acting on the gas, *i and *i the velocities
of the positive and negative ions under unit force, «i-ft|X,
Mt-fcsX; hence
871
If Q is the charge received by the plate,
Q .N.-£ log ( I+ £-).
where Q»-*ofe is the charge received by the plate when the electric
forte isTarge enough to prevent recombination, and «»• 4ve(R|+Rt).
We can from this result deduce the value of < and hence the value
of o when R1 + R1 is known.
Distribution of EUririt Forte tvhrn a Current is passing through an
Ionized Gdj^Lct the two plates be at right angles to the axis of x;
then we may suppose that Ixtwcen the plates the electric intensity
X is everywhere parallel to tli.- .l v.- of x. The velocities of both the
risitive and negative ions are as- umed to be proportional to X. Let
.X„A|X represent these velocities respectively; let fii, «i be respec-
tivefy the number of positive and negative ions per unit volumcat
a point fixed by the co-ordinate if J let a be the number of positive
or negative ions produced in unit time per unit volume at this
point ; and let the number of iona which rccombine in unit volume
in unit time be atiinj\ then if r is the charge on the ion, the volume
density of the electrification is (»i— »i)«, hence
■jj -4»(rfi-*,)e (1).
If I is the current through unit area of the gas and if we neglect
any diffusion except that caused by the electric field,
»,*fc,X+»trf*aX»I (2).
From equations (1) and (2) we have
(3>.
and we have
» -»•/(*, +*,)Xe,
"a+ttn-ww
But qed is the saturation current per unit area of the plate; catling
this I, we have
I-»-
X»-
dai*
i».da
Hence if we determine corresponding values of X and i we can
deduce the value of a/e if we also know (*i+*»). The value of I
is easily determined, as it is the current when X is very large. The
preceding result only applies when i is small compared with I,
as it is only in this case that the values of n and X are uniform
throughout the volume of the gas. Another method which answers
the same purpose is due to Langevin (Ann. Chim. Phys., 1903, 28,
p. 289) ; it is as follows. Let A and B be two parallel planes immersed
in a gas, and let a slab of the gas bounded by the planes a, b parallel
to A and B be ionized by an instantaneous flash of ROntgcn rays.
If A and B are at different electric potentials, then all the positive
ions produced by the rays will be attracted by the negative plate
and all the negative ions by the positive, if the electric field were
exceedingly large they would reach these plates before they had time
to recombine, so that each plate would receive No ions if the flash of
Rdntgen rays produced No positive and No negative ions. With
weaker fields the number of ions. received by the plates will be less
as some of them will recombine before they can reach the plates.
We can find the number of ions which reach the plates in this case
in the following way: — In consequence of the movement of the ions
the slab of ionized gas will broaden out and will consist of three
portions, one in which there are nothing but positive ions, — this is
on the side of the negative plate. — another on the side of the positive
Elate in which there arc nothing but negative ions, and a portion
etween these in which there are both positive and negative ions;
it is in this layer that recombination takes place, and here if n is the
number of positive or negative ions at the time t after the flash of
R&ntgen rays,
n-«o/(l+o»oO.
With the same notation as before, the breadth of either of the outer
layers will in time dt increase by Xfa+ktW. and the number of
ions in it by X(*i+*s)iu//: these ions will reach the plate, the outer
layers will receive fresh ions until the middle one disappears, which
it will do after a time //X(*i+*0, where / is the thickness of the
slab ab of ionized gas; hence N, the number of ions reaching either
plate, is given by the equation
^ X i+mai ^ --^^M'+^CTKV where /J-fcre*,/..
1 /I ,k t dX\
1 / 1 *i dX\ , .
and from these equations we can, if we know the distribution of
electric intensity between the plates, calculate the number of positive
and negative ions.
In a steady state the number of positive and negative ions In
unit volume at a given place remains constant, hence neglecting
the loss by diffusion, we have
2j(*i*iX)-g-oiijii, (5)
-jj(*2*«X)-3-a»,>i (6).
If ki and *» are constant, we have from (1), (5) and (6)
^-ftre^-on^O^+j,) . . . .(7),
an equation which is very useful, becaus it enables us, if we know
the distribution of X*. to find whether at any point in the gas
the ionization is greater or less than the recombination of the ions.
We see that q-anin it which- is the excess of ionization over re-
combination, is proportional to tPXtfdx*. Thus when the ionization
exceeds the recombination, i.e. when q^anith is positive, the curve
for X 1 is convex to the axis of x, while when the recombination
exceeds the ionization the curve for X 1 will be concave to the axis of x.
Thus, for example, fig. 11 represents the curve for X a observed by
Fig. 11.
Graham (Wied. Ann. 64, p. 49) in a tube through which a steady
current is passing. Interpreting it by equation (7), we infer that
ionization was much in excess of recombination at A and B, slightly
so along C, while along D the recombination exceeded the ionization.
Substituting in equation (7) the values of «», n, given in (3), (4),
we get
Thia equation can be solved (ace Thomson, Phil. Mag. xlvii.
P- ^W* when q is constant and *i - *». From the sol ution it apnea rs
that il Xi be the value of x close to one of the plates, and X the
value midway between them,
X./X.-
'p*r&
87a
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
Since tf»4Xio~ M , a->2Xio~*, and k t for air at atmospheric
pressure — 450, is about 2*3 for air at atmospheric pressure and it
becomes much greater at lower pressures.
Thus Xi/X« is always greater than unity, and the value of the
ratio increases from unity to infinity as fi increases from aero to
infinity. As fi does not involve either q or 1, the ratio of X t to X
is independent of the strength of the current and of the intensity
of the ionization.
No general solution of equation (8) has been found when ki is
not equal to kt, but we can get an approximation to the solution
when q is constant. The equations (1), (2), (3), (4) are satisfied
by the value? —
These solution* cannot, however , hold right up to the surface of
the plates, lor across each unit of area, at a point P, *il/(*i+*i)e
positive ions pas* In unit tirr>£. and these must all come from the
region between P and the e plate. If \ is the distance of P
from this plate, this region cannot furnish more than q\ positive
ions, aii'l only thU number if there are no recombinations. Hence
the solution cannot hold when q'k is less than *il/(*i +*»)*• or where
X is 1c*» than ** I . r (*i + k t )qt*
Similarly the solution cannot hold nearer to the negative plate
than the distance Jtilj r (fri+£i)#. T .
The force in these layers wj II be greater than that in the middle
fif the gas, and so the feat of ions by recombination will be smaller
in comparison with the Iocs due to the removal of the ions by the
current. If we assume that in these layers the loss of ions by
recombination can be neglected, we can by the method of the
next article find an expression for the value of the electric force at
any point in the layer. This, in conjunction with the value
X©» (^) * r7T xi J orthegas outside the layer, will give the value
of X at any point between the plates. It follows from this investiga-
tion that if X» and X* are the values of X at the positive and negative
plates respectively, and X# the value of X outside the layer,
x,-x,(, + £i)». x,.x.(, + ||V)».
where «-a/4«*(i,+*,). Langevin found that for air at a pressure
of 152 mm. •- 0-0 1, at 375 mm. «-o-o6, and at 760 mm. «-o-27.
Thus at fairly low pressures i/« is large, and we have approximately
x-*©^*-*© 1 *?
Therefore Xi/X,»lci/*t,
or the force at the positive plate is to that at the negative plate as
the velocity of the positive ion is to that of the negative ion. Thus
the force at the negative plate
is greater than that at the posi-
tive. The falls of potential
Vi, V» at the two layers when
l/« is large can be shown to be
given by the equations
jjience V1/YW1W,
so that the potential falls at the
electrodes are proportional to
the squares of the velocities
of the ions. The change in
potential across the layers is
proportional to the square of
the current, while the potential
change between the layers is
proportional to the current,
the total potential difference
between the plates is the sum
of these changes, hence the
relation between V and • will
_ _ _ be of the form
C*foJt A AMi% V-A*+Bi\
Fig 12 Mie (Ann. der. Phys., 1004,
13. P- 857) has by the method
of successive approximations obtained solutions of equation (8) (i.)
when the current is only a small fraction of the saturation current,
(li.) when the current is nearly saturated. The results of his investi-
gations are represented in fig. 12, which represents the distribution of
(GASES
electric force along the path of the current for various values of the
current expressed as fractions of the saturation current. It v9
be seen that until the current amounts to about one-fifth of the
maximum current, the type of solution is the one just indicated, U.
the electric force is constant except in the neighbourhood of the elec-
trodes when it increases rapidly.
Though we are unable to obtain a general solution of the equation
(8), there are some very important special cases in which that
equation can be solved without difficulty. We shall consider two
of these, the first being that when the current is saturated. In this
case there is no loss of ions by recombination, so that using the — n t
notation as before we have
The solutions of which if q is constant are
"AX-2X,
n.jyC-I/e-fx-ffC/-*),
if / is the distance between the plates, and x-o at the postrve
electrode. Since
dXJdx— 4*(n t — nje,
we get
t dX»
1 dX» . A\ ,1 ) i
X» xVi.i^ te ,^
where C is a quantity to be determined by the condition that
J^'Xix-V, where V is the given potential difference between the
plates. When the force is a minimum rfX/dr «o, hence at this point
Hence the ratio of the distances of this point from the positive and
negative plates respectively is equal to the ratio of the velocities of
thcpositive and negative ions.
The other case we shall consider is the very important one in
which the velocity of the negative ion is exceedingly Large compared
with the positive; this is the case in flames where, as Gold (Pm
Roy. Soc. 97, p. 43) has shown, the velocity of the negative ion is
many thousand times the velocity of the positive; it is a Km very
probably the case in all gases when the pressure is low. We may get
the solution of this case either by putting *i/*i=o in equation (8),
or independently as follows: — Using the same notation as before,
we have
• -VjXe+s^yCe,
jj(«a*aX) e»9-«*iftt,
In this case practically all the current is carried by the negative
ions so that t - n t *,Xe, and therefore g - o»i*». ^
Thus
M,-*7*,Xe, Hj-fJ^XsVas.
Thus
<fX» 8tf^X' 8«s
The solution of this equation is
X»-
*1?
+c,
««***/*
Here x is measured from the positive electrode ; it is more convenient
in this case, however, to measure it from the negative electrode.
If x be the distance from the negative electrode at which the electric
force is X, we have from equation (7)
To find the value of C 1 we see by equation (7) that
hence
The right hand side of this equation is the excess of loniaatlon
over recombination in the region extending from the cathode to a*
it must therefore, when things are in a steady state, equal the excess
of the number of negative ions which leave this region over those
which enter it. The number which leave is i/e and the number which
enter is «,/*, if t. is the current of negative ions coming from unit area
GASES)
of the cathode, at hot meul cathode* emit Urge quantities of
negative electricity U may in tome case* be considerable, thus the
right hand side of equation is («'-*•)/«. When an is large dX?ldx -o ;
lie nee wc have from equation
and since ki is small compared with kt, we have
From the values which have been found for *i and «, we know that
Sreki.'a is a large quantity, hence the second term inside the bracket
will be very small when eqx is equal to or greater than «; thus this
term will be very small outside a layer of gas next the cathode of
such thickness that the number of ions produced on it would be
sufficient, if they were all utilized for the purpose, to carry the
current; in the case of flames this layer is exceedingly thin unless
the current is very large. The value of the electric force in the
uniform part of the field is equal to jjj^/ ". while when t -,o
the force at the cathode itself bears to the uniform force the ratio of
(*i +*i)l to JM. As *i is many thousand times * 3 the force increases
with great rapidity as we approach the cathode; this is a very
characteristic feature of the passage of electricity through flames
and hot gases. Thus in an experiment made by H. A. Wilson with a
flame 1 8 cm. long, the drop of potential within I centimetre of the
cathode was about five times the drop in the other 17 cm. of the tube.
The relation between the current and the potential difference when
the velocity of the negative ion is much greater than the positive is
very easily obtained. Since the force is uniform and equal to £j V ?•
until we get close to the cathode the fall of potential in this part
of the discharge will be very approximately equal to j^ty %,
where / is the distance between the electrodes. Close to the cathode,
the electric force when 1 is not nearly equal to i is approximately
given by the equation
v __L__/«\»r 4T#, *' ,,w
and the fall of potential at the cathode is equal approximately to
f * Xix, that is to
« /q\ 1 «*
The potential difference between the plates is the sum of the fall of
potential in the uniform part of the discharge plus the fall at the
cathode, hence
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
»73
v- ©£(•*&*)•
The fall of potential at the cathode is proportional to the square of
the current, while the fall in the rest of the circuit is directly pro-
portional to the current. In the case of flames or hot gases, the fall
of potential at the cathode is much greater than that in the rest of the
circuit, so that in such cases the current through the gas varies nearly
as the square root of the potential difference. The equation we have
just obtained is of the form
V-A»+Bt»,
and H. A. Wilson has shown that a relation of this form represents
the results of his experiments on the conduction of electricity through
flames.
The expression for the fall of potential at the cathode is inversely
proportional to 9*", q being the number of ions produced per cubic
centimetre per second dose to the cathode; thus any increase in
the ionization at the cathode will diminish the potential fall at the
cathode, and as practically the whole potential difference between
the electrodes occurs at the cathode, a diminution in the potential
fall there will be much more important than a diminution in the
electric force in the uniform part of the discharge, when the force is
comparatively insignificant. This consideration explains a very
striking phenomenon discovered manv years ago by Hittorf, who
found that if he put a wire carrying a Dead of a volatile salt into the
flame, it produced little effect upon the current, unless it were placed
close to the cathode where it gave rise to an enormous increase in
the current, sometimes increasing the current more than a hundred-
fold. The introduction of the salt increases very largely the number
of ions produced, so that q is much greater for a salted flame than
for a plain one. Thus Hittorf's result coincides with the conclusions
wc have drawn from the theory of this class of conduction.
The fall of potential at the cathode is proportional to **—*»,
where t is the stream of negative electricity which comes from the
cathode itself, thus as u increases the fall of potential at the cathode
diminishes and the current sent by a given potential difference
through the gas increases. Now all metals give out negative particles
when heated, at a rate which increases very rapidly with the tempera-
ture, but at the same temperature some metals give out more than
Others. If the cathode is made of a metal which emits large quantities
of negative particles, (»'-«•) will for a given value of % be smaller
than if the meul only emitted a small number of particles; thus the
cathode fall will be smaller for the metal with the greater emissitivity,
and the relation between the potential difference and the current
will be different in the two cases. These considerations arc confirmed
by experience, for it has been found that the current between
electrodes immersed in a flame depends to a great extent upon the
meul of which the electrodes are made. Thus Pettinclli {Ace. dsi
Linux [5], v. p. 118) found that, ceteris paribus, the current between
two carbon electrodes was about 500 times that between two iron,
ones. If one electrode was carbon and the other iron, the current
when the carbon was cathode and the iron anode was more than
100 times the current when the electrodes were reversed. The
emission of negative particles by some metallic oxides, noubly
those of calcium and barium, has been shown by Wchndt (Ann. ier
Phyi. iz» p. 425) to \*c Ut grater than that of any known metal,
and the increase of current produced by coating the cathodes with
these oxide* L» exceedingly Urge; in some cases investigated by
Tuft* and Stark {Pkyiik. 7Mn,. I708, $, p. 248) the current was
increased many thousand tinu-s by coating the cathode with lime.
No appreciable effect it produced fry putting lime on the anode.
Conduction -when all the len* an of one oiin. — Tliere are many
important cases in which the ions producing the current come from
otic electrode or from a thin layer of g?s close to the electrode, no
ionization occurring in the body of the gas or at the other electrode.
Am&ng such caws may be mentioned those where, one of the elec-
trode* U raised to incandescence w hile the other is cold, or when the
negative e-Uvirode is exposed tu ulna-violet light. In such cases if
the electrode at which the ionization occurs is the positive electrode*
all the ions will be positively charged, while if it is the negative
electrode the ion* wiU all be charged negatively. The theory of
this case is exceedingly simple. Suppose the electrodes are parallel
planes at right angles to the axis of*; let X be the electric force
at a distance x fVum the electrode where the ionization occurs, n
the number of inns (.ill of which are of one sign) at this place per
cubic centimetre,. A the velocity of the ion under unit electric force,
e the charge ea an km> and 1 the current per unit area of the elec-
trode. Then we have JXtfx m 4 nu, and if u is the velocity of the ion
neu-i. But u-hX, hence we have *"J7*2J"*i and *»ncc the right
hand side of this equation does not depend upon x, we get *X'/8a*
«* tx+C, where C is a constant to be determined. If/ is the distance
between the plates, and V the potential difference between them,
V-j] l Xix-' f ^T[ (,7+C ) ,/, - C,/, ]•
We shall show that when the current is far below the saturation
value, C is very small compared with it, so that the preceding
equation becomes
V»-8»/*i/* (1).
To show that for small currents C is small compared with U, consider
the case when the ionization is confined to a thin layer, thickness d
close to the electrode, in that layer let n% be the value of *, then
we have o*M t , -r-«7<d. If X# be the value of X when x-o,
AXtfitf-tr »nd
** 8«- *»'*t.8r toktTq+iied ' *
(*).
Since mJ8vk* is, as we have seen, less than unity. C will be small
compared with it, if i/(eq+i/d) is small compared with /. If I a it
the saturation current, q-UJed, so that the former expression
«-u//(I«+t), if i is small compared with I , this expression is small
compared with d, and therefore a fortiori compared with /, so that we
are justified in this case in using equation (1).
From equation (2) we see that the current increases as the square
of the potential difference. Here an increase in the potential
difference produces a much greater percentage increase than in
conduction through metals, where the current is proportional to the
potential difference. When the ionization is distributed through
the gas, we have seen that the current is approximately proportional
to the square root of the potential, and so increases more slowly
with the potential difference than currents through meuls. From
equation (1) the current is inversely proportional to the cube of the
distance between the electrodes, so that it falls off with great rapidity
as this disunce is increased. Wc may note that for a given
potential difference the expression for the current does not involve q,
the rate of production of the ions at the electrode, in other words,
if we vary the ionization the current will not begin to be affected
by the strength of the ionization until this falls so low that the current
is a considerable fraction of the saturation current. For the same
potential difference the current is proportional to k, the velocity
under unit electric force of the ion which carries the current. As the
velocity of the negative ion is greater than that of the positive,
the current when the ionization is confined to the neighbourhood of
one of the electrodes will be greater when that electrode is made
cathode than when it is anode. Thus the current will appear to
pass more easily in one direction than in the opposite.
Since the ions which carry the current have to travel all the way
from one electrode to the other, any obstacle which is impervious
to these ions will, if placed between the electrodes, stop the owews*,
8 74
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
{GASES
to the electrode where there Is no ionization. A plate of metal will
be as effectual as one made of a non-conductor, and thus we get th
remarkable result that by interposing a plate of an excellent con-
ductor like copper or silver between the electrode, we can entirely
stop the current. This experiment can easily be tried by using a
hot plate as the electrode at which the ionization takes place : then
if the other electrode is cold the current which passes when the hot
plate is cathode can be entirely stopped by interposing a cold metal
plate between the electrodes.
Methods of counting Ike Number of Ions. — The detection of the
ions and the estimation of their number in a given volume is
much facilitated by the property they possess of promoting the
condensation of water-drops in dust-free air supersaturated with
water vapour. If such air contains no ions, then it requires about
an eightfold supersaturation before any water-drops arc formed;
if, however, ions arc present C. T. R. Wilson {Phil. Trans.
180. p. 265) has shown that a sixfold supersaturation is sufficient
to cause the water vapour to condense round the ions and to fall
down as raindrops. The absence of the drops when no ions
arc present is due to the curvature of the drop combined with the
surface tension causing, as Lord Kelvin showed, the evaporation
from a small drop to be exceeding rapid, so that even if a drop of
water were formed the evaporation would be so great in its early
stages that it would rapidly evaporate and disappear. It has
been shown, however (J. J. Thomson, Application of Dynamics
$0 Physics and Chemistry, p. 164; Conduction of Electricity
through Cases, 2nd cd. p. 179), that if a drop of water is charged
with electricity the effect of the charge is to diminish the evapora-
tion; if the drop is below a certain size the effect the charge has
in promoting condensation more than counterbalances the effect
of the surface tension in promoting evaporation. Thus the electric
churgc protects the drop in the most critical period of its growth.
The cliect is easily shown experimentally by taking a bulb con-
not ted with a piston arranged so as to move with great rapidity.
When the piston moves so as to increase the volume of the air
vvnUincd in the bulb the air is cooled by expansion, and if it was
Wtui.it ril with water vapour before it is supersaturated after the
evpanMtm. Uy altering the throw of the piston the amount of
supernal ui at ion can be adjusted within very wide limits. Let
it bv •idiu-.u-d so that the expansion produces about a sixfold
WCitttuMlion; thru if the gas is not exposed to any ionizing
ftfci\l> xeiv few iliups (and these probably due to the small
amount ot ioiiiMlioii which we have seen is always present in
mrO aw toiimil. If, however, the bulb is exposed to strong
ItaiVfC" i-i\« vtpiiiiiiiui produces a dense cloud which gradually
tx> Jo*" *»il di«i|i|H'iiis. If the gas in the bulb at the time of
it* ;mn*-i'v to the ltfiiitjn a n '•"»*» •» subject to a strong electric
M >»**r> *"> lhl|,, l ^ ' ,,ril,n ' wnrn tne 8** is suddenly
am.MiM- IV » to* 1 1I1 lu Id iitnovcs the charged ions from the
^-mw-^*^ *** liuimil «> Hint (he number of ions present
, o^j> M*fo\\l lid* M|irrlmrnl furnishes a very direct
-saw. .fto vV J»*V» ^ "* tpr w ' l ' <> ' 1 ' orm lne c l° u< * ure onJv
m ^ »\«* *■ nil i»»« rwllnijly delicate test for the
^^^ ^4 v^«v m m* illlllnilly In detecting ten or so
^ _^> jjauMiiiiTi wtf sr# thus a bio to detect the
*» «M** llih iwull Illustrates the cnor-
•V Ah\*».V « ( l I ho uu-lhods of detecting
t^ t**fcMiv4 nuilmiilni; we have seen
«**!«• |v< 1 wild 1 willinrlre, but there
4*u*»W«V «4 ih^Milxil, which would
■ X«* o»4a Ifcit iitliiilsrr ut uncharged
*i*%*«*tapi UMMul » ,,e charged
0*+ uwulwt tit bms present
a***m V* »wiMi'ii ripmirfon
"S ^V ^4l««i i« «iirn.lrnt
»^ *H *M tl«» |Hi»Mfm
^•^N^akvi »»M* « vnll •
.H-klJI , «W* ,,r11
^Vv^ milvi'j
of successive
when the cui
(ii.) when the .
gat ions arc rcpr >
I temperature and hence the total quantity of water precipitated.
The water is precipitated as drops, and if all the drops arc tie
same size the number per cubic centimetre will be equal to the
volume of water deposited per cubic centimetre, divided by th«
volume of one of the drops. Hence we can calculate the number
I of drops if we know their size, and this can be determined by
measuring the velocity with which they fall under gravity through
the air.
The theory of the fall of a heavy drop of water through a visc-us
fluid shows that v^lfd'/Mi where a is the radius of the drop, g the
acceleration due to gravity, and n the coefficient of viscosity of tie
gas through which the drop falls. Hence if we know v wc can deduce
the value of a and hence the volume of each drop and the number
of drops.
Charge on Ion. — By this method we can determine the number ei
ions per unit volume of an ionized gas. Knowingthis number i*t
can proceed to determine the charge on an ion. To do this let u>
apply an electric force so as to send a current of electricity through
the gas, taking care that the current is only a small fraction of the
saturating current. Then if u is the sum of the velocities of the
positive and negative ions produced in the electric field applied to
the gas, the current through unit area of the gas is neu. where n is
the number of positive or negative ions per cubic centimetre, and e
the charge on an ion. We can easily measure the current throujh
the gas and thus determine neu ; we can determine n by the method
just described, and u, the velocity of the ions under the given
electric field, is known from the experiments of Zeleny and others.
Thus aince the product wfi( b and two of the factors », u are knovn.
wc &i n del ermine the other factor e, the charge on the ion. This,
method was used by L J, Thomson, and details of the method
will be found in FhiL Mag. tsl 4&> P- jtfl fSl- 4**. p. 547; [f>\, 5,
p, 346). The result of these measure menu shows that the charge
on the ion is the same whether the ionization is bv Rontgen rays or
by the influence of ultra-violet light oil a metal plate. It is the
same whether the gas ionUod is hydrogen, air or carbonic acid.
and thus is presumably independent of the nature of the gas. The
value of c formed by this method was 3-4 Xio -10 electrostatic units.
H. A. Wilson {Phil. Mug, [&], 5, p. 4^9) used another method.
Drops of water, as we have seen, condense more easily on negative
than on positive ions. It is possible, therefore, to adjust the ex-
pansion so that a cloud is formed on the negative but not on the
positive ions. Wilson arranged the experiments so that such a cloud
was formed between two horizontal plates which could be maintained
at different potentials. The charged drops between the plates were
acted upon by a uniform vertical force which affected their rate of
fall. Let X be the vertical electric force, e the charge on the drop,
f 1 the rate of fall of the drop when this force acts, and » the rate of
all due to gravity alone. Then since the rate of fall is proportionate
to the force on the drop, if a is the .radius of the drop, and p its
density, then
Xe+jjrpta'^a
l*(>ga* v
or
Jut
so that
X*« 1 9pga*{v\ -»)/».
Thus if X, v, Vi are known e can be determined. Wilson by this
nethod found that e was 3*iXlo~ u electrostatic units. A few of
the ions carried charges ae or 30.
Townsend has used the following method to compare the charge
carried by a gaseous ion with that carried by an atom of hydrogen
n the electrolysis of solution. We have
«/D-N*/II,
where D is the coefficient of diffusion of the ions through the gas,
1 the velocity of the ion in the same gas when acted on by unit
electric force, N the number of molecules in a cubic centimetre of
the gas when the pressure is n dynes per square centimetre, and < the
charge in electrostatic units. This relation is obtained on the
typothesis that N ions in a cubic centimetre produce the same
pressure as N uncharged molecules.
We know the value of D from Townsend's experiments and the
values of it from those of Zeleny. We get the following values for
NeXlor**:—
Gas,
Air. . . .
Oxygen
('anionic acid .
Hydrogen . .
Mean .
Moist Gas
Positive Negative
Ions. Ions.
1-28
1-34
1 01
124
1-32
1-29
127
•87
I-I8
'•'5
Dry Gas.
Positive Negative
Ions. Ions.
•99
1-63
'•43
I-3I
136
•93
125
[•31
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
GASES]
Since i«aa cubic centimetres of hydrogen at the temperature 15* C. |
ami pressure 760 mm. of mercury arc liberated by the passage
through acidulated water of one electromagnetic unit of electricity
or 3X10* electrostatic units, and since in one cubic centimetre of
the gas there are 2^6 N atoms of hydrogen, we have, if E is the
charge in electrostatic units, on the atom of hydrogen in the electro-
lysis of solutions
2-46NE-3Xio»,
m NE-I-22XIO*
The mean of the values of Ne in the preceding table is t-staXio".
Hence we may conclude that the charge of ett-ctririty earned by a
gaseous ion is equal to the charge carried by the hydrogen atom in
the electrolysis of solutions. The values of Nf for the different £**«*
differ more than we should have expected from 1 he probable accuracy
of the determination of D and the velocity of the ions: Townscna
(Proc. Roy. Soc. 80, p. 207) has shown that when the ionization is
produced by Rontgcn rays some of the positive ions cairy a double
charge and that this accounts for the values of Ne being greater for
the positive than for the negative ions. Since we knew the value
of *,viz. 3-5Xio" w ,and, also Ne, -1-24X10*1 we findft the number
of molecules in a cubic centimetre of gas at standi rd t em pen r ure ami
pressure to be equal to 3'SXio 1 '. This method of obtaining N is
the only one which does not involve any assumption a* to the shape
of the molecules and the forces acting between them.
Another method of determining the charge carried by an ion has
been employed by Rutherford (Proc. Roy. Soc. 81, pp. Ui, 162),
in which the positively electrified particles emitted by radium arc
made use of. The method consists of: (1) Counting the number of
« particles emitted by a given quantity of radium in a known time.
(2; Measuring the electric charge emitted by this quantity in the
same time. To count the number of the a particles the radium
was so arranged that it shot into an ionization chamber a small
number of a particles per minute; the interval between the emission
of individual particles was several seconds. When an • particle
passed into the vessel it ionized the gas inside and so greatly increased
its conductivity; thus, if the gas were kept exposed to an electric
field, the current through the gas would suddenly increase when an
• particle passed into the vessel. Although each a particle produces
about thirty thousand ions, this is hardly large enough to produce
the conductivity appreciable without the use of very delicate)
apparatus; to increase the conductivity Rutherford took advantage
of the fact that ions, especially negative ones, when exposed to a
strong electric field, produce other ions by collision against the
molecules of the gas through which they are moving. By suitably!
choosing the electric field and the pressure in the ionization chamber, 1
the 30,000 ions produced by each a particle can be multiplied to
such an extent that an appreciable current passes through the
ionization chamber on the arrival of each a particle. An electrometer
placed in series with this vessel will show by its deflection when an m
particle enters the chamber, and by counting the number of deflec-
tions per minute we can determine the number of a particles given
out by the radium in that time. Another method of counting this
number is to let the particles fall on a phosphorescent screen, and
count the number of scintillations on the screen in a certain time.
Rutherford has shown that these two methods give concordant,
results.
The charge of positive electricity given out by the radium was
measured by catching the a particles in a Faraday cylinder placed*
in a very highly exhausted vessel, and measuring the charge pen
minute received by this cylinder. In this way Rutherford showed
that the charge on the a particle was oaXio- 10 electrostatic units.
Now elm for the « particle - 5 X io 1 , and there is evidence that the
a particle is a charged atom of helium ; since the atomic weight of
helium is 4 and e/m for hydrogen is 10*, it follows that the charge,
on the helium atom is twice that on the hydrogen, so that the charge
on the hydrogen atom is 47Xio _w electrostatic units.
Calculation of the Mass of the Ions at Low Pressures. — Although
at ordinary pressures the ion seems to have a very complex
structure and to be the aggregate of many molecules, yet we have
evidence that at very low pressures the structure of the ion, and^
especially of the negative one, becomes very much simpler.
This evidence is afforded by determination of the mass of the
atom. We can measure the ratio of the mass of an- ion to the
charge on the ion by observing the deflections produced by mag-
netic and electric forces on a moving ion. If an ion carrying a
charge e is moving with a velocity v, at a point where the magnetic
force is H, a mechanical force acts on the ion, whose direction
is at right angles both to the direction of motion of the ion and
to the magnetic force, and whose magnitude is evil sin 0, where
is the angle between p and H. Suppose then that we have an
ion moving through a gas whose pressure is so low that the free
path of the ion is long compared with the distance through which
it moves whilst we are experimenting upon it; in this case the
87s
motion of the ion will be free, and will not be affected by the
presence of the gas,
Since the force is always at right angles to the direction of motion
of the ion,, the speed of the ion will not be altered by tbe ( action
of this force ; and if the ion is projected with a velocity v in a direction
at right angles to the magnetic force, and If the magnetic force la
constant in magnitude and direction, the ion will describe a curve in
a plane at right angles to the magnetic force, If a U the radius of
curvature of this curve, m the mass of the ton. m&fp must equal
the normal force acting on the km, fo ft mu*t be equal to He*, or
p-wnVHr. Thus the radius of curvature b constant; the path is
therefore a circle, and if we can measure the radius of this circle we
know the value of SW/H*. in the case olthc rapidly moving negative
ions projected from the cathode in a highly exhausted tube, which
are known aa rcthndf mys. the path of the ions can be readily deter-
mined since they make many substances luminous when they
impinge against them. Thus by putting a screen of such a substance
In the path of the rays the shape of the path will be determined.
Let up now suppose that the km is acted upon by a vertical electric
force X and fa free fr^m magnetic force, if it be projected with a
horizontal velocity p, the vertical deflection y after a time /is J XePjm,
or if f is the horizontal distance travelled Over by the ion in this time
we have since/™*:*,
*****
Thus if we measure y and 1 we can deduce efanA From the effect
of the mag net ic force we know €,\kv. Combining these results we
can find both efm and e.
The method by which this determination is carried out in practice
i* illustrated in fig. 1 3. The cathode rays start from the electrode
C in a highly exhausted tube, pass through two small holes in the
plugs A and B, the holes being in the Mine horizons) line. Thus a
pencil of rays emerging from D is horizontal and produces a bright
ipol at the Far end of the
tube. In the course at
their journey to the end
of the tube they pass
between the horizontal
plates E and D. by con-
necting these plates with Fig. tt_
an electric bat tcry a ver-
tical electric field is produced between E and D and the phosphores-
cent spot i* deflected. By measuring 'his deflection we determine
r/wrtX The tube is now placed in a uniform magnetic field, the lines
of magnetic force beiny hariicntat jind at right aneje^to the plane
of the paper* The magnetic force makes the rays describe a circle itt
the plane of the paper, and by mea>urini>; the vertical deflection of
the phosphorescent patch at the end of the tube we can determine
the radius of this circle, and hence the value of etrnv. From the two
observations the value of t m and P can be calculated.
Another method of finding tfm for the negative ton which is
applicable in many cases to which the preceding one is not suitable,
ia as follows; Let us suppose that the km start* from rest and moves
in a field where the electric and magnetic forces an.- both uniform,
the electric force X being parallel to the axis of x, and the magnetic
force Z parallel to the axis of t; then if x, y, are the co-ordinates of
the ion at the time /. the equations of motion of the ion are —
m ^" Hr a7-
The solution of these equations, if %. y, dxjdt. &y}dt all vanish
when ( — O, is
s-»f«-HBS*)i
-&!£"'-«(» f-
These equations show that the path of the ion is a cycloid, the
generating circle of which has a diameter equal to 2 im/cH*, and
rolls on the line x«o. .
Suppose now that sre have a number of whs starting from the
plane X"C* h and moving towards the plane *— a. The particles
stoning front x-o describe cycloids, and the greatest distance they
i_an net from the plane i* equal tu the diameter ol the generating
circle of the cycloid, iV. to aXm/sH 1 . (Alter reaching this distance
they liegtn to approach the plane.) Hence if a is less than the
dbmeter of the generating cWld all the particle* starting from
x«=o will reach the plane *»o. il this ts unlimited in extent; while
if a U rt cater than the diameter c4 the gencratinE circle none of
the particles which start from x «o will reach the pLvic x—c Thus,
if x-o is a plane illuminated by ultra-violet light, and consequently
the scat ol a supply of m^ntivr ions, and x—a a plane connected
with an electrometer, then if a definite electric intensity is established
be e ween the pUoes t i.e. if X be hied, so that the r-itr of emission of
negative ions from the ilEuminaud plate is given, and if a is less than
zXfr/'H 1 , all the Ions which start from * =0 will rcarh x«=a. Tha*.
876 CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
b, the rate at which thu plane receives an electric charge will be the I Jie influence of the Ugl&t.
tame whether then: h n magnetic field between the elite or not, may be very much increas
but if a is greater than 2Xiw/eH\ then no particle which starts from ,_ .' t-u-v tpuil U,
the plate x -o wrtl reach the plate * - *. and thi* ptate will receive ] Th,s as Meav f ^ Ml
no charge. TIiuh the supply of electricity to the plate has been en-
tirely stopped by the magnetic field. Thus, on thu theory, if the
distance between the plates is le» than a certain value, the magnetic
force should produce no effect on the rate at which the electrometer
plate receives a charge, while if the diitancc is greater than thu value
the magnetic force would completely stop the supply o£ electricity
to the plate.
The actual phenomena are not *o abrupt as this theory
indicates. We find that when the plates are very near together the
magnetic force produces a very slight effect, and this an increase in,
the rate of charging uf the plate. On increasing the distance we come
to a stage where trie magnetic forte producer a great diminution in
the rate of charging. It does not, however, stop it abruptly, there
being a consi .Ml- range of distance, in which the magnetic force
diminishes but due* not destroy the current- At still greater dis-
tances the current to the plate under the magnetic force is quite
inappreciable cum pared with that when there i* no magnetic force.
We should get this gradual instead of abrupt decay of the current
if some of the particles, instead of all starting from rest, started
with a finite velocity; in that case the first particles stopped would
be those whic h sta ried from rest, Th is would be when b m j Xm/rH 1 ,
Thus if we measure the value of o when the magnetic force first
begins to affect the leak to the electrometer we determine 2Xm/«H',
and as we can easily measure X and H, we can deduce the value of m/e.
By these methods Thomson determined the value of efm for
the negative ions produced when ultra-violet light falls on a
metal plate, as well as for the negative ions produced by an
incandescent carbon filament in an atmosphere of hydrogen
(Phil. Mag. [$], 48, p. 547) as well as for the cathode rays. It was
found that the value of efm for the negative ions was the same
in all these cases, andthat it was a constant quantity independent
of the nature of the gas from which the ions are produced and the
means used to produce them. It was found, too, that this value
was more than a thousand times the value of e/M, where e is the
charge carried by an atom of hydrogen in the electrolysis of
solutions, and M the mass of an atom of hydrogen. We have
seen that this charge is the same as that carried by the negative
ion in gases; thus since efm is more than a thousand times e/M,
it follows that M must be more than a thousand times m. Thus
the mass of the negative ion is exceedingly small compared with
the mass of the atom of hydrogen, the smallest mass recognized in
chemistry. The production of negative ions thus involves the
splitting up of the atom, as from a collection of atoms something
is detached whose mass is less than that of a single atom. It is
important to notice in connexion with this subject that an entirely
different line of argument, based on the Zeeman effect (see Mag-
neto-Optics), leads to the recognition of negatively electrified
particles for which efm is of the same order as that deduced from
the consideration of purely electrical phenomena. These small
negatively electrified particles are called corpuscles. The latest
determinations of efm for corpuscles available are the following: — -
Observer. efm.
Classen (Ber. deut. phys. Ges. 6, p. 700). . . I '7728X10'
Buchcrcr (Ann. der Phys., 28, p. 513) . . . I-763XIO'
It follows from electrical theory that when the corpuscles
are moving with a velocity comparable with that of light their
masses increase rapidly with their velocity. This effect has been
detected by Kauffmann (Gdtt. Niuk., Nov. 8, iqoi), who used the
corpuscles shot out from radium, some of which move with
velocities only a few per cent less than that of light. Othei
experiments on this point have been made by Bucherer (Ann. der
Phys. 28, p. s 13).
CotuJui drily Produced by Ultra-Violet Light. So much use has
been made in recent times of ultra-violet light for producing
ions that it is desirable to give some account of the electrical
effects produced by light. The discover)* by Hertz (Wicd. Ann.
31, p. 983) in 18S7, that the incidence of ultra-violet light on a
spark gap facilitates the passage of a spark, led to a series of
investigations by Hallwachs, Hoot, Righi and Stolctow, on the
effect of ultra-violet light on electrified bodies. These researches
have shown that a freshly cleaned metal surface, charged with
negative electricity, rapidly loses its charge, however small, when
exposed to ultra-violet light, and that if the surface is insulated
and without charge initially, it acquires a positive charge under
The magnitude of this poritire charge
ased by directing a blast of air on the pUit
This, as Zeleny (Pkil. Mag. [5], 45, p. 272) showed, has the effect
>f blowing from the neighbourhood of the plate negativth/
electrified gas, which has similar properties to the charged pa
obtained by the separation of ions from a gas exposed to RBntgea
rays or uranium radiation. If the metal plate is posiiivcij
electrified, there is no loss of electrification caused by ultra-vk-k:
light. This has been questioned, but a very careful examination
of the question by Elstcr and Geitel (Wied. Ann. 57, p. 24) bs
shown that the apparent exceptions are due to the accidentil
exposure to reflected ultra-violet light of metal surfaces in the
neighbourhood of the plate negatively electrified by induction,
so that the apparent loss of charge is due to negative electricity
coming up to the plate, and not to positive electricity going awsy
from it. The ultra-violet light may be obtained from an arc-
lamp, the effectiveness of which is increased if one of the terminals
Is made of zinc or aluminium, the light from these substances
being very rich in ultra-violet rays; it may also be got very
conveniently by sparking with an induction coil between rice
wr cadmium terminals. Sunlight is not rich in ultra-violet light,
and does not produce anything like so great an effect as the arc
light. Elster and Geitel, who have investigated with great success
the effects of light on electrified bodies, have shown that the more
electro-positive metals lose negative charges when exposed to
ordinary light, and do not need the presence of the ultra-violet
rays. Thus they found that amalgams of sodium or potassium
enclosed in a glass vessel lose a negative charge when exposed to
daylight, though the glass stops the small amount of ultra-violet
light left in sunlight after its passage through the atmosphere.
If sodium or potassium be employed, or, what is more convenient,
the mercury-like liquid obtained by mixing sodium and potassium
in the proportion of their combining weights, they found that
negative electricity was discharged by an ordinary petroleum
lamp. If the still more electro-positive metal rubidium is used,
the discharge can be produced by the light from a glass rod just
heated to redness; but there is no discharge till the glass is lumi-
nous. Elster and Geitel arrange the metals in the following order
for the facility with which negative electrification is discharged
by light: rubidium, potassium, alloy of sodium and potassium,
sodium, lithium, magnesium, thallium, zinc With copper,
platinum, lead, iron, cadmium, carbon and mercury the effects
with ordinary light are too small to be appreciable. The order
is the same as that in Volta's electro-chemical series. With
ultra-violet light the different metals show much smaller differ-
ences in their power of discharging negative electricity than they
do with ordinary light. Elster and Geitel found that the ratio of
the photo-electric effects of two metals exposed to approximately
monochromatic light depended upon the wave-length of the light,
.different metals showing a maximum sensitiveness in different
parts of the spectrum. This is shown by the following table for
the alkaline metals. The numbers in the table are the rates oi
emission of negative electricity under similar circumstances. The
rate of emission under the light from a petroleum lamp was
taken as unity. —
Blue. Yellow. Orange. Red.
Rb „ . . 16 -6a .33 .039
Na . . . 37 36 -14 -009
K ... -57 -07 -04 -002
The table shows that the absorption of light by the metal has
great influence on the photo-electric effect, for while potassium
i is more sensitive in blue light than sodium, the strong absorption
of yellow light by sodium makes it more than five times more
sensitive to this light than potassium. Stoletow, at an early
period, called attention to the connexion between strong absorp-
tion and photo-electric effects. He showed that water, which
does not absorb to any great extent either the ultra-violet or
visible rays, does not show any photo-electric effect, while
strongly coloured solutions, and especially solutions of fluorescent
substances such as methyl green or methyl violet, do so to a very
considerable extent; indeed, a solution of methyl green is more
sensitive than zinc Hallwachs (Wied. Ann. 37, p. 666) proved]
GASES]
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
877
that in liquids showing photo-electric effects there is always strong
absorption; we may, however, have absorption without these
effects. Phosphorescent substances, such as calcium sulphide
•bow this effect, as also do various specimens of fluor-spar. As
phosphorescence and fluorescence are probably accompanied by
a very intense absorption by the surface layers, the evidence is
strong that to get the photo-electric effects we must have strong
absorption of some kind of light, either visible or ultra-violet.
If a conductor A is placed near a conductor B exposed to ultra-
violet light, and if B is made the negative electrode and a differ-
ence of potential established between A and B, a current of
electricity will flow between the conductors. The relation be-
tween the magnitude of the current and the difference of potential
when A and B arc parallel
plates has been investi-
gated by Stoletow (Journal
de physique, 1890, 11,
p. 469), von Schweidlcr
(WUn., Bcr., 1809, 108, p.
273) and Varlcy (Phil.
Trans. A., 1004, 202, p.
439) . The result s of some
of Varlcy's experiments are
represented in the curves
shown in fig. 14, in which
the ordinates are the cur-
rents and the abscissae the
potentials. It will be seen
that when the pressure is
exceedingly low the cur-
rent is independent of the
potential difference and
is equal to the negative
charge carried off in unit
_ time by the corpuscles
«• ^istemittcd from the surface
Fie. 14. " exposed to the light. At
higher pressures the cur-
rent rises far above these values and increases rapidly with the
potential difference. This is due to the corpuscles emitted by the
illuminated surface acquiring under the electric field such high
velocities that when they strike against the molecules of the gas
through which they are passing they ionize them, producing fresh
ions which can carry on additional current. The relation between
the current and the potential difference in this case is in accord-
ance with the results of the theory of ionization by collision.
The corpuscles emitted from a body under the action of ultra-
violet light start from the surface with a finite velocity. The
velocity is not the same for all the corpuscles, nor indeed could
we expect that it should be: for as Ladenburg has shown
(Ann. der Phys., 1003, 12, p. 558) the seat of their emission is not
confined to the surface layer of the illuminated metal but extends
to a layer of finite, though small, thickness. Thus the particles
which start deep down will have to force their way through a
layer of metal before they reach the surface, and in doing so will
have their velocities retarded by an amount depending on the
thickness of this layer. The variation in the velocity of the
corpuscles is shown in the following table, due to Lenard {Ann.
.der Phys., 1002, 8, p. 149).
Carbon.
Platinum.
Aluminium.
Corpuscle* emitted with
velocities between 12 and
8Xio 7 cm«ec
with velocities between 8 and
4Xio T cmsec
with velocities between 4 and
OX 10 7 cm sec. . . .
Corpuscles only emitted with
the help of an external
electric field . . , . * .
0000
0049
0-67
0-28
o-opo
0155
0-65
0-21
0004
0-151
o-49
©•35
1*00
I -00
I -00
If the illuminated surface is completely surrounded by an envelope
of the same metal insulated from and completely shielded from
the light, the emission of the negative corpuscles from the illumi-
nated surface would go on until the potential difference V
between this surface and the* envelope became so great that the
corpuscles with the greatest velocity lost their energy before
reaching the envelope, i.e. if m is the mass, t the charge on a
corpuscle, v the greatest velocity of projection, until \c=*\m&.
The values found for V by different observers are not very
consistent. Lenard found that V for aluminium was about 3
volts and for platinum 2. Millikan and Winchester (Phil.
Mag., July 1907) found for aluminium V= 738. The apparatus
used by them was so complex that the interpretation of their
results is difficult.
An extremely interesting fact discovered by Lenard is that the
velocity with which the corpuscles are emitted from the metal is
independent of the intensity of the incident light. The quantity
of corpuscles increases with the intensity, but the velocity of the
individual corpuscles does not. It is worthy of notice that in
other cases when negative corpuscles are emitted from metals,
as for example when the metals are exposed to cathode rays,
Canal-strahlcn, or RSntgen rays, the velocity of the emitted
corpuscles is independent of the intensity of the primary radia-
tion which excites them. The velocity is not^ however, independ-
ent of the nature of the primary rays. Thus when light is used
to produce the emission of corpuscles the velocity, as Ladenburg
has shown, depends on the wave length of the light, increasing
as the wave length diminishes. The velocity of corpuscles
emitted under the action of cathode rays is greater than that
of those ejected by light, while the incidence of ROntgen rays
produces the emission of corpuscles moving much more rapidly
than those in the cases already mentioned, and the harder the
primary rays the greater is the velocity of the corpuscles.
The importance of the fact that the velocity and therefore the
energy of the corpuscles emitted from the metal is independent
of the intensity of the incident light can hardly be overestimated.
It raises the most fundamental questions as to the nature of light
and the constitution of the molecules. What is the source of
the energy possessed by these corpuscles ? Is it the light, or in the
stores of internal energy possessed by the molecule? Let us
follow the consequences of supposing that the energy comes from
the light. Then, since the energy is independent of the intensity
of the light, the electric forces which liberate the corpuscles must
also be independent of that intensity. But this cannot be the
case if, as is usually assumed in the electromagnetic theory, the*
wave front consists of a uniform distribution of electric force
without structure, for in this case the magnitude of the electric
force is proportional to the square root of the intensity. On the
emission theory of light a difficulty of this kind would not arise,
for on that theory the energy in a luminiferous particle remains
constant as the particle pursues its flight through space. Thus any
process which a single particle is able to effect by virtue of its
energy will be done just as well a thousand miles away from the
source of light as at the source itself, though of course in a given
space there will not be nearly so many particles to do this process
far from the source as there are dose in. Thus, if one of the
particles when it struck against a piece of metal caused the
ejection of a corpuscle with a given velocity, the velocity of
emission would not depend on the intensity of the light. TTiere
does not seem any reason for believing that the electromagnetic
theory is inconsistent with the idea that on this theory, as on the
emission theory, the energy in the light wave may instead of being
uniformly distributed through space be concentrated in bundles
which occupy only a small fraction of the volume traversed by
the light, and that as the wave travels out the bundles get farther
apart, the energy in each remaining undiminished. Some such
view of the structure of light seems to be required to account for
the fact that when a plate of metal is struck by a wave of ultra-
violet light, it would take years before the corpuscles emitted
from the metal would equal in number the molecules on the
surface of the metal plate, and yet on the ordinary theory of light
each one of these is without interruption exposed to the ac*£aa.<&
878
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
(GASES
the light The fact discovered by E. Ladenburg (Verh. d<
deutsch. physik. Gcs. 0, p. 504) that the velocity with which
the corpuscles are emitted depends on the wave length of the
light suggests that the energy in each bundle depends upon the
wave length and Increases as the wave length diminishes.
These considerations illustrate the evidence afforded by photo-
electric effects on the nature of light; these effects may also
have a deep significance with regard to the structure of matter.
The fact that the energy of the individual corpuscles is independ-
ent of the intensity of the light might be explained by the
hypothesis that the energy of the corpuscles does not come from
the light but from the energy stored up in the molecules of the
metal exposed to the light. We may suppose that under the
action of the light some of the molecules are thrown into an
unstable state and explode, ejecting corpuscles; the light in this
case acts only as a trigger to liberate the energy in the atom, and
it is this energy and not that of the light which goes into the
corpuscles. In this way the velocity of the corpuscles would be
independent of the intensity of the light. But it may be asked,
is this view consistent with the result obtained by Ladenburg
that the velocity of the corpuscles depends upon the nature of
the light? If light of a definite wave length expelled corpuscles
with a definite and uniform velocity, it would be very improbable
that the emission of the corpuscles is due to an explosion of the
atoms. The experimental facts as far as they are known at
present do not allow us to say that the connexion between the
velocity of the corpuscles and the wave length of the light is of
this definite character, and a connexion such as a gradual increase
of average velocity as the wave length of the light diminishes,
would be quite consistent with the view that the corpuscles are
ejected by the explosion of the atom. For in a complex thing like
an atom there may be more than one system which becomes un-
stable when exposed to light Let us suppose that there are
two such systems, A and B, of which B ejects the corpuscles with
the greater velocity. If B is more sensitive to the short waves,
and A to the long ones, then as the wave length of the light
diminishes the proportion of the corpuscles which come from B
will increase, and as these are the faster, the average velocity of
the corpuscles emitted will also increase. And although the
potential acquired by a perfectly insulated piece of metal when
exposed to ultra-violet light would depend only on the velocity
of the fastest corpuscles and not upon their number, in practice
perfect insulation is unattainable, and the potential actually
acquired is determined by the condition that the gain of negative
electricity by the metal through lack of insulation, is equal to the
loss by the emission of negatively electrified corpuscles. The
potential acquired will fall below that corresponding to perfect
insulation by an amount depending on the number of the faster
corpuscles emitted, and the potential will rise if the proportion of
the rapidly moving corpuscles is increased, even though there is
no increase in their velocity. It is interesting to compare other
cases in which corpuscles are emitted with the case of ultra-violet
light. When a metal or gas is bombarded by cathode rays it
emits corpuscles and the velocity of these is found to be independ-
ent of the velocity of the cathode rays which excite them; the
velocity is greater than for corpuscles emitted under ultra-violet
light Again, when bodies are exposed to Rontgcn rays they emit
corpuscles moving with a much greater velocity than those
excited by cathode rays, but again the velocity does not depend
upon the intensity of the rays although it docs to some extent
on their hardness. In the case of cathode and Rontgen rays, the
velocity with which the corpuscles are emitted seems, as far as we
know at present, to vary slightly, but only slightly, with the
nature of the substance on which the rays fall. May not this
indicate that the first effect of the primary rays is to detach a
neutral doublet, consisting of a positive and negative charge,
this doublet being the same from whatever system it is detached ?
And that . the doublet is unstable and explodes, expelling the
negative charge with a high velocity, and the positive one,
having a much larger charge, with a much smaller velocity,
the momentum of the negative charge being equal to that of the
positive.
! Up to now we have been considering the effects produced when
light is incident on metals. Lenard found (and the result has
been confirmed by the experiments of J. J. Thomson aad
Lyman) that certain kinds of ultra-violet light ionize a gas
when they pass through. The type of ultra-violet light
which produces this effect is so easily absorbed that it is
stopped by a layer a few millimetres thick of air at atmos-
pheric pressure.
Ionization by Collision. — When the ionization of the gas b
produced by external agents such as Rent gen rays or ultra-
violet light, the electric field produces a current by setting the
positive ions moving in one direction, and the negative ones in the
opposite; it makes use of ions already made and does not itself
give rise to ionization. In many cases, however, such as is
electric sparks, there are no external agents to produce ionization
and the electric field has to produce the ions as well as set them in
motion. When the ionization is produced by external means the
smallest electric field is able to produce a current through the
gas; when, however, these external means are absent no current
is produced unless the strength of the electric field exceeds a
certain critical value, which depends not merely upon the nature
of the gas but also upon the pressure and the dimensions of
the vessel in which it is contained. The variation of the electric
field required to produce discharge can be completely explained
if we suppose that the ionization of the gas is produced by the
impact with its molecules of corpuscles, and in certain cases of
positive ions, which under the influence of the electric field
have acquired considerable kinetic energy. We have direct
evidence that rapidly moving corpuscles are able to ionize
molecules against which they strike, for the cathode rays consist
of such corpuscles, and these when they pass through a gat
produce large amounts of ionization. Suppose then that we
have in a gas exposed to an electric field a few corpuscles. These
will be set in motion by the field and will acquire an amount
of energy in proportion to the product of the electric force,
their charge, and the distance travelled in the direction of the
electric field between two collisions with the molecules of the
gas. If this energy is sufficient to give them the ionizing property
possessed by cathode rays, then when a corpuscle strikes against
a molecule it will detach another corpuscle; this under the action
Df the electric field will acquire enough energy to produce
corpuscles on its own account, and so as the corpuscles move
through the gas their number will increase in geometrical pro-
gression. Thus, though there were but few corpuscles to begin
with, there may be great ionization after these have been
driven some distance through the gas by the electric field.
The number of ions produced by collisions can be calculated by
the following method. Let the electric force be parallel to the axis
Df x, and let n be the number of corpuscles per unit volume at a place
fixed by the co-ordinate x; then in unit time these corpuscles wiU
make nuf\ collisions with the molecules, if u is the velocity of a
corpuscle and X the mean free path of a corpuscle. When the
corpuscles are moving fast enough to produce ions by collision their
velocities are very much greater than those they would possess at
the same temperature if they were not acted on by electrical force,
and so we may regard the velocities as being parallel to the axis of x
frnd determined by the electric force and the mean free path of the
corpuscles. We have to consider how many of the »a/X collisions
which take place per second will produce ions. We should expect
that the ionization of a molecule would require a certain amount of
energy, so that if the energy of the corpuscle fell below this amount
no ionization would take place, while if the energy of the corpuscle
were exceedingly large, every collision would result in ionization.
We shall suppose that a certain fraction of the number of collisions
result in ionization and that this fraction is a function of the energy
possessed by the corpuscle when it collides against the molecules.
This energy is proportional to XrX when X is the electric force,
f the charge on the corpuscle, and X the mean free path. If the
fraction of collisions which produce ionization is /(XrX), then
the number of ions produced per cubic centimetre per second is
r(X«X)ni*/X. If the collisions follow each other with great rapidity
So that a molecule has not had time to recover from one collision
before it is struck again, the effect of collisions might be cumulative,
•0 that a succession of collisions might give rise to ionization, though
none of the collisions would produce an ion by itself. In this case/
would involve the frequency of the collisions as well as the energy
>f the corpuscle; in other words, it might depend on the cm
through the gas as well as upon the intensity ot the electric i
GASES]
We shall, however, to begin with, assume that the current is so small
that this cumulative effect may be neglected.
Let us now consider the rate of increase, dnldl, in the number of
corpuscles per unit volume. In consequence of the collisions,
/fX«rX)»«/X corpuscles arc produced per second; in consequence
of the motion of the corpuscles, the number which leave unit volume
per second is greater than those which enter it by^(<i«) ; while in a
certain number of collisions a corpuscle will stick to the molecule and
will thu j cease to be a free corpuscle. Let the fraction of the number
of collisions in which this occurs be 0. Thus t he gain in the number
of corpuscles is /(X*X)»k/X, while the loss is 3j(«*)+0X : **nct
When things are in a steady state dnldt—o, and we have
K{nu)-[{J{Xe\)-0)n*.
If the current is so small that the electrical charges in the gas are
not able to produce any appreciable variations in the field, X will be
constant and we get nu - C«*", where a - |/(X<*) -0| /X. If we take
the origin from which we measure x at the cathode, C is the value
of nu at the cathode, i.e. it is the number of corpuscles emitted per
unit area of the cathode per unit time; this is equal to ije if t is
the quantity of negative electricity coming from unit area of the
cathode per second, and * the electric charge carried by a corpuscle.
Hence we have nut-ijP. If / is the distance between the anode
and the cathode, the value of nut, when *-/, is the current passing
through unit area of the gas, if we neglect the electricity carried by
negatively electrified carriers other than corpuscles. Hence i**ijr.
Thus the current between the plates increases in geometrical
progression with the distance between the plates.
By measuring the variation of the current as the distance between
the plates is increased, Townsend, to whom we owe much of our
knowledge on this subject, determined the values of a for different
values of X and for different pressures for air, hydrogen and carbonic
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
879
acid gas {Phil. Mag. [6], 1, p. 19S). Since X varies* inversely as the
2C t h at a may j^, wr j ttcn m t he forr ^' /4L ' f ^ —
The following arc some of the values
pressure, we sec tlint a may 1* written in the form p<t>{Xlp) or
a/X<?F(X/£). The following arc some of the values of a found by
Townsend lor air.
X Vol tB
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure
Fif- -in.'
Pressure
pertm.
< 17 mm.
j jj8 mm.
1 » 10 mm.
2+1 mm.
4'J mm.
JO
24
*°
*S
J4
00
\w
1*3
4S
13
120
1*0
II
■**
3
160
;-(
2-fl
J-O
■9
3 OO
J'4
3-H
16
*5
J40
145
3«
4"D
*MS
*W
3 J o
27
4 S
n
6-0
31
400
SO
3&
4 So
!■■*
U
So
7'«
5 I
5k>
10
9 i
10 a
1*1
040
3*5
6 J
*9
We Kt from this table that for a given value of X» ■ fat «mal| pics-
sures increases as the pressure increases; it attains a maximum at a
particular pressure, and then diminishes as the pressure increases.
The increase in the pressure increases the number of collisions, but
diminishes the energy acquired by the corpuscle in the electric
field, and thus diminishes the change of any one collision resulting
in ionization. If we suppose the held is so strong that at some
particular pressure the energy acquired bv the corpuscle is well
above the value required to ionize at each collision, then it is evident
that increasing the number of collisions will increase the amount
of ionization, and therefore a, and a cannot begin to diminish until
the pressure has increased to suth an extent that the mean ficc
(kith of a corpuscle is so small that the energy acquired by the
corpuscle from the electric held falls below the value when each
collision results in ionization.
The value of p, when X is given, for which a is a maximum, is
proportional to X; this follows at once from the fact that a is of the
form X. F(X/p). The value of Xlp for which F(X/p) is a maximum
is seen from the preceding table to be about 420, when X is expressed
in volts |K*r centimetre and p in millimetres of mercury. The
maximum value of FlX/p) is about I /Go. Since the current passing
l)Otween two planes at a distance I apart is t* -1 or f,g*"i x M,
and since the force between the plates is supposed to be uniform,,
X/ is equal to V, the potential between the plates; hence the
current between the plates is sh vj, * x '**\ and the greatest value
it can have is i# s /6 °. Thus the ratio between the current between
the plates when there is ionization and when there is none cannot
be greater than « v '* f when V is measured in volts. This result is
based on TowuendV experiments with very weak currents; we
■111st remember, however, that when the collisions arc so frequent
r that the effects of collisions can accumulate, a may have much larger
values than when the current is small. In some experiments made
I by J. J. Thomson with intense currents from cathodes covered
with hot lime, the increase in the current when the potential difference
was 60 volts, instead of being e times the current when there was no
ionization, as the preceding theory indicates, was several hundred
times that value, thus indicating a great increase in a with the
strength of the current.
Townsend has shown that we can deduce from the values of a the
mean free path of a corpuscle. For if the ionization is due to the
collisions with the corpuscles, then unless one collision detaches
more than one corpuscle the maximum number of corpuscles pro-
duced will be equal to the number of collisions. When each collision
results in the production of a corpuscle, o— i/X and is independent
of the strength of the electric field. Hence we see that the value of
a, when it is independent of the electric field, is equal to the reciprocal
of the free path. Thus from the table we infer that at a pressure
of 1 7 mm. the mean free path is 1/325 cm. ; hence at 1 mm. the mean
free path of a corpuscle is 1/19 cm. Townsend has shown that this
value of the mean free path agrees well with the value 1/21 cm.
deduced from the kinetic theory of gases for a corpuscle moving
through air. By measuring the values of a for hydrogen and carbonic
acid gas Townsend and Kirby (Phil. Mag. (6J, 1, p. 630) showed
that the mean free paths for corpuscles in these gases are respectively
1/11-5 and 1 /29 cm. at a pressure of 1 mm. These results again agree
well with the values given by the kinetic theory of gases.
If the number of positive ions per unit volume is m and v is the
velocity, we have fiw+me-i, where i is the current through unit
area of the gas. Since nut-i^P* and »' - 1 ,/•*, when / is the distance
between the plates, we sec that
»«/«»« ••*/(«•' -«"•),
J! v +*
«"« •*•-«■*
Since vfu is a very small quantity we see that n will be less than n
except when J*— J" is small, i.e. except close to the anode. Thus
there will be an excess of positive elect ncity from the cathode almost
up to the anode, while close to the anode there will be an excess of
negative. This distribution of electricity will make the electric
force diminish from the cathode to the place where there is as much
positive as negative electricity, where it will have its minimum
value, and then increase up to the anode.
The expression t« i' « -1 applies to the case when there is no source
of ionization in the gas other than the collisions; if in addition to
this there is a source of uniform ionization producing q ions per cubic-
centimetre, we can easily show that
•-•y l +?cv , -i>.
With regard to the minimum energy which must be possessed by a
corpuscle to enable it to produce ions by collision, Townsend {loc.
cit.) came to the conclusion that to ionize air the corpuscle must
possess an amount of energy equal to that acquired by the fall of its
charge through a potential difference of about 2 volts. This is also
the value arrived at by II. A. Wilson by entirely different considera-
tions. Stark, however, gives 17 volts as the minimum for ionization.
The energy depends upon the nature of the gas; recent experiments by
Dawes and Gill and Pedduck (Phil. Mag., Aug. 1 908) have shown that
it is smaller for helium than for air, hydrogen, or carbonic acid gas.
If there is no external source of ionization and no emission of
corpuscles from the cathode, then it is evident that even if some
corpuscles happened to be present in the gas when the electric
field were applied, we could not get a permanent current by
the aid of collisions made by these corpuscles. For under the
electric field, the corpuscles would be driven from the cathode
to the anode, and in a short time all the corpuscles originally
present in the gas and those produced by them would be driven
from the gas against the anode, and if there was no source from
which fresh corpuscles could be introduced into the gas the
I current would cease. The current, however, could be maintained
indefinitely if the positive ions in their journey back to the cathode
I also produced ions by collisions, for then we should have a kind
I of regenerative process by which the supply of corpuscles could
be continually renewed. To maintain the current it is not neces-
sary that the ionization resulting from the positive ions should be
anything like as great as thai from the negative, as the investiga-
I tion given below shows a very small amount of ionization by the
1 positive ions will suffice to maintain the current. The existence
I of ionization by collision with positive ions has been proved by
Townsend. Another method by which the current could be
and is maintained is by the anode emitting corpuscles under the
impact of the positive ions driven against it by the electric field.
I J. J. Thomson has shown by direct experiment that positively
-&•&.
88o
electrified particles when they strike against a metal plate cause
the metal to emit corpuscles (J. J. Thomson, Proc. Comb. Phil.
Soe. 13, p. sis; Austin, Pkys. Rev. 22, p. 31a). If we assume
that the number of corpuscles emitted by the plate in one second
it proportional to the energy in the positive ions which strike
the plate in that second, we can readily find an expression for
the difference of potential which will maintain without any
external fonixation a current of electricity through the gas.
As this investigation brings into prominence many of the most
important features of the electric discharge, we shall consider it
in some detail.
Let as suppose that the electrodes are parallel plates of metal at
right angles to the am of a, and that at the cathode x -o and at the
anode a-e, 4 being thus the distance between the plates. Let im
abo suppose that the current of electricity flowing between the plates
b so email that the electrification between the plates due to the
accumulation of ions b not sufficient to disturb appreciably the
electric field, which we regard as uniform between the plates, the
electric force being equal to V/s\ where V is the potential difference
between the plates, The number of positive ions produced per
second in a layer of gas between the planes x and x-Mi b •muAx.
Here * b the number of corpuscles per unit volume, a the coefficient
of KNttxation (for strong electric field a- i/X', where X' b the mean
free path of a corpuscle), and a the velocity of a corpuscle parallel
to x. We have seen that nn-iW*. where t» b the number of
corpuscles emitted per second by unit area of the cathode. Thus
the number of positive ions produced in the layer b aw^r. If
these went straight to the cathode without a collision, each of them
would have received an amount of kinetic energy Xexjd when
they struck the cathode, and the energy of the group of ions would
be V«x/*«i**Mr. The positive ions will, however, collide with
the molecules of the gas through which they are passing, and this
wilt diminish the energy they possess when they reach the cathode.
The diminution in the energy will increase in geometrical pro-
portion with the length of path travelled by the ion and win thus
be proportional to t"*\ ft wiD be proportional to the number of
collisions and will thus be proportional to the pressure of the gas.
Thus the kinetic energy possessed by the ions when they reach the
cathode will be
•-*V(ex,'rf).«i.*Wjr,
and E, the total amount of energy in the positive ions which reach
the cathode in unit time, wiD be given by the equation
E- (V*.\\«a\w).
■¥jr-
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
If the number of c o rpu s cl es emitted by the cathode in unit time b
proportional to thb energy we have ii-aE^ where aba
hence by equation \i) wehave
v-fgSf
1-1
^*-* v t-K*-an.
Since both ft and a are proportional to the pressure. I and uK«)V •
are both functions of a*, the product of the pressure and the mark
length, hence « see that Y b e xp re s sed by an equation, of the form
-£/**>
/ juP denote* a function of fat, and
the e\r<r*sk>© for V except in thb prod act.
*~" required to produce discharge b cm
34 the prews^e and spark length re
<*\
sther* nor a* enter into
Thus the potential
co n s t at as long as the
product ol the prcsKinp and spark length remains constant: in
other wvruV the spark roceetud b constant as lone ** *** snass
of the £** between the ciectrAic* b constant. Thus* for example,
2 we baKe iV presK.re ;Se sarw potential chffcrence wiD produce
a spark ol t»iee tSe lra$?h. Thb law, ahkh was dbcoteced bv
faacwrn k* lairf\ Some sparks ..4«wbew. ^7. p. 70A and has been
show* b% Cart ^*«L r-»i . 1005' tc« boid (or short ones* b one of
the most irajxvta-ss propertx* o* the efcetri: dbebam.
¥*e see front the «x;-ceKs»;* fee V that ahea ,>-*W b very targe
Thus V bacomes w£rl:e »**s i b siaite. Again when i^aV
m %eey sssal we find
V-t teal;
nana VaaaanSsSaaare «**■«*» aothba;.
|tssss*vss^s/af ssfetvrc&atjr between an
Vfcftsjdufasm Hit sads* b gut by asahan; at esse wawal way the
[CASE
value of d, which makes the expression for V given in equation (1
a minimum- We find that d must satisfy the equation
We find by a process of trial and error that (ft- a)d «* 1 -8 b approx
mutely a solution of this equation; hence the distance for minima
poiential is i-a/(£-«). Since ft and a are both proportional to ti
pressure, we sec that the critical spark length varies inversely 1
the pressure. II we substitute this value in the expression forV
we find that V, the minimum spark potential, is given by
Since ff and ■ are each proportional to the pressure, the luinhta
potential is independent of the pressure of the eas. On thb vfe
t he mi ni mu m pot er.tial depends upon the metal of which the cataod
L* nude, since k measures the number of corpuscles emitted per m
time by the cathode when struck by positive ions carrying ta
energy, and unk*9 ft bears the same ratio to a for all gases nn
minimum potential will also vary with the gas. The rneasurenttt
which have been made of the " cathode fall of potential," whidii
we shall ice is equal to the minimum potential required to prodsai
spark, show that thb quantity varies with the material of which ta
cathode is made and also with the nature of the gas. Since a sen
plate, when bombarded by positive ions, emits corpuscles, the eft
we have been considering must play a part in the discharge; i
not, however, the only effect which has to be considered, hr
Townsend has shown, positive ions when moving above s
speed ionue the ^as, and cause it to emit corpuscles. It _
necessary to take into account the ionization of the positive i
Let m be the number of positive ions per unit volume, sail
their velocity, the number of collisions which occur in one am
in one cubic centimetre of the gas will be p ropor ti onal to ■
where p is the pressure of the gas. Let the number of ions si
mult from these collis io ns be ymw; 7 will be a function of #1
of the strength ol the electric field. Let as before a be the nun"
of corpuscles per cubic centimetre, « their vesodrv. and «*■!
•■-.•- :h result in one second from the collisions bern
the corpuscle* and the gas. The number of iocs produced
second per cubic centimetre b equal to •mm-^-ymw, hence «
things are in a dy state
and
r(nw+arsr)->s,
where * b the charge on the ion and » the current through the J
The solution of these equations when the field u uniform betwerjf
plates,, b
ipp*Cr*i**-T«/(«-7). rm»--Ce— »■+«(«-,), {
when C b s constant of integratioa. If there is no 1.
positive kai from the anode «bs»s, when x~d. Oete
irom thb cpndiiioa we find
«-^lw— •->{. —^
l-r*-»'*^)j
Jf the cathode did not emit any cerpus c ses cwit^ to the boss) ,
meni by poartive sons, the condttKei that the charge show ]
maifiLiused b that there should be enough poskive kjas at thecal tk
to carry the current sx. that new— 1; when*«o,the<
g*w
s==? f — ^— *-— » J —
Snce a and 1 are both of the form flf.X a" aad X = V i. _. v
V wiD be a fuoctkn of frf, hi a ^reence t mirh Pasc*s«c. * lav. I fej
take into aflEtfast both the iociaarija of the gas a ad the er*
of cce^ifldes bv tbe metal we can easiS shea tia:
* **y^ r 1 j,, m* * 1 . ±
mSere t aad Jka ^ the same saeawng as is the per* .- -^? -r^^stis ****
VWea i a Urj*- e*"> - b abo large; brace :* *r^r tr J5 tlrp d
^satkw should not be aopa:
; a thb ■ •Hr-'-.bhe* as i i%rru» x- m tfc ati
:he sparb are *m- loea; cSschaxce **- take jC-c^ p-u
te vxl je. i^r as soox as the jv&^ ^c ic=3 tcJjjT
tm tie prec*di3» brrestagataon we have s^Tcoarf thw an
esect?k it*d between the pistes was =^f:c=. " "^_
1 ve txx£d get <£» hastes prefaced i: j vrrv ~ ^^ s&h(
eauial than are nectsaarr iz a ^r^'ceB lark
grfrsrhine hb aac accessary iha: Ac pt ©sit
i»a sauaai act as aoaaaexs al aaac^g ibor paife. ;; b
that they ssnashl Jo s» in Ac sas gh bcss Ao I of caifeade. tsod
% w* hatat a sbwssj nana dnat an the caXbacV we g^t sa hce
Vh,
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
881
&
*»>
lischarge though the rest of the field were comparatively
. Such a distribution of electric force requires, however,
at accumulation of charged ions near the cathode; until
ions accumulate the field will be uniform. If the uniform
existing in the gas before the discharge begins were strong
gh to make the corpuscles produce ions by collision, but not
g enough to make the positive ions act as ionizers, there
i be some accumulation of ions, and the amount of this
nidation would depend upon the number of free corpuscles
lally present in the gas, and upon the strength of the electric
If the accumulation were sufficient to make the field
the cathode so strong that the positive ions could produce
ions either by collision with the cathode or with the gas,
ischarge would pass though the gas; if not, there will be no
continuous discharge. As the amount
of the accumulation depends on the
number of corpuscles present in the gas,
Ir r we can understand how it is that after
f a spark has passed, leaving for a time
a supply of corpuscles behind it, it is
easier to get a discharge to pass through
the gas than it was before.
The inequality of the electric field in
1 the gas when a continuous discharge is
passing through it is very obvious when
UJfflll the pressure of the gas is low. In this
case the discharge presents a highly
differentiated appearance of which a
type is represented in fig. 15. Starting
from the cathode we have a thin velvety
luminous glow in contact with the sur-
face; this glow is
often called the " first
.. cathode layer." Next
■JJS/ VjF? * ln ' s we nave a com "
paratively dark space
whose thickness in-
creases as the pressure
diminishes; this is
I the "Crookes's dark space," or the
>nd cathode layer." Next this we have
ninous position called the " negative
" or the " third cathode layer." The
lary between the second and third layers
mi very sharply defined. Next to the
layer we have another dark space called
Faraday dark space." Next to this and reaching up to the
i is another region of luminosity, called the " positive
in," sometimes (as in fig. 15, a) continuous, sometimes (as
IS, b) broken up into light or dark patches called "stria-
" The dimensions of the Faraday dark space and the posi-
olumn vary greatly with the current passing through the
id with its pressure; sometimes one or
of them is absent. These differences
pearances are accompanied by great
eace in the strength of the electric
The magnitude of the electric force
ferent parts of the discharge is repre-
1 in fig. 16, where the ordinates repre-
:he electric force at different parts of
abe, the cathode being on the right,
se that the electric force is very large indeed between the
hre glow and the cathode, much larger than in any other
A the tube. It is not constant in this region, but increases
i approach the cathode. The force reaches a minimum
• in the negative glow itself or in the port of the Faraday
space just outside, after which it increases towards the
ve column. In the case of a uniform positive column the
ic force along it is constant until we get quite close to the
:, when a sudden change, called the " anode fall," takes
in the potential.
l difference of potential between the cathode and the
negative glow is called the " cathode potential fall " and is
found to be constant for wide variations in the pressure of the
gas and the current passing through. It increases, however,
considerably when the current through the gas exceeds a certain
critical value, depending among other things on the size of the
cathode. This cathode fall of potential is shown by experiment
to be very approximately equal to the minimum potential
difference. The following table contains a comparison of the
measurements of the cathode fall of potentials in various gases
made by Warburg (Wied. Ann., 1887, 31, p. 545, and 1890, 40,
VttsprCm
•r
Jin
V * ■ ■ 4
CX^
f f . - ■■■>
t
\
^^
f .'' ■■*
* it a *£
Dlackarqi Im Hydrogta
Pr—iin 2-25 num. Cmmnt 0M8'10-**mnr*
FlO. 16.
p. x), Capstick (Proc. Roy. Society, 1898, 63, p. 356), and Strutt
{Phil. Trans., 1000, 193, p. 377), and the measurements by Strutt
of the smallest difference of potential which will maintain a
spark through these gases.
»)
Fio. 15.
(*)
Gas..
Cathode faU in Volts.
Least potential
difference re-
quired to main-
tain a Spark.
Platinum Electrodes.
Aluminium
Electrodes.
Warburg.
Capstick.
Strutt.
Warburg.
Strutt.
Air . . .
H, . . .
0, . . . .
N, . . . .
Hg vapour
Helium
H,0 . . .
NH, . . .
340-350
about 300
330 if free
from oxygen
340
369
232
58a
226
168
207
341
302-308
251
261-326
Thus in the cases in which the measurements could be made
with the greatest accuracy the agreement between the cathode
fall and the minimum potential difference is very close. The
cathode fall depends on the material of which the terminals
are made, as is shown by the following table due to Mey (Vcrh.
deutsck. physik. Gcsdl., 1903, 5, p. 72).
CiJi.
Electrode.
Pt
Hg
Ag
Cu
Fe
Zn
Al
Mg
Na
Na~K
K
0* . .
H. . .
nS ♦ .
He . ♦
AEtfQtl
3&>
300
167
art
293
280
330
313
190
100
168
J07
185
178
80
169
us
7»S
172
170
*9
The dependence of the minimum potential required to produce
a spark upon the metal of which the cathode is made has not
been clearly established, some observers being unable to detect
any difference between the potential required to spark between
electrodes of aluminium and those of brass, while others thought
they had detected such a difference. It is only with sparks
not much longer than the critical spark length that we could
hope to detect this difference. When the current through the
gas exceeds a certain critical value depending among other
things on the size of the cathode, the cathode fall of potential
increases rapidly and ax tte «n» vlvtast >2e& >K&sJcaM». ^\^o& *a£w
882
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
spaces diminishes. We may regard the part of the discharge
between the cathode and the negative glow as a discharge taking
place under minimum potential difference through a distance
equal to the critical spark length. An inspection of fig. 16 will
show that we cannot regard the electric field as constant even
for this small distance; it thus becomes a matter of interest to
know what would be the effect on the minimum potential
difference required to produce a spark if there were sufficient
ions present to produce variations in the electric field analogous
to those represented in fig. 16. If the electric force at a distance
* from the cathode were proportional to c+* we should have a
sUte of things much resembling the distribution of electric
force near the cathode. If we apply to this distribution the
methods used above for the case when the force was uniform,
we shall find that the minimum potential is less and the
critical spark length greater than when the electric force is
uniform.
Potential Difference required to produce a Spark of given Length.
—We may regard the region between the cathode and the negative
glow as a place for the production of corpuscles, these corpuscles
finding their way from this region through the negative glow.
The parts of this glow towards the anode we may regard as a
cathode, from which, as from a hot lime cathode, corpuscles are
emitted. Let us now consider what will happen to these cor-
puscles shot out from the negative glow with a velocity depending
on the cathode fall of potential and independent of the pressure.
These corpuscles will collide with the molecules of the gas, and
unless there is an external electric field to maintain their velocity
they will soon come to rest and accumulate in front of the
negative glow. The electric force exerted by this cloud of
corpuscles will diminish the strength of the electric field in the
region between the cathode and the negative glow, and thus
tend to stop the discharge. To keep up the discharge we must
have a sufficiently strong electric field between the negative
glow and the anode to remove the corpuscles from this region as
fast as they are sent into it from the cathode. If, however,
there is no production of ions in the region between the negative
glow and the anode, all the ions in this region will have come
from near the cathode and will be negatively charged; this
negative electrification will diminish the electric force on the
cathode side of it and thus tend to stop the discharge. This
back electric field could, however, be prevented by a little ioniza-
tion in the region between the anode and glow, for this would
afford a supply of positive ions, and thus afford an opportunity
for the gas in this region to have in it as many positive as negative
ions; in this case it would not give rise to any back electro-
motive force. The ionization which produces these positive
Ions may, if the field is intense, be due to the collisions of cor-
puscles, or it may be due to radiation analogous to ultra-violet,
or soft Rontgcn rays, which have been shown by experiment
to accompany the discharge. Thus in the most simple conditions
for discharge we should have sufficient ionization to keep up the
supply of positive ions, and an electric field strong enough to
keep the velocity of the negative corpuscle equal to the value
it has when it emerges from the negative glow. Thus the force
must be such as to give a constant velocity to the corpuscle,
and since the force required to move an ion with a given velocity
is proportional to the pressure, this force will be proportional
to the pressure of the gas. Let us call this force op; then if /
Is the distance of the anode from the negative glow the potential
difference between these points will be dp. The potential
difference between the negative glow and the cathode is constant
and equals c; hence if V is the potential difference between
the anode and cathode, then V-c+u/^, a relation which ex-
presses the connexion between the potential difference, and
spark length for spark lengths greater than the critical distance.
It it to be remembered that the result we have obtained applies
only to such a case as that indicated above, where the electric
farce is constant along the positive column. Experiments
wila the discharge through gases at low pressure show the
d bchu ft may take ether forms. Thus the positive column
my be muted when the force ahag it ft 00 longer uniform,
IGASES
or the positive column may be absent; the discharge may be
changed from one of these forms to another by altering the
current The relation between the potential and the distance
between the electrodes varies greatly, as we might expect, with
the current passing through the gas.
The connexion between the potential difference and the
spark length has been made the subject of a large number of
experiments. The first measurements were made by Lord
Kelvin in i860 (Collected Papers on Electrostatics and If epulis*,
p. 247); subsequent experiments have been made by Ba^-e
(Ann. de chime et de physique, 5, 25, p. 486), Liebig (Phil. i/,j.
[5], 24, p. 106), Paschen (Wied. Ann. 37, p. 79), Peace (Proc. R.«y
Soc., 1892, 52, p. 00), Orgler (Ann. der Phys. x, p. 159), Strutt
(Phil. Trans. 193, p. 377), Bouty (Comptes rend us, 131, pp. 460,
503), Earhart (Phil. Mag. [6], 1, p. 147), Carr (Phil. Trans., iqoj.i.
Russell (Phil. Mag. [5], 64, p. 237), Hobbs (Phil. Mag. [6) f 10,
p. 617), Kinsley (Phil. Mag. [6], 9, 692), Ritter {Ann. der Phys.
14 , p. 1 1 8) . The results of their experiments show that for sparks
considerably longer than the critical spark length, the relation
between the potential difference V and the spark length I may
be expressed when the electrodes are large with great accuracy
by the linear relation V^c+blp, where p is the pressure and
c and b are constants depending on the nature of the gas. When
the sparks are long the term blp is the most important and the
sparking potential is proportional to the spark length. Though
there are considerable discrepancies between the results obtained
by different observers, these indicate that the production of 1
long spark between large electrodes in air at atmospheric pressure
requires a potential difference of 30,000 volts for each centimetre
of spark length. In hydrogen only about half this potential
difference is required, in carbonic acid gas the potential difference
is about the same as in air, while Ritter's experiments show
that in helium only about one-tenth of this potential difference
is required.
In the case when the electric field is not uniform, as for example
when the discharge takes place between spherical electrodes,
Russell's experiments show that the discharge takes place u
soon as the maximum electric force in the field between the
electrodes reaches a definite value, which he found was for air at
atmospheric pressure about 38,000 volts per centimetre.
Very Short Sparks. — Some very interesting experiments on the
potential difference required to produce exceedingly short sparks
have been made by Earhart, Hobbs and Kinsley; the length of
these sparks was comparable with the wave length of sodiua
light. With sparks of these lengths it was found that it was
possible to get a discharge with less than 330 volts, the minimum
potential difference in air. The results of these observers show
that there is no diminution in the minimum potential difference
required to produce discharge until the spark length gets so small
that the average electric force between the electrodes amounts to
about one million volts per centimetre. When the force rises to
this value a discharge takes place even though the potential
difference is much less than 330 volts; in some of Earhart'!
experiments it was only about 2 volts. This kind of discharge is
determined not by the condition that the potential difference
should have a given value, but that the electric force should have
a given value. Another point in which this discharge differs from
the ordinary one is that it is influenced entirely by the nature
of the electrodes and not by the nature or pressure of the gas
between them, whereas the ordinary discbarge is in many c»iff
not affected appreciably by changes in the metal of the electrodes,
but is always affected by changes in the pressure and character
of the gas between them. Kinsley found that when one of these
small sparks passed between the electrodes a kind of metallic
bridge was formed between them, so that they were in metallic
connexion, and that the distance between them had to be
considerably increased before the bridge was broken. Almy
(Phil. Mag., Sept. xooS), who used very small electrodes, was
unable to get a discharge with less than the minimum spark
potential even when the spark length was reduced to one-third of
the wave length of sodium light. He suggests that the dis-
charges obtained wuh \ax«et cksumfe* for smaller voltages are
GASESI
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
883
due tu the ckctrodis Lung dragged together by the tlectiostatic
attraction between them.
Constitution of the Electric Spark.— Schuster and Hemsalech
(Pkil. Trans. 103, p. 189), Hemsalech (CmpUt Jtosto, 130, p.
«98; I3»i P- 9» 7 ; Jour, de Pkys. 3. 9, p. 43. «"* Schenck, Astrophy.
Jour. 14, p. 1x6) have by spectroscopic methods obtained very
interesting result* about the constitution of the spark. The
method employed by Schuster and Hemsalech was as follows:
Suppose we photograph the spectrum of a horizontal spark on a
film which is on the rim of a wheel rotating about a horizontal
axis with great velocity. If the luminosity travelled with
infinite speed from one electrode to the other, the image on the
film would be a horizontal line. If, however, the speed with
which the luminosity travelled between the electrodes was
comparable with the speed of the film, the line would be inclined
to the horizontal, and by measuring the inclinations we could
find the speed at which the luminosity travelled. In this way
Schuster and Hemsalech showed that when an oscillating
discharge passed between metallic terminals in aif, the first spark
passes through the air alone, no lines of the metal appearing in
its spectrum. This first spark vaporizes some of the metal and
the subsequent sparks passing mainly through the metallic
vapour; the appearance of the lines in the film shows that the
velocity of the luminous part of the vapour was finite. The
velocity of the vapour of metals of low atomic weight was in
general greater than that of the vapour of heavier metals.
Thus the velocity of aluminium vapour was 1800 metres per
second, that of zinc and cadmium only about 545. Perhaps the
most interesting point in the investigation was the discovery that
the velocities corresponding to different lines in the spectrum of
the same metal were in some cases different. Thus with bismuth
some of the lines indicated a velocity of 1420 metres per second,
others a velocity of only 550, while one (A -3703) showed
a still smaller velocity. These results are in accordance with a
view suggested by other phenomena that many of the lines in a
spectrum produced by an electrical discharge originate from
systems formed during the discharge and not from the normal
atom or molecule. Schuster and Hemsalech found that by
inserting a coil with large self induction in the primary circuit
they could obliterate the air lines in the discharge.
Schenck, by observing the appearance presented when an
alternating current, produced by discharging Leyden jars, was
examined in a rapidly rotating mirror, found it showed the
following stages: (1) a thin bright line, followed in some cases at
intervals of half the period of the discharge by fainter lines; (2)
bright curved streamers starting from the negative terminal, and
diminishing rapidly in speed as they receded from the cathode;
(3) a diffused glow lasting for a much longer period than either
of the preceding. These constituents gave out quite different
spectra.
The structure of the discharge is much more easily studied
when the pressure of the gas is low, as the various parts which
make up the discharge are more widely separated from each other.
We have already described the general appearance of the dis-
charge through gases at low pressures (see p. 657). There is,
however, one form of discharge which is so striking and beautiful
that it deserves more detailed consideration. In this type of
discharge, known as the striated discharge, the positive column
is made up of alternate bright and dark patches known as
striationt. Some of these are represented in fig. 17, which is
taken from a paper by De la Rue and MUller (Phil. Trans., 1878,
Pt. 1). This type of discharge only occurs when the current and
the pressure of the gas are between certain limits. It is most
beautifully shown when a Wehnelt cathode is used and the
current is produced by storage cells, as this allows us to use large
currents and to maintain a steady potential difference between the
electrodes. The st nations are in consequence very bright and
steady. The facts which have been established about these
st nations are as follows: The distance between the bright parts
of the st nations is greater at low pressures than at high; it
depends also upon the diameter of the tube, increasing as the
diameter of the tube increases. If the discharge tube b wide at
one pbee anil n.i:n>\v in another the striationt wiil be clovr
together in the narrow parts than in the wide. '1 he distance
between the striations depends on the current through the tube.
l>e relation is not a very simple one, as an increase of current
sometimes increases while under other circumstance* it decreases
the distance between the striations (see Willows, Proe. Comb.
Phil. Soc. 10, p. 30a). The electric force is not uniform along the
striated discharge, but is greater in the bright than in the dark
parts of the striation. An example is shown in fig. 16, due to H.
A. Wilson, which shows the distribution of electric force at every
place in a striated discharge. In experiments made by J. J.
Thomson (Phil. Mag., Oct. 1009), using a Wehnelt cathode, the
variations in the electric force were more pronounced than those
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Fig. 17.
shown in fig. 16. The electric force in this case changed so greatly
that it actually became negative just on the cathode side of the
bright part of the striation. Just inside the striation on the anode
side it rose to a very high value, then continually diminished
towards the bright side of the next striation when it again
increased. This distribution of electric force implies that there
is great excess of negative electricity at the bright head of the
striation, and a small excess of positive everywhere else. The
temperature of the gas is higher in the bright than in the dark
parts of the striations. Wood (Wied. Ann. 49, p. 238), who has
made a very careful study of the distribution of temperature in
a discharge tube, finds that in those tubes the temperature varies
in the same way as the electric force, but that this temperature
(which it must be remembered is the average temperature of all
the molecules and not merely of those which arc taking part in
the discharge) is by no means high; in no part of the discharge
did the temperature in his experiments exceed ioo° C.
Theory of the Striations. — We may regard the heaping up of
the negative charges at intervals along the discharge as the
fundamental feature in the striations, and this heaping up may
be explained as follows. Imagine a corpuscle projected with
considerable velocity from a place where the electric field is
strong, such as the neighbourhood of the cathode; as it moves
towards the anode through the gas it will collide with the mole-
cules, ionize them and lose energy and velocity. Thus unless
the corpuscle is acted on by a field strong enough to supply it
with the energy it loses by collision, its speed will gradually
diminish. Further, when its energy falls below a certain value
it will unite with a molecule and become part of a negative fae^
instead of a corpusdfe\ s\ vVC\% «cw«s. \Jwsw. '«^\*. •^v^a^w^'wA.
884
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
very large diminution In its velocity. Let us now follow the
course of a stream of corpuscles starting from the cathode and
approaching the anode. If the speed falls off as the stream
proceeds, the corpuscles in the rear will gain on those in front
and the density of the stream in the front will be increased.
If st a rcrtsin place the velocity receives a sudden check by the
corpuscle* becoming loaded with a molecule, the density of the
negative electricity will increase at this place with great rapidity,
and here there will be a great accumulation of negative electricity,
as at the bright head on the cathode side of a striatic*. Now
this accumulation of negative electricity will produce a large
electric force on the anode side; this will drive corpuscles
forward wit h great velocity and ionise the gas. These corpuscles
will behave like those shot from the cathode and will accumulate
again at some distance from their origin, forming the bright
head of the next striation, when the process will be repeated.
On this view the bright heads of the st nations act like electrodes,
and the discharge passes from one bright head to the next as by
a number of stepping stones, and not directly from cathode
to anode. The luminosity at the head of the striations is due
to the recombination of the ions. These ions have acquired
considerable energy from the electric field, and this energy will
be available for supplying the energy radiated away as light.
The recombination of ions which do not possess considerable
amounts of energy does not seem to give rise to luminosity.
Thus, in an ionised gas not exposed to an electric field, although
we have recombination between the ions, we need not have
luminosity. We haw at present no exact data as to the amount
of energy which must be given to an ion to make it luminous
on recombination; it also certainly varies with the nature of
the ion: thus even with hoc Wehnelt cathodes J. J. Thomson
has never been able to make the discharge through air luminous
w:th a potential less than from 10 to i; volts, The mercury
lamp^ however, in which the discharge passes through mercury
vapour are luminous with a potential difference of about 12
vo!;*. It follows that if the preceding theory be right the
potential difference between two bright striatic** must be
gTea: enough to make the corpuscles ionise by collision and also
to g-.vc enough energy to the ions to make them luminous when
1 So recontbtne. The difference of potential between the bright
par;* ct *-oofwi\e s: nations has been measured by Hc-hn \.Fkys.
."V* o. p 55$*: :: vanes with the presnxv and with ;he gas.
TV sntaVicsc value given bv Hob.n is abect 15 vol:*. la soae
cvvr.mrats aadr bv J. 1 Thosson. when the pressure of the
t%% was recv k»w. the d:ffenmce of potential between two ad-
)*.*?.: »i* A jf>aces was a* V*w as 1 ■ - 5 wxts.
Ts> .«i iW*a*?v -The .'.sscharges we have hitherto cco-
sxVeod Saw been charac:rrue*i by large pxe=:^al .Lfereaces
a».i *.~\:'. »v.rnrr,ML la :he arc discharge we fK very larcc
cut-v?:* »-::is v\\rv>*rA::vr;v shuuI poeen'.ial d.frre=ces. We
ma» pre :Sr an; c.ischarge b» :akir.g a ha: '.cry c* ceii* large
eno*je> :c p.»e a rv^cci^ c. Terence ce" 2c :o 5c \v£a. ari
»vfw. -4, :V col* w»»! :wo car*vc :«rr.^aik wb-vb are re:
in coe:»v:. ».■» ;b.a: a c-:tr?: .*< rievir?c::i- Sews rci^ni :he «r-.t.
It the trrr-. wuk wb.c ;hc Carres'.: * cc. art iraws arar:. a
hr^fc: &Ar&a3pr »>:v w rr-i* ca.-r* a rirrss: cc airy araper**-
passe* :>vr one re . S.- .x w « TVs arc csciiryr as *. s c**rc 3
character..^: b* .v..-t< Sea: arxi J\ tie rx-.l^r: ".i=jos:>
ot tSf :r-Tf..rjLx ",>s r\ai» *: a rvwrrri- *>-r."» cc hpfc:
The ? c g v «r a :..-e c* ::<>»: v» rrrrr .r.L » T=jci h$^r ihiz
tha: of :Sc Tegi-.«? ^.v.v-t^ re \«jr V.wraar jirwiac
115* «i ::\i" :Sr :;-.>n. _-? .-c *.Sr r-r oc tic war so.\:
ajat'C . anc. ; w .»: .■* :iv- .i: .-e :«■>?' C- TNr Mcjwrar jb « 1st
arvfcsrkhr *.>*:>• :c >v r-:r>r- :*At -hi: .-r. r:Ssr « a :rast&
As the sac paw* :x :%■*». ■- rrrr.ra: p^ hcocwr^ .■<= =:;
a caetr^he shaw ,-^ .*vr »**:.■«'? :cn=-rj." ?rr.i =a ronrm
luchMemnaA kwr w v .* fc :
^ty ,JNbv ^t« JC* -•"%! -^ :»■ «r-v *• f "T-.v.-wrri n< rensurAf
j<n a>htva se»#wK. *at . •*rt t » acivwafcav.: r* 1 nMnag «nu
^v^anr^Aecwn^Kr j ? »».-~i.*v .-,i-^mr ?»-.>r>i!C5* ta iwj-sust
••»«■*■* aJhr ksn^avx* jvc 2v : tne ilbauk .-¥ I^e r*«
out by each unit of area of luminous surface is unaltered,
indicates that the temperature of the crater is constant;
Cibly that at which carbon volatilizes. W. E. Wilson {
Sec 58, p. 174; 60, p. 377) has shown that at prean
several atmospheres the intrinsic brightness of the crater is
atderably diminished.
Fig. 18.
The oonneaion between V, the potential difference betweet
terminals, and I, the length of the arc, is somewhat analaem
that which holds for the spark discharge. Frohlich • EuctreSk.
4, p. 150) ghes for this connexion the relation V«m+«J *
m and a are constants. Mrs A)-rtoa {The Electric Arc. «-W
finds that both m and a depend upon the current paawinrbeci
the terminals, and gives as the relation between V u
V-w+|+(7+|);,w-heres,A7,lareconstantaand I the am
The relation between current and potential difference was -»"<-
subject of a series of experiments by Aynoa ,£iejjrvu«. 1. n.
xi. p. 4l8>. some of whose results are represented in fig. "to! t
auiet arc an increase in current is accompanied bv a fa5 i= poca
ifference. while for the hissing arc the potential di5erencebi
pendent of the current. The quantities n *M n which ona
Fi^. :a.
FrffcSA'i ftr=iT?.-c hiT-rwe= ferers^w* b--
Fcr cartv: e-ftrrr.-os* .= a^- a: asi.xc -^-: ;7j*>_- 5 n ^ .
"»*.-c:*. vxryiag jc-=>e»ri.: w-.^i -je jue ir-: r..--. "^ <<;ta y
:: » i -7 -afcVc S »u^=» tse :--r=^i.j _- ^ - \. t , j
*-a_j< jc m f.-*e= r^ zjrsrt:: .-cser.'sr* -."*.-<» .-.^a... r-4- 4 -j aai
■-."«; "■:::: ■»■:»":* »St-r . j aeajv.-vi ^ r.". .-*--- r> ~ - S3
:S* r^Mr_:>f im r«rar.^rt a: wr^:i -z,i =>nL ;"ZV;"
■ » '-"i— je* j**
- = r« v.
■'. • rs se Kf » :« z\ T_- - ::• ?c J; ■ . ■• : * "•- -w 1
.<«« j: r. ?*c ::v.-a: ):r .-.; -.at v^-c — ? : ■ • ^ ^ \ i
r^T*: ^a.-.=» u r.- ■.?« arr^i. w.--r-^. : .: — ; - -> ; - ." ^,-
:t 2-^r:crju;-rt . k cise r:: %-. :r it i.-.- .. s^,- *
C"slv ic aie a&rm x » sur_— .■::* %-*-r -*.-.' fc
SASES)
ti, p. 60), whose rewlts are represented in fig. 20. We see from
these curves that for very short arcs the potential difference increases
sontinuously with the pressure, but for longer ones there is a critical
pressure at which the potential difference is a minimum, and that
this critical pressure seems to increase with the length of arc
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
885
lite nature of the gas also affects the
magnitude of this effect ma;
Fig. 21.
ntial difference. The
o affects the potential difference. The
„ . _ ivbe gathered from the following values
pven by Arons {Ann. der Pkys. t, p. 700) for the potential difference
required to produce an arc 1*5 mm. long, carrying a current of 4-5
amperes, between terminals of different meals in air and pure
Terminal.
Air.
Nitrogen.
Terminal.
Air.
Nitrogen.
Ag . .
21
?
Pt . .
36
30
Zn . .
*3
21
Al . .
39
\l
Cd . .
>5
2!
Pb , .
Cu . .
27
30
Mg . .
..
22
Fe . .
29
20
Thus, with the discharge for an arc of given length and current,
the nature of the terminals is the most important factor in deter-
Brining the potential difference. The effects produced by the pressure
lad nature of the surrounding gas, although quite appreciable, are
lot of so much importance, while in the spark discharge the nature
if the terminals is of no importance, everything depending upon
lie nature and pressure of the gas.
The potential gradient in the arc is very far from being uniform.
With carbon terminals Luggin (Wien. Ber. 98. p. 1192) found that,
vith a current of 15 amperes, there was a fall of potential of 337
ioae to the anode, and one 8-7 close to the cathode, so that the curve
^presenting the distribution of potential between the terminals
rould be somewhat like that shown in fig. 21. We have seen that a
aunewhat analogous distribution of potential holds in the case of
sonduction through names, though in that case the greatest drop of
Sential is in general at the cathode and not at the anode. The
erence between the changes of potential at the anode and cathode
(• not so large with Fe and Cu terminals as with carbon ones;
vith mercury terminals, Arons (Wied. Ann. «8, p. 73) found the anode
tall to be 7*4 volts, the cathode fall 5*4 volts.
The case of the arc when the cathode is a pool of mercury and
the anode a metal wire placed in a vessel from which the air has
been exhausted is one which has attracted much attention, and
Important investigations on this point have been made by
pfcwitt (Electrician, 52, p. 447) » Wills {Electrician, 54, p. 26),
ftiurk, Retschinsky and Schnaposnikoff (Ann. der Pkys. x8,
p. 213) and Pollak (Ann. der Pkys. 10, p. 2x7). In this arrange-
ment the mercury is vaporized by the heat, and the discharge
■Inch passes through the mercury vapour gives an exceedingly
■right light, which has been largely used for lighting factories, &c
Che arrangement can also be used as a rectifier, for a current
MB only pass through it when the mercury pool is the cathode.
Rnis if such a lamp is connected with an alternating current
itcuit, it lets through the current in one direction and stops
feat in the other, thus furnishing a current which is always in
joe direction.
■ Theory of the Arc Discharge.— Ail incandescent body such
m a piece of carbon even when at a temperature far below that
tf the terminals in an arc, emits corpuscles at a rate corresponding
b a current of the order of x ampere per square centimetre of
^candescent surface, and as the rate of increase of emission
•1th the temperature is very rapid, it is probably at the rate
€ many amperes per square centimetre at the temperature of
be negative carbon in the arc. If then a piece of carbon were
Maintained at this temperature by some external means, and
sjed as a cathode, a current could be sent from it to another
lectrode whether the second electrode were cold or hot. II,
however, these negatively electrified corpuscles did not produce
other ions either by collision with the gas through which they
move or with the anode, the spaces between cathode and anode
would have a negative charge,. which would tend to stop the
corpuscles leaving the cathode and would require a large potential
difference between anode and cathode to produce any consider-
able current. If, however, there is ionization either in the gas
or st the anode, the positive ions will diffuse into the region of
the discharge until they are sensibly equal in number to the
negative ions. When this is the case the back electromotive
force is destroyed and the same potential difference will carry
a much larger current. The arc discharge may be regarded as
analogous to the discharge between incandescent terminals,
the only difference being that in the arc the terminals are main-
tained in the state of incandescence by the current and not by
external means. On this view the cathode is bombarded by
positive ions which heat it to such a temperature that' negative
corpuscles sufficient to carry the current are emitted by it.
These corpuscles bombard the anode and keep it incandescent
They ionise also, either directly by collision or indirectly by
heating the anode, the gas and vapour of the metal of which
the anode is made, and produce in this way the supply of positive
ions which keep the cathode hot.
Discharge from a Point.— A very interesting case of electric
discharge is that between a sharply pointed electrode, such as a
needle, and a metal surface of considerable area. At atmospheric
pressures the luminosity is confined to the immediate neighbour-
hood of the point. If the sign of the potential of the point does
not change, the discharge is carried by ions of one sign — that of
the charge on the pointed electrode. The velocity of these ions
under a given potential gradient has been measured by Chattock
(Phil. Mag. 32, p. 285), and found to agree with that of the ions
produced by Rdntgen or uranium radiation, while Townsend
(Phil. Trans. 195, p. 259) has shown that the charge on these
ions is the same as that on the ions streaming from the point.
If the pointed electrode be placed at right angles to a metal plane
serving as the other electrode, the discharge takes place when, for
a given distance of the point from the plane, the potential
difference between the electrodes exceeds a definite value
depending upon the pressure and nature of the gas through which
the discharge passes; its value also depends upon whether,
beginning with a small potential difference, we gradually increase
it until discharge commences, or, beginning with a large potential
difference, we decrease it until the discharge stops. The value
found by the latter method is less than that by the former.
According to Chattock's measurements the potential difference V
for discharge between the point and the plate is given by the
linear relation V«o+W, where / is the distance of the point from
the plate and a and b are constants. From v. Obermayer's
(Wien. Ber. xoo, 2, p. 127) experiments, in which the distance I
was greater than in Chattock's, it would seem that the potential
for larger distances does not increase quite so rapidly with / as
is indicated by Chattock's relation. The potential required to
produce this discharge is much less than that required to produce
a spark of length / between parallel plates; thus from Chattock's
experiments to produce the point discharge when /■» -5 cm. in air
at atmospheric pressure requires a potential difference of about
3800 volts when the pointed electrode is positive, while to
produce a spark at the same distance between plane electrodes
would require a potential difference of about 15,000 volts.
Chattock showed that with the same pointed electrode the value
of the electric intensity at the point was the same whatever the
distance of the point from the plane. The value of the electric
intensity depended upon the sharpness of the point. When the
end of the pointed electrode is a hemisphere of radius a, Chattock
showed that for the same gas at the same pressure the electric
intensity/ when discharge takes place is roughly proportioned to
a~*' s . The value of the electric intensity at the pointed electrode
is much greater than its value at a plane electrode for long
sparks; but we must remember that at a distance from a
pointed electrode, equal to a small multiple q! O&&. t%&sa> ^
curvature oi Vta «ftrcmxVy >&*, &^v^\&kn&* V&» ^=^ ^**»
886
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
(GASES
below that required to produce discharge in a uniform field, so
that the discharge from a pointed electrode ought to be compared
with a spark whose length is comparable with the radius of
curvature of the point. For such short sparks the electric
intensity is very high. The electric intensity required to produce
the discharge from a gas diminishes as the pressure of the gas
diminishes, but not nearly so rapidly as the electric intensity for
long sparks. Here again the discharge from a point is comparable
with short sparks, which, as we have seen, are much less sensitive
to pressure changes than longer ones. The minimum potential at
which the electricity streams from the point does not depend
upon the material of which the point is made; it varies, however,
considerably with the nature of the gas. The following are the
results of some experiments on this point. Those in the first two*
columns are due to Rdntgen, those in the third and fourth to
Precht:—
Gas.
H, >
0,. .
CO .*
CH«.
NO .
CO, .
N, .
Air .
Discharge Potential. Point +.
Pressure 205. Pressure 110.
Volts.
1296
2402
2634
ITS
3287
Volts.
"74
*975
2100
*3«7
3543
a*55
Pressure 76a
Point +. Point — .
Volts.
2125
2800
3475
2600
2750
Volts.
1550
3350
2100
2000
2050
We see from this table that in the case of the discharge from a
positively electrified point the greater the molecular weight of the
gas the greater the potential required for discharge. Rontgen
concluded from his experiments that the discharging potential
from a positive point in different gases at the same pressure
varies inversely as the mean free path of the molecules of the gas.
In the same gas, however, at different pressures the discharging
potential does not vary so quickly with the pressure as does the
mean free path. In Precht's experiments, in whkh different
gases were used, the variations in the discharging potential
are not so great as the variations in the mean free path of the
gases.
The current of electrified air flowing from the point when the
electricity is escaping— the well-known " electrical wind " — is
accompanied by a reaction on the point which tends to drive it
backwards. This reaction has been measured by Arrhenius
QVicd. Ann. 63, p. 305), who finds that when positive electricity is
escaping from a point in air the reaction on the point for a given
current varies inversely as the pressure of the gas, and for
different gases (air, hydrogen and carbonic add) inversely as the
square root of the molecular weight of the gas. The reaction
when negative electricity is escaping is much less. The proportion
between the reactions for positive and negative currents depends
on the pressure of the gas. Thus for equal positive and negative
currents in air at a pressure of 70 cm. the reaction for a positive
point was 1*9 times that of a negative one, at 40 cm. pressure
a-6 times, at 20 cm. pressure 3*2 times, at 10*3 cm. pressure 7
times, and at 5*1 cm. pressure 1$ times the reaction for the
negative point. Investigation shows that the reaction should
be proportional to the quotient of the current by the velocity
acquired by an ion under unit potential gradient. Now this
velocity is inversely proportional to the pressure, so that the
reaction should on this view be directly proportional to the
pressure. This agrees with Arrhenius' results when the point is
positive. Again, the velocities of an ion in hydrogen, air and
carbonic acid at the same pressure are approximately inversely
proportional to the square roots of their molecular weights, so
that the reaction should be directly proportional to this quantity.
This also agrees with Arrhenius' results for the discharge from a
positive point The velocity of the negative ion is greater than
that of a positive one under the same potential gradient, so that
£Ae reaction for the negative point should be less than that for a
positive one, but the excess of the positive reaction over the
atgathe is much greater than that of the velocity of the negative
ion over the velocity of the positive. There is, however, reason 10
believe that a considerable condensation takes place around the
negative ion as a nucleus after it is formed, so that the velocity of
the negative ion under a given potential gradient will be greats
immediately after the ion is formed than when it has existed k:
some time. The measurements which have been made of the
velocities of the ions relate to those which have been some time is
existence, but a large part of the reaction will be due to the
newly-formed ions moving with a greater velocity, and tbu
giving a smaller reaction than that calculated from the observed
velocity.
With a given potential difference between the point and tht
neighbouring conductor the current issuing from the point is
greater when the point is negative than when it is positive, except
in oxygen, when it is less. Warburg (Sits. Akad. d. Wisstnsck.
zu Berlin, 1809, 50, p. 770) has shown that the addition of 1
small quantity of oxygen to nitrogen produces a great diminutioo
in the current from a negative point, but has very little effect oa
the discharge from a positive point. Thus the removal of a tract
of oxygen made a leak from a negative point 50 times what it wa*
before. Experiments with hydrogen and helium showed that
impurities in these gases had a great effect on the current wheo
the point was negative, and but little when it was positive. Tin
suggests that the impurities, by condensing round the negative
ions as nuclei, seriously diminish their velocity. " If a point b
charged up to a high and rapidly alternating potential, such as
can be produced by the electric oscillations started when a Leydea
jar is discharged, then in hydrogen, nitrogen, ammonia and
carbonic acid gas a conductor placed in the neighbourhood of the
point gets a negative charge, while in air and oxygen it gets a
positive one. There are two considerations which are of ua-
portance in connexion with this effect. The first is the velocity of
the ions in the electric field, and the second the ease with which
the ions can give up their charges to the metal point. The greater
velocity of the negative ions would, if the potential were rapidly
alternating, cause an excess of negative ions to be left in the
surrounding gas. This is the case in hydrogen. If , however, the
metal had a much greater tendency to unite with negative than
with positive ions, such as we should expect to be the case in
oxygen, this would act in the opposite direction, and tend to
leave an excess of positive ions in the gas.
The Characteristic Curve for Discharge through Gases. — When
a current of electricity passes through a metallic conductor the
relation between the current and the potential difference is the
exceedingly simple one expressed by Ohm's law; the current
is proportional to the potential difference. When the current
passes through a gas there is no such simple relation. Thus we
have already mentioned cases where the current increased as the
potential increased although not in the same proportion, while
as we have seen in certain stages of the arc discharge the potential
difference diminishes as the current increases. Thus the problem
of finding the current which a given battery will produce when
part of the circuit consists of a gas discharge is much more
complicated than when the circuit consists entirely of metallic
conductors. If, however, we measure the potential difference
between the electrodes in the gas when different currents are
sent through it, we can plot a curve, called the " characteristic
curve," whose ordinates are the potential differences between
the electrodes in the gas and the abscissae the corresponding
currents. By the aid of this curve we can calculate the current
produced when a given battery is connected up to the gas by
leads of known resistance.
For let Eo be the electromotive force of the battery, R the resist-
ance of the leads, i the current, the potential difference between
the terms in the gas will be Et-Ri. Let ABC (fig. 22) be the
" characteristic curve," the ordinates being the potential difference
between the terminals in the gas, and the abscissae the current.
Draw the line LM whose equation is E-Eo — Ri, then the point*
where this line cuts the characteristic curves win give possible
values of 1 and E, the current through the discharge tube and the
potential difference between the terminals. Some of these points
may, however, correspond to an unstable position and be impossible
to realize. Ttoe (oUowicrc method gjives us a criterion by which we
canotatagubh^ttaYAiATQmttftuwta^ Vftfce current
GASES]
is increased by *', the electromotive force which has to be*overcome
by the battery is Rtf+^tf. If R+<fE/<fi is positive there will [
be an unbalanced electromotive force round the circuit tending to
stop the current. Thus the increase in the current will be stopped
and the condition will be a stable one. If, however, K+dEfdt is
negative there will be an un-
balanced electromotive force
tending to increase the current ■
still further; thus the current
will go on increasing and the
condition will be unliable.
V Thus for stability R+d Etdi
must be positive, a condition
first given by Kaufman ■ {Ann.
der Pkys. n, p. 15 3). The
geometrical interpret at ion, of
this condition is that the
straight line LM mu*t, at the
point where it cuts the char-
h acteristic curve, be steeper
FlG. 22. tnan tne tangent to character-
istic curve. Thus of the points
ABC where the line cuts the curve in fig. 22, A and C correspond
to stable states and B to an unstable one. The state of things
represented by a point P on the characteristic curve when the slope
is downward cannot be stable unless there is in the external circuit
a resistance greater than that represented by the tangent of the
inclination ofthe tangent to the curve at P to the horizontal axis.
If we keep the external electromotive force the same and gradually
increase the resistance in the leads, the line L M will become steeper
and steeper. C will move to the left so that the current will diminish;
when the line gets so steep that it touches the curve at C, any
further increase in the resistance will produce an abrupt change in
the current: for now the state of things represented by a point near
A' is the only stable state. Thus if the B C part of the curve corrc- '
sponded to a luminous discharge and the A part to a dark discharge,
we see that if the electromotive force is kept constant there is a
minimum value of the current for the luminous discharge. If the
current is reduced below this value, the discharge ceases to be
luminous, and there is an abrupt diminution in the current.
Cathode Rays. — When the gas in the discharge tube is at a
very low pressure some remarkable phenomena occur in the
neighbourhood of the cathode. These seem to have been first
observed by Pliicker (Fogg. Ann. 107, p. 77; 116, p. 45) who
noticed on the walls of the glass tube near the cathode a greenish
phosphorescence, which he regarded as due to rays proceeding
from the cathode, striking against the aides of the tube, and then 1
travelling back to the cathode. He found that the action of a
magnet on these rays was not the same as the action on the
part of the discharge near the positive electrode. Hittorf (Fogg.
Ann. 136, p. 8) showed that the agent producing the phosphor-
escence was intercepted by a solid, whether conductor or insulator,
placed between the cathode and the sides of the tube.' He 1
regarded the phosphorescence as caused by a motion starting
from the cathode and travelling in straight lines through the gas.
Goldstein (Monat. der Berl. A had., 1876, p. 24) confirmed this
discovery of Hittorf 's, and further showed that a distinct,
though not very sharp, shadow is cast by a small object placed,
near a large plane cathode. This is a proof that the rays pro-
ducing the phosphorescence must be emitted almost normally
from the cathode, and not, like the rays of light from a luminous
surface, in all directions, for such rays would not produce a J
perceptible shadow if a small body were placed near the plane. 1
Goldstein regarded the phosphorescence as due to waves in the
ether, for whose propagation the gas was not necessary. Crookes
(PkU. Trans., 1879, pt. L p. 135; pt. ii. pp. 587, 661), who made
many remarkable researches in this subject, took a different
view. He regarded the rays as streams of negatively electrified
particles projected normally from the cathode with great velocity,
and, when the pressure is sufficiently low, reaching the sides of
the tube, and by their impact producing phosphorescence and
heat. The rays on this view are deflected by a magnet, because
a magnet exerts a force on a charged moving body.
These rays striking against glass make it phosphorescent,
The colour of the phosphorescence depends on the kind of glass;
thus the light from soda glass is a yellowish green, and that from
lead glass blue. Many other bodies phosphoresce when exposed
to these rays, and in particular the phosphorescence of some
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
887
gems, such as rubles and diamonds, is exceedingly vivid. The
spectrum of the phosphorescent light is generally continuous,
but Crookes showed that the phosphorescence of some of the
rare earths, such as yttrium, gives a spectrum of bright bands,
and he founded on this fact a spectroscopic method of great
importance. Goldstein (Wied. Ann. 54, p. 371) discovered
that the haloid salts of the alkali metals change colour under
the rays, sodium chloride, for example, becoming violet. The
coloration is a surface one, and has been traced by E. Wiedemann
and Schmidt (Wied. Ann. 54, p. 618) to the formation of a sub-
chloride. Chlorides of tin, mercury and lead also change colour in
the same way. E. Wiedemann (Wied. Ann. 56, p. 201) discovered
another remarkable effect, which he called thermo-luminescence;
he found that many bodies after being exposed to the cathode
rays possess for some time the power of becoming luminous
when their temperature is raised, to a point far Below that at
which they become luminous in the normal state. Substances
belonging to the class called by van 't Hoff solid solutions exhibit
this property of thermo-luminescence to a remarkable extent.
They are formed when two salts, one greatly in excess of the
other, are simultaneously precipitated from a solution. A trace
of MnS0 4 in CaS0 4 shows very brilliant thermo-luminescence.
The impact of cathode rays produces after a time perceptible
changes in the glass. Crookes (Phil. Trans, pt. ii. 1879, p. 645)
found that after glass has been phosphorescing for some time
under the cathode rays it seems to get tired, and the phosphor-
escence is not so
bright as it was
initially. Thus, for
example, when the
shadow of a Mal-
tese cross is thrown
on the walls of the
tube as in fig. 23,
if after the dis-
charge has been
going on for some
time [the cross is
shaken down or a
new cathode used
whose line of fire does not cut the cross, the pattern of the cross
will still be seen on the glass, but it will now be brighter instead
of darker than the surrounding portion. The portions shielded
by the cross, not being tired by being made to phosphoresce
for a long time, respond more vigorously to the stimulus than
those portions which have not been protected. Skinner (Free,
Camb. Phil. Soc. ix. p. 371) and Thomson found on the glass
which had been exposed to the rays gelatinous filaments, appar-
ently silica, resulting from the reduction of the glass. A reducing
action was also noticed by Villard (Journ. de pkys. 3, viii.
p. 140) and Wehnelt (Wied. Ann. 67, p. 421). It can be well
shown by letting the rays fall on a plate of oxidized copper,
when the part struck by the rays will become bright. The
rays heat bodies on which they fall, and if they are concentrated
by using as a cathode a portion of a spherical surface, the heat
at the centre becomes so great that a piece of platinum wire can
be melted or a diamond charred. Measurements of the heating
effects of the rays have been made by Thomson (Phil. Mag.
Isl, 44» p. 293) and Cady (Ann. der Pkys. 1, p. 678). Crookes
(Phil. Trans., 1879, pt. i. p. 152) showed that a vane mounted
as in a radiometer is set in rotation by the rays, the direction of
the rotation being the same as would be produced by a stream
of particles proceeding from the cathode. The movement is
not due to the momentum imparted to the vanes by the rays,
but to the difference in temperature between the sides of the
vanes, the rays making the side against which they strike
hotter than the other.
Efect of a Magnet. — The rays are deflected by a magnet,
so that the distribution 61 phosphorescence over the glass and
the shape and position of the shadows cast by bodies in the tube
are altered by the proximity of a magnet. The law* oX TfiM&as&s.
deflection of the^n^*^N*\*e^sN«sfc^^
Fie. 23.
888
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
Ann. 103, P- *8), Hittorf {Pogg- Ann. 136; p. 213), Crookes (Phil.
Trans., 1879, pt. x, P- 557), and Schuster (Proc. Roy. Soc. 47, p.
536). Hie deflection is the same as that of negatively electrified
particles travelling along the path of the rays. Such particles
would in a magnetic field be acted on by a force at right angles
to the direction of motion of the particle and also to the magnetic
force, the magnitude of the force being proportional to the
product of the velocity of the particle, the magnetic force, and
the sine of the angle between these vectors. In this case we have
seen that if the particle is not acted on by an electrostatic field,
the path in a uniform magnetic field is a spiral, whiah, if the
magnetic force is at right angles to the direction of projection
of the particle, becomes a circle in the plane at right angles to
the magnetic force, the radius being mv/He, where m, v, e are
respectively the mass, velocity and charge on the particle, and
B is the magnetic force. The smaller the difference of potential
between the electrodes of the discharge tube the greater the
deflection produced by a magnetic field of given strength, and as
the difference of potential rapidly increases with diminution of
pressure, after a certain pressure has been passed, the higher
the exhaustion of the tube the less the magnetic deflection of
the rays. Birkeland (Comptes rendus, 1896, p. 49a) has shown
that when the discharge is from an induction coil the cathode
rays produced in the tube at any one time are not equally
deflected by a magnet, but that a narrow patch of phosphor-
escence when deflected by a magnet is split up into several distinct
patches, giving rise to what Birkeland calls the "magnetic
spectrum." Strutt (PkU. Mag. 48, p. 478) has shown that this
magnetic spectrum does not occur if the discharge of a large
number of cells is employed instead of the coil. Thomson (Proc.
Camb. PkU. Soc. 9, p. 243) has shown that if the potential
difference between the electrodes is kept the same the magnetic
deflection is independent of the nature of the gas filling the
discharge tube; this was tested with gases so different as air,
hydrogen, carbonic acid and methyl iodide.
Charge of Negative Electricity carried by the Rays. — We have
seen that the rays are deflected by a magnet, as if they were
particles charged with negative electricity. Perrin {Comptes
rendus, 121, p. 1130) showed by direct experiment that a stream
of negative electricity is associated with the rays. A modifica-
tion made by Thomson of Perrin's experiment is sketched in
fig. 24 {PkU. Mag. 48, p. 478).
The rays start from the cathode A, and pass through a slit In a
•olid brass rod B fitting tightly into the neck of the tube. This
rod is connected with earth and used as the anode. The rays after
passing through the slit travel through the vessel C. D and E are
two insulated metal cylinders
insulated from each other,
and each having a slit cut in
its face so as to enable the
rays to pass into the inside of
the inner cylinder, which is
connected with an electro-
meter, the outer cylinder
being connected with the
earth. The two cylinders are
placed on the far side of the
vessel, but out of the direct
line of fire of the rays. When
the rays go straight through
the slit there is only a very
small negative charge com-
municated to the inner
Sounder, but when they are
effected by a magnet so that
the phosphorescent patch falls
00 the slit in the outer
cylinder the inner cylinder
receives a very large negative
. . . . . # . charge, the increasecoinciding
very sharply with the appearance of the phosphorescent patch on the
•lit. When the patch is so much deflected by the magnet that it
falls below the slit, the negative charge in the cylinder again dis-
appears. This experiment show* that the cathode rays are accom-
panied by a stream of negative electrification. The same apparatus
can be used to show that the passage of cathode rays through a
an* maksa it a conductor of electricity. For if the induction coil is
■*T and s stnam of the ray kept steadily going into the
{GASES
inner cylinder, the potential of the inner cylinder reaches a deficu
negative value below which it does not fail, however long the □«
may be kept going. The cylinder reaches a steady state in aid
the V3.in of negative electricity from the cat bode rays is equal tcti
low by leakage through the conducting gns^ the conductivity ba^
produced by toe passage of the ray* through it. If the inner cyusikr
is charged tip initially with ■ greater negative charge tK»h cevrespae^
to the steady state, on turning the ray? on to the cylinder the cecair. :
charge will decrease^ and not increase until it reaches the 85
state. The conductivity produced by the passage: of cathode nv\
through a gas diminishes rapidly with the pressure, Whea n< .
pan tn rough a gas at a low pressure, they are defected by aaeJsdrc
aclct : when the pressure of the gas is higher the conductivm -
acquires when the cathode rays pass through it is so Large that '"i
potential gradient cannot reach a suinrientty high value to predsts
an appreciable deflection.
Thus the cathode rays carry a charge of negative electririij;
the experiment described on page 87s (fig. 13) shows that they
are deflected by an electric field as if they were negatively
electrified, and are acted on by a magnetic force in just the *ay
this force would act on a negatively electrified body moriag
along the path of the rays. There is therefore every reason for
believing that they are charges of negative electricity in rapid
motion. By measuring the deflection produced by magnetic
and electric fields we can determine the velocity with watt
these particles moved and the ratio of the mass of the partide
to the charge carried by it.
We may conclude from the experiments that the value of n,k
for the particles constituting the cathode rays is of the order
1/1-7 Xio 7 , and we have seen that m/e has the same value in
all the other cases of negative ions in a gas at low pressure for
which it has been measured— vis. for the ions 'produced who
ultra-violet light falls on a metal plate, or when an incandescent
carbon filament is surrounded by a gas at a low pressure, and
for the particles given out by radio-active bodies. We hate
also seen that the value of the charge on the gaseous ion, in aB
cases in which it has been measured— viz. the ions produced by
Rdntgen and uranium radiation, by ultra-violet light, and by the
discharge of electrification from a point— is the same in magni-
tude as the charge carried by the hydrogen atom in the electro-
lysis of solutions. The mass of the hydrogen alone is, however,
io"« times this charge, while the mass of the carriers of negative
electrification is only X/1.7X10 7 times the charge; hence the
mass of the carriers of the negative electrification is only jJU of
the mass of the hydrogen atom. We are thus, by the study of the
electric discharge, forced to recognize the existence of masses
very much smaller than the smallest mass hitherto recognized.
Direct determinations of the velocity of the cathode rays have
been made by J. J. Thom«n (PhU. J/a*. 38, p. 358), who measured
the interval between the appearance of phosphorescence on two
pieces of glass ptaced at a known distance apart, and by Maiorana
(Mu«w Cimtnfo, 4. 6- p. 336) and Battelli and Stefanini (Pkys. ZeiL
t,p. £!)♦ who measured the Interval between the arnvaf of the
negative charge earned by th* rays at two places separated by a
known di*tanct The value* of the velocity got in this way are much
smaller lhan the values got by the indirect methods previously
described : thus J.J, Thomson at a fairly high pressure found the
velocity to be 2 X 1 o 1 cm./sec. Maiorana found values ranrins:
between iq 1 and 6X to* cm./*ec. ( and Battelli and Stefanini values
ranting from 6X10* to i^Kio'. In these methods it is very
difficult to eliminate the effect of the interval which elapses between
t ht- arrival ol the rays and the attainment by the means of detection
such as the phosphorescence of the glass or the deflection of the'
elect rometer, of sufficient irinnsity to affect the senses.
Transmission of Cathode Rays through Solids— Lenard Rays.—
It was for a long time believed that all solids were absolutely
opaque to these rays, as Crookes and Goldstein had proved that
very thin glass, and even a film of collodion, cast intensely black
shadows. Hertz (Wied. Ann. 45, p. 28), however, showed that
behind a piece of gold-leaf or aluminium foil an appreciable
amount of phosphorescence occurred on the glass, and that the
phosphorescence moved when a magnet was brought near. A
most important advance was next made by Lenard (Wied. Ann.
51, p. 2 25), who got the cathode rays to pass from the
inside of a discharge tube to the air outside. For this purpose he
used a tube like that shown in fig. 95. The cathode K is an
aluminium disc i-a cm. in diameter fastened to a stiff wire, which
is surrounded by a%lass tube. The anode A is a brass strip partly
Fig. 25.
GASES)
surrounding the cathode. The end of the tube in front of the
cathode is closed by a strong metal cap, fastened in with marine
glue, in the middle of which a hole 1*7 mm. in diameter is bored,
and covered with a piece of very thin aluminium foil about
•0026 mm. in thickness. The aluminium window is in metallic
contact with the cap, and this and the anode are connected with
the earth. The tube is then exhausted until the cathode rays
strike against the window. Diffuse light spreads from the
window into the air outside the tube, and can be traced in a dark
room for a distance of several centimetres. From the window,
too, proceed rays which, like the cathode rays, can produce
phosphorescence, for certain bodies phosphoresce when placed
in the neighbourhood of the window. This effect is conveniently
observed by the platmo-cryanide screens used to detect Rontgen
radiation. The properties of the rays outside the tube resemble
[_____ in all respects those of cathode rays;
, M cf r ^ ■ ^ they are deflected by a magnet and
"*-m | J^ by an electric field, they ionize the
"■ gas through which they pass and make
it a conductor of electricity, and they
affect a photographic plate and change
the colour of the haloid salts of
the alkali metals. As, however, it is convenient to distinguish
between cathode rays outside and inside the tube, we shall call
the former Lcnard rays. In air at atmospheric pressure the
Lenard rays spread out very diffusely. If the aluminium
window, instead of opening into the air, opens into another tube
which can be exhausted, it is found that the lower the pressure of
the gas in this tube the farther the rays travel and the less diffuse
they are. By filling the tube with different gases Lenard showed
that the greater the density of the gas the greater is the absorp-
tion of these rays. Thus they travel farther in hydrogen than in
any other gas at the same pressure. Lenard showed, too, that if
he adjusted the pressure so that the density of the gas in this tube
was the same— if, for example, the pressure when the tube was
tilled with oxygen was rV of the pressure when it was filled with
hydrogen — the absorption was constant whatever the nature of
the gas. Becker (Ann. dcr Phys. 17, p. 381) has shown that this
law is only approximately true, the absorption by hydrogen
being abnormally large, and by the inert monatomic gases, such
as helium and argon, abnormally small. The distance to which
the Lenard rays penetrate into this tube depends upon the
pressure in the discharge tube; if the exhaustion in the latter is
very high, so that there is a large potential difference between
the cathode and the anode, arid therefore a high velocity for the
cathode rays, the Lenard rays will penetrate farther than when
the pressure in the discharge tube is higher and the velocity of the
cathode rays smaller. Lenard showed that the greater the
penetrating power of his rays the smaller was their magnetic
deflection, and therefore the greater, their velocity; thus the
greater the velocity of the cathode rays the greater is the velocity
of the Lenard rays to which they give rise. For very slow
cathode rays the absorption by different gases departs altogether
from the density law, so much so that the absorption of these rays
by hydrogen is greater than that by air (Lenard, Ann. der Phys.
1 2, p. 732). Lenard (Wied. Ann. 56, p. 2 5$) studied the passage of
his rays through solids as well as through gases, and arrived at
the very interesting result that the absorption of a substance
depends only upon its density, and not upon its chemical com-
position or physical state; in other words, the amount of
absorption of the rays when they traverse a given distance
depends only on the quantity of matter they cut through in the
distance. McClelland (Proc. Roy. Soc. 61, p. 227) showed that
the rays carry a charge of negative electricity, and M'Lennan
measured the amount of ionization rays of given intensity
produced in different gases, finding that if the pressure is adjusted
so that the density of the different gases is the same the number
of ions per cubic centimetre is also the same. In this case, as
Lenard has shown, the absorption is the same, so that with the
Lenard rays, as with uranium and probably with Rontgen
lays, equal absorption corresponds to equal ionization. A
convenient method for producing Lenard rays of great
CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC
889
intensity has been described by Des Coudres (Wied. Ann.
62, p. 134).
Diffuse Reflection of Cathode Rays. — When cathode rays fall
upon a surface, whether of an insulator or a conductor, cathode
rays start from the surfa.ee in all directions. This phenomenon,
which was discovered by Goldstein (Wied. Ann. 62, p. 134), has
been investigated by Starke (Wied. Ann. 66, p. 49; Ann. dtr
Phys. in, p. 75), Austin and Starke (Ann. der Phys. 9, p. 271),
Campbell-Swinton (Proc. Roy. Soc. 64, p. 377), Merritt (Phys,
Rev. 7, p. 217) and Gehrcke (Ann. der Phys. 8, p. 81); it is often
regarded as analogous to the diffuse reflection of light from such
a surface as gypsum, and is spoken of as the diffuse reflection of
the cathode rays. According to Merritt and Austin and Starke
the deviation in a magnetic field of these reflected rays is the sams
as that of the incident rays. The experiments, however, were
confined to rays reflected so that the angle of reflection was
nearly equal to that of incidence. Gehrcke showed that among
the reflected rays there were a large number which had a much
smaller velocity than the incident ones. According to Campbell-
Swinton the " diffuse " reflection is accompanied by a certain
amount of "specular" reflection. Lenard, who used slower
cathode rays than Austin and Starke, could not detect in the
scattered rays any with velocities comparable with that of the
incident rays; he obtained copious supplies of slow rays whose
speed did not depend on the angle of incidence of the primary
rays (Ann. der Phys. 15, p. 485). When the angle of incidence
is very oblique the surface struck by the rays gets positively
charged, showing that the secondary rays are more numerous
than the primary.
Repulsion of two Cathode Streams.— Goldstein discovered that
if in a tube there are two cathodes connected together, the
cathodic rays from one cathode are deflected when they pass
near the other. Experiments bearing on this subject have been
made by Crookes and Wiedemann and Ebert. The phenomena
may be described by saying that the repulsion of the rays from
a cathode A by a cathode B is only appreciable when the rays
from A pass through the Crookes dark space round B. This is
what we should expect if we remember that the electric field in
the dark space is far stronger than in the rest of the discharge,
and that the gas in the other parts of the tube is rendered a
conductor by the passage through it of the cathode rays, and
therefore incapable of transmitting electrostatic repulsion.
Scattering of the Negative Electrodes. — In addition to the
cathode rays, portions of metal start normally from the cathode
and form a metallic deposit on the walls of the tube. The
amount of this deposit varies very much with the metal. Crookes
(Proc. Roy. Soc. 50, p. 88) found that the quantities of metal
torn from electrodes of the same size, in equal times, by the
same current, are in the order Pd, Au, Ag, Pb, Sn, Pt, Cu, Cd
Ni, In, Fe. . . . In air there is very little deposit from an Al
cathode, but it is abundant in tubes filled with the monatomic
gases, mercury vapour, argon or helium. The scattering
increases as the density of the gas diminishes. The particles
of metal are at low pressures deflected by a magnet, though not
nearly to the same extent as the cathode rays. According to
Grandquist, the loss of weight of the cathode in a given time is
proportional to the square of the current; it is therefore not,
like the loss of the cathode in ordinary electrolysis, proportional
to the quantity of current which passes through it.
Positive Rays or " CanalstroMcn."— Goldstein (Bert. Sitsungsb.
39, p. 691) found that with a perforated cathode certain
rays occurred behind the J
cathode which were not ™ "^ P
appreciably deflected by a Co - .—
magnet; these he called
Canal'Strahlen, but we shall,
for reasons which will appear
later, call them "positive
rays."
Their appearance is well
shown in fig. 26, taken from a paper by Wehnelt (Wied. Ann.^
67, p. 421) m which they axe ce^ttsAxv\xA^\.^.
Fio. 26.
890
CONDUCTION OF HEAT
that their colour depends on the gas in which they are
formed, being gold-colour in air and nitrogen, rose-colour in
hydrogen, yellowish rose in oxygen, and greenish gray in
carbonic acid.
The colour of the luminosity due to postive rays is not in
general the same as that due to anode rays, the difference is
exceptionally well marked in helium, where the cathode ray
luminosity is blue while that due to the positive rays is red.
The luminosity produced when the rays strike against solids
is also quite distinct. The cathode rays make the body emit
a continuous spectrum, while the spectrum produced by the
positive rays often shows bright lines. Thus lithium chloride
under cathode rays gives out a steely blue light and the spectrum
is continuous, while under the positive rays the salt gives out a
brilliant red light and the spectrum shows the red helium line.
It is remarkable that the lines on the spectra of the alkali metals
arc much more easily produced when the positive rays fall on
the oxide of the metal than when they fall on the metal itself.
Thus when the positive rays fall on a pool of the liquid alloy
of sodium and potassium the specks of oxide on the surface
shine with a bright yellow light while the untarnished part of
the surface is quite dark.
W. Wien (Wicd. Ann. 65, p. 445) measured the values of
efm for the particles forming the positive rays. Other measure-
ments have been made by Ewers (Wied. Ann. 69, p. 167) and
J. J Thomson (Phil. Mag. 13, p. 561). The differences between
the values of e/m for the cathode and positive rays are very
remarkable. For cathode rays whose velocity does not approach
that of light, e/m is always equal to 1 7 X 10 s , while for the positive
rays the greatest value of this quantity yet observed is io 4 ,
which is also the value of ejm for the hydrogen ions in the electro-
lysis of dilute solutions. In some experiments made by J. J.
Thomson (Phil. Mag., 14, p. 359) it was found that when the
pressure of the gas was not too low the bright spot produced by
the impact of a pencil of these rays on a phosphorescent screen
is deflected by electric and magnetic forces into a continuous
band extending on both sides of the undetected position. The
portion on one side is in general much fainter than that on the
other. The direction of this deflection shows that it is produced
by particles charged with negative electricity, while the brighter
band is due to particles charged with positive electricity. The
negatively electrified particles which produce the band c.c are
not corpuscles, for from the electric and magnetic deflections
we can find the value of e/m. As this proves to be equal to io 4 ,
wc see that the mass of the carrier of the negative charge is
comparable with that of an atom, and so very much greater
than that of a corpuscle. At very low pressures part of the
phosphorescence disappears, while the upper portion breaks up
into two patches (fig. 27). For one of these the maximum value
of efm is io* and for the other sXicf At low pressures the
appearance of the patches and the values of e/m are the same
whether the tube is filled originally with air, hydrogen or
helium. In some of the experiments the tube was exhausted
until the pressure was too low to allow the discharge to pass.
A very small quantity of the gas under investigation was then
admitted into the tube, just sufficient to allow the discharge to
pass, and the deflection of the phosphorescent patch measured.
The following gases were admitted into the tube, air, carbonic
oxide, oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon and neon, but whatever
the gas the appearance of the phosphorescence was the same;
in every case there were two patches, for one of which */«« 10 4
and for the other e/w-sXio*. In helium at higher pressures
another patch was observed, for which e/m-a-sXio*. The
continuous band into which the phosphorescent spot is drawn
out when the pressure is not exceedingly low, which involves
the existence of particles for which the mean value of e/m varies
from zero to io 4 , can be explained as follows. The rays on their
way to the phosphorescent screen have to pass through gas
which is ionized by the passage through it of the positive rays;
this gas will therefore contain free corpuscles. The particles
which constitute the rays start with a charge of positive clcc-
tria'ty. Some 0/ these particles in their journey through the
gas attract a corpuscle whose negative charge neutralizes the
positive charge on the particle. The particles when in this
neutral state may be ionized by collision and reacquire a positive
charge, or by attracting another particle may become negatively
charged, and this process may be repeated several limes on their
journey to the phosphorescent screen. Thus some of the particle*,
instead of being positively charged for the whole of the line
they are exposed to the electric and magnetic forces, may be
for a part of that time without a charge or even have a negative
charge. The deflection of a particle is proportional to the
average value of its charge whilst under the influence of the
deflecting forces. Thus if a particle is without a charge for 1
part of the time, its deflection will be less than that of a partkie
which has retained its positive charge for the whole of its journey,
while the few particles which have a negative charge fori
longer time than they have a positive will be deflected in the
opposite direction to the main portion and will produce the tail
(fig. 27).
V^:**^;
Fic. 27.
A similar explanation will apply to the positive rays discovered
by Viilard (Camples rend us, 143, p. 674) and J. J. Thomson
(Phil. Mag. 13, p. 359), which travel in the opposite direction to
the rays we have been considering, i.e. they travel away from the
cathode and in the direction of the cathode's rays; these rays
are sometimes called " retrograde " rays. These as far as has
been observed have always the same maximum value of ejm,
i.e. io 4 , and there are a considerable number of negative ones
always mixed with them. The maximum velocity of both the
positive and retrograde rays is about aXio* cm. /sec. and varies
very little with the potential difference between the electrodes
in the tube in which they are produced (J. J. Thomson, Pkii.
Mag., Dec. 1009).
The positive rays show, when the pressure is not very low, the
line spectrum of the gas through which they pass. An exceed-
ingly valuable set of observations on this point have been made
by Stark and his pupils (Physik. Zeil. 6, p. 89a; Ann. da
Phys. 21, pp. 40, 457). Stark has shown that in many gases,
notably hydrogen, the spectrum shows the Doppler effect, and he
has been able to calculate in this way the velocity of the positive
rays.
Anode Rays.— Gehrcke and Reichcnhein (Ann. der Phys. 25,
p. 861) have found that when the anode consists of a mixure of
sodium and lithium chloride raised to a high temperature either
by the discharge itself or by an independent heating circuit, very
conspicuous rays come from the anode when the pressure of the
gas in the discharge tube is very low, and a large coil is used to
produce the discharge. The determination of ejm for these rays
showed that they are positively charged atoms of sodium or
lithium, moving with very considerable velocity; in some of
Gchrcke's experiments the maximum velocity was as great as
i«8Xio t cm./sec. though the average was about io T cm. /sec.
These velocities are less than those of the positive rays whose
maximum velocity is about 2X10* cm./sec. (J. J. T.)
CONDUCTION OF HEAT. The mathematical theory of con-
duction of heat was developed early in the 19th century by
Fourier and other workers, and was brought to so high a pitch of
excellence that little has remained for later writers to add to this
department of the subject. In fact, for a considerable period,
the term "theory of heat " was practically synonymous with the
mathematical treatment of a conduction. But later experimental
researches have shown that the simple assumption of constant
coefficients of conductivity and cmissivity, on which the mathe-
matical theory is based, is in many respects inadequate, and the
special mathematical methods developed by J. B J. Fourier need
not be considered in detail here, as they are in many cases of
mathematical rather than physical interest. The main object of
CONDUCTION OF HEAT
891
the present article is to describe more recent work, and to discuss
experimental difficulties and methods of measurement.
1. Mechanism of Coiuiuction.— Conduction of heat implies
transmission by contact from one body to another or between
contiguous particles of the same body, but does not include
transference of heat by the motion of masses or streams of matter
from one place to another. This is termed convection , and is most
important in the case of liquids and gases owing to their mobility.
Conduction, however, is generally understood to include diffusion
of heat in fluids due to the agitation of the ultimate molecules,
which is really molecular convection. It also includes diffusion of
heat by internal radiation, which must occur in transparent
substances. In measuring conduction of heat in fluids, it is
possible to some extent to eliminate the effects of molar con-
vection or mixing, but it would not be possible to distinguish
between diffusion, or internal radiation, and conduction. Some
writers have supposed that the ultimate atoms are conductors,
and that heat is transferred through them when they arc in
contact. This, however, is merely transferring the properties of
matter in bulk to its molecules. It is much more probable that
heat is really the kinetic energy of motion of the molecules, and
is passed on from one to another by collisions. Further, if
we adopt W. Weber's hypothesis of electric atoms, capable of
diffusing through metallic bodies and conductors of electricity,
but capable of vibration only in non-conductors, it is possible
that the ultimate mechanism of conduction may be reduced in all
cases to that of diffusion in metallic bodies or internal radiation
in dielectrics. The high conductivity of metals is then explained
by the small mass and high velocity of diffusion of these electric
atoms. Assuming the kinetic energy of an electric atom at any
temperature to be equal to that of a gaseous molecule, its
velocity, on Sir J. J. Thomson's estimate of the mass, must
be upwards of forty times that of the hydrogen molecule.
2. Law of Conduction. — The experimental law of conduction,
which forms the basis of the mathematical theory, was established
in a qualitative manner by Fourier and the early experimentalists.
Although it is seldom explicitly stated as an experimental law,
it should really be regarded in this light, and may be briefly
worded as follows: " The rate of transmission of heat by conduction
is proportional to Die temperature gradient."
The " rate of transmission of heat " is here understood to
mean the quantity of heat transferred in unit time through unit
area of cross-section of the substance, the unit area being taken
perpendicular to the lines of flow. It is clear that the quantity
transferred in any case must be jointly proportional to the area
and the time. The " gradient of temperature " is the fall of
temperature in degrees per unit length along the lines of flow. The
thermal conductivity of the substance is the constant ratio of the
rate of transmission to the temperature gradient. To take the
simple case of the " wall " or flat plate considered by Fourier for'
the definition of thermal conductivity, suppose that a quantity of
heat Q passes in the time T through an area A of a plate of
conductivity k and thickness x, the sides of which are constantly
maintained at temperatures V and 6*. The rate of transmission
of heat is Q/AT, and the temperature gradient, supposed uniform,
Is (jy-$')lx, so that the law of conduction leads at once to the
equation
QlAT-kW-e'lJx-kde/dx. (1)
This relation applies accurately to the case of the steady flow
of heat in parallel straight lines through a homogeneous and
isotropic solid, the isothermal surfaces, or surfaces of equal
temperature, being planes perpendicular to the lines of flow.
If the flow is steady, and the temperature of each point of the
body invariable, the rate of transmission must be everywhere the
same. If the gradient is not uniform, its value may be denoted by
d6/dx. In the steady state, the product kdBJdx must be constant ,
or the gradient must vary inversely as the conductivity, if the
latter is a function of $ or x. One of the simplest illustrations of
the rectilinear flow of heat is the steady outflow through the upper
strata of the earth's crust, which may be considered practically
plane in this connexion. This outflow of heat necessitates a
rise of temperature with increase of depth. The corresponding
gradient Is of the order of i° C. in xoo ft., bat varies inversely with
the conductivity of the strata at different depths.
3. Variable Stale.*— A different type of problem is presented
in those cases in which the temperature at each point varies
with the time, as is the case near the surface of the soil with
variations in the external conditions between day and night or
summer and winter. The flow of heat may still be linear if the
horizontal layers of the soil are of uniform composition, but the
quantity flowing through each layer is no longer the same. Part
of the heat is used up in changing the temperature of the succes-
sive layers. In this case it is generally more convenient to
consider as unit of heat the thermal capacity e of unit volume,
or that quantity which would produce a rise of one degree of
temperature in unit volume of the soil or substance considered.
If Q is expressed in terms of this unit in equation (1), it is neces-
sary to divide by c, or to replace k on the right-hand side by the
ratio k(c. This ratio determines the rate of diffusion of tempera-
ture, and is called the thcrmometric conductivity or, more shortly,
the dijfusivity. The velocity of propagation of temperature
waves will be the same under similar conditions in two substances
which possess the same diffusivity, although they may differ
in conductivity.
4. Emissivily. — Fourier denned another constant expressing
the rate of loss of heat at a bounding surface per degree of differ-
ence of temperature between the surface of the body and its
surroundings. This he called the external conductivity, but the
term emissivily is more convenient. Taking Newton's law of
cooling that the rate of loss of heat is simply proportional to
the excess of temperature, the emissivity would be independent
of the temperature. This is generally assumed to be the case
in mathematical problems, but the assumption is admissible
only in rough work, or if the temperature difference is small.
The emissivity really depends on every variety of condition,
such as the size, shape and position of the surface, as well as on
its nature; it varies with the rate of cooling, as well as with
the temperature excess, and it is generally so difficult to calculate,
or to treat in any simple manner, that it forms the greatest
source of uncertainty in all experimental investigations in which
it occurs.
5. Experimental Methods. — Measurements of thermal con-
ductivity present peculiar difficulties on account of the variety
of quantities to be observed, the slowness of the process of
conduction, the impossibility of isolating a quantity of heat,
and the difficulty of exactly realizing the theoretical conditions
of the problem. The most important methods may be classified
roughly under three heads — (1) Steady Flow, (2) Variable Flow,
(3) Electrical. The methods of the first class may be further
subdivided according to the form of apparatus employed. The
following are some of the special cases which have been utilized
experimentally : —
6. The "Wall" or Plate Method.— -This method endeavours to
realize the conditions of equation (1), namely, uniform rectilinear
flow. Theoretically this requires an infinite plate, or a perfect
heat insulator, so that the lateral flow can be prevented or rendered
negligible. This condition can generally be satisfied with sufficient
approximation with plates of reasonable dimensions. To find the
conductivity, it is necessary to measure all the quantities which
occur in equation (1) to a similar order of accuracy. The area A
from which the heat w collected need not be the whole surface of the
plate, but a measured central area where the flow is most nearly
uniform. This variety is known as the " Guard-Ring " method, but
it is generally rather difficult to determine the effective area of the
ring. There is little difficulty in measuring the time of flow, provided
that it is not too short. The measurement of the temperature
gradient in the plate generally presents the greatest difficulties. If
the plate is thin, it is necessary to measure the thickness with great
care, and it is necessary to assume that the temperatures of the
surfaces are the same as those of the media with which they are in
contact, since there is no room to insert thermometers in the plate
itself. This assumption does not present serious errors in the case of
bad conductors, such as glass or Wood, but has given rise to large
mistakes in the case of metals. The conductivities of thin slices
of crystals have been measured by C. H. Lees (Phil. Trans., 189a)
by pressing them between plane amalgamated surfaces of metal.
This gives very good contact, and the conductivity of the metal
being more than 100 times that of the crystal, the temperature of
the surface is determinate.
892
CONDUCTION OF HEAT
In applying the plate method to the determination of the con- 1
ductivity of iron, E. H. Hall proposed to overcome this difficulty by
coatinz the plate thickly with copper on both sides, and deducing |
the difference of temperature between the two surfaces of junction
of the iron and the copper from the thermo-electric force observed
by means of a number of fine copper wires attached to the copper
coatings at different points of the disk. The advantage of the
thermo-junction for this purpose is that the distance between the
surfaces of which the temperature-difference is measured, is very
exactly defined. The disadvantage is that the thermo-electric force
b very small, about ten-millionths of a volt per degree, so that a small
accidental disturbance may produce a serious error with a difference
of temperature of only 1 between the junctions. The chief un-
certainty in applying this method appears to have arisen from
variations of temperature at different parts of the surface, due to
Inequalities in the heating or cooling effect of the stream of water
flowing over the surfaces. Uniformity of temperature could only be
secured by using a high velocity of flow, or violent stirring. Neither
of these methods could be applied in this experiment. The tempera-
tures indicated by the different pairs of wires differed by as much as
10%, but the mean of the whole would probably give a fair average.
The heat transmitted was measured by observing the flow of water
(about 20 gm./sec.) and the rise of temperature (about o»$°C.) in
one of the streams. The results appear to be entitled to considerable
weight on account of the directness of the method and the full,
consideration of possible errors. They were as follows: —
Cast-iron, k -0-1490 C.G.S. at 30° C, temp, coef.- 0-00075.
Pure iron, * -o- 1530 at 30° C, temp, coef.- 0-0003.
The disks were 10 cms. in diam., and nearly 2 cms. thick, plated
with copper to a thickness of 2 mm. The cast-iron contained about
3*5% of carbon, 1-4% of silicon, and 0-5% of manganese. It
should be observed, however, that he obtained a much Tower value
for cast-iron, namely '105, by J. D. Forbcs's method, which agrees
better with the results given in j| 10 below.
7. Tube Method. — If the inside of a glass tube is exposed to
•team, and the outside to a rapid current of water, or vice vena,
the temperatures of the surfaces of the gla^y may be tjfcrn to be
very approximately equal to those of the water and ftcam, which
may be easily observed. If the thickness of the glau h small
compared with the diameter of the tube, say one- tenth, equation
(l) may be applied with sufficient approximation* the area A being
taken as the mean between the internal and external surfaces. It
b necessary that the thickness x should be Lifrprntimitely uniform.
Its mean value may be determined most viritfactorily from the
weight and the density. The heat Q transmitted in a given time
T may be deduced from an observation of the rise of temperature
of the water, and the amount which passes in the interval. This
is one of the simplest of all methods in practice, but it involves
the measurement of several different quantities, some of which are
difficult to observe accurately. The employment of the tube form
evades one of the chief difficulties of the plate method, namely, the
uncertainty of the flow at the boundary
of the area considered. Unfortunately
the method cannot be applied to good
conductors, like the metals, because the
difference of temperature between the
surfaces may be five or ten times less
than that between the water and!
steam in contact with them, even if
the water b ener-
getically stirred.
8. Cylinder Method.
— A variation of the
tube method, which
can be applied to
metals and good con-
ductors, depends on
the employment of a
thick cylinder with a
small axial hole in
place of a thin tube.
The actual tempera-
ture of the metal itself can then be
observed by inserting thermometers
or thermo-couples at measured dis-
tances from the centre. This method
f has been applied by H. L. Callendar
and J . T. Nicolson (Brit. A ssoc. Report,
1897) to cylinders of cast-iron and
mild steel, 5 in. in diam. and 2 ft. long,
with 1 in. axial holes. The surface of
the central hole was heated by steam
under pressure, and the total flow of
. . heat was determined by observing the
amount of steam condensed in a given time. The out side of the cylinder
was cooled by water circulating round a spiral screw thread in a narrow
•pace with high velocity driven by a pressure of 120 lb per so. in. A
Very uniform surface temperature was thus obtained. The lines of
nV>w in thb method are radial. The isoth ei ina l acrfaces are eoaal
cylinders. The areas of successive surfaces vary as their radii, ban
the rate of transmission Q/AT varies inversely as the radius r . uc
b Q/*rWT, if / b the length of the cylinder, and Q the total km
calculated from the condensation of steam observed in a time T.
The outward gradient b dtfdr, and b negative if the cential hoe
b heated. We have therefore the simple equation
-fc»/ir-Q/2rr/T. (*)
If * b constant the solution b evidently •-<* log r+s, where •■
-QforftJT, and b and k are determined from the known value d
the temperatures observed at any two distances from the am
This gives an average value of the conductivity over the nap,
but it is better to observe the temperatures at three distances, and
to assume * to be a linear function of the temperature, in said
case the solution of the equation b still very sample, namely,
*+!d , =alogr+* i (j)
where e is the temperature-coefficient of the conductivity. The
chief difficulty in thb method lay in determining the effective
distances of the bulbs of the thermometers from the axis of tat
cylinder, and in ensuring uniformity of flow of heat along differ**
radii. For these reasons the temperature-coefficient of the condec-
tivity could not be determined satisfactorily on this partxratir
form of apparatus, but the mean results were probably trustwordnr
to 1 or 2 %. They refer to a temperature of about 60* C, asd
Cast-iron, 0-109; mild steel, 0-119, C.G.S*
These are much smaller than Hall's results. The cast-iron era-
tained nearly 3 % each of silicon and graphite, and 1 % each of
phosphorus and manganese. The steel contained less than 1 % of
foreign materials. The low value for the cast-iron was confirmed by
two entirely different methods given below.
9. Forbes's Bar Method. — Observation of the steady distribution
of temperature along a bar heated at one end was very early empJovtd
by Fourier, Desprets and others for the comparison of conductivities.
It b the most convenient method, in the case of good conductors,
on account of the great facilities which it permits for the measurement
of rhe tempera tutc ^radii -tt\ at different points; but it has the ditaci-
vantage that the result* depend almost entirely on a knowledge of the
external heat loss or emitoivity, or, in comparative experiments, <*
the assumption that it is the same in different cases. The method
of Forbes (in which the conductivity b deduced from the steady
distribution of temperature on the assumption that the rate of loss
of heat at each point of the bar b the same as that observed in an
auxiliary experiment m which a short bar of the same land is set to
cot] under conditions which arc supposed to be identical) b vrQ
known, but a consideration of its weak points b very instructive,
and the results have been most remarkably misunderstood and mis-
quuud. The method gives directly, not h, but k/e. P. G. Tait
intents, using one of the same iro
repeated Forbes's experiments,
i same iron bars, and
--, . ... - igc _-.___,
endeavoured to correct his results for the variation of the specific
heat c. J. C. Mitchell, under Tail's direction, repeated the experi-
ments with the same bar nickel-plated, correcting the thermometers
for stem-exposure, and also varying the conditions by cooling one
end, so as to obtain a steeper gradient. The results of Forbes, Tait
and Mitchell, on the same bar, and Mitchell's two results with the
end of the bar " free " and " cooled." have been quoted as if they
referred to different metals. Thb is not very surprising, if the values
in the following table are compared : —
Table I.— Thermal Conductivity of Forbes's Iron Bar D (1-25 inches souare).
C.G.S. Units.
Temp.
Cent.
Uncorrected for Variation of c.
Corrected for Variation of r.
Forbes.
Tait.
Mitchell.
Forbes.
Tait.
Mitchell.
Free.
Cooled.
Free.
Cooled.
o #
I00 #
200*
•207
157
•136
' 3 H
.198
•176
•'97
•178
•160
•178
•152
238
•212
196
•203
190
178
184
197
•210
The variation of c is uncertain. The values credited to Forbes are
those given by J D. Everett on Balfour Stewart's authority. Tait
gives different figures. The values given in the column headed
cooled " are those found by Mitchell with one end of the bar cooled.
The discrepancies are chiefly due to the error of the fundamental
assumption that the rate 01 cooling bthe same at the same tem-
perature under the very different conditions existing in the two parti
of the experiment. They are also partly caused by the large un-
certainties of the corrections, especially those of the mercury ther-
mometers under the peculiar conditions of the experiment. The
results of Forbes are interesting historically as having been the first
approximately correct determinations of conductivity in absolute
value. The same method was applied by R. W. Stewart (Phil.
Trans., 189a), with the substitution of thermo-couples (following
Wiedemann) for mercury thermometers. Thb avoids the very
uncertain correction for stem-exposure, but it b doubtful how far
CONDUCTION OF HEAT
893
an insulated couple, Inserted in a hole in the bar, may be trusted to
attain the true temperature. The other uncertainties of the method
remain. R. W. Stewart found for pure iron, *--i75 (1 --0015 /)
C.G.S. E. H. Hall using a similar method found for cast-iron at
50* C. the value '105, but considers the method very uncertain as
ordinarily practised.
10. Calorimetrie Bar Method. — To avoid the uncertainties of
surface loss of heat, it is necessary to reduce it to the rank of a
small correction by employing a large bar and protecting it from
loss of heat. The heat transmitted should be measured calori-
metrically, and not in terms of the uncertain emissivity. The
apparatus shown in fig. 2 was constructed by Callendar and Nicolson
with this object. The bar was a special sample of cast-iron, the
conductivity of which was required for some experiments on the
condensation of steam (Proc. Inst. C.E., 1 898). It had a diameter of
4 in., and a length of 4 ft. between the heater and the calorimeter.
The emissivity was reduced to one-quarter by lagging the bar like
a steam-pipe to a thickness of I in. The heating vessel could be
maintained at a steady temperature by high-pressure steam. The
other end was maintained at a temperature near that of the air by
a steady stream of water flowing through a well-lagged vessel
surrounding the bar. The heat transmitted was measured by observ-
ing the difference of temperature between the inflow and the outflow,
and the weight of water which passed in a given time. The gradient
near the entrance to the calorimeter was deduced from observations
with five thermometers at suitable intervals along the bar. The
Fie. 2.
results obtained by this method at a temperature of 40 C. varied
from -1 16 to -1 18 C.G.S. from observations on different days, and
were probably more accurate than those obtained by the cylinder
method. The same apparatus was employed in another scries of
experiments by A. J. Angstrom's method described below.
11. Guard-Ring Method. — This may be regarded as a variety of
the plate method, but is more particularly applicable to good con-
ductors, which require the use of a thick plate, so that the tempera-
ture of the metal may be observed at different points inside it.
A. Berget (Journ. Phys. vii. p. 503. 1888) applied this method
directly to mercury, and determined the conductivity of some other
metals by comparison with mercury. In the case of mercury he
employed a column in a glass tube 13 mm. in diam. surrounded
by a guard cylinder of the same height, but 6 to 12 cm. in diam. The
mean section of the inner column was carefully determined by weigh-
ing, and found to be 1*403 so. cm. The top of the mercury was
heated by steam, the lower end rested on an iron plate cooled by ice.
The temperature at different heights was measured by iron wires
farming thermo-i unctions with the mercury in the inner tube. The
heat-flow through the central column amounted to about 7-5 calorics
in 54 seconds, and was measured by continuing the tube through
the iron plate into the bulb of a Bunsen ice calorimeter, and observ-
ing with a chronometer to a fifth of a second the time taken by the
mercury to contract through a given number of divisions. The
calorimeter tube was calibrated by a thread of mercury weighing
19 milligrams, which occupied eighty-five divisions. The contrac-
tion corresponding to the melting oil gramme of ice was assumed
to be -0906 c.c, and was taken as being equivalent to 79 calorics
(1 caloric » 15-59 mgrm. mercury). The chief uncertainty of this
method is the area from which the heat is collected, which probably
exceeds that of the central column, owing to the disturbance of
the linear flow by the projecting bulb of the calorimeter. This
would tend to make the value too high, as may be inferred from
the following results: —
Mercury, *- 00201 5 C.G.S. Berget.
t» A -0-01479 „ Weber.
„ J»- 0*0177 »• Angstrom.
12. Variable-Flow Methods— In these methods the flow of
heat is deduced from observations of the rate of change of
temperature with time in a body exposed to known externa! or
boundary conditions. No calorimetrie observations are required,
but the results are obtained in terms of the thermal capacity
of unit volume c, and the measurements give the diffusivity
kfc, instead of the calorimetrie conductivity Jr. Since both k
and c are generally variable with the temperature, and the mode
of variation of either is often unknown, the results of these
methods are generally less certain with regard to the actual
wUh- Ihyith . q& rttrwuA rfaltf.
f
^
c-'-T-
*
> J|
A • s
■
r-
Ht
._..-
%t 3
a 4 if H 4 t'fir J r Ik*
Fio. 3.
flow of heat. As in the case of steady-flow methods, by far the
simplest example to consider is that of the linear flow of heat
in an infinite solid, which is most nearly realized in nature in the
propagation of temperature waves in the surface of the soil.
One of the best methods of studying the flow of heat in this
case is to draw a series of curves showing the variations of
temperature with depth in the soil for a series of consecutive
days. The curves given in fig. 3 were obtained from the readings
of a number of platinum thermometers buried in undisturbed
soil in horizontal positions at M'Gill College, Montreal.
The method of deducing the diffusivity from these curves is as
follows: — The total quantity of heat absorbed by the soil per unit
area of surface between any two dates, and any two depths, x* and
x", is equal to c times the area included between the corresponding
curves. This can be measured graphically without any knowledge
of the law of variation of the surface temperature, or of the laws
of propagation of heat waves. The quantity of heat absorbed by
the stratum (x* x*) in the interval considered can also be expressed
'in terms of the calorimetrie conductivity *. The heat transmitted
through the plane x is equal per unit area of surface to the product
of k by the mean temperature gradient (dO/dx) and the interval of
time, T— T'. The mean temperature gradient is found by plotting
the curves for each day from the daily observations. The heat
absorbed is the difference of the quantities transmitted through
the bounding planes of the stratum. We thus obtain the simple
equation —
*'(<jy/dxO -h'WIdx*) -c (area between curves)/(T-T), (4)
by means of which the average value of the diffusivity kfc can
be found for any convenient interval of time, at different seasons
of the year, in different states of the soil.
For the particular soil in question it was found that the
diffusivity varied enormously with the degree of moisture,
falling as low as -ooio C.G.S. in the winter for the surface layers,
which became extremely dry under the protection of the frozen
ice and snow from December to March, but rising to an average
of -oooo to '0070 in the spring and autumn. The greater part
of the diffusion of heat was certainly due to the percolation of
water. On some occasions, owing to the sudden melting of a
surface layer of ice and snow, a large quantity of cold water,
percolating rapidly, gave for a short time values of the diffusivity
as -high as '0300. Excluding these exceptional cases, however,
the variations of the diffusivity appeared to follow the variations
of the- seasons with considerable regularity in successive years.
The presence of water in the soil always increased the value
of kfc, and as it necessarily increased c, the increase of k must
have been greater than that of kfc.
13. Periodic Flow of Heal. — The above method is perfectly
general, and can be applied in any case in which the requisite
observations can be taken. A case of special interest and
importance is that in which the flow is periodic. The general
characteristics of such a flow are illustrated in fig. 4, showing
the propagation of temperature waves due to diurnal variations
in the temperature of the surface. The daily range of tempera-
ture of the air and of the surface of the soil was about 20° F.
On a sunny day, the temperature reached a maximum about
2 p.m. and a minimum about 5 a.m. As the waves were
propagated dnwwraxd& Vtawu&v \3t» vs\ ^ -«s^&!^». xw$^
8 9 4
CONDUCTION OF HEAT
ilinilnhhml, *» llml M n dcplh of only 4 i» it w« already reduced
to About ft* K., ami to Irs* than 3° it 10 in, At the same lime,
the I'poch of inn\iimini or minimum was retarded* about 4 hours
at 4 in.. Ami nearly w himn at 10 in., where the maximum
trmiMTAtutc was reached fvtwern 1 and 1 a.m. The form of
the wave was also changed. At 4 in. the ri»e was sleeper than
HA 4<
the tall, a 1 io in the rrv(*Tf« \i« ibe «ff, This ts due to thp
toti that the lomponrr.* of i&offtf peri a! arc rcere rapidly
p*vj\v^ s ' l"or in>:a n<r& the vrkvi;y of propagation of a
maw hav-.ivj; a jvr-.od of a day » araily m-cnty times as great
A* tha*. ot a «a\e with a penod of o:»e >eax: b*Jt on the o:hrf
haud the iw.o;: a :..*■•. ol :I'e dorsal ma*e ;s maily twenty tines
lev*, and the »hoi:ci m\o? die out rcwrc rar^d^.
14 .1 > *fk.-U j '«.■«», .« o"i»/ ;i j-rf u l>v o*i?v kind *fckij is
fi\svua:M mi;hovt cha-^» o4 locrri. In STra;i*i r^heca^i^iy
ihv p\^w£>n.vt o* o*?wt kin.b oi »jiit». i: i» r^wsHiy id lailvte
them »«»»» «**.» .\ *ir.*.p"ro Nairrs-Eiov* .n^'wx ^,ftit\ ctiy rw tacirfti
A* «vuv£ pevvjal.x-. '.^Yiyvv^'k . IV :^<ra:e : V irjin irj:„rv*
o* i*-.' »».■.' ;: .-■* w»* -v«\ >. ■-■ p-iv : L *i :>~ «eff4of » *;:£;*c* :o a
m rt\}»'.' > .*. •• *ro '. v ow V .-.■ , „* .r* iva ' -, tt * a- *■: iot . so i %IS t he teseptra ■
t«;:v «i « \> ; .■"»* 1 1» $-.w.*. ^^ j^ o^_.i:.^ ti iz* iot= —
«* ;V ,\^*. * iS* :.t\sv.v». i-^ 7 i?» jvtta!. *n tt* trsrt
*i*. .V ;«■ *.\,v a:,..v . v.V a: a oVfMh » * i pc-,va*!; *-'—"-*» cjmr
tSt i*rpl' :jii -reared ,t s^e ^s-^-
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•Av^v^v: -^ ■ % <■».£. T>e «a^T a: a dqx:
;.v iv«:i,.;\ Ji :S;»>;ji,s'*a
^> i.^i AV-r* .?> ;>* »-ori -f
Applied to the study of variations of soil - tempera t una hf
hnrmonjc anaJysii of the Annual waves. Bui the theory U or.
strictly applicable^ as the phenomena- are not accurately periodi,
and the state of the soil is continually varying, and difien 11
different depths, particularly En regard to its degree of vrLss.
An Additional difficulty arises in the case of observations oak
with long mercury thermometer! buried in vertical holes, tbiuk
correction for I he expansion of the liquid in the long &itns a
uncertain, and that the holes may serve as channels for percep-
tion, and thus lead to exceptionally high values. The Un ox
Ftc 5-
is best Avoided by employing pbuaum tBermoritceis b'^r*
horizontally. In izy case resul:* deduced frcTz. ite a.?-^-^ Tut
must be expected to vary in dizerez*. yeirs acc^rd^zz ;: :h
distnbotion of the rainfall, as the values re^re^e-; ivsire
^cjvr»i^g chiefly on the i^^iioa c: fail by peric!teisx *i:c
For :his reason obser^'a'J^^ns at dinentr,; ^<r*ihs iz ~S; sir:
locality often five very conreTilm: resets for" Lh* sa^c -eri
** the t^tal p*Droli::os and ihe ivt-'i^e m« i^e ^e-;i.sir^
nearly the sine for the vark^s uraix. alibe ^*: tn.; a r* _!. iene
0: we-.^cs* of each nay vary consiietably. Tie fa«**znr ^i-
'.-»- «- J
i we in^nt. deiv^i rrjrr. -V* 2^—
*ew :yjv:ciJ va_Les for san.
&ri
Lvauiv.
V-.=4-.-_ :S*j S».>:^ ,^a=
r ^y ray
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£» ^t -Z« ££• J: — : ta_-_r :^^; ■* « ^ ^ — ^.
^■v: *r •."!*•-
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=>ii^! iztr :.v j;t tz*z ^■z-^z': :
^e iz-.v^zi: zz^z ae-_sr a a -s c ^i-zz *-.^ ^ : ^
fs^apscs asrx-c rzcsr ccavr izaa a: i--j:^zr^r^
veae '«*«& a \ %ac sac
CONDUCTION OF HEAT
»9S
■Maturing the diffusivity of a metal, aince the conditions may be
widely varied and the correction for external loss of heat can be
made comparatively small. Owing, however, to the laborious nature
of the observations and reductions, the method does not appear to
have been seriously applied since its first invention, except in one
solitary instance by the writer to the case of cast-iron (fig. 2). The
equation of the method is the same as that for the linear flow with
the addition of a small term representing the radiation loss.
The heat per second gained by conduction by an element dx of the
bar, of conductivity ft and cross section q, at a point where the
gradient is dOfdx, may be written qk{d % 9ldx i )dx. This is equal to
the product of the thermal capacity of the element, cqdx, by the
rate of rise of temperature dSfdt, together with the heat lost per
second at the external surface, which may be written kpddx, if p is
the perimeter of the bar, and k the heat loss per second per degree
excess of temperature 9 above the surrounding medium. We thus
obtain the differential equation
qk{<P9!dx*) -cqiefdl+hpt,
which is satisfied by terms of the type
• -*-•* sin (2rn/-&x),
where a*-&~hpfqk, and ab-wnc/k.
The rate of diminution of amplitude expressed by the coefficient a
in the index of the exponential is here greater than the coefficient
b expressing the retardation of phase by a small term depending
on the cmissivity k. If ft-o, a— 6 » V (**</*) • as in the case 01
propagation of waves in the soil.
' The apparatus of fig. 2 was designed for this method, and may
serve to illustrate it. The steam pressure in the heater may be
periodically varied by the gauge in such a manner as to produce an
approximately simple harmonic oscillation of temperature at the
hot end, while the cool end is kept at a steady temperature. The
amplitudes and phases of the temperature waves at different points
are observed by taking readings of the thermometers at regular
intervals. In using mercury thermometers, it is best, as in the
apparatus figured, to work on a large scale (4-in. bar) with waves
of slow period, about I to 2 hours. Angstrdm endeavoured to find
the variation of conductivity by this method, but he assumed e to
be the same for two different bars, and made no allowance for its
variation with temperature. He thus found nearly the same rate
of variation for the thermal as for the electric conductivity. His
final results for copper and iron were as follows: —
Copper, * -0082 (1-0-00152 9) assuming c - '84476.
Iron, ft -0-1988 (1-0-00287 •) ». C--88620.
Angstrom's value for iron, when corrected for obvious numerical
errors, and for the probable variation of c, becomes—
Iron, * -0-164 (1-0-0013 •). ,
but this is very doubtful as c was not measured.
The experiments on cast-iron with the apparatus of fig. 2 were
varied by taking three different periods, 60, 90 and 120 minutes,
and two distances, 6 in. and 12 in., between the thermometers
compared. In some experiments the bar was lagged with 1 in. of
asbestos, but in others it was bare, the heat-loss being thus increased
fourfold. In no case did this correction exceed 7%. The^ extreme
divergence of the resulting values of the diffusivity, including eight
independent series of measurements on different days, was teas
than 1 %. Observations were taken at mean temperatures of 102° C.
and 54 C, with the following results: —
Cast iron at ioa°C, ft/c--i296, £--858, *-ni3.
„ „ 54*C,*/c— 1392, c- -823, Jk- -1144.
The variation of c was determined by a special series of experiments.
No allowance was made for the variation of density with temperature,
or for the variation of the distance between the thermometers, owing
to the expansion of the bar. Although this correction should be
made if the definition were strictly followed, it is more convenient
in practice to include the small effect of linear expansion in the
temperature-coefficient in the case of solid bodies.
17. Lorenz's Method. — F. Neumann, H. Weber, L. Lorenz and
others have employed similar methods, depending on the observation
of the rate of change of temperature at certain points of bars, rings,
cylinders, cubes or spheres. Some of these results have been widely
quoted, but they are far from consistent, and it may be doubted
whether the difficulties of observing rapidly varying temperatures
have been duly appreciated in many cases. From an experimental
point of view the most ingenious and complete method was that of
Lorenz (Wied. Ann. xiii. p. 422, 1881). He deduced the variations
of the mean temjjerature of a section of a bar from the sum S of the
E.M.F.'s of a number of couples, inserted at suitable equal intervals
/ and connected in series. The difference of the temperature
gradients D// at the ends of the section was simultaneously obtained
from the difference D of the readings of a pair of couples at either end
connected in opposition. The external heat-loss was eliminated by
comparing observations taken at the same mean temperatures
during heating and during cooling, assuming that the rate of loss of
hcat/(S) would be the same in the two cases. Lorenx thus obtained
the equations: —
Heating, ok Dll-coldSldl+f(S).
Cooling, qk D'll - cq\ dS'ldt' +/<S').
Whence ft - rPidSidt-dSWMD-iy).
It may be questioned whether this assumption was justifiable,
since the rate of change and the distribution of temperature were
quite different in the two cases, in addition to the sign of the change
itself. The chief difficulty, as usual, was the determination of the
gradient, which depended on a difference of potential of the order
of 20 microvolts between two junctions inserted in small holes 2 cms.
apart in a bar 1-5 cms. in diameter. It was also tacitly assumed
that the thermo-electric power of the couples for the gradient was
the same as that of the couples for the mean temperature, although
the temperatures were different. This might give rise to constant
errors in the results. Owing to the difficulty of measuring the
gradient, the order of divergence of individual observations averaged
2 or 3%, but occasionally reached 5 or 10% The thermal con-
ductivity was determined in the neighbourhood of 20 C. with a
water jacket, and near 1 io° C. by the use of a steam jacket. The
conductivity of the same bars was independently determined by the
method of Forbes, employing an ingenious formula for the heat-loss
in place of Newton'f law. Trie results of this method differ 2 or 3%
(in one case nearly 15%.) from the preceding, but it is probably less
accurate. The thermal capacity and electrical conductivity were
measured at various temperatures on the tame specimens of metal.
Owing to the complete ncss d! the recorded data H and the great ex-
perimental ikill with which the research Was conducted!, the result*
are probably among the most valuable hitherto available. One
important result, which might be it-girded as established b\
work, wnt that the ratio fr/V of the thermal to the elect Heal con-
ductivity, though nearly constant lor the good conductors at any
one temperature such m o* C., increased with rise of temperature
nearly in proportion to the absolute temperature. The vsloe found
for this ratio at o* C. approximated to 1500 C.G.S. for the best
conductors but increased to JHoo or 2000 for bad conductors like
German-sil ver and a n t i mon y . 1 1 Is clear, ho we ver , I h a 1 1 h i * re fa t ion
cannot be generally true, for the cast -iron mentioned in the last
section had a specific resistance of I J j,oqo C-CS, at 100" C. T whkh
would make the ratio Jt/fe' - 1 J .300, The increase of resistance with
temperature was also very small, so that the ratio varied very litde
with temperature.
18. Electrical Methods. —That are two electrical methods
which have been recently applied to the measurement of the
conductivity of metals, (a) the resistance method, devised by
Callcndar, and applied by him, and also by R. O. King and J. D.
Duncan, (b) the thermo-electric method, devised by Kohlrausch,
and applied by W. Jaeger and H. Dieaelhorst. Both methods
depend on the observation of the steady distribution of tem-
perature in a bar or wire heated by an electric current. The
advantage is that the quantities of heat are measured directly in
absolute measure, in terms of the current, and that the results are
independent of a knowledge of the specific heat. Incidentally it
is possible to regulate the heat supply more perfectly than in
other methods.
(a) In the practice of the resistance method, both ends of a short
bar are kept at a steady temperature by means of solid copper
blocks provided with a water circulation, and the whole is sur-
rounded by a jacket at the same temperature, which is taken as the
aero of reference. The bar is heated by a steady electric current,
which may be adjusted so that the external loss of heat from the
surface of the bar is compensated by the increase of resistance of
the bar with rise of temperature. In this case the curve representing
the distribution of temperature is a parabola, and the conductivity
* is deduced from the mean rise of temperature (R-R*)/aR* by
observing the increase of resistance R-R° of the bar, and the
current C. It is also necessary to measure the cross-section q, the
length /, and .the temperature-coefficient a for the range of the
experiment.
In the general case the distribution of temperature is observed
by means of a number of potential leads. The differential equation
for the distribution of temperature in this case includes the majority
of the methods already considered, and may be stated as follows.
The heat generated by the current C at a point x where the tempera-
ture-excess is 9 is equal per unit length and time (I) to that lost by
conduction -d(qkd9/dx)ldx, and by radiation kp9 (emissivhy *,
perimeter p). together with that employed in raising the temperature
qcd9/dt, and absorbed by the Thomson effect sCdd/dx. We that
obtain the equation —
aWlW)[l--d(qkd9ldx)fdx+kp0+qcd$ldt+s(:d$ldx. (8)
If C-o, this is the equation of Angstrom's method. If ft also it
zero, it becomes the equation of variable flow in the soil. If d9fdl - o,
the equation represents the corresponding cases of steady flow. In
the electrical method, observations of the variable flow are useful
for finding the value of c for the specimen, but are not otherwise
required. The last term, representing the Thomson effect, is elimi-
nated in the case of a bar cooled at ootk ends, since it is opposite In
the two halves, but may be determined by observing the resistance
of each half separately. If the current C is chosen so that OR*»»»#l,
the external heat-loss is compensated by the variation of t esi a t a w .
w>
CONE
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will' Ii U |imi id >illy I'll ml' >il wild lln> pi ling fiir »nmll flifTirriuf^
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Iml iln In -I I- ii iiwlnl In iniii Hi t- a tin I In- i|iiiiniitifft ttrtu.illy
lllfl'lllllll illl- I , I , ', l/, Hllii I Ml- lIllll'tl'IIM' Hi |t'lll|MTtltlll|-. 'J'llf
i mil Ml t «>■•■ iiiiii-HM .1 In I lii' imii.il wny liy ilit* ilillrn-iirr of
I ml ■ ill l.i I mi h hIii nilii il ii".l'.l^m»', I lir rHliMii.il lirnl'liiM w<m
i.allniiilfil !•> van iiiH I In 1 irMiiN-Mliiir nl I In* j.h krl mirmuiulhiK
ill* Ihll, Mini il|l|il|IUH il ■lllllll'll' liHIII llilll (ll till' ill l^-IVIfl llilllT-
i-iim nl li iii|h i.iliin hut 1 1n- iiii'IIhhI di) |ni>\i«)iii|y ilrM'iilnil
rtii|ii>ii" !•• !■• j.h 1. 1 il.li- In I hi* ii'>|nil, i.liui' ii it iNlfcr to ktt-p
I In- |.n 1>ii| nI iln mum |i-iii|»iii.iiiiii- a* tln> riiil MinIii. MnriHixor,
I lii* i in (ill Inn nl lliniiiiil i niiilin I IvMv wllli li'iiiiNiiitiiif |4 Miiall
tiinl iimi'il'ilit, wlii'Hiiii llu< \mliiU«»M nl i-Ut lititit i^niiliii-liviiy in
.iiuv mill mil l<4> iii i uit%l«lv ili-lrniilmil, Mini nuy tlu-rvfuic Ik.'
Iiuliliinilih iillllfiil lin t'llmliMlliiK lhrr\li*HMl hr.il Iim.
rmiii ii i • mi | mi IM hi nl lliU wml, with thai nl I.iMriu, il U rviilrnl
lltil \\\v \iilni-* nl Ihf inihlmlhllv >*»iv wUlrlv with llir |Hiritv irf
ith- ui'iiiitil, mill i-miti'i l»f Mlrli ii|i|<lii>l l«> olhvr *.|Kviinciu than
tllH-H liM Wlltilltllvl ««!«• IiHUIiI.
in i i'm.I*. n.'H **• i>.m. i %imJ H^hU\. llir ihc^^rv- of conduc-
tion i>l lit -il di iIhIiiMimi in urt-M'» \\a% n |*a i titular intcrt^t. tAwt it
U |mi«ilili' In pii«li»l tH*> x.iliu* %m vrituiu «xMimptioii«. if the
\ i.i y**\\\ \y liinw n On ilic kmcliv ihrtuv the nuUcvulc* of a go*
mi< iilitmU Ui s\\^\\\ aiul lh«'iv u ii\»thiivn aiuU^vuis to trillion
lm««iu l\»o mliiiviil Uwi« \ Ainl \\ nv^\i\\ft with *tinYrrnt
«vUHitu« I'Ih-iv i» ho\»«-\»-i. a ««MitimiAt intcrctuniec of mole-
till.* Wimvu V *«»! W, «lu»h |M\shuv* xhc **»nw crTixt as
> t*. ,«ii(i in a Ui|ii«tl I'AMi'i mo\ iuj; jvitik V* J-iiIumivc iwtt A to
It iaiii th»*« momentum »nh th»m. Aiui u*n»l to AC\c:<ritc K;
aii i-i|it«l iiimitvi oi «lo«vi |\mii.l%-« .Urtuxiiiji ti\«ni K to A act a< a
ili\ll on \ lh»« a»\i»mi aii.I u,». lion ivl^vvn Uwi* ;n na-.:\c
motion i» » .|ui\ *K ut tx* a tt*» in^uI mivw u-iuhiv* to c\;ua»;c i»<"
\«Ksn«v« *M A.l»«»vi\t Uwix IV iuajsuiui.V vM tK* >::vn* ^vr
unit »i^» i*«i il-i \ t»» \ V «hi«\t»iv* ol lV»* i* <W.,rv.iS ;NT\*iv:::v"".A'.
to i N, \i\si.\ <» »«' »»« »m lV '■**»• »*'• »^:\jpr oi w"»> :» \v: *r.:.
»m ^» » • \« ■ »o •" on. '■ \\ v i to \Nc *w\l . 1 X r*. i-^t a*.so .v:v : v. *—. : >v
hi. ,mi«iin\i i«v oi ok»V,>v.K* iVai \* l.» 5*\ . x i N »x; ;*-»• t.-.—S,-:
jv».« ■* i s \n.fcN < l. > «\'.t-llV Of^-.'V.T IV? n\W..i .". ^—.V-
.' x,. ^ , * A'. . v , •*'.-SSC j'aU'.VA' 10 "»^.^^ %*A. V - »*?. ; ' -* ^ * I
N. an ,w . n\- , ,s t*N .'^V. l»AV *,>*->■ A'"-" ./ .V. i^.*
»^s \i% i*\\ .\ ,s ; « ^i,>v,\ ;Vr rvi.\-.'*\ w>_.\ u-^ a*.
iV. ».-.. * s ->v, .. .*. ■., -..> v.. -^ S.^.av> :: \ *Nr::.- ".^a-.
^ o. .V \ .>•(•«'-< •■. > ■\ j **-v»:----v V4i^-. a.u.v- :
"■»» v .v. . ■ . » N ,-. 'v^ .\ . v.- \ ?.* 5 :.-^* :.* o^:x tt
A v . . %.. a v oa'.-.* V^. .>\v<> ".>v fi> *'. * r».r
,\\>x- % •» v V . .•*■ • , \ k - ».- ^'. i v .v.W-'i aj<- «'£
V « :■ a .-\V«. ik \ ,s i^\ , *. ■- .V; v •%■ •** t* "Vf
. i ^r-AT ;
' « --e »~
Ti
> a
ii=-s. ^-: iz one ax*ii-.
.t cibcr exse di£usios c: i!
• .v.'A.ty j: & zis » a* trsi K. .c_i-i the-;rtticAiIy from ihjpfi •
:■>.-* -./ J. (,.ktl Mix*-:. »ic- prtifr:cd ihit ihe cfectsu!
> I r A .*r^rr. it - 1 of *. r.* d t zL'.y ■■ : : h;- ■«■; dc ii mits. This, c = [
Lps.. \*.r*f.'*xs-i- .-rru.*. a tTr r ^.—L± by xhc fact riuiuiex|
a-.'/.tr^Ie ir.creiscs in the same propone;
ifjs f*»ith of tirr.
ii.*-. t'T.i.zy is *i:.T.:.-Jshrf. so ifcat as the number of mime
trwJrjs t*th square ter.;:=-.ttre decreases, the distance u it:
ea'.h izrr'it* its inoir.en'.uRi increases, and the total triado;
moment um is unaffected by variation of density. &iai*eia
tr\l vcrifi'rd this prediction experimentally for viscoarj:".
a 'Aide range of pressure. By similar reasoning the tba
'-ondu/.tivity of a gas should be independent of the (Jar
'1 his. %as verified by A. Kundt and E. Warburg (Jovr.Phr
i !>.;, who found that the rale of cooling of a thermometer si'
l^t-A'cen i $o mm. and i mm. pressure remained constant b=
pressure was varied. At higher pressures the effect of cohske
wan masked by convection currents. The question of the vo
f ion of conductivity with temperature is more difficult. Ss
effects depended merely on the velocity of translation of a
molecules, both conductivity and viscosity should nus*
directly as the square root of the absolute temperature; tea
mean free path also varies in a manner which cannot be pred-^
by theory and which appears to be different for different pa
(Rayhrigh, Proc. R.S., January 1806). Experiments ty i
capillary tube method have shown that the viscosity varies ns
nearly as &, but indicate that the rate of increase <K™j^>
at high temperatures. The conductivity probably changes ii
temjicrature in the same way, being proportional to the prat
of the viscosity and the specific heat; but the experioea
investigation presents difficulties on account of the nectar I
of eliminating the effects of radiation and convection, audi I
results of different observers often differ considerably from uW I
and from each other. The values found for the conductrvitj rf I
air at o° C. range from 000048 to -000057, and the tempfranW
roefficin&t from 0015 to ooaS. The results are consistent re
theory within the limits of experimental error, but the cxw-
mental methods certainly appear to admit of improverocxiL
The conductivity of liquids has been investigated by «-s»
methods, generally variations of the thin plate or guard-ri*
method. A critical account of the subject is contained in a use
by C. Chree (Phil. Mag., July 1SS7). Many of the craiiw*
were made by comparative methods, taking a standard liqtt
such as water for reference. A determination of the condnctnirr
of water by S. R. Milner and A. T. Chattock, emplojini*
electrical method, deserves mention on account of the'earefi
i-liminAtion of various errors (PkU. Meg.. Julv iSqqI. Tte
final result was ^« -00143.1 at »° C. which may be coapud
with the results of other observers. G. Lundquist i'iS6o\ -ooj«
at 40* C: A. Winkelmann '. x5;4\ '00104 at 15" C.*' H. f.
Weber (correvted by H. Lorberg\ -oc: :5 at 4 C. and -oci::£
:.; o* C; C. H. Lees (Pkil. Trcus.. i^c> . 00156 it :<• cJaad
•am x» At 4:** C. : C. Chree. -001 :* at x>* C . arvi Aaox ifVt xo- 8* C
l>.e varia::o» of these re*u!:s Ll-sirate th< eTperi=e=a:
»::-".:cu!tu-s. It Apvjvars probable t>-»t the cc-iuctlvity of*
l.<u.i ir.v-wasr* co-aiseratly with rise c: :e=r<ra:-^. . '.w t
;>c *vr.trAr>- wvx;'. 1 at^cat frc-. the » crk ; ■' Lees. \ b^^ =3*
0: rr;ri: ius S«- c^i-ci. *-: ^< rcli-;^ «"ciscirtd iy
.'VAT.r.;:/.! errors.
N.V a"*: F.>-rj«-. rV.— 1 .-■" .~
.;a.«. v.._: K ;'..-.-. C-:-.\±rs ;;w
- a.v*w i-'* ».-—* V V.".i« L riA.-2.
i -~- ^-— a * ' ~^r: .'.-»n- " xs *Je
CONECTE— CONFALONIERI
897
^olid figure formed by the revolution of a right-angled triangle 1
= tbout one of the sides containing the right angle. The axis of
- the cone is the side about which the triangle revolves ; the
•circle traced by the pther side containing the right angle is the
■:' base"; the hypotenuse in any one of its positions is a gener- 1
=itor or generating line ; and the intersection of the axis and a <
-generator is termed the vertex. The Euclidean definition may j
jsbe modified, so as to avoid the limits thereby placed on the
afigure, viz. the notion that the solid is between the vertex and
r *he base. A general definition is as follows : — If two intersecting
■Straight lines be given, and one of the lines is made to revolve
3 About the other, which is fixed in such a manner that the angle
■^between the lines is everywhere the same, then the surface
■(or solid) traced out by the moving line (or generator) is a cone,
: 1 having the fixed line for axis, the point of intersection of the
1^ lines for vertex, and the angle, between the lines for the semi-
■ vertical angle of the cone.
j An " oblique cone " is the solid or surface traced out by a
s line which passes through a fixed point and through the circura-
g ference of a circle, the fixed point not being on the line through
I the centre of the circle perpendicular to its plane. A " quadric
, cone " is a cone having any conic for its base. The plane con-
, taming the vertex, centre of the base, and perpendicular to the
v base is called the principal section; and the section of a cone
. by a plane containing the vertex is a triangle if the solid be
j considered, and two intersecting lines if the surface be considered.
, The " subcontrary section " of an oblique cone is made by a
, plane not parallel to the base, but perpendicular to the principal
lection, and inclined to the generating lines in that section at
the same angles as the base ; this secjion is a circle. The planes
parallel to the base or subcontrary section are called " cyclic
planes."
The Greeks distinguished three types of right cones, named
" acute," " right-angled " and " obtuse," according to the
magnitude of the vertical angle; and Menaechmus showed that
the sections of these cones by planes perpendicular to a generator
were the ellipse, parabola and hyperbola respectively. Apol-
lonius went further when he derived these curves by varying
the inclination of the section of any right or oblique cone (sec
Conic Section). It is to be noted that the Greeks investigated
these curves in solid 0, and consequently the geometry of the
cone received much attention. TTie mensuration of the cone
was established by Archimedes. He showed that the volume
of the cone was one-third of that of the circumscribing cylinder,
•and that this was true for any type of cone. Therefore the
.volume is one-third of the product area of base X vertical height
The surface of a right circular cone is equal to one-half of the
circumference of the base multiplied by the slant height of the
cone.
Analytically, the equation to a right cone formed by the
revolution of the line y-mx about the axis of x is i-w^+y*).
Obviously every tangent plane passes through the vertex;
this is the characteristic property of conical surfaces. Conical
surfaces are also " developable " surfaces, i.e. the surface can
be applied to a plane without wrinkling or rending. Connected
with quadric cones is the interesting curve termed the " sphero-
conic," which is the curve of intersection of any quadric cone
and a sphere having its centre at the vertex of the cone.
Referencei should be made to the articles Geometry and Surface
for further discussion; and to the bibliographies of these articles'
for sources where the subject can be further studied. The geo-
metrical construction of the curves of intersection of the* cone with
other solids is given in treatises on descriptive solid geometry, *.g.
T. H. Eagles, Constructive Geometry.
CONECTE, THOMAS (d. 1434), French Carmelite monk and
preacher, was bom at Rennes. He travelled through Flanders
and Picardy, denouncing the vices of the clergy and the extra-
vagant dress of the women, especially their lofty head-dresses,
or kennins. He ventured to teach that he who is a true servant
of God need fear no papal curse, that the Roman hierarchy is
corrupt, and that marriage is permissible to the clergy, of whom
only some have the gift of continence. He was listened to by
Immense congregations, and in Italy, despite the opposition
of Nicolas Kenton (d. 1468), provincial of the English Carmelites,
he introduced several changes into the rules of that order. He
was finally apprehended by order of Pope Eugenius IV., con-
demned and burnt for heresy.
An account of Friar Thomas's preaching and its effect is given
by Enguerrand dc Monstrelet, provost of Camhrai (d. 1453), in his
continuation of Froissart's chronicles.
CONEGLIANO, a town and episcopal see of Vcnetia, Italy,
in the province of Treviso, 17 m. N. by rail from the town
of Treviso, 230 ft above sea-level. Pop. (1001) town, 5880;
commune, 10,25a. It is commanded by a large castle. It was
the birthplace of the painter Cima da Conegliano, a fine altar-
piece by whom is in the cathedral (1492). The place is noted for
its wine, chiefly sweet champagne.
CONESTOGA (said to mean " people of the immersed or
forked poles "), a tribe of North American Indians of Iroquoian
stock. Their country was Pennsylvania and Maryland on the
lower Susquehanna river and at the head of Chesapeake bay.
They were sometimes known as Susquehannas. They were
formerly a powerful people, able to resist the attacks of the
Iroquois. In 1675, however, the latter overwhelmed and scat-
tered them. After nearly a century of wandering, the tribe
suffered final extinction in the Indian wars of 1763.
CONEY ISLAND, an island about 9 m. S.E. of the S. end of
Manhattan Island, U.S.A., on the S. shore of Long Island, from
which it is separated by Gravescnd Bay, Sheepshead Bay, Coney
Island Creek, a tidal inlet, and a broad stretch of low salt marshes.
It lies within the limits of the Borough of Brooklyn, New York
city. The island is the westernmost of a chain of outlying
sandbars that extends along the southern shore of Long Island
for almost 100 m.; it is about 5 m. long and varies from Jm.
to 1 m. in width. It is served by the Long Island railway, by
several lines of electric railway, and (in summer) by steamboat
lines. The island is the most popular seashore resort of the
United States. There are four quite distinctly marked districts.
At the extreme western extremity, Norton's Point, is the district
known as Sea Gate, lying between Gravcsend Bay and Lower
New York Bay. It is an exclusively residential section, has a
fine light-bouse, a large number of summer homes and the
handsome club-house of the Atlantic Yacht Club. A broad
shore drive connects it on the E. with West Brighton, the most
popular amusement centre, to which the name Coney Island
has come to be more especially applied. Its great scenic and
spectacular features, " side-shows," booths, cafes and dancing
halls, have made " Coney Island " a well-known resort. There
are bathing beaches, two immense iron piers, observation towers,,
scenic railways, " Ferris " wheels, and the two amusement
reservations known as " Luna Park " and " Dreamland." From
West Brighton a broad parkway known as " the Concourse "
connects with Brighton Beach j f m. to the E., passing the large
bathing establishments maintained by the city of New York.
At Brighton Beach there are a large hotel, a theatre and the
Brighton Race Track. Still farther to the E., and extending
to the eastern extremity of the island, lies Manhattan Beach,
with hotels, a theatre and baths, and patronized more largely
by a wealthier class of visitors. Adjacent to Manhattan Beach
on the mainland, and separated from it by a narrow neck of
Sheepshead Bay, lies the village of Sheepshead Bay, in which is
the famous race track of the Coney Island Jockey Club.
CONFALONIERI, FEDBRICO, Count (1785-1846), Italian
revolutionist, was born at Milan, descended from a noble Lom-
bard family. In 1806 he married Teresa Casati. During the
Napoleonic period Confalonieri was among the opponents of the
French regime, and was regarded as one of the leaders of the
Italiani puri, or Italian national party. At the time of the
Milan riots of 1814, when the minister Prina was assassinated,
Confalonieri was unjustly accused of complicity in the deed.
After the fall of Napoleon he went to Paris with the other
Lombard delegates to plead his country's cause, advocating the
formation of a separate Lombard state under an independent
prince. But he received no encouragement, for Lombard^ «i
destined for Austria, asAYot^ CA£&a*M9> wari^^ssa^
898
CONFARREATIO— CONFECTIONERY
saying that " the Austrian government was the most bene6cent
in the world." Confalonicri went on to London, in the hope of
winning the favour of the British government, but failed in his
object He then joined the freemasons and some of the various
other secret societies with which all Europe was swarming,
being initiated by Filippo Buonarroti (1 761-1837), an old
Tuscan Jacobin living in Paris. On returning to Milan, where
he found the Austrians in possession, he at first devoted himself
to promoting ( the material progress of his country, but he was
ever watching'for an opportunity to liberate it from the foreigner.
Early in 1821, when the atmosphere was thick with rumours
of revolt, he visited various parts of Italy to sound the liberal
leaders, and also corresponded with the Piedmontesc officers
who, believing that they had the approval of Prince Charles
Albert of Carignano, the heir to the throne, were planning a
military revolt. There was talk of a rising at Milan combined
with a Piedmontesc invasion to expel the Austrians, but the
plans were very vague and unpractical, for the military con-
spirators could count only on a few hundred men, and Con-
falonieri warned them that Lombardy was not ready. On the
outbreak of the Picdmontcse revolt (March- April 1&21) the
Austrian authorities made some arrests, and, through the
treachery of one conspirator and the foolishness of others,
discovered the plot, if it could so be called, and arrested Silvio
Pellico and Maroncelli and afterwards Confalonieri. A long
trial now began, conducted with all the rigour and secrecy of the
Austrian procedure, and Confalonieri, outwitted by the astute
examining magistrate, A. Salvotti (d. 1866), contradicted himself,
made fatal admissions, even compromised others, and together
with several companions was condemned to death for high
treason, but through the intercession of his wife and father,
who went to Vienna to plead his cause in person, the emperor
Francis commuted the penalty to perpetual imprisonment in
the fortress of Spielberg (January 1824). Confalonieri was
taken to Vienna and had a long interview with Prince Metternich,
who tried to extract further confessions incriminating other
persons, especially Charles Albert, but although Confalonieri
seemed at one time inclined to prepare a report on the revolu-
tionary movement for the emperor, he did not do so, and once
he was in prison he refused to say or write another word, and
was treated with exceptional severity in consequence. His wife
died in 1830, and in 1836, on the death of the emperor Francis,
he was pardoned and exiled to America. He came back to
Europe after a year's absence, and in 1840 obtained permission
to return to Milan to see his dying father. He himself, broken
in health and spirits, died on the 10th of December 1846, too soon
to see the accomplishment of Italian freedom. He had un-
doubtedly played a considerable r61e in the conspiracy of 1821,
being the most influential and richest of the Milanese Liberals;
when first arrested his conduct may have been open to criticism,
but he more than expiated any temporary weakness due to
ill-health and to the barbarous methods of examination by his
heroic attitude during his long imprisonment, and his persistent
refusal to accept offers of pardon accompanied by dishonouring
conditions.
His Memoir t e Letlere have been edited by Cabrio Casati (2 vols.,
Milan, 1890). A. D'Ancona's Federico Confalonieri (Milan. 1898)
it based on the memoirs and on a large number of secret documents
from the archives of Vienna and Milan. A. Luzio's A ntonio Salvotti
ei proctssidel Ventuno (Rome, 100 1) contains many fresh documents
which to some extent exonerate Salvotti from the charge of cruelty;
among other papers Mctternich's account of his interview with
Confalonieri is given in full. See also A. Luzio, Nuovi document*
nd process* Confalonieri (Rome, 1908). (L. V.»)
CONFARREATIO. the ancient patrician form of marriage
among the Romans, especially necessary at the nuptials of those
whose children were intended to be vestal virgins or flamens
of Jupiter. The nam* originated in the bride and bridegroom
sharing a cake of spelt (Jar or panis farrcus), in the presence of
the pOHtifcx maximus, flamen dial is, and ten witnesses. This
form of marriage could only be dissolved by another equally
solemn ceremony, which was called dijfarreatio. In later re-
publican times, confarrcatio became obsolete except in the
case of the most sacred priesthoods — the JUwdms asd <k
rex sacrorum. Confarreatio was the most solemn of the tte
forms of marriage (q.v.), but in later times the ceremony feflm
disuse, and Cicero mentions but two, coemptio and ant. &
Roman Law.)
CONFECTIONERY (from Lat. confectio, canfecere,
a term of rather vague application, embracing ail food
tions of the nature of sweetmeats, pastry, &c, which havtRB
(q.v.) for their basis or principal ingredient. In thisvajfe
industry may be said to include the preservation of fretsK
means of sugar, the manufacture of jams and jellies, tie »
of preparing fruit-syrups and pastes, ices, and sweetened bew
ages, in addition to the various manufactures in which ssjr
is the more prominent and principal ingredient. la fan*
days the making of sweetmeats was part of a druggist's ba*v&
but in the earlier half of the 19th century it developed feu:
separate industry in England, and the International Exhibits
of 1851 resulted in its spreading to other countries. At Ac
present day France and Germany are prominent in all «rs
of confectionery and bon-bons; and the "candy** industry k
America has developed enormously.
The simplest form in which sugar is prepared as a sweet fe
eating is that of lozenges, which consist of finely ground nor
mixed with dissolved gum to form a stiff dough. This b rcBel
into sheets of the desired thickness from which the lozenge b?
stamped out by appropriate cutters and then allowed to dry 1
and harden in a heated apartment. They are coloured ir:
flavoured with a great variety of ingredients, which are a*W
in suitable proportions with the dissolved gum. Many kinds
of medicated lozenges arc also in extensive use, the medinal
ingredients being similarly incorporated with the gum. Hart
sweetmeats, comfits or dragtcs, constitute another imports*
variety of confectionery. To make these a core or centre of son*
kind is taken, consisting of a small lozenge, or of some seed cr
fruit, such as an almond, coriander, caraway, pistachio, ftc.iad
successive layers of sugar are deposited around it till the desired
size is attained. The cores are placed in large copper pans or
vessels which are heated by a steam coil or jacket, or by hot air.
and which are geared to rotate at an inclined angle so that their
contents are kept constantly in motion, tumbling over each
other. From time to time sugar syrup is added as tbey appear
to get dry, and after receiving a certain coating they are removed
to dry and harden. After a sufficient number of alternate
coatings in the pan and dryings, the comfits are finished with
a coating of thin syrup, which may be coloured if desired.
Another extensive class of confectionery is made with sugar
boiled at different temperatures, the various degrees of heating
being known as thread, blow or feather, ball, crack, caramel 4c
In some cases a little cream of tartar, or glucose to the extent
of 30% or even more, is used with the sugar. By treatment
of this kind the sugar is obtained in a wide range of consistencies,
from soft and creamy, as in fondants, to clear and hard, as in
barley sugar. By vigorous and continued drawing out or " pull-
ing " of boiled sugar while it is in a plastic condition, the mole-
cular structure of the material is changed, and from being glassy
and transparent it becomes opaque, porous and granular in
appearance. In this way the preparation known as rock is
manufactured. For liqueurs, a flavoured syrup is dropped into
moulds impressed in dry starch, when a crust of sugar forms on
the outside, the interior remaining liquid. The thickness of
this crust is then increased by immersing it in syrup from
which more sugar-crystals are deposited upon it, and the sweets
may be finished in the comfit-pan already mentioned. Sugar-
candy is prepared from solutions of either brown or refined
sugar, to the latter of which cochineal or other colouring in-
gredient is frequently added. The solutions, when boiled to
a proper degree, are poured into moulds across which pieces
of string are stretched at sufficient intervals. Kept in a chamber
heated from oo° to ioo° F., the sugar, gradually crystallizes on
the strings and the sides of the mould, and when sufficient has
been deposited the remaining liquor is drained off, and the
crystals are removed and dried by heat. Machinery, often of
CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA
899
elaborate character, is now extensively employed in almost
all branches of the confectionery trade. For chocolate see that
article, also Cocoa.
CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA, the title of the
independent government, formed by the seceding Southern
States at the opening of the American Civil War, in the winter of
1860-186 1. These States contained roughly half the population
of the Northern States which remained in the Union. In pro-
portion to their population they had played a more important
part in the previous political history of the United States than
was their share. The formation of the new Confederacy was in
the hands of experienced statesmen, well schooled in the politics
of their respective states and in the balls of the Federal Congress
to undertake such a task. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was
almost naturally chosen president, his rival candidates being
Alexander H. Stephens, subsequently chosen to All the vice-
presidency of the Confederacy, an important exponent of states'
rights, and during the war a strong antagonist of President
Davis's policy, and Robert Toombs of Georgia, a strong seces-
sionist. The latter became a prominent member of the Con-
federate Congress, and, like Stephens, opposed the despotic
powers of the Richmond government. President Davis had
been trained in the Federal army, as well as in the Congress
and in the National administration. His administration of the
Confederate presidency cannot be called brilliant. The diffi-
culties he contended with, however, were insurmountable;
but his official acts were always the result of an unselfish desire
to do what seemed best for the cause he espoused. The presi-
dent's cabinet contained, among others, Judah P. Benjamin,
secretary of state; C. G. Memminger (1803-1888), and later
George A. Trenholro (1806-1876), secretaries of the treasury;
G. W. Randolph (1818-1878) and James A. Seddor.( 181 5-1880),
secretaries of war; S. R. Mallory (1813-1873), secretary of the
navy, and John H. Reagan, postmaster-general. Of these
Benjamin was distinctly the most powerful intellectually.
Memminger, with little training or aptitude for his difficult
position, did not distinguish himself as a financier, and was
succeeded in the summer of 1864 by Trenholm, a Charleston
banker, of high intelligence and good training, who, however,
found it impossible to save the Confederacy from financial ruin.
Of other Confederates prominent in official positions the following
may be mentioned: Howell Cobb, a former member of the
Federal Congress and of President Buchanan's cabinet, serving
as speaker of the provisional Confederate congress and later
in the field; Robert W. Barnwell (1801-1882) and William L.
Yancey; Benjamin H. Hill (1823-1882) and A. H.Keenan of
Georgia; John A» Campbell (1811-1889), befors the war a
judge of the U.S. Supreme Court; Judge A. G. Magrath (1813-
1893), a prominent judge of the Confederate court in South
Carolina; Governors Z. B. Vance of North Carolina, and J. E.
Brown of Georgia (1821-1804).
In framing their provisional and permanent constitutions
in 1 86 1 the Confederate statesmen emphasized the points of
view which bad characterized them in the great constitutional
discussions of the previous half-century. They also aimed to
correct certain defects in the United States Constitution by
amending that document in various directions. The Southern
"States' Rights" view of the sovereign and independent
position of the individual states was emphasized in the Con-
federate constitutions, which even went so far as to allow a
state legislature to impeach a Confederate official acting within
that state. Moreover, in the provisional Confederate constitu-
tion state officials were not bound by. oath to support the central
government. The powers of the executive were increased as
against the prerogatives of the congress. The president was
allowed to veto particular appropriations and approve others
in the same bill. His term of office was lengthened to seven
years, and he was declared ineligible for a second term of office.
The cabinet officers were allowed scats in either house of congress,
in imitation of the practice in Great Britain, which Alexander
H. Stephens especially was anxious to transplant to the American
continent. The congress could appropriate money for particular
purposes only by a two-thirds majority, unless the appropriation
were asked for by the head of that department. Every bill was
to refer to one subject, and that subject was to be expressed in
the title, a provision aimed at preventing "omnibus" and
confused legislation, in. which it signally failed.
The Southern attitude toward a protective tariff was em-
phasized by the constitutional provision that no bounty should
be paid and no taxes levied for the benefit of any branches of
industry. Similarly the central government could not authorize
internal improvements except for aids to navigation. Also the
expenses of the post office were not allowed to exceed its receipts.
The old Constitution had carefully avoided the use of the word
" slave," but the Confederate constitutions had no such scruples,
and, moreover, recognized the legitimate existence of slavery,
and forbade all legislation which might impair the right of
property in negro slaves.
These changes all had reference to times of peace. The war
powers of the government were left unchanged from those
provided for by the Federal Constitution. Provisions of that
document as to suspending the writ of habeas corpus and the
provisions regarding conscription were left equally vague in
the new Confederate Constitution. These led to acrimonious
discussion and much bitter feeling against the centralized war
powers of the government at Richmond. As the war progressed,
the Richmond authorities became necessarily more and more
oppressive and aroused the " States' Rights " feeling prevalent
in the South. It became evident tl^at a confederated form of
government, such as was planned by the Southerners, was
unsuited to the stringent requirements of war times and contri-
buted doubtless somewhat to the final cataclysm.
The provisions of the new constitution regarding the issue
of legal tender paper money remained the same as of old. In
the North such legal tender paper began to be issued in the
spring of 1862, and later opened the question of the constitution-
ality of such a practice. No Confederate legal tender act was
ever passed, though the agitation in that direction was often
strong. The objections which prevented the passage of such
an act were the same as those offered by the minority in later
years against the constitutionality of the Federal legal tender
act. The Southerners were too true to their strict constructionist
views of the constitution to admit the constitutionality of a
legal tender act.
The personnel of the Confederate congress and administration
was materially weakened by the military field's drawing off the
most brilliant Southern leaders. It was largely owing to the
strategical skill of these generals that the Southern armies,
smaller and more poorly equipped than their opponents, main-
tained the unequal contest for four years. In the naval opera-
tions the North had an overwhelming advantage, which was
promptly and effectively used. The blockade of the Southern
ports, beginning in the spring of 1861, was much less spectacular
than the operations of the army, but was quite as effective in
breaking down the Confederacy. It cut off the South from
obtaining foreign war supplies, and reduced it to dependence
upon its own products, which were almost exclusively agricul-
tural. Manufacturing industries hardly existed in the South.
A few iron works attempted with little success to meet the
demand for ordnance. This and small-arms were obtained
from the Federal arsenals in 1S61, by capture and to some
extent by eluding the blockade. Powder factories were estab-
lished and vigorously operated. The scarcity and high price
of clothing put a large premium on the establishment of textile
factories, but their product was far below the demand.
The South was unfortunate in having a poorly* developed
railway system. As compared with those of the North, its
railways w jre inadequately equipped and did not form connected
systems. During the war, the inroads of the Federal troops,
and the natural deterioration of the lines and their rolling stock,
greatly reduced the value of the railroads as a military factor.
They continued to be active in distributing the relatively small
amount of imports through the blockaded ports of Charleston^
Savannah and WUmingtan.. TVaeo. TO&Saua* v» , Q«. , «e«^ -w^
900
CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA
the dty population in collecting food material from the country
district* was much impaired.
The harvest* in the South during the war were fairly abundant,
as far as they were not destroyed by the advancing Northern
armies. Maize waa raised in large quantities, and, in general,
the raising of food products instead of tobacco and cotton was
encouraged by legislation and otherwise. The scarcity of food
in the armies and cities was chiefly due to the breaking down
of the means of transportation, and to the paper money policy
and its attendant repressive measures.
The specie holdings of the Southern banks largely found
their way into the Confederate treasury in payment for the
#15,000,000 loan effected early in 1861. In addition, the
government secured the specie in the various Federal offices
which fell into its power. These sums were soon sent to Europe
in payment of foreign war supplies. The gold and silver in
general circulation also soon left the country almost entirely,
driven out by the rising flood of paper money. Aside from the
payment of the above loan the government never secured any
specie revenue, and was driven headlong into the wholesale
issue of paper money. The first notes were issued in March
1 86 1, and bore interest. They were soon followed by others,
bearing no interest and payable in two years, others payable six
months after peace. New issues were continually provided,
so that from an initial $1,000,000 in circulation in July 1861,
the amount rose to 30 millions before December 1861; to 100
millions by March 1862; to 200 millions by August 1862; to
perhaps 450 millions by December 1862; to 700 millions by the
autumn of 1863; and to a much larger figure before the end of
the war.
This policy of issuing irredeemable paper money was copied
by the individual states and other political bodies. Alabama
began by issuing $1,000,000 in notes in February 1861, and
added to this amount during each subsequent session of the state
legislature. The other states followed suit. Cities also sought
to replenish their treasuries in the same way. Corporations
and other business concerns tried to meet the rising tide of
prices with the issue of their individual promissory notes intended
to circulate from hand to hand. As a result of this redundancy
of the currency the price of gold rose to great heights. It was
quoted at a premium in Confederate notes in April 1861. By
the end of that year a paper dollar was quoted at 00 cents in gold;
during 1862 that figure fell to 40 cents; during 1863, to 6 cents;
and still lower during the last two years of the war. The down-
ward course of this figure, with occasional recoveries, reflects,
the popular estimate of the Confederacy's chance of maintaining
itself against the Northern invasion. The fluctuations of the
gold premium in the North during the same years are a comple-
mentary movement, and correspondingly reflect the periods of
popular elation and depression as to the final outcome of the
war.
The redundant currency drove the price of commodities
to exorbitant heights, and deranged all business. It affected
different classes of commodities differently. Those the supply
of which was entirely from abroad, like coffee, rose to the greatest
height owing to their scarcity produced Jby the blockade. In-
genious substitutes were found for such articles, and enormous
profits were secured by the merchants who successfully ran the
blockade and imported such much-needed articles of foreign
origin* These speculators were continually abused for making
such importations instead, of confining themselves to supplying
the government with foreign war supplies. Articles that were
produced in the South and marketed abroad or in the North
during normal times rose least in value. Tobacco and cotton,
for instance, which found no buyers owing to the blockade,
actually fell in value as quoted in gold. The great divergence
of the price of these two commodities in the South and abroad —
the Northern price of cotton increased more than tenfold during
the war— offered the strongest inducement to evade the blockade
an'l export them. A small amount of cotton reached the world's
market by way of the Atlantic ports or Mexico, and netted
Uhmh: concerned in the venture handsome profits.
The same motive operated to encourage trade with the cms*
Tobacco and cotton were smuggled through the military fits
in exchange for hospital stores, coffee and similar articles. Tic
military authorities tried to suppress this illicit trade, btt &
times even they were carried away by the desire to seat
the much-desired foreign supplies. The civil government &
vacillated between the policy of encouraging exports, espemly
to Europe in exchange for foreign goods, and the poticje!
forbidding such trade in view of the supposed advantage amc*
to foreigners, who it was hoped would be compelled to ackoo**
ledge the independence of the Confederacy in order to bus
Southern cotton.
The derangement of prices, their local differences and flota-
tions, produced wild speculation in the South. Normal basaa
was almost impossible, and the gambling element was fane:
into every transaction. Speculation in gold was especaBj
pronounced. Legislation and popular feeling were *"*H at fc,
but without avail. Even the government itself was ra mp* 8 * !
to speculate in gold. Speculation in food and other aitida
was equally inevitable and was much decried. Laws sea
formed to curb the speculators, but had no effect.
The policy of the Southern banks during the war encounged
speculation. The New Orleans banks had been well masafci
and remained solvent until September x86i. The banks of the
other states suspended specie payments at the end of ittc
and thereafter enlarged their note issue and their loans, thenfcj
adding to the general redundancy of the currency and stmrahtix
the prevalent speculative erase. They did a large busines fcy
speculating in cotton, making advances to the planters on tk
basis of their crops. The state governments also used their aou
issues for this purpose, the planters urgently demanding, rdkf
as their cotton could not reach a market. The Confederal:
government also made advances dn Cotton and secured hip
quantities by purchase, to serve as the basis of cotton ta&
The rise of prices reflecting the redundancy of the currency
was no advantage to the producer. Frequent efforts were maa
by legislation and otherwise to reduce the prices demanded
especially by the agriculturists. As a result, the productioo
of food products fell off, at least the agriculturists did not bring
their products to market for fear of being forced to sell thee
at a loss. Supplies for the army were obtained by impressment,
the price to be paid for them being arbitrarily fixed at a kr»
figure. As a result, the army administration found it almas
impossible to induce producers of food willingly to turn ova
their products, and the army suffered from want. Under these
confused industrial circumstances the sufferings of the debtor
class were loudly asserted, and laws were passed to relieve then
of their burdens, making the collection of debts difficult or
impossible. The debts of Southerners to Northerners contracted
before the war were confiscated by the Confederate government,
but did not amount to a large figure.
The effectiveness of the Federal blockade and the peculiar
industrial development of the South removed the possibility
of an ample government revenue. Though import duties were
levied, the proceeds amounted to almost nothing. A «wi»B
export duty on cotton was expected to produce a large revenue
sufficient to base a loan upon, but the small amount of cotton
exports reduced this source of revenue to an insignificant figure.
There being, moreover, no manufactures to tax under an internal
revenue system such as the N6rth adopted, the Confederacy
was cut off from deriving any considerable revenue from indirect
taxation. The first Confederate tax law levied a direct tax
of twenty millions of dollars, which was apportioned among the
states. These, with the exception of Texas, contributed their
apportioned share to the central government by issuing bonds
or notes, so that the tax was in reality but a disguised form of
loan. Real taxation was postponed until the spring of 1863,
when a stringent measure was adopted taxing property and
earnings. It was slowly and with difficulty put into effect, and
was re-enacted in February 1864. In the states and cities there
was a strong tendency to relax or postpone taxation in view U
the other demands upon the people.
CONFEDERATION— CONFERENCE
901
With bo revenue from taxation, and with the disastrous
effects of the wholesale issue of paper money before it, the
Confederate government made every effort to borrow money
by the issue of bonds. The initial 15-million loan was soon
followed by an issue of one hundred millions in bonds, which
it was, however, difficult to place. This was followed by even
larger loans. The bonds rapidly fell in value, and were quoted
during the war at approximately the value of the paper money,
in which medium they were paid for by subscribers. To avoid
this circumstance a system of .produce loans was devised by
which the bonds were subscribed for in cotton, tobacco and food
products. This policy was subsequently enlarged, and enabled
the government to secure at least a part of the armies' food
supplies. But the bulk of the subscriptions for these bonds
was made in cotton, for which the planters were thus enabled
to find a market.
It was hoped to keep the currency within bounds by holders
of paper money exchanging it for bonds, which the law allowed
and encouraged, but as notes and bonds fell in value simul-
taneously, there was no inducement for holders to make that
exchange. On the contrary, a note-holder had an advantage
over a bond-holder, in that he could use his currency for specula-
tion or for purchases in general In the autumn of 1862 the
Confederate law attempted to compel note-holders to fund their
notes in bonds, in order thereby to reduce the redundancy of
the currency and lower prices. Disappointed in the result of
this legislation, the Congress, in February 1864, went much
farther in the same direction by passing a law requiring note-
holders to fund their notes before a certain date, after which
notes would be taxed a third or more of their face value. This
drastic measure was accepted as meaning a partial repudiation
of the Confederate debt, and though it for the time reduced
the currency outstanding and lowered prices, it wrecked the
government's credit, and made it impossible for the Treasury
to float any more loans. During the last months of the war
the Treasury led a most precarious existence, and its actual
operations can only be surmised.
During the entire war the notion that the South possessed a
most efficient engine of war in its monopoly of cotton buoyed up
the hopes of the Southerners. The government strained every
effort to secure recognition of the Confederacy as a nation by
the great powers of Europe. It also more successfully secured
foreigners' financial recognition of the South by effecting a
foreign loan based on cotton. This favourite notion was put
into practice in the spring of 1863. The French banking house
of Erlangcr & Company undertook to float a loan of £3,000,000,
redeemable after the war in cotton at the rate of sixpence a
pound. As cotton at the time was selling at nearly four times
that figure and would presumably be quoted far above sixpence
long after the establishment of peace, the bonds offered strong
attractions to those speculatively inclined and in sympathy
with the Southern cause. The placing of the bonds in Europe
was mismanaged by the Confederate agents, but notwithstanding
a considerable sum was secured from the public and used for
the purchase of naval and military stores. At the close of the
war these foreign bonds were ignored by the re-established
Federal authorities like all the other bonds of the Confederate
government. Compared with the partial success of this financial
recognition by Europe, the South conspicuously failed in securing
the political recognition of the Confederate government Early
in i8$i W. L. Yancey and others went to Europe to enlist the
sympathy of foreign governments in the Southern cause. J. M.
Mason and John Slidell followed early in 1862, after a short
detention by the Federal government, which had removed them
from a British vessel en route to Europe. Though these Con-
federate commissioners made every effort to induce foreign
governments, especially those of Great Britain and France, to
recognise the Confederacy, they were foiled in their efforts,
largely by the skill and persistence of the Federal minister in
London, Charles Francis Adams.
The political history of the Confederate States is the culmina-
tion of an Inevitable conffict, the frT^n^-ir of which are found
in the earlier history of the Union. The financial and industrial
history of the South during x86x to 1865 is the story of a struggle
with overwhelming odds. The mistakes of the Confederate
government's policy arc overshadowed by its desperate efforts
to maintain itself against the irresistible attacks of the North.
In making that effort the South sacrificed everything, and
emerged from the war a financial and industrial wreck.
BiRLiOGkAPHY. — Confederate Archives in the War Department
'afhmjjtori, unpublished documents and letters); Journal of the
ngrwss of She GS-A., 1861-186$ (reprinted by the US. Govern-
merit, lynj); J. C. Schwab, The Confederate States of A merit*
(New York, 1901 ; a financial and industrial history of the South.
1861-1865; contain! a full bibliography) •„ Southern newspaper files.;
John Bipelow, France and the Confederate Nary [New Yorfc. tSB&j;
J. D. Bulloch, Secret Service of the Confederate State* in Europe
(London, r&ttsr New York. 1884); H. D. Capers, Lift of C C.
Mcniminger {Richmond, 1093);, Jefferson Davis, Rise and Fail
of the Confederate Government (New York, iK9l); De Bow's Review
(New Orleans, 1 860-1*64 J I J* !*■ M< Curry r Cimi Ifiitory t*ftkr Go*rm-
ment nftkr Conftderaie States { Richmond, tojol ) \ Herbrrt Fielder, Life
of Joseph E. Brawn (Springfield, Ma*., *&Hj) 1 h B. Jones. Rebel
War Germ's Diary [Philadelphia, 1&66); E- Mcpherson. Political
History of the United States (4th ^^ Washington* '*&*: contains
many important documents); Official Records: Compilation of
the War of the Rebellion (Washington, 3rd «ries, 1&6o-tqoo; con-
tains a great mass of Soul hem official cortwponoVojCe) : E. A.
Pollard, various books on the Civil War; J< F. Rhodes, History of
" ' volume* mVv. (New York, 1898-1904)1;
Government of the CS.A. (Richmond,
the United States especially volume* jii,-v + (New York, 1898-1904);
Statutes of the ProvizianaJ Government of the CS.A, (Richmond,
1864); Statutes at Large of the C.S,A^ First Congress (Richmond.
1863) ; Public Lavs of the CS-A-, j%-jJd> (Richmond. 1864):
Statutes at Large of the CS.A.+ Second Congress {Richmond. 1864);
Documents or the various state governments. (J. C\ 5c,)
CONFEDERATION (Fr. confideration, Lat confoedcratio,
from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league), primarily
any league, or union of people, or bodies of people. The term
in modern political use is generally confined to a permanent
union of sovereign states, for certain common purposes, e.g. the
German Confederation (Bund), established by the congress of
Vienna in 181 5, and the Confederation of the Rhine (Rheinbund),
a league of certain German states under the protection of
Napoleon (1806-1813). The alliance of the Great Powers by
which Europe was governed after 18 15 was sometimes, especially
by the emperor Alexander I., called the " Confederation of
Europe "; but this expressed rather a pious aspiration than the
actual state of affairs. The distinction between Confederation
and Federation (see Federal Government), synonymous in
their origin, has been developed in the political terminology of
the United States. Up to 1789 these were a Confederation;
then the word Federation, or Federal Republic, was introduced
as implying closer union. This distinction was emphasized
during the Civil War between North and South, the seceding
states forming a Confederation (Confederate States of America)
in opposition to the Federal Union. Confederation thus comes
to mean a union of sovereign states in which the stress is laid
on the sovereign independence of each constituent body (cf. the
German Staalenbund); Federation implies a union of states in
which the stress is laid on the supremacy of the common govern-
ment (Gcr. Bundesstaat). The distinction is, however, by no
means universally observed.
The variant " Confederacy," derived through the Anglo-
French confederacies and meaning generally a league or union,
whether of states or individuals, was applied in America in the
sense of Confederation to the seceding southern states (see above).
In its political sense, however, confederacy has generally come
to mean rather a temporary league of independent states for
certain purposes. As applied to individuals, while " confedera-
tion " is used of certain open unions of people for political or
other purposes (e.g. the Miners' Confederation), " confederacy "
— from its obsolete legal sense of conspiracy— has come frequently
to imply a secret bond, a combination for illicit purposes, or
of pe rsons whose identity is not disclosed.
CONFERENCE, a bringing together (Lat conferre) for the
purpose of discussion, particularly a meeting of members of one
or more societies, of representatives of legislative or other bodies,
or of different states. Such are the meetings between members
of the upper and lower chambers of the British. ^m.V^\s«ox > ^
902
CONFESSION
of I ho I'liltcd St Air* conflict, to adjust matters of difference,
ami tin- ,r .^inl'lus ot the prime mini>tcrs of the various British
ioIoiuo. h« Ut At Mated inu*r\.iU to consult *ith the imperial
l^w t 'i mucin . I'hi* titU- ot i olonial I'onfeience was changed to
that «»t hvjvml i'oiiMcikv in i-v:. but the proposal to change
loiiU'icmt* to l\um» sl «.n dropped; it «a* felt that the ad-
umiiMunw tun«tion> usiullv lomictcd by the word " council '*
uudc llut lilSo I. v» MiiubK* toanaxscmbly i»iih puivly delibera-
tive and eoiixolt.invo |h«wci». which *ero p\w rV.ly expressed
hv " vonioivnn- " In t! , . , .\or.\uv the Wxnd "cootorer.ee" is
u»*d ot .1 in i\ ;«:■.< ol iK- u*p:c*c:i!.if.\c« o; states ci sreater *>r
lev* nii|vvUiuc lot the p.;:po*o ot sl!'.i!^ particular rv:r.ts.
*.«diMi»>i\::xhod i;vi« .» " *\v.,<!VNH," *»!:;»■*» i* projvrly a Ruv::ng
ot the isic.ll js»«,;n tor iV scl'.!cr:« "■: of o,uo:.o*.s o: general
inU'.v M I i *,*..»». -.% v. !v»wv»r. :S* o >.:':*.»■■. *.o:'. i> not »vr*i$;er.:*y
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of discipline rave always been to the fore (see Mostoctk
Novatianis; DosAnsrs). Speaking broadly the dsretocjoc:
was from rigour to indulgence, and the three vrhitra mr-i-
to wtccd the protests of the puritan minority.
At the beginning of the jrd century something like a ad^.-
system had been established at Carthage and else ■li c it - Ttr?
groups of sins, dassiiied as (x) idolatry, which ind^oec apoFo-
v :^ adulten- or fornication, and (3^ murder, were beii u az~.-
the guilty person from sharing in the euchaxisi ur-jl icair. —
is to say. if he tud committed the sin after bapcis=- \x 'zz.
it was averted that he. therefore. could not be f ox.j_.r_ r» Zol
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of lie viivine decision. For other gra\-e sirts the b*^c__e_ ^o.-
w_$ Allowed :o u_idi:rg j > discipi__e occe. bat ce_y _o_s __ r_ _
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; rr^z so :rev;_ez:.y _-Jerrev:
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CONFESSION
903
under discipline were allowed to receive the encharist when
in articulo mortis. As this was sometimes effected by means of
the reserved sacrament without any formal reconciliation, even
without the presence of bishop or priest, it affords further
evidence of the emphasis being laid on contrition and submission
to discipline rather than on absolution. Cyprian, Epist. xviii.,
sanctions a dying man's making confession (cxomolcgesis) of
his sin before a deacon in case of necessity, and being reconciled
by laying on of hands.
At the beginning of the 4th century a system came into use
by which penitents undergoing discipline were divided into four
grades, the lowest being the mourners, then the hearers, the
kneelers and the eonsistentcs (standing). Thus by the nth
canon of Nicaea certain who had been guilty of apostasy were
to be three years among the hearers, seven among the kneelers,
and two among the consisUntes. These grades were distinguished
by their admission to or exclusion from parts of the church and
of divine service; none of them were allowed to communicate
until their penance was complete, except in articulo mortis.
In the same century at Rome and at Constantinople we hear
of "penitentiaries," that is priests appointed to act for the
bishop in bearing the confession of sins, and deciding whether
public discipline was necessary and, if it was, on its duration;
in other words they prepared the penitents for solemn recon-
ciliation by the bishop. A scandal at Constantinople in 391 led
to the suppression in that city not only of the office of peni-
tentiary, but practically of public exotnohgesis also, and that
seemingly in Eastern Christendom generally, so that the indi-
vidual was left to assess his own penance, and to present
himself for communion at his own discretion. This inevitably
led on to the reiteration of confession after repeated lapses, and
Chrysostom (bishop of Constantinople, 398-407) was attacked
for allowing such a departure from ancient rule.
But in the West public discipline continued, though under less
and less rigorous conditions. Persecution having ceased, the
question of apostasy had lost its chief significance, and as church
life became public and influential the evils of scandal were
intensified. Penitents, therefore (as a rule), were excused the
painful ordeal of public humiliation, but performed their
penances in secret; only at the end they were publicly reconciled
by the bishop. This was at Rome and Milan appointed to be
done on the Thursday before Easter, and gradually became a
regular practice, the same penitent year after year doing penance
during Lent, and being publicly restored to communion in Holy
Week. Towards the end of the 4th century priests began to be
allowed to take the bishop's place in the re-admission of penitents
and to do it privately. And with this step the evolution of the
system was completed. The abandonment of plenary penitence
(i.e. the full rigour of exomologesis), the extension of the system
in which there was nothing public about the penitence except
the solemn reconciliation on Maundy Thursday, the allowing of
repeated recourse to this reconciliation, the delegation to priests
of the power to reconcile penitents in private; such were the
successive stages in the development.
The irruptions of the barbarians revolutionized the whole
system of daily life. The various tribes were indeed converted
to the faith one after another; but it took centuries to break
them in to anything like obedience to Christian principles of
morality. In consequence the Christian world tended to be
divided into two classes. The first, the religious, including
women and laymen as well as clergy, still maintained the old
ideals of purity and mutual responsibility. Thus in the chapter-
house of a monastery there constantly took place acts of discipline
that depended on the theory that the sin of the individual is the
concern of the society; open confession was made, open penance
exacted. On the other hand, the still half-heathen world outside
broke every moral law with indifference; and in the effort to
restrain men's vices church discipline became mechanical instead
of sympathetic, penal rather than paternal. The penance was
regarded (not without precedent in earlier times) as the discharge
/of a MaliTTlj doe to God or the Church; and so much sin was
tosjoi to involve so much debt. Thus we reach what has been
called la pimtence Uurifie. Penitentials or codes defined (even
invented) different degrees of guilt, and assessed the liability
involved much as if a sin gave rise to an action to recover
damages. The Greek penitentials date from about 600; the
Latin are a little later; the most influential was that of Theodore
of Tarsus, who was archbishop of Canterbury from 668 to 690.
Two disastrous results not infrequently arose: a money payment
was often allowed in lieu of acts of penance, and the prayers
and merits of others were held to supply the inadequacy of
the sinner's own repentance (see Indulgence). Meanwhile the
constant repetition of confession and reconciliation, together
with the fact that the most tender consciences would be the
most anxious for the assurance of forgiveness, led to the practice
being considered a normal part of the Christian life. It came
to be allowed to be used by priests as well as by laymen. Absolu-
tion was reckoned one of the sacraments, one of the seven when
that mystic number was generally adopted; but there was no
agreement as to what constituted the ■ essential parts of the
sacrament, whether the confession, the laying on of hands, the
penance, or the words of dismissal. It was more and more
regarded as the special function of the priest to administer
absolution, though as late as the 16th century we hear of laymen
confessing to and absolving one another on the battlefield
because no priest was at hand. Moreover, the idea of corporate
responsibility and discipline was overshadowed by that of
medicine for the individual soul, -though public penance was
still often exacted, especially in cases of notorious crime, as
when Henry II. submitted to the scourge after the murder
of Bcckct.
At last in x 21 5 the council of the Lateran decreed that every
one of either sex must make confession at least once a year
before his parish priest, or some other priest with the consent
of the parish priest. Treating this rule as axiomatic the School-
men elaborated their analyses of the sacrament of penance,
Distinguishing form and matter, attrition and contrition, mortal
and venial sins. The Council of Trent in 1551 repudiated the
worst corruptions and repelled as slanders certain charges which
were made against the medieval system; but it retained the
obligation of annual confession, and laid it down that the form
of the sacrament consisted in the priest's words of absolution.
(See Absolution.)
As confession is now administered in the Roman Church, the
disciplinary penance is often little more than nominal, the
recitation of a psalm or the like — stress being laid rather on the
fulness of the confession and on the words of authoritative
absolution. No one is allowed to receive holy communion, if
guilty of "mortal" sin, without resorting to confession; only
if a priest has to celebrate mass, and there is no other priest to
hear his confession, may he receive " unabsolved " after mortal
sin. The faithful are bound to confess all " mortal " sins; they
need not confess " venial " sins. It is common to go to confession,
even though there are only venial sins to be confessed; and in
order to excite contrition people arc sometimes advised to confess
over again some mortal sin from which they have been previously
absolved. No priest may hear confessions without licence from
the bishop. Certain special sins are " reserved," that is, the
ordinary priest cannot give absolution for them; the matter
must be referred to the bishop, or even the pope. Children begin
to go to confession at about the age of seven.
In the Greek Church confession has become obligatory and
habitual. Among the Lutherans auricular confession survived
the Reformation, but the general confession and absolution
before communion were soon allowed by authority to serve as a
substitute; in Wurttemberg as early as the 16th century, in
Saxony after 1657, and in Brandenburg by decree of the elector
in 1698. Private confession and absolution were, however,
still permitted; though as may be seen from Goethe's experience,
related in his Dicktung und Wakrheii, it tended to become a
mere form, a process encouraged by the fact that the fees
payable for absolution formed part of. the pastor's regular
stipend. Since the beginning of the 19th century the practice
of auricular confession has been, to %> oa*ax&. *s&*a&. tc*c«k&.
9°4
CONFESSIONAL
among orthodox Lutherans (see Heraog-Hauck, Rcalencykhpddie
•."Bcichte").
To come to England, Wesley provided for spiritual discipline
(x) through the class-meeting, whose leader has to advise,
comfort or exhort as occasion may arise; and (2) through the
ministers, who have to bear the chief responsibility in the reproof,
suspension or expulsion from communion of erring brethren.
In the Salvation Army people are continually invited to come
forward to the " penitent form," and admissions of past evil
living are publicly made. Among the Calvinistic bodies in the
British Isles and abroad kirk-discipline has been a stern reality;
but in none of them is there private confession or priestly
absolution.
The Church of England holds in this matter as in others a
central position. The method of confession adopted in the public
services of the Church of England, with which the Book of
Common Prayer is primarily concerned, may be described as
one of general confession to God in the face of the church, to be
in secret used by each member of the congregation for the
confession of his own particular sins, and to be followed by
public absolution. But three other methods of confession for
private use are mentioned in the exhortations in the communion
service, which constitute the principal directory for private
devotions among the authoritative documents of the English
Church. First, all men are urged to practise secret confession
to God alone, and in it the sins are to be acknowledged in detail.
Secondly, where the nature of the offence admits of it, the sinner
Is to acknowledge his wrongdoing to the neighbour he has
aggrieved. And, thirdly, the sinner who cannot satisfy his
conscience by these other methods is invited to open his grief to
a minister of God's word. Similarly, the sick man is to be moved
to make a special confession of his sins if he feels his conscience
troubled with any weighty matter. The priest is bound, under
the most stringent penalties, never to divulge what he has thus
learnt. See the 113th canon of 1604, which, however, excepts
crimes " such as by the laws of this realm the priest's own life
may be called into question for concealing the same." It is,
however, maintained by some that, except in the case of the
sick, the only legitimate method of receiving absolution in the
Church of England is in the public services of the congregation;
and the Church of Ireland has recently made important altera-
tions even in the passages that concern the sick, while the
Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States has omitted
that part of the visitation service altogether.
It is probable that auricular confession never altogether died
out in the Church of England, but it is obvious that evidence
on the subject must always be hard to find. Certainly there has
been a great increase and development of the practice since the
Oxford movement in the early part of the 19th century. Two
chief difficulties have attended this revival. In the first place,
owing to the general disuse of such ministrations, there were
none among the English clergy who bad experience in delicate
questions of conscience; and there had been no treatment of
casuistry since Sanderson and Jeremy Taylor (see Casuistry).
Those, then, who had to hear penitents unburden their souls
were driven to the use of Roman writers on the subject. A book
called The Priest in A bsolution was compiled, and at first privately
circulated among the clergy; but in 1877 a copy was produced
in parliament, and gave rise to much scandal and heated debate,
especially in the House of Lords and in the newspapers. In the
following year Dr Pusey published a translation of the Abb*
J. J. Gaume's Manual for Confessors, abridged and " adapted
to the use of the English Church." The other chief difficulty
arose from the absence of any authoritative restraint on the
hearing of confessions by young and unqualified priests, the
Church of England merely directing the penitent who wishes
for special help to resort to any " discreet and learned minister."
In 1873 a petition signed by four hundred and eighty-three clergy
was presented to Convocation asking for the "education,
selection and licensing of duly qualified confessors." The
bishops declined so to act, but drew up a report on the subject
of confession.^ The question excites the keenest teeling, and
extreme views are held on either side. On the one hand, it 1
opposed as the citadel of sacerdotal authority and as a peril to
morals. On the other hand, there are those who speak as if
auricular confession were a necessary element in every Chriftnii
life, and hold that post-baptismal sin of a grave sort can receive
forgiveness in no other way. Such a view cannot be foaad
within the covers of the English Prayer-Beok.
BiDLiao rap Hr.— Hooker, Ecdesiaiticat Potiiy. book vi. J Moiiiiia.
Comtneittarius kistoricus de jatr&mento paexiienUat \ MankaL
Penitential Discipline (1717); fc W. Robertson, $e?m9As, thtri
series— Absolution (Lundun, 1857); Mead, " Ejtomolog**I« " n.i
" Penitence ,h in Dictionary af Christian Antiquities (London* lljS' 1 ,
E. B, Pusey, Affaire. &r.< being the Abbi Gaume's Manual Jew CeV
ftssors. ftc. (Qifcjrd, 1878)5 Cartcr t The Doctrine ef Confttrie* u
ike Church trf England (London. 1885);, H. C. Lea., A Hutvry e
Auricular Cartfrssum and Indulgences in the Lai in Chart h (Pfeilj-
delphia. 1 1596); Boudinhoa in Rome d'hijf&re el de litth-stiurt rr-
iic trusts {1097 and T&98); H. Wacr, Confession and Abv*l**n
Report 0/ Fid ham Conference (London, tooj):H» B* Swei:*, re.
Journal 0/ Tbtotevkol Stud-it* (April tooj); E\ Batiffol, £i*J*i
d' hi stove it de thbotegie positive* premiere tirie (4th *d., Raja,
1906). (W. a B.)
2. Law. — In criminal procedure confession has always, of
course, played an important part, and the attempt to obtain such
a confession from the incriminated person, whether by physical
torture or by less violent means, was formerly, and in certain
countries still remains, a recognized expedient for securing the
conviction of the guilty. This method was carried to ruthless
extremes by the Inquisition (?.«.), but was by no means unknown
in countries in which this institution never gained a foothold,
as in England, where torture was practised, though never
legalized, for this purpose. In spite of a general tendency to
relinquish the inquisitorial method, it is still prevalent in certain
countries, notably in France, where the efforts of the prosecution,
especially during the preliminary investigations, are directed
to extracting a confession from the accused. In English law,
on the other hand, the confession of an mcriminated person can
be received in evidence against him only if it has been free and
voluntary. Any threat or inducement held out to a person to
make a confession renders the confession inadmissible, even if
afterwards made to another person, it having been held that the
second confession is likely to be induced by the promise held
out by the person to whom the first confession was made. Any
inducement to a person to make a confession must refer to some
temporal benefit to be gained from it. In conformity with the
principle of English law that a person ought not to be made to
incriminate himself, it is usual, when a person in custody wishes
to make a statement or confession, to caution him that what
he says will be used in evidence against him. Particular facts
may have an important bearing on the admissibility or otherwise
of a confession— innumerable decisions will be found in Arch-
hold's Criminal Pleading (23rd ed.). In divorce law, the con-
fession of a wife charged with adultery is always treated with
circumspection and caution, for fear of collusion between the
parties to a suit. Where, however, such a confession is clear and
distinct, the court will usually receive it as evidence against the
wife, but not against a co-respondent. In a case where a wife's
confession was obtained by falsely stating to her that the sus-
pected co-respondent had confessed, such confession was held
admissible. (T. A. I.)
CONFESSIONAL (Late Lat. confessionals, neut. adj. from
confessionolis, *' pertaining to confession," Fr. confessional, Ital.
confessionale), a box, cabinet or stall, in which the priest in
Roman Catholic churches sits to hear the confessions of penitents.
The confessional is usually a wooden structure, with a centre
compartment— entered through a door or curtain— in which
the priest Bits, and on each side a latticed opening for the
penitents to speak through, and a step on which they kneel.
By this arrangement the priest is hidden, but the penitent is
visible to the public. Confessionals sometimes form part of the
architectural scheme of the church; many finely decorated
specimens, dating from the late xoth and the 17th centuries,
are to be found in churches on the continent* of Europe. A
notable example, in Renaissance style, is in the church of St
CONFESSION AND AVOIDANCE— CONFIRMATION 905
Miche! at Louvain. But, more usually, confessionals are movable
pieces of furniture.
The confessional in its modern form dates no farther back
than the 16th century, and Du Cange cites the year 1563 for
an early use of the word confessionaU for the sacrum poenilentiac
tribunal. Originally the term was applied to the place where a
martyr or "confessor" (in the sense of one who confesses
Christ) had been buried. There are, however, instances (e.g.
the confessional of St Trophimus at Aries) where the name was
attached to the spot, whether cell or seat, where noted saints
were wont to hear confessions. In the popular Protestant
view confessional boxes are associated with the scandals, real
or supposed, of the practice of auricular confession. They were,
however, devised to guard against such scandals by securing at
once essential publicity and a reasonable privacy, and by
separating priest and penitent. In the middle ages stringent
rules were laid down, in this latter respect, by the canon law
in the case of confessions by women and especially nuns.
In England, before the Reformation, publicity was reckoned
the best safeguard. Thus Archbishop Walter Reynolds, in
1322, says in his Constitutions: "Let the priest choose for
himself a common place for hearing confessions, where he may
be seen generally by all in the church; and do not let him hear
any one, and especially any woman, in a private place, except in
great necessity.' 1 It would seem that the priest usually heard
confessions at the chancel opening or at a bench end in the nave
near the chancel. There is, however, in some churchwardens'
accounts mention of a special seat: " the shryving stool,"
" shriving pew " or " shriving place " (Gasquet, Parish Life in
Mediaeval England, p. 199). At Lenham in Kent there is an
ancient armchair in stone, with a stone bench and steps on one
side, which appears to be a confessional.
With the revival of the practice of auricular confession in the
English Church, confessionals were introduced into some of the
more "extreme" Anglican churches. Since, however, they
certainly formed no part of " the furniture of the church " in
the " second year of King Edward VI." they can hardly be
considered as covered by the "Ornaments Rubric" in the
Prayer-Book. The question of their legality was raised in 1000
in the case of Davey v. Hinde (vicar of the church of the An-
nunciation at Brighton) tried before Dr Tristram in the consistory
court of Chichester. They were condemned " on the ground that
they are not articles of church furniture requisite for or conducive
to conformity with the doctrine or practice of the Church of
England in relation to the reception of confession" (C. Y. Sturge,
Points of Church Law, London, 1907, p. 137).
" Confessional," in the sense of a due payable for the right
to hear confession, is now obsolete. As an adjective con-
fessional is used in two senses: (1) of the nature of, or belong-
ing to confession, e.g. " confessional prayers "; (2) connected
with confessions of faith, or creeds, e.g. " confessional
differences." (W. A. P.)
CONFESSION AND AVOIDANCE, in pleading, the plea
admitting that facts alleged in a declaration are true, but showing
new facts by which it is hoped to destroy the effect of the allega-
tions admitted. A plea in confession and avoidance neither
simply admits nor merely denies; it admits that the facts
alleged by the opposite party make out a good prima facie case
or defence, but it proceeds to destroy the effect of these allega-
tions either by showing some justification or excuse of the matter
charged, or some discharge or release from it. All matter in
confession and avoidance must be stated clearly and distinctly,
and must be specific. If intended to apply to part only of a
statement of claim, it must be so stated.
CONFESSOR, in the Christian Church, a word used in the
two senses of (1) a person the holy character of whose life and
death entitle him or her, in the judgment of the Church, to a
peculiar reputation for sanctity, (2) a priest empowered to hear
confessions.
(1) In the first sense the word confessor was in the early
Church sometimes applied loosely to all martyrs, but more
properly to those who, having suffered persecution and torture
for the faith, were afterwards allowed to die in peace. The
present sense of the word, as defined above, developed after the
ages of persecution had passed. It came to be applied by custom,
as did the predicate " Saint," to the holy men of the past;
e.g. Ecgberht, archbishop of York (Excerpt, cap. xxyiii), speaks
of " the holy fathers whom we have styled confessors, i.e. bishops
and priests who have served God in chastity." But, as in the
case of "saint," the right of declaring the holy dead to be
" confessors " was ultimately reserved to the Holy See. The
most celebrated instance of the formal bestowal of the style
is that of King Edward of England, who was made a " Confessor "
on his canonization by Pope Alexander III. in 1161, and hat
since been commonly known as Edward the Confessor.
(2) The confessor in the second sense is now termed in ecclesi-
astical Latin confessarius (med. Lat. confessare, to confess), to
distinguish him from the " confessor " described above. The
functions of the confessor are dealt with in the article Con-
fession (q.v.). Here it need only be pointed out that though,
in the Roman Catholic Church, the potestas ordinis of every
priest includes the power of granting absolution, according to
the established discipline of the Church, no priest can be a
confessor, i.e. hear confessions, without a special faculty from
his bishop.
CONFIRMATION (Lat confirmatio, from confirmare, to
establish, make firm), in the Christian sense, the initiatory rite
of laying on of hands, supplementary to and completing baptism,
and especially connected with the gift of the Holy Ghost to the
candidate. The words " confirm " and " confirmation " are
not used in the Bible in this technical sense, which has only
grown up since the 5th century, and only in the Western churches
of Christendom and in their offshoots, but the rite itself has been
practised in the Church from the beginning. The history of
confirmation has passed through three stages. - In the first ages
of the Church, when it was recruited chiefly by converts who
were admitted in full age, confirmation, or the laying on of hands
(Heb. vi. 2), followed close upon baptism, and in the majority of
cases the two were combined in a single service. But only the
highest order of ministers could confirm (see Acts viii. 14-17);
whereas priests and deacons, and in an emergency laymen and
even women, could baptize. There was therefore no absolute
certainty that a believer who had been baptized had also received
confirmation (Acts xix. 2). But two circumstances tended to
prevent the occurrence of such irregularities. In the first place,
there were in early days far more bishops in proportion to the
number of believers than is the custom now; and, secondly, it
was the rule (except in cases of emergency) to baptize only in
the season from Easter to Pentecost, and the bishop was always
present and laid his hands on the newly baptized. Moreover,
in the third and fourth centuries the infants of Christian parents
were frequently left unbaptized for years, e.g. Augustine of
Hippo. Later, when the Church had come to be tolerated and
patronized by the state, her numbers increased, the rule that
fixed certain days for baptism broke down, and it was impossible
for bishops to attend every baptismal service. Thereupon East
and West adopted different methods of meeting the difficulty.
In the East greater emphasis was laid on the anointing with oil,
which had long been an adjunct of the laying on of hands: the
oil was consecrated by the bishop, and the child anointed or
" sealed " with it by the parish priest, and this was reckoned
as its confirmation. With its baptism thus completed, the infant
was held to be capable of receiving holy communion. And to
this day in the Eastern Church the infant is baptized, anointed
and communicated by the parish priest in the course of a single
service; and thus the bishop and the hying on of hands have
disappeared from the ordinary service of confirmation. The
West, on the other hand, deferred confirmation, not at first till
the child had reached years of discretion, though that afterwards
became the theory, but from the necessities of the case. The
child was baptized at once, that it might be admitted to the
Church, while the completion of its baptism was put off till it
could be brought to a bishop. ^Wtstexti osgrc&Naasgiv. <s* >*&x
potato tl otxca\ \n$tam \& i&aX \» \* \*\«ts&\*?*<«^ "*■ ~~^"
906
CONFIRMATION OF BISHOPS
nor confirmation beyond seven years. And to give an historical
example, Henry VIII. had his daughter, afterwards Queen
Elizabeth, both baptized and confirmed when she was only a few
days old. And still the rubrics of the English Prayer-Book
direct that the person who is baptized as an adult is to " be
confirmed by the bishop so soon after his baptism as conveniently
may be."
But theologians in the West had elaborated a theory of the
grace of confirmation, which made its severance from baptism
seem natural; and at the time of the Reformation, while neither
side favoured the Eastern practice, the reformers, with their
strong sense of the crucial importance of faith, emphasized the
action of the individual in the service, and therefore laid it down
as a rule that confirmation should be deferred till the child could
learn a catechism on the fundamentals of the Christian faith,
which Calvin thought he might do by the time he was ten. Many
of the Trotestant bodies have abandoned the rite, but it remains
among the Lutherans (who, whether episcopal or not, attach
great importance to it) and in the group of Churches in com-
munion with the Church of England. In the Catholic Apostolic
Church (" Irvingites ") confirmation is called "sealing," and
is administered by the " angels." Among the Roman Catholics
it is reckoned one of the seven sacraments, and administered
at about the age of eight: in many cases less emphasis is laid
on the confirmation than on the first communion, which
follows it.
At the last revision of the Book of Common Prayer an addition
was made to the service by prefixing to it a solemn renewal of
their baptismal vows by the candidates; and, in the teeth of
history and the wording of the service, this has often been taken
to be the essential feature of confirmation. Practically, the
preparation of candidates for confirmation is the most important
and exacting duty of the Anglican parish priest, as the administra-
tion of the rite is the most arduous of a bishop's tasks; and after
a long period of slovenly neglect these duties are now generally
discharged with great care: classes are formed and instruction
is given for several weeks before the coming of the bishop to lay
on bands " after the example of the Holy Apostles " (prayer in the
Confirmation Service) . Of late years there has been a controversy
among Anglican theologians as to the exact nature of the gift
conveyed through confirmation, or, in other words, whether the
Holy Spirit can be said to have come to dwell in those who have
been baptized but not confirmed. The view that identifies con-
firmation rather than baptism with the Pentecostal outpouring
of the Spirit on the Church has had to contend against a long-
established tradition, but appeals to Scripture (Acts viii. z6)
and to patristic teaching.
Authorities. — Hooker, Ecclesiastical Polity, book v. eh. brvi;
Jeremy Taylor, A Discourse of Confirmation; A. J. Mason, The
Relation of Confirmation to Baptism (London, 1891), where see list
of other writers; L. Duchesne, Origines du culU cbritien, chap. ix.
(ParU, 1898). (W. O. §.)
CONFIRMATION OF BISHOPS. In canon law confirmation
Is the act by which the election of a new bishop receives the
assent of the proper ecclesiastical authority. In the early
centuries of the history of the Church the election or appointment
of a suffrsgtin bUhop was confirmed and approved by the
mrlropulituii and hi* suffragan* assembled in synod. By the
4th i mum of ihn iiml 11111111 il uf Nli am (a.d. 325), however, it was
dcireril thitt ihu ritflil uf ton In mat km should belong to the
nitlroiMilitdn liialiui* of ta»K pinvlmr, a rule confirmed by the
1 jlh » mum of 1 he toun. il «,f |.«,„|| ( „ rftl j, or tnc appointment
of a inclru|mliiAu no papal tui.Mnimtlon was required either in
Out W»»t 01 K.i»l; but Hi.; pu.il.fl whhli grcw upr f rom thc
Alb inilury iiiittrtnU, ol 1 1... |.i,p ( .« planning the pallium ($.».),
«l iiui W-//> amui, to iiLHly *p|„,i„i n i metropolitans gradually
imtiti in «ymln»IUc Ihu liuiuu lu ru-u l M metropolitan jurisdic-
HiMI. H V «"« « l « «'••* w l « •■uHuiIm llu- papal right of confirma-
tion hv lW» iulhiii tMfe fctii-iiuously aaMTted; yet as late as the
i«ih isnluiy tltuti wirt iuatuwta «.f metropolitans exercising
tk»i4 tumlUtM wllhuul niiiviiiK the pallium, and it was not till
*t*4 tUis fat* tfat tUo patent ado and practice of the komau
Catholic Church was definitively established (see Hisses*
Kirckenrcckl, ii. p. 28 and notes). The canonical right of ik
metropolitan to confirm the election of his suffragans was i2
affirmed by Gratian; but from the time of Pope Alexander IE
(11 50-1 181) the canon lawyers, under the influence of the F&s
Decretals, began to claim this right for the pope (Febrcha.
De statu eccksiae, 2nd ed., 1765, cap. iv. $ 3, a). From the i : !i
century onwards it was effectively exercised, though the all te
universal practice of the popes of reserving and providing a
vacant bishoprics, initiated by Cement V., obscured the isu
since in the case of papal nominations no confirmation «
required. The question, however, was raised, in connexioa aa
that of the papal reservations and provisions, at the cocoa
of Constance and Basel The former shelved it in the iDterea
of peace; but the latter once more formulated the priori?*
that elections in the churches were to be free and their rat:
confirmed according to the provisions of the common law (jaa
juris communis dispositionem), i.e. by " the immediate superior'
to whom the right of confirmation belonged (Febronius, if. A
Appendix, p. 784).
In England, where the abuse of provisors had been ncs
acutely felt, the matter was dealt with during the vacancy of tbt
Holy See between the deposition of John XXIII. at Constaacc
(May 14x5) and the election of Martin V. (November 1417V
During the interval the only possible way of appointing a bishop
was by thc ancient method of canonical election and confirnulm
Shortly after thc deposition of John XXIII., Henry V. assented
to an ordinance that during the voidance of the Holy See bishops*
elect should be confirmed by their metropolitans (Rotuli Ps&>
meniorum, \v. p. 71); but thc ordinance was not recorded on tat
Statute Roll. Three bishops only, namely, John Chaundekroi
Salisbury, Edmund de Lacey of Hereford and John Wakexug
of Norwich, were confirmed by the archbishop of Canterbcry
during the papal vacancy. When Martin V. was elected pope ifi
141 7 he resumed the practice of providing bishops, and froa
this time until the Reformation the canonical election and
confirmation of a bishop in England was a rare exception.
In Roman Catholic countries the complete control of the
papacy over the election and appointment of bishops has since
the Reformation become firmly established, in spite of the efforts
of Gallicans and " Febronians " to reassert what they held to be
the more Catholic usage (see Gallicanism; Fsbkoniahsx;
Bishop).
In England at the Reformation the share of the papacy ia
appointing bishops was abolished, but the confirmation became
almost formal in character. By 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20, s, 4, it is
provided that after an episcopal election a royal mandate shall
issue to the archbishop of the province " requiring him to confine
the said election," or, in case of an archbishop-elect, to one arch*
bishop and two bishops, or to four bishops, " requiring and
commanding " them " with all speed and celerity to confirm " it
This practice still prevails in the case of dioceses which have
chapters to elect. The confirmation has usually been performed
by the archbishop's vicar-general, and, in the southern province,
at the church of St Mary-le-Bow, London; but since 1901 it has
been performed, in part, at the Church House, Westminster, in
consequence of the disorder in the proceedings at Bow church
on the confirmation there of Dr Winnington Ingram as bishop
of London. All objectors are dted toappearon painof contumacy
after the old form; but although the knowledge that opposition
might be offered has been a safeguard against improper nomina-
tions, e.g. in the case of Dr Clarke the Arian, confirmation has
never been refused since the Reformation. In 1628 Dr Rives,
acting for the vicar-general, declined to receive objections
made to Richard Montague's election to the see of Chichester
on the ground that they were not made in legal form. Ac
informal protest against the confirmation of Dr Prince Lee of
Manchester in 1848 was almost immediately followed by another
in due form against that of Dr Hampden, elect of Hereford.
The vicar-gencral refused to receive the objections, and an
application to the queen's bench for a mandamus was unsuccess-
tu\|\hc \ud4ca Y*ta% &v\ta\Aw*%«taaX \m*. YDkiMx^«jt>4b*
CONFISCATION— CONFUCIUS
907
confirmation of Dr Temple's election as bishop of Exeter, the
vicar-general heard counsel on the question whether he could
receive objections, and decided that he could not. When the
aame prelate was elected to Canterbury, the course here laid
down was followed, as also at the confirmation of Dr Mandcll
Crcighton's election to the see of London. Objections were again
raised, in 1002, against Dr Charles Gore, elect of Worcester;
and an application was made to the king's bench for a mandamus
against the archbishop and his vicar-general when the latter
declined to entertain them. By a unanimous judgment (February
xo) the court, consisting of the lord chief justice (Lord Alver-
stonc) and Justices Wright and Ridley, refused the mandamus.
Without deciding that objections (e.g. to the identity of the elect,
or the genuineness of documents) could never be investigated
by the vicar-general or the archbishop, it held that they could
not even entertain objections of the kind alleged. At the con-
firmation of Dr Cosmo Gordon Lang's election as archbishop of
York, held in the Church House on the 20th of January 1009,
objections were raised on behalf of the Protestant Truth Society
to the confirmation, on the ground that the archbishop-elect
had, while bishop suffragan of Stepney, connived at and en-
couraged flagrant breaches of the law as to church ritual, taken
part in illegal ceremonies, and the like. The objectors were
heard by the archbishop of Canterbury and the other com-
missioners in chambers, the decision being that, in accordance
with the judgment of the court of king's bench above cited, the
objections could not lawfully be received since they did not fall
within the province of the commissioners. The archbishop also
pointed out that the form of citation (to objectors) had been
modified since 1003, but suggested that it was "a matter for
consideration whether the terminology of the citation could be
altered so as to bring everything into complete accordance with
the law of the Church and realm " (sec The Times, January 21,
xooo). Formerly the archbishop had the right of option, i.e.
of choosing any one piece of preferment in the gift of a bishop
confirmed by him, and bestowing it upon whom he would;
but this has been held to be abolished by a clause in the Cathedral
Act of 1840 (3 & 4 Vict. c. 113, s. 42) And the election of a dean
by a cathedral chapter used to receive the bishop's confirmation
(Oughton, Ordo Judiciorum, No. cxxviL).
Authorities. — L. Thomassin, Vetus et nova diiriplinQ, pars. Li.
lib. ii. tit. 1-4 (1705-1706); E. Gibson, Coda juris ecriesiattki
antficani, tit. v. cap. i. (1761): W. H. BhVi, Calendar of Eniriei
in the Papal Registers relating to Great Britain and Ireland, vuti. j.-vii.
(London, 1803-1906); John Le Neve, Fasti iLcrleriae Anglifanae
(Oxford, 1854) : R. Jcbb, Repvrt of the Hampden Cm* ( London, 1840) ;
Sir R. J. Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law, pp. 36-47 (London* 1895) ;
art. "The Confirmation of Archbishops jnd Bijhopa '" In the
Guardian for January 20, 1897. pp. 106-107; " Judgment in the Core
Case," in the Guardian for February 12, 1902, pp. 254 fj.
CONFISCATION (from Lat. confiscate, to consign to the
fiscus, or imperial treasury), in Roman law the seizure and
transfer of private property to the fiscus by the emperor; hence
the appropriation, under legal authority, of private property
to the state; in English law the term embraces forfeiture (q.v.)
in the case of goods, and escheat (q.v.) in the case of lands, for
crime or in default of heirs (sec also Eminent Domain). Goods
may also be confiscated by the state for breaches of statutes
relating to customs, excise or explosives. In the United States
among the " war measures " during the Civil War, acts were
passed in 1861 and 1862 confiscating, respectively, property used
for " insurrectionary purposes " and the property generally of
those engaged in rebellion. The word is used, popularly, of
spoliation under legal forms, or of any seizure of property
without adequate compensation.
CONPOLENS. a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Charcntc, 44 m. N.E. of
Angoulcroe by rail. Pop (1006) 2546. Coufolcns is situated
on the banks of the Vicnne at its confluence with the Goire. It
is an ancient town, with steep narrow streets bordered by old
houses. It possesses two bridges of the 15th century, remains
of a castle of the 1 2th century, and two churches, one of the nth,
another of the 14th and 15th centuries. The subprefecture,
a tribunal of first instance, and a communal college are among
the public institutions. Flour, leather, laces and paper are its
industrial products, and there is trade in timber and cattle.
CONFUCIUS [K'ung tsze] (550 or 551-478 B.C.), the famous
sage of China. In order to understand the events of his life and
the influence of his opinions, we must endeavour to coadttha
get some impression of the China that existed in his otctitmm
time, in the 5th and 6th centuries B.C. The dynasty ^JJHHlSL
of Chow, the third which within historic time had c ^ moB *
ruled the country, lasting from x 122 to 256 B.C., had passed its
tenith, and its kings no longer held the sceptre with a firm grasp.
The territory under their sway was not a sixth part of the present
empire. For thirteen years of his life Confucius wandered about
from state to state, seeking rest and patrons; but his journey ings
were confined within the modern provinces of Ho -nan and Shan-
tung, and the borders of Chih-li and Hu-pch.
Within the China of the Chow dynasty there might be a
population, in Confucius's time, of from 10,000,000 to 15,000,000.
We read frequently, in the classical books, of the " ten thousand
states " in which the people were distributed, but that is merely
a grand exaggeration. In what has been called, though erro-
neously, as we shall see, Confucius's History of his own Times,
we find only 13 states of note, and the number of all the states,
large and small, which can be brought together from it, and the
much more extensive supplement to it by Tso K'iu-ming, not
much posterior to the sage, is under 150. Chow was a feudal
kingdom. The lords of the different territories belonged to
five orders of nobility, corresponding closely to the dukes,
marquises, earls, counts and barons of feudal Europe. The
theory of the constitution required that the princes, on every
fresh succession, should receive investiture from the king, and
thereafter appear at his court at stated times. They paid to
him annually certain specified tributes, and might be called out
with their military levies at any time in his service. A feudal
kingdom was sure to be a prey to disorder unless there were
energy and ability in the character and administration of the
sovereign; and Confucius has sketched, in the work referred
to above, the Annals of Lu, his native state, for 242 years, from
722 to 481 B.C., which might almost be summed up in the words:
" In those days there was no king in China, and every prince
did what was right in his own eyes." In 1770 B.C. a northern
horde had plundered the capital, which was then in the present
department of Si-gan, Shen-si, and killed the king, whose son
withdrew across the Ho and established himself in a new centre,
near the present city of Lo-yang in Ho-nan; but from that
time the prestige of Chow was gone. Its representatives continued
for four centuries and a half with the title of king, but they were
less powerful than several of their feudatories. The Annals of
Lu, enlarged by Tso K'iu-ming so as to embrace the history of
the kingdom generally, are as full of life and interest as the pages
of Froissart. Feats of arms, great battles, heroic virtues, devoted
friendships and atrocious crimes make the chronicles of China in
the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries before the birth of Christ as at-
tractive as those of France and England in the 14th and some
other centuries after it. There was in China in the former period
more of literary culture and of many arts of civilization than
there was in Europe in the latter. Not only the royal court, but
every feudal court had its historiographers and musicians.
Institutions of an educational character abounded. There were
ancient histories and poems, and codes of laws, and books of
ceremonies. Yet the period was one of widespread suffering
and degeneracy. While the general government was feeble,
disorganization was at work in each [utricular state.
Three things must be kept in mind when we compare feudal
China with feudal Europe. First, we must take into account
the long duration of the lime through which the central authority
was devoid of vigour. For about five centuries state was left
to contend with state, and clan with clan in the several statev
The result was chronic misrule, and misery to the masses of the
people, with frequent famines. Secondly, we must take into
account the institution of polygamy, «ilh thit U><k nicdass iss^**^
to woman anA tat Taaj^x^xivx^YsX-vv^^*^* "\sk>^fc.^M5«Bfc-
908
CONFUCIUS
tfscaA. \iaiw\, there are ft few pieces which are true love songs,
atrf ex^rtu & kgb appreciation of the virtue of their subjects;
b.\ \t*TK kit auny more which tell ft different tale. The
ia'.rig;**., ^jtrrth, murders and grossnesses that grew out of
tiai wx jd condition it is difficult to conceive, and would be
<&p>tt.ws to devuL Thirdly, we must Uke into account the
*b*ryjt of t:r'sLg and definite religious beliefs, properly so called,
wi/>h hat always been a characteristic of the Chinese people.
W* art J. trie trebled, of course, with heresies, and are not
\\s/*M by the *sA breaks of theological zeal; but where thought
a*, »*u as a/.'.k/n does not reach beyond the limits of earth and
Ijovj, we do not LiA man in his best estate. We miss the graces
xtA <s/tivAx*i',n\ of faith; wc have human efforts and ambitions,
in*. %htry are unimpregcated with divine impulses and heavenly
aip.r.rig*.
'•*?.? a*.." « appeared, accordJr.g to Mencius, one of his most
<..-..;.* jjabed 1'M,*kt\ fiit-iK* ».*:.), at a crisis in the nation's
\u\*jtrj. M 7 he world/" he say*. " had fallen into
JJJEX*. d*'ay, and right prir.«.;r4es, bad disappeared. Perverse
d vj/.iixx *r*d oppreuive deeds were waxen rife.
M.f.-.Wi ir:*r'.*f'.d tfoir rvkrt and mis their fathers. Con-
J„ . .t ««* U^kwA by what he saw, — and he undertook the
»vfr of r»-?orrr.a , ..ofi." 1>*e sage was born, according to the
L-if.or.a*. '\&.v.n. <.h"*-.n, in the year 550 »-C; according to
fcj?-g/«r.g a.vi JC -ib -^tr.g, two earlier commentalors on his
AnfvJi <,/ Lu in :;j , b\i* ajl three agree in the month and day
a»t-gs«»^ % jt \..\ li.rh, »r.>.h look place in winter. His clan name
wa» K ' .ni, w* 0#nfuc Jut it merely the latinized form of K'ung
Fu-ittj rMKnifig " the philosopher or master K'ung." He was
a native of the ttate of Lu, a part of the modern Shan-tung,
embra/.ing the prevent department of Yen-chow and other
portions of the province. Lu had a great name among the other
stales of Chow, its marquises being descended from the duke of
Chow, ihe legislator and consolidate* of the dynasty which had
been founded by his father and brother, the famous kings Win
and Wu. Confucius's own ancestry is traced up, through the
sovereigns of the previous dynasty of Shang, to Hwang-ti, whose
6gure looms out through the mists of fable in prehistoric times.
A scion of the house of Shang, the surname of which was Tzc,
was invested by King Wu-Wang with the dukedom of Sung in
the present province of Ho- nan. There, in the Tze line, towards
the end of the 8th century B.C., we find a K'ung Kia, whose
posterity, according to the rules for the dropping of surnames,
became the K'ung clan. He was a high officer of loyalty and
probity, and unfortunately for himself had a wife of extraordinary
beauty. Hwa Tuh, another high officer of the duchy, that he
might get this lady into his possession, brought about the death
of K'ung Kia, and was carrying his prize in a carriage to his
own palace, when she strangled herself on the Kay. The K'ung
family, however, became reduced, and by-and-by its chief
ri-pp'^iitaiivr moved from Sung to Lu, where in the early part
of i In- Aifi nnitury we meet with Shuh-liang Ilcih, the father of
Con(u< iui, ;v, commandant of the district of Tsow, and an officer
renowned for lih feat* of *trmgf h and daring.
'Mure w.it thut no grainier lim-age in China than that of
Confucius » ni ' on all his progenitors, un«c the throne of Shang
passed from their line, with jM.rhaps one exception, he could
look back with complacency. He was the son of lleih's old age.
That oflitrr, when over seventy years, and having already nine
daughters and one son, I* cause that son was a cripple, bought
an allium c with a gentleman of the Yen clan, who had three
ilaughli-rs. The falhi-r submittal to them Heih's application,
paying that, though he was old and austere, he was of most
illustrious descent, and they need have no misgivings about him.
C'hing-lsai, the youngest of the three, observed that it was for
thr-ir father to decide in the case. " You shall marry him then,"
said the father, and accordingly she became the bride of the oid
man, and in the next year the mother of the sage. It Is one of
the undesigned coincidences which confirm the credibility of
Confix ius's history, that his favourite disciple was a scion of
the Yen dun.
ihih din) in the child's third year, leaving his family in
straitened circumstances. Long afterwards, when Cess
was complimented oa bis acquaintance with many in i
accounted for it on the ground of the poverty of ks re.
which obliged him to acquire a knowledge of matters has:
to a mean condition. When he w/aa rive or six. peopic * \
notice of his fondness for playing with his ««wp»"««" st mlz \
out sacrifices, and at postures of ceremony. HetcDssba-
that at fifteen his mind was set on learning; and at tier j
according to the ancient and modern practice in Chinia^ ;
to early unions, he was married, — -his wife being from hoc* 1
tral state of Sung. A son, the only one, so far as we incr.a t
he ever had, was born in the following Tear; bat he kxta- [
sequently two daughters. Immediately after his nanae»r
find him employed under the chief of the Ki dan is tn '
jurisdiction the district of Tsow belonged, first as keener of so. ■
and then as superintendent of parka and herds. Heads r l
that he undertook such mean offices because of his poron c \
distinguished himself by the efficiency with whkh he dacfcn>
them, without any attempt to heroine rich.
In: his twenty-second year Confucius commenced aa Us
as a teacher. He did so at first, probably, in a humbkw;
but a school, not of boys to be taught the elements of k*na
but of young and inquiring spirits who wished to be bssve
in the principles of right conduct and government, gn&s?
gathered round him. He accepted the substantial aid is
disciples; but he rejected none who could give him era *
smallest fee, and he would retain none who did not shovecx
ness and capacity. " When I have presented." he said "a
corner of a subject, and the pupil cannot of M™— H saktx
the other three, I do not repeat my lesson."
Two years after, his mother died, and he buried her e 4
same grave with his father. Some idea of what his f units
was likely to be was already present to his mind. It was
the custom of antiquity to raise any tumulus over grave k
Confucius resolved to innovate in the matter. He mock! *
travelling, he said, to all quarters of the kingdom, and rs
therefore have a mound by which to recognize his puts
resting-place. He returned home from the interment ika
having left his disciples to complete this work. They were isi
in rejoining him, and had then to tell him that they had brfl
detained by a heavy fall of rain, which threw down tbe ss
product of their labour. He burst into tears, and eidabai
" Ahl they did not raise mounds over their graves is in*
quity." His affection for the memory of his mother and dusi>
faction with his own innovation on ancient customs thus m**a<
together; and we can sympathize with his tears. For a
regular period of 27 months, commonly spoken of as three yas
he observed all the rules of mourning. When they were orcr
he allowed five more days to elapse before he would take hsixt
of which he had been devotedly fond, in his hands. He pb>ec.
but when he tried to sing to the accompaniment of the ir« "■
ment, his feelings overcame him.
For some years after this our information about Confucio
is scanty. Hints, indeed, occur of his devotion to tbe stud) ct
music and of ancient history; and we can perceive that &
character was more and more appreciated by the principal ces
of Lu. He had passed his thirtieth year when, as he tells cs.
" he stood firm " in his convictions on all the subjects to the
learning of which he had bent his mind fifteen years before.
In 517 b.c. two scions of one of the principal houses in Lu joisrd
the company of his disciples in consequence of the dying com-
mand of its chief; and being furnished with the means by the
marquis of the state, he made a visit with them to tbe capital
of the kingdom. There he examined the treasures of the roval
library, and studied the music which was found in its highetf
style at the court. There, too, according to Sze-ma Ch'ien. he
had several interviews with Lao-tsze, the father of Taoism. It
is characteristic of the two men that the latter, a transcendental
dreamer, appears to have thought little of his visitor, vhik
Confucius, an inquiring thinker, was profoundly impressed
with him.
On Iris Tclutu lo Y.u, \\\ vYwt vam« ^nt , >toa\ ^v^v.^ WMvc^a {real
CONFUCIUS
909
jfaorder. The marquis was wonted in a struggle with his
ministers, and fled to the neighbouring state of Ts'i. Thither
■ko went Confucius, for he would not countenance by his
jtesence the men who had driven their ruler away. He was
iCOompanied by many of his disciples; and as they passed by
the T'ai Mountain, an incident occurred which may be narrated
»s a specimen of the* way in which he communicated to them
ok lessons. The attention of the travellers was arrested by a
woman weeping and wailing at a grave. The sage stopped, and
tent one of his followers to ask the Teason of her grief. " My
knsband's father/ 1 said she, " was killed here by a tiger, and
■ry husband also, and now my son has met the same fate."
Being asked why she did not leave so fatal a spot, she replied that
there was there no oppressive government. " Remember this,"
Mid Confucius to his disciples, " remember this, my children,
Oppressive government is fiercer and more feared than a tiger."
He did not find in Ts'i a home to his liking. The marquis of
the state was puzzled how to treat him. The teacher was not a
man of rank, and yet the prince felt that he ought to give him
more honour than rank could claim. Some counsellors of the
court spoke of him as " impracticable and conceited, with a
thousand peculiarities." It was proposed to assign to him a
considerable revenue, but he would not accept it while his
counsels were not followed. Dissatisfactions ensued, and he
went back to Lu.
There for fifteen more years he continued in private life,
prosecuting his studies, and receiving many accessions to his
disciples. He had a difficult part to play with the different
parties in the state, but he adroitly kept himself aloof from them
oil; and at last, in his fifty-second year, he was made chief
magistrate of the city of Chung-tu. A marvellous reformation,
we are told, forthwith ensued in the manners of the people;
and the marquis, a younger brother of the one that fled to Ts i
and died there, called him to higher office. He was finally
appointed minister of crime, — and there was an end of crime.
Two of his disciples at the same time obtained influential positions
in the two most powerful clans of the state, and co-operated
with him. He signalised his vigour by the punishment of a great
officer and in negotiations with the state of Ts'i. He laboured to
restore to the marquis his proper authority, and as an important
step to that end, to dismantle the fortified cities where the great
chiefs of clans maintained themselves like the barons of feudal
Europe. For a couple of years he seemed to be master of the
situation. " He strengthened the ruler," it is said, " and re-
pressed the barons. A transforming government went abroad.
Dishonesty and dissoluteness hid their heads. Loyalty and
good faith became the characteristics of the men, and chastity
and docility those of the women. He was the idol of the people,
and flew in songs through their mouths."
The sky of bright promise was soon overcast. The marquis
of Ts'i and his advisers saw that if Confucius were allowed to
prosecute his course, the influence of Lu would become supreme
throughout the kingdom, and Ts'i would be the first to suffer.
A large company of beautiful women, trained in music and
dancing, and a troop of fine horses, were sent to Lu. The bait
took; the women were welcomed, and the sage was neglected.
The marquis forgot the lessons of the master, and yielded supinely
to the fascinations of the harem. Confucius felt that he must
leave the state. The neglect of the marquis to send round, accord-
ing to rule, among the ministers portions of the flesh after
a great sacrifice, furnished a plausible reason for leaving the
court. He withdrew, though very unwillingly and slowly, hoping
that a change would come over the marquis and his counsellors,
and a message of recall be sent to him. But no such message
came; and he went forth in his fifty-sixth year to a weary
period of wandering among various states.
A disciple once asked Confucius what he would consider the
first thing to be done, if intrusted with the government of a
state. His reply was, "The rectification of names." When
told that such a thing was wide of the mark, he held to it, and
indeed his whole social and political system was wrapped up in
the saying. He had told the marquis of Ts'i that good govern-
ment obtained when the ruler was ruler, and the minister
minister; when the father was father, and the son son.' Society,
he considered, was an ordinance of heaven, and was
made up of five relationships— ruler and subject, JJ^
husband and wife, father and son, elder brothers and * *"*
younger, and friends. There was rule on the one
side of the first four, and submission on the other. The rule
should be in righteousness and benevolence; the submission
in righteousness and sincerity. Between friends the mutual
promotion of virtue should be the guiding principle. It was true
that the duties of the several relations were being continually
violated by the passions of men, and the social state had become
an anarchy. But Confucius had confidence in the preponderating
goodness of human nature, and in the power of example in
superiors. " Not more surely," he said, " does the grass bend
before the wind than the masses yield to the will of those above
them." Given the model ruler, and the model people would
forthwith appear. And he himself could make the model ruler.
He could tell the princes of the states what they ought to be;
and he could point them to examples of perfect virtue in former
times, — to the sage founders of their own dynasty; to the sage
T'ang, who had founded the previous dynasty of Shang; to the
sage Yu, who first established a hereditary kingdom in China;
and to the greater sages still who lived in a more distant golden
age. With his own lessons and those patterns, any ruler of his
day, who would listen to /rim, might reform and renovate his own
state, and his influence would break Torth beyond its limits till
the face of the whole kingdom should be filled with a multitu-
dinous relation-keeping, well-fed, happy people. " If any ruler,"
he once said, " would submit to me as his director for twelve
months, I should accomplish something considerable; and in
three years I should attain the realization of my hopes." Such
were the ideas, the dreams of Confucius. But he had not been
able to get the ruler of his native state to listen to him. His
sage counsels had melted away before the glance of beauty and
the pomps of life.
His professed disciples amounted to 3000, and among them
were between 70 and 80 whom he described as " scholars of
extraordinary ability." The most attached of them
were seldom long away from him. They stood or sat f ir ^i i t
reverently by his side, watched the minutest particulars
of his conduct, studied under his direction the ancient history,
poetry and rites of their country, and treasured up every syllable
which dropped from his lips. They have told us how he never
shot at a bird perching nor fished with a net, the creatures not
having in such a case a fair chance for their lives; how he
conducted himself in court and among villagers; how he ate
his food, and lay in his bed, and sat in his carriage; how he
rose up before the old man and the mourner; how he changed
countenance when it thundered, and when he saw a grand display
of viands at a feast. He was free and unreserved in his inter-
course with them, and was hurt once when they seemed to think
that he kept back some of his doctrines from them. Several of
them were men of mark among the statesmen of the time, and
it is the highest testimony to the character of Confucius that he
inspired them with feelings of admiration and reverence. It was
they who set the example of speaking of him as the greatest of
mortal men; it was they who struck the first notes of that paean
which has gone on resounding to the present day.
Confucius was in his fifty-sixth year when he left Lu; and
thirteen years elapsed ere he returned to it. In this period were
comprised his travels among the different states, when he hoped,
and ever hoped in vain, to meet with some prince who would
accept him as his counsellor, and initiate a government that
should become the centre of a universal reformation. Several
of the princes were willing to entertain and support him; but
for all that he could say, they would not change their ways.
His first refuge was in Wei, a part of the present Ho-nan,
the marquis of which received him kindly; but he was a weak
man, ruled by his wife, a woman notorious for her accomplish-
ments and wickedness. Iti sAXECNgta^ \s* "vwBk Vtss«K^fc<Kv Nsa>
another a\a\* > C»n!b3^&^&«X.^V^ > ^J *tari*r<fc»^« &aa *" ifc
910
CONFUCIUS
him for an officer who had made himself hated by his oppressive
deeds. He himself was perfectly calm amid the danger, though
mm _ his followers were filled with alarm. They were
"" obliged, however, to retrace their way to Wei, and he
had there to appear before the marchioness, who
wished to see how a sage looked. There was a screen
between them at the interview, such as the present regent-
empresses of China use in giving audience to their ministers;
but Tze-lu, one of his principal disciples, was indignant that the
master should have demeaned himself to be near such a woman,
and to pacify him Confucius swore an oath appealing to Heaven
to reject him if he had acted improperly. Soon afterwards he
left the state.
Twice again, during his protracted wanderings, he was placed
in imminent peril, but he manifested the same fearlessness, and
expressed his confidence in the protection of Heaven till his
course should be run. On one of the occasions he and his company
were in danger of perishing from want, and the courage of even
Tze-lu gave way. " Has the superior man, indeed, to endure in
this way?" he asked. " The superior man may have to endure
want," was the reply, " but he is still the superior man. The
small man in the same circumstances loses his self-command."
While travelling about, Confucius repeatedly came across
recluses,— a class of men who had retired from the world in
disgust. That there was such a class gives us a striking glimpse
into the character of the age. Scholarly, and of good principles,
they had given up the conflict with the vices and disorder that
prevailed. But they did not understand the sage, and felt a
contempt for him struggling on against the tide, and always
hoping against hope. We get a fine idea of hira from his en-
counters with them. Once he was looking about for a ford,
and sent Tze-lu to ask a man who was at work in a neighbouring
field where it was. The man was a recluse, and having found
that his questioner was a disciple of Confucius, he said to him:
" Disorder in a swelling flood spreads over the kingdom, and no
one is able to repress it. Than follow a master who withdraws
from one ruler and another that will not take his advice, had
you not better follow those who withdraw from the world
altogether?" With these words he resumed his hoe, and would
give no information about the ford. Tzc-lii went back, and
reported what the man had said to the master, who observed:
" It is impossible to withdraw from the world, and associate with
birds and beasts that have no affinity with us. With whom
should I associate but with suffering men? The disorder that
prevails is what requires my efforts. If right principles ruled
through the kingdom, there would be no necessity for me to
change its state." We must recognize in those words a brave
heart and a noble sympathy. Confucius would not abandon the
cause of the people. He would hold on his way to the end.
Defeated he might be, but he would be true to his humane and
righteous mission.
It was in his sixty-ninth year, 483 B.C., that Confucius returned
to Lu. One of his disciples, who had remained in the state,
had been successful in the command of a military expedition,
and told the prime minister that he had learned his skill in war
from the master, — urging his recall, and that thereafter mean
persons should not be allowed to come between the ruler and him.
The state was now in the hands of the son of the marquis whose
neglect had driven the sage away; but Confucius would not
again take office. Only a few years remained to him, and he
devoted them to the completion of his literary tasks, and the
delivery of his lessons to his disciples.
The next year was marked by the death of his son, which he
bore with equanimity. His wife had died many years before,
and it jars upon us to read how he then commanded the young
man to hush his lamentations of sorrow. We like him better
when he mourned, as has been related, for his own mother.
It is not true, however, as has often been said, that he had
divorced his wife before her death. The death of his favourite
disciple, Yen Hwui, in 481 B.C., was more trying to him. Then
be wept and mourned beyond what seemed to his other followers
etc bounds of propriety, exclaiming that Heaven was destroying
him. His own last year, 478 B.C., dawned on him with the tzagk
end of his next beloved disciple, Tze-lu. Early one moroifig.
we are told, in the fourth month, he got up, and with mia«s
his hands behind his back, dragging his staff, be
moved about his door, crooning over —
" The great mountain must crumble.
The strong beam must break,
The wise man must wither away like a plant.'*
Tze-kung heard the words, and hastened to him. The master
told him a dream of the previous night, which, be thought,
presaged his death. " No intelligent ruler," he said, " arises to
take me as his master. My time has come to die." He took to hb
bed, and after seven days expired. Such is the account we hive
of the last days of the sage of China. His end was not un-
impressive, but it was melancholy. Disappointed hopes nude
his soul bitter. No wife nor child was by to do the offices oi
aiTcction, nor was the expectation of another life with hua,
when he passed away from among men. He uttered no prayer,
and he betrayed no apprehension. Years before, when be was
very ill, and Tze-lu asked leave to pray for him, he expressed a
doubt whether such a thing might be done, and added, " I bate
prayed for a long time." Deep-treasured now in his heart may
have been the thought that he had served his generation by the
will of God; but he gave no sign.
When their master thus died, his disciples buried him with
great pomp. A multitude of them built huts near his grave,
and remained there, mourning as for a father, for nearly three
years; and when all the rest were gone, Tze-kung, the last of
his favourite three, continued alone by the grave for another
period of the same duration. The news of his death went through
the states as with an electric thrill. The man who had bees
neglected when alive seemed to become all at once an object
of unbounded admiration. The tide began to flow which has
hardly ever ebbed during thrcc-and-twenty centuries.
The grave of Confucius is in a large rectangle separated from
the rest of the K'ung cemetery, outside the city of K'iuh-fow.
A magnificent gate gives admission to a fine avenue, lined with
cypress trees and conducting to the tomb, a large and lofty
mound, with a marble statue in front, bearing the inscription
of the title given to Confucius under the Sung dynasty: — " The
most sagely ancient Teacher; the all-accomplished, all-informed
King." A little in front of the tomb, on the left and right, are
smaller mounds over the graves of his son and grandson, from
the latter of whom we have the remarkable treatise called Tie
Doctrine of ike. Mean. All over the place are imperial tablets of
different dynasties, with glowing tributes to the one man whom
China delights to honour; and on the right of the grandson's
mound is a small house said to mark the place of the hut where
Tze-kung passed his nearly five years of loving vigil. On the
mound grow cypresses, acacias, what is called " the crystal tree,"
said not to be elsewhere found, and the Achillea, the plant whose
stalks were employed in ancient times for purposes of divination.
The adjoining city is still the home of the K'ung family; and
there are said to be in it some 40,000 or 50,000 of the descendants
of the sage. The chief of the family has large estates by imperial
gift, with the title of "Duke by imperial appointment and
hereditary right, continuator of the sage."
The dynasty of Chow finally perished two centuries and a
quarter after the death of the sage at the hands of the first
historic emperor of the nation, — the first of the lntktltmem
dynasty of Ts'in, who swept away the foundations of JJ^JjJJJJ
the feudal system. State after state went down before
his blows, but the name and followers of Confucius were the
chief obstacles in his way. He made an effort to destroy the
memory of the sage from off the earth, consigning to the flames
all the ancient books from which he drew his rules and examples
(save one), and burying alive hundreds of scholars who were
ready to swear by his name. But Confucius could not be so
extinguished. The tyranny of Ts'in was of short duration,
and the next dynasty, that of Han, while entering into the new
China, found its surest strength in doing honour to his name,
and trying to gaAhet un th« wreck o( the ancient booM. It is
CONFUCIUS
911
difficult to determine what there was about Confucius to secure
for him the influence which he has wielded. Reference has been
made to his literary tasks; but the study of them only renders
the undertaking more difficult. He left no writings in which
he detailed the principles of his moral and social system. The
Doctrine of the Mean, by his grandson Tze-sze, and The Great
Learning, by Tsang Sin, the most profound, perhaps, of his
disciples, give us the fullest information on that subject, and
contain many of his sayings. The Lun-Yii, or Analects, " Dis-
courses and Dialogues," is a compilation in which many of his
disciples must have taken part, and has great value as a record
of his ways and utterances; but its chapters arc mostly disjecta
membra, affording faint traces of any guiding method or mind.
Menrius, Hsiin K'ing and writers of the Han dynasty, whose
works, however, are more or less apocryphal, tell us much about
him and his opinions, but all in a loose and unconnected way. No
Chinese writer has ever seriously undertaken to compare him
with the philosophers and sages of other nations.
The sage, probably, did not think it necessary to put down
many of his own thoughts in writing, for be said of himself that
Comatxton he was " a transmitter, and not a maker." Nor did
witbtf he lay claim to have any divine revelations. He was
2"J{" r * not born, he declared, with knowledge, but was fond
of antiquity, and earnest in seeking knowledge there.
The rule of life for men in all their relations, he held, was to be
found within themselves. The right development of that rule,
in the ordering not of the individual only, but of society, was to
be found in the words and institutions of the ancient sages.
China had a literature before Confucius. All the monuments
of it, however, were in danger of perishing through the disorder
into which the kingdom had fallen. The feudal system that had
subsisted for more than 1 500 years had become old. Confucius
did not sec this, and it was impossible that he should.
China was in his eyes drifting from its ancient moorings,
drifting on a sea of storms " to hideous ruin and combustion ";
and the expedient that occurred to him to arrest the evil was to
gather up and preserve the records of antiquity, illustrating
and commending them by his own teachings. For this purpose
he lectured to his disciples on the histories, poems and constitu-
tional works of the nation. What he thus did was of inestimable
value to his own countrymen, and all other men arc indebted
to him for what they know of China before his time, though all
the contents of the ancient works have not come down to us.
He wrote, we are told, a preface to the Shu King, or Book of
Historical Documents. The preface is, in fact, only a schedule,
without any remark by Confucius himself, giving the names of
100 books, of which it- consisted. Of these we now possess 59,
the oldest going back to the 23rd century, and the latest dating
in the 8th century B.C. The credibility of the earlier portions,
and the genuineness of several of the documents, have been
questioned, but the collection as a whole is exceedingly valuable.
The Shift king, or Ancient Poems, as existing in his time, or
compiled by him (as generally stated, contrary to the evidence
in the case), consisted of 311 pieces, of which we possess 305.
The latest of them dates 585 years B.C., and the oldest of them
ascends perhaps twelve centuries higher. It is the most interest-
ing book of ancient poetry in the world, and many of the pieces
are really fine ballads. Confucius was wont to say that he who
was not acquainted with the Shift was not fit to be conversed
with, and that the study of it would produce a mind without a
single depraved thought. This is nearly all we have from bim
about the poems.
The Li hi, or Books of Rites and Ancient Ceremonies and
of Institutions, chiefly of the Chow dynasty, have come down
to us in a sadly mutilated condition. They are still more than
sufficiently voluminous, but they were edited, when recovered
under the Han dynasty, with so many additions, that it is hardly
worth while to speak of them in connexion with Confucius,
though much of what was added to them is occupied with his
history and sayings.
Of all the ancient books not one was more prized by htm
than the Yi-king, or " The Book of Changes," the rudiments
of which are assigned to Fuh-hi about the 30th century b.c.
Those rudiments, however, are merely the 8 trigrams and 64
hexagrams, composed of a whole and a broken line ( , ),
without any text or explanation of them earlier than the rise
of the Chow dynasty. The leather thongs, by which the tablets
of Confucius's copy were tied together, were thrice worn out
by his constant handling. He said that if his life were lengthened
he would give fifty years to the study of the Yi, and might then
be without great faults. This has come down to us entire. If
not intended from the first for purposes of divination, it was so
used both before and after Confucius, and on that account
it was exempted, through the superstition of the emperor of
the Ts'in dynasty, from the flames. It is supposed to give a
theory of the phenomena of the physical universe, and of moral
and political principles by the trigrams and the different lines
and numbers of the hexagrams of Fuh-hi. Almost every sentence
in it is enigmatic. As now published , there are always subjoined
to it certain appendixes, which are ascribed to Confucius himself.
Pythagoras and he were contemporaries, and in the fragments of
the Samian philosopher about the " elements of numbers as the
elements of realities " there is a remarkable analogy with much
of the Yi. No Chinese critic or foreign student of Chinese litera-
ture has yet been able to give a satisfactory account of the book.
But a greater and more serious difficulty is presented by
his last literary labour, the work claimed by him as his own,
and which has already been referred to more than once as the
Annals of Lu. Its title is the Ch x un Ch'iu, or " Spring and
Autumn," the events of every year being digested under the
heads of the four seasons, two of which are used by synecdoche
for the whole. Mcncius held that the composition of the Ch'un
Ch'iu was as great a work as Yu's regulation of the waters of the
deluge with which the Shu King commences, and did for the
face of society what the earlier labour did for the face of nature.
This work also has been preserved nearly entire, but it is ex-
cessively meagre. The events of 242 years barely furnish an
hour or two's reading. Confucius's annals do not bear a greater
proportion to the events which they indicate than the headings
in our Bibles bear to the contents of the chapters to which they
are prefixed. Happily Tso K'iu-ming took it in hand to supply
those events, incorporating also others with them, and continuing
his narratives over some additional years, so that through him
the history of China in all its states, from year to year, for more
than two centuries and a half, lies bare before us. Tso never
challenges the text of the master as being incorrect, yet he does
not warp or modify his own narratives to make them square
with it; and the astounding fact is, that when we compare the
events with the summary of them, we must pronounce the latter
misleading in the extreme. Men are charged with murder who
were not guilty of it, and base murders are related as if they had
been natural deaths. Villains, over whose fate the reader
rejoices, are put down as victims of vile treason, and those who
dealt with them as be would have been glad to do are subjected
to horrible executions without one word of sympathy. Ignoring,
concealing and misrepresenting are the characteristics of the
Spring and A utumn.
And yet this work is the model for all historical summaries in
China. The want of harmony between the facts and the state-
ments about them is patent to all scholars, and it is the knowledge
of this, unacknowledged to themselves, which has made the
literati labour with an astonishing amount of fruitless ingenuity
and learning to find in individual words, and the turfi of every
sentence, some mysterious indication of praise, or blame. But
the majority of them will admit no flaw in the sage or in his
annals. His example in the book has been very injurious to bis
country. One almost wishes that critical reasons could be found
for denying its authenticity. Confucius said that " by the Spring
and A utumn men would know him and men would condemn him."
It certainly obliges us to make a large deduction from our estimate
of his character and of the beneficial influence which he has
exerted. The examination of his literary labours does not on the
whole increase our appreciation of him. We get a higher, idea,
of the man from tint ^w^\&^\asS^\as> ^oj^k&Nskwi^p^^^
913
CONGE D'ELIRE
Hh Golden :
of his intercourse and conversations with them, and the attempts
which they made to present his teachings in some systematic
form. If he could not arrest the progress of disorder in his
country, nor throw out principles which should be helpful in
guiding it to a better state under some new constitutional
system, he gave important lessons for the formation of in-
dividual character, and the manner in which the duties in the
relations of society should be discharged.
Foremost among these we must rank his distinct enunciation
of " the golden rule," deduced by him from his study of man's
mental constitution. Several times he gave that rule
1 in express words. — " What you do not like when done
to yourself do not do to others." The peculiar nature
of the Chinese language enabled him to express this rule by one
character, which for want of a better term we may translate in
English by " reciprocity." When the ideagram is looked at,
it tells its meaning to the eye. It is composed of two other
characters, one denoting " heart," and the other — itself com-
posite — denoting " as." Tze-kung once asked if there were any
one word which would serve as a rule of practice for all one's life,
and the master replied, yes, naming this character (J&jA«),
■the " as heart," i.e. my heart in sympathy with yours; and
then he added his usual explanation of it, which has been given
above. It has been said that he only gave the rule in a negative
form, but he understood it also in its positive and most compre-
hensive force, and deplored, on one occasion at least, that he had
not himself always attained to taking the initiative in doing to
others as he would have them do to him.
Another valuable contribution to ethical and social science
was the way in which he inculcated the power of example, and
the necessity of benevolence and righteousness in all who were in
authority. Many years before he was bom, an ancient hero and
king had proclaimed in China: " The great God has conferred
on the people a moral sense, compliance with which would show
their nature invariably right. To cause them tranquilly to
pursue the course which it indicates is the task of the sovereign."
Confucius knew the utterance well; and he carried out the prin-
ciple of it, and insisted on its application in all the relations of
society. He taught emphatically that a bad man was not fit to
rule: As a father or a magistrate, he might wield the instruments
of authority and punish the transgressors of his laws, but no
forthputting of force would countervail the influence of his
example. On the other hand, it only needed virtue in the
higher position to secure it in the lower. This latter side of his
teaching is far from being complete and correct, but the former
has, no doubt, been a check on the " powers that be," both in
the family and the state, ever since Confucius became the ac-
knowledged sage of his country. It has operated both as a
restraint upon evil and a stimulus to good.
A few of his more characteristic sayings may here be given,
the pith and point of which attest his discrimination
of character, and show the tendencies of his
views : —
" What the superior man seeks is in himself; what the small
man seeks is in others,"
"The superior man is dignified, but does not wrangle; social,
but not a partisan. He does not promote a man simply because of
his words, nor does he put good words aside because of the man."
" A poor man who does not natter, and a rich man who is not
proud, are passable characters: but they are not equal to the poor
who vet are cheerful, and the rich who yet love the rules of propriety."
"Learning, undigested by thought, is labour lost; thought un-
assisted by learning, is perilous."
M In style all that is required is that it convey the meaning."
" Extravagance leads to insubordination, ami parsimony to mean-
nest. It is better to be mean than insulx>rclinntc."
'* A man can enlarge hm prim ii»li*» ; principle* do not enlarge the
man." That is, man is greater than any *y»tem of thought.
" The cautious seldom err.
► sayings like these have gone far to form the
character. Hundreds of thousands of the
literati cm repeat every sentence in the classical books; the
mms of ike people have scores of the Confucian maxims,
mod Jjrtfe dst of am ethkal nature, in their memories,— and with
Who
Confucius laid no claim, it has been seen, to divine revektioai
Twice or thrice he did vaguely intimate that he had a misska
from heaven, and that until it was accomplished he ^
was safe against all attempts to injure him; but his !■%»■
teachings were singularly devoid of reference to any- «■*#*■>
thing but what was seen and temporal. Man as he is, •****•
and the duties belonging to him in society, were all that ht
concerned himself about. Man's nature was from God; the
harmonious acting out of it was obedience to the will of God;
and the violation of it was disobedience. But in affirming this,
there was a striking difference between his language and that
of his own ancient models. In the King the references to the
Supreme Being are abundant; there is an exulting, am Jul
recognition of Him as the almighty personal Ruler, who orders
the course of nature and providence. With Confucius the vague,
impersonal term, Heaven, took the place of the divine out
There is no glow of piety in any of his sentiments. He thought
that it was better that men should not occupy themselves with
anything but themselves.
There were, we are told in the Analects, four things of which
he seldom spoke — extraordinary things, feats of strength,
rebellious disorder and spiritual beings. Whatever the institu-
tions of Chow prescribed about the services to be paid to the
spirits of the departed, and to other spirits, he performed
reverently, up to the letter; but at the same time, when one of
the ministers of Lu asked him what constituted wisdom, he
replied: " To give one's self earnestly to the duties due to men,
and while respecting spiritual beings, to keep aloof from them —
that may be called wisdom."
But what belief underlay the practice, as ancient as the first
footprints of history in China, of sacrificing to the spirits of
the departed, Confucius would not say. There was no need,
in his opinion, to trouble the mind about it. " While you cannot
serve men," he replied to the inquiry of Tze-lu, " how can you
serve spirits?" And what becomes of a man's own self, when
he has passed from the stage of life? The oracle of Confucius
was equally dumb on this question. " While you do not know
life," he said to the same inquirer, " what can you know about
death?" Doubts as to the continued existence of the departed
were manifested by many leading men in China before the era
of Confucius. In the pages of Tso K'iu-ming, when men are
swearing in the heat of passion, they sometimes pause and rest
the validity df their oaths on the proviso that the dead to whom
they appeal really exist. The " expressive silence " of Confucius
has gone to confirm this scepticism.
His teaching was thus hardly more than a pure secularism.
He had faith in man, man made for society, but he did not care
to follow him out of society, nor to present to him motives of
conduct derived from the consideration of a future state. Good
and evil would be recompensed by the natural issues of conduct
within the sphere of time, — if not in the person of the actor, yet
in the persons of his descendants. If there were any joys of
heaven to reward virtue, or terrors of future retribution to punish
vice, the sage took no heed of the one or the other. Confucius
never appeared to give the evils of polygamy a thought. He
mourned deeply the death of his mother; but no generous word
ever passed his lips about woman as woman. Nor had be the
idea of any progress or regeneration of society. The stars all
shone to him in the heavens behind; none beckoned brightly
before. It was no doubt the moral element of his teaching,
springing out of his view of human nature, which attracted
many of his disciples, and still holds the best part of the Chinese
men of learning bound to him; but the conservative tendency
of his lessons— nowhere so apparent as in the Ch'un CA't «— is
the chief reason why successive dynasties have delighted to do
him honour. (J. Lz.)
CONGti D'ftLIRE (in Norman French, congi d'eslirc, leave to
elect), a licence from the crown in England issued under the
great seal to the dean and chapter of the cathedral church of
the diocese, authorizing them to elect a bishop or archbishop,
as the case may be, upon the vacancy of any episcopal or archi-
epiacopaltoQ in England or in Wales. According to the Chronicle
CONGLETON— CONGLOMERATE
9»3
of Ingulphus, abbot of Crowland, who wrote in the reign of
William the Conqueror, the bishoprics in England had been,
for many years prior to the Norman Conquest, royal donatives
conferred by delivery of the ring and of the pastoral staff.
Disputes arose for the first time between the crown of England
and the see of Rome in the reign of William Rufus, the pope
claiming to dispose of the English bishoprics; and ultimately
King John, by his charter Ut liberat sunt clectiones tolius Angliae
(12 14), granted that the bishops should be elected freely by the
deans and chapters of the cathedral churches, provided the
royal permission was first asked, and the royal assent was required
after the election. This arrangement was confirmed by subse-
quent statutes passed in the reigns of Edward I. and Edward III.
respectively, and the practice was ultimately settled in its present
form by the statute Payment of Annates, &c, 1534. According
to the provisions of this statute, upon the avoidance of any
episcopal see, the dean and chapter of the cathedral church are
to certify the vacancy of the see to the crown, and to pray that
they may be allowed to proceed to a new election. The crown
thereupon grants to the dean and chapter its licence under the
great seal to elect a new bishop, accompanied by a letter missive
containing the name of the person whom the dean and chapter
are to elect. The dean and chapter are thereupon bound to
elect the person so named by the crown within twelve days, in
default of which the crown is empowered by the statute to
nominate by letters patent such person as it may think fit, to
the vacant bishopric. Upon the return of the election of the new
bishop, the metropolitan is required by the crown to examine
and to confirm the election, and the metropolitan's confirmation
gives to the election its canonical completeness. In case of a
vacancy in a mctropolitical see, an episcopal commission is ap-
pointed by the guardians of the spiritualities of the vacant see
to confirm the election of the new metropolitan. At one time
deans of the " old foundation " — in contradistinction to those
of the " new foundation," founded by Henry VIII. out of the
spoils of the dissolved monasteries — were elected by the chapter
on a congi d'ilire from the crown, but now all deans are installed
by letters-patent from the crown. (See Confirmation or
Bishops.)
CONGLETON, HENRY BROOKE PARNELL, ist Bason
(1 776-1842), was the second son of Sir John Parncll, bart.
( 1 744-1801), chancellor of the Irish exchequer, and was educated
at Eton and Cambridge. In 1801 he succeeded to the family
estates in Queen's county, and married a daughter of the earl
of Portarlington; and in 1802, by his father-in-law's interest,
he was returned for Portarlington to parliament, but he speedily
resigned the seat. In 1806 he was returned for Queen's county,
for which he sat till 1832, when he withdrew from the repre-
sentation. In 1833, however, he was returned for Dundee;
and after being twice re-elected for the same city (183 5 and 1837),
he was raised to the peerage in 1841 with the title of Baron
Congleton of Congleton. In 1842, having suffered for some time
from ill-health and melancholy, he. committed suicide. He was
a Liberal Whig, and took a prominent part in the struggle of his
party. In 1806 he was a commissioner of the treasury for
Ireland; it was on his motion on the civil list that the duke of
Wellington was defeated in 1830; in that year and in 1831 he
was secretary at war; and from 183s till 1841 he was paymaster
of the forces and treasurer of the ordnance and navy. He was
the author of several volumes and pamphlets on matters con-
nected with financial and penal questions, the most important
being that On Financial Reform, 1830.
He was succeeded as 2nd baron by his eldest son John Vesey
(1805-1883), who in 1829 joined the Plymouth Brethren, and
spent his life in enthusiastic religious work. He left no son, and
his brother Henry William (d. 1806) became 3rd baron, being
succeeded by his second son Henry (1839-1906), a soldier who
rose to be major-general.
CONGLETON, a market town and municipal borough in the
Macclesfield parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, on
the North Staffordshire railway, 157} m. N.W. by N. of London.
Pop. (1001) 10,707. It is finely situated in a deep valley, on
the banks of the Dane, a tributary of the Weaver. To the east
Cloud Hill, and to the south Mow Cop, rise sharply to heights
exceeding 1000 ft. Congleton has no buildings noteworthy for
age or beauty, save a few old timbered houses. The grammar
school was in existence as early as 1553. In the 16th and 17th
centuries the leather laces known as " Congleton points " were
in high repute; but the principal industry of the town is now
the manufacture of silk, which was introduced in 1752 by a
Mr Pattison of London. Coal and salt arc raised, and the other
industries include fustian, towel, couch, chair and nail factories,
iron and brass foundries, stone quarries and corn mills. At
Biddulph, 3 m. S., in a narrow valley, across the border in
Staffordshire, are several coal-mines and iron-foundries. The
gardens of the Grange here are celebrated for their beauty.
Congleton is served by the Macclesfield canal. The borough is
under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 2572 acres.
Congleton (Congulton) is not mentioned in any historical record
before the Domesday Survey, when it was held by Hugh, carl
of Chester, and rendered geld for one hide. In the 13th century,
as part of the barony of Halton, the manor passed to Henry,
carl of Lincoln, who by a charter dated 1282 declared the town
a free borough, with a gild merchant and numerous privileges,
including power to elect a mayor, a catchpole and an aletaster.
This charter was confirmed by successive sovereigns, with some
additional privileges. In 1524 the burgesses were exempted
from appearing at the shire and hundred courts, and in 1583
the body corporate was reconstructed under the title of mayor
and commonalty, and power was granted to make by-laws and
to punish offenders. The governing charter, which held force
until the Municipal Corporation Act of 1835, was granted by
James I. in 1624, and instituted a mayor, 8 aldermen, 16 capital
burgesses, a high steward, common-clerk and other officers.
Charters were also granted by Charles II. and George IV. In
1282 Henry, earl of Lincoln, obtained a Saturday market and
an eight days' fair at the feast of St Peter ad Vincula, and the
market is still held under this grant In 131 1 a Tuesday market
is mentioned, and a fair at the feast of St Martin. Henry VI.
in 1430 granted to the burgesses a fair at the feast of SS. Philip
and James. James I. confirmed the three existing fairs and
granted an additional fair on the Thursday before Quinquage&ima
Sunday. Congleton suffered severely from the plagues of 1603
and 1 64 1, and by the latter was almost entirely depopulated.
On the whole, however, the town has steadily grown in population
and commercial prosperity from the granting of its first charter.
See Victoria County History, Cheshire'. Robert Head, Congleton
Past and Present (Congleton. 1887); Samuel Yates, An History of
the Ancient Town and Borough of Congleton (Congleton, 1820).
CONGLOMERATE (from the Lat. conglomerate, to form into
a ball, glomus, glomeris; so also the general term " conglomera-
tion " for a miscellaneous collection of things, gathered together
in a mass), in petrology, the term used for a coarsely fragmental
rock consisting of rounded pebbles set in a finer grained matrix.
The pebbles must be rounded, otherwise the rocks are breccias,
and these have a distinctly different geological significance.
They have attained their present shapes by weathering and by
attrition during transport by streams and the waves and currents
of the sea. The pebbles consist mainly of hard rocks, such as
granite, gneiss, sandstone, greywacke, or sometimes limestone.
Quartzites, cherts and flints, and vein-quartz are among the
hardest and most durable of all rocks, and hence are specially
abundant in conglomerates. Fragments of vein-quartz form a
large part of the "banket-rock" of the auriferous Transvaal
reefs, one of the most important conglomerates economically.
In this case the matrix consists mainly of quartz and chlorite,
and gold occurs both in the matrix and in the pebbles. Igneous
rocks on account of their toughness are also very abundant
in many conglomerates; those at the base of the Old Red
Sandstone of Scotland, which are thousands of feet in thickness,
consist largely of andesite, porphyrite, granite, diorite and
porphyry, along with vein-quartz, quartzite and various kinds
of gneiss. Soft and friable rocks, on the other hand, suck «&,
shale, mica-schist &od oc*^ %x* wc&) W&&\&. -*x*i <ag&x*c&si
9»4
CONGO
as pebbles in conglomerate-beds. They are ground to pieces by
friction against harder masses and help to form the matrix*.
The size of the pebbles varies greatly; occasionally they are
10 or 20 ft. in diameter, more frequently they are a foot or less.
The cementing matrix in which the pebbles are embedded usually
bears some resemblance in composition to the nature of the
pebbles, but contains a larger proportion of the softer ingredients,
such as clay, mica, weathered felspar, calcite and dolomite.
Often it resembles a fclspathic or calcareous sandstone; if
limestone fragments are common it may be highly calcareous,
or may be in large measure dolomitic. Often the matrix is
stained red by compounds of iron. The " brockram " of the
north of England is a well-known Permian limestone-con-
glomerate. The Dolomitic Conglomerate is a similar rock, but of
Triassic age. Both of these are often extensively dolomitized
and pass into breccias, where their fragments are angular and
unworn. The pebble beds of the Buntcr (Triassic period) are also
familiar to geologists. They cover extensive areas in the mid-
lands of England, and are well seen at BudleighSalterton on the
south coast. The pebbles are mostly quartzite with granite,
chert, sandstone and igneous rocks.
Conglomerates are rarely well bedded, showing at most a
rude stratification, but they may contain intercalations of
finer materials such as sandstone and shale, which indicate the
bedding clearly. In these fossils may be found, but they do
not often occur in the conglomerates themselves, as the con-
ditions are generally unsuitable for the preservation of organic
remains. The pebbles, however, may be highly fossiliferous,
and sometimes important evidence is provided by this means
as to the age of the conglomerate. On account of the imperfect
stratification it is often very hard to estimate the thickness of
conglomerates, and this difficulty is increased by the fact that
many of them must have been laid down as sloping banks of
pebbles and not as flat layers of deposit. Conglomerates are
merely consolidated gravels, and have originated mostly on
seashores or in shallow waters near land. They are typical shore
formations, and are especially frequent where one series of
stratified rocks rest upon an older group unconformably. Other
conglomerates occur along with fine-grained red sandstones,
salt beds and such rocks as accompany desert deposits. We
may compare them with the accumulations of pebbles which
cover extensive areas of existing deserts. A quite distinct group
of conglomerates characterizes regions where the rocks arc much
broken and sheared; these may very closely resemble true
conglomerates, but have really been produced by the mashing
together of rock masses along zones of fracture and movement.
They are known as " crush-conglomerates " or " auto-clastic
rocks." Conglomerates may undergo metamorphism, and are
then converted into "conglomerate-gneiss" or "conglomerate-
schist." Their pebbles are flattened and dragged out of shape
by interstitial movement, while the matrix becomes highly
crystalline. One of the best-known examples o( this is the
Obermittwcida gneiss (Saxony). (J. S. F.)
CONGO, formerly known as Zaire, the largest of the rivers of
Africa, exceeded in size among the rivers in the world by the
Amazon only. The Congo, though it has a shorter course than
the Nile, has a length of fully 3000 m. and a drainage area
estimated at 1,425,000 sq. m., with a diameter of some 1400 m.
either way. This vast area includes the equatorial basin of
Central Africa and much of the surrounding plateaus. West
and north the Congo basin is bounded by comparatively narrow
bands of higher ground, while cast and south the drainage area
of the river includes considerable portions of the high plateaus
of east and south Central Africa. The main drainage of the
Congo system is thus north and west, and these two directions
dominate the great bow-like sweep of the main stream before
it is deflected south on approaching the western highlands,
through which it finally forces a way to the Atlantic Ocean.
From the high lands of the south and cast in which the head-
streams of the Congo have their origin, the land falls in a succes-
sfon of steps, generally marked by gorges or rapids in the upper
courses of the streams. Besides the main stream most of the
affluents of the river are navigable for considerable distances,
in all there are over 6000 m. of navigable water in the Ccnp
basin and 20,000 m. of overhanging wooded banks. On tit
Congo alone are over 4000 islands, many of considerable length-
some fifty of them are over ten miles long. The volume of warn
poured into the Atlantic is at least 1,200,000 cubic ft. per second. 1
Head-Streams. — The most distant head-streams of the Congo
are far to the north and east of those most to the south, and it is
difficult to determine which stream is the " parent " river. The
easterly head-streams are, however, regarded generally as
marking the true course of the Congo. The most remote <*
these rivers is the Chambezi, which, with its tributaries, rises
(in British territory) on the southern slope of the plateau betvea
lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika at an elevation of about 6000 ft.
The watershed is formed by the crest of the plateau, and is
perfectly distinguishable, save at a spot called Ikomba, aboct
half-way between the lakes, where is a swamp which drains to
both the Atlantic and the Indian oceans. The Chambefi
source is in o° 6' S., 31 20' E. Its chief tributary, the Karungo,
rises in 0° 50' S., 33 2' E. The Chozi, an affluent of the Karungo,
rises in the same latitude as the Chambezi, about half a degree
to the cast of that stream After the junction of the Karunga
and Chambezi the river flows in a south-westerly directka
through a fairly fertile country, and receiving many tributaries
becomes a large river with steep wooded banks and many islands.
Its width varies greatly, from 30 yds. to 2 m. in a comparatively
short distance; its depth is rarely less than 14 ft. In its lover
course the Chambezi passes through papyrus marshes, and divid-
ing into several channels, enters the vast swamp which forms
the southern part of Lake Bangweulu (q.v.). The large river,
known as the Luapula (Great River), which issues from Bang-
weulu in n° 31' S and runs south through this swamp, may be
regarded as a continuation of the Chambezi, there being a chanocl
from the one stream to the other. The Luapula on leaving the
swamp bends west and then south — reaching ia° 25* S— tnd
approaches the watershed of the Zambezi, receiving several
southern tributaries. The source of its most southern affluent
and therefore the most southern point in the Congo basin, b
approximately in 13 30' S. Turning north the Luapula pre-
cipitates itself down the Mumbatuta (or Mambirima) Fall*
(12 17' S. f 20 15' E.), the thunder of which can be heard on &
still night for 8 or 9 m. The river, the width of which varies
from 250 to 1200 yds., is almost unnavigable until below the
Johnston Falls (Mambilima of the natives), a series of rapids
extending from n° 10' to io° 30' S. Below the falls the river
is navigable by steamer all the way to Lake Mweru — a. distance
of 100 m. Before entering Mweru (q.v.) the Luapula again,
passes through a swampy region of deltaic character, a great
part of the water escaping eastwards by various channels, and
after spreading over a wide area finally passing into Mweru by
lagoon-like channels cast of the main Luapula mouth. From
Bangweulu to Mweru the fall of the river in a total distance of
350 m. is about 700 ft. The river (known now as the Luvua)
makes its exit at the N.W. corner of the lake, and bending
westwards in a winding course, passes, with many rapids, across
the zone of the Kebara and Mugila mountains, failing during
this interval nearly 1000 ft. In about 6° 45' S., 26° 50' E. it
joins the Kamolondo (otherwise Lualaba), the western "**'"
branch of the Congo, which, as it flows in a broad level valley
at a lower level than the eastern branch, is held by some to be
the true head-stream. The Kamolondo is formed by the junction
of several streams having their source on the northern slope of
the south-central plateau as it dips towards the equatorial basin.
This escarpment contains many heights exceeding 6000 ft. The
streams flowing south from it belong to the Zambezi basin, but
the watershed is not everywhere clearly defined. Thus the
Lumpemba (an affluent of the Lokuleshe, one of the main
tributaries of the Lubudi) rises in 1 1° 24' S., 24° 28' E., 3 m. S.
1 Sir John Murray estimated the mean annual discharge of the
Congo at 419-291 cub. m., making it in this respect only second
to the Amazon (Scot. Gccf>. Mag.. 1887). The annual rainfall of the
basin he put at \?\y^o&Y>. wv.
CONGO
9»S
and 6 m. E. of the source of the Zambezi, both streams running
a parallel course northward for some 15 m. There is, however,
no connexion between the Zambezi and Congo systems. The
Lualaba, also known as Nzilo, which is the main stream of the
Kamolondo, rises at an altitude of 4700 ft., in 26*40' E., just
north of 12° S. — the watershed of the western head-streams of
the Congo being everywhere north of that parallel. East of the
Lualaba — between it and the Luapula — rises the river Lufira.
With many windings the Lualaba and Lufira pursue a generally
northerly direction, passing through the Mitumba range in deep
gorges, their course being broken by rapids for 40 or 50 m.
Below Konde Rapids in o° 20' S. the Lualaba is, however, free
from obstructions. (Just above the last of the series of rapids
it is joined by the Lubudi, a considerable river and the western-
most of the Kamolondo affluents.) Between the rapids named
and 7 40' S. its valley is studded with a chain of small lakes and
backwaters. The largest — Upemba— has channels communicat-
ing both with the Lualaba and the Lufira. In the rainy season
the whole region becomes a marsh; various grasses, especially
papyrus, form floating islands, and the conditions generally
recall the sudd region of the Nile. In about 8° 20' S. the
Lualaba and Lufira unite in one of these marshy lakes— Kisale —
through which there is a navigable channel. The river issuing
from Lake Kisale is called Kamolondo; it has a width varying
from 300 to 1000 ft. and an average depth of 10 ff. From
Konde Rapids to those of Dia in 5 20' — a distance of 300 m. —
there is no interruption to navigation saving the floating mosses
of vegetation on Kisale at high water. The region watered by
these western head-streams of the Congo includes Katanga
and other districts, which are among the most fertile and densely
populated in Belgian Congo.
The Upper Congo or Lualaba.— After the junction of the
Luapula (Luvua) and the Lualaba (Kamolondo) the united
stream, known as the Lualaba or Lualaba-Congo, and here over
half a mile wide, pursues a N.N.W. course towards the equator.
The Dia Rapids, already mentioned, are the first obstruction
to navigation encountered. A mile or two lower down the
Lualaba passes through a narrow gorge called the Porte d'Enfcr.
From this point as far north as 3 10' S. the course of the river
is interrupted by falls and rapids, the chief being the rapids
(«n 3° 55' S.) below the Arab settlement of Nyangwe and those
at Send we in 3 15' S. In this part of its course the Congo
becomes a majestic river, often over a mile wide, with flat
wooded banks, the only real impediments to navigation between
the Dia Rapids and Stanley Falls being those named. Between
the junction of the two main upper branches, about 1700 ft.
above the sea, and the first of the Stanley Falls (1520 ft.), the
fall of the river is less tlian 200 ft., in a distance of 500 m. During
the whole of this section the Lualaba receives the most of its
tributaries from the east. Of these, the Lukuga connects Lake
Tanganyika with the Congo system. The Lukuga (see Tangan-
yika) drains the mountainous country through which it passes,
and also, intermittently, receives the overflow waters of Tangan-
yika. The outlet from the lake is sometimes clear, sometimes
silted up. The Lukuga is much broken by rapids, falling 1000
ft. during its course of some 300 m. Farther north are a number
of streams which drain the forest region between 4 S. and the
equator, the Lubamba, the Elila or Lira, the Luindi and the
Lowa being the most important. Their sources lie on an upland
region west of the Albcrtine rift-valley. The Luindi in its
middle course has a general width of 60 to 100 yds., but the Lowa
is larger, receiving two important affluents, the Luvuto from
the north and the Ozo which rises in the mountains at the N.W.
end of Lake Kivu. The lower course of the Luindi is very
tortuous.
Stanley Falls. —Stanley Falls, which mark the termination
of the upper Congo, begin a few miles south of the equator.
At this point the river forsakes the northerly course it has been
pursuing and sweeps westward through the great equatorial
basin. The falls consist of seven cataracts extending along a
curve of the river for nearly 60 m. They are not of great height-
toe total fall is about 200 ft.— but they effectually prevent
navigation between the waters above and those below except
by canoes. The first five cataracts are near together; only
9 m. separate the first from the fifth. The sixth cataract is
22 m. lower down, and the seventh, the most formidable of all
the cataracts, is 26 m. below the sixth. The fall, divided into
two portions .by an islet, is 800 yds. wide. The channel is
narrowed at the foot of the fall to some 450 yds. by an island
close to the left bank; on the right bank of the river is the
island of Wane Rusari (2 m. long by J m. broad), separated from
the mainland by a channel 30 yds. wide. The fall is only about
xo ft.; but the enormous mass of water, and the harrow limits
to which it is suddenly contracted, make it much more imposing
than many a far loftier cataract. Small rapids mark the course
of the river for another 2 m.
The Middle Congo.— Below Stanley Falls the Congo is unbroken
by rapids for 980 m., and is navigable throughout this distance
all the year round. The river here makes a bold north-westerly
katrr WllLrr tC
curve, attaining its most northerly point (2° 13' 50" N.) at
22 13' E., and reaches the equator again after a course of 630 m.
from the falls— the distance in a direct line being 472 m. For
another 250 m. the river flows south-westerly, until at Stanley
Pool the limit of inland navigation is reached. For the greater
part of this section the Congo presents a lacustrine character.
Immediately below the falls the river, from i to 1 m. broad,
flows between low hills, which on the south give place to a
swampy region, the river-bank marked by a ridge of clay and
gravel. After receiving the waters of the Aruwimi— 130 m.
below the falls — the Congo broadens out to 4 or 5 m.; its banks,
densely wooded, are uniformly low, and the surface of the water
is studded with alluvial islands and innumerable sandbanks,
rendering it impossible save at rare intervals to see from bank
to bank. The velocity of the current decreases as the waters
spread out, though there is always a channel from 4} to 5 ft.
deep. About 100 m. below the Aruwimi confluence thcLoika
or Itimbiri joins the main stream from the north, the Congo
narrowing considerably here owing, it is supposed, to the matter
deposited by the Loika. At two or three other places lower
down, the river is contracted to i\ or 2 m. as aTesuIt of a slight
elevation In the ground, but Cot *.<&&%&».<& «fafe\&.-«&ia&>3fe>
is met with. Ou \>\t wtttatu cur«« <A >^Vw*£esafc\aKok.'w*»
916
CX>NGO
found the largest islands of the Congo— Esumba, 30 m. long,
and Nsumba, 50 m. long, and over 5 across at its broadest part.
At this point the river from bank to bank is 9 m. wide. Opposite
Nsumba, the Mongala, a northern affluent, enters the main
stream, whilst lower down Oust north of the equator) the Lulanga,
Ikclemba and Ruki rivers, southern tributaries,, mingle their
black waters with the dark current of the Congo. Thirty miles
south of the equator the river is joined by the Ubangi (q.v.), its
greatest northern affluent. Here the Congo is fully 8 m. wide.
Opposite the Ubangi confluence is the mouth of a narrow channel,
some 10 m. long, which connects the Congo with Lake Ntomba,
a sheet of water about 23 m. long by 8 to 12 broad. In flood
time the water flows from the Congo into the lake. Immediately
below ferruginous conglomerate hills of slight eminence reduce
the river to a width of less than 2 m., and in comparatively close
succession are two or three other narrows. With these exceptions
the Congo continues at a width of 5 to 6 m. until at 2° 36' S. it
abruptly contracts, being confined between steep-faced hills
rising to 800 ft This stretch of the river, known as the " Chenal,"
is x*5 m. long and is free from islands, though long reefs jut into
the stream. Its width here varies from 2 m. to less than x m.
About 40 m. after the Chenal is entered the Kasai (q.v.) coming
from the south empties its brick-coloured waters at right angles
into the Congo through a chasm in the hills 700 yds. wide. The
confluence is known as the Kwa mouth. The Chenal ends in
the lake-like expansion of Stanley Pool, 20 m. long by 14 broad.
The middle of the pool is occupied by an island (Bamu) and
numerous sandbanks. Its rim is " formed by sierras of peaked
and picturesque mountains, ranging on the southern side from
xooo ft. to 3000 ft. in height" The banks offer considerable
variety in character. On the north bank are the Dover Cliffs,
so named by H. M. Stanley from their white and glistening
appearance, produced, however, not by chalk but by silver sand,
the subsidence of which into the water renders approach to the
bank sometimes dangerous. The banks of the lower end of the
pool are comparatively flat. On the south side, however, stands
the great red cliff of Kallina Point (about 50 ft high), named
after an Austrian lieutenant drowned there in 1882. Round the
point rushes a strong current 7} knots an hour, difficult to stem
even for a steamer. On the northern bank of the river at the
western end of the pool is the French port of Brazzaville. South
of the pool hills, low but steep, reappear, and 4 m. lower down
begin the cataracts which cut off the middle Congo from the sea.
Some 300 yds. above the first of these cataracts is the Belgian
port of Leopoldvillc, connected with the navigable waters of the
lower river by railway. At Stanley Pool the elevation of the
river above the sea is about 800 ft., a fall of over 500 ft in the
080 m. from Stanley Falls. The banks of the river throughout
this long stretch of country are very sparsely populated. The
number of inhabitants in 1902 did not exceed 125,000.
The velocity of the stream in the middle Congo varies con-
siderably. At the Aruwimi confluence the rate is from 300 to
350 ft. a minute; in the broader stretches lower down the current
is not more than 200 ft a minute. Through the Chenal the pace
is greatly accelerated, and as it flows out of Stanley Pool the
current is not less than 600 ft. a minute.
The Lower Congo.-— The cataracts below Stanley Pool arc
caused by the river forcing its way through the mountains which
run parallel to the western coast of the continent The highlands
(known as the Scrro do Crystal) consist of two principal mountain
cones with an in tcrmediate zone of lower elevation. The passage
of this intermediate rone is marked by a fairly navigable stretch
of river extending from Manyanga to Isangila, a distance of
70 m,, during which the only serious rapids are those of Churabo
and Itunxima, the latter in 13 54' E.; while above and below,
rapids succeed each other at short intervals. Some eighteen
main rapids or falls occur during the upper section (87 m.), in
the course of which the level drops about 500 ft; and about ten
In the lower section (56 m.), during which the fall is about 300
The last rapid Is a little above the port of Matadi, beyond which
the river h navigable for large vessels to the sea, a distance of
sbout Sf a. At MiUdl the tall cliffs on either side sink away
and the river widens out into an estuary with many mangrow-
bordered creeks and forest-clad islands of a deltaic character.
This estuary is traversed by a deep canon, in which soundmsscf
000 ft have been obtained. The mouth of the river is a
6° S. and 12 20' E. The canon or gully is continued into tk
open sea for over 100 m., with depths as much as 4000 ft beta
the general level of the sea floor. Just below Matadi, where tk
width of the river is about half a mile, depths of 276 and 360 ft.
have been found, the current here running at from 4 to 8 knots,
according to the season; while the difference in level between
high and low water is 20-25 ft. The difference in level is not dne
to tidal action but is caused by the rainy or dry seasons, of whkfc
there are two each during the year. In the middle Congo May
and November are the times of greatest flood; in the lower rmr
the floods are somewhat later. At Stanley Pool the ■»»«"■■*
rise of water is about 15 ft The tides are felt as far as Boot,
49 m. from the mouth of the river, but the rise is there less thai
a foot; while at the mouth it is 6 ft. The canon above mo-
tioned is occupied by salt water, which is nearly motionless.
Above it the fresh water runs with increasing velocity, bet
decreasing depth, so that just within the mouth of the river it is
only a few feet deep.
The river at its mouth between Banana Point on the north
and Sharks Point on the south is over 7 m, across. Banana
Point (which grows no bananas) is the end of a long sandy
peninsula, its highest spot not more than 6 ft. above high water,
Sharks Point is bolder and shaped somewhat like a reaping-
hook with the point turned inward, thus enfolding Diegos Bay.
The current of the river is perceptible fully 30 m. out to sea,
the brown waters of the Congo being distinguishable from the
blue of the ocean.
Northern Tributary Rivers.— The various head-streams and
affluents of the upper Congo have been already described.
Below Stanley Pool numerous streams with courses of 100 or
more miles drain the Crystal Mountains and join the Congo.
They are unnavigable and comparatively unimportant. There
remain to consider the affluents of the middle river. Of these
the most important, the Ubangi on the north and the Kasai
on the south, with their tributary streams, are noticed separately.
In dealing with the other affluents of the Congo those entering
the river on the right bank will be considered first
The Lindi enters the Congo about 15 m. below Stanley Falls in
25 4' E. It rises in i° N., 28*30' E., and flows W. in a tortuous
course. Below the Lindi Falls in i° 20' N., 26° E. it is navigable,
a distance of over 100 m. A mile or two above its confluence
with the Congo it is joined by the Chopo, a more southerly
and less important stream. The basins of these two rivers do
not extend to the outer Congo watershed, but the next feeder,
the great Aruwimi, rises, as the Ituri, in dose proximity to
Albert Nyanza, flowing generally from east to west. It is formed
of many branches, including the Nepoko from the north, and its
upper basin extends over 2} of latitude. The upper river, to
about 27° E., is much broken by rapids, but apart from those of
Yambuya in 24° 47' the lower river is nearly free from obstruc-
tions. To Yambuya, the limit of navigation from the mouth
of the Aruwimi, is a distance of over 90 m. The Aruwimi flows
almost entirely through the great equatorial forest, which here
seems to reach its maximum density. Its confluence with the
Congo is in i° 12' N., 23° 38' E. On its north bank just above
the mouth is the station of Basoko. The next tributary, known
as the Loika, Itimbiri or Lubi river, rises in about 26 s E., and,
flowing generally west, joins the Congo by two mouths, 22° 35*-
46' E. The Loika is navigable by steamers as far as the Lubi
Falls, a distance of 150 m. The Mongala, the next great
tributary to join the Congo, drains the country between the Loika
to the east and the Ubangi to the west. It rises in about 3 N.,
13° 20' E., and flows in a somewhat similar curve (on a smaller
scale) to that of the Ubangi. The Mongala is navigable for over
300 m., and gives access to a fertile rubber-producing region.
The Mongala confluence is in i c 53' N., 19° 49' E. Below the
Ubangi confluence the Sanga, in i c 11' S., 16° 53' E., joins the
' Congo. The Sanaa rises in the north-west verge of the Congo
CONGO FREE STATE
9 !7
basin and flow» in a general north to south direction. Its lower
course is tortuous, as it flows across level, often swampy, plains.
The main northern branch rises in southern Adamawa in about
7° N., 15° E. An almost equally large western branch, the
Dscha (or Ngoko), rises in about 3 N., 13 J E., and after flowing
W. for 100 m. makes a sudden bend S.E., joining the main
stream in i° 40' N., x6° E. In its course it traverses a vast tract
of uninhabited forest. The Sanga is navigable by steamers as
far as the south-east comer of the German colony of Cameroon,
a distance of 350 m. The Likuala and Alima, which join the
Congo within 30 m. of the mouth of the Sanga, are much smaller
streams. The Lenni (mouth in a° 57' S., 16 14'E.) is the last
stream of any size to join the Congo above Stanley Pool.
Southern Tributaries.— The first of the southern tributaries
of the middle Congo, the Lomami, enters the main stream in
o° 46' N., 24 16' E. It has a length of over 700 m., rising in
nearly o° S. It flows S. to N., the greater part of its course being
parallel to and from 40 to 150 m. west of the upper Congo.
It is comparatively narrow and tortuous, but deep, with a strong
current, and is hardly broken by rapids north of 4 \° S. About
3° S. it traverses a region of swamps, which may have given rise
to the reports once current of a great lake in this locality. For
the last 200 m. it is navigable by steamers. Belpw the mouth of
the Lomami there is a long stretch with no southern tributary,
as the great plain within the Congo bend is drained by streams
flowing in the same direction as the middle Congo— east to west.
The Lulanga (or Lulongo), about 400 m. long, enters in o° 40' N.,
1 8° 16' E. Its northern branch approaches within 20 m. of the
Congo in its upper course. The main branch of the Ruki or
Juapa, which enters a little north of the equator in 18 21' E.,
has its rise between 24° and 25° E. and about 3 S., in the swampy
region traversed by the Lomami On account of the colour of
its water it was named by H. M. Stanley the Black river. It is
about 600 m. long and has two large southern tributaries. A
few miles above the Ruki confluence the Ikelemba (some 150 m.
in length) joins the Congo. The three rivers, Lulanga, Ikelemba
and Ruki, and their sub-streams, have between them over
1000 m. of navigable waters. No rapids intercept their course.
Exploration. — Unlike the Nile there are no classic associations
with the Congo. A single mention made of the Zaire by Camoens
in the Lusiads exhausts its connexion with literature (up to the
beginning of the 19th century), other than in little known and
semi-fabulous accounts of the ancient kingdom of Congo. The
mouth of the river was discovered by the Portuguese naval
officer Diogo Cao or Cam either in 1482 or 1483. To mark the
discovery and to claim the land for the Portuguese crown he
erected a marble pillar on what is now called Sharks Point.
Hence the river was first called Rio de Padrao (Pillar river).
It soon, however, became known as Zaire (q.v.), a corruption of
a native word meaning " river," and subsequently as the Congo.
In the three centuries succeeding Diogo Cao's discovery strangely
little was done to explore the river. At length the British
Admiralty took action, and in 1816 despatched Captain J. K.
Tuckey, R.N., at the head of a well-equipped mission. The
expedition was prompted by the suggestion that the Congo was
identical with the Niger. So slight was the knowledge of the
river at that time that the only chart with any pretension to
accuracy did not mark it farther than 130 m. from the mouth,
a state of affairs, in the opinion of the admiralty, " little creditable
to those Europeans who for nearly three centuries have occupied
various parts of the coast " near the river's mouth. Captain
Tuckey's expedition reached the mouth of the Congo on the 6th
of July 18x6, and managed to push up stream as far as Isangila,
beyond the lowest series of rapids; but sickness broke out, the
commander and sixteen other Europeans died, and the expedition
had to return. Captain Tuckey and several of his companions
are buried on Prince's Island, just above Boma, the point where
the Congo widens into an estuary. A detailed survey of the first
25 m. of the river was effected in 1826 by the " Levin " and the
11 Barracouta " belonging to Captain (subsequently Vice- Admiral)
W. F. W. Owen's expedition; in 1857 Commander J. Hunt,,
of the " Alecto," made an attempt to ascend the river, but only
reached the cataracts. Captain, afterwards Sir Richard, Burton
attained the same limit in 1863, and also proceeded inland as far
as Banza Noki (Sao Salvador). In November 1872 an expedition
under Lieutenant W. Grandy,R.N., was despatched from England
for the purpose of advancing from the west coast to the relief of
David Livingstone. So little was the Congo known, however,
that Ambriz was chosen as the starting-point, and the expedition
marched overland. After many vicissitudes Lieutenant Grandy
had to retrace his steps. . He reached, late in 1873, a point on the
Congo below the cataracts and intended thence to push his way
up stream. The death of Livingstone was soon afterwards
reported; and in April 1874, just as Grandy was prepared to
ascend the river, letters of recall brought the expedition to a
close.
It was by working down from its source that the riddle of the
Congo was finally solved. In 1868 David Livingstone traced the
course of the Chambezi to Lake Bangweulu. In March 187 1 he
reached the town of Nyangwe on the Lualaba, and died (1873)
whilst endeavouring to trace the head-streams of that river,
which he believed to be the Nile. " I have no fancy," he once
said, " to be made into 'black man's pot ' for the sake of the
Congo." Livingstone's views were not shared by the scientific
world, and as early as 1872 geographers were able to affirm from
Livingstone's own reports that the great river system he had
explored in the region north of the Zambezi must belong to the
Congo and not to the Nile. Actual proof was lacking, and of the
course of the main river there was absolute ignorance. But in
October 1876, H. M. Stanley arrived at Nyangwe from Zanzibar
and from that point navigated the river over 1600 m. to Isangila
— " Tuckey's Furthest " — reached in July 1877, thus demon-
strating the identity of the Lualaba with the Zaire of the Portu-
guese. Stanley's great journey marked an epoch in the history
of Africa, politically and commercially as well as geographically.
Of the many travellers who followed Stanley in the Congo basin
none did more to add to the exact knowledge of the main river
and its greatest tributaries—the Ubangi, the Kasai and the
Lomami — than the Rev. George Grenfell (1840- 1906) of the
Baptist Missionary Society. The Aruwimi was partly explored
by Stanley in 1867 in his last expedition in Africa, and was
further examined by Grenfell in 1804 and 1002. The western
head-streams were largely made known by the Belgians, Capt.
C. Lemaire and A. Delacommune, the last-named also mapping
the upper Lomami and the Lukuga. (See also Ubangi; Kasai;
LiviKLiSTUNt and Stanley).
See H. M. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent. &c. (London,
TG78); George CrenM!, Mat of the River Congo, tnth Memorandum
( Loudon, 1 y* <i) ; Sir H . H.Johnston, George Grenfell and the Conga
(2 vols.. London, 1908); C. Lemaire, Mission scientifique du Ka-
Tanga 1 Lir u^k 190;- 1908); 17 memoirs, No. 16 being the Journal
de roitte: j, K< Tuckey, Narrative of an Expedition to explore the
rivrr Zaire, Stc. [London, 1818); E. Behm, "Proofs of the Identity
of the Lualaba with the Congo" (Proc. Roy. Geo. Soc. vol. xvii.,
London, "" ' ' -...«•» •
river between Stanley Pool and Stanley Falls. For the lower river
see H, Droogmans, Carte du Bos Congo, scale I* IOO.OOO, and Notices
jmj U Bos Cottgo (Brussels, 1 900-1902). (F. R. CO
CONGO FREE STATE, the name formerly given by British
writers to the £tat Indipendant du Congo, a state of equatorial
Africa which occupied the greater part of the basin of the Congo
river. In 1008 the state was annexed to^Belgium. The present
article gives (1) the history of the state, (a) an account of the
topography, ethnology, &c, of the country and of its economic
condition at the date of its becoming a Belgian colony.
L History
The Congo Free State owed its existence to the ambition and
force of character of a single individual. It dated its formal
inclusion among the independent states of the world
from 1885, when its founder, Leopold EL, king of the *JP*«
Belgians, became its head. But to understand how XfLmOam
it came into existence a brief account is needed of its
sovereign's connexion with. tat fcifwcjsxLawjJoMsoX. "Vsv^SAVtea**
Leopold summontfi %, cao&amnt *\. ^vaaaA* «*. <fe* >•»»■»>
918
CONGO FREE STATE
geographical experts in Europe, which resulted in the creation of
" The International Association for the Exploration and Civiliza-
• tion of Africa." To carry out its objects an international com-
mission was founded, with committees in the principal countries
of Europe. The Belgian committee at Brussels, where also were
the headquarters of the International commission, displayed
from the first greater activity than did any of the other com-
mittees. It turned its attention in the first place to East Africa,
and several expeditions were sent out, which resulted in the
founding of a Belgian station at Karema on Lake Tanganyika.
But the return of Mr (afterwards Sir) H. M. Stanley from his
great journey of exploration down the Congo forcibly directed
the attention of King Leopold to the possibilities for exploration
and civilization offered by the Congo region. On the invitation
of the king, Mr Stanley visited Brussels, and on the 25th of
November 1878 a separate committee of the International
Association was organized at Brussels, under the name " Co mite"
d'ltudes du Haut Congo." Shortly afterwards this committee
became the " International Association of the Congo," which in
its turn was the forerunner of the Congo Free State. The
Association was provided with a nominal capital of £40,000, but
from the first its funds were largely supplemented from the
private purse of King Leopold; and by a gradual process of
evolution the work, which was originally, in name at least,
international in character, became a purely Belgian enterprise.
Mr Stanley, as agent of the Association, spent four years in the
country .founding stations and making treaties with various chiefs.
The first station was founded in February 1880 at Vivi, and before
returning to Europe in August 1884 Mr Stanley had established
twenty-two stations on the Congo and its tributaries. Numerous
expeditions were organized by King Leopold in the Congo basin,
and the activity of the International Association and its agents
began seriously to engage the attention of the European powers
interested in Africa. On behalf of Portugal, claims were advanced
to the Congo, based on the discovery of its mouth by Portuguese
navigators centuries before. In the interests of France, M. de
Brazza was actively exploring on the northern banks of the Congo,
and had established various posts, including one where the
important station of Brazzaville is now situated. The fact that
the International Association of the Congo had no admitted
status as a sovereign power rendered the tenure of its acquisition
somewhat precarious, and induced King Leopold to make
determined efforts to secure for his enterprise a recognized
position. Early in 1884 a series of diplomatic events brought
the question to a head. The 2nd Earl Granville, then British
foreign secretary, in February of that year concluded a conven-
tion with Portugal, recognizing both banks of the mouth of
the Congo as Portuguese territory. This convention was never
ratified, but it led directly to the summoning of the Berlin Con-
gress of 1884-1885, and to the recognition of the International
Association as a sovereign state.
The United States of America was the first great power, in a
convention signed on the 22nd of April 1884, to recognize the
_^. Association as a properly constituted state. Simultane-
Uoabrthe °usly» King Leopold had been negotiating with the
powers. French government, the Association's most serious
rival, not only to obtain recognition but on various
boundary questions, and on the 23rd of April 1884 Colonel M.
Strauch, the president of the Association, addressed to the
French minister for foreign affairs a note in which he formally
declared that the Association would not cede its possessions to
any power, "except in virtue of special conventions, which
may be concluded between France and the Association, for
fixing the limits and conditions of their respective action." The
note further declared that, as a fresh proof of its friendly feeling
towards France, the Association engaged to give France the right
of preference if, through unforeseen circumstances, it were
compelled to sell its possessions. Mention may here be made
of the fact that in a note dated the 22nd of April 1887, M. van
Eetvddc, administrator-general of the foreign affairs of the
Congo Sutc, informed the French minister at Brussels that the
Im * ia ****alAmocUthD bad net intended in 1884 that the right
of preference accorded to France could be opposed to that a*
Belgium; and on the 29th of April the French minister tod
note, in the name of the French government, of this interprcutaa
of the right of preference, in so far as such interpretation vas m
contrary to pre-existing international engagements. Gone?
was the next great power after the United States to recogos
the flag of the International Association as that of a hiofr
state, doing so on the 8th of November 1884, and the an
recognition was subsequently accorded by Great Britain oa the
x6th of December; Italy, 19th of December; Austria-Hunpry,
24th of December; Holland, 27th of December; Spain, 7th cc
January 1885; France and Russia, 5th of February; Svtfa
and Norway, xoth of February; Portugal, 14th of Febrerr
and Denmark and Belgium, 23rd of February. While negotia-
tions with Germany for the recognition of the status of the Conge
Free State were in progress, Prince Bismarck issued invitation
to the powers to an international conference at Berlin. The
conference assembled on the 15th of November 1884, and ia
deliberations ended on the 26th of February of the foflowisi
year by the signature of a General Act, which dealt with tk
relations of the European powers to other regions of Africa as
well as the Congo basin. The provisions affecting the Congo
may be briefly stated. A conventional basin of the Congo w
defined, which comprised all the regions watered by the Cocp
and its affluents, including Lake Tanganyika, with its easten
tributaries, and in this conventional basin it was declared tint
" the trade of all nations shall enjoy complete freedom." Freedoe
of navigation of the Congo and all its affluents was also secured,
and differential dues on vessels and merchandise were forbidden.
Trade monopolies were prohibited, and provision made for civil-
izing the natives, the suppression of the slave trade, and the
protection of missionaries, scientists and explorers. Provuue
was made for the powers owning territory in the conventional
basin to proclaim their neutrality. As regards navigation, oohr
such taxes or duties were to be levied as had " the character
of an equivalent for services rendered to navigation itself";
and it was further provided that (Article 16) " The roads, raihrari
or lateral canals which may be constructed with the spec^l
object of obviating the innavigability or correcting the in-
perfection of the river route on certain sections of the course of
the Congo, its affluents, and other waterways, placed under t
similar system as laid down in Article 15, shall be considered,
in their quality of means of communication, as dependencies d
this river and as equally open to the traffic of all nations. And
as on the river itself, so there shall be collected on these roads,
railways, and canals only tolls calculated on the cost of construc-
tion, maintenance, and management, and on the profits due to
the promoters "; while as regards the tariff of these tolls, strangers
and natives of the respective territories were to be treated " oa
a footing of perfect equality." The International Association
not having possessed, at the date of the assembling of the Con-
ference, any recognized status, was not formally represented at
Berlin, but the flag of the Association having, before the close of
the conference, been recognized as that of a sovereign state by
all the powers, with the exception of Turkey, the Association
formally adhered to the General Act.
Thus early in 1885 Ring Leopold had secured the recognitJOB
of the Association as an independent state, but its limits were
as yet not clearly defined. On the Jth of February,
as the result of prolonged negotiations, France conceded ^JJJ —
the right of the Association to the course of the lower to *-»•
Congo below Manyanga, and accepted the Chiloango
river and the water-parting of the waters of the Niadi Kwflu
and the Congo, as far as beyond the meridian of Manyanga, as
the boundary between her possessions and those of the Assoda*
tion on the lower river. From Manyanga the frontier was to
follow the Congo up to Stanley Pool, the median line of Stanley
Pool, and the Congo again " up to a point to be settled above
the river Licona-Nkundja," from which point a line was to be
drawn to the 17th degree of longitude east of Greenwich,
following as closely as possible the water-parting of the
Licoua-NiunA^. taauu Tta Vtotitay *\ \i«. \A^WNk.uadjft
CONGO FREE STATE
9'9
subsequently gave rise to considerable discussions with France,
And eventually a protocol, signed at Brussels on the 29th of
April 1887, continued the boundary along the Congo to its
confluence with the Ubangi (Mobangi), whence it followed the
thalweg of that river to its intersection with the 4th parallel of
north latitude, below which parallel it was agreed that the
northern boundary of the Congo Free State should in no case
descend. In accepting this frontier King Leopold had to
sacrifice all claims to the valley of the Niadi Kwilu, in which
he had founded fourteen stations, and to the right bank of the
Ubangi. With Portugal the Association concluded an agreement
on the 14th of February 1885, by which the northern bank of
the Congo was recognized as belonging to the Association, while
Portugal retained the southern bank of the river as far as Noki.
North of the Congo Portugal retained the small enclave of
Kabinda, while south of the river the frontier left the Congo at
Noki and followed the parallel of that place to the Kwango
river.
In April 1885 the Belgian chamber authorized King Leopold
" to be the chief of the state founded in Africa by the Inter-
national Association of the Congo," and declared that " the
union between Belgium and the new State of the Congo shall
be exclusively personal." This act of the Belgian legislature
'regularized the position of King Leopold, who at once began the
work of organizing an administration for the new state. 1 In a
circular letter addressed to the powers on the 1st of August
1885 His Majesty declared the neutrality of the " Independent
State of the Congo," and set out the boundaries which were
then claimed for the new stale. At the date of the issue of the
circular the agreements with France and Portugal had partially
defined the boundaries of the Free State on the lower river, and
the 30th degree of longitude east of Greenwich was recognized
as the limit of its extension eastwards.
The following is a list of the agreements subsequently made
with reference to the boundaries of the state (sec also Aprjca,
IS):-
1. 22nd of November 1885, with France.— Protocol for delimita-
tion of the Manyanga region.
2. 29th of April 1887, with France.— Protocol for delimitation of
the Ubangi region.
3. 25th of May 1 891, with Portugal. — Treaty for delimitation of
the Lunda region, and convention of even date for the
settlement of frontiers on lower Congo.
4. 24th of March 1894, with Portugal. — Declaration approving
delimitation of Lunda region.
5. 1 2th of May 1894, with Great Britain. — Agreement as to Nile
6. 14th ol August 1894, with France. — Agreement as to Mbomu
river, and Congo and Nile basins.
7. 5th of February 1895, with France. — Agreement as to Stanley
Pool.
8. 9th of May 1906, with Great Britain.— Agreement as to terri-
tories leased in 1894 in the Nile valley.
The net result of the above agreements was to leave the Congo
Free State with France, Portugal and Great Britain as her
neighbours on the north, with Great Britain and Germany as
her neighbours on the cast, and with Great Britain and Portugal
en her southern frontier. The main object of King Leopold's
ambition was to obtain an outlet on the Nile, and for the history
of the incidents connected with the two important agreements
made in 1894 with Great Britain and France, and their sequel
in the agreement made with Great Britain in 1006, reference
must be made to the article Africa, §5. The expenditure
necessitated by the efforts of the king to attain his object in-
volved a heavy strain on the finances of the state, reacting on
its internal policy. The avowed object of the Free State was
to develop the resources of the territory with the aid of the
natives, but it early became apparent that the Arab slave-traders,
who had established themselves in the country between Lake
Tanganyika and Stanley Falls and on the upper river, opposed
a serious obstacle to the realization of this programme. The
scanty resources at the disposal of the. state imposed a policy
of restraint on the officers who were brought into relations with
"The formal proclamation of sovereignty was made at Boma
on the 1st of July 1885.
the Arabs on the upper river, of whom Tippoo-Tib was the chief.
In 1886 the Arabs had destroyed the state station at Stanley
Falls, and it was apparent that a struggle for supremacy was
inevitable. But the Free Slate was at that time ill prepared
for a trial of strength, and at Mr Stanley's suggestion the bold
course was taken of appointing Tippoo-Tib governor of Stanley
Falls, as the representative of King Leopold. This was in 1887,
and for five years the modus tivendi thus established continued
in operation. During those years fortified camps were established
by the Belgians on the Sankuru, the Lomami, and the Arumiwi,
and the Arabs were quick to sec that each year's delay increased
the strength of the forces against which they would have to
contend. In 1891 the imposition of an export duty on ivory
excited much i|l-will, and when it became known
that, in his march towards the Nile,' van Kcrckhoven I *J w 'f r
had defeated an Arab force, the Arabs on the upper JEJ^^l*
Congo determined to precipitate the conflict. In May
1892 the murder of M. Hodistcr, the representative of a Belgian
trading company, and of ten other Belgians on the upper Lomami,
marked the beginning of the Arab war. When the news reached
the lower river a Belgian expedition under the command of
Commandant (afterwards Baron) Dhanis was making its way
towards Katanga. This expedition was diverted to the cast,
and, after a campaign extending over several months, during
which several battles were fought and the Arab strongholds of
Nyangwc and Kasongo were captured, the Arab power was
broken and many of the leading Arabs were killed. The political
and commercial results of the victory of the Free State troops
were thus described by Captain S. L. Hinde, who was Baron
Dhanis's second in command: —
" The political geography of the upper Congo basin has been com-
pletely changed, as a result of the Belgian campaign against the
Arabs. It used to be a common saying in this part of Africa that
all roads lead to Nyangwc. This town, visited by Livingstone,
Stanley and Cameron, until lately one of the greatest markets in
Africa, has ceased to exist, and its site, when 1 last 6aw it, was
occupied by a single house. Kasongo, a more recent though still
larger centre, with perhaps 60,000 inhabitants, has also been swept
away, and is now represented by a station of the Free State 9 m.
away on the river-bank. In harmony with this political change the
trade routes have been completely altered, and the traffic which used
to follow the well-l>catcn track from Nyangwc and the Lualaba across
Tanganyika to Ujiii, or round the lake to Zanzibar, now goes down
the Congo to Stanley Pool and the Atlantic." *
These results had been attained largely by the aid of native
levies and allies, and a number of the men who had taken part
in the Arab campaign were enlisted as permanent soldiers by the
Belgians. Among these were some Batctclas, who in 1895
revolted in the Lulua and Lomami districts. The mutineers
were eventually defeated; but in 1897, while Baron Dhanis
was making his way with a large expedition towards the Nile,
the Batctclas again revolted, murdered several of their white
officers, and took possession of a large area of the eastern portions
of the state. Although defeated on several occasions by the Free
State forces, the mutineers were not finally dispersed until near
the end of 1900, when the last remnants were reported to have
crossed into German territory and surrendered their arms. In
other parts of the country the state had difficulties with native
chiefs, several of whom preserved their autonomy. In the central
Kasai region the state had been unable to make its authority
good up to the time it ceased to exist.
The international position of the Free State was from the first
a somewhat anomalous one. It has already been noted that the
right of preference accorded to France in 1884, as
interpreted in 1887, was not intended to be opposed
to that of Belgium. By his will dated the 2nd of
August 1889 King Leopold bequeathed to Belgium
" all our sovereign rights over the Independent State of the
Congo, as they arc recognized by the declarations, conventions
and treaties concluded since 1884 between the foreign powers on
the one side, the International Association of the Congo and
1 After 1900 Nyangwc and Kasongo again became towns of some
importance, and traffic along the route to Tanganyika revived with
the advent of railways, though the main traificco^.\&K»^^»«ro k .<&A
Congo river. ,
920
CONGO FREE STATE
the Independent Stale of the Congo on the other, as well as all
the beDcMi, rights and advantages attached to that sovereignty."
In July 1K90 liclgium acquired, by the terms of a loan to the
Congo St ate whiih was granted free of interest, the option of
anneiing the Mute on the cijiiry of a period of ten years and six
months. Notwithstanding this loan the stale became involved
in further financial diiiiculiie> l l and on the oth of January 1^95
the lirlgian government entered into a treaty with King Leopold
lu take o\er the Tree Stale uilh all its possessions, claims and
cMigjti«jh». as fr«»m the 1st of January of that year. In anticipa-
tion of the culm ni of the Belgian parliament to this treat) . a
r'r*. in o- Belgian contention uas signed on the 5th of February
i*'>5 !'>' *hkh the Belgian government recognized " the right
of preference possessed by I rjnee over its Congolese possessions
in u.<* of their conipuUiry alienation, wholly or in part." But
afltr long delays :tnd a violent press compaign the ministry kU.
the bill prutidir.g fcr annexation v. as withdrawn, and the!
chamber* wu-l a further loan to the Free State to enable it to |
lideoveritsimrre.iijle d..:.vulties. In iyci.cn the cipiry of the
term of >ears Ii\ed in the loan cun\cnti-.>n of i*>3, the question
%A the anneiiili.'n of the l\>ngo Mate by Bil^i-jar. agiis forrred
the su'.-jevl of pro! jrg? .i d'v.u»:cin. A b.\! was orc-iight fcr»-rd
iu fivour of ar.m val.i.n, but this tirr.e it v.^s opj*.-^ by the
Belgian guwrnn:--:i!. *-V.h pr--»pos«.d >ir:j»!y to let the 1j-t. run ]
tn without interest. K:::^ Lev poll likewise Jcwrcd hi.v.s.lf j
to be opposed to iv.ir. : V...W ar si station, and the 1.11 w*s *ith- 1
dra*n I'n.I.r the t.-rv s of the gvverm.T.i rzcii'are. which
t'.»ia!!y pafeel i*-rvugh the Belgian r*:r[:arr.c:it Ln August 15CI.
Be!^:-a::: retailed her i t 'ht of opt-.'n, though" cot the ri;ht to
tie:*.*- it at 1 :"i\ed -.late. Mvrev.er. in at ::...'palion of the ti:r.c
*hen the Corgo State would tveerre a Belgian colony, there
*a* i»uoJ uc.l.-r diU- of ;th of Aug-^st x 001 the tersis of a pro-
\*j*A hi tfr^M/;w, reguTatizg the government of an) ctkriLal
poiieiji.'nj wh:v.h Bc:>» am might acquire.
The dlw-sj.'.T.s wh:.h frvn Mre to tirr.e took p'zee ir. the
Belgii-^ parcasicst en the a£ i'::> of the Cozg-j Mate v.ere g'-.-t-y
embittered by the charges brought against the state a inir..* '.ra-
tion. The aJrvizV.rat.<.ra of the state bad isdeed uzvlerjoae
a con»p!ete chiage s^rv the eir!> years cf i\s etist-.-z-.e. A
dwrce of the 1 »t .: J Jy • <? 5 b.a .', i: la true. devl'.rtd 1". ' vi :.r.\
lac is " the pr.;v".y «.-: th* i'.;te R*;;« prirt i> Viu:. . t.:
it was ot-t f«.r *.
as to cosx-c tz-: L;.'.i> .
*" eJ.v.: 1". y i~'.ivit.
tlr-st d:*p'-tod i'ii th-:
*as ny; uiterer-.-d w/.:
ru'-.-icc a ad iv-.ry of \i* m . r-.^--.::> r-.i '.<.:.! ■•'..- . -..-..■; i
secret d.xrw wi> i*iioi >.i :. -■: z-:n.::':.:£ '., \ . : .^. ..-.
ra^'.'!L'i.vi> *-i 1vlt>" a.cd r'-l !.vr ::: :'r: ' vj.. 1::* U'.i > ,:■.;. * ... ■:
by the d».vrw *.: ::<;. j.r.1 tir-.-jJirs ".very I>sucd etua. / • -
D!-j;i*jpv.'!> viT-.xtlvy Lu l!w Aru7.ir:\I-\V,; : .l..\ E^uat'jr j.z-1 L "..■:.'
d;>'.r:.i«. The *£>:".'» --"i tfctf a; at-; v.yrv enjoyed t-j >^j.x :■..<
the; oj-txiiwn a:-J :■: ■' .v.jtl' ii'.'vcs were to bo cbl^vi :•-; *.-.
t':.*ir produce t-j tbc »i -•-■:. Bv other decrws arid c:r-. J^.-, '
OA-loLer 30 x-.l LV-.-.r:: "'....- ; : v,j ir. j A'.-^iit ). 1^5 the : .^'-•>
c; the "ajtiNv^ x"i yji v.!...; i:l:-.t> /.'.r^ :ur*hvr restri^.'.-:.
No de."i:ii'.Lo:i ^j..l "jet.-: ^i-.-jri l y i>-.- dwrw ex" :;^; as to '*?at ,
conv.if-v.-d the " v.'-.-i:;t Li r_- j s "' ■•l:\i.h ".o.-ine the j.'rvfcr'.y ji j
t!ie »uite. bn the e. T ect c: the !f..T Je«:rw^ wjj fj Aisi^a tj |
the goveinrne^i a:i ab^Iute pr>:-priei-jry r^it ov« Rtfar!;.- the i
whole country, a :utiw *yJ:.l net even leave his \iS^#: "w::b- j
TW*tate oU ^ ^ >Iv^:j1 tvrtit. 4 The oppzvs^jvv :u:ure ci these
w«a iuc.i-»u!v-» Jrv.v forth a ^viii^ty remonsir-ancti :md |
I the leaJ.i.i^ ^jli^uk, a:..i M..-« .>.'.; -j C. Jan^ieQ. the!
go\eiuoi. u-fci'wJ. \ :#.t. ^ ::-rjt-.»u bv the pri'.ate ]
trading i.v!ii , .>a:i:e.-ii»erv i'.*o rv.i J..* i^iinit thUv:oiu::on i
ol the freedom oi tiade ^\u*ed by l;;..- B». ri:n A^t. a.iJ cvcs'.Tiauv !
an arrangement was made by which certain &rea» wot. tut*'.
to the state and certain areas to prhate traders. bu~. tm mr..
lions imposed on the natives were maintained- Laxg: "^ :
the state domain were leased to companies ir.vesisL t.l^ ..-
extensive powers, including the exdosive right it cxr..: _
produce of the soil.* In other cases, e.£. in the dis-iric: c L~i=l
the slate entered into partnership with prrw z\t cnmr.iz- -
the exploitation of the resources of the r*£i oni rj:.:r-. .
The " concession " companies were first fcnriti ir. ;*>^ u. :
B'.lgian law; in 1S9S some of them were rt't^iiM'tu:.-: -_
Ctngo law. In all of them the state had a ? -».sw-: ^.~_
either as shareholder or as entitled to pari proiti *
This system of exploitation of the cou--rj- wef til". :
evil, and was mainly responsible for tic Lii irs^imcL: : j.
natives. Oz!y in the lower Congo and a r-irrcw b.-jtz -^-^
of land on either side of the river above > ••- y -. J : »^. .-„.
was there any freedom of trade. The slt-iii:-- via *■■»
aggravate i ly the crcaticr. in if >-, ly a stent ii-— k **"
of the Di.mzir.c dc Iz ceurenne, a vast ttrr:::?^- k.:t*=.-. r-
KASai asd Ruxi rivers, covtring abcut u;.=iDc 5.2 ~ T ^
mir.is-.tr this donair.. carved out of the state li^i ir,; r.: .
a» the private property of Leopold II.. a />mi.i. ^ % i-j i^s^_ :
ar.l given a civ. : I ;^r>- T.i!i:y. It ^-is r.;: t_z.il : jc: ti_" Ji
existence of tk-.- D.n-.z'.nt it k rr_r.-*« --ls czrrltl- '■"'■ - ■
Icigci. The f. •:.'--: :':.■: ccr.trcled the *.:*: v. _j.L; r_.^ ,
•rs xheCor.5'.. ar.i ::; that
a4veri:y. Iz. :
;.*ars cf th* ; =
Lv'tr,
1 ;th
.*azi the car'.y
1 a c::e azi zz:r-
_r«s ir;:,
tffidciui:
■:v' t;.7-.- t.?.U :.-. > d'Arvtf "k-is !o :"-
.'.i» .: tz-: -:.';v.s Vj t>-
.vit.d. T^irri^ti--.
rai: c: ■>.■ ■ _:
:th. B.t i:i :v # :-
irtt-1,
azi:35t the state assu:
As iz!i;ated. tzey :ti! -_r.d«r t^c- ztzlz hii i*. Iz. LZi zrs:
the r-itlve policy c: the Ccr.g^ g-r.-'rz-ztsz. : wis idz»r-zc-c
varlizce *ith tz* h-— aiitariir. szlrit -»z:;ii zn z b«sz; rsj
by th. powers ai c:.e c: tht czitf = :- re* iz.^_zizx izt ::.-.
of thtf Cozgj Stit-j. Iz tht sccczi pLzs .: wxs z::
tz.- -eth>I t: ct; : :itit>,z ;: the state luzii a_r.i ize occesio
s> ? :,z: z.. v i.i :h^ fr-.- tnit ;::v-.:zj , ; f ^ e £^ r ^ , L:
R-:pcrti T.z..h zv.c :.! . ur to :hc« :hirz-M s_sxi_I;. acc-s-asi
azi gave ri»c to a strcr.g iy.i'.':r. iriizac i.'zi Congo S-:
systcr: ■::" ?;-. trzsr-st. ^ Tz's ay tzt.-:z t 13 -ir-i.r-lir!y vigor. -■
:r. Gf.it fcr.ta.'.-.. iz-i the nr/f.-.-ztiz,: iz:ir^i zzi a zew"era«:.t
oaibe :z± ■-: ?,!a>- r-.c j th- H:-=e ■:: C:zizaci_s agreed wi-::J
a d.vLO.z t: _b? f-.IIowLzg zt'-.L.z. —
" T..: 1 : tS: fw--r:-ri-t :f tS: C:r^ ?n- Scire hix-ta^ it s
:.Ti:.-..-.xa. g--_,-»-.;w:a r. :::■: ;^.A.r> :.:„-. :rj aj.^-.- subject* «i.~
..- /■ ■•:r-, r i *:•..! h. --1.-.: ~. a.--: : :j.: W i a.:i- < aicnop \ :■
p».rr: ::*:■: ■*:t.'^z . _ i I«:rnuiicn5, this J: •■*
« •.-.; .rr.-r:..-.: :; ;-:n:.:r -*::Ji -Jw :ther f-%-.r
rtuu :i -*hieii the C :,"
I. ;-.:■>.- ■•
V.nr-::
r.iri !■»=€■:
..■.,1
.-. tl* an accvunt v»f i^e !isi:i* j:iJ j'jl.iliff^ of the »M'e «q\
*1. T^* IM^ltn Citiav. 4 /■ f '■■• '<^ j
■?!»« HritiJi |«ailLiiiKui.m jsi^t-r .l'."..j V. : .. ,-. iji.^j. ..-- nr ii- ? j
JJ***nvr j« nn (ht« liuJ h»> In »V (.'.'..vi <<ir..-. ,h>.wnc 'lie
• .1'* '* •*** " a ^' *•** 'M^^'i'H.-ii.x'd I'irt/Uijhuut it» i*.rrsivni:« ■
*.^ 1\ r hi,_ 1
■-V!>- V —i..|i
Di.im.i. 1
mr:i»iv *.!> ^nintin! a m:!*"
■:ur»i :-.np:*aii\ . rhe j;-
f.. 5 V-i,
-I ".r i'".fi r-cr!.^ ,<-i:ri. .l.r. :> ■.
^ ^*.. r- '.r. .ry.T :.-a: -■.li^ria :
^f.-.ijcr.t ji tia: ;rati. '
.-. ".•.:.-.,-.* T--h tzii --:cs= the 5 ti martruess c
■■»■ ■■ -.r. Avr-.'j.r/ ;r i:a:.« :Tf :.:r=yrn azTairs. issue, s
v.. .-.r. '. >. '.f A.i«rii= : :c: :: -.^e 3 rush represejiLiL-^
..-- s .1 .-.1: fx-vtri -vz: -!: «pci tje 3eriizi Act. drr*::;
•■. '.:.- \.lr»".t* ziica :r" il--r::::^c.n: ri aativ«azJ :*
r.-..-. a •n.:tt T^.iKry.'^ra : i ~.tc 'J.:r^o Free State. 2::
:..«.r. :i.i\.-.5 '.iu: H^i i.a.esty'j j:vL*rz;ment nou.:
:r^i:er> nhe had pnr\»"-o
-■-;... :::■:•:. v;.t -..,■ n ., ... : <. :n ,J :: : -ra-:i:r. s^ he'ped » w ::
■'j --n-ri-.Mni: ■■;*: -r-.--i.-n :« :he .>c: :i ienn prohibiting ir
;- m:,, -"- ,a : ti:n:rjr- ;n -Iin '.:n^> ?:i"in. The state main'j:r-.:
v»wr c-u. :;i,- -,r.r.r:i- ,r *-io .:r.piotb anu *:iU che proU-« >i
"' t , |] J 1 !Srl,r :Rjta^:n4{ 11 ■i.mmirT-c.
1 l ..c Lv>i \-r<>m ,«' \i,- ^: :,- f mnanu'S ire the .!"•:> Am;Fo-3c«- :
I'lvM-rujewr i:id IxJ-sntM-n L.r. ami 'lit* ^Vitc.V jnr«Tj*W -
v-.'w-M.'. : j;i -."..n.;,,. [ n A.ir.inri •he:jmr:Liiw* Kiiiit'i: coiktsk 1
and :h* nin; In .. -..ini." rrnrr.^n'ttd : >v -hir ^V»-;/ 4 ^f^iju; da . ; .>
:ji•fX■• , ■. I«i ''i«»' r'-nr nt-v c'jmpn.iii'S -Vk-n: :tir^eti .n ^hiih Brivrf
\'«senej!i i-.i T- ni !i unii.». v-i: .ir." iv n« --u^. Of these c-"-
j.\i:i:e*. f'w ' ■»■. •/ ■»•.■'•;, r-- i.-« 'f.iut ,'\ :&iw^; laij 'it .'biv.-c: :!ie Jc*\ :>
iiieiti »i iJn i.,-..,i v/..,i:: t ..i" -;| ( . ;;-TriL*. nuin»."i, »%hile "ch« Or*-*
• \'\« A\ AVWift A \vjXV.*\ •JXWvXVWi,
CONGO FREE STATE
921
* be glad to receive any suggestions which the governments of
the signatory powers might be disposed to make in reference
to this important question, which might perhaps constitute,
wholly or in part, the subject of a reference to the tribunal at
the Hague." This despatch failed to evoke any response from
the powers, with the single exception of Turkey, but the public
agitation against the Congo State regime continued to grow in
force, being greatly strengthened by the publication in February
1904 of a report by Mr Roger Casement, then British consul at
Boma, on a journey which he had made through the middle
Congo region in 1003 (described as the " Upper " Congo in the
report). The action on the part of the British government
resulted in considerable correspondence with the Congo govern-
ment, which denied the charges of systematic ill-treatment of
the natives and controverted the contention that its policy
constituted an infringement of the Berlin Act In July 1004,
however, King Leopold issued a decree appointing a commission
of inquiry to visit the Congo State, investigate the condition of
the natives, and if necessary recommend reforms. The com-
mission was composed of M. Edmond Janssens, advocate-general
of the Belgian Courde Cassation, who was appointed president;
Baron Giacomo Nisco, president ad interim of the court of appeal
at Boma; and Dr £. de Schumacher, a Swiss councillor of state
and chief of the department of justice in the canton of Lucerne.
Its stay in the Congo State lasted from the 5th of October 1904
to the 21st of February 1005, and during that time the com-
Ctpwto/ missioncrs ascended the Congo as far as Stanleyville.
eke Com- The report of the commission of inquiry was published,
J**"****' minus the minutes of the evidence submitted to the
*****' commissioners, in November 1005. While expressing
admiration for the signs which had come under its notice of the
advance of civilization in the Congo State, the commission
confirmed the reports of the existence of grave abuses in the
upper Congo, and recommended a series of measures which would
in its opinion suffice to ameliorate the evil. It approved the
concessions system in principle and regarded forced labour as
the only possible means of turning to account the natural riches
of the country, but recognized that though freedom of trade was
formally guaranteed there was virtually no trade, properly
so called, among the natives in the greater portion of the Congo
State, and particularly emphasized the need for a liberal inter-
pretation of the land laws, effective application of the law limiting
the amount of labour exacted from the natives to forty hours
per month, the suppression of the "sentry" system, the with-
drawal from the concession companies of the right to employ
compulsory measures, the regulation of military expeditions,
and the freedom of the courts from administrative 'tutelage.
Simultaneously with the report of the commission of inquiry
there was published a decree appointing a commission to study
the recommendations contained in the report, and to formulate
detailed proposals.
Naturally the development of the charges against the Congo
State system of administration was followed with close interest
- ^ in Belgium. Little or nothing was done, however,
m9r*mtat to advance the bill brought forward in August 1001,
toraanix- providing for the government of the Congo State in
Jjjjj^ the event of its becoming a Belgian colony. The
aMtmm ' existence of this measure was recalled in a five days*
debate which took place in the Belgian parliament in the spring
of xoo6, when the report of the commission of inquiry and the
question of the position in which Belgium stood in relation to
the Congo State formed the subject of an animated and important
discussion. In the resolution which was adopted on the and of
March the chamber, " imbued with the ideas which presided over
the foundation of the Congo State and inspired the Act of Berlin,"
expressed its confidence in the proposals which the commission
of reforms was elaborating, and decided " to proceed without
delay to the examination of the projected law of the 7th of
August 1 901, on the government of Belgium's colonial posses-
sions." The report of the reforms commission was not made
public, but as the fruit of its deliberations King Leopold signed
on the 3rd of June 1906 a number of decrees embodying various
changes in the administration of the Congo State. By the
advocates of radical reforms these measures were regarded as
utterly inadequate, and even in Belgium, among those friendly
to the Congo State system of administration, some uneasiness
was excited by a letter which was published along with the
decrees, wherein King Leopold intimated that certain conditions
would attach to the inheritance he had designed for Belgium.
Among the obligations which he enumerated as necessarily and
justly resting on his legatee was the duty of respecting the
arrangements by which he had provided for the establishment
of the Domaine de la couronne and the Domaine privi de
Vttat. It was further declared that the territories bequeathed
would be inalienable.
The fears excited by this letter that King Leopold desired
to restrict Belgium's liberty of action in the Congo State when the
latter should become a Belgian colony were not diminished by
the announcement in November 1906 of four new concessions,
conferring very extensive rights on railway, mining and rubber
companies in which foreign capital was largely interested. This
was immediately before the opening in the Belgian chamber of
a fresh debate in which the history of the Congo question entered
on a new stage of critical importance not only from the national
but the international point of view. It had become evident,
indeed, that things could not continue as they were. In reply
to an influential deputation which waited upon him on the 20th
of November, Sir Edward Grey, speaking as the representative
of the British government in his capacity as secretary of state
for foreign aifairs, expressed the desire " that Belgium should
feel that her freedom of action is unfettered and unimpaired and
her choice unembarrassed by anything which we have done or
are likely to do "; but he added that if Belgium should fail to
take action " it will be impossible for us to continue to recognize
indefinitely the present state of things without a very close
examination of our treaty rights and the treaty obligations of
the Congo State."
The debate in the Belgian chamber opened on the 28th of
November and was not concluded till the 14th of December.
It was largely occupied with the consideration of the relations
between Belgium and the Congo State from the constitutional
point of view. A resolution was finally adopted by 128 votes
to 1, thirty Socialist members abstaining from voting. In
this resolution the chamber took note of " the replies of the
government, according to which the declarations contained in
the letter of the 3rd of June do not constitute conditions but
* solemn recommendations/ while ' the convention of cession
will have no other object than to effect the transference and
define the measures for its accomplishment, and the Belgian
legislature will regulate the regime of its colonial possessions in
unrestricted liberty.' " In conclusion the chamber, " desiring
without prejudice (sans prtjuger sur le fond) that the question
of the annexation of the Congo should be brought before the
chamber in the shortest possible time, in accordance with the
intention expressed by the government," recorded its desire
that the central committee charged to examine the draft law
of the 7th of August xooi should " hasten its labours and lay
its report at an early date." (J. s. K.)
For the purpose of considering the proposed colonial law the
central committee was changed into a special commission,
which from the number of members constituting it
became known as the Commission of XVII. The t
commission held its first meeting on the 3 1st of January 1
1007, and did not complete its labours until the 25th
of March 1008. Taking as the basis for discussion the draft lot
organique of xooi,* it elaborated a measure laying down the
principles applicable to the Congo State when it should become a'
Belgian colony. The draft bill of xooi had left the autocratic
power of the sovereign unchanged; the colonial bill as passed
by the commission completely reversed the situation, replacing
the absolutism of the king by thorough parliamentary control.
This result was only achieved after a severe struggle and after
an emphatic declaration bv, Svc fc. Ow* >Jb^^^t*&^^«s**
ment wou\d iti&xA aray <*Cn«t v\>rttoTk^a>afcisxaa»^V^
922
CONGO FREE STATE
While the commission was sitting, further evidence was forth-
coming that the system complained of on the Congo remained
unaltered, and that the " reforms " of June 1006 were illusory.
Various revolts of the natives also occurred, and in some parts
of the state complete anarchy prevailed. Not only in Great
Britain and America did the agitation against the administration
of the Congo State gain ground, but in Belgium and France re-
form associations enlightened public opinion. The government
of Great Britain let it be known that its patience was not in-
exhaustible, while the senate of the United States declared that
it would support President Roosevelt in his efforts for the
amelioration of the condition of the inhabitants of the Congo.
The attitude of the powers was at the same time perfectly
friendly towards Belgium. In this manner the movement in
favour of ending the baneful regime of Leopold II. was strength-
ened. On the 10th of July 1007 the Belgian premier announced
that negotiations with the Congo State would be renewed, and
on the 28th of November following a treaty was signed for the
cession of the Congo State to Belgium. This treaty
2*£*jy stipulated for the maintenance of the Fondation de la
tnitoa couronnc. This " government within a government "
was secured in all its privileges, its profits as heretofore
being appropriated to allowances to members of the royal family
and the maintenance and development of " works of public
utility " in Belgium and the Congo, those works including schemes
for the embellishment of the royal palaces and estates in Belgium
and others for making Ostcnd " a bathing city unique in the
world." The state was to have the right of redemption on
terms which, had the rubber and ivory produce alone been
redeemed, would have cost Belgium about £8,500,000.
Even those politicians least disposed to criticize the actions
of the king protested vigorously against the provisions concerning
the Fondation. It was recognized that the chamber would not
vote the treaty of cession unless those provisions were modified.
Negotiations between Leopold II. and the Belgian premier
followed. While they were in progress the British government
again expressed its views, and in very monitory language. They
were conveyed in a passage in the king's speech at the opening
of parliament on the 29th of January, and in a statement by
Sir Edward Grey in the House of Commons on the 26th of
February. Sir Edward Grey affirmed that the Congo State had
" morally forfeited every right to international recognition," and
quoted with approval Lord Cromer's statement that the Congo
system was the worst he had ever seen. The foreign secretary
declared, in reference to the negotiations for the transfer of the
Congo to Belgium, that any semi-transfer which left the control-
ling power in the hands of " the present authorities " would not
be considered by Great Britain as a guarantee of treaty rights.
On the same day that Sir Edward Grey spoke a parliamentary
paper was issued (Africa No. 1, 1008) containing consular reports
on the state of affairs in the Congo. The most significant of
these reports was from Mr W. G. Thcsigcr, consul at Boma, who
in a memorandum on the application of the labour tax, after
detailing various abuses, added, " The system which gave rise
to these abuses still continues unchanged, and so long as it is
unaltered the condition of the natives must remain one of veiled
slavery." Eight days later (on the 5th of March) an additional
act was signed in Brussels annulling the clauses in the treaty
of cession concerning the Fondation, which was to cease to exist
on the day Belgium assumed the sovereignty of the Congo and
its property to be absorbed in the state domains. Leopold II.,
however, was able to obtain generous compensation for the
surrender of the Fondation. Certain fragments of the domain,
including an estate of 155 sq. m. in Africa, a villa at Ostcnd.
and some land at Laekcn, were kept by the king, who further
retained a life interest in property on the Riviera and elsewhere.
Belgium undertook at her own charges and at an estimated cost
1 n 'J*? ' 000 to complete " the works of embellishment " begun
in Belgium with funds derived from the Fondation and to create
ifc* h 0i ^ a ' ooo ' O0 ° chargeable on the funds of the colony,
™£* SUIU wa » to be paid to the king in fifteen annual instalments
— tnc money, however, to be apended on objects " connected
with and beneficial to the Congo." The annuities to bckt
of the royal family were to be continued, and other k&l
were promised. But the most important provision «x \i
agreement of Belgium to respect the concessions granted = •-•{
lands of the Fondation in November 1006 to the Americas Cc I
Company and the Compaguu forest ierc ei minicrc, compuzi: !
which the Congo State had large holdings. j
Both the treaty of cession and the additional act were u.->
mitted to the Commission of XVII. That body exprre^.-
approval of both measures. Its report on the treaty ssi J '
proposed colonial law were presented to the chamber oatk.: f
of April. Neither the treaty, the additional act, nor the cofc-i
law expressly modified the land, commercial and concessrr";
regime established in the Congo, but article II. of thectkii
law provided that laws should be passed as soon as po&& I
settle the natives' rights to real property and the liberty rf.)
individual, while the Belgian government announced iti la-
mination to fulfil scrupulously all the obligations imposed m^
Congo by international conventions. Public opinion ia Bc^ :
was disturbed and anxious at the prospect of assuming rapt*;
bility for a vast, distant, and badly administered country, a:
for years to be a severe financial drain upon the resourca te-
state. But, though those who opposed annexation ton*-
numerous body, all political parties were agreed that is ant
annexation the excesses which had stained the record of tkfe'
State should cease. j
On the 15th of April 1908 the chamber began a generality
on the Congo question. The debate made it clear that «Urti
Belgian people did not desire colonial possessions, {
annexation was the only means of escape from a situs- 9*'.
tion the country found intolerable. The debate closed Ja '
on the 20th of August, when the treaty of annexation, I
the additional act and the colonial law were all voted bye!
stantial majorities. Amendments had been made in thftnH
law giving parliament fuller control over Congo aflikid
securing greater independence for the judicature. On tke
of September following the three measures were also vetf 1
the senate. Thus at length ended the hesitation of the kf&4
fourteen years after the first annexation bill had been substf
to it. On the 14th of November the state ceased to fri*^
rights of sovereignty being assumed by Belgium the nrt*
without ceremony of any kind. 1 Administrative a&i\
Brussels was transferred to the newly created ministry a" 5
colonies.
II. The Belgian Congo |
The colony of which Belgium became possessed in the off
narrated in the historical sketch has an area estimtts-
900,000 sq. m. It is bounded \V. by the Atlantic, N. by Fs*
Congo, N.E. by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, E. by the Ve*
Protectorate, British and German East Africa, S.E bynorJ^
Rhodesia (British), S.W. by Angola (Portuguese).* Tlec/
line is only 25 m long. It extends north from the estuary *:
Congo, the northern bank of the estuary belonging to Bd**
the southern to Portugal. The greater part of Belgian C*
lies between the parallels of 4 N. and io° sTaadif I
30 E.
Physical Features.— Except for its short coast-line, id'
a comparatively small area on its eastern frontier the c*
lies wholly within the geographical basin of the Congo, ft*
roughly be divided into four zones:— (1) the small coast"'
west of the Crystal Mountains, through which the Congo be*
in a succession of rapids to the Atlantic; (2) the great aC
zone, described below; (3) the smaller zone east of the Mis'
range (including the upper coursesof some of the Congo trite*
which have forced their way through the mountains), and r
of Lake Mweru and the upper course of the Luapula'; lW-
an area which belongs geographically to the Nile valley- **
Crystal Mountains form the western edge of the great Cetf
African pbtcau and run, roughly, parallel to the coast ?'
1 The first power to recognize the transfer of the state to Bcfc*
was Germany, which did so in January 1909.
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Ifitumba range extends from the south-eastern frontier of the
solony, in a north-easterly direction towards Lake Tanganyika,
md northwards along the western shore of that lake, past lakes
thru and Albert Edward to Albert Nyanza, forming the western
sdge of the western or Albertine rift-valley. This long mountain
liain has numerous local names. It varies in altitude from
!eoo to 10,000 ft. The eastern escarpment is precipitous, but
>B its western face it slopes more gently into the Congo basin.
(forth of the Lukuga river the main chain throws out into the
entral zone, in a north-westerly direction, a secondary range
:nown as the Bambara Mountains, which forms one of the
loundaries of the Manycma country. The interior or lake zone
» a high plateau with an average elevation of 3000 ft. above
eft-level
The central zone dips with a westerly inclination from the
Ifitumba Mountains towards the western edge of the plateau.
;t is described as "a country of alluvial plains, without any
narked mountain features, very well watered, covered with
orests and wooded savannahs " (A, J. Wauters). The forests
aceupy the river valleys and are densest in the east and north-east
of the state. In these primeval forests the vegetation is exces-
sively rank; passage has to be forced through thick underwood
and creeping plants, between giant trees, whose foliage shuts out
the sun's rays; and the land teems with animal and insect life
of every form and colour. Describing the forests of the Manyema
country, west of Lake Tanganyika, David Livingstone wrote:
" Into these [primeval forests] the sun, though vertical, cannot
penetrate, excepting by sending down at mid-day thin pencils
of rays into the gloom. The rain water stands for months in
stagnant pools made by the feet of elephants. The climbing
plants, from the size of a whipcord to that of a man-of-war's
hawser, are so numerous, that the ancient path is the only
passage. When one of the giant trees falls across the road, it
fonfts a wall breast high" to be climbed over, and the mass of
tangled ropes brought down makes cutting a path round it a
work of time which travellers never undertake." This descrip-
tion is equally applicable to the forest region extending eastward
from the mouth of the Aruwimi almost to Albert Nyanza. This
forest covers an area of some 25,000 sq. m.,and into a great part
of it the sunshine never enters. It is known variously as the
924
CONGO FREE STATE
Pygmy Forest (from the races inhabiting it), the Aruwimi or
Ituri Forest (from the rivers traversing it), the Stanley Forest
(from its discoverer) , or the Great Congo Forest. It is the largest
fragment within the colony of the immense forest which at one
time seems to have covered the whole equatorial region. By
the banks of the rivers occur the " gallery " formations; i.e.
in what appears an impenetrable forest are found avenues of
trees " like the colonnades of an Egyptian temple," veiled in
leafy shade, and opening " into aisles and corridors musical with
many a murmuring fount " (Schweinfurth).
The Congo and its tributary streams are separately noticed.
They form, both from the point of view of the physical geography
and the commercial development of the colony, its most im-
portant feature; but nest in importance are the forests. The
wooded savannas are mostly situated on the higher lands of the
central zone, where the land dips down from the Mitumba
"Mountains to the Congo.
The part of the colony within the Nile basin is geographically
of great interest. It includes some of the volcanic peaks which, '
north of Lake Kivu, stretch across the rift-valley and attain
heights of 13,000 and 14,000 ft.; Albert Edward Kyanza and
part of the Semliki river; part of Ruwcnzori {q.v.), the so-called
" Mountains of the Moon," with snow-clad heights exccccding
16.500 ft. The colony also includes the western shores of lakes
Tanganyika and Kivu {q.v.).
Gtdoty.— The portion of the great basin of the Congo included in
the colony h mainly occupied, so far as it has been explored, by
sandstones. These are separable into a lower group (Kundelungu)
of red felspathic grits and into an upper group (Lubilasch) of white
friable sandstones. Both are considered to represent the Karroo
formation of South Africa. The basin in which these sandbtones
were laid down is limited on the can by ancient gncir.rrs and schists
overlain by the highly inclined red felspathic grits. The ancient
rock* of Katanga form the southern boundary. The northern
periphery lies in French Congo: the western boundary is formed by
a zone of Archean and mctamorphic rocks and a region composed
of several rock groups considered to range between the Silurian
and Carboniferous periods; but it is only in the limestones of one
group that fossils, indicating a Devonian age, have been found.
Rocks of Cretaceous and Tertiary ages are confined to the maritime
zone.
Flora.— The most valuable of the forest flora are the lianas, notably
Landdphia florida, which yield the india-rubber of commerce.
There arc also timber trees such as mahogany, ebony, teak, lignum
vitac, African cedars and planes, while oil, borassus and bamboo
Silms arc abundant. Other trees are the redwood and camwood,
urn- and resin-yielding trees and plants (such as the acacia) arc
numerous. Euphorbias attain great size and orchillas are character-
istic of the forest weeds. There are innumerable kinds of m«s
and lichens and ferns with leaves 12 ft. in length. Of the creepers,
a crimson-berried variety is known as "the pepper climber. Orchids
and aloes are common. In the savannas are gigantic baobab trees.
In the densest forests the trees, struggling through the tangle of
underwood to the light, are often 150 ft. and sometimes 200 ft. in
height. The undergrowth itself rises fully 15 ft. above the ground.
In many districts the coffee and cotton plants arc indigenous and
luxuriant. Of fruit trees the banana and plantain arc plentiful and
of unusual s>izc. IVruli.ir to ihe maritime xone are mangoes and the
coco-nut palm. Papyrus is found by the river banks.
Fauna. — The forests art the home of several .kinds of monkeys,
including the chim|>aiucr in the Aruwimi region; the Lion, leopard,
wild hog, wolf, hyena, jackal, the python and other snakes, and
particularly of the elephant. Among animals peculiar to the forest
regions are a tiger-cat nttout the feizc «f a leopard . (he honey badger
or black Ituri ratcl and the elephant ahrew h The «bra, giraffe and the
rare okapi are found in the north-eastern borderianrtu, In the more
ojien districts are troops of antelope*, inrluding a variety armed wiih
tusk*, and rod buffaloes, Hippopotami artdf crocodiles abound in
the riven., which are well stocked with many kinds of 5*h h including
varieties resembling porch and hrtam; and otters make their home
in the river bank*. ^ The murtati is confined to the lower Congo*
Hird and iiiS4t.t life is ubijnn'anL. Among the funis, parrots (especi-
ally the grey variety) ntn common, as are storki and tbives. Heron*,
hawks, terns Kgyptian geese, fishing eagles (Gypohierax), the
»cjtvr und the whydah bird are found in the lower and middle
CtH^go. Whenever the <t»h odilc is out of the water the spur-winced
pk.'wr is its invariable companion. The innumerable butterflies
aal dragon- (lies have gorgeous colouring. White and red ants arc
«tn prevalent, as are nio^quitos, centipedes, spiders and beetles.
*UmiUc.— Situated in the equatorial rone, Belgian Congo shows,
••w'^k greater part of its area, only a hlight variation of temperature
^ ^** vear rvunJ. The mean annual temperature is about 90 I",
**• bdf *? August the heat increases slightly, with a more rapid
rise to November. During December the thermometer reaa
itationary. and in January begins to rise again, reaching r> ce-
ntum in February. March is also a month of great hea:: a is
and May the temperature falls, with a more rapid decline c '= ,
the minimum being reached again in July. The mean tender., r (
is lowered on the seaboard by the coast stream from the socl *i i
the thermometer falls sometimes to little over 50 s F. Afaj: c -a '
plateau regions in the south the night temperature is soae--- -
down to freezing point. There is a marked distinction bcr*fr ■:
Wet and dry seasons in the western districts on the lover ".".=.; '
where rains fall regularly from October to May, the dry teaser. '.-.'.
jfrom June to September. But nearer the centre of tbe'eccrj-r z, \
teasons are less clearly marked by the amount of preciptutirc r- |
Tailing more or less regularly at all times of the year. The xu z
of greatest heat and of the heavy rains are thus coincides: c* m z •
lower river, where fever i* much more prevalent than on ihtspr '
plateau lands nearer the centre of the continent. The amocat 2 j '
rainfall show? great variation* in different years. ;he rtcxi :
Banana showing a total fall of to in, in 1 890- 1 89 1 and of 381a. ir:k:-
iflo.4. Even in the rainy season on the lower river the rain 6jb 1 "
fall continuously for a long period, the storms rarely tisti&f r-s
than a few hours, but frequently attaining great violence. '-■
grratest fall registered as occurring during a single tornado vu?-
at Bolobo. Jn July grass fires are of common occurrence, js: j
frequently sweep over a great expanse of country* M. A. L»c*££
the Belgian meteorologist* formulated, as the result of a stud*'-.. ■
the available data, the following rule: — That the rainfall vastus
in the Congo ba«n (t) in proportion as one nears the eouatorr: 1
the south, (3) as one passes from the coast to the interior. Ox -j 1
luwer Congo the prevailing winds are from the west and the *«."•■ I
west, but this prevalence becomes lew and less marked toward -^ '
interior,, until on the upper river they come from the souti-c^ \
The nind, however^ rarely attains any exceptional velocity. Sc:t>
of extreme violence, accompanied by torrential rain, and ia n?
instance* hy haiUtones, are of not uncommon occurrence. 0&:b 1
coast and along the course of the lower river fogs are very rare, t ■■'
in the interior early morning fogs arc far from uncommon. E.r>
peans are subject to the usual tropical diseases, and the coontr. i
not suited for European colonization. This is due more tela
humidity than to the heat of the climate.
Inhabitants. — The population is variously estimated at frc:
14,000,000 to 30,000,000. The vast bulk of the inhabitants -'
the Congo basin belong to the Bantu-Negro stock, but there it
found, in the great forests, sparsely distributed bands rf tit
Pygmy people, who probably represent the aboriginal inhabits::}
of Central Africa (sec Akka; Bambute; Batwa; Woceti.
In the north-east of the colony, in the upper basin of the Wd:
and the Mbomu, the Niam-Niam (q.v.) or Azandeh, a Negr^
race of warriors and hunters with a social, political and mfiiti-T
organization superior to that of the Bantu tribes of the Covo
basin, have intruded from the north. They were forcing ltd
way southwards when the Belgians appeared in the upper Cczp
about 1805 and arrested their further progress. Neighbcili
to the Azandch are the Mangbcttu and Ababwa, who are fo--C
chiefly in the country between the Welle and the Aruwiri
The Mangbcttu, who formerly established a hegemony over tie
indigenous population, Mundu, Abisanga, Mambare, Arc. have
practically disappeared as a tribe, though their language 11J
customs still survive. The characteristics of the inhab:taa'3
of this region are well summed by Casati, who states that ifce
Mcgc are considered the most skilful in elephant-hunting, tk
Azandeh in iron-work, the Mangbettu in wood-carving, the
Aliiiramlio in ivory-carving, and the Momfu in agriculture
Arab culture and traces of Arab blood arc found in the districts
where the slave traders from the cast coast had established
stations. This Arab influence extends, in varying degrees «
intensity, over the whole eastern province, that is the regko
bounded c.ist by Tanganyika, west by the Lualaba, and north
by Stanley Falls and the Mangbcttu country. It is mainly
evident in the adoption of Arab clothing and the building of
houses in Arab fashion. In the valley of the Sankuru the
population has been slightly modified by Chinese influence*
About iKq4 a party of coolies from Macao who had been working
on the railway in the cataracts region endeavoured to return
home overland. They got as far as the Sankuru district, where
the survivors settled and married native women.
Of the Hantu tribes several main groups may be distinguished
The luvu 1 ( 'tingo and coast regions are occupied by the Ba- Kongo
(otherwise Ha Mot), a division including the Mushi-Kur.go,
found chiefly in the Con^o divisiuu v>( tVu^ola, and the Basur.di,
CONGO FREE STATE
925
who live on both banks of the river in the cataracts districts,
the KaMwl* and the Mayumbe— the two last named dwelling
in the coast districts and foot-hills immediately north of the
mouth of the Congo.' A custom prevails among the coast tribes
of placing their marriageable maidens on view in little bowers
specially built for the purpose— the skin of the girls .being stained
red. The Ba-Kongo, as a whole, appear to be a degenerate race,
the primitive type having been degraded by several centuries
of contact with the worst forms of European civilisation (see
further Angola: Inhabitants). Extending from the Kwango.
affluent of the Kasai to Lake Tanganyika are the Luba-Lunda
groups. Of these the most widespread tribe is the Ba-Luba (q.v.).
The next in importance, the Ba-Lunda, are mostly confined to
the western half of this vast region. They have given their
name to the Lunda district of Angola. From the z6th century
(and possibly earlier) down to the close of the 19th century the
Lunda peoples formed a more or less homogeneous state, the
successive sovereigns being known as the Muata Yanvo. The
Katanga, one of the Lubl tribes, also founded a kingdom of
some extent and power. They occupy and have given their
name to the south-east part of the colony. In southern Katanga
a tribe called Bassanga are cave-dwellers, as are also the Balomoto,
who live in the Kundelungu hills west of Lake Mweru. Possibly
connected with the Luba-Lunda group are the cannibal Manyema
(q.v.), whose home is the district between Tanganyika and the
Lualaba at Nyangwe.
Living north of the Luba-Lunda tribes, and occupying the
country enclosed by the great bend of the Congo and bounded
west by the Kasai, are a large number of tribes, the chief groups
being the Bakuba, Basongo Mino, Balolo, Bakete, Bambala,
Bayaka, Bahuana, &c. Of these the Basongo Mino are spread
over the country between the Kasai and Lomami. Between the
last-named river and the Lualaba dwell the savage and cannibal
Batetela and Bakussu. Farther north and largely occupying
the valley of the Ruki are the Mongo, a large forest tribe. Along
the middle Congo from Stanley Fool to Stanley Falls the more
important tribes are the Bateke, in the Stanley Fool district, but
chiefly on the north side of the river in French territory; the
Bayanzi (Babangi), between the mouths of the Kasai and the
Ubangi; the Bangala, one of the most gifted of the Congo tribes,
whence are recruited many of the soldiery; the Bapoto and the
Basoko. These Bangala are not to be confused with the Bangala
of the Kwango, also cannibals, who in marauding bands under
leaders styled Jaga were devastating the country in the days of
the early Portuguese settlements in the Congo regions. The
Banza and Mogwandi are large tribes living in the region between
the Congo and the Ubangi.
These Bantu races may be further divided into plain, forest and
riverine tribes. With the exception of a few riverine tribes,
such as the Wagenia who are fishers only, all arc agriculturists
and the majority keen traders, going long distances to buy and
sell goods, but there are marked differences among them corre-
sponding to their environment. The riverine tribes build excel-
lent canoes and large " fighting " boats, and are almost uniformly
expert boatmen and fishermen and live much on the water;
so much so that Hermann von Wissmann and other travellers
were struck by the insignificant leg development of several of
these tribes. In general the physical development of these
people is scarcely so great as that of the average northern
European, but the majority are well formed. The most savage
and truculent of the tribes are those who live in the forest
regions; the most advanced in culture, the dwellers in the plains.
Nearly all the tribes have tattoo markings on the face and body;
to this rule the Ba-Kongo tribes are an exception. Save where
the tribes have come under Arab or European influence, the cloth-
ing is extremely scanty, but absolute nudity is not known. The
villages of the tribes of the lower Congo arc usually surrounded
by a palisade; the houses or huts are rectangular and about
7 ft. high, fetishes are usually found over the entry. The Bateke
build their houses in circular groups opening on a sort of court-
yard; the houses in Bangala villages arc built in parallel rows
about 200 ft. apart; plantations of manioc usually surround the
villages. Two varieties of culture exist among the tribes in-
habiting the state: that extending over the western and central
area, and that of the Welle district and eastern fringe. In the
former the bow with vegetable string b the chief weapon, and
clothing is woven from palm Jibre; in the east spears are found,
and in the Welle district swords and throwing-knives also;
clothing made from skins also makes its appearance, and more
attention is paid to the shades of departed ancestors.
Some tribes, notably the Ba-Luba, possess considerable skill in
working in wood, ivory and metals (chiefly iron and copper).
The knives, spears and shields of native workmanship frequently
show both ingenuity and skill, alike in design and execution.
Musical instruments of crude design are common. Over a great
part of the country the natives manufacture cloth from vegetable
fibre. They employ four different colours, yellow, the natural
colour, black, red and brown, which are obtained by dyeing, and
these colours they combine into effective designs. In some
tribes a rude form of printing designs on cloth is practised, and
on the Sankuru and Lukenye a special kind of cloth, with a
heavy pile resembling velvet, is made by Bakuba and other
tribes. In several districts the action of the state officials and
the concession companies in enforcing the collection of large
quantities of rubber caused the tribes to abandon their former
habits and industries; on the other hand, cannibalism, formerly
widely prevalent and practised by tribes with a comparatively
high culture {e.g. the Bangala), has been largely stamped out
by the rigorous measures adopted by the state. The holding
of slaves, and slave-raiding by one tribe upon another, is also
prohibited.
In general, each tribe is autonomous, but, as already stated,
considerable kingdoms have been created by the Luba-Lunda
groups, as also by the Ba-Kongo, the founders of the " Kingdom
of Congo " (see Angola). The Balunda " empire " of Muata
Yanvo fell to pieces on the death of the chief Muteba, killed in a
war with the Kioke, a Bantu tribe of the upper Kasai, in 189a.
At one time this "empire" extended from the Kwango to the
Lualaba. 1 The Katanga kingdom, then ruled by an Unyamwexl
adventurer named Msiri, was overthrown by the Congo State in
1801 . The kingdom of the Cazembe (q.v.), which was to the south
and east of Katanga, has also vanished. Among the Bangala,
each village has its chief.
Each tribe speaks a different language or dialect of Bantu,
the chief groups being described in the article Bantu Languages.
Swahili, a Bantu tongue with an admixture of Arabic, &c, is
understood by many tribes besides those which have been under
the direct influence of the Zanzibar Arabs, and it is the most
general means of communication. The religion of the Congo
tribes is difficult to define. Belief in a Supreme Being is vague
but universal, but as this Being is good, or at least neutral, he is
disregarded, and the native applies himself to the propitiation
and coercion, by magical means, of the countless malignant
spirits with which he imagines himself to be surrounded, and
which are constantly on the watch to catch him tripping.
Elaborate funeral rites, often accompanied by human sacrifice,
play a most important part in native life. The idea is that the
dead man shall enter the spirit world in a manner befitting his
earthly rank, or he would be despised by the other spirits, and
also that if proper respect were not shown to his remains, he
might bring supernatural punishment on his relations. The
point to be recognized is the extremely close connexion in the
mind of the native between life in this world and the next, and
between the mundane and the supernatural.
The European population, before 1880, consisted of a few
traders, Dutch, English, French and Portuguese, having factories
in the Congo estuary. By the end of 1886 the Europeans
numbered 254, of whom 46 were Belgians. In January igo8
the white population had risen to 2943, 1713 being Belgians.
* Later on a chief named Kalambo carved out a new " empire M
in the central part of the Kasai basin, his authority extending west-
ward from the upper Sankuru into the Lunda d\**xvc*. «JL fcsacik*
He was in looq atvd lot «fcven\ >j«ax* \Ewrerafe3 vBAssqsse*MBX^«sk
Belpan* and Voxtaguewt, asA Y*& <\cws& >&*. ocNxeari \»^»uj'*«*«»
926
CONGO FREE STATE
export. Of domestic animals, sheep and goats are common. Old
have Ijccn introduced from Europe. Horses, asses and oulti -.
comparatively rare.
Minerals. --Cold mines arc worked at Kilo in the upper la* : -"
the Ituri river, and some 30 m. W. of the Mboga district . AT--
Nyanza, where gold has al&o been found (in British territer, !. '■■
Ruwc gold mine is in the Katanga district in the south of thco<>
It lies west of the Lualaba on the Mitumba range, in about i! f *
25* 45' E. Iron is widely distributed, and worked in a pri: \?
fashion. It has been found in the Manyanga count ry, the Mjb>.t.
country on the upper Congo, in the Urua country, in the basics- ; ::.
Kasai and the Lualaba, and in Katanga. Ironstone hill*, e«ir.:r
to contain millions of tons of ironstone of superior quahtr. L'.
been rcpi>rted in the south-casternregion. The wealth of KiW.
in copper is great, the richest deposits being in the southern i^-v,
adjacent to the Northern Rhodesia border. In this region, Ws»:
by the Lualaba, Lufira and other head-streams of the Gv
immense copper ore deposits arc found in hills and spurs of ::-::
ground extending over 150 m. east to west. Tin is fecuj i
the western edge of the Katanga copper belt and extendi s.c:
along the banks of the Lualaba. Copper is also reported ic v'-c
districts, such as Mpala and Uvira on Lake Tanganyika. Lea: zi
tin (Ubangi basin), sulphur and mercury have been discover^!.
Industries and Trade. — The principal industry is the cvJ5k , >
of caoutchouc (sec Rubber) from the rubber vines, which ait :
seemingly inexhaustible quantities. The value of the ruL-bcr 'i-
ported, which in 1886 was only £0000, had risen in 1900 to £ 1,1 5c 'n
In 1907 the value was £1,758,000. When the state wai £•;••'•'
elephant and hippopotamus ivory formed for some years the it v im-
portant article of export. When Europeans first entered the Csr
basin the natives were found to have large stores of " dead ivco c.
their possession. Palm oil, palm nuts, white copal, coffee, cocoa! ri>
earth-nuts and timber are next in importance among the ev?-
The trade of the state was of slow growth until after the cwnpJr' -:.
in 1808, of the railway between the lower and middle Congo. iSj
greatly reduced the cost of the transport of goods. 1b 1**; i
value of goods exported of native origin was £79.000. In ike* i": it
risen to £886,000. In the following year (with the railway oprc :::
native produce exported was valued at £7,44.1.000. In ivsts
total was £2, 1 20,000. Mere than 75 % of the native produce, km:
as " special exports, " go to Belgium. The neighbouring rVmuTW
possessions are the next best customers of the colony. hJj--:
and Great Britain take most of the remainder of the trade. 7"
principal imports are textiles and clothing, foods and dV.-w
machinery' nnd metals, steamers and arms and ammunition. Tfcr
thirds of the imports arc from Belgium; the remainder came U~
Germany, Great Britain (chiefly cottons), France and HoCf-
It should be noted that the importation of alcohol, for the u«c : m
natives, is prohibited. Exports greatly exceed the import 3 in rai*
Out of a total trade to the value of £3.000.000 in 1905 only /hwja
rcprc*cr.tcd imp-nts. This is due in large measure to the sitfet -
forced lalvour instituted by the state.
I Skipping.--.** with the trade the largest share of the rhiprir; -
Belgian, but it n under 50 <J. of the whole tonnage. The 1st' 1
entry ore Banana, Boma and Matadi. In 1904 there enter*! ;■
cleared these ports 205 sea-going ves-vls of 421,072 tons. 0: *.
tonnar.e entered 193.202 was Belgian, 85,034 British y± «io Fn"
and 07,400 German. In addition about 5.0 smaller vessels c-jv
11 the coasting trade enter and c!<\ir from Boma and Banana ii'r
Constitution.— The Free State, under King Leopold of Bdpr
was organized as an absolute monarchy. Civil and criminal c&'j
were promulgated by decrees, and in both cases the la**"'.
Belgium were adopted as the basis of legislation, and " mcA\i<:
to suit the special requirements" of the state; eg for-*:
labour (prestations) was legalized (law of the 18th of Novenia
1003). l This forced labour was to be remunerated j"dw
regarded as in the nature of a lax. Besides the prtstrJim:. »
system of conies, for public works, was enforced. The sovcrnp
was assisted in the task of government by a secretary of st*
ind other high officials, with headquarters at Brussels. T:
Elate was represented in Africa by a governor-general, nbcr-
at the head both of the civil and military authorities. ' I'n&t
Belgian rule a colonial minister replaced the former secrcLT'
)f state. The minister has the advice of a colonial coucri.
while the power of legislating for the colony is vested u
parliament.
For administrative purposes the colony is divided into tbirtftr
listrictsandone province, each being governed by a commis«ry
The districts are Banana, Boma, Matadi, Falls, Stanley IV
Kwango Oriental, I'bangi, Lualab.i-Kasai, Lake Leopold II
tiofn h^^T" iT"* — "*** become great agriculturists, uiou K n pumia- Equator, Aruwimi, Bnngala and Wtllc. The region bctset;
J*«e». «nd^S "^W^k/ both by the state and pnvalc c«m- \ 1 FoTc»M\U\ WUT VvaA.Vww!»-.'w.lK-tnauthori»edin 1801 andi-xartrti
*■■ cq "*» eww, tobacco, rice and maize arc grown lot \ in ptarfae sumx vY« VouwUvW ^ v\**»*t. ^ ana ""
Swedes (200) and Italians (197) came next in numbers. The
British numbered 145.
7Vhnm.— There are no large towns in the European sense, but a
number of government station* have been established. At none
of these stations is the total population over 5000. Boma (q.v.) is
the headquarters of the local administration and the residence of
a British consul. It is situated on the right bank of the lower Congo,
about 60 m. from its mouth, is one of the principal ports of call for
steamers, and the centre of a considerable trade. Banana, close tc
the mouth of the Congo and Banana Point, possesses one of the best
natural harbours on the wist coast of Africa, and is capable of
sheltering vessels of the largest tonnage. There are a number of
European factories, some of them dating from the l6th century,
and the place is the centre of a considerable commerce. Matadi if
situated on the left bank of the Congo, at the highest point of the
lower river which can be reached by sea-going vessels. It is the
point of departure of the Congo railway. The railway company has
constructed jetties at which steamers can discharge their cargo.
Lukungu, situated on the banks of the river of that name, a southern
tributary of the Congo, about half-way between Matadi and Stanley
Pool, was formerly 1 he capital of the RpJh district, and the chitit
recruiting station for porters on the lower Congo, Tumba 4 the
E resent capital of t he du*t rki, is a station on the Congo railway, the
alf-way house between Matadi and Si anley Pool. 1 1 is a bou t 117 m.
from Matadi and 143 from Dolo, the terminus of the railway on
Stanley Pool. Dolo i* situated a short distance from the pool, and
has two channels by which vessel* can enter and leave the port*
Quays and a slip for launching vessels have been constructed,
Lcopoldvillc is the capita]; of the Stanley Pool district. It is situated
about 7 m. from Dolo on the flanks of Mount Leopold- Other places
of importance arc Luluahurg, on the Lulua river; Lusambo, the
capital of the Lualaha- Kasai district, on the Sankuru fiver: Coquil-
hatville, the capital uf the equatorial district, at the mouth of the
Ruki; Stanleyville, the principal station of Stanley Falls district;
New Antwerp, a thriving little town, the capital of the Bangala
district, situated on the right bank of the Congo close to [0° E>;
Banzyvillc, the capital of the UbanRi district, on the river of that
name; and Basnko, at the junction of the Aruwimi and the Congo,
jabir is the capital of the Welle district, and in the Lado Enclave
iq.v.) on the upper Nile the principal places are Kcjaf, Lado and
Dufile. Nyangwe, on tSic Lualaha, a little south of 4° S., was a large
native town which, about the middle of the 19th century, came under
the dominion of the Zanzibar Arabs. It was visited by David
Livingstone in 1871, and from it in 1876 II. M. Stanley began his
descent of the Congo. In 1892 the town was taken from the Arabs
by the Congo State troops and dcbtroycd. It lias since regained
considerable importance as a trading centre.
Communication!. — There is a regular mail service between Ant- '
werp and the ports of the lower Congo, which are al o served by
steamers from Live r pool, Hamburg. Rotterdam and Lisbon. The
Congo and its aducnts afford over 6000 m. of navigable waters [
(see Congo). A public tram-port service on the rivers is maintained
by the state. From its mouth to Matadi (85 .m.) the Congo is navi-
gable by ocean-going vessels. From Matadi a railway, completed
in 1898 at a cost of £..',720,000, and 2O0 m. long, rocs fast the cataract
region and ends at Stanley Tool, whence the Congo is navigable to
Stanley Falls, a distance of 9. So m. From Stanley Falls a railway
runs towards the Nile. An agreement with Great Britain, concluded
in May 1906, provided for the continuation of this line from the
Congo State frontier through the I .ado Enclave to the navigable
channel of the Nile near the Mat ion of Lado, a steamboat and railway
service aero*-* Africa from the Copko mouth to the Red Sea being
thus arranged. Another railway (79 m. long), completed in 1906,
follows the left bank of the Congo from Stanley Fails, just the rapids
to Pont hit rvillc, whence there is a navigable waterway of 300 m. to
Nyangwe. From Ny-angwca railway goes* towards Lake Tanganyika.
Above Nyangwe, on the main stream, another railway is built around
the next series of cataracts, thus opening to through communication
the upper Lualaba. The total length of steam communication by
this route, from Katanga to the mouth of the Congo, is about -1 150 rn.
— 1548 by water and 596 by rail. The Katanga region is also served
by fines forming a continuation of the Northern Rhodesia railway
system. a Besides tht^e main lint*s a railway (about 90 m. lonpj,
having its river terminus at Boma, serves the Mayumbc district. I
The principal stations are con meted by telegraph lines, and, by way
of Libreville in French Congo, cable communication *with Europe ■
was established in 1905. The colony is included in the Postal ,
Union.
m A^icuIture.~Vr\x\\ the advent of Europeans the natives, except '
Ir 1 r ""mediate neighbourhood of some of the Arab settlements, '
did little more than cultivate small patches of land close to their I
villages. They grew bananas, manioc, the sweet potato, the sugar-
?"*' m *iw. sorghum, rice, millet, cleusine and other fruits and
iK^r «!!!?' a ? wc ^ as tobacco, but the constant btate of fear in which
JJjyjved, either of their neighbours or of the Arabs, offered small
-^! ce "* e " t to industry. Nor can it be said that under their white I
^t He natives have bccomcifrc.it agriculturists, though planta-
l
CONGO FREE STATE
927
Lomarai river and the great lakes, and south of the Aruwimi
1 Welle districts forms the Province Orientale. It is divided
> zones, of which the chief are Stanley Falls, Ponthierville,
[ that administered by the Katanga committee. The districts
also subdivided into zones. In 1898 the territory in the
ley of the upper Nile leased from Great Britain was placed for
ninistrative purposes under the same regime as the districts.
'udicial Machinery. — Courts of first instance have been to-
uted in the various .districts, and there is a court of appeal
Boma which revises the decisions of the inferior tribunals,
ire is a further appeal in all cases where the sum in dispute
eeds a thousand pounds, to a 'superior council at Brussels,
lposcd of a number of jurisconsults who sit as a cow de
nation.
IcUgion and Instruction. — The religion of the native population
hat commonly called fetishism (see supra, Inhabitants). The
te makes no provision for their religious teaching, but by
Berlin Act missionaries of all denominations are secured
feet freedom of action. The state has established agricultural
I technical colonies for lads up to the age of fourteen. These
jnics make provision for the training of boys recruited from,
sc rescued from slavery, from orphans, and from children
jidoned or neglected by their parents. Practical instruction
liven in various subjects, but the main object is to provide
ruits for the armed force of the state, and only such lads as
unfitted to be soldiers are drafted into other occupations,
ssionaries have displayed great activity on the Congo. In
7 there were about 500 missionaries in the colony, divided
about equal proportion between Protestants and Roman
tholics. They maintain over 100 stations. The missionaries
not confine themselves to religious instruction, but have
ools for ordinary and technical training. There are two
man Catholic bishops.
Hnancc— Revenue is derived from customs, direct taxes
. Europeans), transport charges, &c, and from the exploita-
1 of the domain lands. (The prohibition of the import of
Dhol deprives the state of a ready source of revenue.) Nearly
the funds required in the work of founding the Free State
re provided by Leopold II. out of his privy purse, and for
ie time after the recognition of the state this system was
ktinucd. In the first ten years of his work on the Congo
lg Leopold is reported to have spent £1,200,000 from his
vate fortune. The first five years of the existence of the state
re greatly hampered by the provision of the Berlin Act
thibiting the imposition of any duties on goods imported into
Congo region, but at the Brussels conference, 1890, a dedara-
n was signed by the powers signatory to the Berlin Act,
horizing the imposition of import duties not exceeding xo %
valorem, except in the case of spirits, which were to be subject
a higher duty. By agreement with France and Portugal, a
nmon tariff (6 % on most goods imported, 10 % on the export
ivory and india-rubber, 5 % on other exports) was adopted
these powers and- the Congo Free State.
Funds for the administration were also obtained by loans.
July 1SS7 bonds bearing interest (from January 1000) at
% were issued to the amount of £443,000 to represent sums
tranced to the founders of the state. The bulk of these bonds
,26,000) were issued to King Leopold, but in January 1895
1 Majesty cancelled the bonds in his possession. In 1888 and
$9 bearer bonds to the amount of £2,800,000 were issued out
an authorized issue of £6,000,000. The balance of the loan
s issued in 1902. The bonds arc redeemable in 99 years by
lual drawings, and are entitled to an addition of 5 % per
lum when drawn. The redemption fund is administered by
ommittec representing the bondholders. The Belgian govcrn-
nt in 1890 advanced a sum of £1,000,000, and in 189s two
ther sums of £211,000 and £6o,ooo, the former to enable
t state to repay a loan and so prevent the forfeiture of an
mense territory which had been pledged as security to an
twerp banker, and the latter to balance the 1895 budget.
October 1896 a loan of £60,000 was raised at 4 %, and in
ie 1898 a farther sum of £500,000 was raised at the same rate
of interest. In October 1900 a 4 % loan of £2,000,000 was issued
for the purpose of public works, including railways, and in
February 1904 a decree was issued authorizing the creation of
bonds to bearer for £1,200,000, at 3 %. From 1890 to 1900
King Leopold is stated to have made a grant of £40,000 per
annum from his private purse to the public funds. In 1901
Belgium renounced the repayment of its loans and the payment
of interest, reserving the right to annex the state, whose financial
obligations to Belgium would revive only if that kingdom should
renounce its rights to annex the Congo. In 1886 the total
revenue of the country was under £3000, derived from the state
domains. The revenue from this source, obtained almost entirely
from rubber and ivory, had risen in 1891 to £52,000, in 1896 to
£235,000, in 1900 to £448,000, and in 1905 to £660.000. These
figures do not, however, disclose the total profits which accrued
to the Free State from its trading operations in the Congo.
Official returns placed the public expenditure at a higher figure
than the revenue. The totals given for 1005 were: revenue,
£1,197,466; expenditure, £1.392,026. The monetary system
is based on the gold standard, and the coinage is the same as
that of the Latin union. On the lower Congo transactions arc
in cash, but on the middle and upper Congo the use of coins in
place of barter or the native brass wire currency makes but
slow progress. Moreover, save in the lower Congo state payments
(down to 1908) were made in trade goods.
Defence. — The army consists of African troops officered by
Europeans. Some of th'c men are recruited from the neighbouring
territories, but the greater part consists of locally raised levies,
recruited partly by voluntary enlistment and partly by the enforced
enlistment of a certain number of men in each district, who arc
selected by the commissary in conjunction with the local chiefs.
The effective strength is about 15,000. There arc over 200 Euroj>can
officers, and over 300 European sergeants. The term of service for
volunteers docs not exceed seven years, while the militiamen raised
by enforced enlistment serve for five years on active service, and for
two years in the reserve. The artillery includes Krupps, Maxims
and Nordenfeldts. A fort has been erected at Chtnkakassa near
Boma, commanding the river below the Falls, and there is another
fort at Kinshassa on Stanley Pool to protect Leopold villc and the
railway terminus. The governor-general is commander-in-chief
of the armed forces of the state, and the commissaries arc in com-
mand of the military forces in their districts. In the 1891 budget
the expenditure on the army was given at £90,000, ana by 1900
it had risen to £312,000. In 1905 the charge Tell to £221,241.
Bibliography.— (1) Official: Protocols and General Act of the
West African Conference (London, 1885). (Annex I to Protocol 9
contains copies of the treaties by which the International Assn.
of the Congo obtained the recognition of the European govern-
ments.) Documents diplomatique*: Affaires du, Congo, 1884-1895
(Paris, 1895) (a French ,J Yellow Boot"), L'f.lal indf-pfndajit rfw
Congo A rcxpGiitivn de Bruxellti ( Bruise fa, iSoj). Bulletin ofliiiel
de Fitai indf pendant du Conga (Brussels, 1885-190*) (publtshi-d
monthly, and rpplared, November l$oS h by the Bulletin ojfiael da
Congo beige). Documents ctmcernanl le Congo ; imprimis par ordre
de (a thtimbrti des rrprfscntavls de Belgian* (1891-1895). Expo-it
des motifs du. pr&jrt de lai approuvant fannrxion du Con^o & la Bel'
{doct
lit Conge [flora, fauna, ethnography, ttc r
et scq*), Dttpaith ♦ » , in regard te alleged itl-lfcafment p[ natitts
gitpu {document! paiiemtntoAttu No, 91) (BrusicK i^5>- Annates
du mw&e du Congo [flora, fauna, ethnography, &c) (Brussels. 1898
and to the txisjenc* of trade manopalits in tkt . , , Congo (London,
19O3), Correspondent* and report from Mis Majtity 1 consul at
Boma respecting the administration cf th* + * . Congo (London*
190^) contains a lengthyj report from Mr Roger Caaetntnt, tho
British consul, condemning in several respects the treatment of
natives by^ the state). Further Ch>n*cspooUcpce respecting the
attminMration of the slate i % contained in the white papers Africa t
Np, 1 of 1005 , 1906, 1907, Koi. J otid 2 of ioqq and No. 1 of 1009,
Rapport de la commission d'enqufte dam les tcrritoi/es de Fetal
(Brussels, Nos. 9 and 10 of the Bulletin oficiel for 1905; a volumin-
ous document; the tenor of the report is indicated in the section
History). O. I^ouwcrs, Lois en vigueur dans Vital indipendant du
Congo (Brussels, 1905).
(2) Non-official: Le Mouvement glograbhique, a weekly magazine,
founded in 1884 by A. J. Wauters, and devoted chiefly to Congo'
affairs. A Bibliographie du Congo, 1880-1895 (a list of 3800 books,
Simphlcts, maps and notices), compiled by A. J. Wauters and A.
uyl, was published at Brussels in 1895. The most important
books in this bibliography are The Congo and Founding of tts Free
State, by (Sir) H. M. Stanley (London, 1885), and Le Congo, historique,
diplomatique, physique, politique, economique, humanilaire et cohmate,
by A. Chapaux (Brussels, 1894). Stanley's book is of historic im-
portance, describing the work *» wA V\%\*\\kt%. ^^stw^vfc*^ ^
the ConioteVNCKi \%T* ua \*%v^^<2«».\»>^^^^^^ ^
928
CONGREGATION— CONGREGATIONALISM
best general account at the Free State in convenient sire. The
history section include* a valuable summary of the work of ex-
ptoration in the Congo baiin from the day* of David Livingstone
up to 1 84)3- U&tot iitdtpeiidant du Congo, by A. J, Warners (Brusseli,
iBon), is a book of similar character to that of Chspaux. Both
ChapauK and Wautera deal with ethnology and ioolo|ry, Sir H. H.
Johnston, George Grtnfelt and the Con^o . * < (tfvolfc .London r 190B),
largely geographical , historical, anthropological and philological
Etudief based On the work of GrenJclI. For geology see J. Cornet,
" Observations sur la gCologie du Congo occidental. ' Ihtff. toe. fie/.
Ptudiea based On the 1
" Observations sur la a .
belg. vola. 3L and «, ((396-1697); ibid. l * Les Formations post-
prtmalres do bauin du Congo." Ann. soegfot* belt. vol. x*i> (1693-
1S04); G. F. J. Preumont,. M reotcson the Geological Aspect of wmc
of the North- Eastern Territories of the Congo Free State," Qu&tL
Joum, Ge&t. S&& vol, 1*L (1905). The economic aspect of the colony
is dealt with in Congo i dimat, conilitution du sat m kygien* . « , by
Bourgtiit;non and five others (Bnifscls, 1S0B). The Fall •# the Conga
Arabs, by & L. Hindu (London, 1697), is an account of the cam-
paigns of 189^1893 hv an English Burgeon who scrvttt as a captain
'in the state forces. The Congo State, by D. Q Eotilger (London,
t8oS), Droit et administration de Vital indipendartt du Conga* by
F. Cat tier [of Brussels University) (Brussels, J69S). and L"Afrioue
nouvctlc, by IL Dcsranijw (professor de droit des gem at Lou vain
UnivcrsityJ (Paris. iom) r are treatises covering aHlirancIica of the
stated activity, from the standpoint of admirers of the work of
Leopold 11.. in Africa, Professor Cottier in a later wort H Etude tur
fa situation de t'clQi independent du Congo (Brussels, 1906), severely
criticized the Congo ad ministration. Other indictments of Congo
State methods are contained in La Question rongolaise, by A. Vcr-
mecreth (Bruwcis* looo) ; H Congo (Rome, 1908), by Captain
Baccari; Cifril 'tuition in Congoiand-, by H. K. Fox Bourne (London.
I003); and King Leopold's Rule in Africa (London. 1004); Red
RuSbtr (London, 1906); and A Memorial on Native Rtghti in the
Land ., t + (London. 1909). by E, D. Morel. Ten Ytart in Equaloria,
by Major G. Casati (London. 1891 ), contains much information
concerning the peoples. Ecology, &c, of the north-eastern nans of
the state. <F. rt C)
CONGREGATION (Lat <ongr£ga£ia t a gathering together,
from cum, with, grcx, grcgis, & flock, herd), an assembly of
persons, especially a body of such persons gathered together
for religious worship f or the body of persons habitually attending
n particular church , hence the basis of that system of religious
organization known as Congregationalism (q.v.)* Apart from
these, the more general meanings of the word, " congregation "
Is used in the English versions of the Old and New Testaments
to translate the Hebrew words 'idtik and kdltdl t the whole
community of the Israelites and the Assembly of the people.
The words " assembly " and " congregation " have been 10 a
certain extent distinguished in the Revised Version, " congrega-
tion " being kept for *ldah and " assembly " for Ldhtil. The
Scptuagint genera Dy translates the first by BTwywryJi, the second
by UxXnariu. (see J. H. Setbie, In Hastings's Dkt. of Bible, i.v.
" Congregation," cf. '* Aasernbly T " it.). In the Roman Church
" congregation " is applied to the committees of cardinals into
whose hands the administration of the various departments
of the church is given (see CtraiA Ron ana). The committees
of bishops who regulate the business at a general council of the
church are also known as ,4 congregations." In the Roman
Church there are several kinds of associations for religious
purposes known by the generic name of " congregation ";
such are: (1) those branches of a particular order* which, for
the stricter practice of the rules of their order, group themselves
together under a special form of government and discipline, —
thus theTrappists area congregation of the Cistercians, the monks
of CLuny and St Manx are congregations of the Benedictine* ;
(?) communities of religious under a common rule; persons
belonging to such communities have cither taken no vows, Or
have not taken " solemn M vows; of the many congregations
of this class may be mentioned the Oratorians, the Ob la teg and
the Lazarists; (j) in France religious associations of the laity,
male or female, joined together for some religious, charitable or
educational purpose (set- France: Law and Institutions). Lastly
" congregation M in secular usage is applied to two governing
bodies at the university of Grtford, via. the " Ancient House of
Congregation /* in whom lies the granting and conferring of
degrees, consisting of the vice -chancel lor, proctors and fl regent
masters, 1 ' and secondly the ' f Congregation of the University of
Gsford," created by the University of Oxford Act t8$i, and
Gonshimg cf &U mcmbci* of convocation who are " resident,**
M. have passed 141 nights within 3 m. of Carfax during tk
preceding year. All statutes must be passed by this coagregatiaa
before introduction in convocation, and it alone baa the power
of amending statutes (see Oxford). At Cambridge University
congregation is the term used of the meeting of the senate, b
Scottish history, from the fact that the word occurs, in the seme
of " church," frequently in the national covenant of 1537, U*
name of " congregation " was used of the Reformers. Generally
and similarly the title of " lords of the congregation " was gms
to the signatories of the covenant
CONGREGATIONALISM, the name given to that type of chnid
organization in which the autonomy of the local church, or body
of persons wont to assemble in Christian fellowship, is funda-
mental. Varied as are the forms which this idea has assumed
under varying conditions of time and place, it remains distinctive
enough to constitute one of the three main types of ecclesiastical
polity, the others being Episcopacy and Presbyterianin.
Episcopacy in the proper sense, i.e. diocesan Episcopacy, repre-
sents the principle of official rule in a monarchical form: Presby-
terianism stands for the rule of an official aristocracy, exercising
■collective control through an ascending series of ecclesiastical
courts. In contrast to both of these, which in different ways
express the principle of clerical or official authority, Congrega-
tionalism represents the principle of democracy in religion. It
regards church authority as inhering, according to the very
genius of the Gospel, in each local body of believers, as a miniature
realization of the whole Church, which can itself have only
an ideal corporate being on earth. But while in practice it is
religious democracy, in theory it claims to be the most immediate
'form of theocracy, God Himself being regarded as ruling His
people directly through Christ as Head of the Church, whether
Catholic or local So viewed, Congregationalism is essentially a
" high church " theory, as distinct from a high clerical one. It
springs from the religious principle that each body of believers
in actual church-fellowship must be free of all external human
control, in order the more fully to obey the will of God as con-
veyed to conscience by His Spirit. Here responsibility and
privilege are correlatives. This, the negative aspect of the
congregational idea, has emerged at certain stages of its history
as Independency. Its positive side, with its sense of the wider
fellowship of " the Brotherhood " (1 Pet v. 9, cf. ii 17), has
expressed itself in varying degrees at different times, according
as conditions were favourable or the reverse. But catholicity of
feeling is inherent in the congregational idea of the church,
inasmuch as it knows no valid use of the term intermediate
between the local unit of habitual Christian fellowship and the
church universal. On such a theory confusion between full
Catholicity and loyalty to some partial expression of it is mini-
mized, and the feeling for Christians as such, everywhere and
under whatever name, is kept pure.
The Congregationalism of the Apostolic Church was, to begin
with, part of its heritage from Judaism. In the record of
Christ's own teaching the term " church " occurs only - JLJ ni
twice, once in the universal sense, as the true or iV^!TZ
Messianic " Israel of God " (Matt. xvi. 18, cf. Gal. vi. uZSZm.
16), and once in the local sense corresponding to the
Jewish synagogue (Matt, xviii. 17). As Christianity passed to
Gentile soil, the sovereign assembly (eccUsia) of privileged
citizens in each Greek city furnished an analogy to the latter
usage. These, the two senses recognized by Congregationalism,
remained the only ones known to primitive Christianity. Writing
of the unity of the church as set forth by Paul in Ephesians.
Dr Hort (The Christian EccUsia, p. 168) says: " Not a word in
the epistle exhibits the One Ecclesia as made up of many
Ecclesiae. To each local Ecclesia St Paul has ascribed a corre-
sponding unity of its own ; each is a body of Christ and a sanctuary
of God: but there is no grouping of them into partial wholes
or into one great whole. The members which make up the One
Ecclesia are not communities but individual men. The One
Ecclesia includes all members of all partial Ecclesiae; but its
relations (o them all are direct, not mediate. It is true that . . .
St Paul anxiously promoted friendly intercourse and sympathy
CONGREGATIONALISM
929
between the flattered Eccleslte; but the unity of the universal
Ecdesia as he contemplated it does not belong to this region:
it is a bulk of theology and religion, not a fact of what we call
ecclesiastical politics."
Organization corresponded to the life distinctive of the new
'Ecclesia. This was one of essential equality among "the
saints " or " the brethren," turning on common possession of
and by the one Spirit of Christ. " The whole congregation of the
faithful was responsible for the whole life of the church— for
its faith, its worship, and its discipline " (Dale). All alike were
" priests unto God" in Christ (Apoc. i. 6; 1 Pet. ii. 9) and en-
trusted with prerogatives of moral jurisdiction (1 Cor. vi. 1 fT.).
" The Ecclesia itself, %jt\ apparently the sum of all its male adult
members, is the primary body, and, it would seem, even the
primary authority." So says Dr Hort (p. 220), adding that
" the very origin and fundamental nature of the Ecclesia as a
community of disciples renders it impossible that the principle
should rightly become obsolete." In the Apostolic age local
office was determined, on the one hand, by the divine gifts
(charisms) manifesting themselves in certain persons (1 Cor. xii.;
Rom. xii. 3 fT.); and on the other by the recognition of such
gifts by the inspired common consciousness of each Ecclesia
(x Cor. xvi. 15-18; 1 Thess. v. 12 fl\). In most cases this took
formal effect in a sctting-apart by prayer, sometimes with laying-
on of hands. Such consecration, however, whatever its form,
was a function of the local Ecclesia as a whole, acting through
those of its members most fitted by gift or standing to be its
representatives on the occasion. As to the specific officers thus
called into being, whether for supervision or relief (1 Cor. xii. 28),
the New Testament knows none in the local church superior
to elders, the ruling order in Judaism also. " Bishop " (overseer)
was " mainly, if not always, not a title, but a description of the
elder's function " (Hort, p. 232). Each church at first had at
its head not a single chief pastor, but a plurality of elders
(-bishops) acting as a college.
In course of time there emerged from this presbyterial body
a primus inter pares, ue. a permanent leader, to whom henceforth
the description " bishop " tended to be restricted. This is the
"monarchical episcopate" which first meets us in the letters
of Ignatius, early in the 2nd century (see Church History).
But whatever its exact attributes, as he conceived it, it was
still strictlya congregational office. Each normal church had
its own bishop or pastor, as well as its presbytery and body of
deacons. " One city, one church (' parish ' in the ancient
sense) with its bishop," was the rule. 1 Hence " if we are to give
a name to these primitive communities with their bishops,
* congregational ' will describe them better than ' diocesan ' "
(Sanday, Expositor, III. viii. p. 333). Nor did this state of things
change so soon as is often supposed. It persisted in the main
during the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and only faded before the
growing influence of metropolitan or diocesan bishops in the 4th
century. These, the bishops in the first instance of provincial
capitals, gradually acquired a control over their episcopal
brethren in lesser cities, analogous to that of the civil governor
over other provincial officials. Indeed the development of the
whole hierarchy above the congregational bishop was largely
influenced by the imperial system, especially after Church and
State came into alliance under Constantine.
. This sacrifice of local autonomy was in a measure prepared for
by an earlier centralizing movement proper to the churches
themselves, whereby those in certain areas met in conference or
"synod" to formulate a common policy on local problems.
Such inter-church meetings cannot be traced back beyond the
latter half of the 2nd century, and were purely ad hoc and
informal, called to consider specific questions like Montanism and
Easter observance. Nor were they at first confined to church
officers, much less to bishops, but included " the faithful " of
all sorts (Euseb. Hist. Eccl. v. 16, p. 10). and were in fact "councils
composed of whole churches" {ex unitersis ecclesiis) f where
1 An ancient city generally included a district around it, dwellers
jp which would go ecclesiastically, as well as politically, with those
living within the city proper.
there was a true M representation of the whole Christian name "
(Tert De Jejun. 13). In a word, they were "councils of
churches " {id. De Pmd. 10) and not merely of church officers.
Naturally, however, as the areas represented increased, the
more indirect and partial became the representation possible.
Thus far, however, synods were still compatible with local
autonomy and so with Congregationalism. But as the idea
that bishops were successors of the apostles came to prevail,
presbyters, though sharing in the deliberations, gradually ceased
to share in the voting; while synods insensibly acquired more
and more coercive control over the churches of the area repre-
sented. Yet the momentous change which finally crushed out
Congregationalism, by substitution of legal coercion for moral
suasion as the final means of securing unity, came relatively late
in the history of the ancient Catholic Church.
The scat of authority in Discipline, the means by which the
church strives to preserve the Christian standard of living from
serious dishonour in its own members, is the touch-stone of
church politics. The local Ecclesia in the Apostolic age was
itself responsible for the conduct of its members (1 Cor. vi. 1 ff.
and the Epistles passim). " If a man will not hear the church,"
when the local church-meeting utters the mind of Christ on a
moral issue, he has rejected the final court of appeal and is
ipso facto self -excommunicate (Matt xviii. 27). This remains
the working rule of antc-Nicene Christianity. 1 Indeed Cyprian
plainly lays it down that the church members must withdraw
from sinful officers, since " the people itself in the main has
power either of choosing worthy priests (bishops) or of refusing
unworthy ones " (Ep. 67. 3).
On the whole, then, Congregationalism, the self-government of
each local church, prevailed for the most part during the first
two and a half centuries of Christianity, and with it a church life
which, with all its developments of ministry and ritual, remained
fundamentally popular in basis (cf. T. M. Lindsay, The Church
and the Ministry in the Early Centuries, p. 259 and passim).
The central idea was the sanctity of the church-members as
such, rather than of the ministry as a clerical order. This a
implied in the oldest ordination rules and forms of prayer, such
as those underlying the " Canons of Hippolytus " and related
collections. It is -also implied in the congregational form and
spirit of the earliest liturgies; but most of all in the discipline
of the church before Constantine. But from the time of Cyprian
(a.d. 250) the idea of the ministry as clergy or priesthood gained
ground, parallel with the more mixed quality of those admitted
by baptism to the status of " the faithful," and with the increas-
ingly sacramental conception of the means of grace.
In both respects the reflex action of the Novatianist and
Donatist controversies upon Catholicism was disastrous to the
earlier idea of church-fellowship. Formal and technical tests of
membership, such as the reception of sacraments from a duly
authorized clergy, came to replace Christ's own test of character.
The church ceased even to be thought of as a society of " saints,"
or to be organized on that bask. The gulf between the " laity "
and " clergy " went on widening during the 5th and 6th centuries;
and the people, stripped of their old prerogatives (save in form
here and there), passed into a spiritual pupillage which was one
distinctive note of the medieval Church. In such a Catholic
atmosphere Congregationalism could have no being, save among
little groups of men who protested against the existing order.
These, in proportion as they revived a primitive type of piety,
tended to recover also some of its forms of organization. " They
bore witness to the loss of the true idea of the Christian church,"
though they did not avail to restore it. Still, a good deal of
semi-congregationalism probably did exist in obscure circles
which preluded the wider Reformation and were merged in it
So was it among the Waldenses, who reasserted the priesthood
of all believers: still more among the Lollards,* who produced
• So not only the Didachl (xv. 3. cf. xiv. 1, 2), but also TertuTJian
(Apol. ch. 39), and even Cyprian and the atfi-century A po static
Constitutions (ii. 47), as well as the Didascalia, its trd-century basis.
* G. M. Trevelyan, England in the Age of Wydtffe (1899); W. H.
Summers, Our Louard Ancestors (1906), pp. 51, 92, 109 ff.
93©
CONGREGATIONALISM
a " conventicle " type of Christian fellowship, supplementary
to attendance at the parish church. This, while far short of
theoretic Congregationalism, was a prophecy of it
Congregationalism proper, as a theory of the organized
Christian life contemplated in the New Testament, re-emerges
_ , only at the Reformation, with its wide recovery of
such aspects of evangelic experience as acceptance
with God and constant access to Him through the sole
mediation of Christ. The practical corollary of this,
" the Priesthood of Believers," though grasped by Luther (cf,
Lindsay, Hist, of the Reformation, j. 435 ff.) and continental
reformers generally, was not fully carried out by them in church
organization. This was due partly to a sense that only here and
there was there a body of believers ripe for the congregational
form of church-fellowship, which Luther himself regarded as the
New Testament ideal (Dale, pp. 40-43), partly to fear of Ana-
baptism, the radical wing of the Reformation movement, which
first strove to recover primitive Christianity apart altogether
from traditional forms. In certain Anabaptist circles the
primitive idea of a ° covenant " between believers and God as
conditioning all their life, especially one with another, was re-
vived (Champlin Burrage, The Church-Covenant Idea, Phila-
delphia, 1004). Their local church life, as moulded by this idea
(found even in the church constitution adopted by Hesse in
1526), was congregational in type. But Anabaptism was not to
remain an abiding force on the continent; and though colonies
of its exiles settled in England, they did not produce the Congre-
gationalism which sprang up there under Elizabeth. This was
continuous rather with the Lollard type of secret congregation
existing in various places, especially in London and the adjacent
counties, at the opening of the 16th century and later {e.g. the
" Known Men " at Amersham and elsewhere, Dale, pp. 58 f. 61).
Already in 1550 Strype refers to certain " sectaries " in Essex
and Kent, as " the first that made separation from the Reformed
Church of England, having gathered congregations of their own."
Then, during Mary's reign, secret congregations met under the
leadership of Protestant clergy, and, when these were lacking,
even of laymen. But these " private assemblies of the professors
in these hard times," as Strype calls them, were congregational
simply by accident. On Elizabeth's accession they ceased to
assemble, until it was plain that she did not intend a radical
reformation. Then only did some of their members resume secret
assembly, with a more definite view to conformity in all things
to the New Testament type and that alone.
Still, the development of congregational churches proper was
gradual, the result of constant study of " the Word of God " in
the light of experience. The process can be traced most clearly
in London. 1 There, owing to measures taken in 1 565-1 566 to
enforce clerical subscription to the authorized order of worship,
especially touching vestments, certain persons of humble station
began to assemble in houses " for preaching and ministering the
sacraments'" (Grindal's Remains, Ixi.). This led in June 1567
to the arrest of some fifteen out of a hundred men and women
met in Plumbers' Hall (ostensibly for a wedding), none of whom,
to judge from the eight examined, was a minister. Probably
they were not long kept in prison, for six of them were among a
similar body of 77 persons " found together " in a private house
on March 4, 1568, the leaders of whom were imprisoned, and
liberated only after " one whole year," early in May 1569 {ibid.
pp. 316 ff.). Perhaps it was between 1567 and 1568 that they
began to organize themselves more fully in conjunction with
four or five of the suspended clergy, with elders and deacons of
their own appointing (Grindal, Zurich Letters, lxxxii.; Remains,
1 Here in 1561 appeared A Confession of faith, made by common
consent of divers reformed Churches beyond the seas; with an Exhor-
tation to the Reformation of the Church, It advocated " the polity
that our Saviour Jesus Christ hath established;" with " pastors,
auperintendea, deacons"; so that "all true pastors have equal
power and authority . . . and for this cause, that no church ought
to pretend any rule or lordship over other " : and none ought to
"' - 'limseliir- * - * " *-■--••• ^* •
thrust himself into the government of the Church (as by ordination
at large], but that it ought to U- done by election." See Barrage,
H^ Ckmrck-C
Tk§t
^Covenant Idea, p. 43.
Ixi.). This act of orcUinirig ministers, probably after ihiCatta
order— which they certainly used from May 156ft— mad the
excommunication of certain deserters from their " church " ia
Grindal), clearly mark the fact that this body of some 200 penco
had now deliberately taken up a position outside the uiiots!
church, as being themselves a " church " in a truer sense tfcu
any parish church, inasmuch as they conformed to the prini:.-*
pattern. Their ideal is embodied in a manifesto act forth abca
1570 under the title The True Marks of Christ's Church, k.
and signed by " Richard Fytz, Minister," as being " the order oi
the Privy Church in London, which by the malice of Satin 4
falsely slandered."
" The minds of them that by the strength and working of &
Almighty, our Lord Jesus Christ, have set their hands and beam t:
the pure, unmingled and sincere worshipping of God, according to is
blessed and glorious Word in all things, only abolishing and alte-
ring all traditions and inventions of man whatsoever, in the sub
Religion and Service of our Lord God, knowing this always, li*
the true and afflicted Church of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Ctac
cither hath, or else ever more continually under the cross strrreti
for to have,
" First and foremost, the Glorious word and Evangel preacbei,
not in bondage and subjection [u. by episcopal licence], but fredy
and purely.
" Secondly, to have the Sacraments ministered purely, only vt
altogether according to the institution and good wosde of uc
Lord Jesus, without any tradition or invention of man.
" And last of all, to have not the filthy Canon law, jjut dbripEse
only and altogether agreeable to the same heavenly and jimfoty
worde of our good Lord, Jesus Christ."
Here we have essential Congregationalism, formulated far
the first time in England as the original and genuine Christua
polity, and as such binding on those loyal to the Head of the
Church. All turns, as we see from the petition addressed a
x 57 1 to the queen by twenty-seven persons (the majority wanes,
possibly wives in some cases of men in prison), upon the duty
of separation with a view to purity of Christian fellowship
(2 Cor. vi. 17 f.), and upon moral discipline " by the strength
and sure warrant of the Lord's good word, as in Matt, xviil
15-18 (1 Cor. v.)" were it only in a church of " two or three"
gathered in the Name. Whatever may be thought of their
application of these principles, there is no mistaking the deeply
religious aim of these separatists for conscience' sake, via. the
realizing of the Christian ideal in personal conduct, in a fellow-
ship of souls alike devoted to the Highest; nor can it be doubted
that the " mingled " communion of the parish churches made
church "fellowship" in the apostolic sense a prac tical impossi-
bility. This was confessed alike by the bishops (e.g. Whitgifl)
and by the Puritans, who maintained the paramount duty of
remaining within the queen's church and there working for the
further reformation which they recognized as sadly needed by
English religion. But the radical "Puritans" (the above
documents in the State Paper Office are endorsed " Bishop of
London: Puritans ") felt that this meant treason to the Headship
of Christ in His Church; and that until the prince should set
aside " the superstition and commandments of men,'* and "send
forth princes and ministers [like another Josiah], and give them
the Book of the Lord, that they may bring home the people of
God to the purity and truth of the apostolic Church," they
Could do no other than themselves live after that divine ideal
They were not separated of their own choice, but by the word
of God acting on their consciences.
" Reformation without tarrying for Anie " was the burden
laid on the heart of the Congregational pioneers in 1567-1571;
and it continued to press heavily on many, both " Separatists "
and conforming " Puritans " (to use the nicknames used by
foes), before it became written theory in Robert Browne's work
Under that title, published at Middelburg in Holland in 1582
(see Browne, Robert). The story of the many attempts made
In the interval by " forward " or advanced Puritans to secure
vital religious fellowship within the queens Church, and of the
few cases in which these shaded off into practical Separatism,
s still wrapped in some obscurity. 1 But tentative efforts within
s ■ See, however. The Presbyterian Movement in the reign of Omen
Slizabrth, as illustrated by the Minute Book of Ike Dedknm OttMSa,
i58*-ts8g (Camden Society, 3rd series, vol viiu, iOCg).
J
CONGREGATIONALISM
931
parochial limits, by accustoming the more godly sort to fed an
inner bond peculiar to themselves, prepared many for the
congregational idea of the church, and on the other hand made
them feel more than ever dissatisfied with the " mixed " services
of the parish church. It seemed to them impossible that vital
religion could be inculcated, unless there were other guarantee
for ministerial fitness than episcopal licensing, unless in fact the
godly in each parish had a voice in deciding whether a man was
called of God to minister the Word of God (see C. Burrage, The
True Story of Robert Browne, pp. 7, 11 f.). But this implied the
gathering of the earnest " professors " in each locality into a
definite body, committed to the Gospel as their law of life.
Such a " gathered church " emerges as the great desideratum
.with Robert Browne, between 157a, when he graduated at
Cambridge, and 1580-1581, when he first defined his Separatist
theory. It involved for him a definite " covenant " entered
into by all members of the church, with God and with God's
people, to abide by Christ's laws as ruling all their conduct,
individually and collectively.
It hat been debated how far Browne derived this idee from Dutch
Anabaptist* in Norwich and eh»ewhcrt- Doubtless the " covenant "
idea wai most characteristic of Anabaptists. But they connected
It closely with adult baptism, whereat Browne enjoined baptism
for the children of those already in covenant, and in no case taught
re-baptism. Thus he evidently made " the wilting covenant ' of
— -j of the 1 ~~ J -•— 1 .1— _•
rtne. t
Anabaptist theories, and the absence of any hint to the contrary
const ioui faith the essence of the matter, and regarded the sign
seal as secondary. Considering, then, his other differences from
in his own autobiographical rrfervntet. " h is safe to afhrm that he
had no tonvious indebtedness to the Anabaptists" (Williston
Walker, Cntds and F Jot/arms of Congrrt., New York, 1893, p. 16).
If he adopted ideas then in the ah. whether of Anabaptist or other
origin (*ee p. 706, footnote 1 ), he diJ so as seeing them in Scripture.
From Browne's idea of a holy people, covenanted to walk
after Christ's mind and will, all else flowed, as is set forth in his
Book which shewelh the life and manners of all true Christians.
As it may be called the primary classic of congregational theory,
its leading principles must here be summarised. Hearing the
word of God unto obedience being due to " the gift of His Spirit
to His children," every church member is a spiritual person,
with a measure of the spirit and office of King, Priest and Prophet,
to be exercised directly under the supreme Headship of Christ.
Thus mutual oversight and care are among the duties of the
members of Christ's body; while their collective inspiration,
enabling them to " try the gifts of godliness " of specially endowed
fellow-members, is the divine warrant in election to church
office. Thus the " authority and office " of " church governors "
is not derived from the people, but from God, " by due consent
and agreement of the church." Conference between sister
churches for counsel is provided for; so that, while autonomous,
they do not live as isolated units. Such were the leading features
of Browne's Congregationalism, as a polity distinct from both
Episcopacy and Presbyterianism. Any varieties in the con-
gregational genus which emerge later on, keep within his general
outlines. To this fact the very nickname " Brownists," usually
given to early " Separatists " by accident, but Congrcgationalists
in essence, is itself witness.
" The kingdom of God was not to be begun by whole parishes,
but rather of the worthiest, were they never so few." This
sentence from Browne's spiritual autobiography contains the
root of the whole matter, and explains the title of his other
chief work, also of 1582, A Treatise of Reformation without
tarrying for any, and of the wickedness of those Preachers which
will not reform till the Magistrate command or compel them. Here
he, first of known English writers, sets forth a doctrine which,
while falling short of the Anabaptist theory that the civil ruler
has no standing in the affairs of the Church, in that religion ia
a matter of the individual conscience before God, yet marks a
certain advance upon current views. Magistrates " have not
that authority over the church as to be . . . spiritual Kings
» . . but only to rule the commonwealth in all outward
Justfe*. » . + Ant fhowforo tin because the Church is in a
jt; that is, concerning the
***% they axe to look to it.
But to compel religion, to plant churches by power, and to force
a submission to ecclesiastical government by laws and penalties,
belongeth not to them . . . neither yet to the Church"
( Treatise, &c, p. 1 2). Here Browne distinguishes acceptance of
the covenant relation with God (religion) and the forming or
" planting " of churches oik the basis of God's covenant (with
its laws of government), from the enforcing of the covenant
voluntarily accepted, whether by church-excommunication or
by civil penalties— the latter only in cases of flagrant impiety,
such as idolatry, blasphemy or Sabbath-breaking. In virtue of
this distinction which implied that the nation was not actually
in covenant with God, be taught a relative toleration. In Jhis
he was in advance even of most Separatists, who held with
Barrow 1 "that the Prince ought to compel all their subjects
to the hearing of God's Word in the public exercises of the
church." As, however, the prince might approve a false typo
of Church, in spite of what they 1 both assumed to be the dear
teaching of Scripture, and should so far be resisted, Browne
and Barrow found themselves practically in the same attitude
towards the prince's religious coercion. .It .was part of their
higher allegiance to the King of kings.
Between 1580 and 1581, when Browne formed in Norwich the
first known church of this order on definite scriptural theory,
and October 1585, when, being convinced that the times were
not yet ripe for the realization of the perfect polity, and taking
a more charitable view of the established Church, be yielded to
the pressure brought to bear on him by his kinsman Lord
Burghley, so far as partially to conform to parochial public
worship as defined by law (see Browns, Kodekt), the history of
Congregationalism is mainly that of Browne and of his writings.
Their effect was considerable, to judge from a royal proclamation
against them and those of his friend Robert Harrison, issued ia
June 1583. But the repression of " sectaries" was now, and
onwards until the end of the reign, so severe as to prevent much
action on these lines. Still Sir Walter Raleigh's rhetorical
estimate of " near 20,000 " Brownists existing in England in
April 1 593, at least means something. We hear • of " Brownists "
in London about 1585, while the London petitioners of 1592 refer
to their fellows in " other gaols throughout the land "; and the
True Confession of 1596 specifies Norwich, Gloucester, Bury
St Edmunds, as well as " many other places of the land." But
of organized churches we can trace none in England, until we
come in 1586 to Greenwood and Barrow, the men whose devotion
to a cause in which they felt the imperative call of God seems
to have rallied into church-fellowship the Separatists in London,
whether those of Fytz's day or those later convinced by the
failure of the Puritan efforts at reform and by the writings of
Browne. At what exact date this London church— which had a
more or less continuous history down to and beyond 1624 — was
actually formed, is open to doubt. It was only in September
1592 that it elected officers, viz. a pastor (Francis Johnson),'
a teacher (Greenwood), two deacons and two elders. Yet as
Barrow held that a church could exist prior to its ministry, this
settles nothing.
In 1 589 Greenwood and Barrow composed " A true Description
out of the Word of God of the visible Cfiurch," which represents
the ideal entertained in their circle. It was practically identical
with that set forth by Browne in 1582, though they were at
pains to deny personal connexion with him whom they now
regarded as an apostate. " The Brownist and the Barrowist
go hand in hand together." So was it said in 1602; and there
is no good ground (see Powicke, pp. 105 ff., 126 f.) for distin-
guishing the theories of the two leaders as to the authority of
1 See F. J. Powicke, Henry Barrow (1900), pp. 128 f., for his views
on the topic.
• I.e. to all honest leaders in State, as well as in Church, as it was
in Israel when a king like Hezektah r e st ored the Covenant and then
set about enforcing obedience to it. The problem of interpretation
of the Divine WflC especially in the case of the " papist " or tradi-
tionalist,' lay beyond their vision at the time. Hence their doctrine
was not really one of freedom of conscience or toleration.
•,S. Bredwell, The Rasint of the Foundations of Brownisme (ra88),
p. 135. See also F. J. Powicke, " List* of the Early SepezatMa/'
in Cong. Hiss. Soc. Transactions, i. 146 ff.
932
CONGREGATIONALISM
elder*. Both equally teach the supremacy of "the whole
church M in all discipline, including that upon elders or officers
generally, if need arise. Possibly Barrow laid more stress also
on the orderly " rules of the Word " to be followed in all church
actions, and so conveyed a rather different impression.
After the execution of Greenwood, Barrow and the ex-Puritan
Penry (a recent recruit to Separatism), in the spring of 1593,
it seemed to some that Separatism was " in effect extinguished."
This was largely true for the time as regards England, thanks
to the rigour of Archbishop Whitgift, aided by the new act which
left deniers of the queen's power in ecclesiastical matters no
option but to leave the realm. Even this hard fate the bulk
of the London church was ready to endure. Gradually they
resumed church-fellowship in Amsterdam, where they chose
the learned Henry Ainsworth (q.v.) as teacher, in place of Green-
wood, but elected no new pastor, as they expected Francis
Johnson (1 562-1618) soon to be released and to rejoin them.
This he did at the end of 1597, after a vain attempt to find
asylum under his country's flag 1 in Newfoundland. It was
here and now that divergent ideals as to the powers of the
eldership really emerged. Johnson, a man autocratic by nature,
and leaning to his old Presbyterian ideals on the point, held that
the church had no power to control its elders, once elected, in
their exercise of discipline, much less to depose them; while
Ainsworth, true to Barrow and the " old way " as he claimed,
sided with those who made the church itself supreme throughout.
The church divided on the issue; but neither section has further
historical importance. Far otherwise was it with the church
which was formed originally at Gainsborough (?i6o2), by
44 professors " trained under zealous Puritan clergy in the dis-
trict where Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire and Lincolnshire meet,
but which about 1606 reorganized itself for reasons of con-
venience into two distinct churches, meeting at Gainsborough
and in Scrooby Manor House. Ere long these were forced to seek
refuge, in 1607 and 1608 respectively, at Amsterdam, whence the
Scrooby church moved to Leiden in 1609 (Bradford's History
of Plymouth Plantation, chs. 1-3). The permanent issues of
the Gainsborough-Amsterdam church are connected with the
origins of the Baptist wing of Congregationalism, through John
Smyth and Thomas Helwys. As for the Scrooby-Leiden church
under John Robinson (q.v.), it was in a sense the direct parent
of historical " Congregationalism " alike in England and America
(see below, section American).
Separatism was now passing into Congregationalism, 1 both,
in sentiment and in language. The emphasis changes from
protest to calm exposition. In the freer atmosphere of Holland
the exiles lose the antithetical attitude, with its narrowing and
exaggerative tendency, and gain breadth and balance in the
assertion of their distinctive testimony. This' comes out in the
writings both of Robinson and of Henry Jacob, both of whom
passed gradually from Puritanism to Separatism at a time when
the silencing of some 300 Puritan clergy by the Canons of 1604,
and the exercise of the royal supremacy under Archbishop
Bancroft, brought these 4I brethren of the Second Separation "
into closer relations with the earlier Separatists. In a work of
1610, the sequel to his Divine Beginning and Institution of
Christ's true Visible and Ministerial Church, Jacob describes 4I an
entire and independent* body-politic," "endued with power
immediately under and from Christ, as every proper church is
and ought jo be." But his claim for 4I independent " churches
no longer denies that true Christianity exists within parish
assemblies. Similarly Robinson wrote about 1620 a Treatise
of Ik* Lawfulness of hearing of the Ministers of the Church of
England which shows a larger catholicity of feeling than his
' 5° **? Amsterdam church petitioned James, on his accession,
to allow them to live in their native land on the same terms as French
■■djjutcta churches on English soil (ace Walker, op. cit. 75 foil.).
tl 'The ab stract term dates only from the 18th century. But
consjregational " (due to the rendering of ecclesia by '* congrrga-
S? in early English Bibles) appears about 164a, to judge from
|W | " * " - ' «— * " anat ytt used technically, as it came to be
earlier Justification of Separation (16x0) . These semj-sqanui
still set great store by the church-covenant, in which they beat
themselves " to walk together in all God's ways and erenaaa,
according as He had already revealed, or should further mk
them known to them." But they realized that " the Lord to
more truth and light yet to break forth of his Hob/ W«T.
and this gave them an open-minded and tolerant spirit, vfctt
continued to mark the church in Plymouth Colony, as dins
from the Puritans of Massachusetts Bay. Such, then, was
type of church formed in 1616 by Henry Jacob in Loadoc. 1
was founded under the tolerant Archbishop George Abbot (:*-
1633), and would have been content with toleration sacs u a
French and Dutch churches in England enjoyed. But CkAil
and Archbishop Laud would make no terms with dents i 1
royal supremacy in religion, and in 163 a this chad si
persecuted.
Besides such regular churches in London and the proas
under the early Stuarts, there were also numerous "convectidb*
composed of very humble folk, such as the eleven about Least
which Bishop Joseph Hall (1574-1656) reports in 1631, st
which he states in 1640 had grown to some eighty. Is its
latter the earlier Brownist or even Anabaptist spirit pnbsfc
prevailed. Further there was arising a new type of "fas
pendent," to use the term now coming into use. Coqsx
repression of civil and religious liberty had made thouj?*
men ponder matters of church polity. The majority, iaki
even of determined opponents of personal rule in stated
church favoured Presbyterian ism, particularly before ifc
when Henry Burton's Protestation Protested brought bsi
educated men generally the principles of CongregatkaiSs
as distinct from Puritanism, by applying them to a maturrf
practical politics. But besides this telling pamphlet sad ■
controversy which ensued, the experience of New Enghsii
to the practicability of Congregationalism, at *~»t* in U
modified form known as the 44 New England Way," prodaEsh
growing impression, especially on parliament. ' Hence <*
before the Westminster Assembly met in July 1643, IwhJ 8 *
ency could reckon among its friends men of distinction >3
state, like Cromwell, Sir Harry Vane, Lord Saye and Si
while Milton powerfully pleaded the power of Truth to take Of
of herself on equal terms. In the Assembly, too, its ^r^
were fit, if few. They included Thomas Goodwin and W
Nye, who had practised this polity during exile abroad and*
strove to avert the substitution of Presbyterian uniformity l
the Episcopacy which, as the ally of absolutism, had »K-*
its own children (sec Presbyterian-ism). Yet the 44 FivtS
scnting Brethren " would have failed to secure toleration c*
for themselves as Congregationalism— such was the dread feM
the assembly for Anabaptists, Antinomians, and other "*?
taries "—had it not been for the vaguer, but widespread hi
pendency existing in parliament and in the army. Here, as
we meet with a distinction (cf. Dale, p. 374 ff.) of moment fbrsV
Commonwealth era, between 44 Independency " as a pnW
and * 4 Congregationalism " as an ideal of church pa*'
Independency, like Nonconformity, is primarily a negative td*
44 It simply affirms the right of any society of private pens*'
meet together for worship . . . without being interfered**^,
by any external authority." Such a right may be asserted •
other theories than the congregational or even the Christ*!
Congregationalism, however, 44 denotes a positive theory of**
organization and powers of Christian churches," having ■]
corollary independency of external control, whether civil it
ecclesiastical. 44 Historically the two terms have been J
inlcrchangeably " during the last two hundred years. But u3
the Commonwealth many professed the one without iM
accepting the other. ;
During the Civil War Congregationalism broadened out into*
dprocal relations with the national life and history Thenccibrf
« The opposite of this external Independency, admission of cA
oversight even for churches enjoying internal ecclesiastical **
government, was also common, being the outcome of the tnditk**
Puritan attitude to the state. See A. Mackcnoal. 7*« £*Ws*
of Coapetaftona/tsm (iooi), pp. 43 ff. ^^
CONGREGATIONALISM
933
It involves not, only the story of Nonconformity and the
growth of religious liberty, but also the whole development of
modem England. To sketch even in outline " The Evolution of
Congregationalism" in correspondence with so complex an
environment is here impossible. Only salient points can be
Indicated.
During the Protectorate, with its practical establishment of
Presbyterians, Independents and Baptists, the position of
Congregationalism was really anomalous, in so far as any of its
pastors became parish ministers, 1 and so received "public
maintenance " and were expected to administer the sacraments
to all and sundry. But the Restoration soon changed matters,
■nd by forcing Presbyterians and Congregationalists alike into
Nonconformity, placed $c former, instead of the latter, in the
anomalous position. In practice they became Independents,
after trying in some cases to create, voluntary presbyteries, like
Baxter's Associations, adopted partially in 1653-1660, in spite
of repressive legislation. But though Presbyterians did not in
.many instances become Congregationalists also, until a later date,
'the two types of Puritanism were drawn closer together in the
^half-century after 1662 The approximation was mutual. Both
Jud given up the strict jure divino theory of their polity as
[apostolic. The Congregationalism of the Savoy Declaration
IdOct. 12, 1658). agreed on by representatives— the majority
BOn-ministerial— from 120 churches, is one tempered by ex-
perience gained in Holland and New England, as well as in the
Westminster Assembly. Hence when, after the Toleration Act
Of 1680, a serious attempt was made to draw the two types
together on the basis of Heads of Agreement assented to by the
United Ministers in and about London, formerly called Presbyterian
tnd Congregational, the basis partook of both (much after the
Fashion of the New England Way), though on the whole it
favoured Congregationalism (see Dale, pp. 474 ff.). In many
trust-deeds of this date (which did not contain doctrinal c buses),
and for long after, the phrase " Presbyterian or Independent "
occurs. Yet the two gradually drifted apart again owing to
doctrinal differences, emerging first on the Calvinistic doctrine of
pace, such as broke up the joint " Merchants' Lecture " started
fai 167a in Pinners' Hall, and next on Christology. In both
cues the Congregationalism took the " high," the Presbyterians
the " moderate " view. These specific differences revealed
different religious tendencies, 1 the one type being more warmly
'Evangelical, the other more " rational " and congenial in temper
With 18th-century Deism. The theological division was accentu-
ated by the Saltcrs' Hall Controversy (1717-1710), which,
Nominally touching religious liberty versus subscription, really
Involved differences as to Trinitarian doctrine. Ere long
Onanism and Socinianism were general among English Presby-
9 terians (see Unitarianism). Congregationalists, on the other
lund, whether Independents or Baptists, remained on the whole
^Trinitarians, largely perhaps in virtue of their very polity, with
TO intimate relation between the piety of the people and that of
flbe ministry. Yet the relation of Congregational polity to its
'teligious ideal had already become less intimate and conscious
"than even half a century before: the system was held simply as
*one traditionally associated with a serious and unworldly piety.
f* 4 Church privileges " meant to many only the sacred duty of
Electing their own ministry and a formal right of veto on the
■^proposals of pastor and deacons. The fusion into one office of
'the functions of " elders " and " deacons " (still distinguished
*ln the Savoy Declaration of 1658) was partly at least a symptom
taf the decay of the church-idea in its original fulness, a decay
itself connected with the general decline in spiritual intensity
Srhich marked 18th-century religion, after the overstrain of the
'preceding age. Yet long before the Evangelical Revival proper,
1 For the distinction between " Gathered " and " Re-formed "
jCaurches in this connexion, see Dale, p. 376.
' ■ A parallel is afforded by the history of Congregationalism in
Scotland, which arose early in the 19th century through the evan-
Sltstic fervour of the Hafdanes in an era of moderation " ; also
• the rise of the kindred Evangelical Union, shortly before the
sruption in 1843. These two movements coalesced in a single
Congregational Union in im-
partial revivals of a warmer piety occurred in certain circles;
and among the Independents in particular the new type of
hymnody initiated by Isaac Watts (1707) helped not a little.
The Methodist movement touched all existing types of English
religion, but none more than Congregationalism. While the
" rational " Presbyterians were repelled by it as " enthusiasm,"
the Independents had sufficient in common with its spirit to
assimilate — after some distrust of its special ways and doctrines-
its passion of Christlike pity for " those out of the way," and so
to take their share in the wider evangelization of the people and
the Christian philanthropy which Sowed from the new inspira-
tion. For underneath obvious differences, like the Arminian
theology of the Wesleys and the Presbyterian type of their
organization, there was latent affinity between a " methodist
society" and the original congregational idea of a church;
and in practice Methodism, outside the actual control of the
Wesleys, in various ways worked out into Congregationalism,
(see Mackennal, op. cil. pp. 156 ff., Dale, pp. 583 ff.). So was
it in the long run with the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion,,
springing from Whitefield's Calvinistic wing of the Revival,
not to mention the congregational strain in some minor Methodist
churches.
But whilst Congregationalism grew thereby in numbers and
in a sense of mission to all sorts and conditions of men — lack of
which was one of the disabilities* due in part to its sectarian
position before the law (see Mackennal, pp. 143 ff.) — it modified
not only its Calvinism but also its old church ideal 4 in the process.
During most of the next century it inclined to an individualism
un tempered by a sense of mystic union with God and in Him
with all men (see Dale, pp. 387 ff., for an estimate of these and
other changes). It lost, however, its exclusive spirit Its pulpit,
which had always been the centre of power in the churches,
has for a century or more taken a wider range of influence in
a succession of notable preachers. Congregationalists generally
have been to the fore in attempts to apply Christian principles
to matters of social, municipal, national and international
importance. They have been steady friends of foreign missions
in the most catholic form (supporting the London Missionary
Society, founded in 1795 on an inter-denominational basis), of
temperance, popular education and international peace. Their
weakness as a denomination has lain latterly in* their very
catholicity of sympathy. Thus it was left to the Oxford Revival,
with its emphasis on certain aspects of the Church idea, to help
to re-awaken in many Congregationalists a due feeling for
specific church-fellowship, which was the main passion with
their forefathers. Another influence making in the same direc-
tion, but in a different spirit, was the Broad Church ideal
represented in various forms by Thomas Erskinc of Linlathen,
F. W. Robertson of Brighton and F. D. Maurice. In the last
of these the conception of Christ's Headship of the human race
assumed a specially inspiring form. This conception, in a more
definitely Biblical and Christian shape, attained forcible expres-
sion in the writings of R. W. Dale of Birmingham, the roost
influential Congregationalist in the closing decades of the 19th
century, in whom lived afresh the high Congregationalism of the
early Separatists.
Modern Congregationalism, as highly sensitive to the Zeitgeist
and its solvent influence on dogma, shared for a time the critical
and negative attitude produced by the first impact of a culture
determined by the conception of development as applying to
the whole realm of experience. But it has largely outgrown
this, and is addressing itself to the progressive re-interpretation
of Christianity, in an essentially constructive spirit. Similarly
its ecclesiastical statesmen have been developing the full possi-
bilities of its polity, to suit the demands of the time for co-
ordinated effort While its principle of congregational autonomy
has been gaining ground in the more centralized systems,
1 Another disability, acutely felt by all Nonconformists, created
by the act of i66a, via. exclusion from the national centres of
education, they strove earnestly to remedy by their academies, the
story of which h sketched by Dale, pp. 499 ff., 559-561.
4 The modern use of the term " chapel seems to date only from
93+
CONGREGATIONALISM
whether Episcopal or Presbyterian, its own latent capacity
for co-operation has been evoked by actual needs to a degree
never before realised in England Association for mutual help
and counsel, contemplated in some degree in the early days
from Browne to the Savoy Declaration of 1658, but thereafter
forced into abeyance, began early in the xoth century to find
expression in County Unions on a voluntary basis, especially
for promoting home missionary work. These in turn led on to
the Congregational Union of England and Wales, formed in
1839, and consisting at first of " County and District Associa-
tions, together with any ministers and churches of the Congrega-
tional Order recognized by an Association." Later it was found
that an assembly so constituted combined the incompatible
functions of a council for the transaction of business and a
congress for shaping or expressing common opinion: and its
constitution was modified so as to secure the latter object only.
But after half a century's further experience, public opinion,
stimulated by growing need for common action in relation to
certain practical problems of home and foreign work, proved ripe
for the realization of the earlier idea in its double form. In 1004
the Union was again modified so as to embrace (x) a council ol
300, representative of the county associations, to direct the
business for which the Union as such is responsible, and (2) a
more popular assembly, made up of the council and a large
number of direct representatives of the associated churches.
Association, however, remains as before voluntary, and some
churches are outside the Union; nor has a resolution of the
assembly more than moral authority for any of the constituent
churches. As regards the " Declaration of Faith, Church Order
and Discipline " adopted in 1833, and still printed in the official
Year Book " for general information " as to " what is commonly
believed " by members of the Union, what is characteristic is the
attitude taken in the preliminary notes to " creeds and articles of
religion." These are disallowed as a bond of union or test of
communion, much as in the Savoy Declaration of 1658 it is said
that constraint " causeth them to degenerate from the name
and nature of Confessions," " into Exactions and Impositions of
Faith."
Among topics which have exercised the collective mind of
modern Congregationalism, and still exercise it, are church-aid
and home missions, church extension in the colonies, the con-
ditions of entry into the ministry and sustentation therein,
Sunday school .work, the social and economic condition of the
people (issuing in social settlements and institutional churches),
and, last but not least, foreign missions. Indeed the support of
the London Missionary Society has come to devolve almost
wholly on COngregationalists, a responsibility recognised by the
Union in r88o and again fin 1004. To afford a home for the
centralized activities of the Union, the Memorial Hall, Farringdon
{Street, London, was built on the site of the Fleet prison— soil
consecrated by sacrifice for conscience under Elizabeth— and
opened in 1875. There the Congregational Library, founded a
generation before, is housed, as well as a publication department.
A congregational hymn-book (including Watts' collection) was
issued by the Unian>in 1836, and again in fresh forms in 1859,
1873 and 1887.
The theological colleges which train for the Congregational
ministry have themselves an interesting history, going back to
the private " academies " formed by ejected ministers. They
underwent great extension owing to the Evangelical Revival, and
became largely centres of evangelistic activity (Dale, p. 503 ff.).
But they were burdened by the necessity of 'supplying literary
as well as theological training, owing to the disabilities of Non-
conformists at Oxford and Cambridge till 1871. Even before
that,however, owing partly to the impulse given by the university
of London after 1836, the standard of learning in some of the
colleges had been rising; and the last generation has seen marked
advance in this respect In 1886 Spring Hill College, Binning- 1
ham, was transplanted to Oxford, where it was refounded under
the title of Mansfield College, purely for the post-graduate study
of theology (first prfndpa^Dr.A M. Fairbairn); in 1005 Cheshunt
College, founded by the countess 0/ Huntingdon, was transferred
' to Cambridge, to enjoy university teaching; whilst 1
of the university of Wales, the reconstitutkm of L
versity, and the creation of Manchester University, I
1900 and 1005, to the affiliation to them of one or ;
other colleges. Indeed in all cases the students are 1
sort of touch with a university or university college,
eight colleges in England, viz., besides Mansfield aw
New and Hackney Colleges, London; Western Colh
Yorkshire United College, Bradford; Lancashire I
College, Manchester; the Congregational Institute, ^
In Wales there are three (one partly Presbyterian),
one, and in the colonies three. The students number
Congregational statistics are very uncertain hi
when the Union began to make such matters its conce
1716 Daniel Neal knew of 1107 dissenting congreg
Presbyterian or Independent (of which perhaps 350
pendent), and 247 Baptist. During the 18th cento
the Independents increased at the expense of the Pri
it is doubtful whether they kept pace with the increati
tion, until the Evangelical Revival In 183 a the:
some 800 churches, the Baptists 533. In 1007 the fi
for Great Britain 1 ' as a whole: Churches, brand
and mission stations, 4928; sittings, 1,801,447; chord
408,953; Sunday school scholars, 7*9.347, with 60,57
ministers (with or without pastoral charge), 3197, toj
209 evangelists and lay pastors; lay preachers, 5603,
parts of the British empire there are some 1045 cb
mission stations (many native), South Africa, 385;
311, and Tasmania, 49; British North America, 1
Guiana, 50, and Jamaica, 48; New Zealand, 35;
Hongkong, 1. There axe also congregational d
Austria, Bulgaria, Holland, Norway, Portugal, Spa
I and in Japan (93). Apart from these, however,
150,000 communicants in its foreign missions, B
I American " Congregationalism " reckons more thai
and a quarter church members; while, including th
as Baptists (*;.».), the total amounts to several millim
The Union of 1832 led indirectly to two further dev
I [n the first place it fostered the growth of Congregat
British colonies. Beginnings had already been ma
by help of the London Missionary Society — in Brii
America (from New England), South Africa, Ans
British Guiana. But in 1836 a Colonial Missionary S
founded in connexion with the Union. Secondly,
how existed for drawing doser the bonds between E
American Congregationalists. This gradually led to 1
V An Ecumenical Council of Congregational Churches,'
in 1874, and first realized in 1891, in the London Int
Council under the presidency of Dr R. W. Dale (4
Second council met in Boston in 1809, and the third in 3
In 1008. Their proceedings were issued in full, and t
tion promised to take a permanent place in Congregat
Biblioc*aphy .— The literature bearing on the suEfe
with some fulness in the appendix to R. W. Dale's Histun
Congregationalism (1907), the most authoritative work
available. For the ancient church the data are collectei
Lindsay's The Church and the Ministry in the early Cc mSm
and in paper* by the present writer in ihc Contrmp. RgpU
1997 and April xqox- Fcur the modem period In pari
H. M. Dexter'* Congretaiionaliun of ike La.it Three Rune
OJ ieen in its Literature (New York, iBfto), supple merited
Kjaphiea in the first vols, of the Cuntre^atioHal llirtorix^
Trattiaciiafu (190 1- ), themselves a growing start
material*- Of the older histories YVaddington ■ Cm,
Hilary in 5 vols. (iSoo-tJiBo) contain* abundant data;
more detailed study reference may be made to varioi
histories, such as T. Oteman, Imteptndatt Ckvrchrs af &&
shire (ta$iJ F T. W. David*, Annah of Es&nedtial Noncom
Eihx (r66*), R. HaHey. LanaaAirr, *is Puritanism am
fortuity (t86o) ; G. H, Pike, A TtdnU Mteting-fftnuer in [^^
Browne, History of Cong, in tfarfolh and Suffolk (1
rwick, Ifpnzonformity in Hertfordshire (Jf&{) ; W, Den
1 In Ireland the oldest existing Congregational church
dates from 1760; but most belong to the 19th century,
tow 41 churches, attended by about 10,000 persona. Tin
Islands have 12 churches, the oldest founded in 1803.
CONGREGATIONALISM
935
J. Ogle, Congr. Churches of Dorset (1899); W. H. Summer*. History
f/the Berks. S. Bucks, and S. Oxen. Cong. Churches (1905) ; and F. f.
Fowicke, History of the Cheshire Cong. Union, 1806-1906. The
Victorian County Histories (Constable) may also be consulted. Im-
portant documents for Congregational Faith and Order, with
historical introductions, are printed in Williston Walker's Creeds
mmd Platforms of Congregationalism (New York, 1893). A classic
exposition of Congregational theory is contained in K. W. Dale's
Manual of Cong. Principles (1884). (J. V. B.)
{* America.— The history of American Congregationalism
daring its early years is practically that of the origin of New
England. It may be said to begin with the arrival in 1620 of a
■mall company including William Brewster, elder of the refugee'
church in Leiden, which founded Plymouth in the modern,
Massachusetts in the winter of that year. Strictly speaking the
members of this colony were Separatists, i.e. they belonged!
to that small body of British Independents who " separated "
from the state church under the leadership of Richard Clifton
or Clyfton (d. 1616), rector of Babworth, and Brewster, a layman
of Scrooby in Nottinghamshire. By the end of ten years the
Plymouth colony numbered about 300. About 1 6 28 the religious
troubles in England led to the emigration of a large number of
Puritans; the colony of Massachusetts Bay was founded in!
1628-1630 by settlers led by John Endeoott and John Winthrop,
and a church on congregational lines was founded at Salem in
1629, and another soon afterwards at Boston, which became
the centre of the colony. The similarity between the two
colonics led to a close relationship, and considerable reinforce-
ments continued to arrive until 1640. Certain differences in
opinion on franchise questions led to the founding of the colony
of Connecticut in 1634-1636 by settlers led by Thomas Hooker
(d. 1647), John Haynes (d. 1654), and others, and the colony of
New Haven was founded in 1638 by a small company under
John Davenport (1597-1670) and Thcophilus Eaton (d. 1658).
In 1643 these four congregational colonies formed a confederacy
with a view to their common safety.
It has been calculated that in the period 16 70-1640 upwards
of 22,000 Puritan emigrants (the figures have been placed as
high as 50,000) sailed from British and Dutch ports. The reasons
that compelled their departure determined their quality; they
were all men of rigorous consciences, who loved their fatherland
much, but religion more, driven from home not by mercantile
necessities or ambitions, but solely by their determination to be
free to worship God. They were, as Milton said, " faithful and
freeborn Englishmen and good Christians constrained to forsake
their dearest home, their friends, and kindred, whom nothing
but the wide ocean and the savage deserts of America could hide
and shelter from the fury of the bishops." Men so moved so
to act could hardly be commonplace; and so among them we
find characters strong and marked, with equal ability to rule
and to obey, as Wilb'am Bradford (1 500-1657) and Brewster,
Edward Winslow (1 505-1655) and Miles Standish (1584-1656),
John Winthrop (1588-1649) and Dr Samuel Fuller, and men so
inflexible in their love of liberty and faith in man as Roger
Williams and young Harry Vane. As were the people so were
their ministers. Of these it is enough to name John Cotton,
able both as a divine and as a statesman, potent in England by
bis expositions and apologies of the "New England way,"
potent in America for his organizing and administrative power;
Thomas Hooker, famed as an exponent and apologist of the
"New England way"; John Eliot, famous as the "apostle of
the Indians," first of Protestant missionaries to the heathen;
Richard Mather, whose influence and work were carried on by
his distinguished son, and his still more distinguished grandson,
Cotton Mather. The motives and circumstances of the emigrants \
determined their polity; they went out as churches and settled
as church states. They were all Puritans, but not all Indcpend- 1
ents— indeed, at first only the men from Leiden were, and they
were throughout more enlightened and tolerant than the men
of the other settlements. Winthrop's company were noncon-
formists but not separatists, esteemed it " an honour to call the
Church of England, from whence we rise, our dear mother,"
emigrated that they might be divided from her corruptions, not
from herself. But the new conditions, backed by the special I
j influence of the Plymouth settlement, were too much lor them;
they became Independent,— first, perhaps, of necessity, then of
conviction and choice. Only so could they guard their ecclesi-
astical and their civil liberties. These, indeed, were at first
formally as well as really identical. In 1631 the general court
of the Massachusetts colony resolved, "that no man shall be
admitted to the freedom of this body politic, but such as are
members of some of the churches within the limits of the same.**
This lasted till 1664. In New Haven the same system prevailed
from 1630 till 1665. Church and State, citizenship in the one
and membership in the other, thus became identical, and the
foundation was laid for those troubles and consequent severities
that vexed and shamed the early history of Independency in
New England, natural enough when all their drcumstances are
fairly considered, indefensible when we regard their idea of the
relation of the civil power to the conscience and religion, but
explicable when their church idea done it regarded. And this
latter was their own standpoint; their acts were more acts of
church discipline than those of civil penalty.
The years following the settlement of the four colonies were
occupied in the solution of problems in church and civil govern-
ment and in the preparation for the proper training of ministers.
The relation between membership of the church and membership
of the civic community has been mentioned. The principal
problem which divided the settlers was that known as the " Half
Way Covenant," which concerned the status of the children of
original church members. The difficulty was that, according
to the principles held by the founders of the churches, the
admission to membership of a parent involved a similar status
in the case of his children; on the other hand, no adult could
be admitted unless the church as a whole was convinced that
he was a man of proved Christian character. A compromise wo
arrived at by two assemblies, the first a convention of ministers
held at Boston in 1657, the second a general synod of the churches
of Massachusetts in 1662. As a result of these assemblies it
was decided that those who had become members in childhood
simply by virtue of their parents' status could not subsequently
join in the celebration of the Lord's Supper nor record votes
on ecclesiastical issues, unless they should approve themselves
fit; they might, however, in their turn bring their children to
baptism and hand on to them the degree of membership which
they themselves had received from their own parents. This
classification of the members into those who were in full com-
munion and those who belonged only to the "Half Way Cove-
nant" was vigorously attacked by Jonathan Edwards, but it
was not abolished until the early years of the 19th century.
Of far greater importance not only to Congregationalism but
also to the future of the American colonies was the care taken
by the settlers to provide adequate training for their ministers.
As early as 1636 they founded Harvard College, and in 170!
Yale College was established. The emphasis laid by the Congre-
gationalists on this branch of their work has been characteristic
of their successors both in America and in Great Britain,
Ten years after the foundation of Harvard, missionary work
among the Indians was undertaken by John Eliot and Thomas
Mayhew. Eliot produced his Indian translation of the Scriptures
in 1 661-1663, and by about 1675 there were six Indian churches
with some 4000 converts.
The enthusiasm which thus marked the early yean of American
Congregationalism rapidly cooled from one generation to another.
It was not until 1734 that a new outburst of zeal was aroused by
the "revivalist " work of Jonathan Edwards, followed in 1740-
174a by George Whiteficld. This wave of enthusiasm spread
from Northampton, Mass., till it swept New England. Un-
fortunately, however, the solid work achieved was accompanied
by much superficial excitement among emotional persons for
whom the so-called " Great Awakening " was merely a pass-
ing sensation. Moreover there was considerable controversy
between the "Old Lights," who regarded the "revival" as
positively pernicious, and the " New Lights," who -approved it.
Partly owing to its own faults and partly owing to the stress of
political excitement which followed it* the Edw w&kv&. tc^c*^
-flit.
936
CONGREGATIONALISM
vat followed by nearly half a century of lethargy, during which
the chief interest centred in the gradual growth of doctrinal
controversy. Two new theological schools began to emerge
from the old Calvinistic theology of the early settlers. The first
owed its origin to Jonathan Edwards (the elder) and was carried
on by Samuel Hopkins (1721-1803), Joseph Bellamy (1710-
1700), Nathaniel Emmons (1745-1840), Jonathan Edwards (the
younger) and Timothy Dwight (1752-1817). This system of
thought, known as the "New England Theology," rapidly
became predominant, and by the beginning of the 19th century
was generally adopted. An equally important school, though
numerically smaller, came into existence in eastern Massachusetts
under the leadership of Charles Chauncy (1592-1672) and
Jonathan Mayhew (17 20-1766). During the events which led
up to the Declaration of Independence this school, known as the
"Liberal" school, was not prominent though the number of
its adherents steadily grew. Subsequently, however, largely
owing to the activity of men like William Ellcry Channing, it
acquired great importance. As early as 1805 it was recognized
as predominant in Harvard College, and in 1815 it had become
a distinct denomination under the new title "Unitarian" (sec
Unitabianism).
When the excitement caused by the Revolution had subsided,
Congregationalism entered upon a new period of energy. From
1791 onwards revival work again became prominent with results
which far surpassed those of the Edwardean period. The
number of church members steadily increased, and activities of
wider and more lasting importance were undertaken. The loss
of Harvard College compelled the provision of new seminaries,
and missionary work both home and foreign was vigorously
carried on. The following arc the seminaries founded since
1800: Andover (1808), Bangor (1816), Hartford (1834), the
theological school of Oberlin College (1835), Chicago (1858),
Pacific (1869; now at Berkeley, Cal.)» and Atlanta (Georgia),
1901. In 1822 a special theological department was organized
at Yale. Up to 18x0 missionary work had been carried on at
home by several local sock- tics, but in that year the American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions was organized.
Other societies undertook various departments of work at home:
the Congregational Education Society, for assisting candidates
for the ministry (1815); the American Missionary Association
(1846), founded by the anti-slavery party for the conversion
of the negroes, which subsequently devoted its energies to work
among the Indians of the west, the negroes of the south, the
Chinese of the west coast and the Eskimo in Alaska; to aid in
the bunding of churches and mission rooms the American
Congregational Union was formed in 1853 (now called the Con-
gregational Church Building Society). To these last societies is
largely due the growth of the Congregational body in the west.
In the early days of this expansion Congregationalism and
Presbyterianism worked hand in hand, but the so-called "Plan
of Union" (1801) was successively abandoned by the Conserva-
tive Presbyterians in 1837 and by the Congrcgationalists through
the "Albany Convention" in 1852. It was this decision* which
for the first time gave to Congrcgationalists a true feeling of
denominational unity (see below).
The 19th century was a period of considerable progress for
the Congregational body, and on the whole the same may be
said for the first seven years of the 20th century. On the other
hand, the numerical increase had not kept pace with the increase
of population. The English Congregational Year Book for 1908
said, in reference to the United States: "In spile of phenomenal
increase of population Congregationalism in the states, as here
in London, is only marking time. If other sister churches were
reporting progress, or were simply keeping abreast of the popula-
tion, these facts would not be so ominous as they undoubtedly
are. But we hear no good news of that kind, and gather small
comfort from the mere fact that Congregational churches arc
holding their own as well as any of their neighbours." It must,
therefore, be admitted that the great expansion which marked the
A*t lulf oi the igth century has not been proportionately
"""" " None the less, Congregationalism has through \U
leading representatives taken an increasingly important ptr. 3
theological controversy and scholarship generally. Asa? a
followers of Jonathan Edwards the more prominent hrc be
N. W. Taylor (Yale) and Edwards A. Park (Andover). Asp
statement of the doctrine of the Atonement, proposed byBoc,
Bushnell (1802-1876) about 1850, provoked great ccauorasi
but during the later years of the 19th century was widely aosjal
under the title of the "New Theology." It has not, hosts 1
caused a serious division within the denomination.
Congregationalism in America has thus spread fronfc;
England, its primitive home, over the West to the ftaj
but has never had more than a slight foothold in the Swfcf
states. The remarkable junction or fusion oi the Indepakl
or "Separatists" who emigrated from Leiden to Pljmn!
Massachusetts, with the Puritan Nonconformists of Miwiriss
Bay, modified Independency by the introduction of poet
fraternal relations among the churches. This gave «f
Congregationalism in the more proper sense of the term. 1qs{
the limits of New England the progress of the denenkq
as such was, as we have seen, a good deal hindered foruj
period by the willingness of New Englandcrs going Wot erf
to join the Presbyterians, with whom they were snbst
agreed in doctrine, or to combine with them in a mixed
of policy in which the Presbyterian element was uppflsl fc
It was not until about 1850 that American CongregtuasY e
began to draw more closely together, and to propapuii
Western states and territories their own distinctive
Meanwhile, without giving up the main principle of the
of the local church, they have developed in varioas
active disposition to co-operate as a united religious bwr/.
tendency to denominational union is manifest partly n nV
of the various educational and missionary societies vbUl
been enumerated, but more strikingly in the instituting
National Council, which is convened at intervals of tint
and is composed of ministers and lay .delegates renraentij)
churches. The council, like the minor advisory coonc&i p^T
have been from early times called together for the grids faker
particular churches on occasions of special difficulty,! htf
time dissolved at its adjournment. It is possessed of no uss t&tf,
Its function is to deliberate on subjects of common 0*0 kytjj (
to«f r
the entire denomination, and to publish such
*«r$'
counsels as a majority may sec fit to send forth to the &4 afp^,
The first of the National Councils (held at Boston as tttftt
issued a brief statement of doctrine (the "Burial HiUM ** «<
tion"), descriptive of the religious tenets generally aeon Kg iec
the denomination. Later (18S3) a large committee, p«4 TV
appointed, framed a more full confession of faith (tie*'
mission Creed "), with the same end in view. Of c
of these creeds was in the least binding upon minister! «f
churches, except so far as in each instance they might UC
tarily adopted. The movement in the direction of 1
been still further promoted by the International Cotratistf
to above (section on British Congregationalism ad Ji*.),i
the American Congrcgationalists have met the :
of their brethren in Great Biitain and its colonies 1 _ w
same faith and polity. In the different slates, cotJ*fbc.)j£
composed likewise of representatives of the several chusK" la it
their pastors, have sprung up. These meet at stated inttfA ^
the consideration of practical subjects of moment, and' t*trei
promotion of a religious spirit. There is a tendency, ■* stirs*
to accord to the conferences the function of determining A fcjgrts
of ministerial standing in the Congregational dewed tasUy
In some of the states the licensing of preachers, wW ftgmg
formerly left to the voluntary associations of rnintstcs< Id thoi
different localities, has been made a function of the stf I14-1!
fcrences. At the very first, in New England, the theory* Ifca b«
that a minister, on ceasing to be the pastor of a p* fcn of s
church, falls into the rank of laymen. But the vie* *■ d rut,
soon adopted, and since has universally prevailed, thatiB fejr),
in such cases still retains his clerical character. In later lit ttljn}?
measure of authority conceded to a pastor as the shrp* tVn*
\ faxk taaWn tauch diminished in consequence of toe I *n e | c
** uit
CONGRESS
937
lent of democratic feeling In both minister and congrc-
This loss of clerical prestige has been due in no small
the increasing habit of dispensing with a form of
on, and of substituting for a permanent pastorate,
i with the advice and consent of a council, an engage*
serve as a minister for a fixed term of one or more years,
his custom of "staled supplies" ordination may be
to those whose ministry in a particular church is made
olved by no other process than a mutual agreement,
igrcgational churches, as distinct from the churches
; the same polity, but separated by the adoption of
n opinions, have in times past professed to be Calvinists
?r or more moderate types. But as early as 1865,
is were welcomed to Congregational fellowship. In the
decades, with the spread in the community of innova-
loctrinal and critical opinions, a wider diversity of belief
; to prevail, so that " Evangelical," in the popular sense
rm, rather than " Calvinistic," is the epithet more suit-
tmcrican Congregational preachers and churches.
ear-Book for 1907 reported the total number of communl-
ill the ttates at 708,913 (in 1857. 224,732); Sunday-school
670,044 (in 1857. 195.57a): churches. 5989 (in >857. 235©).:
• 597a (in 1857, 2315); the amount of benevolent contn-
■y the churches as $2,591,693, in addition to a total home
ire of $8,986,727. In the theological seminaries there
students in 1907-1908, as compared with a maximum
1 1891-1892, and a minimum of 181 in 1864-1865. The
1 Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions reported
'ear ending August 31, 1907; 579 missionaries ana 4135
■orkcrs; 580 churches with 68,000 communicants and
holars.
illiston Walker, History of the Congregational Churches in
d States (1894); A. Dunning, The Rational Council Digest
1906).
IESS (Lat. congresses, coming together, from congredi;
h, and gradus, step), in diplomacy, a solemn assembly
signs or their plenipotentiaries met together for the
df definitely settling international questions of common
In this political connotation the word first came
in the 17th century; an isolated instance occurs in
en it was applied to the meeting of delegates summoned
ope to Cologne, to attempt to put an end to the Thirty
ar. In 1647 the meetings of delegates for the conclusion
assembled at Osnabrdck and MUnster, were termed a
; and in spite of objections to it on the ground that it
arse and inappropriate," based on the physiological
the word, it continued thenceforward in use.
(option of the name Congress for the national legislative
he United States (and so for other American countries)
ly a development from this usage, for the " Continental
«t"of 1774 and 1775-1781, and the "Congress of the
-atton" (1781-1788), were, as intcr-itate representative
ive bodies, analogous to international congresses, and
press of 1789 onwards ultimately consists of reprcscnta-
:hc sovereign states composing the Union; this body is,
dealt with under United States: Political Institutions.
e general analogous use of the term (Church Congress,
f modern origin.
nternational sense the term "congress" is only applied
rings of first -class importance, attended either by the
is themselves or by their secretaries of state for foreign
» important meetings, e.g. either in preparation for a
or for the settlement of a particular question, are
ermed "conferences." The dividing line between the
and the conference is, however, historically ill -defined;
gha congress of the first importance, e.g. that of Vienna
15), is never otherwise described, the two terms have
n used indifferently in official diplomatic correspondence
uch dignified assemblages as the meetings of sovereigns
ssmen at Aix-la-Chapclle (1818), Troppau (1820) and
(1821). The individual sessions of a congress are also
s called conferences.
nilts of the work done at various international congresses
►ping a sense of the common interests of nations are
:h under International Law and its allied articles.
The more important congresses, tvf. Mdnster and Osnabrtck
(Westphalia) in 1648; Breda, 1667; Aix-la-Chapclle, 1668,
1748, 1818; Nijmwegen, 1678; Regensburg, 1682; Ryswick,
1697; Utrecht, 1713; Tetschen, 1779; Paris, 1782, 18 14,
i8if. 1856; Rastadt, 1704; Amiens, 1802; ChatiUon, 1814;
Vienna, 1814-1815; Troppau, 1820; Laibach, 1821; Verona,
1822; Berlin, 1878, are treated under their topographical
headings. The present article is concerned only with the
questions of constitution and procedure.
Convocation and constituent Elements of a Congress.— Any
sovereign Power has the right to issue invitations to a congress
or conference. In principle, moreover, every state directly
concerned in the matters to be discussed has the right to be
represented. But this principle, though affirmed by the rowers
at Aiz-la-Chapelle in 1818, has rarely been translated into
practice. At the congress of Vienna (1814-1815), the decisions
of which affected every state in Europe, a committee of the five
great Powers claimed and exercised the right to settle every-
thing of importance; and this set the precedent which has been
followed'evcr since. At the congresses of Paris and Berlin, as
at that of Vienna, the great Powers regulated the affairs of lesser
states without consulting the representatives of the latter.
Similarly, at the conference of 1869 on the affairs of Crete no
representative of Greece was present; and at the conference
of London (1883), on the international regulation of the Danube,
the sovereign state of Rumania, though a Danubian Power, was
not represented. It was only with great difficulty that Cavour
obtained admission to the congress of Paris in 1856, and the
proposal of a congress in 1 859 broke down on the refusal of Austria
to admit the right of Sardinia to be represented. M. Pradier-
Fodert deplores the consistent breach of the "fundamental
rule" in this respect; but since every sovereign state, great and
small, once admitted, has an equal voice, it is difficult to see
how a principle, equitable in theory, could be established in
practice. The failure of the Hague conferences to arrive at any
substantial results was in fact due, more than anything else, to
the admission on equal terms of a crowd of very unequal Powers.
It may then be laid down that all congresses and conferences
that have effected settlements of importance have been summoned
and dominated by Powers strong enough to enforce respect for
their views.
Preliminaries. — Before a congress meets it is customary, not
only to agree on the place of meeting (a question often of first-
class importance) and on the Powers to whom invitations are
to be sent, but to define very carefully the nature and scope
of the business to be transacted. This is done sometimes by
an elaborate exchange of diplomatic correspondence issuing
in preliminary conventions, sometimes by the summoning of
conferences, e.g. those at Vienna in 1855 preliminary to the
congress of Paris in 1856.
Procedure. — When the congress assembles the first business
is the verification of powers, which is done by a commission
specially appointed to examine the credentials of the pleni-
potentiaries. It is usual for the Powers, for obvious practical
reasons, to be represented by two or three plenipotentiaries.
If the foreign minister himself attend, he needs no credentials;
those of his colleagues arc countersigned by him. The verifica-
tion being completed, questions of procedure, of precedence and
the like, are settled. In earlier times this was a matter of
extreme difficulty and delicacy, since there was no norm by which
the respective dignity of the representatives of first-class Powers
could be established; an incredible amount of time was wasted
in futile questions of precedence, and not seldom negotiations
for a peace that every one desired broke down on a point of
etiquette. All this has been obviated by the rule observed at
the congress of Berlin (1878), according to which the pleni-
potentiaries took their seats at a horse-shoe table in the alpha-
betical order of the states they represented, according to the
French alphabet.
The presidency of the congress is by courtesy reserved for the
minister for foreign affairs of the tUteVb. VcM5u>fiMfc.Tft**£«>*>ak
hdd; it, tonwti, Y* to£tat M* wt, * y«sj&kb».>b» *»***&\
938
CONGREVE, R.— CONGREVE, W.
or, if there be a mediating Power, the minister representing this
presides. At the first session the president takes his seat and
delivers a speech welcoming the delegates and sketching the
objects of the meeting; the bureau of the congress (secretary,
assistant secretaries, and archivist) is then elected on the nomina-
tion of the president, and its members are introduced to the
assembly. Finally the president impresses on all present the
obligation of keeping the proceedings secret, and adjourns the
session for a day or two, in order that the ministers may have an
opportunity of making each others' acquaintance and talking
matters over in private. Serious business begins with the
second session.
The discussions are governed by carefully defined rules. Thus
trtry proposition must be presented in writing, and all decisions
to be binding on all must be unanimous. The secretary keeps
the minutes (proces-vcrbal) of each session, which are signed by
all present and read at the next meeting. This protocol—** it
has been called since the congress of Vienna — takes the form of
a bald, but very exact resume 1 of important points discussed,
ending with a record of the conclusions and resolutions'arrived
at. If there be no such results, opinions are recorded. If any
plenipotentiary dissent from the general opinion, such dissent
must be recorded in the protocol. Sometimes short signed
memoranda, known as a vote or opinion, are attached to the
protocol, stating the reasons that have governed the Powers in
question in agreeing to a given conclusion. Individual Powers
may express their dissent in two ways: either by placing such
dissent on record, as Lord Stewart did at Lai bach, or by with-
drawing altogether from the sessions of the congress, as Spain
did at Vienna and Great Britain at Verona. Though the Final
Act of Vienna was issued as the act of all the Powers, the sub-
sequent formal adhesion of Spain was considered necessary to
complete the "European" character of that treaty; the action
of Great Britain at Verona prevented the intervention in Spain
from having the sanction of the concert. At Vienna in 1814,
owing to the vast range of the questions to be settled, the work
of the congress was distributed among committees; but at
Paris (1856) and Berlin (1878) all matters were discussed and
settled in full session. The conclusions arrived at after the
discussion of the various subjects before the congress are usually
embodied in separate conventions, duly signed by the Powers
who are a party to them. Finally, these separate conventions
are brought together in an inclusive treaty, signed by all the
plenipotentiaries present, known as the Final Act.
See P. Pradier-Fodtre, Court de droit diplomatique (2 vols., 2nd cd.,
Paris. 1899). (W. A. P.)
CONGREVE, RICHARD (1818-1809), English Positivist, was
born at Leamington on the 4th of September 18x8, and was
educated at Rugby under Dr Arnold, who is said to have expressed
a higher opinion of him than of any other pupil. After taking
first-class honours at Oxford and gaining a fellowship at Wadham
College, he spent some time as a master at Rugby, but returned
to Oxford as a tutor. Soon after the revolution of 1 848 he visited
Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Barthdlemy St Hilaire
and Auguste Comte. He was so attracted by the Positive
philosophy that he resigned his fellowship in 1855, and devoted
the remainder of his Ufe to the propagation of the Positive
philosophy. He took a leading part in the work carried on in
Chapel Street, Lamb's Conduit Street. In 1878 he declined to
admit the authority of Pierre Laffitte, Comte's official successor,
and the result was a split in the ranks of English Positivism,
Frederic Harrison, Dr J. H. Bridges and Professor E. Beesly
forming a separate society at Newton Hall, Fetter Lane. Con-
greve translated several of Comte's works, and in 1874 published
a large volume of essays, in which he advocated Comte's view
that it was the duty of Great Britain to renounce her foreign
possessions. He was a man of high character, courtly manners
and great intellectual capacity. He died at Hampstead on the
5th of July 1899.
Publications.— Pomau Empire of the West (1855); annotated
adieha of Aristotle's Politics (1855; ™d ed.. 1874); Catechism of
4ftr/>x**r /Utigio*. translated from tk$ French of A. Canto (1858; I
3rd ed.. 1891); Elisabeth of England (1863) . Essays, political stad,
and religious (1874; 2nd series, 1892); Historical Lectures (eottcaal
in one volume, 1902). 1
CONGREVE, WILLIAM (1670-1729), English dramatist,* t
greatest English master of pure comedy, was born at Bards?
near Leeds, where he was baptized on the 10th of Februry
1670, although the inscription on his monument gives his date
of birth as 1672. He was the son of William Congrcve, a soldier
who was soon after his son's birth placed in command of the
garrison at Youghal. To Ireland, therefore, is due the credit
of his education— as a schoolboy at Kilkenny, as an under-
graduate at Dublin, where be was a contemporary and friend d
Swift. From college he came to London, and was entered as 1
student of law at the Middle Temple. The first-fruits of his
studies appeared under the boyish pseudonym of "CleopfcC,"
in the form of a novel whose existence is now remembered ontj
through the unabashed avowal of so austere a moralist as Dr
Johnson, that he "would rather praise it than read it." In 1693
Congrevc's real career began, and early enough by the latest
computation, with the brilliant appearance and instant success
of his first comedy, The Old Bachelor, under the generous auspkes
of Dryden, then as ever a living and immortal witness to the
falsehood of the vulgar charge which taxes the greater amotf
poets with jealousy or envy, the natural badge and brand of the
smallest that would claim a place among their kind. The dis-
crowned laureate had never, he said, seen such a first play;
and indeed the graceless grace of the dialogue was as yet only to
be matched by the last and best work of Ethercge, standing is
till then it had done alone among the barefaced brutalities of
Wycherley and Shadwell. The types of Congrevc's first «ors
were the common conventional properties of stage tradition;
but the fine and clear-cut style in which these types were repro-
duced was his own. The gift of one place and the reversion of
another were the solid fruits of his splendid success. Next year
a better play from the same hand met with worse fortune on the
stage, and with yet higher honour from the first living poet of
his nation. The noble verses, as faultless in the expression as
reckless in the extravagance of their applause, prefixed by
Dryden to The Double Dealer, must naturally have supported
the younger poet, if indeed such support can have been required,
against the momentary annoyance of assailants whose passing
clamour left uninjured and secure the fame of his second comedy;
for the following year witnessed the crowning triumph of his art
and life, in the appearance of Love for Love (1695). Two years
later his ambition rather than his genius adventured on the
foreign ground of tragedy, and The Mourning Bride (1697) began
such a long career of good fortune as in earlier or later times
would have been closed against a far better work. Next year
he attempted, without his usual success, a reply to the attack
of Jeremy Collier, the nonjuror, "on the immorality and profane-
ness of the English stage "—an attack for once not discreditable
to the assailant, whose honesty and courage were evident enough
to approve him incapable alike of the ignominious precaution
which might have suppressed his own name, and of the dastardly
mendacity which would have stolen the mask of a stranger's.
Against this merit must be set the mistake of confounding in
one indiscriminate indictment the levities of a writer like Con-
greve with the brutalities of a writer like Wycherley — an error
which ever since has more or less perverted the judgment of
succeeding critics. The general case of comedy was then,
however, as untenable by the argument as indefensible by the
sarcasm of its most brilliant and comparatively blameless
champion. Art itself, more than anything else, had been out-
raged and degraded by the recent school of the Restoration;
and the comic work of Congrcve, though different rather in kind
than in degree from the bestial and blatant licence of his im-
mediate precursors, was inevitably for a time involved in the
sentence passed upon the comic work of men in all ways alike
his inferiors. The true and triumphant answer to all possible
attacks of honest men or liars, brave men or cowards, was then
as ever to be given by the production of work unarraignable
alike by lair means qi touL. b^ (sank imneachment or f uctivt
CONGREVE, SIR W.
939
Imputation. In 1700 Congreve thus replied to Collier with The
Way of the World— the unequalled and unapproached master-
piece of English comedy, which may fairly claim a place beside
or but just beneath the mightiest work of Moliere. On the stage
which had recently acclaimed with uncritical applause the
author's more questionable appearance in the field of tragedy,
this final and flawless evidence of his incomparable powers met
with a rejection then and ever since inexplicable on any ground
of conjecture. During the twenty-tight years which remained
to him, Congreve produced little beyond a volume of fugitive
verses, published ten years after the miscarriage of his master-
piece. His even course of good fortune under Whig and Tory
governments alike was counterweighed by the physical in-
firmities of gout and failing sight. He died, January 19, 1799,
in consequence of an injury received on a journey to Bath by
the upsetting of his carriage; was buried in Westminster Abbey,
after lying in state in the Jerusalem Chamber; and bequeathed
the bulk of his fortune to the chief friend of his last years,
Henrietta, duchess of Marlborough, daughter of the great duke,
rather than to his family, which, according to Johnson, was
then in difficulties, or to Mrs Bracegirdle, the actress, with whom
he had lived longer on intimate terms than with any other mistress
or friend, but who inherited by his will only £200. The one
memorable incident of his later life was the visit of Voltaire,
whom he astonished and repelled by his rejection of proffered
praise and the expression of his wish to be considered merely as
any other gentleman of no literary fame. The great master of
well-nigh every province in the empire of letters, except the only
one in which his host reigned supreme, replied that in that sad
case Congreve would not have received his visit.
The fame of the greatest English comic dramatist is founded
wholly or mainly on but three of his five plays. His first comedy
was little more than a brilliant study after such models as were
eclipsed by this earliest effort of their imitator; and tragedy
under his hands appears rouged and wrinkled, in the patches
and powder of Lady Wishfort. But his three great comedies
are more than enough to sustain a reputation as durable as our
language. Were it not for these we should have no samples
to show of comedy in its purest and highest form. Ben Jonson,
who alone attempted to introduce it by way of reform among
the mixed work of a time when comedy and tragedy were as
inextricably blended on the stage as in actual life, failed to give
the requisite ease and the indispensable grace of comic life
and movement to the action and passion of his elaborate
and magnificent work. Of Congrcve's immediate predecessors,
whose aim had been to raise on French foundations a new
English fabric of simple and unmixed comedy, Wycherley was
of too base metal and Ethercge was of metal too light to be
weighed against him; and besides theirs no other or finer coin
was current than the crude British ore of Shadwcll's brutal and
burly talent. Borrowing a metaphor from Landor, we may say
that a limb of Molicre would have sufficed to make a Congreve, a
limb of Congreve would have sufficed to make a Sheridan. The
broad and robust humour of Vanbrugh's admirable comedies
gives him a place on the master's right hand; on the left stands
Farquhar, whose bright light genius is to Congreve's as female
is to male, or "as moonlight unto sunlight." No English writer,
on the whole, has so nearly touched the skirts of Moliere; but
his splendid intelligence is wanting in the deepest and subtlest
quality which has won for Moliere from the greatest poet of his
country and our age the tribute of exact and final definition
conveyed in that perfect phrase which salutes at once and denotes
him — " ce moqucur pensif comme un apotrc." Only perhaps in
a single part has Congreve half consciously touched a note of
almost tragic depth and suggestion; there is something well-
nigh akin to the grotesque and piteous figure of Arnolphe
himself in the unvcnerable old age of Lady Wishfort, set off and
-relieved as it is, with grace and art worthy of the supreme
French master, against the only figure on any stage which need
Dot shun comparison even with that of Celimene.
The Worts of William Congreve were published in 1710 (3 vols.).
Tht Dremaiie Work* of WychtrUy* Conpen . . . edited by Leigh
Hunt (1840), contains a biographical and critical notice of Congreve.
See also The Comedies of WiUiam Congrem (189$), with an intro-
duction by W. G. S. Street; and The Best Plays of WiUiam Control
ii887, 1903), edited for the Mermaid Series by A. C. Ewald. The,
Aft of William Congreve (1887) by Edmund Gosse, in E. & Robert*
son's Great Writers, contain* a bibliography by J. P. Anderson.
CA.C.S.)
CONGRBVB, SIR WILLIAM, Bart (177^1828), British
artillerist and inventor, was born on the 20th of May 177a,
being the eldest son of Lieutenant-General Sir William Congreva
(d. 18 14), comptroller of the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich,
who was made a baronet in 181 a. He was educated at Singlewett
school, Kent, and (1788-1793) at Trinity College, Cambridge,
taking the degrees of B.A. in 1793 and M.A. in 1795. 1° th*
latter year he entered the Middle Temple, and up to 1808 Ik
lived in Garden Court, at first studying law, later editing a
political newspaper, and in the end devoting himself to the
development of the war rocket, for which he is chiefly remembered.
Through his father he enjoyed many opportunities of experiment*
ing with artillery material, and finally in 1805 he was able to
demonstrate to the prince regent, Pitt and others the uses of
the new weapon. In 1805 he accompanied Sir Sidney Smith in
a naval attack on the French flotilla at Boulogne, but the
weather prevented the use of rockets. In another attack on
Boulogne in 1806, however, the Congreve rockets, which were
fired in salvos from boats of special construction, were very
effectual, and in i8o7> 1808 and 1809 they were employed with
excellent results on land and afloat at the siege of Copenhagen,
in Lord Gambier's fight in the Basque Roads and in the Walcheren
expedition. Congreve himself was present in all these affairs.
In 1810 or 181 1 he became equerry to the prince regent, with
whom he was a great favourite, and in 181 1 he was elected a
fellow of the Royal Society; in the same year he at last
received military rank, being gazetted lieutenant-colonel In the
Hanoverian artillery. In 1 8 1 a he became member of parliament
for Gatton. In 1813, at the request of the admiralty, he designed
a new gun for the armament of frigates, which was adopted and
very favourably reported on. In the same year the newly formed
"Rocket Troop" of the Royal Artillery was sent to serve with
the Allies in Germany, and this troop rendered excellent service
at the battle of Leipzig, where its commander Captain Bogue
was killed. In recognition of their services Congreve was shortly
afterwards decorated by the sovereigns of Russia and Sweden.
Many years later the Congreve rocket was superseded by Hale's,
which had no stick.
In 1814, on the death of his father, Colonel Congreve succeeded
to the baronetcy and also to the office of comptroller of the
Royal Laboratory. He also became inspector of military
machines, but his Hanoverian commission did not (it seems)
entitle him to command troops of the Royal Artillery, and
there was a certain amount of friction and jealousy between
Congreve and the Royal Artillery officers. During the visit of
the allied sovereigns to London in this year, Congreve arranged
the fetes and especially the pyrotechnic displays which the prince
regent gave in their honour. In 181 7 he became senior equerry
to the prince and a K.H., and in 18x8 major-general & la suite
of the Hanoverian army. In 1820 Sir William Congreve was
elected M.P. for Plymouth (for which constituency he sat until
his death), and in the following year, at the coronation of George
IV. (whose senior equerry he remained), he arranged a great
pyrotechnic display in Hyde Park. In his later years Congreve
took a prominent part in various industrial ventures, such as
gas companies, which, however, were for the most part un-
successful. He died at Toulouse on the 16th of May 18*8.
Congreve was an ingenious and versatile man of science.
Besides the war rocket he invented a gun-recoil mounting, a
time-fuze, a parachute attachment to the rocket, a hydro-
pneumatic canal lock and sluice (181 3), a perpetual motion
machine (see Pebpctual Motion), a process of colour printing
(1821) which was widely used in Germany, a new form of steam-
engine, and a method of consuming smoke (which was applied
at the Royal Laboratory); he also took out patents for a dock,
in which time we* mtisMttA Vj *.\a& \^pbj^ ssa. ^bx> bw\wK .
94-o
CONGRUOUS— CONIC SECTION
plane; for protecting buildings against fire; inlaying and
combining metals; unforgeable bank-note paper; a method
of killing whales by means of rockets; improvements in the
manufacture of gunpowder; stereotype plates; fireworks;
gas meters, &c The first friction matches made in England
(1827) were named after him by their inventor, John Walker.
He published a number of works, including three treatises on
The Congrewe Racket System (1807, 18x7 and 1821; the last
was translated into German, Weimar, 1829); An Elementary
Treatise en the Mounting ef Naval Ordnance (18x2); A Descrip-
tion of the Hydropneumatical Lock (1815); A New Principle of
•Steam-Engine (1819); Resumption of Cash Payments (1810);
Systems of Currency (1819), &c.
See Colonel J. R. J. Jocelyn in Journal of the Royal Artillery,
vol. 32, No. 1 1, and sources therein referred to. The account in the
Dictionary of National Biography is very inaccurate.
CONGRUOUS (from Lat. congruere, to agree), that which
corresponds to or agrees with anything; the derivation appears
in " congruence," a condition of such correspondence or agree-
ment, a term used particularly in mathematics, e.g. for a doubly
infinite system of lines (see Surface), and in the theory of
numbers, for the relation of two numbers, which, on being
divided by a third number, known as the modulus, leave the
same remainder (see Number). The similar word " congruity "
is a term of Scholastic theology in the doctrine of merit. God's
recompense for good works, if performed in a state of grace, is
based on " condignity," meritum de condigno; if before such a
state is reached, it should be fit or " congruous " that God should
recompense such works by conferring the " first grace," meritum
de congruo. The term is also used in theology, in reference to
the controversy between the Jesuits and the Dominicans on
the subject of grace, at the end of the 16th century (see Molina,
Luis, and Suarez, Francisco).
COMBOS, or Manoas, a tribe of South American Indians
inhabiting the Pampa-del Sacramento and the banks of the
Ucayali, Peru. Spanish missionaries first visited them in 1683,
and in 2685 some Franciscans who had founded a mission among
them were massacred. A like fate befell a priest in 1695. They
have since been converted and are now a peaceful people.
CONIC SECTION, or briefly Conic, a curve in which a plane
Intersects a cone. In ancient geometry the name was restricted
to the three particular forms now designated the ellipse, parabola
and hyperbola, and this sense is still retained in general works.
But in modern geometry, especially in the analytical and pro-
jective methods, the " principle of continuity " reriden advisable
the inclusion of the other forms of the section of a cone, vis. the
circle, and two Lines (and also two points, the reciprocal of two
lines) under the general title conic. The definition of conks as
sections of a cone was employed by the Greek geometers as the
fundamental principle of their researches in this subject; but
the subsequent development of geometrical methods has brought
to light many other means for defining these curves. One defini-
tion, which is of especial value in the geometrical treatment of the
conic sections (ellipse, parabola and hyperbola) in piano, is that
a conic is the locus of a point whose distances from a fixed point
(termed the focus) and a fixed line (the directrix) are in constant
ratio. This ratio, known as the eccentricity, determines the
nature of the curve; if it be greater than unity, the conic is a
hyperbola; if equal to unity, a parabola; and if less than
unity, an ellipse. In the case of the circle, the centre is the focus,
and the line at infinity the directrix; we therefore see that a
circle is a conic of zero eccentricity.
In projective geometry it is convenient to define a conic
section as the projection of a circle. The particular conic into
which the circle is projected depends upon the relation of the
"vanishing line " to the circle; if it intersects it in real .points,
then the projection is a hyperbola, if in imaginary points an
ellipse, and if it touches the circle, the projection is a parabola.
These results may be put in another way, viz. the line at infinity
intersects the hyperbola in real points, the ellipse in imaginary
points, and the parabola in coincident real points. A conic may
also be regarded as the polar reciprocal of a circle for a point;
if the point be without the circle the conic fa an ellipse, if aotst
circle a parabola, and if within the circle a hyperbola. Ii
analytical geometry the conic is represented by an alphas
equation of the second degree, and the species of conic is soklt
determined by means of certain relations between the coeffioo&
Confocal conies are conies having the same foci. If one of tfce
fod be at infinity, the conies are confocal parabolas, which aaj
also be regarded as parabolas having a common focus and am
An important property of confocal systems is that only ta
confocals can be drawn through a specified point, one beuif an
ellipse, the other a hyperbola, and they intersect oxlhogonafiy.
The definitions given above reflect the intimate assocktioB
of these curves, but it frequently happens that a particular conk
is denned by some special property (as the ellipse, which is the
locus of a point such that the sum of its distances from tm
fixed points is constant); such definitions and other specal
properties are treated in the articles Ellipse, Hyperbola uA
Parabola. In this article we shall consider the historical
development of the geometry of conies, and refer the reader tt
the article Geometry: Analytical and Projective, for the special
methods of investigation.
History. — The invention of the conic sections is to be assigned
to the school of geometers founded by Plato at Athens about the
4th century B.C. Under the guidance and inspiration of tha
philosopher much attention was given to the geometry of solids,
and it is probable that while investigating the cone, M»wf— *pi*
an associate of Plato, pupil of Eudoxus, and brother of Dino-
stratus (the inventor of the quadratrix), discovered and investi-
gated the various curves made by truncating a cone. Menaechmoi
discussed three species of cones (distinguished by the magnitude
of the vertical angle as obtuse-angled, right-angled and acute-
angled), and the only section he treated was that made by s
plane perpendicular to a generator of the cone; according to the
species of the cone, be obtained the curves now known as the
hyperbola, parabola and ellipse. That he made considerable
progress in the study of these curves is evidenced by Eutocius,
who nourished about the 6th century a.d., and who assigns to
Menaechmus two solutions of the problem of duplicating the
cube by means of intersecting conies. On the authority of the
two great commentators Pappus" and Proclus, Euclid wrote
four books on conies, but the originals are now lost, and all we
have is chiefly to be found in the works of ApoUonius of Pergx.
Archimedes contributed to the knowledge of these curves by
determining the area of the parabola, giving both a geometrical
and a mechanical solution, and also by evaluating the ratio of
elliptic to circular spaces. He probably wrote a book on conies,
but it is now lost. In his extant Conoids and Spheroids he defines
a conoid to be the solid formed by the revolution of the parabola
and hyperbola about its axis, and a spheroid to be formed
similarly from the ellipse; these solids he discussed with great
acumen, and effected their cubature by his famous " method of
exhaustions."
But the greatest Greek writer on the conic sections was
ApoUonius of Perga, and it is to his Conic Sections that we are
indebted for a review of the early history of this subject. Of
the eight books which made up his original treatise, only seven
are certainly known, the first four in the original Greek, the next
three are found in Arabic translations, and the eighth was
restored by Edmund Halley in 1710 from certain introductory
lemmas of Pappus. The first four books, of which the first three
are dedicated to Eudemus, a pupil of Aristotle and author of the
original Eudemian Summary, contain little that is original,
and are principally based on the earlier works of Menaechmus,
Aristaeus (probably a senior contemporary of Euclid, nourishing
about a century later than Menaechmus), Euclid and Archimedes.
The remaining books are strikingly original and are to be regarded
as embracing Apollonius's own researches.
The first book, which is almost entirely concerned with the con-
struction of the three conic sections, contains one of the roost
brilliant of all the discoveries of Apollonius. Prior to his time, a
right cone of a definite vertical angle was required for the generation
of any particular conic; Apollonius showed that the sections
could all be produced from one and the same cone, which may be
CONIC SECTION
94'
6 cither right or oblique by limply varying the inclination of the
7 cutting plane. The importance of this generalization cannot be
' overestimated; it is of more than hiiLiricTl interest, for it rn mains
the basis upon which certain authorities introduce the study of
1 these curves. To comprehend more exactly the discovery of
ApoUonius, imagine an oblique cone go a circular bale, of which the
line joining the vertex to the centre of the base i* the axil. The
section made by a plane containing: the aiis and perptn dkufof to
the base is a triangle contained by two generating line* of the rone
and a diameter of the ba*al circle. ApoUonius consiijcfed sections
of the cone made by plane* at any inclination to the plane of the
circular base and perpendicular to the triangle contain ing the a.* is.
The points in which the cutting pLine intersects the Fides of the
triangle are the vertices of the curve: and the line joining these
G>ints is a diameter which Apolloniui named the tains trantvertum.
e discriminated the three specie* of conks a§ follows: — At one of
the two vertices erect a perpendicular {totus rectum) of a certain
length (which is determined below), and join the citremity of this
line to the other vertex. At any point on the lotus transtersum
erect an ordinate. Then the square of the ordinate intercepted
between the diameter and the curve is equal to the rectangle con-
tained by the portion of the diameter between the first vertex and
the foot of the ordinate, and the segment of the ordinate intercepted
between the diameter and the line joining the extremity of the Ictus
rectum to the second vertex. This property is true for all conies, and
it served as the basis of most of the constructions and propositions
E'ven by ApoUonius. The conies are distinguished by the ratio
:tween the Ictus rectum (which was originally called the lotus
e/eclum, and now often referred to as the parameter) and the segment
of the ordinate intercepted between the diameter and the line joining
the second vertex with the extremity of the lotus rectum. When the
cutting plane is inclined to the base of the cone at an angle less than
that made by the sides of the cone, the lotus rectum is greater than
the intercept on the ordinate, and we obtain the ellipse; if the
plane is inclined at an equal angle as the side, the lotus rectum
equals the intercept, and we obtain the parabola; if the inclination
of the plane be greater than that <of the side, we obtain the hyper-
bola. In modern notation, if we denote the ordinate by y, the
distance of the foot of the ordinate from the vertex (the abscissa)
by x, and the lotus rectum by p. these relations may be expressed as
y*<px for the ellipse, y*ȣx for the parabola, and f>px (or the
hyperbola. Pappus in his commentary on ApoUonius states that
these names were given in virtue of the above relations; but accord-
ing to Eutocius the curves were named the parabola, ellipse or
hyperbola, according as the angle of the cone was equal to, less
than, or greater than a right angle. The word parabola was used
by Archimedes, who was prior to ApoUonius; but this may be an
interpolation.
We may now summarize the contents of the Conies of Apol-
lonius. The first book deals with the generation of the three
conies; the second with the asymptotes, axes and diameters;
the third with various metrical relations between transversals,
chords, tangents, asymptotes, &c; the fourth with the theory
of the pole and polar, including the harmonic division of a straight
line, and with systems of two conies, which he shows to intersect
in not more than four points; he also investigates conies having
single and double contact. The fifth book contains properties
of normals and their envelopes, thus embracing the germs of the
theory of evolutes, and also maxima and minima problems,
such as to draw the longest and shortest lines from a given point
to a conic; the sixth book is concerned with the similarity of
conies; the seventh with complementary chords and conjugate
diameters; the eighth book, according to the restoration of
Edmund Halley, continues the subject of the preceding book.
His proofs are generally long and clumsy; this is accounted for
in some measure by the absence of symbols and technical terms.
ApoUonius was ignorant of the directrix of a conic, and although
he incidentally discovered the focus of an ellipse and hyperbola,
he does not mention the focus of a parabola, He also considered
the two branches of a hyperbola, calling the second branch the
" opposite " hyperbola, and shows the relation which existed
between many metrical properties of the ellipse and hyperbola.
The focus of the parabola was discovered by Pappus, who also
introduced the notion of the directrix.
The Conks of ApoUonius was translated into Arabic by Tobit
ben Korra in the 9th century, and this edition was followed by
Halley in 1710. Although the Arabs were in full possession of
the store of knowledge of the geometry of conies which the
Greeks had accumulated, they did little to increase it; the only
advance made consisted in the application of describing inter-
secting conies so as to solve algebraic equations. The great
pioneer in this field was Omar Khayyam, who flourished in the
nth century. These discoveries were unknown in western
Europe for many centuries, and were re-invented and developed
by many European mathematicians. In 1522 there was pub-
lished an original work on conies by Johann Werner of Nurem-
burg. This work, the earliest published in Christian Europe,
treats the conic sections in relation to the original cone, the
procedure differing from that of the Greek geometers. Werner
was followed by Franciscus Maurolycus of Messina, who adopted
the same method, and added considerably to the discoveries of
ApoUonius. Claude Mydorge (1585-1647), a French geometer
and friend of Descartes, published a work De tcctionibus conicis
in which he greatly simplified the cumbrous proofs of ApoUonius,
whose method of treatment he followed.
Johann Kepler (1 571-1630) made many important discoveries
in the geometry of conies. Of supreme importance is the
fertile conception of the planets revolving about the sun in
elliptic orbits. On this is based the great structure of celestial
mechanics and the theory of universal gravitation; and in the
elucidation of problems more directly concerned with astronomy,
Kepler, Sir Isaac Newton and others discovered many properties
of the conic sections (see Mechanics) . Kepler's greatest contri-
bution to geometry lies in his formulation of the " principle of
continuity " which enabled him to show that a parabola has a
" caecus (or blind) focus " at infinity, and that all lines through
this focus are parallel (see Geometrical Continuity). This
assumption (which differentiates ancient from modern geometry)
has been developed into one of the most potent methods of
geometrical investigation (sec Geometry: Projective). We may
also notice Kepler's approximate value for the circumference
of an ellipse (if the semi-axes be a and b, the approximate
circumference is v(o+b)).
An important generalization of the conic sections was developed
about the beginning of the 1 7th century by Girard Desargues and
Blaise Pascal. Since aU conies derived from a circular cone
appear circular when viewed from the apex, they conceived the
treatment of the conic sections as projections of a circle. From
this conception all the properties of conies can be deduced.
Desargues has a special claim to fame on account of his beautiful
theorem on the involution of a quadrangle inscribed in a conic.
Pascal discovered a striking property of a hexagon inscribed in
a conic (the hcxagrammum mysticum); from this theorem Pascal
is said to have deduced over 400 corollaries, including most of
the results obtained by earlier geometers. This subject it
mathematically discussed in the article Geometry: Projective.
While Desargues and Pascal were founding modern synthetic
geometry, Reni Descartes was developing the algebraic repre-
sentation of geometric relations. The subject of analytical
geometry which he virtually created enabled him to view the
conic sections as algebraic equations of the second degree, the
form of the section depending solely on the coefficients. This
method rivals in elegance aU other methods; problems are
investigated by purely algebraic means, and generalizations
discovered which elevate the method to a position of paramount
importance. John WaUis, in addition to translating the Conies
of ApoUonius, published in 1655 an original work entitled Do
seclionibus conicis nova mcthodo ex posit is, in which be treated
the curves by the Cartesian method, and derived their properties
from the definition in piano, completely ignoring the connexion
between the conic sections and a rone. The analytical method
was also foUowed by G. F. A. de 1'Hopital in his TraiU anaiytique
des sections coniqucs (1707). A mathematical investigation of
the comes by this method is given in the article Geometry:
Analytical. Philippe de la Hire, a pupil of Desargues, wrote
several works on the conic sections, of which the most important
is his Seclioncs Conicat ( 1 68 5) . His treatment is synthetic, and be
foUows his tutor and Pascal in deducing the properties of conica
by projection from a circle.
A method of generating conies essentially the same as. our
modern method of tomographic pencils was discussed by Jan da
Witt in his Elementa linearum curvarum (1650); but he treated
the curves by the Cartesian method, and not synthetically.
942
CONINE— CONISTERIUM
Similar methods were devised by Sir Isaac Newton and
Colin Madaurin. In Newton's method, two angles of constant
magnitude are caused to revolve about their vertices which are
fixed in position, in such a manner that the intersection of two
limbs moves along a fixed straight line, then the two remaining
limbs envelop a conic. Maclaurin's method, published in his
Geometric organica (1719), is based on the proposition that the
locus of the vertex of a triangle, the sides of which pass through
three fixed points, and the base angles move along two fixed
lines, is a conic section. Both Newton's and Maclaurin's methods
have been developed by Michel Chasles. In modern times the
study of the conic sections has proceeded along the lines which
we have indicated; for further details reference should be made
to the article Geometry.
Authorities. — For the ancient geometry of conic sections,
especially of A polio ri in*, reference thou Id be made to T. L, Heath's
ApaUtmu* of Petta (1SS0I; more general accounts are given in
times Co*, A Skctri History of Greek MathrmoJirs (1884), and in
I- G, Zcufhrn, Die Lettre ftm dem Kernel ithniilen in Allrtihum (1 886).
Michel C ha sic* irt hi» Ap*rc,u hislonqite zur i'oripne ei te dhdoppt*
mtnt des method a tn tfameirit (iflj7< a third edition was published
Id 1*1*9), give* a valuable account of both the ancient and modern
geometry of can ice; a German translation with the title Gesckichte
itr Geometric was published in 1*39 ^y L. A- Sr.Wfce- A copious
hiit of early worltion conic sections 1* (given in Fred. W. A. Murnard,
Bibliolkeca mtikrmaiiat (Leipzig, ITQS), The history is a 1*0 treated
in general hi&ioriul treatises (we M a Tutu atics).
Geometrical constructions are treated in T. H, Eaglet, Constructive
Geometry of Plant Curves (i8J3oJt geometric investigations primarily
based on, the relation of the conic sections to a cone are given in
Hugo Hamilton'* De Setiionibiu Con-kit £1758): this method of
treatment has been largely replaced by considering the curves from
their definition in plane t and then passing to their derivation from
the cone and cylinder. This method is followed in most modern
works. Of such test-book* there is an ever- increasing number;
here wc may notice W, H. Besant, Geometrical Cattu Sections \
C. Smithy Geometrical Conies; W- H, Drew + Geometrical Treatise oh
JonU Sections, Reference may also be made to C. Taylor, Am
Hirudin tin* to Ancient and Modern Geometry of Conies ( I S8|).
See also lift of work* under Geometry: Analytical and Projective.
CONINE, or Coniine (a-propyl piperidine), CsHnN, an alka-
loid occurring, associated with 7-coniceine, conhydrine, pseudo-
conhydrine and methyl conine, in hemlock (Conium macu-
latum). It is a colourless oily liquid of specific gravity 0-845
(so° C), boiling at 166° C, almost insoluble in water, soluble
m ether and in alcohol. It has a sharp burning taste and a pene-
trating smell, and acts as a violent poison. It is dextro-rotatory.
The alkaloid is a strong base and is very readily oxidized;
chromic acid converts it into normal butyric add and
ammonia, hydrogen peroxide gives aminopropylvalerylalde-
hyde, NH r CH(CiH,MCHi)rCHO, whilst the benzoyl derivative
is oxidized by potassium permanganate to benzoyl-o-amino-
valericacid, C*H*CONHCH(C,H,)(CH,)rCOOH. It combines
directly with methyl iodide to form dimethyl coninium iodide,
CvrHsiNI, which by the destructive methylation process of
A. W. Hofmann (Berickte, 1881, 14, pp. 494, 659) is converted
Into the hydrocarbon conylene C|H U , a compound that can also !
be obtained by heating nitrosoconine with phosphoric anhydride ;
to 80-00° C. On heating conine with concentrated hydriodic
acid and phosphorus it is decomposed into ammonia and normal
octane C«H». Conine is a secondary base, forming a nitroso deri-
vative with nitrous acid, a urethane with chlorcarbonic ester and
a tertiary base (methyl conine) with methyl iodide, reactions
which point to the presence of the *> NH group in the molecule.
It was the first alkaloid to be synthesized, a result due to A.
Ladenburg (see various papers in the Berickte for the years 1881,
1884, 1885, 1886, 1889. 1803. 1894, 2895, and Liebig's Annalen
for 1888, 1804). A. W. Hofmann had shown that conine on
distillation with zinc dust gave a-propyl pyridine (conyrine).
This substance when heated with hydriodic acid to 300° C. is
converted into a-propyl piperidine, which can also be obtained
by the reduction of a-allyl pyridine (formed from a-methyl
pyridine and paraldehyde). The a-propyl piperidine so obtained
b the inactive (racemic) form of conine, and it can be resolved
Into the dextro- and laevo-varieties by means of dextro- tartaric
acid, the rf-conine d-tartratc with caustic soda giving i-coninc
dosdy resembling the naturally occurring alkaloid. A. Laden- 1
burg (Ber. 1006, 39, p. 9486) showed that the difference it tk
rotations of the natural and synthetic rf-conine is not dot to
another substance, ua-conine, as was originally supposed, bat
that the artificial product is a stereo-isomer, which yields natca!
conine on heating for some time to 30o o -3oo*, and then distifljtf-
7-Coniceine, GH,»N, is a tetrahydro conyrine, ut. a letn-
hydro propyl pyridine. It may be obtained by brominaiisf
conine, and then removing the elements of hydrobromk art
with alkalis. Other conkeines have been prepared. Cob-
hydrine, OHuNO, and pseudoconhydrine are probably steno-
isomers, the latter being converted into the former when boiled
with ligroin. Since conhydrine is dehydrated by phosphors
pentoxide into a mixture of a and coniceines, it may be con-
sidered an oxyconine. Methyl conine, C»H W N or CiH M N(CrU
I is synthesized from conine and an aqueous solution of potasshia
1 methyl sulphate at ioo°
J CONINGTON, JOHN (1825-1869), English cfesskal scholar.
f was born on the 10th of August 1825 at Boston in Ioncoinsture.
He knew his letters when fourteen months old, and could read
well at three and a half. He was educated at Beverley Grammar
school, at Rugby and at Oxford, where, after matriculating at
University College, he came into residence at Magdalen, where
he had been nominated to a demyship. He was Ireland aad
Hertford scholar in 1844; in March 1846 he was elected to a
scholarship at University College, and in December of the sane
year he obtained a first class in classics; in February 1848 be
became a fellow of University. He also obtained the Chanceflort
prize for Latin verse (1847), English essay (1848) and Latis
essay ( 1 849) . He successfully applied for the Eldon law scholar-
ship in 1849, and proceeded to London to keep his terms at
Lincoln's Inn. The legal profession, however, proved distastehi
and after six months he resigned the scholarship and returned
to Oxford. During his brief residence in London he formed a
connexion with the Morning Chronicle, which was maintained
for some time. He showed no special aptitude for journalism,
but a series of articles on university reform (1840-1850) H
noteworthy as the first public expression of his views on a subject
that always interested him. In 1854 his appointment, as first
occupant, to the chair of Latin literature, founded by Corpus
Christi College, gave him a congenial position. From this time
he confined himself with characteristic conscientiousness almost
exclusively to Latin literature. The only important exception
was the translation of the last twelve books of the Iliad in the
Spenserian stanza in completion of the work of P. S. Worsley,
and this was undertaken in fulfilment of a promise made to his
dying friend. In 1852 he began, in conjunction with ftof.
Goldwin Smith, a complete edition of Virgil with a commentary,
of which the first volume appeared in 1858, the second in 1864,
and the third soon after his death. Prof. Goldwin Smith was
compelled to withdraw from the work at an early stage, and
in the last volume his place was taken by H. Nettleship. In
1866 Conington published his most famous work, the translation
of the Aeneid of Virgil into the octosyllabic metre of Scott. The
version of Dryden is the work of a stronger artist; but for
fidelity of rendering, for happy use of the principle of compensa-
tion so as to preserve the general effect of the original, and for
beauty as an independent poem, Conington 's version is superior.
That the measure chosen does not reproduce the majestic sweep
of the Virgilian verse is a fault in the conception and not in the
execution of the task. Conington died at Boston 00 the 13rd
of October 1869.
His edition of Perstus with a commentary and a spirited prose
translation was published posthumously in 187a. In the same year
appeared his Miscellaneous Writtngs t edited by J A. Symonds. with
a memoir by Professor H. J. S. Smith (see also H. A. J. Munro in
Journal of Philology, ii., i860). Among his other editions are
Aeschylus, Agamemnon (1848), ChotpkoH (1857): English verse
translations of Horace, Odes and Carmen Saocularo (1863). Satires,
Eptstles and Ars Poetica (1869).
CONISTERIUM (from Gr. earns, dust).- the name of the
room in the ancient palaestra or thermae (baths) where wrestlers.
after being anointed with oil, were sprinkled with sand, so as to
give ihcm a trip when wteaUxna^
CONJEEVERAM— CONJURING
943
CONJEEVERAM, Kanchipurax, a town of British India,
In the Chingleput district of Madras, 45 m. W.S.W of Madras
by rail Pop. (iooi) 46,164. It is esteemed by the Hindus as
one of the holiest places in southern India, ranking among the
seven sacred cities of India, and is remarkable for the number
of its temples and shrines. Of these the old Jain temple, situated
in a hamlet some a m. south of the Weavers' quarter of the city
(Pillapalaiyam), dates from the time when the Chola power was
at its height (x 3th or 13th century), and is of great importance
to the historian by reason of the inscriptions, which contain an
almost perfect record of the dynasties who held the country.
Older than this temple are the Vaikuntha Pcrumal temple of
Vishnu and the Siva temple of Kailasanftth, which date from the
time of the Pallava kings. The great temple of Siva, dedicated
to Ekambara Swami (the god with the single garment) is remark-
able for its lofty towers {go pur am) and the extreme irregularity
of its design, through which it gains in picturesqueness what it
loses in dignity. Besides the towers, it has several fine porches,
great tanks approached by flights of stone steps, and the " hall
of the thousand columns." This latter contains actually 540
columns, most of them elaborately carved, arranged in twenty
rows. About a m. distant, in Little Conjeeveram, is the Vara-
daraja-swami Vaishnava temple, also containing a hall of pillars,
beautifully carved, and possessing a wonderfully rich treasury
of votive jewels. A mark on the wall of the inner enclosure,
something like a horseshoe, is held to be the first letter of the
name of Vishnu. For a century or more the Tangalai and
Vadagalai sects, connected with the worship of the temple, have
been quarrelling fiercely as to the form of this symbol; the
questions arising out of this led to much litigation, and though
final judgment was given by the privy council, the matter still
constitutes a danger to the peace. The general aspect of the city
is pleasing, with low houses and broad streets lined with fine
trees. Its only noteworthy industry is the weaving of the superior
silk and cotton saris worn by native women.
Conjeeveram, a British corruption of Kinchlpuram (the
golden city), is very ancient, having been in the early centuries
of the Christian era the capital of the Pallava dynasty. The
Chinese traveller Hsttan Tsang, who visited it in the 7th century,
says that it was then 6 m. in circumference and inhabited by a
people superior to any he had met in piety and courage, love of
justice and reverence for learning. In the nth century the city
was conquered by the Cholas, who held it until their overthrow
by the Mussulmans in 13x0, after which it fell under the sway
of the kings of Vljayanagar. In 1646 it was taken from them
by the Mussulmans, who in their turn were ousted by the
Mahrattas in 1677. Shortly afterwards the emperor Aumngzeb's
forces retook the place, which remained in Mussulman hands
until 1752, when it was captured by Give.
CONJUGAL RIGHTS, those rights which a husband and wife
(Lat. conjux) have to each other's society. When either party
continues to refuse to render these rights to the other, they may
be enforced by a suit for the restitution of conjugal rights.
In England the jurisdiction which the old ecclesiastical courts
exercised to enforce this right was transferred to the divorce court
by the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857. The procedure is by cita-
tion and petition, but, before a petition can be filed, a written
demand must be made to the refusing party for cohabitation.
Previous to the Matrimonial Causes Act 1884, disobedience to a
decree for the restitution of conjugal rights rendered the refusing
party liable to attachment and imprisonment The act of 1884
substituted for attachment, if the wife be the petitioner, an order
for periodical payments by the husband to the wife. Failure
to comply with a decree for restitution is deemed to be desertion,
and a sentence of judicial separation may be pronounced, al though
the period of two years prescribed by the act of 1857 mav not
have expired. Conjugal rights cannot be enforced by the a<-t
of either party (R. v. Jackson, 1801, 1 Q.B. 671), the proper
procedure being to apply to the court for relief.
CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together), a
general term signifying the act or stale of being joined together.
It is used technically in astronomy and grammar. In astronomy,
" conjunction" is the nearest apparent approacn of two- heavenly
bodies which seem to pass each other in their courses— said to
be in longitude, right ascension, &c, when they have the same
longitude, &c A superior conjunction is one in which the lesser
body is beyond the greater, especially when a planet is beyond the
sun. An inferior conjunction is one in which a planet U on our
side of the sun. In grammar the term " conjunction " is applied
to one of the so-called " parts of speech, " via. those words which
are used to " join together " words, clauses or sentences. Con-
junctions are variously classified according to their specific
function, e.g. adversative (" but," " though ") which contrast,
illative (" therefore ") where the second sentence or clause i*
an inference from the first, temporal where a time-relation is
expressed, and so forth.
CONJURING, the art, sometimes called White or Natural
Magic, and long associated with the profession of " magician,"
consisting of the performance of tricks and illusions, with or
without apparatus. Historically this art has taken many forma,
and has been mixed up with the use of what now are regarded
as natural though obscure physical phenomena. The employ-
ment of purely manual dexterity without mechanical apparatus
may be distinguished as legerdemain, prestidigitation or sleight
of hand.
Whether or not the book of Exodus makes the earliest historical
reference to this form of natural " magic " when it records how
the magicians of Egypt imitated certain miracles of Moses " by
their enchantments," it is known that the Egyptian hierophants,
as well as the magicians of ancient Greece and Rome, were
accustomed to astonish their dupes with optical illusions, visible
representations of the divinities and subdivinities passing before
the spectators in dark subterranean chambers. The principal
optical illusion employed in these effects was the throwing of
spectral images upon the. smoke of burning incense by means
of concave metal mirrors. But according to Hippolytus (Rtf.
Om. Haer. iv. 35), the desired effect was often produced in a
simpler way, by causing the dupe to look into a cellar through a
basin of water with a glass bottom standing under a sky-blue
ceiling, or by figures on a dark wall drawn in inflammable
material and suddenly ignited. The flashes of lightning and the
rolling thunders which sometimes accompanied these manifesta-
tions were easy tricks, now familiar to everybody as the ignition
of lycopodium and the shaking of a sheet of metal. The ancient
methods described by Hippolytus (iv. 32) were very similar.
Judging from the accounts which history has handed down
to us, the marvels performed by the thaumaturgists of antiquity
were very skilfully produced, and must have required a con-
siderable practical knowledge of the art. The Romans were
in the habit of giving conjuring exhibitions, the most favourite
feat being that of the "cups and balls," the performers of
which were called acetabularii, and the cups themselves occtabula.
The balls used, however, instead of being the convenient light
cork ones employed by modern conjurors, were simply round
white pebbles which must have added greatly to the difficulty
of performing the trick. The art survived the barbarism and
ignorance of the middle ages; and the earliest professors of the
modern school were Italians such as Jonas, Androletti and
Antonio Carlotti. But towards the close of Elizabeth's reign
conjurors were classed with "ruffians, blasphemers, thieves,
vagabonds, Jews, Turks, heretics, pagans and sorcerers."
The history of conjuring by mechanical effectrand inventions
is full of curious detail. Spectral pictures or reflections of moving
objects, similar to those of the camera or magic lantern, were
described in the 14th and 26th centuries. Thus, in the House
of Fame, bk. Hi., Chaucer speaks of " appearances such as the
subtil tregetours perform at feasts"— pictorial representations
of hunting, falconry and knights jousting, with the persons and
objects instantaneously disappearing; exhibitions of the same
kind are mentioned by Sir John Mandeville, as seen by him at
the court of " the Great Chan " in Asia; and in the middle of
the 1 6th century Benvenuto Cellini saw phantasmagoric spectres
projected upon smoke at a nocturnal exhibition in the Colosseum
at Rome. The existent* ^l %> cssbkxv <taMoa^^SBha>>a*Mix*»*^
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CONJURING
- Maskelync's two Automata, " Fanfare » (1878) playing a cornet,
and " Labial " (1879) playing a euphonium, both operated by
mechanism inside the figures and supplied with wind from a
bellows placed separately upon the stage.
Lucian tells of the magician Alexander in the and century
that he received written questions enclosed in sealed envelopes,
and a few days afterwards delivered written responses in the
same envelopes, with the seals apparently unbroken; and both
he and Hippolytus explain several methods by which this could
be effected. In this deception we have the germ of "spirit-
reading " and " spirit-writing/' which, introduced in 1840 by
John Henry Anderson, " The Wizard of the North," became
common in the ripertoire of modern conjurors,— embracing a
variety of effects from an instantaneous substitution which
allows the performer or his confederate to see what has been
secretly written by the audience. The so-called " second-sight "
trick depends upon a system of signalling between the exhibitor,
who moves amongtheaudience collecting questions to be answered
and articles to be described, and the performer, who is blind-
folded on the stage. As already stated, the speaking figure which
Stock showed to Professor Beckmann, at Gottingen, about 1770,
was instructed by a code of signals, in 1783 Pinctti had an
automaton figure about 18 in. in height, named the Grand Sultan
or Wise Little Turk, which answered questions as to chosen
cards and many other things by striking upon a bell, intelligence
being communicated to a confederate by an ingenious ordering
of the words, syllables or vowels in the questions put. The
teaching of Mesmcr and the feats of clairvoyance suggested to
Pinctti a more remarkable performance in 1785, when Signora
Pinetti, sitting blindfold in a front box of a theatre, replied to
questions and displayed her knowledge of articles in the possession,
of the audience. Half a century later this was developed with
greater elaboration, and the system of telegraphing cloaked by
intermixing signals on other methods, first by Robert-Houdin
in 1846, then by Hermann in 1848, and by Anderson at a later
period. Details of the system of indicating a very large number
of answers by slight and unperceived variations in the form of
question are given by F. A. Gandon, La seconde wo dctoilie
(Paris, 1849)*
Fire tricks, such as walking on burning coals, breathing
flame and smoke from a gall-nut filled with an inflammable
composition and wrapped in tow, or dipping the hands in
boiling pitch, were known in early times, and are explained
by Hippolytus (iv. 33). At the close of the 17th century Richard-
son astonished the English public by chewing ignited coals,
pouring melted lead (really quicksilver) upon his tongue and
swallowing melted glass. Strutt, in Sports and Pastimes of the
People of England, relates how he saw Powel the fire-cater,
in 176a, broil a piece of beefsteak laid upon his tongue,— a
piece of lighted charcoal being placed under his tongue which a
spectator blew upon with a bellows till the meat was sufficiently
done. This man also drank a melted mixture of pitch, brimstone
and lead out of an iron spoon, the stuff blazing furiously. These
performers anointed their mouths and .tongues with a protective
composition.
Galen speaks of a person in the 2nd century who relighted
a blown*out candle by holding it against a wall or a stone which
had been rubbed with sulphur and naphtha; and the instan-
taneous lighting of candles became a famous feat of later times.
Baptista Porta gave directions for performing a trick entitled
" many candles shall be lighted presently." Thread is boiled in
oil with brimstone and orpiment, and when dry bound to the
wicks of candles; and, one being lighted, the flame runs to them
all. He says that on festival days they are wont to do this
among the Turks. " Some call it Hermes bis ointment." In
1783 Pinetti showed two figures sketched upon a wall, one of
which put out a candle, and the other relighted the hot wick,
when the candle was held to their mouths. By wafers he had
apolied a few grains of gunpowder to the mouth of the first,
and a bit of phosphorus to tjiat of the other. A striking trick
of this conjuror was to extinguish two wax candles and simul-
taneously light two others at a distance of 3 ft, by firing a pisioL
945
The candles were placed in a row, and the pistol fired from the
end where the lighted candles were placed; the sudden blast of
hot gas from the pistol blew out the flames and lighted the
more distant candles,' because in the wick of each was placed,
a millet-grain of phosphorus. A more recent conjuror showed
a pretty illusion by appearing to carry a flame invisibly between
his hands from a lighted to an unlighted candle. What he did
was to hold a piece of wire for a second or two in the flame of the
first candle, and then touch with the heated wire a bit of phos-
phorus which had been inserted in the turpentine-wetted wick
of the other. But in 184a Ludwig Dobler, a German conjuror
of much* originality, surprised his audience by lighting two
hundred candles instantaneously upon the firing of a pistoL
This was the earliest application of electricity to stage illusions.
The candles were so arranged that each wick, black from previous
burning, stood a few inches in front of a fine nozzle gas-burner:
projecting horizontally from a pipe of hydrogen gas, and the
two hundred jets of gas passed through the same number of
gaps in a conduc ting-wire. An electric current leaping in a spark
through each jet of gas ignited all simultaneously, and the gas
flames fired the candle wicks. .
J. £. Robert-Houdin (1805-1871), who opened his " Temple
of Magic " at Paris in 1845, originated the application of electro-
magnetism for secretly working or controlling mechanical
apparatus in stage illusions. His Soirees fantasliques at Paris
gave him such a reputation that the French government actually
sent him to Algiers in order to show his superiority to the local
marabouts; and he ranks as the founder of modern conjuring.
He first exhibited in 1845 his light and heavy chest, which, when
placed upon the broad plank or " rake " among the spectators,
and exactly over a powerful electromagnet hidden under the
cloth covering of the plank, was held fast at pleasure. In order
to divert suspicion, Houdin showed a second experiment with
the same box, suspending it by a rope which passed over a single
small pulley attached to the ceiling; but any person in the
audience who took hold of tho rope to feel the sudden increase
in the weight of the box was unaware that the rope, while
appearing to pass simply over the pulley, really passed upward
over a winding-barrel worked as required by an assistant
Remarkable ingenuity was displayed in concealing a small
electromagnet in the handle of his glass bell, as well as in hit
drum, the electric current passing through wires hidden within
the cord by which these articles were suspended. In one of
Houdin's illusions*— throwing eight half-crowns into a crystal
cash-box previously set swinging— electricity was employed in
a different manner. Top, bottom, sides and ends of an oblong
casket were of transparent glass, held together at all the edges
by a light metal frame. The coins were concealed under an
opaque design on the lid, and supported by a false lid of glass,
which was tied by cotton thread to a piece of platinum wire.
Upon connecting the electric circuit, the platinum, becoming red-
hot, severed the thread, letting fall the glass flap, and dropping
the coins into the box.
Down to the latter part of the 18th century no means of
secretly communicating ad libitum motions to apparently
isolated pieces of mechanism had superseded the clumsy device
of packing a confederate into a box on legs draped to look like
an unsophisticated table. Pinctti placed three horizontal levers
close beside each other in the top of a thin table, covered by a
cloth, these levers being actuated by wires passing through the
legs and feet of the table and to the confederate behind a scene
or partition. In the pedestal of each piece of apparatus which
was to be operated upon when set loosely upon the table were
three corresponding levers hidden by doth; and, after being
examined by the audience, the piece of mechanism was placed
upon a table in such a position that the two sets of levers exactly
coincided, one being superimposed upon the other. In one
" effect " the confederate worked a small bellows in the base of a
lamp, to blow out the flame; in another he let go a trigger,
causing an arrow to fly by a spring from the bow of a doll sports-
man; he actuated a double-bellows inside a bottle, which caustA.
flowers and (ruit. \» \*Q\x\A*i Vwc& *sb&~*% "Cc*. V&&*s. «^ *«*>
946
CONJURING
irilfif lal shrub, by distending with air a number of small Madders
•Iin|imI and painted to represent therm; he opened or shut valves
whi« h allowed balls to Issue out of various doors in a model house
•• ilireiinl by itic audlem*; and he moved the tiny bellows
Mi I ha l*»dy <d a toy bird by wliUh it blew out a candle. Other
iun|ufor« addnl mui« tomplkated pieres of apparatus,— one
bring a i If* k with small hand moving upon a glass disk as required
by llift audirmn. Thr glass disk carrying the numbers or letters
was in frailly two, flu- baik one being isolated by ratchet teeth
nn Ha jwiljihrry hidden by ihr ring frame which supported it,
and, though Ihr pillar |irdr*lal was separated into three pieces
and shown to thr agitators, movable rods, worked by the
labia Irvus, wen In eaih ardlon duly covered by cloth faces.
Another mm haul' al lrl< k, |K>puUr wllh Torrini, lloudin, Philippe
and Kiihln, and winked In a similar way, was a little harlequin
Agnra whlih nisit nut ul a box srt u|iun Ihe table, put his legs
uvn Ihr limit id llir bus and sat on the edge, nodded his head,
slHnki'd a pipe, blew nul a landlr, and whistled a one-note
ubhligiilu In an »rt hrnf ra. Ktiheit- lloudin employed, Instead of
Ihr tablr Irvns, vnliial roda eaih arrangnl to rise and fall in a
lulir, aiiniilliig or it *u* diawn down by a spiral spring or
pullwl up by whip mid which pasard over a pulley at the top
of thr lubr and so duwn the table Irg to the hiding-place of the
• iNdnileialr In hia ventre tulilo he had ten of these " pistons,"
ami thr Ipii luida paaalng under the lloor of the stage terminated
al a krylNiaid. Vaiimia Ingenious automata were actuated by
Ihla mraiia of transmitting motion; but the most elaborate
pie** of met hank al ap|»aratua constructed by lloudin was his
orange lire. 'Ihe oranges, with one exception, were real, stuck
u|mhi smalt spikrs, and tonrealcd by hemispherical screens which
weie uivered with foliage; and the screens, when released by
Ihe iipwaid pteaauie id a pbton, nude half a turn, and disclosed
Ihe (mil. 'Ihe Itoweia weie hiddeu behind foliage until raised
above the Was** by the avlion of another phton. Near the too
ul the lire an aitiluial oiange opened into four pontons; while
two butteirttrs attained to two light arms of brass rose up
behind the tree, ap|»r«red on eavh side by Ihe spreading of the
amis, and diew out ol the o|«ened orange a handkerchief which
had been bonvwed and vanuhed away.
Mativ ot the illumons irgardrd as the original inventions of
eminent ivn)uroi» have been really improvements of older
titoks. fi*M /V*u Jumi# % i'kt AuJtomytf £rfrruYa*ii« (4th
rd, i6\*i gives an explanatory cut \«f a method of drawing
different lu|Uor» oul of a single tap in a barrel, the barrel being
divided into w»nu>ai Intents, each having an air-hole at the top.
bv means ol «hnh the liquid ui anv of the compartments was
withhrM or pet muted to hVw. Robert- Houdin applied the
piuwnde.to a nine bottle hekl in his hand trom which he couki
iv«i kmi dirtcieni liquid* legutated t*> the urt>toppu\g of any of
the kmr tinv au-hoAri «huh were %vvered bv his ttagersi A i
laige numtvi 0! vviv %i\\*\\ K«;ieur glasses being provided on j
lia.%*. au«l ^xuiti.ic'vit «f:\«|Vk oi certain fUwumg esscrces. •
%-iuNK\l N:o\ to *i!.'is\ ruiUiv:** «rt \i:k»*m wwc* and liquors.
««\v4\tu\j u» tV gli«H-« i»io *K.,h he vvtred *\rvp t:\vi the
rvliV *■&• b* » *l/>ul »vSuu:v« oc a tV.: Nrt'.V tor an
vented *»e ns r^ i*\ !v:N iv*i \g r.i tSr set oi • •;N«»,g tie N.»t:Ie
with a *ktN he piwiuvwt tSe ;9*^cmi.nvi t\it tSr S*:tJe »as
" 1 w\Vaw«;^V ' l-.« ij; x »** &:>: e\S.>.;,>J » cV^u"^ a
Hk S «^j%» a W:«N;*vii Nisi Xvti avu U» jv^v-^ a: >'ji.'-»*
m,'\vi*1 \««A:m NNnv« k > -^ !,» a Ijua» wt ,t\torx-^r<i wjv*
i»o*Vj\< v*v o: > * Vi-n's *v»\ i^j rewv^.-^ jcj-« *ea,& w ."*
v*ss* a *>-o.jv K; s >« N»«Sv »\n^ »*s srt ^s-^*! -.-? 1 Sr'c
««« iV *»v »< » »«,w» <\vii '.V jVK'-^ a* l^ pc? # vxrrrr ■_?
»>.v;>v* »a> ^\i< XnV:-v : i >«r^v iv :V ev<a"^a*-vc ^ :Se
»l-^M ^v« Sm K» » > n* V ,\m.*<\^ .n* a »yi>s-t * v ^ * .wcrs/ev
^^ .># X%kK. la UfJ *.-*.» K» N *-^«x ,i->c"ii >.» \o I'
i*w Kv<NNt *fc«<Jl» K|,N>xa,x<vd tV wi *.-vxr »\. ; . <■ ^ '
e«VMV^' aw^^un,>a. v*<v^nRHV*> W*K^*a* ** nv\ Sx*"*
A^^aJ «N w«tfft4 >» ad4tria»Ceetn4 *^x>ar « ^Vr ?.• >» tcsc
«^/ j*t% * ^^« # lW a<#vfc<K<e. V'">« >>i» a a VvAmri.'
a long waJking-stlck. The support was a jointed iron frw
under the boy's dress, with cushions and bells psusing round ud
under the body. Subsequently the trick was improved upoa by
Sylvester— the suspended person being shown in several chances
of position, while the sole supporting upright was finally removed.
For the latter deception the sted upright was made with poushftf
angular faces, apex towards the spectators, and acted in a din
light on the same principle as the mirrors of a Sphinx ubk
Before lowering the light, the reflector bar is covered by the
wood staff set up before it.
Ihe mysterious vanishing or appearing of a person under a
large extinguisher upon the top of a table, and without the use
of mirrors, was first performed by Comus, a French conjuror
very expert in the cups-and-balls sleight-of-hand, who, appearing
in London in 1789, announced that he would convey his wife
under a cup in the same mariner as he would balls. The feat
was accomplished by means of a trap in a box table. Early »
the 10th century Chalons, a Swiss conjuror, transformed a bird
into a young lady, on the same principle. In 1836 Sutton varied
the feat by causing the vanished body to reappear under the
crust of a great pie. Houdin " vanished " a person standing
upon a table top which was shown to be only a few inches thick;
but there was a false top which was let down like the side of a
bellows, this distension being hidden by a table-cloth hanging
sufficiently low for the purpose, and the person, when covered
by the extinguisher, entered the table through a trap-duor
opening upwards. Robin, in 1851, added to the wonder of the
trick by vanishing two persons in succession, without any
possibility of either escaping from the table, — the two persons
really packing themselves into a space which, without clever
arrangement and practice, could not bold more than one. The
sword-and-basket trick was common in India many years aco.
In one form it consisted in inverting an empty basket over a
child upon the ground; after the child had secreted hircsc!:
between the basket-bottom and a belt concealed by a curtiic
painted to look like the actual wicker bottom, a sword «*s
thrust through both sides of the basket, the child screamer.
and squeezing upon the sword and upon the ground a blood-
coloured liquid from a sponge. When the performer upset the
basket, the child could not be seen; but another chOd sirc£a;!i-
costumed suddenly appeared among the spectators, having
been up to that time supported by a pair of stirrups under tJbe
cloak of a confederate among the bystanders. In another fcr=
an oblong basket b used large at the bottom and uperins; to the
top. with the Ud occupying only the central portion of the top.
and the child is so disposed round the basket that the swerd
plunged downward avoids him, and the p erf o rm er can see?
inside and stamp open the bottom to prove that the baske: 3
empty. In x&c Stodare introduced the trick into Ec^lxs-i. bit
in a new manner. Upon light trestles he placed a large cbxzg
basket: aad after a ixlr attired in a prcf-^se caE= dress bzz.
cor-.yvwd herself asd her abucdasce of skirt wfthj. ir-i *je
!• J had beea shut and the r«c.-d p:-i=ged threes; 3 th* safes -."re
basket wi*!i. 8 «ed:o»arA;yea»i. ; ertoe:c shew is: !'.?M*^-t
ar.d ;h« Uiv rrj^vi.-«d ir. a plery c: :he hj" Tfee hx±jt~
was femed wiih xn otter shel ;o :-^= ie*^, Jear=g i e ^ :7
with her drrss jucked icgicther ,V>g v^cc the hask*t hcr-ra
a^d Sch -i »h.»: Sic fcrrvi x :V.«* fr.=: *:
Sr.-.g the m— c is -,-; *>c ca?»-"* ica. »Lxh_ 1
r-j-s » n.'Je«i .• v-r :.* i=5f Ixt :h< ^i« c=; :v . ri< m^peor^*
ii.^ »a» a iccr.c. .v :»i= s^:sr
\-v-V =^e =>»i rr-er'::.-jcis asi ceisinrri ?* ■ ' *-» - <-■
■'hjNC.-* >J%e b«er. a.:r.-i:,-« ff-rrs sr.Tt-7 siascsz =
tSrr rv%«ffv--j ?> K--.isi.\c .-c«.-; :.•-». I: *it : w j rr= irt
•■^■r-i »h.».b ?-j>t: t:r» xs r..-r-;:r; "?y -^ e x;.ie=c? mc — ca
jorr <g -^f t>— -T-e-T Ijc-s XZ'. i»r:-.Tri a ?cc^^
>e~.-.— vr -TSs'.e- It :-?c Sir:^ Series.
rsAT^-^ .v^r.'eT^i "ts rYfs»-r"a"*?r %"*j
^■^i.x*:' t?« rv^i^e .-r Si-.-pe *: »as 12
• v *^>-' ** Jt -•« cc-kT* r.» iii-2 ire cia.r'j
x;cva;n s tic sk^ae". sac. "bee* ». *ir ^s-t. x-^jt -an
2 xt a
Susce.—
ia&t -let
CONJURING
was opened in successive instalments to the scrutiny of the
spectators. The first player was a Polish patriot, Worousky,
who had lost both legs in a campaign; as he was furnished with
artificial limbs when in public, his appearance, together with the
fact that no dwarf or child travelled in Kempekn's company,
dispelled the suspicion that any person could be employed inside
the machine. This automaton, which made more than one tour
to the capitals and courts of Europe, and was owned for a short
time by Napoleon I., was exhibited by Malzel after the death of
Kempelcn in 1819, and ultimately perished in a fire at Phila-
delphia in 1854. A revival of the trick appeared soon afterwards
in Hooper's " Ajeeb," shown at the Sydenham Crystal Palace
and elsewhere. A chess-playing figure, " Mephisto," designed
by Cumpel, was also exhibited. No space existed for the
accommodation of a living player within; but, as there was no
attempt at isolating the apparatus from mechanical communica-
tion through the carpet or the floor, there was nothing to preclude
the moving arm and gripping finger and thumb of the figure
from being worked by any convenient connexion of threads,
wires, rods and levers. In 1875 Maskclyne and Cooke produced
at the Egyptian Hall, in London, an automaton whist-player,
" Psycho," which, from the manner in which it was placed upon
the stage, appeared to be perfectly isolated from any mechanical
communication from without; there was no room within for
the concealment of a living player by aid of any optical or other
illusion, and yet the free motions of both arms, especially of the
right arm and hand in finding any card, taking hold of it, and
raising it or lowering it to any position and at any speed as
demanded by the audience, indicated that the actions were
directed from without. The arm had all the complicated
movements necessary for chess or draught playing; and
" Psycho " calculated any sum up to a total of 99,000,000. A
still more original automaton was Maskelyne's figure' " Zoe,"
constructed in 1877, which wrote and drew pictures at dictation
of the audience. " Zoe," a nearly life-size but very light doll,
sat loose upon a cushioned skeleton-stand, of which the solid
feet of the plinth rested upon a thick plate of clear glass laid upon
the floorcloth or carpet of the stage. " Psycho," a smaller
oriental figure, silting cross-legged on a box, was supported by
a single glass cylinder of clear glass, which, as originally exhibited,
stood upon the carpet of the stage, but was afterwards set loose
upon a small stool, having solid wood feet.
That a mysterious and apparently elaborate mechanical
movement may, after all, possess the utmost simplicity is
illustrated by the familiar conjuring trick known as "rising
cards." Four cards having been chosen by the audience and
returned to the pack, this is placed end upwards in a glass goblet,
or in a thin case not deep enough to hide the pack, upon the
top of a decanter or upon a stick. At command, the cards rise,
one at a time, out of the pack; one rises part of the way and
sinks back again; one rises quickly or slowly as directed; one
comes out feet first, and, on being put back, rises head upwards
like the others; and one dances in time to .music, and finally
jumps out of the pack. At the conclusion there remain only the
goblet or the case and the cards, subject to the minutest examina-
tion of any one from the audience, without a trace of moving
mechanism visible. This was one of the chief jeux of Louis
Christian Comte, the French conjuror and ventriloquist, at the
end of the 18th century, and in varied forms has been popular
to the present day. Probably it was suggested by the earlier
device of the golden head dancing in a glass tumbler, which
is described in The Conjuror Unmasked (1700). Several crown
pieces were put in the glass, a small gilded head above them,
and a plate or other flat cover laid upon the mouth of the glass;
yet the head thus isolated jumped inside the glass so as to count
numbers and answer questions. The secret communicator of
motion was a fine silk thread attached to the head and passing
through a tiny notch cut in the lip of the glass, and so to a
confederate who pulls it. In the case of the rising cards the
whole of the movements are effected by arranging a single silk
thread in the previously prepared pack, passing over some
cards and under others, and led behind the decanter or other
9+7
support to the stage and thence to the confederate. At this in-
finitely simple mechanical agent is drawn altogether out of the
pack after the last card has risen, literally no trace remains of
any means of communicating motion to the cards.
Oriental ingenuity, which furnished the original idea of the
ethereal suspension trick, contributed the Chinese rings intro-
duced into England in 1834; also the Chinese feat of producing
a bowl of water with gold-fish out of a shawl, first seen in England
in 1845, and the Indian rope-tying and sack feats upon which
the American brothers Davenport founded a distinct order of
performances in 1859. Their quick escape from rope bonds in
which they were tied by representatives of jhe audience, the
instantaneous removal of their coats in a dark seance, leaving
themselves still bound, and their various other so-called " pheno-
mena " were exposed and imitated by Maskelyne, who, in 1860,
greatly surpassed any feats which they had accomplished. He
proceeded to exhibit himself floating in the air, to show "material-
ized spirit forms," and to present a succession of wonders of
the spirit mediums in novel performances. One of Maskelyne's
cleverest inventions was the box which he constructed in i860;
it closely fitted when he packed himself in a cramped position
within; it was enclosed in a canvas wrapper, corded with any
length and complicated meshing of rope, and the knot sealed,
yet his escape was effected in seven seconds. Taking more time,
he performed the converse of these operations except the sealing.
Provided with the wrapper and the open box, himself standing
outside.he drew a curtain before him toconcealtheftsorf usoptrandi,
and in a few minutes was found in the box, which, though so
small as to permit no limb to be moved more than a few inches,
he nevertheless wrapped and corded as exactly as if he had
operated from the outside.
Modern conjuring has given rise to many interesting develop*
ments, but none perhaps attracted a larger share of public
attention than the legal battle in the last years of the century
over this box-trick. The case had a special interest in England,
from the fact that it was the only one in which a trick had ever
occupied the attention of the House of Lords. The litigation
arose in this way. Mr Maskelyne had been in the habit of offering
a considerable reward to any one who could produce a correct
imitation of his box-trick. The offer was a direct challenge to
imitators, and was intended to show — as nothing else could have
done — that the tricks sold and exhibited as " correct imitations "
were not what they professed to be. Two amateur mechanicians,
having made or procured a box externally resembling Mr Maske-
lyne's, gave a private performance before a few friends, and then
claimed the reward. Mr Maskelyne refused to pay, his contention
being that hundreds of people had already escaped from locked
and corded boxes resembling his in appearance. Indeed, it was
for that very reason that he had been compelled to make the
offer. The claimants then brought an action to recover £ 5 00
the amount offered. Mr Maskelyne produced his box in court,
and challenged the plaintiffs to expose the secret, contending
that they could not possibly imitate correctly a trick of which
they did not know the secret. Their point, however, was that
they had nothing to do with the secret, and that a box-trick
was not a trick-box. The jury, being unable to decide whether a
mechanical trick is a piece of mechanism or the effect it produces,
could not agree, and were discharged. In a second trial, the
jury, after much deliberation, found for the plaintiffs. Mr
Maskelyne appealed against the verdict. His appeal occupied
the court for three days, and was dismissed. Finally he carried
the case to the House of Lords, and lost it. The majority of the
law lords, while fully admitting that the secret had never been
discovered, were of opinion that the trick had been correctly
" imitated." To people dealing with mechanical devices this
decision is bound to appear not a little curious. A mechanical
trick is a mechanical invention, and when we have two absolutely
different inventions, although they may produce more or less
similar results, one is by no means an imitation of the other—
to say nothing of a " correct imitation." Applied to inventions
generally, such a ruling would produce disastrous results.
To those interested in masjc % Vrawnx, <»* *&wx *&> ^*.
9+8
CONJURING
litigation was to intensify the mystery surrounding the original
box-trick. The whole matter has been publicly thrashed out.
It has been learned that the trick, generally, consists of a movable
panel fastened by a secret catch. Provided that the rope be not
too severely knotted over that panel, the performer can escape;
but otherwise failure is inevitable. Further, it is known that
the original trick has never failed, even under the most severe
tests, whereas the imitations have failed repeatedly. There can
only be one reason for this— a great difference in the mechanical
principles employed.
Like most forms of refined entertainment the conjuror's magic
appears to have kept well abreast of the times. Certainly, at
no period of the world's history has it ever been so popular as at
present. As a natural consequence, so many skilled exponents
of the art have never before existed. Yet there is one respect in
which at the present day conjuring shows no advance upon the
records of earlier times. The one great peculiarity in connexion
with magic, at every period, has been the limited number of those
who prove themselves capable of originating magical effects.
This peculiarity has never been more thoroughly emphasized
than at present. Since the days of Robert-Houdin, only two
men have attained any remarkable degree of prominence— Mr
Maskelyne and M. Buaticr de Kolta. There are many who, as
entertainers, are entitled to rank with the highest, but to those
two only can prominence be justly given as originators. The
only logical conclusion to be drawn is that to invent original
illusions is a matter of no ordinary difficulty, and, indeed, all
who have attempted work of that kind will admit that such is
the case. When, however, an original principle has been invented,
it may be utilized in producing many and apparently quite
distinct effects. As an example of this, Maskclyne's " Cleopatra's
Needle," invented in 1879, may be mentioned. The trick con-
sisted of a piece of mechanism representing an exceedingly light
model of the famous obelisk. So light was it, in fact, that it
could easily be lifted with one hand. Upon an isolated stand,
previously examined by the audience, a sheet of ordinary brown
paper was laid, and on this the " needle " was placed. Thus
during the performance communication with the obelisk was
obviously impossible. Yet from within it human beings emerged
in a most startling manner. The secret consisted in the fact
that the "needle" was capable of being lifted by invisible
means, and from the outset contained two or three persons
concealed within it Notwithstanding the fact that this illusion
was one of Mr Maskclyne's simplest devices, it puzzled even
experts for a considerable time. When at last the secret leaked
out, the principle was seized upon with avidity and utilized in a
variety of ways— for example, by M. Buaticr de Kolta in his
beautiful illusion, " The Cocoon," first produced at the Egyptian
Hall, London, in 1887. In this case de Kolta had the advantage
of Mr Maskelyne's assistance in perfecting the mechanical details.
De Kolta's smaller tricks have for years supplied the whole
army of ordinary conjurors with novelties. In 1886, at the Eden
Theatre, Paris, he introduced his famous illusion known as
" The Vanishing Lady." This mystery, performed as he alone
could perform it, was one of the most effective tricks ever
exhibited. Hundreds of" imitations "were, of course, produced;
but, like the imitations of Mr Maskelyne's box, they sink into
insignificance when compared with the original; and in this
case, unfortunately for the originator, the reputation of the
original was speedily mined by clumsy exponents, who only
succeeded in exposing the principle. The effect produced by dc
Kolta was as follows:— Taking from his pocket what appeared
to be an ordinary newspaper, folded, he opened it out and laid
it upon the stage. Then a chair was shown, front and back, to
the audience, and placed upon the paper. Madame de Kolta,
in ordinary evening dress, then took her seat upon the chair,
and a large piece of black silk was thrown over her, enveloping
her from head to foot. Then dc Kolta would shout, " I'll throw
you in the airl "—or words to that effect— and to all appearance
he grasped her round the waist, lifted her above his head, and
she ran/died, covering and all, at his finger-tips.
: tbt jUuMtons depending lor their effect upon sudden
disappearance, perhaps the most inexplicable was that prodactd
by Mr Maskelyne in 1891 under the appropriate title of " Oar-
that being an expression frequently used by spectators upon
witnessing the startling effect. In the illusion the performs
whose disappearance was to be effected seated himself upca 1
raised couch, above which a kind of canopy was supported upot
brass rods. From the canopy depended curtains capable c
being raised or lowered. The right hand of the performer vu
strapped to one end of this couch, and the left hand was second
by means of a strap attached to one end of a stout cord. Ik
other end of the cord, having been passed through a hole in tic
framework of the canopy, was securely held by a member of ik
audience. The curtains were then lowered to within 1 8 in. of us
ground, and through an aperture in the front curtain the per-
former's right hand was passed. This hand, again, was held bj
a second member of the audience. Finally, a sheet of iron to
placed beneath the couch, to prevent any possibility of the
performer's escape being effected through a trap in the stip.
Thus, with the performer's right hand in full view, his left dnn
upwards by the cord attached to it, and a clear space below xbt
couch, escape seemed impossible; yet, upon the word M Co: "
the right hand disappeared, the cord became slack in the bads
of the holder, the curtains were instantly raised, and tk
performer had vanished.
In 1886 M. Buatier dc Kolta, in conjunction withMrMaskdyse,
presented at the Egyptian Hall, London, a series of illusion^
effects upon an entirely novel principle, to which they gave Ux
name of " Black Magic." The main idea was based upon the
fact— obvious when once it is pointed out — that visible lore
cannot exist in the absence of shadow or varying tint. In wbc
words, we can only distinguish forms when they exhibit eiita
variations in colour or shade. Absolute uniformity nut,
necessarily, mean invisibility. To bring about this uniformity,
the entire stage was draped in black velvet, giving it the ap-
pearance of a dark and immensely deep cavern. There were w
lights within it, though from the front it was brilliantly fllunia-
ated. Upon the stage, thus prepared, the most startlier,
appearances and disappearances took place, within a few tat
of the footlights. The illusions were produced by the simp*
method of covering anything to be concealed by screens e
black velvet. These could be brought almost to the front d
the stage, and yet would remain invisible; thus, in an insuci
persons or articles would appear, apparently from space, or
would disappear into it. The principle involved in the pro-
duction of these illusions was adopted subsequently by many
conjurors, and has served to produce an almost endless varar/
of effects.
The production of innumerable blossoms from a sheet of paper
was undoubtedly the prettiest of M Buatier de Kolta's srralkx
tricks. A small sheet of cartridge-paper is twisted into a com,
which is shown to be empty, but immediately artificial blossom
begin to pour out of it, until quite a bushel of them are piled «p.
Unfortunately for the inventor, the first time he introduced the
trick at the Eden Theatre, Paris, one or two of the " blossoms"
were carried by a draught of air into the auditorium. The*
were at once sold to a manufacturer of conjuring appliances,
and within a few days de Kolta's " Spring Blossoms " were mm
the market. r
Another startling trick, by the same inventor, is " The Flying
Cage." A live bird is imprisoned within a small cage bfM
between the performer's hands, when suddenly bya 'quid
movement of the arms, both bird and cage vanish The cage
simply collapses, and is drawn by a string up the coat-slceve,
the- unfortunate bird being sometimes maimed, if not WW
outright. The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Aninub
once took action in the matter, and sought to prevent the
performance of the trick at one of the London music-halls- but
the conjuror .n this case invited the officials to witness a priv*
demonstration, and was clever enough to convinc^inTSit
there was no cruelty. Conjuring with animab hasT«lt
charm for young folk, and happily it fa very seldom n«i .TS
involves any cruelty whateveT4he iSS^X**
CONJURING
become accustomed to the business, and appear thoroughly
to understand what is required off them.
In recent yean the mystery known as " Second Sight " has
been vastly improved. The old system, invented by Pinetti
in 1785, and brought to great perfection by Robert-Houdin, has
almost disappeared. It consisted of an elaborate code of signals,
given by means of subtle variations in the questions put to the
supposed clairvoyant; the form in which the question was
put conveying the appropriate answer. Now it is customary to
avoid speech altogether. The information is conveyed by means
of gesture or slight sounds at varying intervals. This business
requires an enormous amount of practice, and an abnormal
memory on the part of those who become expert.
But there are certain tricks of this class which require little
or no skill and a very small amount of practice. These arc
generally introduced by impostors who claim or tacitly suggest
the possession of supernatural powers. The following is a very
familiar example of the kind of trick employed by such persons.
The performers are usually a man and a woman. The man first
appears, and informs the audience that he will shortly introduce
a lady possessing extraordinary powers. Not only can she
read the thoughts of any person whose mind is en rapport with
hers, but also she can foretell the future, trace missing friends,
discover lost property, &c. In order to display the lady's capa-
bilities, he requests that any members of the audience who have
questions they would like answered will write them secretly.
For convenience in writing, slips of paper, pencils and squares of
thick millboard arc passed round, the millboard squares being
for use as writing-desks. The writers are particularly cautioned
to allow no one to see what is written, but to fold up the papers
and retain them in their own possession. Further, the writers
are instructed that, when the clairvoyant appears, the thoughts
of each must be kept intently fixed upon what he has written.
The pencils and millboards are then collected, and the prepara-
tions being so far complete, other portions of the entertainment
are proceeded with. Finally, as the last item in the programme,
the clairvoyant is introduced. A handkerchief, upon which
some liquid has been poured, is held over the lady's nose and
mouth, and apparently she falls into a trance. Then she proceeds
to describe the appearance of certain of the writers, the position
they occupy in the room, and the nature of the questions they
have written, giving to those questions more or less plausible
answers. The trick never fails to produce the most profound
astonishment, and by its means several persons have made
rapid strides to fortune. But the whole business is an impudent
imposture. Therefore it cannot be too often or too thoroughly
exposed. It is accomplished as follows. Some of the millboards
passed round for convenience in writing arc built up of a number
of thicknesses, fastened together at the edges only. Beneath
the outer layer a sheet of carbon paper is concealed, so that
the pressure of the pencil causes a reproduction in duplicate
to be impressed upon an inner layer of cardboard. These pre-
pared pads are handed round by attendants, who note the dress
and appearance of the persons by whom the questions are written.
That information, together with the prepared pads, is subse-
quently conveyed to the clairvoyant. She requires a certain
amount of time in order to memorize the questions and the
description of the writers; consequently she is not introduced
to the audience until, say, an hour has elapsed. Of course, it
would not be discreet to have all the millboards prepared.
Many of them, perhaps the majority, arc really what they appear
to be; but, needless to say, the questions written upon these arc
never answered. It is carefully pointed out beforehand that the
clairvoyant can only read the questions of those whose minds
are in sympathy with hers. That statement, naturally, serves
to account for her inability to read or answer questions written
by those who have used the plain millboards.
In connexion with this trick a further imposture is carried
out by inviting strangers to send, by post, any questions they
wish to have answered. Such an invitation appears to be quite
straightforward and genuine, but those who are sufficiently
credulous or sufficiently curious to respond to it lend themselves
9+9
to the perpetration of an Ingenious fraud In reply to any such
communication, the writer is informed that it it necessary for
him to attend one of the public performances, and endeavour to
bring his mind into harmony with that of the clairvoyant.
Enclosed is a complimentary ticket entitling him to attend any
performance he pleases. The procedure, then, is simply this.
Each ticket bears a private mark, and a corresponding mark
is put upon the letter written by the person to whom it is sent.
When any marked ticket is presented, the attendant notes the
dress and appearance of the visitor and the seat he occupies.
That information is given to the clairvoyant, together with the
ticket She refers to the letter bearing the mark corresponding
to the ticket, and ascertains what that particular visitor wishes
to know. Thus to the public she appears to read and answer a
question which has not been written down, but merely thought
of by a total stranger. There are numerous methods of obtaining
information by means similar to those already described. Suffi-
cient, however, has been said to show that such devices are of
the simplest, and require nothing more than a callous effrontery
to carry them into effect. Of course, all kinds of mischances
arc bound to occur. But, when one is supposed to be dealing
with undiscovered laws of nature, it does not require much in-
genuity to wriggle out of any situation, however difficult.
Modern magic calls to its aid all the appliances of modern
science — electricity, magnetism, optics and mechanics; but the
most successful adepts in the art look down upon all such aids
and rely upon address and sleight of hand alone. The presti-
digitator's motto is " The quickness of the hand deceives the
eye "; but this very phrase, which is always in a performer's
mouth, is in itself one of the innocent frauds which the conjuror
employs as part and parcel of his exhibition. The truth is that
it is not so much upon the quickness with which a feat is performed
as upon the adroitness with which the time and means of perform-
ing it arc concealed that its success depends. The right oppor-
tunity for executing the required movement is technically called
a temps. This is defined to be any act or movement which dis-
tracts the attention of the audience while something is being
" vanished " or " produced." Experiment will readily convince
any one that it is absolutely impossible to move the hand so
quickly as to abstract or replace any object without being
perceived, so long as the eyes of the audience arc upon the
performer. But it is very easy to do so unnoticed, provided the
audience are looking another way at the time; and the faculty
of thus diverting their attention is at once the most difficult and
the most necessary accomplishment for a conjuror to acquire. It
docs not suffice to point, or ask them to look in another direction,
because they will obviously suspect the truth and look with all
the more persistence. The great requisite is to " have a $ood
eye " — in French conjuring parlance avoir dc I'aU; an earnest,
convinced look of the performer in a particular direction will
carry every one's glances with it, while a furtive glance at the
hand which is performing some function that should be kept
secret will ruin all.
The motto prefixed by Robert-Houdin to his chapter on the
" Art of Conjuring " is — " to succeed as a conjuror, three things
are essential: first, dexterity; second, dcxterityj and third,
dexterity "; and this is not a mere trick of language, for triple
dexterity is required, not only to train the hand to the needful
adroitness, but to acquire the requisite command of eye and
tongue. Unfortunately this dexterity may be applied not only
to conjuring but to cheating, particularly in the case of card-
sharpers. It takes various forms: (1) marking the cards; (3)
abstracting certain cards during the game for clandestine use;
(3) previously concealing cards about the person; (4) packing
the cards; (5) substituting marked or prepared packs; (6)
confederacy; (7) false shuffles. All these methods are thoroughly
exposed in Robert-Houdin's work Les Tricheries des Greet, The
successful card-sharper must have qualities which, if applied
in a legitimate direction, would ensure distinction in almost
any profession.
In the case of purely dexterical tricks, little advance has been
made. Recently savca w* ^&&>&& ^«» NsSssAas*^ V*s».
95<>
CONKLING— CONNAUGHT, DUKE OF
America. These consist in an amplification of the method ol
concealing coins and cards at the back of the fingers. The
principle has received the incongruous title of " back-palming.'
By means of this method both back and front of the hand
alternately can be shown empty, while, notwithstanding it*
apparent emptiness, the hand nevertheless conceals a coin 01*
card. The first and fourth fingers are caused to act as pivots,
upon which the concealed articles are turned from front to back,,
and vice versa, the turning being performed by the second and
third fingers. The movement is very rapid, and is accomplished!
in the act of turning over the hand to show the two sides alter-
nately. The sleight requires an enormous amount of practice.
It has been brought to the highest state of perfection by Herri
Valadon.
In all ages a very popular magical effect has been the apparent
floating of a person in empty space. An endless variety of in-
genious apparatus has been invented for the purpose of pro-
ducing such effects, and the present article would be incomplete
without some reference to one ar two of the more modern
examples. A very pretty illusion of this kind is that originally I
produced under the title of " Astarte." A lady is brought'
forward, and after making her bow to the audience she retires)
to the back of the stage, the whole of which is draped with black!
velvet and keptin deep shadow. There she is caused to rise in
the air, to move from side to side, to advance and retire, and to]
revolve in all directions. The secret consists in an iron lever,]
covered with velvet to match the background, and therefore]
Invisible to the audience. This lever is passed through an opening]
in the back curtain and attached to a socket upon the metal!,
girdle worn by the performer. The girdle consists of two rings,
one inside the other, the inner one being capable of turning
about its axis. By means of this main lever and a spindle passing
through it and gearing into the inner ring of the girdle, the
various movements are produced. A hoop is passed over the
performer with a view to demonstrate her complete isolation,
but the audience is not allowed to examine it It has a spring
Joint which allows it to pass the supporting lever. Among
illusions of this class there is probably none that will bear com-:
parison with the " levitation " mystery produced by Mr Maske-
lyne. A performer, in a recumbent position, is caused to rise
several feet from the stage, and to remain suspended in space,
while an intensely brilliant light is thrown upon him, illuminating!
the entire surroundings. Persons walk completely round him,
and a solid steel hoop, examined by the audience, is passed over
him, backwards and forwards, to prove the absence of any
tangible connexion.
The secret* of conjuring were for a long time jealously guarded
by its professors, but in T793 a work appeared in Pans, by M.
DKivfnpi, entitled Taiamtnt dt JftGfM Sh&rpe, professeur dt
phyiiqut <itniu<inU, which give* a very fair account of the methods
then in vogue, tn 1858 a still more important and accurate book
wm published — Sorcdtcrit o-ncsenne rt modtrn* expliquie, by J. N.
Fousiru and in 1&63 J. E, Robert- Hourt in issued his Secrets dt la
prt-tiutigaiioir et de ia marie, which is a no&tcrly exposition of the
entire art and mystery of conjuring The List- mentioned book was
translated into English by Professor Louis Hoffman, the author
of Modem Ma&k. See also Hoffman, More Matte, and Later
M*gk; Edwin Sachs, Sleiiht oj Hand; and J. N. Masketyne,
Skarpt and Hat*. (J- A. Cj~; G. Fa.; J. N. M.) \
CONKLING, ROSCOE (1820-1888), American lawyer and I
political leader, was born in Albany, New York, on the 30th of
October 1820. He was the son of Alfred Conkling (1 780-1874), !
who was a representative in Congress from New York in 1821- 1
1823, a Federal district judge in 1825-1852, and U.S. minister!
to Mexico in 1852-1853. Roscoe Conkling was admitted to the
bar at Utica, New York, in 1850, was appointed district-attorney '
of Oneida county in the same year, and soon attained success |
in the practice of his profession. At first a Whig, he joined the
Republican party at its formation, and was a Republican repre-
sentative in Congress from 1859 to 1863. He refused to follow
the financial policy of his party in 1862, and delivered a notable
speech against the passage of the Legal Tender Act, which made
m certain class of treasury notes receivable for all public and
private debts. Ia this opposition be wu joined by his brother, '
Frederick Augustus Conkling (18x6-2891), at that tune she
a Republican member of Congress. In 2863 be resulted the
practice of law, and in April 1865 was appointed a special jodft
advocate by the secretary of war to investigate alleged muds
in the recruiting service in western New York. He was sssia
a representative in Congress from December 1865 until itt;,
when he entered the Senate. After the war be allied hinati
with the radical wing of his party, was a member of the joist
committee that outlined the congressional plan of reconsinKunt
the late Confederate States, and laboured for the impeachcxci
of President Johnson. During President Grant's adnutustrauca
he was a member of the senatorial coterie that influenced most
of the president's policies, and in 1873 Grant urged him to accept
an appointment as chief justice of the Supreme Court, bat
he declined. In the Republican national convention of 1876
Conkling sought nomination for the presidency, and after ux
disputed election of this year he took a prominent part is
devising and securing the passage of a bill creating an eiectonl
commission. In 1880 he was one of the leaders of the unsuccess-
ful movement to nominate Grant for a third presidential tern.
With Grant's successors, Hayes and Garfield, his relations were
not cordial; an opponent of civil service reform, be came into
conflict with President Hayes over the removal of Chester A*
Arthur and other federal office-holders in New York; and when
in 1881 President Garfield, without consulting him, appointed
William H. Robertson, a political opponent of Conkling, as
collector of the port of New York, and when this appointment
was confirmed by the Senate in spite of Conkling's opposition,
Conkling and his associate senator from New York, Tnomas C.
Piatt, resigned their seats in the Senate and sought re-election
as a personal vindication. Being unsuccessful, Conkling took
up the practice of law in New York city, again declining, is
1882, a place on the bench of the Supreme Court, and appeared
in a number of important cases. While in public life Conkling
always attracted attention by his abilities, his keenness and
eloquence in debate, his aggressive leadership and bis striking
personality. Though always a strenuous worker in Congress,
the was not the originator of any great legislative measures, and
'his efficiency as a law-maker is thought to have been much
'impaired by his personal animosities. His hostility to James G.
Blaine, a fellow Republican senator, was especially marked. He
died in New York city on the 18th of April x888.
1 See A. R. Conkling (ed.), The Life and Letters of Roscoe ConJdhi
(New York, 1889).
CONN, LOUGH. * lake of western Ireland, in Co. Mayo. Its
length (N.N.W. to S.S.E.) is 9 m. and its extreme breadth
'rather over 4 m., but two promontories projecting from opposite
shores about the centre narrow it to less than x m. On the south
a passage so narrow as to be bridged communicates with Lough
Cullin; the current through this channel, normally from Conn
to Cullin, is sometimes reversed. The total length of the two
loughs is nearly 12 m. They drain eastward by a short channel
tributary to the Moy, and the principal affluents are the Ded
and the Manulla. Lough Conn lies 42 ft. above sea-level. It
contains a few islands, and its shores are generally low, but the
isolated mass of Ncphin (2646 ft.) rises finely on the west. The
lake is in favour with anglers.
1 CONNAUGHT, ARTHUR WILLIAM PATRICK ALBERT,
Duke of (1850- ), third son and seventh child of Queen
Victoria, was born at Buckingham Palace on the 1st of May 1850,
Being destined for the army, the young prince was entered at
the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in 1866, and gazetted
to the Royal Engineers on the 19th of June x868. In the follow-
ing November he was transferred to the Royal Artillery, and on
the 3rd of August 1869 to the Rifle Brigade. He became captain
in 187 1, and, transferred to the 7th Hussars in 1874, was promoted
major in 1875, and returned to the Rifle Brigade as lieutenant-
colonel in September 1876. He was promoted colonel and major-
general in 1880, lieutenant-general in 1889, and general in X893.
He accompanied the expeditionary force to Egypt in 1882, and
commanded the Guards brigade at the battle of Tel-el-Kebir.
lie was mentioned Ibxtt times u\ dRsoaXcbos^ received the C3»
CONNAUGHT— CONNECTICUT
95»
and was thanked by parliament. In 1886 the duke went to
India and commanded the Bombay army until 1800, when he
returned home. He commanded the southern district from 1 800
to 1893, and that of Aldershot from 1893 to 1898. On the
departure of Lord Roberts for South Africa the duke succeeded
him as commander-in-chief of the forces in Ireland, 9th of
January 1900. On attaining his majority in 1871 an annuity of
£15,000 was granted to Prince Arthur by parliament, and in
1874 he was created duke of Connaught and Strathearn and earl
of Sussex. On the 13th of March 1879 he married Princess
Louise Marguerite of Prussia, third daughter of Prince Frederick
Charles, and received an additional annuity of £10,000. The
duke and duchess represented Queen Victoria at the coronation
of the tsar Nicholas II. at Moscow in 1 896. On the reorganization
of the war office and the higher commands in 1904, the duke
was appointed to the new office of inspector-general to the
forces, from which he retired in 1907, being then given the new
post of commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, stationed at
Malta, which he held until 1909.
CONNAUGHT, a province of Ireland occupying the mid-
western portion of the island, and having as the greater part of
its eastern boundary the river Shannon, over its middle course.
It includes the counties Mayo, Sligo, Leitrim, Galway and
Roscommon {gq.v. for topography, &c). According to the
legendary chronicles of Ireland, Connaught(Connacht) was given
by the Milesian conquerors of the country to the Damnonians,
and the Book of Lcinster gives Tinne mac Conrath (20 B.C.) as the
first of the list of the kings of a'l Connaught, whose realm at its
greatest extent included also the district of Brenny or Breffny,
corresponding to the modern county of Cavan. The Daranonian
dynasty held its own till the 4th century a.d., when it was ousted
by the Milesian Muireadhach Tireach, king paramount (airdrigh)
of Ireland from 33 1 to 357. Henceforth the annals of Connaught
are of little interest until the end of the 12th century, when
William de Burgh received a grant of lands in Connaught from
King John as lord paramount of Ireland. In the quarrel between
Cathal Carrach and Cathal Crovderg for the throne he supported
either side in turn, with the result that he lost his Connaught
estates in 1203. In 1207, however, his son Richard received a
grant from King Henry HI. of the forfeited lands of the king of
Connaught, and thenceforth the history of the province is closely
bound up with that of the great family of Burgh (7.9.). In 1461
Connaught, with Ulster, fell nominally to the crown, in the person
of Edward IV., as heir of Lionel, duke of Clarence, and his wife,
daughter and heiress of William de Burgh, 3rd earl of Ulster
(d. 1333). In the wild districts of the west of Ireland, however,
legal titles were easier to claim than to enforce, and from 1333
onward Connaught was in fact divided between the de Burghs,
Bourcks or Burkes (MacWilliam " Oughters " and MacWilliam
" Eighters "), assimilated now to the Irish in dress and manners,
and the native kings of the ancient Milesian dynasty, which
survived till 1464. It was not till the 16th century that Con-
naught began to be effectively brought under English rule. A
stage in this direction was marked by the conversion in 1543
of the MacWilliam tighter, Ulick Bourck, into a noble on the
English model as earl of Clanricarde; though it was not till
1603 that the MacWilliam Oughter became Viscount Mayo.
Meanwhile, about 1 580, Connaught was for the most part divided
into shires by Sir Henry Sidney, who also brought into existence
the administration of Connaught and Munster by presidents,
which continued for seventy years. The county Clare (hitherto
Thomond or North Munster) was now annexed to Connaught,
and continued to belong to it down to the Restoration.
CONNBAUT, a city of Ashtabula county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
Lake Erie at the mouth of Conneaut Creek, and about 68 m.
N.E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 3241 ; (rooo) 7133 (1 227 foreign-
born); (1910) 8319. It is served by the New York, Chicago
& St Louis (which has railway repair shops here), the Lake Shore
& Michigan Southern, and the Bessemer & Lake Erie railways,
and by car ferries which ply between Conneaut and Rondeau
and Port Stanley on the Canadian side of Lake Erie. There is a
beautiful public park of ao acres on the lake shore. Conneaut
is situated in a grain-growing and dairying region; ft has an
excellent harbour to and from which coal and ore are shipped,
and is a sub-port of entry. The city has planing mills, flour mills,
brick works, tanneries, canneries and manufactories of electric
and gas fixtures, electric lamps and tungsten gas lamps. The
municipality owns and operates its electric-lighting plant. In
1796 surveyors for the Connecticut Land Co. built a log store-
house here, but the permanent settlement dates from 1798; in
1832 Conneaut was incorporated, and it became a city in 1898.
CONNECTICUT, one of the thirteen original states of the
United States of America, and one of the New England group of
states. It is bounded N. by Massachusetts, E. by Rhode Island,
S. by Long Island Sound, and W. by New York; the S.W.
corner projects along the Sound S. of New York for about 13 m.
Situated between 40° 54' and 4a 3' N. lat., and 71° 47' and 73°
43' W. long., its total area is 4965 sq. m., of which 145 are water
surface: only two states of the Union, Rhode Island and
Delaware, are smaller in area.
Physiography.— Connecticut lies in the S. portion of the
peneplain region of New England. Its surface is in general
that of a gently undulating upland divided near the middle by
the lowland of the Connecticut valley, the most striking physio-
graphic feature of the state. The upland rises from the low S.
shore at an average rate of about ao ft. in a mile until it has a
mean elevation along the N. border of the state of 1000 ft. or
more, and a few points in the N.W. rise to a height of about
2000 ft. above the sea. The lowland dips under the waters of
Long Island Sound at the S. and rises slowly to a height of only
100 ft. above them where it crosses the N. border. At the N.
this lowland is about 15 m. wide; at the S. it narrows to only
5 m. and its total area is about 600 sq. m. Its formation was
caused by the removal of a band of weak rocks by erosion after
the general upland surface had been first formed near sea-level
and then elevated and tilted gently S. or S.E.; in this band of
weak rocks were several sheets of hard igneous rock (trap)
inclined from the horizontal several degrees, and so resistant
that they were not removed but remained to form the " trap
ridges " such as West Rock Ridge near New Haven and the
Hanging Hills of Mcriden. These are identical in origin and
structure with Mt. Tom Range and Holyoke Range of Massa-
chusetts, being the S. continuation of those structures. The
ridges are generally deeply notched, but their highest points
rise to the upland heights, directly to the E. or W. The W.
section of the upland is more broken than the E. section, for in
the W. are several isolated peaks lying in line with the S. con-
tinuation of the Green and the Housatonic mountain ranges of
Vermont and Massachusetts, the highest among them being;
Bear Mountain (Salisbury) 2355 ft.; Gridley Mountain (Salisbury),
.2200 ft.; Mt. Riga (Salisbury), 2000 ft.; Mt Ball (Norfolk)
and Lion's Head (Salisbury), each 1760 ft.; Canaan Mountain
(North Canaan), 1680 ft.; and Ivy Mountain (Goshen), 1640 ft.
Just as the surface of the lowland is broken by the notched
trap-ridges, so that of the upland is often interrupted by rather
narrow deep valleys, or gorges, extending usually from N. to S.
or to the S.E. The lowland is drained by the Connecticut river
as far S. as Middletown, but here this river turns to the S.E.
into one of the narrow valleys in the E. section of the upland,
the turn being due to the fact that the river acquired its present
course when the land was at a lower level and before the lowland
on the soft rocks was excavated. The principal rivers in the
W. section of the upland are the Housatonic and its affluent,
the Naugatuck; in the E. section is the Thames which is really
an outlet for three other rivers (the Yantic, the Shetucket and
the Quinebaug). In the central and N. regions of the state the
course of the rivers is rapid, owing to a relatively recent tilting
of the surface. The Connecticut river is navigable as far as
Hartford, and the Thames as far as Norwich. The Housatonic
river, which in its picturesque course traverses the whole breadth
of the state, has a short stretch of tide-water navigation. The
lakes which are found in all parts of the state and the rapids
and waterfalls along the rivers are largely due to disturbances,
of the drainage lines fcy xbfcV^'wwaS^^^afe^M^V***-
95*
CONNECTICUT
To the glacial action It alio due the extensive removal of the
original soil from the uplands, and the accumulation of morainic
hills in many localities. The sea-coast, about ioo m. in length,
has a number of bays which have been created by a depression
of small valleys making several good harbours.
The climate of Connecticut, though temperate, is subject to
sudden changes, yet the extremes of cold and heat are less than
in the other New England states. The mean annual temperature
is 49 F., the average temperature of winter being 27°, and that
of summer 72°. Since the general direction of the winter winds
is from the N. W. the extreme of cold (- xo° or - 1 5 ) is felt in the
north-western part of the state, while the prevailing summer
winds, which axe from the S.W., temper the beat of summer in
the coast region, the extreme heat (xoo°) being found in the
central part of the state. The annual rainfall varies xrom
45 to 50 in.
Agriculture. — Connecticut is not an agricultural state. Al-
though three-fourths of the land surface is included in farms,
only 7% of this three-fourths is cultivated; but agriculture
is of considerable economic and historic interest The accounts
of the fertility of the Connecticut valley were among the causes
leading to the English colonization, and until the middle of the
nineteenth century agriculture was the principal occupation.
The soils, which are composed largely of sands, except in the
upland valleys where alluvial loams with the sub-soils of clay
are found, were not suitable for tillage. However, a thrifty,
industrious, self-reliant agricultural life developed, labour was
native-born, the women of the household worked in the fields
with the men, some employment was found for every season,
and a system of neighbourly barter of food products took the
place of other modes of exchange. But the development of
manufactures in the first half of the 19th century, the competi-
tion of the new western states in farm products, and the change
in the character of the population incident to the growth of
cities, caused a great change in agriculture after i860. Indeed,
during every decade from i860 to 1890 the total value of farm
property and products declined; and the increase of products
from 1890 to 1000 was due to the growth of dairy farms, which
yielded almost one-third of the total farm product of the state.
In the same decade Indian corn, potatoes and tobacco were the
only staples whose acreage increased and the production of all
cereals except Indian corn and buckwheat declined. Tobacco,
which was first grown here between 1640 and 1660, because of
a law restricting the use of tobacco to that grown in the colony,
was in the decade 1890-1900 the only crop raised for consumption
outside the state; its average yield per acre (1673 lb) was
exceeded in the continental United States only in Vermont
(1844 lb) and Massachusetts (1674 lb) in 1899, and in 1907
(15x0 tt>) by New Hampshire (1650 lb), Vermont (1625 lb) and
Massachusetts (1525 lb). The total value of Connecticut
tobacco in 1907 was $2,501,000 (1906, $4,4x5,922; 1905,
$3iQiii933)» and the average farm price was 11*5 cents per lb (in
xoo6, 18 cents; 1005, 17 cents). But the cultivation of tobacco
is confined almost exclusively to the valleys of the Connecticut
and Housatonic rivers, and these lands are constantly and ex-
pensively treated with nitrogenous fertilize!*; the grades raised
are the broad-leaf and the Habana seed-leaf wrappers, which,
excepting the Florida growth from Sumatra seed, are the nearest
domestic approach to the imported Sumatra. The manufacture
of cigars was begun in South Windsor, Connecticut, in 1801.
Dairying was responsible for the increased production between
X889 and X899 of Indian corn and the large acreage in hay, which
surpassed that of any other crop, but many hay and grain farms
were afterwards abandoned. The production of orchard fruits
and market vegetables, however, increased during the decade
X890-1900. Other evidences of the transition in agricultural
life are that in Tolland and Windham counties the value of farm
buildings exceeded that of farm land, that in Middlesex and
Fairfield counties the acreage as well as the value of the farms
declined, that native farm labour and ownership were being
replaced by foreign labour and ownership; while dependent
Mod tenure is insigrub&nl, 87% of the farms being worked by
their owners. The state board of agriculture holds anassl
conventions for the discussion of agricultural problems.
Minerals.— The mineral industries of Connecticut have sad 1 ■
fortune very similar to that of agriculture. The early settim "
soon discovered metals in the soil and began to work thee.
About x 730 the production of iron became an important industry
in the vicinity of Salisbury, and from Connecticut iron manyd
the American military supplies in the War of Independence
were manufactured. Copper was mined in East Granby is
early as 1 705 and furnished material for early colonial and Untied
States coins. Gold, silver and lead have also been produced, but
the discovery of larger deposits of these metals in other stato
has caused the abandonment of all metal mines in Connecticvt,
except those of iron and tungsten. The quarries of granite
near Long Island Sound, those of sandstone at Portland, andef
feldspar at Branchville and South Glastonbury, however, ban
furnished building and paving materials for other states; the
stone product of the state was valued at €1,386,540 in 1006.
Limestone, for the reduction of lime, is also rnined; and beryl,
days and mineral springs yield products of minor importance.
On account of the importations from Canada, Chesapeake Bay
and the Great Lakes, the mackerel, cod and menhaden fisheries
declined, especially after i860, and the oyster and lobster
fisheries are not as important as formerly. In 1005, according
ic the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, the fisheries' products of the
state were valued at $3,173,948, market oysters being valued at
$1,206,217 and seed oysters at $1,603,615.
Manufactures.— Manufacturing, however, has encountered
none of the vicissitudes of other industries. Manufactures
form the principal source of Connecticut's wealth, — manufac-
turing gave occupation in 1900 to about one-fifth of the total
population, and the products in that year ranked the state
eleventh among the states of the American Union. Indeed,
manufacturing in Connecticut is notable for its early beginning
and its development of certain branches beyond that of the
other states. Iron products were manufactured throughout
the i8ih century, nails were made oefore 17x6 and were
exported from the colony, and it was in Connecticut that
cannon were cast for the Continental troops and the chains
were made to block the channel of the Hudson river to British
ships. Tinware was manufactured in Berlin, Hartford county,
as early as 1770, and tin, steel and iron goods were peddled
from Connecticut through the colonies. The Connecticut
clock maker and clock peddler was the 18th-century embodi-
ment of Yankee ingenuity; the most famous of the next
generation of clock makers were Eli Terry (1 772-1852), who
made a great success of his wooden clocks; Chauncey Jerome,
who first used brass wheels in 1837 and founded in 1844
the works of the New Haven Clock Co.; Gideon Roberts;
and Terry's pupil and successor, Scth Thomas (1786-1850), who
built the factory at Thomaston carried on by his son Scth
Thomas (1816-1888). In 1732 the London hatters complained
of the competition of Connecticut hats in their trade. Before
1749 brass works were in operation at Watcrbury — the great
brass manufacturing business there growing out of the making
of metal buttons. In 1 768 paper mills were erected at Norwich,
and in 1776 at East Hartford. In 1788 the first woollen mills
in New England were established at Hartford, and about 1803
one hundred merino sheep were imported by David Humphreys,
who in 1806 built a mill in that part of Derby which is now
Seymour and which was practically the first New England
factory town; in 1812 steam was first used by the Middletown
Woollen Manufacturing Company. In X804 the manufacture of
cotton was begun at Vernon, Hartford county; mills at Pomfret
and Jewett City were established in 1806 and 1810 respectively.
Silk culture was successfully introduced about X732; and there
was a silk factory at Mansfield, Tolland county, in 1758. The
period of greatest development of manufactures began after the
war of 18 1 2. The decade of greatest relative development was
that of X860-1870, during which the value of the products in-
creased 966%. During the period 1850-1000, when the popula-
tion increased 145%. the average number of wage-earners
k
CONNECTICUT
953
employed in manufacturing establishments increased 248-3%,
the number so employed constituting 13-7% of the state's
total population in 1850 and 19-5% of that in 1000. The
average number of wage-earners employed in establishments
conducted under the factory system alone was 13*7% greater
in 1005 than in 1000. In 1000 Connecticut led the United States
in the manufacture of ammunition, bells, brass and copper
(rolled), brass castings and finishings, brass ware and needles and
pins. In the automobile industry the state in 1005 ranked second
(to Michigan) in capital invested; and was sixth in value of
product, but first in the average value per car, which was $2354
($2917 for gasoline; $2343 for electric; $673 for steam cars).
Connecticut has long ranked high in textile manufactures, b"t
the product of cotton goods in 1000 ($15489,442) and in 1005
($18,239,155) had not materially advanced beyond that of 1800
($15,409,476), this being due to the Increase in cotton manu-
facturing in the South. Between 1890 and 1000 Connecticut's
products in dyeing and finishing of textiles, industries which
have as yet not developed in the South, increased 217-3% ^ rom
$715,388 in 1800 to $2,269,067 in 1900, in 1905 their value was
$2,215,314. The manufacture of woollen goods and silk also
increased respectively $$% and 26- 5% between 1890 and 1900;
the returns for 1900, however, include the fur hat product
($7,546,882), which was not included in the returns for 1800.
In 1005 the value of the woollen goods manufactured in the state
was $1 1,166,065; of the silk goods, $15,623,693 The value of
the products of all the textile industries combined increased
from $46,819,399 in 1000 to $56,933,113 in 1905, when the com-
bined textile product value was greater than that of any other
manufactured product in the state. The most important single
industry in 1905 was the manufacture of rolled btass and copper
with a product value of $41,911,003 (in 1000, $36,325,178) —
807% of the total for the United States; the value of the
product of the other brass industries was brass ware (1905)
$9,022,427,— 51 6% of the total for the United States,— (1000)
$S.947,45»; and brass castings and brass finishing (1005)
$2,082,115, (1000) $3,254,239. Hardware ranks next in im-
portance, the output of 1905 being valued at $21,480,652, —
which was 46-9% of the total product value of hardware for
the entire United States,— as against $16,301,108 in 1000.
Then come in rank of product value for 1005: foundry and
machine shop products (1905) $20,189,384, (1000) $18,091,079;
cotton goods; silk and silk goods; ammunition (1905)
$» 5. 394.485,— being 77-2% of the value of all ammunition made
in the United States,— (1000) $9,823,712; and rubber boots
and shoes (1005) $12,829,346, (1000) $11,009,038. In 1005 the
state ranked first in the United States in the value of clocks
manufactured,— $6,158,034, or 694% of the total product value
of the industry for that year in the United States,— and also in
the value of plated ware— $8,1 25,881, being 669% of the product
value of the United States.
The decade of greatest absolute increase in the value of
manufactures was that ending in 1000, the value of manufactured
products in that year being $352,284,116, an increase of
$104487,742 over that of 1800. 1 The general tendency was
towards the centralization of industry, the number of establish-
ments in the leading industries increasing less than 5%, while
the capital and the value of the products increased respectively
33*5% and 42%. Among the new manufactories were a ship-
building establishment at Groton near New London, which
undertook contracts for the United States government, and a
compressed-air plant near Norwich. Of the 359 manufactured
products classified by the United States census, 249, or almost
seven-tenths, were produced in Connecticut.
This prominence in manufactures is due to excellent transporta-
tion facilities, to good water powers, to the ease with which labour
is got from large cities, to plentiful capital (furnished by the large
1 The figure given above as the gross value of all manufactured
products in 1900 includes that of all manufacturing and mechanical
establishments. The value of the products of factories alone was
f315.106.15a By 1905 this had increased to $369,082,091 or
insurance and banking concerns of the state), and to Connecticut's
liberal Joint Stock Act of 1837 (copied in Great Britain and else-
where), permitting small sums to be capitalized in manufactures;
and even to a larger extent, possibly it is the result of the in-
genuity of the Connecticut people. In. the two decades 1880-
1000 more patents were secured in Connecticut in proportion
to its population than in any other stale. It was in Connecticut
that Elias Howe and Allen B. Wilson developed the sewing
machine; that Charles Goodyear discovered the process of
vulcanising rubber; that Samuel Colt began the manufacture
of the Colt fire-arms; and if was from near New Haven that
Eli Whitney went to Georgia where he invented the cotton gin,
The earliest form of manufacturing was that of household
industries, nails, clocks, tin ware and other useful articles being
made by hand, and then peddled from town to town. Hence
Connecticut became known as the " Land of Yankee Notions ";
and small wares are still manufactured, the patents granted to
inventors in one tily ranging from bottle-top handles, bread
toasters and lamp holders, to head-rests for church pews and
scissors-sharpeners. Then, after a long schooling in ingenuity
by the system of household industries, came the division of
labour, the introduction of machinery and the modern factory.
Transportation of products is facilitated by water routes (chiefly
coasting), for which there are ports of entry at New Haven,
Hartford, Stonington, New London and Bridgeport, and by
10x3 m. (on the 1st of January 1008) of steam railways. One
company, the New York, New Haven & Hartford, controlled
87% of this railway mileage in 1904, and practically all the
steamboat lines on Long Island Sound. Since 1895 electric
railways operated by the trolley system have steadily developed,
their mileage in 1009 approximating 805 m. By their influence
the rural districts have been brought into close touch with the
cities, and many centres of population have been so connected
as to make them practically one community.
Population. — The population of Connecticut in 1880 was
622,700; in 1800, 746,258— an increase of iq-S£; in 1900,
008,420 — an increase of 2\>rf over that of 1800, and in 1910.
1,114,756. Of the 1900 population 08*2^ were white, 26*2%
were foreign born, and 31-1 % of the native whites were of foreign
parentage. Of the foreign-born clement, 29-8% were Irish:
there were also many Germans and Austrians, English, and
French- and English-Canadians. In 1900 there were 24 incor-
porated cities or boroughs with a population of more than 5000,
and on this basis almost three-fifths of the total population of
the state was urban. The principal cities, having a population
of more than 20,000, were New Haven (108,027), Hartford.
(79.$So)» Bridgeport (70,066), Watcrbury (45.859), New Britain
(25,908), and Meriden (24,206). The industrial development
has affected religious conditions. In the early part of the 19th
century the Congregational church had the largest number of
communicants; in 1006 more than three-fifths of the church
population was Roman Catholic; the Congregationalists con-
posed about one-third of the remainder, and next ranked the
Episcopalians, Methodists and Baptists.
Government. — The present constitution of Connecticut is that
framed and adopted in 1818 with subsequent amendments
(33 up to 1909). Amendments are adopted after approval by a
majority vote of the lower house of the general assembly, a
two-thirds majority of both houses of the next general assembly,
and ratification by the townships. The executive and legislative
officials are chosen by the electors for a term of two years;
the attorney general for four years; the judges of the supreme
court of errors and the superior court, appointed by the general
assembly on nomination by the governor, serve for eight, and
the judges of the courts of common pleas (in Hartford, New
London, New Haven, Litchfield and Fairfield counties) and of
the district courts, chosen in like manner, serve for four years.
In providing for the judicial system, the constitution says:
" the powers and jurisdiction of which courts shall be defined
by law." The general assembly has interpreted this as a justifica-
tion for interference in legal matters. It has at various times
granted divorces, confirmed faulty titles, annulled <sje»aM!nak
95+
CONNECTICUT
of the justices of the peace, and validated contracts against
which judgment by default had been secured. Qualifications
for suffrage are- the age of twenty-one years, citizenship in the
United States, residence in the state for one year and in the
township for six months preceding the election, a good moral
character, and ability " to read in the English language any
article of the Constitution or any section of the Statutes of this
State." l Women may vote for school officials. The right to
decide upon a citizen's qualifications for suffrage is vested in
the selectmen and clerk of each township. A property qualifica-
tion, found in the original constitution, was removed in 1845
The Fifteenth Amendment of the Federal Constitution was
ratified (1869) by Connecticut, but negroes were excluded from
the suffrage by the state constitution until 1876.
The jurisprudence of Connecticut, since the 17th century,
has been notable for its divergence from the common law of
England. In 1639 inheritance by primogeniture was abolished,
and this resulted in conflict with the British court3 in the
18th century. 1 At an early date, also, the office of public prose-
cutor was created to conduct prosecutions, which until then
had been left to the aggrieved party. The right of bastards
to inherit the mother's property is recognized, and the age of
consent has been placed at sixteen years. Neither husband nor
wife acquires by marriage any interest in the property of the
other; the earnings of the wife are her sole property and she
has the right to make contracts as if unmarried. After residence
m the state for three years divorce may be obtained on grounds
of fraudulent contract, desertion, neglect for three years, adultery,
cruelty, intemperance, imprisonment for life and certain crimes.
The Joint Stock Act of 1837 furnished the precedent and the
principle for similar legislation in other American states and
(it is said) for the English Joint Stock Companies Act of 1856.
The relations between capital and labour are the subject of a
series of statutes, which prohibit the employment of children
under fourteen years of age in any mechanical, mercantile or
manufacturing establishment, punish with fine or imprisonment
any attempt by an employer to influence his employee's vote
or to prevent him from joining a labour union, and in cases of
insolvency give preference over general liabilities to debts of
$100 or less for labour. A homestead entered upon record and
occupied by the owner is exempt to the extent of $1000 in value
from liability for debts.
The government of Connecticut is also notable for the variety
of its administrative boards. Among these are a board of
pardons, a state library committee, a board of mediation and
arbitration for adjustment of labour disputes, a board of educa-
tion and a railway commission. The bureau of labour statistics
has among its duties the giving of information to immigrant
labourers regarding their legal rights: it has free employment
agencies at Bridgeport, Norwich, Hartford, New Haven and
Waterbury. A state board of charities has supervision over all
philanthropic and penal institutions in the state, including
hospitals, which numbered 103 in 1007; and the board visits
the almshouses supported by seventy-eight (of the 168) towns
of the state, and investigates and supervises the provision made
for the town poor in the other ninety towns of the state; some,
as late as 1906, were, with the few paupers maintained by the
state, cared for in a private almshouse at Tariff ville, which was
commonly known as the " state almshouse. ' The institutions
supported by the state are: a state prison at Wethersficld, the
Connecticut industrial school for girls (reformatory) at Middle-
town and a similar institution for boys at Meridcn.the Connecticut
hospital for the insane at Middletown, and the Norwich hospital
for the insane at Norwich. The state almost entirely supports
the Connecticut school for imbeciles, at Lakeville; the American
school for the deaf, in Hartford; the oral school for the deaf,
m any <
ikniptcy, „.
punishment is inflicted." but this disability may ... ^ ^
removed by a two-thirds vote of each house of the general assembly
'See sa mrtkle. " The Connecticut Intestacy Law," by Chart*
at Mystic; the Connecticut institute and Industrial home for
the blind, at Hartford; Fitch's home for soldiers, at Nototoa;
ten county jails in the eight counties, and eight county temporary
homes for dependent and neglected children.
Education.— Education has always been a matter of public
interest in Connecticut. Soon after the foundation of the
colonies of Connecticut and New Haven, schools similar to the
English Latin schools were established. The Connecticut Code
of 1650 required all parents to educate their children, and every
township of 50 householders (later 30) to have a teacher supported
by the men of family, while the New Haven Code of 1650 also
encouraged education, in 167 a the general court granted 000
acres of land to each county for educational purposes; in 1794
the general assembly appropriated the proceeds from the sale
of western lands to education, and in 1837 made a similar
disposition of funds received from the Federal treasury- The
existing organization and methods in school work began in 1838,
when the state board of commissioners of common schools (later
replaced by a board of education) was organized, with Henry
Barnard at its head. In 1000, 5-9% of the population at least
xo years of age was illiterate. All children between 7 and 16
are required to attend school, but those over 14 are excused if
they labour; every township of more than 10.000 inhabitants
must support an evening school for those over 14; and text-
books are provided by the townships for those unable to purchase
them. In 1907-1008 the total school revenue was $5,027 ,£; 7
or $22*35 * or each child enrolled, the enrolment being 78-51%
of the total number of children enumerated of school age.
Of the school revenue about 2-81% was derived from a per-
manent school fund, 10-96% from state taxation, 80-43% froa
local taxation and 5-8% from other sources. The average
school term was 186-73 days (in 1890-1000 it was 189-01 days),
and the average monthly salary of male teachers $115-07,
that of female teachers, $50-5. Supplementing the educative
influence of the schools are the public libraries (x6i in number
in 1907); the state appropriates $200 to establish, and $100
per annum to maintain, a public library (provided the town ia
which the library is to be established contributes an equal
amount), and the Public Library Committee has for its duty
the study of library problems. Higher education is provided
by Yale University (?.».), by Trinity College, at Hartford (Don-
sectarian) , founded in 1823; by Wesleyan University, at Mkklle-
town, the oldest college of the Methodist Church in the United
States, founded in 1 831, by the Hartford Theological Seminary
(1834); by the Connecticut Agricultural College, at Stom
(founded 1881), which has a two years' course of preparatioa
for rural teachers and has an experiment station; by the Connecti-
cut Experiment Station at New Haven, which was established is
1875 at Middletown and was the first in the United States;
and by normal schools at New Britain (established 1881),
Willimantic (1S90), New Haven (1894) and Danbury (1003).
Finance— In the year ending on the 30th of September 190ft
the receipts of the state treasury were $3,925,493, the ex-
penditure $4,741,549, and the funded debt, deducting a
Civil List Fund of $325,513 in the treasury, was $548,586.
The debt was increased in April 1909 by the issue of bonds kr
$ 1 .000,000 (out of $7 ,000,000 authorised in 1 007) . The principal
source of revenue was an indirect tax on corporations, the tax
on railways, savings banks and life insurance companies, yielding
70% of the state's income. A tax on inheritances ranked next
There is a military commutation tax of $2, and all persons
neglecting to pay it or to pay the poll tax are liable to imprison-
ment. A state board of equalization has been established to
insure equitable taxation. More than 130 underwriting institu-
tions have been chartered in the state since 1704. The insurance
business centres at Hartford. The legal rate of interest is 6%,
and days of grace are not allowed.
History.— The first settlement by Europeans in Connecticut
was made on the site of the present Hartford in 1633, by s party
of Dutch from New Netherland. In the same year a trading
post was established on the Connecticut river, near Windsor,
by members of the Plymouth Colony, and John Oidhaa
CONNECTICUT
955
(1600-1636) of Massachusetts explored the valley and made a
good report of iu resources. Encouraged by Oldham's account
of the country, the inhabitants of three Massachusetts towns,
Dorchester, Watertown and New Town (now Cambridge), left
that colony for the Connecticut valley. The emigrants from
Watertown founded Wethersfield in the winter of 1634-1635;
those from New Town (now Cambridge) settled at Windsor in
the summer of 1635; and in the autumn of the same year
people from Dorchester settled at Hartford. These early
colonists had come to Massachusetts in the Puritan migration
of 1630; their removal to Connecticut, in which they were led
principally by Thomas Hooker (q.v.), Roger Ludlow (c. 1500-
1665) and John Haynes (d. 1654), was caused by their discontent
with the autocratic character of the governmentinMassachusetts;
but the instrument of government which they framed in 1639,
known as the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, reveals no
radical departure from the institutions of Massachusetts. The
general court— the supreme civil authority— was composed of
deputies from the towns, and a governor and magistrates who
were chosen at a session of the court attended by all freemen of
the towns. It powers were not dearly denned, there was also
no separation of the executive, legislative and judicial functions,
and the authority of the governor was limited to that of a
presiding officer.
The government thus established was not the product of a
federation of townships, as has often been stated; indeed, the
townships had been governed during the first year by com-
missioners deriving authority from Massachusetts, and the first
general court was probably convened by them. In 1638 the
celebrated Fundamental Orders were drawn up, and in 1639 they
were adopted. Their most original feature was the omission of
a religious test for citizenship, though a precedent for this is
to be found in the Plymouth Colony; on the other hand, the
union of church and state was presumed in the preamble, and
in 1659 a property qualiGcation (the possession of an estate of
£30) for suffrage was imposed by the general court
In the meantime another migration to the Connecticut country
bad begun in 1638, when a party of Puritans who had arrived
in Massachusetts the preceding year sailed from Boston for the
Connecticut coast and there founded New Haven. The leaders
in this movement were John Davenport (1 597-1670) and
Theophilus Eaton, and their followers were drawn from the
English middle class. Soon after their arrival these colonists
drew up a " plantation covenant " which made the Scriptures
the supreme guide in civil as well as religious affairs; but no copy
of this is now extant. In June 1639. however, a more definite
statement of political principles was framed, in which it was
clearly stated that the rules of Scripture should determine the
ordering of the church, the choice of magistrates, the making
and repeal of laws, the dividing of inheritances, and all other
matters of public import; that only church members could
become free burgesses and officials of the colony; that the free
burgesses should choose twelve men who should choose seven
others, and that these should organize the church and the civil
government. In 1643 the jurisdiction of the New Haven colony
was extended by the admission of the townships of Milford,
Guilford and Stamford to equal rights with New Haven, the
recognition of their local governments, and the formation of
two courts for the whole jurisdiction, a court of magistrates to
try important cases and hear appeals from " plantation " courts,
and a general court with legislative powers, the highest court of
appeals, which was similar in composition to the general court
of the Connecticut Colony. Two other townships were after-
wards added to the colony, Southold, on Long Island, and
Branford, Conn.
The religious test for citizenship was continued (except in the
case of six citizens of Milford), and in 1644 the general court
decided that the "judicial laws of God as they were declared by
Moses " should constitute a rule for all courts " till they be
branched out into particulars hereafter '* The theocratic char-
acter of the government thus established is clearly revealed in the
series of strict enactments and decisions which constituted the
famous M Blue Laws." Of the laws (45 in Bomber) given by
Peters, more than one-half really existed in New Haven, and
more than four-fifths existed in some form in the New England
colonies. Among those of New Haven are the prohibition of
trial by jury, the infliction of the death penalty for adultery, and
of the same penalty for conspiracy against the jurisdiction, the
strict observance of the Sabbath enjoined, and heavy fines
for " concealing or entertaining Quaker or other blasphemous
bereticks."'
A third Puritan settlement was established in 1635 at the
mouth of the Connecticut river, under the auspices of an English
company whose leading members were William Fiennes, Lord
Say and Sele (1581-1662) and Robert GreviTJe, Lord Brooke
( 1 608-1643). In their honour the colony was named Saybrook.
In 1639 George Fenwick (d. 1657), a member of the company,
arrived, and as immigration from England soon afterwards
greatly declined on account of the Puritan Revolution, he sold
the colony to Connecticut in 1644. This early experiment in
colonization at Saybrook and the sale by Fenwick are important
on account of their relation to a fictitious land title. The Say
and Sele Company secured in 1631 from Robert Rich, earl of
Warwick (1587-1658), a quit daim to his interest in the terri-
tory lying between the Narragansett river and the Pacific Ocean.
The nature of Warwick's right to the land is not stated in any
extant document, and no title of his to it was ever shown. But
the Connecticut authorities in their effort to establish a legal
claim to the country and to thwart the efforts of the Hamilton
family to assert its claims to the territory between the Connecticut
river and Narragansett Bay— claims derived from a grant of the
Plymouth Company to James, marquess of Hamilton (1606-
i649)in 1635— elaborated the theory that the Plymouth Company
had made a grant to Warwick, and that consequently his quit
claim conferred jurisdiction upon the Say and Sele Company;
but even in this event, Fenwick had no right to make his sale,
for which he never secured confirmation.
The next step in the formation of modern Connecticut was
the union of the New Haven colony with the older colony. This
was accomplished by the royal charter of i66>, which defined
the boundaries of Connecticut as extending from Massachusetts
south to the sea, and from Narragansett bay west to the South
Sea (Pacific Ocean). This charter had been secured without
the knowledge or consent of the New Haven colonists and they
naturally protested against the union with Connecticut. But
on account of the threatened absorption of a part of the Con-
necticut territory by the Colony of New York granted to the
duke of York in 1664, and the news that a commission had
been appointed in England to settle intercolonial disputes, they
finally assented to the union in 1665. Hartford then became
the capital of the united colonics, but shared that honour with
New Haven from 1701 until 1873.
The charter was liberal in its provisions. It created a corpora-
tion under the name of the Governor and Company of the English
Colony of Connecticut in New England in America, sanctioned
the system of government already existing, provided that all acts
of the general court should be valid upon being issued under the
seal of the colony, and made no reservation of royal or parlia-
mentary control over legislation or the administration of justice.
Consequently there developed in Connecticut an independent,
self-reliant colonial government, which looked to Its chartered
privileges as the supreme source of authority.
Although the governmental and religious influences which
moulded Connecticut were similar to those which moulded New
England at large, the colony developed certain distinctive
characteristics. Its policy "was to avoid notoriety and public
attitudes; to secure privileges without attracting needless
1 A collection of these laws was published in hit General History
of ConneetutU (London, 1781). by the Rev. Samuel Peters (1735-
1826). a Loyalist clergyman of the Church of England, who in 1774
was forced by the patriots or whig* to flee from Connecticut. The
most extreme (and most quoted) of these laws were never in force
in Connecticut, but the substantial genuineness of others was con-
clusively shown by Walter F. Prince, in The Report of lk$ American
Historical Association for 1898.
956
CONNECTICUT
notice; to act as intensely and vigorously as possible when
action seemed necessary and promising; but to say as little as
poscFule, and evade as much as possible when open resistance
was evident folly." 1
The relations of Connecticut with neighbouring colonies were
notable for numerous and continuous quarrels in the 1 7th century.
Soon after the first settlements were made, a dispute arose with
Massachusetts regarding the boundary between the two colonies;
after the brief war with the Pequot Indians in 1637 a similar
quarrel followed regarding Connecticut's right to the Pequot
lands, and in the New England Confederation (established in
1643) friction between Massachusetts and Connecticut continued.
Difficulty with Rhode Island was caused by the conflict between
that colony's charter and the Connecticut charter regarding
the western boundary of Rhode Island; and the encroachment
of outlying Connecticut settlements on Dutch territory, and
the attempt to extend the boundaries of New York to the
Connecticut river, gave rise to other disputes. These questions
of boundary were a source of continuous discord, the last of
them not being settled until 1881. The attempts of Governors
Joseph Dudley (1647-1720), of Massachusetts, and Thomas
Dongan (1634-1715) of New York, to unite Connecticut with
their colonies'also caused difficulty.
The relations of Connecticut and New Haven with the mother
country were similar to those of the other New England colonies.
The period of most serious friction was that during the administra-
tion of the New England colonies by Sir Edmund Andros (<]*.),
who in pursuance of the later Stuart policy both in England and
in her American colonies visited Hartford on the 31st of October
1687 to execute quo warranto proceedings against the charter
of 166a. It is said that during a discussion at night over the sur-
render of the charter the caudles were extinguished, and the
document itself (which had been brought to the meeting) was
removed from the table where it had been placed. Accord-
ing to tradition it was hidden in a large oak tree, afterwards
known as the "Charter Oak." 1 But though Andros thus
failed to secure the charter, he dissolved the existing govern-
ment. After the Revolution of 1688, however, government
under the charter was resumed, and the crown lawyers decided
that the charter bad not been invalidated by the quo warranto
proceedings.
Religious affairs formed one of the most important problems
in the. life of the colony. The established ecclesiastical system
was the Congregational. The Code of 1650 (Connecticut) taxed
all persons for its support, provided for the collection of church
taxes, if necessary, by civil distraint, and forbade the formation
of new churches without the consent of the general court. The
New England Half Way Covenant of 1657, which extended
church membership so as to include all baptized persons, was
sanctioned by the general court in 1664. The custom by which
neighbouring churches sought mutual aid and advice, prepared
the way for the Presbyterian system of church government,
which was established by an ecclesiastical assembly held at
Saybrook in 1708, the church constitution there framed being
known as the " Saybrook Platform." At that time, however,
a liberal policy towards dissent was adopted, the general court
granting permission for churches " soberly to differ or dissent "
from the establishment. Hence a large number of new churches
soon sprang into being. In 1727 the Church of England was
permitted to organize in the colony, and in 1739 a similar
privilege was granted to the Baptists and Quakers. A religious
revival swept the colony in 1741. The very existence of the
establishment seemed threatened; consequently in 1742 the
general court forbade any ordained minister to enter another
parish than his own without an invitation, and decided that only
those were legal ministers who were recognized as such by the
general court. Throughout the remaining years of the 18th
' * Johnston. Connecticut, p. 130.
* For a good version of the tradition see Wadsworth or the Charter
Oak (Hartford, 1904), by W. H. Gochcr. The tree was blown down
in August 1856; injunc 1907 a- marble shaft was unveiled on iu site
by the Society of Colonial Wars, of Connecticut.
century there was constant friction between the establishment
and the nonconforming churches; but in 1791 the right of free
incorporation was granted to all sects.
In the War of American Independence Connecticut took a
prominent part. During the controversy over the Stamp Act
the general court instructed the colony's agent in London to
insist on " the exclusive right of the colonists to tax themselves,
and on the privilege of trial by jury," as rights that could
not be surrendered. The patriot sentiment was so strong that
Loyalists from other colonies were sent to Connecticut, where
it was believed they would have no influence; and the copper
mines at Simsbury were converted into a military prison; but
among the nonconforming sects, on the other hand, there was
considerable sympathy for the British cause. Preparations
for war were made in 1774; on the 28th of April 1775 the
expedition against Ticonderoga and Crown Point was resolved
upon by some of the leading members of the Connecticut
assembly, and although they had acted in their private capacity
funds were obtained from the colonial treasury to raise the force
which on the 8th of May was put under the command of Ethan
Alien. Connecticut volunteers were among the first to go to
Boston after the battle of Lexington and more than one-half of
Washington's army at New York in 1776 was composed of
Connecticut soldiers. Yet with the exception of isolated British
movements against Stonington in 1775, Danbury in 1777,
New Haven in 1779 and New London in 1781 no battles were
fought in Connecticut territory.
In 1776 the government of Connecticut was reorganized as a
state, the charter of 1662 being adopted by the general court
as " the Civil Constitution of this State, under the sole authority
of the people thereof, independent of any King or Prince what-
ever." In the formation of the general government the policy
of the state was national. It acquiesced in the loss of western
lands through a decision (1782) of a court appointed by the
Confederation (see Wyoming Valley); favoured the levy of taxes
on imports by federal authority; relinquished (1786) its claims
to all western lands, except the Western Reserve (see Ohio);
and in the constitutional convention of 1787 the present system
of national representation in Congress was proposed by the
Connecticut delegates as a compromise between the plans
presented by Virginia and New Jersey.
For many years the Federalist party controlled the affairs of
the state. The opposition to the growth of American nationality
which characterized the later years of that party found expres-
sion in a resolution of the general assembly that a bill for in-
corporating state troops in the Federal army would be " utterly
subversive of the rights and liberties of the people of the state,
and the freedom, sovereignty and independence of the same,"
and in the prominent part taken by Connecticut in the Hartford
Convention (see Haxtford) and in the advocacy of the radical
amendments proposed by it. But the development of manu-
factures, the discontent of nonconforming religious sects with
the establishment, and the confusion of the executive, legislative
and judicial branches of the government in the existing constitu-
tion opened the way for a political revolution. All the dis-
contented elements united with the Democratic party in 1817
and defeated the Federalists in the state election; and in
1818 the existing constitution was adopted. From 1830 until
1855 there was close rivalry between the Democratic and Whig
parties for control of the state administration.
In the Civil War Connecticut was one of the most ardent
supporters of the Union cause. When President Lincoln issued
his first call, for 75>ooo volunteers, there was not a single militia
company in the state ready for service. Governor William A.
Buckingham (1804-1875), one of the ablest and most zealous
of the *' war-governors," and afterwards, from 1869 until his
death, a member of the United States Senate* issued a call- for'
volunteers in April 1861; and soon 54 companies, more than
five times the state's quota, were organized. Corporations,
individuals and towns made liberal contributions of money.
The general assembly made an appropriation of $».ooo,ooo,
and the state furnished approximately 48,000 men to the army.
CONNECTICUT
957
Equally important was the moral support given to the Federal
government by the people.
After the war the Republicans were more frequently successful
at the polls than the Democrats. Representation in the lower
house of the general assembly, by the constitution of rSiS, was
based on the townships, each township having two representa-
tives, except townships created after i8x8, which had only one
each; this method constituted a serious evil when, in the
transition from agriculture to manufacturing as the leading
industry, the population became concentrated to a considerable
degree in a few large cities, and the relative importance of
the various townships was greatly changed. The to*iiihip of
Marlborough, with a population in 1900 of 322, then had un-
representative, while the city of Hartford, with a population
of 79,850, had only two ;v and the township of Union, with 4*8
inhabitants, and the city of New Haven, with 108,017, each
had two representatives. The apportionment of representation
in the state senate had become almost as objectionable. By 3
constitutional amendment of 1828 it had been provided that
senators should be chosen by districts, and that m the apportion-
ment regard should be had to population, no county or township
to be divided and no part of one county to be joined to the whole
or part of another county, and each county to have at least
two senators; but by 1900 any relation that the districts might
once have had to population had disappeared. The system of
representation had sometimes put in power a political party
representing a minority of the voters: in 1878, 1884, 1SS6, iS83
and 1800 the Democratic candidates for state executive offices
received a plurality vote; but, as a majority was not obtained,
these elections were referred to the general assembly, and the
Republican party in control of the lower house secured the
election of its candidates; in loot constitutional amendments
were adopted making a plurality -vote sufficient for election,
increasing the number of senatorial 'districts, and stipulating
that "in forming them regard shall be had " to population.
But the greater inequalities in township representation sub-
sisted, although in 1874 an amendment had given nil town-
ships of 5000 inhabitants two scats in the lower house, every
other one " to be entitled to its present representation/* and
in 1876 another amendment had provided that no township
incorporated thereafter should be entitled to a representative
" unless it has at least 2500 inhabitants, and unless the town from
which the major portion of its territory is taken has also at Least
2500 inhabitants." These provisions did not remedy the grosser
defects, and as proposals for an amendment of the constitution
could be submitted to the people only after receiving a majority
vote of the lower house, all further attempts at effective reform
seemed to Be blocked, owing to the unwillingness of the repre-
sentatives of the smaller townships to surrender their unusual
degree of power. Therefore, the question of calling a const itu-
tional convention, for which the present constitution makes no
provision, was submitted to the people in ioor, and was carried*
But the act providing for the convention had stipulated lhai
the delegates thereto should be chosen on the basis of township
representation instead of population. The small townships thus
secured practical control of the convention, and no radical
changes were made. A compromise amendment submitted by
the convention, providing for two representatives for each
township of 2000 inhabitants, and one more for each 5000 above
50,000. satisfied neither side, and when submitted to a popular
vote, on the 16th of June 1902, was overwhelmingly defeated.
Governors of Connecticut '
The Colony of Connecticut.
John Havnes
Edward Hopkins
John Havnes
George Wyllys
John Havnes . .
Edward Hopkins f
John Hay net
Edward Hopkins
John Hayncs
1639-1640
1640-1641
1641-J&U
1642-164^
• ifttJ-t&ij
1644-T645
1645-1646
I6jfr-tr.i47
J647-I645
1 Term of service, one year until 1876; thereafter* two
Edward Hopkins
John Havnes
Edward Hopkins .
John Hay net
['-• \* i-il Hopkijut
John Hayiiei _ ,
Edward Hopkins
Thomas Welles ,
John Webster
John Winthrop »
Thomas Welles. .
to Sit Winthrop .
VUJiam Leete
Robert Treat
Edmund Andrei
Robert Treat
Kit 1 John Winthrop
Gordon SaltomtaU
Joseph Takatt .
Jonathan Law
Roger Wolcott *
Thomas Fiteh
William Pitkin .
Jonathan Trumbull
The Ajne
Theophilus Eaton
Francis Ncitman
William Leete
State
Jonathan Trumbull .
Matthew Griswold
Samuel Huntington .
Oliver Wolcott .
Jonathan Trumbull t
John Tread we-Jl ,
Roger Griswold .
John Cotton Smith ,
Oliver Wnlmtt .
Gideon Tortillnson
John S. Peter*
teney W. J-dward* ,
SumuVl A. Foole
Henry \\\ Ertwarcjs .
William W. Ellsworth
Chauncey F. Cleveland
Roger S. Baldwin
I Mac Toocry
Clark RfcH-lf
Joseph Trumbull
Thomas H. Sevmour.
Charici H. FontI LAciiiif;)
Henry Duttun *
William T, Minor
A Wander H, Hirltcy-
Wiiliam A. Buckingham
Joseph R, Haw ley
ames E- English
' in 1. ill Jewell .
fames E. English
Marshall Jewell .
Charles R- Ingcraott .
Riehard D. Hubbard
Charles 11. Andrews
Hobart B* Gieclow ,
Thomas M, Waller .
Henry B. Harrison .
Phmeas C Loun^Hiry
Morgan G, Bulkelcy
Lutein B + Morrtt
O. Vincent Coffin
Lorrid A* Cooke
George F- Lounsbijry
George P. McLean
Abiram Chamberlain
Henry Roberts .
Rotlin S. Woodruff .
Georct L. Li 1 ley
Frank W. Weeks
Jfavtn Colony.
1648-1649
1640-1650
1650-1651
1651-1652
1652-1653
1653-1654
i654-*6«
1655-1656
1656-1657
1657-1658
I 658-1 659
1659-1676
1676-1681
1683-1687
1687-1689
1689-1698
1698-1708
1708-1735
»/25-i742
I743-I75«
»75i-i754
1754-1766
I 766-1 769
1769-1776
1639-1657
1658-1660
1661- 1665
Governors
. 1776-1784 Federalist
. 1784-1786 „
. 1786-1796
. 1796-1797 M
. 1797-1809 „
. 1809-1811 £
i8ii-i8ij M
. 1812-1817
. 18*7-1827 Democrat
. 1827-1831 Federalist
i8ji-lHjj W hie
1833-1 S34 Democrat
. 1 834-1835 Whig
1833-11138 Democrat
. isjB-iSja Whi ff
. 184^-1*144 Democrat
. 1844-1 H46 Whip
. j 846-1847 Democrat
. 1847-1(140 Whig
. 1849-1850 „
. 1 £50-1853 Democrat
. 1853-185*
. j 854-1 &55 Whig
. 1855-1837 Know-Nothing
. r857-i«5d Republican
. 1858-1866 „
. 1866-1867
. 1867-1869 Democrat
. 1869-1870 Republican
1870-1871 Democrat
. 1871-1873 Republican
. 1873-1877 Democrat
1877-1879 Democrat
1879-1 88 1 Republican
. 1 881-1883 Republican
. 1883-1885 Democrat
1 885-1 887 Republican
. 1887-1889
. 1889-1893
. 1 893-1 895 Democrat
. 1895-1897 Republican
• 1897-1899
1 899-1901
1901-1903 „
1903-1905
1905-1907
1907-1909
»909
1909-191 1
BnnioGiAFPT,— The " Acorn Club "has recently published a lilt
of booki printed in Connecticut between 1700 and 1800 (Hartford,
1904), and Alexander Johnston * Connecticut (Boston. 1887J conUina
a bibliography of Connecticut! hUtory up to 1886. Information con-
cern in£ the physical feat urea of the state may be obtained in William
M. DavU's Physical Cto^rapky of Southern New England (National
Geopraphj'eaJ Sreiety Pubtfcvitjons, 1895). For information concern-
ing induct riFb. &-C-, we the Ttuiftk Census of the United States, and the
_ 0*1 At *> M^nujtuiurn oil 005 , a n d a chapter in Johnston's Connecti-
ycar* . .1/-* »-*t— ^q4 administration, consult the last two chapters on
95 8
CONNECTICUT RIVER— CONNECTIVE TISSUES
" The Constitution and Laws of Connecticut " in New EsulanJ
States (vol. i- h B<*rEon, lip?) ; " Town Role in Connecticut" in Palitkat
St tenet Quarterly, vol. iv. ; Bernard Stciner s Hutory of Education
in Connettkni (Washington, i89.y. and the reports of ibeadminiiira-
live boards And official's, especially those of the Bureau of Labor
Statistics, the Board of Education, the Board of Charities and the
Treasurer. There is no complete]^ satisfactory history of the Hate.
Johnston's Connecticut is well written, but his theories regarding
the relationship between the townships and the sute are not gener-
ally accepted by historical scholars. There is a good chapter in
Herbert L. Osgood's f I alary of tke American Colonies in tke Seven-
teenth Century (New York, 1904}. Connecticut as a Colony and oi
a Stole (Hartford. 1904; 4 vol*.} is written from secondary sources.
Ki also li G. H. Holfisicr H s History of Connecticut (to \s\b) {1 vols.
artford. 1857). Perhaps the most satisfactory historical work is
that of Benjamin Trumbull, A Complete Hiitiry of Conxtctkttf front
fojo to 1764 (New Haven, 1304-1810). E* £• At water's History
of tke Colony vf Nev Haven (New Haven, idol) is also valuable, and
the monograph of C- H. Levermore, " The Republic ol Nt-w Haven."
and that of C, M - Andrews "The River Towns of Connecticut " in
Tke Johns Ff opium University Studies (Baltimore. 1886 and i£9q)
should be consulted for the institutions of the colonial period. For
the sources, see Colonial Retards of Ccnneetkut (15 vols,, Hartford,
1650- (690 J: The Records of the Colony and the Plantation of A'ftr
Haven (J vols,, Hartford. 1857-1 65k) and Records of the Stale of
Conneeikui (j vols. r Hartford, 1894-1805). The ColUctrom (Hartford
i860 et seq.) of the Connecticut Historical Society contain valuable
material, especially the papers of Governor Joseph Talcott; and
the Pafir* (New Haven, 1865 et seq.) of the New Haven Colon)
Historical Society are extremely valuable for local history; but
a vast number of documents relating to the colonial and state
periods, now in the state library at Hartford, have never been
published.
CONNECTICUT RIVER, a stream of the New England states,
U.S.A. It rises in Connecticut Lake in N. New Hampshire—
several branches join in N.E. Vermont, near the Canadian line,
about 2000 ft. above the sea— flows S., forming the boundary
between Vermont and New Hampshire, crosses Massachusetts
and Connecticut, and empties into Long Island Sound. Its course
is about 34 5 m. and its drainage basin 1 1 ,085 sq. m. The principal
tributary is the Farmington, which rises in the Green Mountains
in Massachusetts, and joins the Connecticut above Hartford.
From its head to the Massachusetts line the banks are wooded, I
the bed narrow, the valley slopes cut sharply in crystalline
rocks, and the tributaries small and torrential. In the 273 m.
of this upper portion of its course the average descent is 15 to
34 ft. a mile. In Massachusetts and Connecticut the river flows
through a basin of weaker Triassic shales and sandstones, and
the valley consequently broadens out, making the finest agricul-
tural region of large extent in New England. Near Holyoke and
at other points rugged bills of harder trap rock rise so high above
the valley lowland that they are locally called mountains. From
their crests there are beautiful views of the fertile Connecticut
valley lowland and of the more distant enclosing hills of crystal-
line rocks. The river winds over this lowland, for the most
part flowing over alluvial bottoms. The valley sides rise from
the river channels by a series of steps or terraces. These terraces
are noted for their perfection of form, being among the most
perfect in the country. They have been cut by the river in its
.work of removing the heavy deposits of gravel, sand and day
that were laid down in this lowland during the closing stages of
the Glacial Period, when great volumes of water, heavily laden;
with sediment, were poured into this valley from streams issuing
from the receding ice front. In the course of this excavation of
glacial deposits the river has here and there discovered buried
spurs of rock over which the water now tumbles in rapids and
falls. For example, 1 1 m. above Hartford are the Enfield Falls,
where a descent of 318 ft. in low water (17-6 in highest water) is
made in 5-25 m. At Middktown, Conn., the river turns abruptly
&E., leaving the belt of Triassic rocks and again entering the
area of crystalline rocks which border the lowland. Therefore, 1
from near MiddJetown to the sea the valley again narrows.
The river valley is a great manufacturing region, especially
where there is a good water-power derived from the stream,
as at Wilder and Bellows Falls, VL, at Turners Falls and
Holyoke, Mass., and at Windsor Locks, Conn. Five miles below
Brattkboro, Vt., a huge power dam was under construction
Ja igog. Efforts have been made by the United States govern- 1
ment to open the river to Holyoke, and elaborate surveys were
made in 1806-1007. At Enfield Rapids is a privately bua
canal with locks 80 ft. long and 18 ft. wide, handling boats
with a draft of 3 ft. From Hartford seaward the Connecticut is*
tidal and navigable stream. Bars form at the mouth and have
had to be removed annually by dredging. From 1829-1800 the
Federal government expended $585,640 on the improvement
of the river. During the colonial period the Connecticut rittr
played an important part in the settlement of New England.
The rival English and Dutch fur traders found it n convenient
highway, and English homeseekers were soon attracted to its
valley by the fertility of the meadow lands. From the middle
of the 17th century until the advent of the railway the stream
was a great thoroughfare between the seaboard and the region
1 to the north. Its valley was consequently settled with unusual
rapidity, and is now a thickly populated region, with many
nourishing towns and cities.
See Annual Reports of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, pas.im
(index, 1000); E. M. Bacon's Connecticut River and the Valley cf ike
Connecticut (New York. 1006); G. S. Roberts's Historic Teams et
tke Connecticut Rim Valley (Schenectady, New York, 1906) ; and
Martha K. Geath, " Valley Towns of Connecticut." in the BulUttn
of the American Geographical Society, vol. xxxix. No. 9 (New York,
«907).
CONNECTIVE TISSUES, in anatomy. Very widely distributed
throughout the tissues and organs of the animal body, there
occur tissues characterized "by the presence of a high proportion
of intercellular s ub stance. This intercellular substance may be
homogeneous in structure, or, as is more commonly the case,
it may consist, in whole or in part, of a number of fibrous
elements. All these tissues are grouped together under the
name Connective Tissues. They comprise the following types :—
areolar tissue, adipose tissue, reticular or lymphoid tissue, white
fibrous tissue, elastic tissue, cartilage and bone. They are all
developed from the same layer of embryonic cells and all perform
a somewhat similar function, viz. to connect and support the other
tissues and organs. According to the nature of their work the
ground substance varies in its texture, being fibrous in some,
calcareous and rigid in others. As forming the most typical of
these tissues, we will first consider the structure of areolar con-
nective tissue.
Areolar Tissue.— This tissue is found in its most typical form
Uniting the skin to the deeper lying parts. It varies greatly in
its density according to the animal and the position of the body
from which it is taken. A piece of the looser variety may be
spread out as a thin sheet and then examined microscopically.
It is then seen to consist chiedy of bundles of extremely fine
fibres tunning in all directions and interlacing with one another
to form a meshwork. The spaces, or areolae thus formed
[ give the name to this tissue (see fig. 1). The constituent fibres
Of each bundle are termed White Fibres. The bundles vary very
much in size, but the fibres of which they are composed are of
1 wonderfully constant size. A bundle may branch by sending off
U fibres to unite with similar branches from neighbouring
! mndles, but the individual fibres do not branch nor do they at
any time fuse with one another. They form bundles of greater
or less size by being arranged parallel to one another, and in these
bundles are bound together by some kind of cement substance.
The meshwork formed by these fibres is filled up by a ground
substance in the composition of which mucin takes some part.
In this ground substance lie the cells of the tissue. In addition to
the white fibres a second variety of fibres is also present in this
tissue. They can be readily distinguished from the white
fibres by their larger and variable size, by their more distinct
outline.and by the fact that tbey.f or the most part, run as straight
i ines through the preparation. Moreover they frequently branch,
and the branches unite with those of neighbouring fibres. They
are known as Yellow Elastic Fibres. Several of these will be
found torn across in any preparation especially at the edges,
nd the torn ends will be found to be curled up in a very character-
istic manner. The two types of fibre further differ from one
another both chemically and physically. Thus the white fibre
swells up and dissolves in boiling water, yielding a solution of
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
959
gelatin, whereo the yellow elastic fibre is quite insoluble under
these conditions. The white fibres swell when treated with weak
acetic acid, and are readily dissolved by peptic digestion but
not by pancreatic. The yellow elastic fibres, on the other hand,
are unaffected by acetic acid and resist the action of gastric
juice for a long time, but are dissolved by pancreatic juice In
"^y- ...*
Fig. i. — Connective tissue, showing cells, fibres and ground-
substance. (Szymnowkz.) c, Cell; e, elastic fibril; /,
white fibril.
physical properties the white fibres are ineztensible and extra*
ordinarily strong, even being able, weight for weight, to carry a
greater strain than steel wire. The yellow elastic fibres, on the
other band, are easily extensible and very clastic, but are far
less strong than the white fibres. Their elasticity is exhibited
by their straight course when viewed in a stretched preparation
of areolar tissue, and this contrasts markedly with the wavy
course of the bundles of white fibres seen in the same preparation.
The Cells of Areolar Tissue. — Several types of cells are found
in the spaces of this tissue and are usually classified as follows,
(i) Lamellar cells. These are flattened branching cells which
usually lie attached to the bundles of white fibres or at the
junction of two or more bundles. The branches commonly
unite with similar branches- of neighbouring cells. (?) Plasma
cells. These are composed of a highly vacuolated plasma, are
not flattened but otherwise vary greatly in shape. (3) Granular
celts. These are spherical cells densely packed with granules
which stain deeply with basic dyes. (4) Leucocytes. These are
typical blood corpuscles which have left the blood capillaries and
gained the tissue spaces. They vary much in amount and in
variety.
Adipose or Fatly Tissue.— This consists of rounded vesicles
closely packed together to form a dense tissue, found for instance
around an organ, along the course of the smaller blood vessels,
or in the areolar tissue beneath the skin. This tissue is formed
from areolar tissue by an accumulation of fat within certain of
the cells of the tissue. These are especially the granular cells,
though some regard the fat cells as specific in character, and to
be found in large numbers only in certain parts of the body.
The fat is either taken in as such by the cell, or, as is more
commonly the case, manufactured by the cell from other
chemical material (carbohydrate chiefly) and deposited within
it in the form of small granules. As these accumulate they run
together to form larger granules and this process continuing,
the cell at last becomes converted into a thin layer of living
material surrounding a single large fat globule. The use of
fatty tissue Is to serve as a storehouse of food material for future
use In conformity with this it is packed away in parts of the
body where it will not Interfere with the working of the different
tissues and organs, and in several positions is made use of at
packing to fill up irregular spaces, e.g. between the eyeball and
the bony socket of the eye.
Reticular Tissue.— This is a variety of connective tissue in
which the reticulum of white fibres is built up of very fine strands
leaving large interspaces in which the cells typical of the tissue
are enclosed. The ground substance of the tissue is reduced
to a minimum. Many connective tissue cells lie on the fibres
which may in places be completely covered by them. This
tissue therefore forms a groundwork holding together the main
parts of an organ to form a compact whole. It may thus be
demonstrated in lymphatic glands, the spleen, the liver, in
mucous membranes and many other cellular organs.
White Fibrous Tissue.— This is the form of tissue in which
the white fibres largely preponderate. The fibrous bundles may
Fig. 7.— Tendon of rat's tail stained with gold chloride and
showing cells arranged in rows between the bundles of fibres.
be all arranged parallel to one another to form a dense compact
structure as in a tendon. It is found wherever great strength
combined with flexibility is required and the fibres are arranged
in the direction in which the stress has to be transmitted. In
other instances the bundles
may be united to form mem-
branes, and in such cases the
main number of bundles run
in one •direction only, which**
is again that in which the
main stress has to be con"
ducted. Such are the ligament 1
around the joints or the fasciae
covering the muscles of the
limbs, &c. In other positions, ^
e.g. the dura mater, the fibrous ^n\on °<A a a"7endon "showing
bundles course in all directions, arrangement of white fibres in
thus forming a very tough h"V- bundles bounded by con-
membrane. The cells of such P ectlve t,s l uc ' V th tendon <* ,u
,. . .£ l\ between the fibres, a, tendon
tissues he in the spaces between „«,. *, tendon bundles,
the bundles and are found
flattened out in two or three directions where they are compressed
by the oval fibrous bundles surrounding them (see figs. a and 3).
The cells thus lie in linear groups running parallel to the bundles,
presenting a very characteristic appearance.
Yellow Elastic Tissue.— This is the form of connective tissue
mainly composed of elastic fibres. It is found in those positions
where a continuous but varying stress has to be supported. In
some positions the elastic tissue is in the form of branching
Fig. 3.— .Transverse section of
Fig. 4— Isolated elastic fibres of ligamentum nuchae. Branching
fibres ol very definite outline with irregularly placed transverse
markings.
fibres arranged parallel to one another and bound together by
white fibres, e g ligamentum nuchae (fig 4) In other cases it
may be in the form of thin plates perforated in many directions
to form a fenestrated membrane. In this type a series of such
plates are arranged round the larger arteries forming a large
proportion of the artery wa!L
All the connective tissues are vascular structures though as
the number of cells present is not great, and further as those cells
arc not as a rule the seat of a very active metabolism, the 1
9&s
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
: X*mtL Tbe times an alar ttipplir;.
6 ^ r
f&..-:
*
D UMK VBKI is- DUI't
nm. jynnmau^ ant nerve*
Zariitap. — 'ar\\t»ft o; gristle » a inugb and dense :nsut
li'jsstfstiaf £■ 3ruui cttpret o: ussiuuitv anc hjph cla^u-it* 2.
a iuunt t.-hsr t csnait. amraiir o: flcxitiih;* *> rrcuiirca &m: .
r-nez* i xactx. snapt mm: be Teiainra. c; in :hc travhca v.hi.-r
mui. uirsyi ir. uep: opei. or a. its exiernai car o* p:nna vhu-r
inwr.- i Li *«i*i^ u^t pennanen: snaps if ihc presmrc o: .run tape |
i" c iur|fci\ asu^uisL wax ixw bone* it. :hc Kirmatinr: «v :hr
M^:tc.:<x. 7nt iieut mrss:f oi a number a. rrlt> rmtv^d^: ir j
t fcinit xca.rr nr ground aunsiana; Treat vinr.m. art dt^iiy j
fui*n«L ■Eiirdinf it ine naurrt of :nt tca:si. Thus i: :hi
ma-rax a mrniopmroig it s^rar: ure the car:iiapc » :mw
i*vs.'.-ns 7wi mner form* ccrur jr vnax xurout :unit » rir-
usance xt tar orJup mi—is. They are '.bavion irwr;
um^cBnluifa bbc li uk use* m cc she whirr vanes y :ht
ca—.iaigi a. :sJiec tprux iJri-<-crd.z^t.. r a: ihr yeli.^w clasnc
i'jOL fccxk: ciPSucgc-
J!ya5*r C vluup tfgi. 5*.— This rqeei rf * number fi!
rouxutsc' r- ** Ti * * > w->«— j wxfcii t hnmopenmi* mnsrrK Tar •-i-ls
pases* at t*r«! rurlra* rnc :
. .. -j granular cc:ea vnrua^.ra »■;-
"L^fe . 1 gx -i *°-- v -^ *--■*« « ■-■--
^■*~*3f 'JS.^jK ~ * preseas varies- mrso^-an 1 *- .r
' ^'— ^«r dlfsera: sri-ciii»rrj» Ir ire*:. 1 -
ixzx-i fi— lUft ".hr rcli* a-:
r-.=irr:-^a lie am.-iua: x ma—:**
KTvaraiiaf :brrr ins:* sanal.
CarsLape frr-vs :t i aepns:.i-ir
:•: arm ru.:r.K ry .« cL-:i:art
eel* naick :*:j» Seraiae awn
ari- Eicct strcri"?; lr.ux. ont
UMbcr. A::er a :.me ihe r«ls
dinde ar.i *u"t«*rurr.i:y ":ierTrT»i
:ed frM2 one annjif? iy -fr
;»:«k-J3C od £rfsh ra:r.x ie-.Tcm
The cells are cc'.ca ::■ !*
stta ia poar* of if:., int o:
f«ir raTtf. jaicaun? :be c-;=.r^:a oripa cs esca p«:p ?r?^= t
j-irea: r .t2 To»ird* *.be r«rfs:» erf ibe cm-ape :he cell* art
of- rr. mviiarl ii saipe tearlag : ^ becwre fa::cn»d ^1 a dineciicc
jr*nZd to she surface. Sooe of the cells near :be sunace of a
Pitot of csrtibce may be branched, appearing: as a iraas lirc
lone between coxmec!:ve tissue corpuscles ar>d t>p:ca3 cart Hope
ceHs. This is parir-iarly the case at poir.is « here :rtio- or
).iptr,tz i \i are a'.tached. Tnere may of:ea be a d eposlt of lae
aaJ:s in tbe matrix of hyaline cartilage especially iz eld aairr.ais
or in the deeper la>-ers of artiaJar cartilage where i; is auac> ^d
to bone. A similar deposil of lime salts u veil csarLcd i- ire
superficial parts of the skeleton of the cartilaginous ashes. Is :he
development of animals possessing a bony skeleton, the ske>icr.
is tort laid down as hyaline cartilage which subsequently bec07.es
gradually removed, bone being deposited in its place. In the
adult, hyaline cartilage is found at the ends of the long bones
(articular cartilage), uniting the bony ribs to the sternum ic?s*.2l
cartilage), and forming the cartilages cf the nose, trachea ar.i
bronchi, tec. This as well as the other forms of cartilage arc
non -vascular so that the cells must gain their food-stuffs and
get rid of their waste products by a process of diffusion through
the matrix, a process which must of necessity be slow.
White Fibro-Cartilag€. — This is a variety of cartilage in which
numerous white fibres ramify in all directions through the matrix
(fig. 6) The cells lie scpara** and not in groups, and the amount
of matrix between is commonly small. The white 6bres may
run in all directions or may chiefly run in one direction only.
Under the microscope the tissue closely resembles a dense white
fibrous tissue, only the cells enclosed in it are cartilage cells and
not connective tissue cells. Owing to the presence of so much
fibrous tissue this variety of cartilage is very much tougher than
hyaline cartilage and less flexible. It is found in places which
have to withstand a considerable amount of compression but
where a less rigid structure than bone is demanded. Thus it is
id^nx urmine .nr mi
*prs or a. :tu. ev
TV. r.— V.'tif. t.v
*...:i-l
a-— It
rru:. - r: :-. i cwnau*! anr
nr. " ■ "^rir *:n o. :Hr zincs vanet
w.imras 2: *- u*v.n: it
:^-\i vm.-t nrvs :; '.- a.r l
:*."-r.^TLi'::. saans .* ■- vw»: a
.-:.n>-j.-^...i: amnan' a no:'
:.l. ^ ^ r^n^fclf a> :r ^s«
: \ra n. .rir «a- .:u crua».v:i<s.
. *i r . .7a~:l.;^: a! ;ru Xjis
T, ... ."
T:z. j— Kj-aLae CarJlapt.
} : .'j~>jgme-j'-» aasrix ir.iw-
i.^ned wha trwr* of eeli*
» -i7«aarTa*Jj«nerr»-a'.'»Tthe£r
«5r^ , » , iapnK-n ty aiviwos of tat
TXSJM3 Ctu.
■iiant » 1 rns-
niT.—i lasai n. vaTt 1
: ; 1 • i*rt: t ir:n.: :»:
ra::tsra xaa - c t a:::»ai:ia »r.
: • 1: arr^rs i a-as: i.t\z.
Tip! raaiii..sir* L' win :■:
.a=:nErar: s: .na-ins rrpaai:
Tr«-^r n : .^rr.: it-.- i -rs . rut
:■: r-.nicra! ma -cr s jc.': Ta^
rinisr.i:^. l ^a: L.m:iar:-.: .: r.r r-iuJ. a- Tw^-rjc-.-^*^ J
ac -j* ar^::^i ^:»:i» 1: :»i .nr jt*Jip- har^_ ijtl r. 1
is p-'-'^L iir.-::i "_:n T-raajr Tna::=- pracr^il' ■
fi-Iim -^a: -.sir 'jrrrr.t* mazrji a uiiiflrcir M^p
Arr:czir^ :: :".i aLi.'ji-ry; croai-aii^ one-. :- iH
is :imir tier :-t»r-;- *r ;r.. a".:. a." TTrp scsbc -1
:h* sl*.a r : :i. r t j:tx :i:tii ^ T EI *ai^L a: tai
Caa r :i'.«.: ef bi-.'St aa l :;nar: r_m— irn ax^
;r.:ers:^:es alri t ; 1 '1. :a.a; r^n rr ij:.»
n^a; -_n-
Thr cav::v -
- jJ'iT :
the Bor.e y-rr:v .<* l.
The h;s::::-zra .--■
piececf dried :i-a-» v: •
stor.es ua:i! ::!•:. :T.- 1-
such a see:::- "k ;tm*
bone the a77*aru.*:* ;■ •*
corr prises ::.r •>- » " *..,
by inter\er_'r. r r_i rr.a! <
v" 1 ' .: -j-itnsvm.; ^:^
■ * x * t IL us aec *i
k * ■. • . v 'mv. tii mir . _ ra=a
• j; •_ ■ -rt rata sit. ur? 1
details. Ea:a :' :>:«* c'r: ..-, • : -h'* vr« j; -^crecc.: aa 1
s>-ste^a la :he err.; re cf e:r .' :i v.*-. t -itri. irrea, in I
caaal. around »h:» S :>.e ;c-* -at j it o^rjaiLc. ir. :rr
number of con»vn!»u- br..-Le J.i-'.wx ">ir'wec: sa
are a number of mu.iI! >}>aces i.y t ;■;/•.« ',:^ '.-itt^. ja
tion. These *ic 1 lie Ivne !;:.-.:» t -.^ ::/••*. imp -wiv
in direction* Kriu-rallv trar.r- trv. ■•- '* u " ,ta»- xr= 1
number i>f line branching !>'-.- ■> •••.i .-:uL Aj
preparntlon Mich a> this «hJ:r i; y«» 14** u. T-at*v
spaces i n t he Ik>hc mat rix. In'.: / •. v ..• * vf .
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
961
sen sll these cavities have been fined up with finely divided
1 and hence appear opaque. In the living bone theee spaces
led with a tissue or a cdl or with fine protoplasmic processes.
the Haversian canal contains an artery and vein, some
tries, a flattened lymph space, fine medullated nerve fibres-
hole being supported in a fine fatty tissue. Each lacuna is
with a cell— the hone corpuscle— and the canaliculi contain
iranching processes of these cells. On comparing such a
D with one taken parallel to the long axis of the shaft of a
t is seen that the Haversian canals run some distance along
ngth of the bone, and that they frequently unite with one
er or communicate by obliquely coursing channels. The
1 between the Haversian systems arc filled in with further
tissues which may or may not be arranged in laminae.
y, the systems are as it were bound together by other
se running parallel to the surface of the bone. If a piece
h bone be decalcified so that a thin section can be cut from
bone corpuscles can be seen filling up the lacunae but the
n does not give so typical a picture as that already examined
se it is rot possible to make the protoplasmic structures
1 he lacunae and canaliculi stand out in marked contrast
i*e surrounding matrix.
. 8.— Section of Bone. Showing- four Haversian systems and
ring bone material. This is a dry preparation, hence all the
es (such as the Haversian Canals, the lacunae and canaliculi),
filled with debris from the grinding, appear dark.
Bceuous bone only differs from compact bone in the arrange-
of the bone tissue. This encloses a number of irregular
1 which communicate with one another to form a kind of
ework. Commonly the framework is so constructed that
nber of trabecular running parallel to one another are
iced. This is for the purpose of especially strengthening
>ne in that direction. This direction is in all ca^es found to
at in which the bone has to support its maximum strain
in position within the body. Usually the bone trabeculae
narrow that there is no need for Haversian systems within
and they therefore usually consist of a few laminae arranged
el to the surface. These laminae include bone corpuscles
the rest of the bone tissue.
t€ Marrow.— Filling the central cavity of the tubular bones
he cavities of the spongy bone tissue is a tissue largely
feed of fat cells. This is the bone marrow. Two varieties
itinguished, the one being red in colour, the other yellow,
larrow is composed of a number of fat cells lying in a tissue
up of large and small marrow cells and typical giant cells
eloplaxes (fig. 9). The whole of these elements are sup-
I in a delicate connective tissue. The marrow cells exhibit
aid forms. Some are typical leucocytes and lymphocytes
Lnd in circulating blood. Others named myelocytes are
y larger than leucocytes, with round or oval nuclei, and
toplasm containing neutrophile granules. Yet another
f contains large eotlnophile granules in the protoplasm,
different types of cell probably develop into leucocytes,
lint ceOs are large spherical cells with several nuclei.
addition to fully developed red blood corpuscles there
gj» present numerous nucleated red blood cells (erythro-
blasts or haematoblasts). These are red blood corpuscles ia
an early stage of formation. They reach the blood alter they
have lost their nuclei.
Fig. 9. — Section of Bone Marrow.
/, Fat vacuole. e, Eounophilc cells.
My, Myeloplaxc*. r, Red corpuscles.
m, Marrow cells. k, Haematoblasts or crythro-blasts.
Development of Bone.— Tht formation of new bone always
takes place from connective tissue, but we may distinguish two
different modes. In the first the bone is preceded by cartilage
(development from cartilage), in the second the bone is laid
down directly from a vascular fibrous membrane (development
from membrane). Hie development of bone from cartilage is
the more complicated of the two because in it bone formation is
taking place in two positions at the same time and in two rather
different manners. Thus bone is being laid down from the
outside (perichondral formation) from the fibrous membrane
surrounding the cartilage, the perichondrium and also within
the substance of the cartilage (endochondral formation). Peri-
chondral formation takes place somewhat earlier than endo-
chondral and in the case of a long bone is first observed
around the centre of the shaft, i.e. in that portion of the bone
which forms the diaphysis. Here the perichondrium is vascular
and carries on the surface next to the cartilage an almost con-
tinuous layer of typical cells cuboid in shape, the osteoblasts
or bone-formers. Calcium salts are deposited in the matrix
of the immediately subjacent cartilage and the cell spaces of the
cartilage increase in sixe while the cartilage cells shrink. Further
growth of cartilage ceases in this region so that at one time the
shaft of the cartilage may appear constricted in the middle.
The formation of bone endochondrally is ushered in by the in-
growth of blood vessels from the perichondrium. A way through
the calcined matrix of the cartilage is made for them by a process
of erosion. This is effected by a number of polynuclcated giant
cells, the osteoclasts, which apply themselves to the matrix and
gradually dissolve it away. The enlarged cartilage spaces are
thus opened to one another, and soon the only remnants of the
matrix consist of a number of irregular trabeculae of calcified
matrix. In this way the primary marrow spaces are produced,
the whole structure representing the future spongy portion of
the bone. The next step in both perichondral and endochondral
bone formation consists in the deposition of bone matrix. This
is effected by the osteoblasts. In the spongy portion they deposit
a layer upon the surfaces of the calcified cartilage matrix, and thus
in newly formed bone we find a central framework of cartilage
matrix enclosed in a layer of bone matrix (see fig. 10). In the
perichondral formation the deposition is effected in the same
manner but is not uniformly spread over the whole surface,
but trabeculae are formed. These become confluent at places,
thus leaving spaces through which blood vessels and osteogenetic
tissue pass to reach the interior of the bone. As the deposition
of bone matrix proceeds, some of the osteoblasts become included
within the matrix. These cease to form fresh matrix and in
962
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
fact become bone corpuscles. Increase in thickness of the new
bone is effected by the deposition of fresh matrix followed again
by the inclusion of further osteoblasts. The spaces within the
trabecular become in this way gradually narrowed by the
deposition of matrix until at last only a narrow centre is left large
enough to contain the blood vessels and their accompanying
nerves, lymphatics and a small number of osteoblasts. Bone
formation then ceases. In this manner the Haversian systems
are produced.
Growth of the bone proceeds by the deposition of more
matrix on the exterior, but simultaneously a process of absorp-
tion is also taking place. This is
most typically seen within the
spongy portion of the bone. The
absorption of the trabeculae is
effected by the osteoclasts. These
become applied to the trabeculae
and gradually eat their way into the
matrix thus coming to lie within
lacunae. They possess the power
of dissolving both bone and cartil-
age matrix. Side by side with this
solution process we may often see
new formation taking place by the
activity of the osteoblasts (fig. 10).
In this manner the whole framework
of the bone may be gradually re-
placed. The process is most active
in embryos and very young animals,
but also continues during the whole
life of an animal,thuseffecting altera-
tions in shape and structure of the
whole bone. Growth in the length
of a bone is effected by formation
of new bone at either end of the
shaft. After the ossification centre
has been formed in the shaft
(diaphysis) of the bone subsidiary
centres make their appearance in
Fio. 10.— A part of bone the heads of the bones. These
sl^^enla^ed SrUUge J ™'** *," ^ * J?"
mowing eiuugca carina^ j 0rmatl0 ,, t fresh bone masses which,
e, Osteoblasts lining a however, are not continuous with
cavity and depositing the bone tissue of the shaft. They
bone matrix on the form the epiphyses. They are
ftf'rf* 11 * 1 ^!?!: attached to the diaphysis by an
' ^ecom^S^in the intermediate piece of cartilage and
deposited bone to form it is by a process of growth of this
bone corpuscles. cartilage and its subsequent replace-
Freshly laid down bone q^ by bone that growth in length
G^eUtororteoclasu. of t^ whole bone is effected (fig 10).
Cartilage cells arranged This piece of intervening cartilage
in rows. can be easily seen in a young bone
a. Unaltered matrix of ^d persists as long as the bone can
hyaline cartilage. mcrcase m length. Thus in man
the last junction of epiphysis Jto diaphysis may not take place
until the 28th year.
Development of bone in membrane shows a course in all
respects very similar to perichondral bone formation. A layer
of osteogenetic tissue makes its appearance in the membrane
from which the bone is to be formed. In this tissue a number
of stiff fibres are deposited which soon become covered and
impregnated with calcium salts. Around these bundles of fibres
numbers of osteoblasts are deposited and by them bone matrix
b deposited in irregular trabeculae. The bone increases by the
deposition of fresh matrix just as in perichondral bone formation
and Haversian systems are formed after precisely the same
manner as in that position. The factor determining the position
of one 0/ these systems is of course the presence of a blood vessel
peuotntiag toward* the deeper part of the bone.
Mm**.— Muscle u the contractile tissue of the body, that
fkmtly wMch the various put$ot the body are moved. Thus
Oi.
it forms the main bulk of the limbs, back, neck and be
Most of the viscera too possess well-developed muscul
When separated into its constituent parts it is seen iha
in all instances is built up of a number of long; fibres. 1
of three well-defined types. Those forming the skeletal
are of large size, even in some instances up to is *-*-* i
their diameter varying from 0,01 to 0,1 mm. When 1
examined under the microscope they are found to be d
ized by possessing a decided transverse —»Hring. and
therefore known** striated muscle fibres. From the fact t
comprise those muscles which are under the control of
they are also called voluntary mmscU fibres. The second
of muscle is made up of much smaller fibres varying; in •
parts from 0,05 to 0,15 mm. in length and about 0,005
diameter. These fibres show no transverse striations nor
directly under the control of the wAL They are t
termed smooth or involuntary muscle. Lastly, there is
type of muscle found in the heart which lies intern*
structure between these two varieties. In this the fil
small and show distinct transverse striations. Long
striations are also present though somewhat less marl
most respects this form of muscle fibre resembles «* vm li
more closely than striated muscle.
Voluntary or Striated Muscle.— Each muscle fibre of wft
is composed is what is known as a syncytium or plasn
i.e. a structure containing a number of nuclei, which k
formed from a single cell by proliferation of its nucleus 1
subdivision of the protoplasm. It Is thus an '"-"KUp
possessing a common protoplasm. Each fibre r*~i l\
parallel to the length of the muscle and if that muscle i
extends the whole length. Thus the one end of the fibre ;
attached to tendon when the end h rounded off. The oti
may also terminate in tendon or in the fibrous covering <
in which case it is again rounded. In long muscles, kt
the fibre may only extend a certain distan ce along the 1
and it is then found to terminate in a tapering orbeveft
In some of the long muscles some of the fibres may bat
and terminate in the substance of the muscles. In sad
both ends are bevelled. All the fibres in a muscle art at
parallel to one another.
The outer surface of each muscle fibre consists of a
homogeneous membrane, the sarcolemma. The mam 1
substance (see fig. u) is composed of several parts, n
ftbrillae, the sarcoplasm and the nuclei. Under the as
reagents the muscle fibre may be
split into a number of longitudinal „
elements. These are the fibrillae. J^
They possess alternate bands of light ! B h
and dark substance which give them
a striated appearance. When viewed
under polarized light the dark sub-
stance is found to be doubly refract- i
ing or anisotropic, the light band
is singly refracting or isotropic.
According to many observers, in the FlG „ «.,*
—^^taiopfcaegmtnt-lhere VoTuStarVn^L
is a thin transverse disk of aniso- alternate E£t asi<
tropic material and in the centre *»"*• > aadaawj
of each anisoptropic segment a tmm *p**<*r bans*
T^e fiMH °' l " tW * 8c 8 ^ cc - • arc ° lem,M -
™?tw ?i? JZ 1"*** m *• muscle fibre pariBnV
tnuxfe fibre St^ 1 ^ ^ fibre ' *» »ving toifl
xnusae uore its typical transverse striation tL fihaV
which app.r«.ily^ "Vm. ,h. U " 0Un . dng Uyer """i
Fig. 11.— Striata
T~J
CONNELLITE— CONNERSVILLE
963
terntemediate substance* the sarcoplasm. In mm muscles,
>parently, each fibrilla it surrounded by a considerable amount
sarcoplasm, in which case the fibrillae are easily isolated from
le another and can be readily examined. This is the case in the
tag muscles of insects. The nuclei of the fibre are arranged close
Flo. 1 a. — Transverse section of
a striated muscle fibre.
s. Nucleus.
r, Sarcoplasm.
n, Bundle of fibrillae forming
a muscle column.
Fio. 15.— Isolated
smooth muscle fibres.
Very much contracted.
Fibres tapering at each
end, with n"-'— s ~
centre of celL
ider the sarcolemma. Each is surrounded by a small quantity
sarcoplasm and in shape is an elongated ellipse. In most cases
m muscle fibres do not branch, though in a few instances, such
t the superficial muscles of the tongue, branching is found.
Involuntary or Smooth Muscle (figs. 13 and 14).— This form
' muscle tissue when separated into its single constituents is
en to consist of fibres possessing a typical long spindle shape,
he central part is somewhat swollen and contains an elongated
ideus centrally placed. The ends of the fibres are drawn out
id pointed sharply. There is no definite surrounding membrane
each cell. In most of the cells, especially the larger, a distinct
ngitudinal marking can be seen. This is due to the presence
the fibrils which run the length of the fibre and in all proba-
lity are the essential contractile elements.
In most instances the cells are arranged with one another in a
me to form bundles or sheets of contractile substance. In
ch bundle or sheet the cells are cemented to one another so
sit they may all act in unison. The cementing material is
ipmrently of a membranous character and is so arranged that
otiguous fibres are only separated by a single layer of mem-
mne. According to some, neighbouring fibres are connected
1 one another by minute offshoots, and these communications
serve to explain the
manner in which the
contractionisobserved
to pass from fibre to
fibre along a sheet
composed of the
muscles.
Involuntary muscle
is the variety of muscle
tissue found in the
walls of the hollow
viscera, such as
stomach, intestines,
ureter,bladder,uterus,
- &c, and of the respir-
|i \ atory passages, in the
* middle coats of
! j arteries, in the skin
fcvoxk. The arrangement is
1 very typical, for in-
nate, in the small intestine. Here the muscular coat consists
rtwo layers of muscle. Each Is in the form of a sheet which
yj0n greatly in thickness in different animals. In the inner
pet the fibres, which are all parallel to one another, are disposed
Jh their long axis transverse to the direction of the gut. In
M outer layer, the direction of the fibres Is at right angles to
la. In a viscus with thick muscle walls the fibres are bound
Jo bundles and the bundles may run in all directions. In some
$
instances the bundles may form branching systems, thus constitut-
ing a network, as in the bladder (fig. 14). In other instances, eg.
the villi of the small intestine, the muscle fibres are separate,
forming a felt-work with wide meshes.
Heart Mm cU.— The fibres of which the muscular walls of the
heart are composed though cross striated are not voluntary,
for they are not under the control of the will. Each fibre is an
oblong cell possessing distinct trans- 1
verse and less distinct longitudinal
striations (fig. 15). There is no
sarcolemma, and the nucleus of each
fibre is placed in the centre. The
longitudinal striation is due to the
presence of fibrillae, each of which is
cross striated. These lie parallel to
one another in the cell, the sarco-
plasm surrounding them being much
more abundant in these fibres than
is striated muscle. The fibrillae are
arranged in rows, and when a trans- Fig. 15.— Caidiac Muscle,
verse section of one of these fibres is Isolated cells,
examined it is seen that the rows
radiate away from the centre of the cell. A further distinctive
character of cardiac muscle fibres is that they frequently
branch, the branches uniting with others from neighbouring
cells. Moreover, the ends of the fibres are attached to corre-
sponding faces of other cells, and through these attached faces
the fibrillae pass, so that there is an approximation to the
formation of a syncytium. (T. G.Br.)
CONMBLUTB, a rare mineral species, a hydrous copper
chloro-sulphate, Cu I8 (Cl,OH)<SOwl5H|0 ( crystallizing in
the hexagonal system. It occurs as tufts of very delicate
acicular crystals of a fine blue colour, and is associated with other
copper minerals of secondary origin, such as cuprite and mala-
chite. Its occurrence in Cornwall was noted by Philip Rashleigh
in 1803, and it was first examined chemically by Arthur Connell
in 1847. Outside Cornwall it has been found only in Namaqua-
land in South Africa.
CONNELLSVILLE, a borough of Fayette county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the Youghiogheny river, about 00 m. S.S.E. of Pitts-
burg. Pop. (1890) 5639; (xooo) 7x60, including 800 foreign-born;
(19x0) 12,845. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Pittsburg
and Lake Erie, and the Baltimore & Ohio railways, and by the
interurban electric system of the West Penn Railway Co.,
which has a large power plant near Connellsville. Connellsville
is the centre of the Connellsville coke district (in Fayette and
Westmoreland counties), which has the largest production in
the United States, the output in 1907 (13,089,427 tons) being
32* x % of that of the whole country. Connellsville coke Is the
standard grade. What is called the Lower Connellsville coke
region lies in Fayette county S.W. of the Connellsville district.
It is richest near Uniontown, and in 1907 produced 6,310,900
tons of coke, making it second only to Connellsville. The so-
called Upper Connellsville (or Latrobe) district, near Latrobe,
produced in 1907, 1,030,260 tons of coke. The combined output
of these three districts in 1907 was 50*1% of the total of
the entire country. The borough of Connellsville has various
manufactures including iron, tin plate, automobiles and various
kinds of machinery; and a state hospital for the treatment of
persons injured in mines is located here. Connellsville was first
settled in 1770, was laid out as a town by Zacharish Connell,
in whose honour it was named, in 1793, *°& was incorpor-
ated in 1806. The borough of New Haven (pop. in 1900, 253s)
was annexed to Connellsville after the census enumeration of
1900.
CONNEMARA, a wild and picturesque district in the west of
Co. Galway, Ireland. (See Gal way.)
CONNERSVILLE, a dty and the county-seat of Fayette
county, Indiana, U.SJi n situated on White Water river, in the
east central part of the state, about 50 m. E. by S. of Indianapolis.
Pop. (1900) 6836; (19x0) 7738. It is served by the Cincinnati,
Hamilton k Dayton, the Cleveland, Cincinnati^ Cbicxas, fa."**.
964
CONNOR— CONON
Louis, the Fort Wayne, Cincinnati It Louisville railways, and by
the Indianapolis k Cincinnati Traction line (electric). It has
a good water-power, and among its manufactures are wagons
and carriages, axles, furniture, flour and electric signs. The
water- works are owned and operated by the city. Connersville
was first settled about the dose of the war of 1812; was laid
out in 1*17 by John Conner, in whose honour it was named;
and received a city charter in i860.
CONNOR (or O Connor), BERNARD (1666-1608), English
physician, was born in Kerry, Ireland, and after studying at
Monfpellier and Paris, graduated at Reims in 169 1. Having
travelled through Italy with the two sons of the high chancellor
of Poland, he was introduced at the court of Warsaw, and
appointed physician to John Sobieski, king of Poland. In 1695
he went to England, where he lectured at Oxford, London and
Cambridge, and became a member of the Royal Society and of
the College of Physicians. He was the author of a treatise
entitled Eusngclium Medici (1607), in which he endeavoured
to explain the Christian miracles as due to natural causes, and of
a History of Poland (1608). He died in London in 1608.
CONNOTATION, in logic, a term (largely due to J. S. Mffl)
equivalent to Intension, which Is used to describe the sum of the
qualities regarded as belonging to any given thing and involved
in the name by which it Is known; thus the term " elephant "
connotes the having a trunk, a certain shape of body, texture of
skin, and so on. It is clear that as scientific knowledge advances
the Connotation or Intension of terms increases, and, there for e,
that the Connotation of the same term may vary considerably
according to the knowledge of the person who uses iL Again, if
a limiting adjective is added to a noun (e.g. African elephant),
the Connotation obviously increases. In all argument it is
essential that the speakers should be in agreement as to the
Intension of the words they use. General terms such as
" Socialism," " Slavery," " Liberty," and technical terms in
philosophy and theology are frequently the cause of controversies
which would not arise if the disputants were agreed as to the
Intension or Connotation of the terms. In addition Connotaiive
terms, as those which imply attributes, are opposed to Non~
Connotaiive, which merely denote things without implying
attributes. See also Denotation; and any text-books on
elementary logic, e.g. T. Fowler or W. S. Jevons.
CONOID (Cir. Kurot, cone, and dies, form), in geometry,
the solids (or surfaces) formed by the revolution of a conic section
about one of its principal axes. If the conic be a circle the
conoid Is a sphere (q.v.); if an ellipse a spheroid (q.v.); if a
parabola a paraboloid; if a hyperbola the surface b a hyper-
boloid of either one or two sheets according as the revolution
takes plnce about the conjugate or transverse axis, and the
surface grnrrnted by the asymptotes is called the " asymptotic
conr." If two intersecting straight lines be regarded as a conic,
then the principal axes are the bisectors of the angles between
the liiirs; consequently the corresponding conoid is a right
clrcul.ir cone. It Is to be noted that all these surfaces are
surface* of revolution; and they, therefore, differ from the
furfur™ disniwd under the same names in the article Geo-
biktry: Amlylual.
The spheroid linn for lM<nrtr*Jnneo 1 uation(jr , 4-/)/o , -f-s , /& , -l*
the hyperlioliild of onr shew (of revolution)is(x a +y)/o 4 -s f /6*«i;
the hy|irrholi>id of J wo sheet* is s 1 7c*-(jf»-|- f) /a 1 - ij and the
paraboloid of revolution Ii x* | V-41/fl.
OONOUY. JOHN (1704-1860), r^lNh physician, was born
it Market Rnwn, l.liicolnihire, of nn Irish family, on the 17th
e4 May 1704. II* RiniliiatiHl M.l>. of FilinlHirKh in 1821. After
praetfsfng st |*wrt, Chiihr*lrr and Miatfrn dim- Avon »ucres-
shvjy. he wss npiMiiiiidl piof,.T„„ „( u lr |lfll , t l (c of medicine
n Untorsitr CnllrKr, Umloii, in iKjH, In iK,r, he published n
*wii « ita fihfhii/ii'Ni of JnuiHilv, mid «Kin sffrrwsrd* settled
n*W***lA lft ia.i» In 10 <.p, i.itf..n »lt|, Sir (hnrlei Hinting
s*. 1 Sfc lr*a rVrben, In- luumlnl n Mtmll innliinl nmwKintioii
**f* = <•*% * nhJiiK Hie M.uiil.mliil piovimliil prmtiir. In
li*-**** -fcAcervw in iiiipminiui' ,-n,<| nn mli. r-dip, mid Imnllv
*« •* Aw*t Wn/ii «/ U+h union. 1 1, iKjhi he waft cWclcil I
resident physician to the Middlesex County Asylum ;
In *h«« capacity he made hi* m^w* famous by can*
its entirety and on a large scale the principle of at
in the treatment of the insane. This principle had
on in two small asylums— William Tuke's Retreat
and the Lincoln Asylum; but it was due to the enenjj
in sweeping away all mechanical restraint in the g
politan lunatic hospital, in the face of strong oppo
the principle became diffused over the whole kin
accepted as fundamental. In 1844 he ceased to
physician at Hanwell, but remained visiting phy*
1852. He died on the 5th of March 1S06 at Hanwc
the later part of his life he had a private asylum-
include Construction and Gozcrnnunt of Lunatic Asyk
The Treatment of the Insane vntkout Mechanical Resin
and an Essay on Hamlet (1863).
CONON. son of Timotheus, Athenian general. Al
held several commands during the Peloponnesian If
chosen as one of the ten generals who superseded AJ
406 b.c He was defeated by the Spartan Callicrarjdi
up in Mytilene. The Athenian victory at Arghus
him from his dangerous situation, and as he had not hi
at the battle, he was not tried with the other general
allowed to retain his command. In 405, however, lb
fleet was surprised by Lysander, at Aegospotami, a
with difficulty managed to escape with eight «>»p« to
Evagoras, king of Cyprus. On the outbreak of the w.
Sparta and the Persians (400) he obtained from King,
joint command with Pharnabazus of a Persian fleet
defeated the Lacedaemonians near Cnidus, and ths
them of the empire of the sea, which they had held
taking of Athens. Sailing down the Aegean to Athi
peDed the Lacedaemonian harmosts from most of tat
towns, and finally completed his services to his country
ing the long walk and the fortifications of the Peiraesi
ing to one account, he was put to death by Tiribaza
an embassy from Athens to the Persian court to <
the intrigues of Sparta; but it seems more probah
escaped to Cyprus and died there about 300.
See Xenophon, HelUnica, iv. 3. 8; Justin vL 3; Come!
Conon; Lysias, De bonis Aristopkanis, 41-44-' Isooa
Cyruus, 41 ; M. Schmidt, Das Leben Konons (167O. will
references to authorities.
CONON, Greek astronomer and geometrician, not
Samos in the 3rd century B.C. He was the friend of Ai
who survived him. Conon is best known in cost*
the Coma Berenices (Hair of Berenice). Berenice, tl
Ptolemy Euergetes, had dedicated her hair in the
ArsinoC of Zcphyrium (Aphrodite Zephyritis) as an «
secure the safe return of her husband from his Syrian c
It disappeared from the temple, and was declared '
to have been placed among the stars. The incident I
subject of a poem by Callimachus, of which only a in
preserved, but we still possess the imitation of it by
Conon is also considered the inventor of the curve
the " Spiral of Archimedes." He wrote a work on a
which contained a collection of the observations of sol
made by the Chaldaeans, and drew up a parapegma, a
logical calendar, from his own observations. He also or
the question of the number of points of intersection of t
and his researches probably formed the basis of the 4I
the Conies of Apollonius of Pcrga.
CONON, grammarian and mythographer, flourished
In the time of Caesar and Augustus. He was the
a collection of myths and legends, relating chiefly to tl
tlon of colonics. The work, dedicated to Archelaus F
king of Cap|Mdncia, con tatned 50 Narratives (Aary4a*s
tionrs); nn epitome, accompanied by brief criticisms;
prvM-rvnl In I'hotius {cod. 186). The style is good bem
on (he licit Attic models, and the whole is agrecab*
Niiolnus of Damascus is said to have made considers
Ita *oxk (edition by U. llofcr, 1800).
CONQUEST— CONRAD II.
965
in international law, the subjugation of an
ny in war. International law recognizes a " right of con-
quest "; l that is to say, neutral powers accept the de facto
result of a war of conquest, or of a war which has led to conquest,
without reference to any questions of justice or morality the
war may involve. Neutral states, however, have often intervened
to prevent the exercise of the right, on the ground that some
Interest of theirs was implicated. Two comparatively recent
eases of this were the intervention of neutral European powers
after the signing of the Russo- Turkish treaty of San Stefano
in 1878, and that which took place after the Chino- Japanese
War (1899). The theory of the balance of power, which long
swayed the diplomacy of Europe, was also a restriction placed
upon the right of conquest (see Balance op Powek). Where,
however, no neutral interest is involved, as in the case of the
South African War (1809-1902), or where any neutral interest
Involved is not backed by sufficient physical or moral support
among the powers to ensure success to any joint action among
them, the conquering state deals with the conquered state in
such way as it has the power to enforce, subject only to the
possible moral reproval of public opinion in case of any ruthless
abuse of the latter's impotency.
Conquest may or may not be followed by annexation (q.v.) in
part, as in the case of the Franco-German War when Germany
exercised her overwhelming strength to force France into trans-
ferring to her a portion of her territory, or as in the case of the
South African War, in which Great Britain annexed to her
dominions the whole territory of the subjugated republics.
Among European states any attempt to disturb the balance
of the political distribution of Europe might still be held to
Involve the common interests of the other powers. Hie sup-
pression of an independent European state and its incorporation
into another state, as a termination to a war, in fact has only
occurred in recent times in Italy and Germany, and these were
eases in which that balance has rather been promoted than
disturbed.
It is sometimes difficult to say when a conquest is complete,
aad the consequences of annexation may be rightfully enforced.
A time necessarily comes, in the course of a war of conquest, when
the conqueror may rightfully declare that the laws of peace
shall be applicable from a certain moment, and that further
resistance will not entitle the combatants to the treatment pre-
scribed for regular combatants by the laws of war. To carry on
warfare after the entire territory is in the hands of the enemy,
after all means of government by the dispossessed authority are at
an end, after all hope of recovery of its territorial sovereignty is
absolutely gone, is obviously mere wanton bloodshed. A war
is practically at an end when the position of the one belligerent
renders the contest manifestly hopeless for the other belligerent.*
•"The rights of conquest," says Halleck (Int. Law, 3rd ed.,
eh. 33), explaining the nature of the right, " are derived from force
alone. They begin with possession and end in the loss of possession.
The possession is acquired by force, either from its actual exercise
or from the intimidation it produces. There can be no antecedent
daim or title from which any right of possession is derived, for if
so it would not be a conquest. The assertion and enforcement of a
right to possess a particular territory do not court! Lute « tvnqxeii yf
that territory. By the term conquest we undcriLand ibeforesbh ac-
quisition of territory admitted to belong to t tic e neni y , ] t txprcfacs,
not a right, but a /off. from which rights are derived. Until the fact
of conquest occurs, there can be no rights of conquest. A title
acquired by a conquest cannot, therefore, rdate back to a period
anterior to the conquest. That would involve a contradiction of
terms. The title of the original owner prior to the conquest is. by
the very nature of the case, admitted to be valid. His rights are
therefore suspended by force alone. If that force be ove r come, and
the original owner resumes his possession, his rights revive and are
deemed to have been uninterrupted. It, therefore, cannot be said
that the original owner loses any of his rights of sovereignty, or that
the conqueror acq ui rem any rights whatever in the conquered
territory anterior to actual conquest."
1 " There is subjugation," says Rivier (Droit des gnu, vol. ii.
p. 436), " when a war is terminated by the complete defeat of one
of the belligerents, so that all his territory is taken, the authority
of his government suppressed, and he ceases in consequence to
exist as a state."
" The extinction of a sute by conquest," says WcsUake (ImL
From that moment it Is the duty of the conqueror to organise
the regular government of the conquered territory on a footing
of peace. As soon as this regular government has been estab-
lished, to take human life, destroy property or otherwise disturb
public order entails the penalties of the criminal law. A govern-
ment which is strong enough to maintain its authority, which is in
possession of and is de facto administering a country, is the govern-
ment of that country, and, however just or interesting may be
the cause of those who have been dispossessed, they are not
entitled to treatment as belligerents. Thus in the South African
War of 1800-1902 the British authorities, when the whole
territory was occupied, manifestly beyond hope of recovery,
might have ceased to treat the roving bands of armed men, who
were still carrying on war, as belligerents. This, however, would
probably have entailed reprisals; and when the Dutch govern-
ment offered its good offices in January 1902, with a view to
bringing the war to an end, the offer, though not accepted in the
form of mediation, nevertheless led to negotiations which
resulted in " terms of surrender " between delegates of the
burghers "acting as the government " of the two republics
(31st of May 1002), which gave finality to the conquest and
made individual resistance thereafter unquestionably an act
of rebellion. The position of the remains of a regular force
roving over a conquered country, in fact, is one which it is difficult
to deal with under principles of law, men who have been fighting
for the retention of their national independence differing essenti-
ally from insurgents ' (T. Ba.)
CONRAD, or Kokiad (M. H. Ger. Knonrdi, i.e. " keen in
counsel," Lat. Conrad us, It. Con ado, cf. the A.S. Centred), a
German masculine proper name, borne by four German kings
and emperors. The last of the Hohenstaufcn, Conrad the
younger, duke of Swabia, is known in history by the diminutive
form Conradin (q.v.).
CONRAD 1. (d. 918), German king, son of Conrad, count of
Lahngau, was a member of an influential Franconian family,
and was probably related to the German king Arnulf. He took
part in the feud between his family and that of the Babenbergs,
and after his father's death in 906 passed much of his time at
the court of Louis the Child, and assumed the title of " duke
in Franconia." When Louis died in 911, Conrad was chosen
German king at Forcbheim on the 8th of November 911 owing
to the efforts of Hatto I., archbishop of Mainz, and to the
reputation he appears to have won in war and peace alike.
Coming to the throne he found the unity of Germany threatened
by the Magyars and the Normans from without, and by the
growing power of the stem-duchies from within. He failed,
however, to bring Lorraine into subjection, and was equally
unsuccessful in his struggle with Henry, duke of Saxony, after-
wards King Henry the Fowler. His subsequent years were
mainly spent in warfare in Swabia and Bavaria, but owing to
ill-health and the feebleness of his forces he was only partially
successful in his attempts to restore peace. He died on the
23rd of September 918, and was buried at Fulda. About 914
Conrad married Kunigunde, a sister of Erchanger, count palatine
in Swabia, and widow of Liutpold, margrave of Carinthia. He
had no sons, and named his former enemy, Henry of Saxony,
as his successor.
See E. Dummler, Geschichte des ostfrdnkischen Reichs (Leipzig,
1887-1888) ; F. Stein, Geschichte des Konigs Konrad I. von Franken
und seines Houses (Ndrdlingcn, 1872). F. Lfiher, Konig Konrad ./„
uud Hernog Heinrich von Saehsen (Munich, 1857): Die Urkuvde dee
deutschen Konigs Konrad I., edited by Th. von Sickd in the
Monumenta Cermoniae kistorica. Difdomata (Hanover, 1879).
CONRAD II. (c. 000-1039), Roman emperor, founder of the
Franconian or Salian dynasty, was a son of Henry, count of
Spires, grandson of Otto I., duke of Carinthia, and through his
great-grandmother Liutgardc, wife of Conrad the Red, duke of
Lorraine, a descendant of the emperor Otto the Great. He was
Law. 1004, pt. L p. 64), " will take place when the conquering
power has dcclaicd its will to annex it, and has established its
authority throughout the territory, any opposition still made being
on the scale of brigandage rather than of war, and no corner remains
in which the ordinary functions of government are carried on in the
name of the old sute."
966
CONRAD III.
a member of the family of the Conradinea, counts in Franconia,
but the family estates bad passed to another branch, and were
held at this time by another Conrad, called the M younger "
to distinguish him from his elder relative. He appears to have
been a man of strong character, and owing to his skill in warfare,
and especially to his marriage in 1016 with Gisela, widow of
Ernest I., duke of Swabia, won position and influence in Germany.
When the emperor Henry IL died in 1024, the two Conrads
were the most prominent candidates for the throne, and are
said to have mutually agreed to abide by the decision of the
electors. After some delay the elder Conrad was elected German
king early in September 1024. He owed his election to the
support of the German bishops, especially that of Aribo, arch-
bishop of Mainz, who crowned him in his cathedral on the 8th
of September 1024; and the king's biographer, Wipo, remarks
that Charlemagne himself could not have been welcomed more
gladly by the people. Aribo, however, refused to perform this
ceremony for Gisela, as she was within the prohibited degrees
of affinity, and she was crowned some days later at Aix-la-
Chapelle by Pilgrim, archbishop of Cologne. Conrad then
travelled through his dominions, received tribute from tribes
dwelling east of Saxony, and by his journey " bound the kingdom
most firmly in the bond of peace, and the kingly protection."
His position, however, was full of difficulty, and the various
elements of discontent tended to unite. Boleslaus, duke of the
Poles, took the title of king, and assumed a threatening attitude;
Rudolph III., king of Burgundy or Aries, who had arranged
that the emperor Henry II. should succeed him, refused to make
a similar arrangement with Conrad; many of the Italians
were hoping to obtain a king from France; and some German
princes, including Conrad the younger, and the king's step-son
Ernest II., duke of Swabia, showed signs of revolt.
The death of Boleslaus in 10*5, and a cession of some lands
north of the Eider to Canute, king of Denmark and England,
secured the northern and eastern frontiers of Germany from
attack, and the king's domestic enemies were soon crushed.
In 1026 Conrad set out for Italy, and supported by Hcribert,
archbishop of Milan, assumed the Lombard crown in that city,
■nd afterwards overcame the resistance which was offered by
Pavia and Ravenna. Travelling to Rome, he was crowned
emperor in the presence of the kings of Burgundy and Denmark
by Pope John XIX., on the 26th of March 1027. The emperor
then visited southern Italy, where by mingling justice with
severity he secured respect for the imperial authority; and
returned to Germany to find Ernest of Swabia, the younger
Conrad, and their associates again in arms. One cause of this
rising was the claim put forward by Ernest to the Burgundian
succession, as King Rudolph was his great-uncle. But his efforts
were unsuccessful, and in 1028 the revolt was suppressed; while
In the meantime the emperor had met Rudolph of Burgundy
at Basel, and bad secured for himself a promise of the succession.
The emperor's presence was soon needed in the east, where
Mesislaus, duke of the Poles, and Stephen I., king of Hungary,
were ravaging the borders of Germany. An expedition against
Stephen in 1029 was only partially successful, but he submitted
In 103 1, and in 1032 Mesislaus was compelled to cede Lusatia
to Conrad. In 1030 Ernest of Swabia was killed in battle; and
in September 1032 the king of Burgundy died, and his kingdom
was at once seized by his nephew Odo, count of Champagne.
Collecting an army, Conrad marched into Burgundy in 1033,
was chosen and crowned king of Pcterlingen, and after driving
his rival from the land was again crowned at Geneva in 1034.
Having asserted his authority over the Bohemians and other
Slavonic tribes, Conrad went a second time to Italy in 1036 in
response to an appeal from Heribert of Milan, whose oppressions
bad ted to a general rising of the smaller vassals against their
lords. An assembly was held at Pavia, and when Heribert
1 to obey the commands of the emperor he was seised and
used; but he escaped to Milan, where the citizens took
op arm* In hit favour. Unable to take Milan, Conrad issued in
May IOJ7 an ediclum de benefieiis, by which he decreed that the
ngbcfefe of heredity should apply in Italy to lands held by sub-
vassals, and that this class of tenants should not be dqrmi c
their lands except by the sentence of their peers, and sane
retain the right of appeal to the em p ero r . Having crusas 1
rising at Parma and left the city in flames. Conrad resast
Pope Benedict IX. to Rome, and marched into aoulheri 2a? :
where he invested the Norman Rainulf with the cams* a
Aversa, and gave the principality of Capua to Wainur 7\*
prince of Salerno. Returning to Germany, the emperor nanus
over the kingdom of Burgundy to his son Henry, aiicu ra
the emperor Henry ILL, and proceed ed to Utrecht, when k
died on the 4U1 of June 1039. He was buried m the caiheaa
which he had begun to build at Spires.
Conrad did much for the strengthening of UseGesBmnkagdea
Its boundaries were extended by the acquisition of Buajogi
and the reconquest of Lusatia; disturbances of the peace beam
fewer and were more easily suppressed than heretofore; ssj
three of the duchies, Bavaria, Franconia and Swabia, were so*
apanages of the royal house. Although he did not decree tzfl
German fiefs should be hereditary, he favoured the tendox?
in this direction, and so attempted to make the smaller nasi
a check on the power of the nobles. He endeavoured to csa
Italy and Germany by inter-marriages between the nmas
of the two countries, governed Italy to a large extent by Genu
officials, and ordered that the law of Justinian should super**
Lombard law in the Roman territories. He ruled the cava
with a firm hand; appointed his own supporters, rexanfie*
of their individual fitness, to bishoprics and abbeys; and ssuja
by inquiry to restore to the royal domain the estates granted u
the church by his prcdecessors.
Sec Wipo, Gcst* Chivmrodi II. imper&tttit. Herm*mn of Rekferi
Cktankon, Annaiti Sangulimsct majcrts w Anmalft Htidubemti
&\\ in the Ilenttmcnta Germ&niae historic Scripfe+mi (Huu*v
tier! in, tBs6-tH^2K An edition of Wipo, together wrtn
the Cktanuon and the A. nnalti S&ntaUmstJ, edited by H-
wu pubfkhed at Hanover in 1S7&
H. Bmibu, Jahrbucker dtt deutstMe* Rrtih* mfcr Kfi*rtf?>
fLeip* ig r 167^884) ■ H, Breulau. Di* Kaniifi Kaiser Krvib H
(Berlin, l~"
flfr3h w - Aradt. Die Wahl Conrad IL. <GottJc*to, ifh'
PflugV-lIarftunK, Vntmutkxnfjfn im/ Geitk'tikzt JJcu
'Konrodi IL (Stuttgart. 1S00), G* A, H* StenjtrJ, G#jcJb*cAft XW*t
lands tt-JiUr &n ftditkiicken K&is*m (Leipzig-. iJUJ-l&jJ&j; S
Pfcn dinger, Die ktrchlich* Potitik Keiier Ktmrads II. (HaDe, jU*>
M. Pfrnningrr, Kaiitr Kcnmds IL Btziek unpen tu Xritoftt Jfad
Pilgrim vo* K&tn t and Aribcti »« Mailund (BttsUii, itsijift
BlLimckr, Barrimd *nUr Fvdzdf III. ttnd drr Hrimfett dtr tap
distlirn Krtfn* an Kaiitr A>n'*nf II. (GntiftwftTd, i£6$); W- 1*
CiescbnjcSt, Gt ichkhtt drr deutithtn Kaiscrxrit (Ldptig, JUr
1890); IU Patm, " Frank™ eh und Kontad If. in den jibe
ro?4 und 1025/' in the Forxkunttn sur deuUchen Gcjckkhu* atsi*
C Cwtflay sii ie$j~i8se).
CONRAD IIL (1093-1152), German king, second am •
Frederick I., duke of Swabia, and Agnes, daughter of the esuiot
Henry IV., was the first king of the Hohenstaufen family. Bar
father died in 1 105, and his mother married secondly Leopold fl
margrave of Austria; but little is known of his early fife us r
1 1 15 when his uncle the emperor Henry V. appointed him d*f
of Franconia. I n 1 x 1 6, together with his elder brother Fnxkoi
II., duke of Swabia, he was left by Henry as regent of Genua?
and when the emperor died in 1125 he became titular kof>'
Burgundy, or Aries. Returning from the Holy Land in «*'
he took part in the war which during his absence had hi
out between his brother Frederick and the new king. LothutS'
Saxon; and was chosen king in opposition to LothairmB}
1 8th of December 1127. His election in preference to Freds*'
was possibly due to the fact that owing to his absence ss-
Germany he had not taken the oath of fealty to the news*,
Hastening across the Alps he was crowned king of lufrU
Monza in June n 28, and in spite of the papal ban wasgestf?
acknowledged in northern Italy. His position, however n#
weakened. The rival popes, Innocent U. and Anackwi
both declared against him; the Romans repudiated hinu *
after failing to seize the extensive possessions left by Ms*
marchioness of Tuscany, he returned to Ger man y a «■
He continued the struggle against Lothair till October A
when he submitted, was pardoned, and recovered hh «*#
\ uwVni Una tjRieroua treatment, it is said, to the good tjfc*
CONRAD IV.— CONRAD THE RED
967
St Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux. In 1136 he accompanied the
Imperial forces to Italy in the capacity of standard-bearer, dis-
tinguished himself by his soldierly skill, and in view of the in-
creasing sge and infirmity of Lothair, sought to win the favour
of Pope Innocent II.
In December 1137 Lothair died, and some of the princes met
at Coblenx, and chose Conrad for a second time as German king
on the 7th of March 1x38, in presence of the papal legate.
Crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle six days later, he was acknowledged
at Bamberg by several of the South German princes; but his
position could not be strong while Henry the Proud, the powerful
duke of Bavaria and Saxony, refused his allegiance. Attempts
at a peaceful settlement of this rivalry failed, and Henry was
placed under the ban in July x 138, when war broke out in Bavaria
and Saxony. The king was unable to make much headway, in
spite of the death of Duke Henry, which occurred in October
1 139; and his half-brother Leopold IV., margrave of Austria,
to whom Bavaria had been entrusted, was defeated by Henry's
brother Welf, afterwards duke of Spoleto and margrave of
Tuscany. Conrad, however, captured the fortress of Weinsberg
bom Welf in December 1140, and is said to have allowed the
women to leave the town, each with as much of her property
as she could carry on her back. To his surprise, so the story
runs, each woman came out bearing on her back a husband, a
father or a brother, who thus escaped the vengeance of the
Conquerors. This tale is now regarded as legendary, and the
same remark also applies to the tradition that the cries Hi
Wtlfen, hi WibeOnen, were first raised at this siege. Peace was
made at Frankfort in May 1x42, when Henry the Lion, son of
Henry the Proud, was confirmed in the duchy of Saxony, while
Bavaria was given to Conrad's step-brother Henry Jasomirgott,
margrave of Austria, who married Gertrude, the widow of Henry
the Proud.
Affairs in Italy demanded the attention of the king, as Roger I.,
king of Sicily, had won considerable authority on the mainland,
and refused to recognise the German king, whose help Pope Lucius
II. implored against the rebellious Romans. This state of affairs
drove Conrad into alliance with the East Roman emperor,
Manuel Comnenus, who in x 146 married his step-sister; but the
condition of Germany prevented the contemplated campaign
against Roger. The solitary success amid the general disorder
m the Empire was the expedition undertaken in x 142 by Conrad
Into Bohemia, where he restored his brother-in-law Ladislaus
to this throne. An attempt, however, to perform the same
service for another brother-in-law, also called Ladislaus, who had
been driven from his Polish dukedom, ended in failure. Mean-
srhile Germany was ravaged and devastated by civil war, which
Conrad was unable to repress. Disorder was rampant in Saxony,
Bavaria and Burgundy; and in x 146 war broke out between the
Bavarians and the Hungarians. A term was placed to this con-
dition of affairs by the preaching of Bernard of Clairvaux, and
the consequent departure of many turbulent nobles on crusade.
In December 1x46 the king himself took the cross, secured the
election and coronation of his young son Henry as his successor,
appointed Henry L, archbishop of Mainz, as his guardian, and
■at out for Palestine in the autumn of 1x47. Marching with a
large and splendid army through Hungary, he reached Asia
Minor, where his forces were decimated by disease and by the
■word. Stricken by illness, Conrad returned to Constantinople
at Christmas X147, but in March 1148 set out to rejoin his
boops. Having shared in the fruitless attack on Damascus,
he left Palestine in September 1148, and passed the ensuing
winter at Constantinople, where he made fresh plans for an attack
sjq Roger of Sicily. He reached Italy by sea; but the news that
Soger had allied himself with Louis V1L, king of France, and
Us old opponent Welf of Bavaria, compelled him to return
hastily to Germany, which was again in disorder. He was
tfcUged to neglect repeated invitations from the Romans, who
lent him a specially urgent letter in 1x49, and consequently
fcever received the imperial crown.
' Conrad died on the 15th of February 1x5s at Bamberg, where
ft* was buried. By his wife, Gertrude, daughter of Berenger,
fount of Sulzbacb, he had two ions, the elder of whom, Hen 1 y,
died in 1 1 50. Fassi ng over his younger son Frederick on account
of his youth, he appointed as his successor his oephew Frederick
I [I., duke of Swabia T afterwards the emperor Frederick I.
Conrad possessed military talents, and had many estimable
qualities, but he lacked perseverance and foresight, and was
hampered by his obligations to the church.
The chief authority for Conrad'! life and Teigu la Otto of F raising,
" Chronicou," tn the Monumetna Germaniae historita. Strifilorei,
Band xx. {Hanover and Berlin, T&16-189?). The beat modern
author! tie* ere L. von Ran fee, Weligesckuhie, achrer TeiJ (Leipzig,
iB87-i8Sfi) f W. von Gieaeurvchtt Gesckkkuder dtuticken Kaistrzrit,
Band iv„ (Brunswick, (877), J. fastrow, Deutsche GtsthUhU im
ZeitoJier dew Htfkensiaufen (Berlin, 1893); Ph. Jaffe, Geirkuhic
dts detttichen Reuhes tenter Lothar dem Sachsen (Berlin, 184,1);
W. Bernhardt. Konrad 111. (Leipiie'. iflSj); O, von Heinemann,
Uihar der Sachse tmd K&trod III (Ralle, t86*)\
CONRAD IV, (XJ2&-1754), German king, son of the emperor
Frederick IL and Isabella of Bricnne, was born at Andria in
Apulia on the j6Lh of April 1 3 :8. In 1 335 be was made duke of
Swabia and in 1337 was chosen king of the Romans, or German
king, at Vienna, in place of his half-brother Henry, an election
which wa* subsequently confirmed by the diet at Spires, After
spending some time in Italy he returned to Germany and began
to take part in the quarrel which had adscn between the emperor
and the pope In 1240 he called an assembly to Eger, where
many of the princes declared openly against the pope, and was
soon in arms against Siegfried, archbishop of Mainz, the leader
of the papal parly m Germany* At though defeated near Frank-
fort in August 1 246 by the anti-king, Henry Raspc, landgrave
of ThuringJa, be obtained help from the towns and from his
father-in-law Otto IL, duke of Bavaria, and drove Henry Rasps
to Thuiingia. He was tarrying on the struggle against Henry
Raspe'i successor, William II., count of Holland, whrn the
emperor died In December 1 i$a ¥ and a few days later Conrad
narrowly escaped assassination at Regenaburg. Assuming
the title of king of Jerusalem and Sicily, he raised an army by
pledging his Swabian estates and marched to I taly in 11 5 1, where
with the nelp of bis illegitimate hall-brother, Manfred, be over-
ran Apulia and took Capua and Naples. He was preparing to
return to Germany at the head of a large army when he died
at Lavello cm the am of May i?£4* In September 1746 he
married Elisabeth (d. in 73), daughter of Otto of Bavaria, by
whom he left a son, Conradin, whom be had never seen.
See F- W. Schirrmacher, Die leizten nvhenitavfen (Gofiingcfi,
1S71): C» Rodenberg, Innocent IV. and dtu Kan if turn Sicilien,
U4S-**S4 (Ha tie, 1S02); J. Kempf. Grr-f.hu hie its dttdscktm
Rtuhei wahrend dei great* Interregnums fWtirzburg, t09j); and
E, Winfcelraann* Kaiur Fricdruk II. (Leipzig, T&89).
CONRAD (d. 955), sumamed the " Red, 11 duke of Lorraine,
was a sod of a Franconlan count named Werner, who had
possessions on both banks of the Rhine, He rendered valuable
assistance to the German king Otto, afterwards the emperor
Oito the Great, and In 044 was made duke of Lorraine* In 947
he married Otto's daughter Li ut garde (d* 053), and afterwards
took a prominent part in the struggle between Louis IV., Ling of
France, and Hugh the Great, duke of Pads, He accompanied
his father-in-law to Italy in 95 1, and when Otto returned to
Germany in 053, Conrad remained behind as his representative,
and signed a treaty with Berengar II., king of Italy, which
brought about an estrangement between the German king and
himself* He entered into alliance with his brother-in-law
Ludolf, and taking up arms against Otto, seized the person of the
king, afterwards resisting successfully an attack on Mains. He
then ravaged the lands of his enemies in Lorraine; treated with
the Magyars for support, but submitted to Otto in June 954,
when he was deprived of his duchy . though permitted to re lain
bis hereditary possessions. He was killed on the Lcchfeld on
the roth of August 0.55. while fighting loyally for Otto against
the Magyars, and was buried at Worms. He left a ton Otto,
who was the grandfather of the emperor Conrad IL Conrad
is greatly lauded fur his valour by contemporary writers, and
the historian Widukind speaks very highly of his qualities both
of mind and of body.
oil CONRAD OF MARB'JPvG— CONRATIS
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CONRART— CONSALVI
969
* of Baden, titular duke of Austria. With his death the Hohcn-
7 staufen race became extinct. His remains, with those of Frederick
& of Baden, still rest in the church of the monastery of Santa
B Maria del Carmine at Naples, founded by his mother for the good
of his soul; and here in 1847 a marble statue, by Thorwaldsen,
f was erected to his memory by Maximilian, crown prince of
Bavaria. In the great 14th century " Mancsse " MS. (c)
collection of medieval German lyrics, preserved at Heidelberg,
there are two songs written by Conradin, and his fate has formed
the subject of several dramas.
[ See F. W. Schirrmacher, Die Utzien H ohm staufen (Gcttingen,
I871); K. Hampe, Geschickte Konradins von Hohenstaujen (Berlin,
I893): del Ciudice, // Giudizio e la condanna di Corradtno (Naples,
I876); E. Miller, Konradin von Hohenstaujen (Berlin, 1897).
CONRART (or Conrard), VALENTIN (11603-1675), one of the
founders of the French Academy, was born in Paris of Caivinist
parents. He was educated for a commercial life, but after his
father's death in 1620 he began to come into contact with men
of letters, and soon acquired a literary reputation, though he
wrote nothing for many years. He was made councillor and
secretary to the king; and in 1629 his house became the resort
of men of letters, who met to talk over literary subjects, and to
read and mutually criticize their works. Cardinal Richelieu
offered the society his protection, and in this way (1635) the
French Academy was created. Its first meetings were held in
the house of Conrart, who was unanimously elected secretary,
and discharged the duties of his post for forty-three years, till
his death on the 23rd of September 1675. The most important
of Conrarl's works is his Mimoircs sur V his loir e de son temps
published by L. J. N. dc Monmcrquc" in 1825.
Sec also R. Kcrvilcr and Edouarrf de Barthelcmy, Conrart, sa vie
et sa correspondanu (1881); C. B. Pctitot, Mcmoires rclalifs a
I'hisloire de France, tome xlviii.; and Sainte-Bcuvc, Causcries du
lundi (19 juillet 1858).
CONSALVI, ERCOLE (1757-1824), Italian cardinal and states-
man, was born at Romcon the 8th of June 1757. His grandfather,
Gregorio Brunacci, of an ancient family of Pisa, had changed
his name in order to become heir to a certain marchese di
ConsalvL Ercole, who was the eldest of five children early left
orphans, began his education at the Piarist college at Urbino.
Removed thence on account of the cruel treatment he and his
brother received, he went to the college opened at that time by
Cardinal Henry of York at Frascati. Here Consalvi soon:
became one of the cardinal's favourite proteges. In 1776 he
entered the Acadcmia Ecclesiastics at Rome, in which Pope'
Pius VI. took a strong personal interest. This led to his being
appointed in 1783 camariere segreto to the pope, an office which
involved the duty of receiving those who desired an audience.
Next year he was made a domestic prelate and shortly afterwards
a member of the Congregation del buon goterno. His further
promotion was rapid; at the instance of Pope Pius, who thought
his talents would be best employed at the bar, he became votantc
di segnatura, and, on the first vacancy, auditor of the Rota for
Rome. This last post left him plenty of leisure, which he used
for travelling and cultivating the society of interesting people,
a taste which earned him the title of Afons ignore Ubique. When
the outbreak of the French Revolution made a reorganization
of the papal army necessary, this was carried out by Consalvi
as assessor to the new military Congregation.
In 1708, when the French occupied Rome, Consalvi was
imprisoned in the castle of St Angelo, together with other papal
officials, in retaliation for the murder of General Duphol; a
proposal to whip him through the streets was defeated by the
French general in command, but, after three months' confine-
ment, he was deported with a crowd of galley slaves to Naples,
and his property was confiscated as that of " an enemy of the
Roman republic." He managed with difficulty to reach Pius VI.,
who had sought refuge in the Certosa of the Val d' Ema, and
was present at his death-bed.
As secretary to the conclave which assembled in the monastery
of San Giorgio Maggiore at Venice, Consalvi had the difficult task
of corresponding with the various governments and organizing
the assembly at a time when the Revolution bad confused all
issues and reduced the individual cardinals to beggary. In this
his diplomatic ability was conspicuously evident, and it was
also largely owing to his influence that Cardinal Chiaramonte
was elected as Pius VII. (March 14, 1800). On the 3rd of June
the new pope re-entered Rome; on the nth of August Consalvi
was appointed cardinal-deacon and secretary of state, or prime
minister. The appointment was an admirable one; for Consalvi
possessed just the qualities necessary to supplement those of Pius.
The pope was above all a religious man, of a gentle and con-
templative character; the cardinal was pre-eminently a man of
affairs. Their personal sympathy for each other continued to
the end, though at the outset at least their political views differed.
Pius, who had openly expressed sympathy with the new liberties
of France, was accused of "Jacobinism"; Consalvi, brought up
in the legitimist atmosphere of the entourage of Cardinal York,
was a convinced supporter of the divine right of kings generally
and of Louis XVIII. in particular. But, though opposed to the
principles of the Revolution, Consalvi was far from being a blind
obscurantist, and he recognized the urgent need for reform in the
system of papal government. In this, despite bitter opposition,
he made many significant changes. He permitted laymen to hold
certain public offices, under surveillance of the prelates, organized
a guard from among the Roman nobility, decreed a plan for
redeeming the base coinage, permitted the communes a certain
degree of municipal liberty, and promised the liquidation of the
public debt. In the long debates between Rome and France
about the Concordat Consalvi took the leading part In June
1 801 he arrived in Paris, where his handsome presence, urbane
manners, and conspicuous ability made him a general favourite.
Even Napoleon, though enraged at the firmness with which he
maintained the papal claims, could not resist his personal
fascination. It was largely owing to Consalvi's combined
firmness and tact that the Concordat, as ultimately signed, was
free from the objectionable clauses on which the First Consul
had at first insisted. During the pope's absence in Paris, at
the coronation of Napoleon, Consalvi remained as virtual
sovereign in Rome; and his regency was rendered remarkable
by a great inundation, caused by the overflow of the Tiber,
during which he exposed himself with heroic humanity for the
preservation of the sufferers. Not long after th n .corn of the
pope the amity between the Vatican and the Tuileries was again
broken. Rome was full of anti-revolutionary and anti-Napoleonic
strangers from all parts of Europe. The emperor was irritated;
and his embassador. Cardinal Fesch, kept up the irritation by
perpetual complaints directed more especially against Consalvi
himself. " Tell Consalvi," wrote the conqueror, still flushed
with Austerlitz, " that if he loves his country he must cither
resign or do what I demand." Consalvi did accordingly resign
on the 17th of June 1807, and when in 1808 General Miolhs
entered Rome, and the temporal power of the pope was formally
abolished, he broke off all relations with the French, though
several of them were his intimate friends. In 1809 he was at
Paris, and, in a remarkable interview, received from Napoleon's
own lips an apology for the treatment he had received. With
unbending dignity, however, he retained his antagonism; and
shortly afterwards he was one of the thirteen cardinals who
refused to attend the ceremony of the emperor's marriage
with Marie Louise. For this display of independence he was
imprisoned at Reims, and not released till some three years later,
when Napoleon had extorted terms from the captive pope at
Fontaineblcau. On his release Consalvi hastened to his master's
assistance; and he was soon after allowed to resume his functions
under the restored pontificate at Rome.
In 1 814 Consalvi went, as the pope's representative, to England
to meet and confer with the allied sovereigns, and later in the
year was sent as papal plenipotentiary to the congress of Vienna.
Here he was successful in obtaining the restitution to the pope
of the Marches (Ancona, Treviso and Fcrmo) and Legations
(Bologna, Ferrara and Ravenna), but he failed to prevent
Austria from annexing the ancient papal possessions on the left
bank of the Po and obtaining the right to garrison Terram and
Comacchio. This led to his ^«.s*XiV\xv^^<cA^^^^'^c^^«si5B*3*
97°
CONSANGUINITY— CONSCIENCE, H.
a formal protesiatio, in which he not only denounced the failure
of the Powers to do justice to the church, but also their refusal
to re-establish that " centre of political unity," the Holy Roman
Empire.
The rest of Consalvi's life was devoted to the work of re-
organizing the States of the Church, and bringing back the
allegiance of Europe to the papal throne. He was practically
governor of Rome; and Pius was so much under his control
that " Pasquin " said the pope would have to wait at the gates
of paradise till the cardinal came from purgatory with the keys.
Nor was the affectionate confidence of the pope misplaced.
Consalvi's rule, in times of singular difficulty and unrest, was
characterized by wisdom and moderation. He had to steer a
middle course between the extremes represented by the Carbonari
on the one hand and the Sanfedisti on the other, and he con-
sistently refused to employ the cruel and inquisitorial methods in
vogue under his successors. His foreign policy was guided by
the traditional antagonism of the papacy to German domination
In Italy, and generally by a desire to free the Holy See as far as
possible from the political entanglements of the age. Thus he
resisted all Metternich's efforts to draw him into his " system ";
stoutly maintained the doctrine of non-intervention against the
majority of the Powers of the continental alliance; protested
at the congress of Troppau against the suggested application
of the principle of intervention to the States of the Church;
and at Verona joined with Tuscany in procuring the rejection
of Metternich's proposal for a central committee, on the model
of the Mainz Commission, to discover and punish political
offences in Italy.
On the death of Pius VII. (August si, 1823), Consalvi retired
to his villa of Porto d* Anzio; and, though he accepted from the
new pope the honorary office of prefect of the college De Pro-
paganda Fide, his political career was closed. He died on the
24th of January 1824. By his will he directed that all the pres-
ents he had received should be sold, and the proceeds applied
to the completion of Thorwaldscn's monument of Pius VII.
in St Peter's.
Consalvi, besides being a statesman, was a man of wide and
varied interests. As a young abate he had followed the fashion
of writing verses, and to the end he remained a notable patron
of the arts and sciences, music being his main passion. For the
city of Rome he did much; ancient buildings were excavated
and preserved by his direction; chairs of natural science and
archaeology were founded in the university; and extensive pur-
chases were made for the Vatican museum, which was augmented
by the addition of the beautiful Bracdo Nuovo, or new wing.
Card in ill CcnaatWi Mimotres were published in two vols, by
S. Crctineau-Joly (Paris if^-iK Other collections of documents
*re:-^C. von Ducnn, Centifmuitmet d# Cardinal Consalvi avee
S Prince C. fa Mcttemkh* tSi§ (Lou vain and Brussels, 1899);
, Riniori, CflrrtifHmdenm intdil& dti Card malt Consalvi e Pacca,
iSi4-i£t< (Turin, iqoj). See J. L. Bartboldy, Z&ge aus dem Leben
dff Cardinal Hermit Cvnsoki (Stuttgart, 18J4); Cardinal Wiseman,
RtctrUrttioxs of the Last Ftntr PoPti (London, 1858); Crttineau-
JoLy, VEtiise tumaint trtfaadeh Revolution (i859);Ernest Da tide t,
%e Cardinal Ceasalei {Paris. J&66); E, L, Fischer, Cardinal Consalvi
5 Mainz, jSoq); Dr Fredrik Nielsen, bishop of Aarhus, Hist, of the
*apacy in the. t pin Century {2 vols,, Eng, trans, by A. J. Mason, D.D.,
London. 1906), which treats of Coiiulvi's work in great detail.
For other general authorities sra Cambridge Modern History, bibk'o-
graphics to vol. i*. chap, vii., by L. G. Wiclcham-Legg, and vol. x.
chap, v., by Lady Blennerhassm*
CONSANGUINITY, or Kindred, in law, the connexion or
relation of persons descended from the same stock or common
ancestor {vinculum pcrsonarum ab eodem stipile descendentium).
This consanguinity is either lineal or collateral. Lineal con-
sanguinity is that which subsists between persons of whom one
is descended in a direct line from the other, while collateral
relations descend from the same stock or ancestor, but do not
descend the one from the other. Collateral kinsmen, then, are
such as lineally spring from one and the same ancestor, who is
the stirps, or root, as well as the stipes, trunk or common stock,
whence these relations branch out. It will be seen that the
modern idea of consanguinity is larger than that of agnatio in
.the civil Uw, which was limited to connexion through males,
and was modified by the ceremonies of adoption and 1
tion, and also than that of cognotio, which did not go beyoad the
sixth generation, and was made the basis of Justinian's lav d
succession. The more limited meaning of censangnind 11s
brothers or sisters by the same father, as opposed to aimsi,
brothers or sisters by the same mother. The degrees of collated
consanguinity were differently reckoned in the civil and ia the
canon law. "The civil law reckons the number of descend
between the persons on both sides from the common ancestor.
The canon law counts the number of descents between tie
common ancestor and the two persons on one aide only," isd
always on the side of the person who as more distant for.
the common ancestor. English law follows the canon law a
beginning at the common ancestor and reckoning downwards
The question of consanguinity owes its great importance to
the relationship It bears to the laws of marriage and inheritance.
For instance, the law forbids marriage between persons within
certain degrees of consanguinity and affinity, a prohibition whkh
applies with equal force to a bastard as well as to those born in
wedlock. The laws of inheritance and descent are regulated hi
a great measure according to consanguinity f however much
they may vary in different jurisdictions.
Apart from those countries- which have made either the civil or
the canon law the basis of reckoning degrees of consanguinity
(and practically all civilized countries adopt one or other), it is im-
possible to describe any method or system, for they are as various
as the countries and tribes. See, however, the article Indian Law:
MS IMC UIUUIIICS «UU IIIUCT. JCC, IW»t*«,MIC 041IWJC IKOIAfl UW,
and consult Lewis H. Morgan, Systems of Consanguinity and AJUtty
of Ike Human Family (Washington, 1870) ; I. F. McLennan. On
Primitive Marriage (Edinburgh, 1865): E. A. Westerntarck, History
of Human Marriage (2nd ed., London, 1 80a); E. Crawley, TU
Mystic Rase (1902); A. Lang and J. J. Atkinson. Social Origins
and Primal Law (1003): E. B. Tylor, Primithe Culture (ath ed..
1903). Sec also Affinity; Marriage; Inrbutancb.
CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883), Flemish writer, was
born at Antwerp on the 3rd of December 1812. Although he
invariably signed his name Hendrik, his baptismal name was
Henri. He was the son of a Frenchman, Pierre Conscience,
from Besancon, who had been chef de timonerie in the navy of
Napoleon, and who was appointed under-harbounnaster at
Antwerp in 181 1, when that city formed part of France. Hen-
drik's mother was a Fleming, Cornelia Balieu. When, in 1815,
the French abandoned Antwerp after the Congress of Vienna,
they left Pierre Conscience behind them. He was a very eccentric
person, and be took up the business of buying and breaking-up
worn-out vessels, of which the port of Antwerp was full after
the peace. The child grew up in an old shop stocked with marine
stores, to which the father afterwards added a collection of
unsaleable books; among them were old romances which
inflamed the fancy of the child. His mother died in 1820,
and the boy and his younger brother had no other companion
than their grim and somewhat sinister father. In 1826 Pierre
Conscience married again, this time a. widow much younger than
himself, Anna Catherina Bogacrts, Hendrik had long before
this developed an insatiable passion for reading, and revelled
all day long among the ancient, torn and dusty tomes which
passed through the garret of " The Green Corner " on their way
to destruction. Soon after his second marriage Pierre took a
violent dislike to the town, sold the shop, and retired to that
Kempen or Campine which Hendrik Conscience so often describes
in his books—the desolate flat land that stretches between
Antwerp and Venloo. Here Pierre bought a little farm, with a
great garden round it, and here, while their father was buying
ships in distant havens, the boys would spend weeks, and even
months, with no companion but their stepmother.
At the age of seventeen Hendrik left the paternal house in
Kempen to become a tutor in Antwerp, and to prosecute his
studies, which were soon broken in upon by the revolution of
1830. He volunteered as a private in the new Belgian army,
and served in barracks at Venloo, and afterwards at Dender*
monde, until 1837, when he retired with the grade of sergeant*
major. Thrown in this way with Flemings of every class, and
made a close observer of their mental habits, the young man'
formed the idea of writing in the despised idiom of the country,
CONSCIENCE— CONSCRIPTION
97*
iich w*i then considered too vulgar to be spoken,
as written in, by educated Belgians. Although,
ross the Scheldt, the Dutch possessed a rich and
erature, many centuries old, written in a language
>e distinguished from Flemish, a foolish prejudice
nition to the language of the Flemish provinces of
s a matter of fact, nothing had been written in it
us, when the separation in 1831 served to make the
xa the nations and the languages one which could
dged over. It was therefore with the foresight of
at Conscience wrote, in 2830 itself, "I do not know
ut I confess I find in the real Flemish something
' romantic, mysterious, profound, energetic, even
'. ever gain the power to write, I shall throw myself
rs into Flemish composition." His poems, however,
: he was a soldier, were all in French. He received
rhen he was discharged, and going back idle to bis
ie, he determined to do the impossible, and write a
: for sale. A passage in Guicciardini fired his fancy,
vay he wrote off that series of scenes in the War of
endence which lives in Belgian literature under the
Wonder joar i$66\ this was published in Ghent in
ther thought it so vulgar of his son to write a book
iat he turned him out of doors, and the celebrated
ie future started for Antwerp, with a fortune which
confined to two francs and a bundle of clothes. An
low found him in the street and took him to his
oon various people of position, amongst them the
ter, Wappers, interested themselves in the brilliant
tate young man. Wappers even gave him a suit of
presented him to the king, who expressed a wish,
)t immediately carried out in consequence of some
it the Wonderjaar should be added to the library
gian school. But it was under the patronage of
tat Conscience published his second work, Fantasy,
war, 1837. A small appointment in the provincial
ved him from the actual pressure of want, and in
t his first great success with the historical romance
Ion of Flanders, which still holds its place as one of
jots. To this followed How to become a Painter
■ a Mother can Suffer (1843), Siska van Roosemael
recht Hensmans (1847), Jacob van Artevelde (1849),
script (1850). During these years he lived a varic-
ce, for some thirteen months actually as an undcr-
a country house, but finally as secretary to the
Fine Arts in Antwerp. It was long before the
looks, greatly praised but seldom bought, made
degree independent. His ideas, however, began
ly accepted. At a Flemish congress which met at
ry as 1842, the writings of Conscience were men-
) seed which was most likely to yield a crop of
ature. Accordingly the patriotic party undertook
their circulation, and each fresh contribution from
Ntscience was welcomed as an honour to Belgium,
dence was made a knight of the Order of Leopold,
flemish had now ceased to be regarded as a proof
on the contrary, the tongue of the common people
it fashionable, and Flemish literature began to live,
dance published a History of Belgium, but he was
to return to those exquisite pictures of Flemish
ch must always form the most valuable portion of
. He was now at the height of his genius, and
1850), Rikketikkctak (1851), The Decayed Centle-
and The Miser (1853) rank among the most
the long list of his novels. These had an instant
xmtemporary fiction, and Conscience had many
evertheless, not one of the latter has approached
1, popularity, or has deserved to approach him.
arliest translations of his tales began to appear in
iich, German and Italian, and his fame became
1 1867 the post of keeper of the Royal Belgian
1 created, and this important sinecure was given
to Conscience. He continued to produce novels with great
regularity, and his separate publications amounted at last to
nearly eighty in number. He was now the most eminent of the
dtizens of Antwerp, and his seventieth birthday was celebrated
by public festivities. After a long illness he died, in his house
in Antwerp, on the 10th of September 1883; he was awarded
a public funeral.
The portraits of Conscience present to us a countenance rather
French than Flemish in type, with long smooth hair, contem-
plative dark eyes under heavy brows, a pointed nose, and a
humorous broad mouth; in late life he wore the ornament of a
long white beard. Whether the historical romances of Conscience
will retain the enormous popularity which they have enjoyed is
much less than certain, but far more likely to live are the novels
in which he undertook to be the genre-painter of the life of his
own day. In spite of too rhetorical a use of soliloquizing, and of
a key of sentiment often pitched too high for modern taste, the
stories of Conscience are animated by a real spirit of genius,
mildly lustrous, perhaps, rather than startlingly brilliant.
Whatever glories may be in store for the literature of Flanders,
Conscience is always sure of a distinguished place as its forerunner
and its earliest classic. (E. G.)
CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing
shared with another person " or " complete knowledge/' and
derivatively " consciousness " in general), a philosophical term
used both popularly and technically in many different senses
for that mental faculty which decides between right and wrong.
In popular usage " conscience " is generally understood to give
intuitively authoritative decisions as regards the moral quality
of single actions; this usage implicitly assumes that every action
has an objective or intrinsic goodness or badness, which " con*
science " may be said to discern much in the same way as the
eye sees or the ear hears. Moralists generally, however, are
agreed that in all moral judgments of this character there is an
implied reference to moral laws, the validity of which is in some
ethical systems the true subject matter of conscience. The part
played by conscience in relation to general moral laws and
particular cases will vary according to the view taken of the
character of the general laws. If, on what is called the " jural "
theory, these laws arc regarded as deriving their authority from
an external source, the operation of conscience is so far limited.
It may be held to recognize the validity of divine laws, for
example; or it may be confined to the deductive process of
applying those laws to particular cases, known as " cases of
conscience " (see Casuistry). If, on the other hand, the general
laws are regarded as intuitive, then the discernment of them
may be taken as the true function of conscience. In either
theory, conscience may be understood as the active principle
in the soul which, in face of two alternatives, tells a man that
he ought to select the one which is in conformity with the moral
law. Apart from the two functions of discerning between right
and wrong, and actively predisposing the agent to moral action,
conscience has further a retrospective action whereby remorse
falls upon the man who recognizes that he has broken a moral law.
See Ethics; also Butler, Joseph; and compare the " moral
sense " doctrine of Shaftesbury.
There are certain special uses of the word ° conscience." A
Conscience clause is the term given to a special provision often
inserted in an English act of parliament to enable persons
having religious scruples to absent themselves from certain
services, or to abstain from certain duties, otherwise prescribed
by the act. Conscience money is the name given to a payment
voluntarily made by a person who has evaded his obligations,
especially in respect of taxes and the like. This usage derives
from the last function of conscience mentioned above. Conscience
Courts were local courts, established by acts of parliament in
London and various provincial towns, for the recovery of small
debts, usually sums under £5. They were superseded by county
courts («.».).
CONSCRIPTION (from Lat. con-, together, and scribere, to
write), the selection, by lot or otherwise, of a proportion of the
men of military age for compulsory tecvfca fe> *&* xa^>aA.
972
CONSCRIPTION
military forces of their country; or, more widely, compulsory
military service in any form. For a discussion of the military
features of conscription and of other forms of recruiting see
Army, §§ 40 fif. The present article deals with the economic and
social aspects of compulsory military service, for which, generally
and non-lechnically, the word " conscription H is used more
commonly than any other. The word occurs for the first time
in France in the law of the 19th Fructidor (1798), which pre-
scribes the liability of Us d&fenscurs consents to serve if required
from their twentieth to twenty-fifth year of age.
There is perhaps no law on the statute-books of any nation
which has exercised and is destined in the future to exercise a
more far-reaching influence on the future of humanity than this
little-known French act of 1798, introduced by General Jourdan
to the Council of the Five Hundred, for it was the power thus
conferred upon the French government which alone rendered,
the Napoleonic policy of conquest possible. " I can afford to
expend thirty thousand men a month "; this boast of Napoleon's,
made to Mettemich at Schonbrunn in 1805, has determined the
trend of events from that day forward, not only on the battle-
field, but also in the workshops, and forms even at the present
day the chief guarantee for peace, stability and economic
development upon the continent of Europe.
The idea in itself was not new. The principle that every
able-bodied male is liable to be called on for* the defence
of the state dates from the earliest times. The essential im-
portance of the event lies in this, that at a critical moment this
law passed by an obscure body of men — absolutely in defiance
of the opinion of the greatest reformer that France at that
moment had discovered, Carnot, and of the feelings of a very
large proportion of the whole community — became permanent
by the action of causes set in motion by Napoleon, which ulti-
mately compelled all Europe to adopt similar legislation.
To understand its full significance we must trace the line of
evolution of the then existing armies of Europe.
In almost any state, in proportion as the central executive
power prevailed over internal disturbance, the able-bodied males
of each country ceased to have opportunities and incentives
for training themselves to arms. Trade became more profitable
than plunder, and men began to specialize in various directions.
Wealth began to accumulate and fortresses sprang into existence
for its protection, but the new fortifications required specialists
for their reduction, and above all things an abundance of time.
Militia forces (corresponding to the former feudal levies) neither
could find the specialized labour nor would afford the time —
hence the necessity arose of enlisting men who had made the use
of arms their special study and were content to abide by the
rules of conduct their maintenance as organized bodies imposed.
But wherever Europe happened to enjoy a few years of peace,
the supply of men who had trained themselves to arms naturally
decreased, and the state itself was compelled to assume the task
of training its recruits. This, with the exceedingly complicated
nature of the weapons in use, was a very long process, and though
even in the 16th century the idea of universal service was put
forward by such statesmen as Machiavclli and Maurice of
Nassau, practically it could not be put into force, because in
the time the male population could economically give to their
training, satisfactory results could not be obtained.
As Motley has pointed out in his Rise of the Dutch Republic,
in the time of Alva 5000 disciplined Spaniards were a match
for 20,000 and more burghers, though the latter were fighting
with the courage of desperation, and were of necessity more or
less inured to the horrors of warfare. But with every improve-
ment in the nature of hand firearms this ratio of superiority of
the trained soldiers tended to disappear, whilst as campaigns
became fewer and shorter the difficulty of obtaining war-trained
soldiers, accustomed to fighting as the Spaniards had. been,
always increased.
Moreover, after the peace of Westphalia— the close of the great
era of religious wars— wars were made for dynastic reasons and
pnmarfly for the acquisition of territory; and since the territory
w*s of no use without inhabitants to pay revenue, the " principle
of moderation was introduced into the conduct of
altogether foreign to their nature " (Clauscwitz). Men wrs
longer allowed to live at free quarters or to pillage town Qi
the contrary, even in an enemy's country, they had to
to the severest restraints, and thus soldiering, being no kip
remunerative, ceased to attract the more daring spirits.
Thus in the decade preceding the French Revolution aol£n|
had reached the very nadir of degradation all over Europe, at,
though the Prussians, for instance, still retained a great nam
superiority when fighting in closed bodies under the eyes of tie
leaders, the spirit which had led them to victory when figtai
in and for their own country had entirely disappeared in
their ranks when they had to face the French in their gtf
struggle for existence.
Amongst the earliest problems of the French Revolution w
the question of army reform, and compulsory service visa
once proposed, and though for the time the opposition of sat
of the principal soldiers prevailed, ultimately a proposal «a
accepted by which voluntary enlistment was retained for ik
line, all unmarried citizens between eighteen and forty years a*
age constituted the militia, and the rest of the men the natxail
guards for home defence.
The latter proved so popular that over 3,57 r, 000 names rat
obtained. At once the militia was given up, and reliance ns
placed upon the national guard, which was called upon to furnish j
169 battalions of volunteers. The result was disappointing
Only 60 incomplete battalions were furnished, and these (except
for the few hundreds of enthusiasts amongst them from whoa
came many of the marshals, generals and colonels of the empire)
were recruited from the least trustworthy sections of the com-
munity. These were the celebrated Volontaires and proved t
positive scourge wherever they were quartered. It was dew
that they could not meet the invaders, and the assembly decreed
on the nth of July 1792 " La patric en danger," and ordered
every able-bodied man to consider himself liable for active
service, but left it to the communes and districts to select
representatives to proceed to the front. These men were called
Flderis, and seem to have been principally those whom the
communes desired to get rid of.
But, though the idea of compulsion was present, the metm
of enforcing the law at the time were so imperfect that the
result of this effort was only 60,000 men, of whom not more
than half ever reached the field armies. Further, the law had
announced that the liability extended only for the duration of
the particular campaign, which in accordance with the prevalent
idea of war was considered to terminate when winter quarters
were taken up. In December, therefore, most of the men raised
during the year took their discharge, and with the new year the
work had to begin all over again. To fill the gaps caused by
this sudden defection, and in view of the addition of Great
Britain to the list of their enemies, the Convention decreed on
the 20th of February 1793 a fresh compulsory levy of 500,000
men. Quotas were assigned to each department and commune,
and three days' grace was allowed to each to find their contingents
by volunteering; failing this recourse was had to compulsion,
all unmarried national guards between the ages of eighteen and
forty being held liable. Thereupon thousands fled from their
homes, and Vendee (q.v.) rose in open revolt.
Then on the 18th of March came the disaster of Neerwinden,
and again the danger of invasion loomed near. In this emergency
the Committee of Public Safety replaced the existing recruiting
agents by special commissioners with unlimited power, and these
ruthlessly hunted down those who attempted to evade their
liability: Still the result was inadequate to meet the danger
arising from the fall of Valenciennes and Conde\ The Jacobins
appeared before the Convention on the 12th of August and
demanded the Lcvie en masse, and, using the popular outcry
as a fulcrum, Carnot at length succeeded in introducing a work-
able scheme of compulsion, which limited the liability to service
to all able-bodied men between eighteen and twenty-five, hat
within these limits allowed no exemptions. This became law
on the 23rd of August, and it at once began to operate
feT
CONSCRIPTION
973
?5betorfry, because it was limited to a class who were neither
^rmffidently numerous, nor sufficiently important politically, to
J5resist coercion. Meanwhile other factors had intervened to
"^fcender military service more popular. Famine was spreading,
?* apolitical persecution was at its highest, and the ranks of the
= * i inny became almost the only refuge where men could escape
"■^he terrors of secret denunciation. Moreover, experience in the
^■Netherlands and the Palatinate had shown that men could live
- *'very comfortably at their enemy's expense. All these causes
a combined made an immense increase in the yield of the new law,
"^ * and, according to the careful estimate of the due d'Aumale (1867),
• by the 1st of January 1704 there were no less than 770,000 men
: x under arms and available for active service. The tide of success
In the north of France now definitely turned against the Allies,
^ for they were powerless against the mobility and numbers
*** produced by hunger and political terrorism. Bonaparte's
■s successes of 1796 were the highest expression of the "new
P» French " method thus developed.
K3 But with the respite which his victories in Italy immediately
■? secured, a reaction against the severity of the conscription soon
3 made itself felt, and the obvious need for internal development
gave the discontented a lever for extorting concessions from
as the government.
s To the political economists of the period it seemed a de-
e? liberate waste of productive energy to take the young merchant
£ or clerk from his work and force a musket into his hands, whilst
other men already trained were willing to renew their contract
to defend the state. To regulate this question and also to define
more dearly the obligations of the citizen, Jourdan introduced
before the Five Hundred a report calling for a reorganization
of the army. This ultimately, in the autumn of 1708, became
the law of the country and remained practically unaltered as
the basis of the French military organization down to 1870.
The law definitely laid down the liability of every able-bodied
French citizen to serve from his twentieth to his twenty-fifth
year, leaving it to circumstances to determine how many classes
or what proportion of each should be called up for service.
Finally, after much discussion the right of exemption by pay-
ment of a substitute was conceded, and therein lay the germ of
the disaster of 1870.
Meanwhile, with the assumption of the imperial title by
Napoleon, the era of conquest recommenced, and as each fresh
slice of territory was absorbed the French law of conscrip-
tion was immediately enforced. This still further swelled the
numerical preponderance against which the other nations had
to contend, and each in turn was compelled to follow the French
example. Prussia, however, alone pursued the idea to its
logical conclusion, and in the law of 1808 definitely affirmed the
principle of universal service without distinction of class or
right of exemption by purchase.
Under the restrictions as to numbers imposed on Prussia by
Napoleon after Tilsit, and also as a consequence of exceeding
poverty, this law found only partial fulfilment, and voluntary
organization had to be called into existence to meet the demand
for numbers during the Wars of Liberation; but when after
181 5 peace was at length assured, the system came into full
operation, and it is to this that Prussia owed her phenomenal
recovery from the depths of exhaustion into which the catastrophe
of Jena had plunged her.
Army expenditure became the fly-wheel which steadied
her disorganized finance. The troops had to be fed, clothed,
equipped and housed; and the several occupations and trades
involved in these processes gave profitable employment both to
intellect, which was required to invent, devise and control,
and to capital, which would have shirked the risks attending any
but government contracts, and remained in private hoards,
to the detriment of the reproductive power of the nation.
The compulsory intercourse of all ranks compelled the classes
to educate the masses— using the term " education " in its
broadest sense. Free book-education itself had been forced on
the nation at a military necessity of the moment, for without a
certain degree of intellectual development in the recruits it was
impossible to make soldiers of them within the short time
available. But the practical value and application of the book
teaching had, in sheer self-defence, to be imparted by the better-
class recruits to their social inferiors, and, in the unconscious
exercise of these functions as teachers of one another, aU
found themselves strengthened in character and universal
sympathies.
The intelligence of the men reacted on the officers, who could
no longer exercise authority by mere word of command, but were
compelled, if they wished to survive, to teach by intelligent
methods; and they were compelled to struggle for survival
because outside of the army absolute ruin and destitution
awaited them.
The duration of service being limited to three years, it followed
that each year brought with it an influx of recruits to each
battalion beyond the power of a few specialists to cope with.
Hence the work had to be delegated to the captains and sub-
alterns, who thus were, compelled to become the teachers as
well as the leaders of their men. The results from a military
point of view were incalculable.
Perhaps the greatest benefit Prussia derived from her system
during the first two generations — i.e. from 1810 to i860— of its
continuance was the insensible fusion which took place between
the aristocracy and the people as a consequence of their enforced
co-operation in a common task. Freed from the fear of French
oppression, the court and the older men of the nobility would
have swung back to the full exercise of their old feudal privileges;
for as they still retained the bulk of the executive power, all the
legal reforms and restrictions initiated by von Stein would have
proved but paper safeguards; but the army compelled the
opposing classes to understand and appreciate one another
better, and the younger generation, living always with the
threat of invasion impending over them, learnt by emulation
from their seniors, who had led their men in battle, the true ,
secret of command, the art of awakening the higher instincts of
the men entrusted to them. If it seems to British readers that
their progress was slow and that much remains to be accom-
plished, their starting-point at the outbreak of the French
Revolution must be recalled and contrasted with that of
the British army; indeed, we must go back to the time of
Henry VII. to find a fair parallel.
It must be remembered too that we are speaking of Prussia
only. In the other states of Germany which retained conscrip-
tion with paid substitutes progress was far slower. The whole
of Bavaria, Wurttemberg,»and the districts along the Rhine
had been saturated with French socialistic theories, and here the
task of regeneration fell into other hands, and freedom, of a
relative Jdnd, had to be extorted by revolutionary means. To
these reformers— many of them both devoted and enlightened
thinkers— the armies of their own little states necessarily
appeared as merely authorized oppressors of the people; and
they may well be pardoned for failing to appreciate the essential
differences involved in the two systems.
As the years v went by, the Prussian military machine was
turning out year by year an ever-increasing number of men,
who by reason of the physical and moral training they had
undergone were head and shoulders above the class whence they
had sprung. These men soon asserted their superiority in the
labour market and drove their weaker comrades to the wall.
The men thus displaced, being obviously less fitted to maintain
wives and families, found themselves supplanted by their
stronger rivals in the affections of the women, and jealousy being
thus evoked, they became as it were a nidus for revolutionary
bacilli. This partly explains the temporary recrudescence of
revolutionary tendencies during the 'forties and 'fifties. But
the growing wealth-producing power of the nation, due to the
higher average physique and power of concentration (the
consequence of the military training), began to attract the
attention of capitalists, and an era of railway construction set in,
distributing wealth and employment about the country. This
for a time relieved the congestion of the labour market, and, to**,
before the victories ot \W6 wA \*i*\sA fcs&x&jSc* xkwnA^
97+
CONSECRATION
hit fears of invasion, industries were beginning to spring up
around the great trading centres of Germany.
With the treaty of Frankfurt the last fears of the investors
vanished, and capital, hitherto dammed back by the uncertainty
of land tenure, particularly in the Rhine districts, literally poured
into the country, inducing an era of expansion and prosperity
for which one can hardly find a parallel, even in America.
That such a period of evolution should have been attended
by fluctuations lies in the nature of things. Men accustomed
to deal only in hundreds find it difficult to adapt themselves
to the business methods requisite to deal securely with millions,
and there have been many severe crises due to over-production
and speculation, which displaced large masses Of workmen and
brought misery to thousands of homes.
The remarkable increase of population, the direct consequence
of the broader understanding of elementary hygienic principles
instilled into the men during their service with the colours,
brought a fresh complication into the problem. The strength
of the army being definitely fixed by financial considerations,
the proportion of men taken for service to the total number
annually becoming liable fell off, during the 'eighties, to a very
marked degree, and the men who escaped service, being as a
consequence of their want of training less fitted for employment
in the organized industries which were in process of evolution,
swelled the ranks of the unemployed and thus afforded fresh
material for the socialist propagandists to work upon. If the
proportion of men escaping service rose materially above one-
half of the total yearly contingent of men becoming available
for service, the danger lay very near that the socialist vote might
soon exceed all other interests put together, thus threatening
the stability of all existing institutions. To meet this danger it
was determined in 1893 to increase the annual contingent whilst
diminishing the duration of colour service, so that approximately
two-thirds of the men available should pass through the ranks,
it being held that the habit of obedience to constituted authority
acquired in the army, together with the silent influence which
could be exercised on the ex-soldiers and reservists by the
sympathy and example of their former commanders of all ranks,
formed the best possible guarantee against the undue spread of
socialistic doctrine. It was never anticipated that all men who
had served their two years would become partisans of constituted
authority, but only that, whilst all would learn the hopelessness
of armed resistance against the force which held control of the
solid-drawn cartridges and artillery material, the bulk at least
would recognize the substantial advantages that accrued to
them personally from their previous connexion with the services,
and would form a solid bulwark against the spread of subversive
doctrines.
To realize the whole situation, the attitude of the leading
thinkers amongst the statesmen and soldiers of Germany must
be borne in mind. Socialism is to them a necessary lever to
extort from capital fairer conditions for labour, capital must
be fairly dealt with if the labourers' reasonable demands are to
be satisfied, and the army is the compensating lever which secures
the necessary adjustments. Capital is attracted by the security
of tenure ensured by a strong army, and the working classes are
encouraged to put forward reasonable demands by the habits
of self-respect and the sense of individuality they acquire in the
army, whilst the possible danger of any abuse of the offensive
power the army embodies is curbed by the fact, well known and
realized by all continental soldiers, that though one may order
men on to the battlefield, one cannot guarantee that they will
fight when they get there unless the cause they are called on to
defend appeals to the hereditary instincts of self-preservation
in the race itself. It is unfortunate that sufficient attention has
not yet been paid to the statistical side of this question, and
concrete figures are not forthcoming to demonstrate the material
benefits which have flowed from compulsory service.
Briefly, however, it may be pointed out that under modern
conditions of industry the greatest national wealth-producing
power resides, not as formerly in the technical skill of the in-
dividiul, which machinery is gradually superseding, but in the
power of continuous collective effort of organized bodifl
physical health and the power of mental concent:
the principal qualities required by the units of so
Now these are the two essential factors which moda
of military training aim at developing, and these 1
turn evolved naturally from the conditions of ser
compulsion introduced. The men who have unde
training leave the ranks with bodies steeled to res
and minds capable of prolonged concentrated effort. ]
not only remain capable of work for a considerably la
of time, but they also do better work throughout the 1
It has been estimated that on the average the train
soldier's expectation of life is about five years bettc
normal of his own class. Hence altogether about one 1
are still alive and doing good work who without so
would be dead and buried; similarly there are in all 1
millions more, all doing better work day for day
otherwise would have done.
On the whole the armies of the German states a
taxation some 1500 million sterling from Waterloo (1
1006; hence if we assume the increment of wealth
power due to training as only two shillings a week pe
net return on the capital invested must be regarded as
and that some such economic process has been ii
sufficiently indicated by the almost incredible growth
credit during the same period.
At the close of the Napoleonic wars, German
Prussian) credit was actually nil, and there was hardlj
hamlet throughout the area swept over by the Fra
that was not paying heavy interest on loans raised
the rapacity of its conquerors. Many of these loans sti
unliquidated at the dose of the 2870 campaign. Yet
the credit, both of the individual states and of the
a whole, has risen to a point rivalling that of Great
spite of the fact that in geographical position and i
resources the country is by no means favourably situa
These advantages have followed on the in t roc
compulsory service in Germany— not because there
herent virtue in the principle of compulsion in itself, b
it happened that, at the moment compulsion became
the idea was exactly adapted to its environment, and t
forces necessary to ensure its permanency remain
activity. Primarily there existed an aristocracy m
sufficient to fill the offices of instructorship to the m
poverty compelled this aristocracy to accept the new
bility. In the second place there was the knowledg
war really means, sufficiently vivid and fresh in the m.
masses to induce them to submit to the necessary re
military discipline. When these causes were no Ion,
activity, there remained, as sufficient incentive to th
the active phase of their training, the knowledge that
at large, and more particularly the women, fully apprt
sacrifices that all ranks were compelled to make.
In other nations these driving forces have been abse
in Russia the aristocracy was both numerically and int
inadequate to the tasks compulsion en tailed upon it. ]
ally it can be seen thai the success or failure of the syster
in exact proportion to the degree in which these driving!
been available. The failure of compulsion if applied in 1
Isles would be due to the. fact that the principal fa<
success — the knowledge of what war must mean am
of immediate invasion— cannot be brought home to l
as long as the British navy retains its predominance. I;
is adequate to prevent invasion, then compulsion is urn
if it is inadequate, then the only way to make good
quacy is to bring home to the electors by a course
training the consequences which must ensue if they a
neglect it (p.
CONSECRATION (Lax. constcralU, from con arx
" to make sacred "), the separating or setting apart
persons, animals, things* places and seasons as sacred
hallow and sanctify them in themselves or adapt t
CONSECRATION
975
-mligfous role and purpose. Thus we consecrate a king, a priest,
i a deacon; a temple or a church and any part of church furniture;
. we also consecrate water for use in lustrations, bread and wine
in the sacrament; a season or day is consecrated, as a feast or
fast. We consecrate ourselves either in a ritual act, as of
baptism or ordination, vows or monkish initiation; or, without
any implication of particular ceremonies, a man is said to
consecrate himself to good works or learning.
• The above are good senses of the word, but it is also used in
the sense of devoting things and persons to destruction; and
In this sense it is tantamount to cursing. Holiness is dangerous
and may even involve degradation, as in the case of the Burmese
para-gyoon or servitor of the pagoda who is by heredity for ever
a slave and outcast, unclean of the unclean, with whom none
may eat or intermarry, yet ever tending and keeping clean the
shrine. Particular sites, rivers, springs, hills, meadows, caves,
rocks, trees or groves, are holy and from time immemorial have
been so, as the natural homes or haunts of gods or spirits. Here
God has appeared to men, and will again. Such sites in the
Old Testament were Hebron with its tree, Sinai with its burning
bush, Bethel, Shechem, Beersheba, Mount Gerizim. As a rule
their initial consecration goes back beyond memory and tradition;
we can rarely seize it in the making, as ia the case of a Roman
puteal, or spot struck by lightning, which was walled round
like a well (puteus) against profanation, being thenceforth a
a&rine of Semo Sancus, the god of lightning. In ancient society
certain animals, plants, kins, families, were also holy and bound
up with the god by blood-ties or otherwise. A priestly kin owned
perhaps the spot haunted by the god, and so became holy.
Plants and animals were often hallowed as totems (q.v.). Among
the Australian natives we catch the consecrating agency at work.
Their babies are incarnations of spirits which quitted a bush or
Tock passed by. the mothers at the moment of conception. Each
spirit, as it quits its nanja or natural haunt to enter the mother,
drops a churinga, a slab of stone or wood marked with the child's
totem and containing its spirit attributes. These arc collected
And treasured up for ever.
We also catch the god himself at the work of consecration in
tales of voices heard from heaven or of birds alighting on favoured
heads. In the Talmud the voice from heaven, called Bath Kol,
attested Rabbi Hillel, as he walked in Jericho, to be worthy of
the holy spirit's descent and in-dwelling. At his baptism a
dove descended upon Jesus, and one quitted Polycarp's body at
the moment of his death. In Philo the wild pigeon symbolizes
the holy spirit. A dove also descended out of a pillar of light
on the occasion' of the baptism in Jordan of the saintly Basil,
bishop of Caesar ea; and an eagle lit down upon King Tarquin.
Most birds for the primitive man are souls, and the Polynesians
bold that birds convey from and into their idols the spirits which
live therein. A natural consecration also hallows objects fallen
from heaven, like the holy shield of the Sabii, or the holy ikons
or pictures " not made with hands " which abound in Russia.
In such cases the holiness or taboo (q.v.) is traditional, or any-
how not imparted at a given moment by human intervention.
The god has not been constrained or invited to enter in. The
Fetish religions afford examples of such constraint or invitation.
Spirits capable of being confined in matter and made useful are
in various ways sung or coaxed into the tenements prepared for
them. Thus a West African native who wants a suMman takes
a rudely-cut wooden image or a stone, a root of a plant, or some
ted earth placed in a pan, and then he calls on a spirit of Sasa-
bonsum (" a genus of deities, every member of which possesses
identical characteristics "} to enter the object prepared, promis-
ing it offerings and worship. If a spirit consents to take up its
residence in the object, a low hissing sound is heard, and the
tuhman is complete. It receives a small portion of the daily
food of its owner, and is treated with reverence, and mainly used
to bring evil on some one else. 1 This is a typical case of a human
consecration. Invocation of a name, with sacrifice and anointing,
consecrated the Semitic tnassebas or nosbs, — erect pillars of stone
• > From A. B. Ellis, Tht Tshi-sjxakittg Peoples of Iht Cold Coast
(1887), cited in A. C Haddon's Fctickism and Magic
in which the god really lived, and which' were no mere images or
symbols of him. Two such still remain hard by the ruins of the
royal sanctuary of Edom, overlooking Petra, and are obelisks in
form, 18 ft. high. They were usually set up under a holy tree to
commemorate a divine epiphany and were mostly unwrought
(Exod. xx. 25), lest the hand of human craftsman should intro-
duce another numen or divine power than what the votaries
wished to tenant them. The consecration consisted of a smearing
with fat of victims or with oil of vegetable offering (Gen. xxviii.
18), and the life or soul inherent in these passed into the stoned
Such stones were familiar objects in the streets of an old Greek
city, where Theophrastus (Characters, ch. x6) saw the " super-
stitious " man, as he passed by, take out his phial of oil, pour it
over them, and kneel down before them to say his prayers. In
a street of Benares similar devotions meet the eye, as dainty
maidens pour out phials of holy water over erect stones of the
same obscene pattern that was common also in Greece and Italy.
The Semitic word for a stone tenanted by the numen was Beth-el,
house of god, in Greek £airvXos. It was often small and port-
able, and known as a " stone ensouled." Such stone pillars were
usually two in number, as in Solomon's temple (x Kings vii. 1 5, ax)
or in Melkarth's shrine at Tyre, described by Herodotus (ii. 44).
Sometimes twelve stood together, e.g. in Jos. iv. 20 and Exod.
xxiv. 4, which passages may have suggested that Armenian
rite of founding a church, in which we witness the transition
from a stonehenge to a church building. The bishop and clergy
choose a suitable spot, and erect twelve large stones unwrought
and unpolished around the central rock of the altar, and on these
the walls of the church are laid. In Armenia and the Caucasus
the cult of such sacred trees and pillars passed without break into
that of the cross, which was hallowed as follows. By popular
preference made of the wood of a sacred tree, it was brought into
church, and washed first with water and then with wine, or
anciently perhaps with blood of a victim. The people pray
" for the sending of the grace of the Holy Spirit into this image
of the holy cross "; the priest that God will " send the grace
of His all-powerful and uplifted arm " into the holy oil, with
which he then makes the sign of the cross first on the eye and
afterwards on the four wings of the cross, saying: " May this
cross be blessed, anointed and hallowed in the name of Father
and Son and Holy Spirit." He then lays his right hand on it and
ordains it, with the prayer: " Lay, O Lord, Jhy holy hand upon
this emblem of the cross and bless it." The people kiss the cross
and bow down to it; and ever after Christ's spirit is enshrined
in it; it cures disease, drives off demons, and wards oil wind' and
hail. Animal victims are sacrificed before it, as ia old days
before the sacred pole or pillar, and it is worshipped and adored.
He that dies in defence of it is a holy martyr. Thus Christ
ousted in the stocks and stones the old evil spirits that tenanted
them, and took their place. Among the Greeks cruciform shape
sufficed of itself to hallow wood ox stone.
In Hinduism the various implements of sacrifice are similarly
personified and worshipped, especially the sacrificial post to
which the victim is bound, and which, under the name of vanaspati
and svaru, is deified and invoked. It is a survival of tree-worship
and comparable to the Semitic ashera. The Rigveda (3, 8)
describes it as a tree well lopped with axe, anointed and adorned
by the priest. Such a post set up by the priests is a god, is thrice,
anointed with ghee (or holy butter), and being set up beside
the fire is invoked to let the offering go up to the gods.*
It is not always easy to mark oil consecration from inspiration.
Thus in New Zealand " a priest by repeating charms can cause
the spirit to enter into the idol ... it is the same atua or spirit
which will at times enter not the image but the priest himself,
throw him into convulsions and deliver oracles through him." 1
It is, however, best to restrict the term " consecration " to cases
where the spirit falls on a person, not automatically or unex-
pectedly, but by invitation, in response to prayer, through laying*
on of hands and greasing, after a formal fast, continence, ritual
*"Vedic Mythology," by A. A. Macdottnell, in Crundris dtr
indo-orischen Philotogu (Strassburg, 1897;.
* Tylor, Primitive CnJture, ii. 174.
976
CONSEIL DE FAMILLE— CONSERVATIVE PARTY
washing, and so forth. Thus in z Sam. x., Samuel ordaining Saul
" took the vial of oil and poured it upon his head and kissed him/'
and soon afterwards " God gave Saul another heart "; so that
when he met the band of prophets the contagion flew from them
to him, " and the spirit of God came mightily upon him, and he
prophesied among them."
The recognized modes of communicating the afflatus, power
or numen to a person or thing to be consecrated are many, and
only a few can be enumerated, (x) Blowing. The risen Jesus
(John xz. a a) breathed on his disciples and said, " Receive ye the
Holy Ghost." The Roman priest, in consecrating the water of
the font for baptism, blows over it and signs it twice with the
cross. He also begins the rite of baptism by blowing in the
catechumen's face. In the rite of laying hands on an elect the
bishop of the Armenian Paulicians blows three times in the face
of the newly ordained. The impure spirit is blown out and the
pure blown in. (2) Laying-on of hands. The particular persons
whose virtue is to be transmitted lay their hands on the head
or shoulders of the consecrand, e.g. three bishops in episcopal
consecration. (3) Branding or signing the person, especially on
the forehead, with the sacred emblem. So a Hindu paints his
caste emblem on his forehead, and a fugitive slave in ancient
Egypt, once marked with sacred stigmata in a temple, could not
be reclaimed by the master. He belonged to the god. Roman
recruits when they took the sacramtntum, or oath of fealty, were
tattooed with the " sign " or " seal." So in Christian initiations
the sign of the cross is made on the brow, and in Revelation the
redeemed are so marked. Mexican peasants regularly paint or
tattoo a cross on their foreheads, and the old Armenian equivalent
for destiny or fate is lakatagir or forehead-writing. An inanimate
object is similarly consecrated. The "soldiers" of Mithras,
says Tertullian, were signed or sealed on their foreheads. (4)
Use of a name. The invocation of a powerful name over a thing
or person brings him or it within its sphere of influence, and
actually communicates thereto the demoniac or supernatural
power wielded by the owner of the name.
Amulets, seals, talismans, relics, ear or nose rings stamped
with divine emblems or otherwise hallowed, communicate their
holiness to the wearers and protect from the Adversary. Personal
ornaments and decorations of dwellings, furniture, vehicles and
pottery had once a consecrating, or— what often comes to the
same thing— a prophylactic value and significance. Mutilations,
such as circumcision, violation of chastity in the case of maidens
hallowed to certain gods, ritual cutting of hair and nails, and
their deposition in a sanctuary, rather belong to the category
of sacrifice, as also the burial of a living victim under the founda-
tions of a new building or bridge (see Sacrifice). Cursing is,
equally with consecration, a taboo imposed on a thing or person.
It may be noted in consecration how nicely the taboo or con-
tagion, whether of holiness or unholincss, can be localized. An
Arab's curse is escaped by falling flat on the face, for it then
shoots over the head; and recently the following case was
referred from French Canada before the judicial committee of
the privy council. A man buried his wife in a plot he had bought
in a Catholic cemetery. Presently he died also, but without the
sacraments, for he had changed his religion. His executors
ignored the protests of the Catholic clergy and buried him in the
same grave. Ultimately the bishop of Quebec, unable to get a
mandamus from the English privy council to dig him up, solemnly
deconsecrated the ground down to the estimated depth of the lid
of the wife's coffin. The use of specially consecrating cemeteries
among Christians is first mentioned by Gregory of Tours (c. 570) ;
but under the Roman law they had, like those of the Pagans,
been held inviolable by pagan emperors like Gordian and Julian
and defined as "res religioni destinatae quin immo (iam)
religionis cffcctac " {Cod. Justin, lib. ix. tit. 19).
Lastly, a classical mode of consecrating persons, or winning
or reinforcing their holiness or kinship with the god, is the
sacrificial meal at which sacred animals or the god himself are
eaten. (See Sacrament and Sacrifice.) Consecration is so
frequently the counterpart of Purification that the article
thereon should be read in connexion with this. For the con-
secration of bishops, see Bishop; for that of chores*,*
Dedication.
Authorities.— E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (Lomta. m-
Robertion Smith, Religion of the Semites (London. 1901); Mans
Kingsley, West African Studies (London, 1901). and Jiaktn*
Folklore of the Fjort (London, 1898); W. Warde Fowler, Tkfcu
Festivals (London, 1905); L. R. Farnelt. The Evolution efte*
(London, 1005); J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (Londoa. tet
A. C. Haddon, Fetichism end Magic, containing a good bibfafw*
(London, 1906). For Christian rites of consecration, steTut:
Euchohgion (1647); H. A. Wilson, The rL,/„ ffnn Saaamtnr
(Oxford. 1894); F. C. Conybeare'a RiiuoU Armenorum {fefe
1905); L. Duchesne, Ortgtnes du culte ckr&ien (1889); M. M*
tretti, Monument* uteris Liturgioe Ambrosiomae, JPemtifUeU fitai
1897). (F.Cu
CONSEIL DB FAMILLE ("family council "), in FrW
institution for the protection of the interests of minors. Bja?
Code Civil (art. 407-4x0) it is composed of seven merabtn Txi
local justice of the peace (juge de poix) Is the presiding ofel
The other six members must be relations of the minor, desj
from the mother's and father's side of the family respecuts*
(three on each side). The Code gives in minute detail reksci
choosing these relations. Meetings of the family council *
held in private, five of the members constituting a quorum. 7z
council has power to appoint a guardian to the minor, •'
authorize marriage or oppose it; to audit the accounts &
decide questions concerning the minor's estate. The Fm£
family council is founded on the Roman law of tutelage, uia*
a long and useful history. I
CONSERVATIVE PARTY, in Great Britain, the name of *
successors of the Tories (see Whig and Tory) as one of 6
great political parties, representing the opposition to the Uaa
party (?.».), championing stability rather than innovative
the advantages of preserving inherited conditions so fart
possible rather than adopting changes which are founded «
theoretical ideals. J. W. Croker suggested the term {Qesrt*
Rev., Jan. 1830) as more appropriate than " Tory," but *
some time it was only used sporadically, and many of tW
Tory regime disliked it. The term " Tory " has in fact ate
quite fallen out of use, and has been commonly retained by «?
modern Conservatives who wish to emphasize that theini'
constructive and positive policy of constitutional as opposri:
radical reform, and not merely one of Jetting things rear
simply "as they are." Similarly attempts were made in *
'eighties to substitute " Constitutionalist," but' without ■'
becoming current coin; and Lord Randolph Churchill all
himself a " Tory democrat."
Sir Robert Peel, in a speech in the House of Commons, prote*
against the "un-English name of Conservative." Yet ft
himself shattered the old Tory and Protectionist party m lU
and soon after called himself a Conservative, and the ftd=
were commonly spoken of as " Liberal Conservatives." As
when " Liberal " came into regular use for one party, "C*
scrvative " became the recognized term for its opposite, Tor/J
being popularly regarded as the reactionary creed of the S>
porters of " vested interests " and opponents of reform of tf
kind. The character of any British Conservative parly, in -
widest sense of the term, has naturally changed, and wasboes
continually to change, with the progress of events. The succes*
Reform Acts, which put political power into the hands of* 1
classes of the clcctoiatc, made it necessary to make a news*
of appeal to them, in order to support the causes of the dwd
establishment, the House of Lords, and the main features of*
constitution. The history of this movement cannot be S*
marized here, but the salient details may be found in *
biographical articles on such leading Conservative states*
as Lord Beaconsficld, Lord Salisbury and Mr A. J Biff*
(qq.v.). In organization the party followed much on the S*
of the Liberal party. After 1832 associations knova»
Constitutional "or" Conservative "multiplied throughout*
country; and a " National Union of Conservative and C*>
stitutional Associations" formed a confederation in i86fc*
alliance with the work of the Central Conservative Office si I
1 the parly ^Vnv*. U ^**» tan«vu % unlike the similar 1
-t
CONSERVATOIRE— CONSHOHOCKEN
977
*- National Liberal Federation," under the control of influential
people who were loyal to the Central Office. In this respect the
Conservative party, as an internally loyal party, had some
Advantage in organization; and such independent outbreaks
at that of the " Fourth Party " (in the parliament of x88o), while
stimulating to the Central Office, may be said to have applied
a useful massage rather than to have led to any breaking of bones;
while the Primrose League and similar new bodies acted as
co-operating agencies. Mr Gladstone's proposal of Home Rule
for Ireland in 1886 resulted in a great accession of strength to
the party, owing to the splitting off of the Liberal Unionists
from the Liberal party. From this time the term "Unionists"
began to come into use, to signify both the Conservative and the
Liberal Unionist parties; the distinction between the two wings
gradually grew smaller; and by degrees the name of " Con-
■ervative party," though officially maintained, became more
and more vague, as politics centred round Ireland, Imperialism
or Tariff Reform.
See also M. Ostrogorski, Democracy and the Organisation of Political
Ptrlios (Eng. Iran*., 1902) ; T. E. Kebbel, History of Toryism (1886).
CONSERVATOIRE (the Fr. equivalent of Ital. Conservator to,
Cer. Conscrvatorium, from Med. Lat. conservatorium, a place
"where anything is preserved, Lat. conscrvare, to preserve), a
public institution for instruction in music and declamation.
Ihe name Conservatoire is generally used not only of the French
Institutions to which it properly applies, but also of the Italian
Conservatorio and the German Conservatorium, and even
sometimes of English schools of music. In the United States,
however, the anglicized form " Conservatory " is used, a form
far more satisfactory from the point of view of linguistic purity,
but difficult to establish in England owing to its common applica-
tion to a particular kind of green-house (see Horticulture).
The Italian conservatorios were the earliest, and originated in
hospitals for the rearing of foundlings and orphans (whence
the name) in which a musical education was given. When fully
equipped, each conservatorio had two maestri or principals,
one for composition and one for singing, besides professors for
the various instruments. Though St Ambrose and Pope Leo I.,
in the 4th and 5th centuries respectively, are sometimes named
in connexion with the subject, the historic continuity of the
Conservatoire in its modern sense cannot be traced farther back
than the 16th century. The first to which a definite date can
be assigned is the Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Lorctto, at
Naples, founded by Giovanni di Tappia in 1537. Three other
similar schools were afterwards established in the city, of which
the Conservatorio di Sant' Onofrio deserves special mention on
account of the fame of its teachers, such as Alessandro Scarlatti,
Leo, Durante and Porpora. There were thus for a considerable
time four flourishing conservatorios in Naples. Two of them,
however, ceased to exist in the course of the 18th century, and
on the French occupation of the city the other two were united
by Murat in a new institution under the title Real Collegio di
Musica, which admitted pupils of both sexes, the earlier con-
servatorios having been exclusively for boys. In Venice, on the
other hand, there were from an early date four conservatorios
conducted on a similar plan to those in Naples, but exclusively
for girls. These died out with the decay of the Venetian republic,
and the centre of musical instruction for northern Italy was
transferred to Milan, where a conservatorio on a Urge scale was
established by Prince Eugene Beauharnais in 1808. The cele-
brated conservatoire of Paris owes its origin to the ficole Royale
de Chant et de Declamation, founded by Baron de Breteuil in
1 784, for the purpose of training singers for the opera. Suspended
during the stormy period of the Revolution, its place was taken
by the Conservatoire de Musique, established in 1795 on the
basis of a school for gratuitous instruction in military music,
founded by the mayor of Paris in 1702. The plan and scale on
which it was founded had to be modified more than once in
succeeding years, but it continued to flourish, and in the interval
between 1820 and 1840, under the direction of Chsrubini, may be
amid to have led the van of musical progress in Eunro. In more
yean that place of honour belongs decidedly to the
Conservatorium at Leipzig, founded by Mendelssohn in 1843,
which, for composition and instrumental music, became the chief
resort of those who wished to rise to eminence in the art. Of
other European conservatoires of the first rank may be named
those of Prague, founded in 1810; of Brussels, founded in 1833
and long presided over by the celebrated Fetis; of Cologne,
founded in 1849; and those instituted more recently at Munich
and Berlin, the instrumental school in the latter long enjoying
the direction of Joachim. In England the functions of a con-
servatoire have been discharged by the Royal Academy of Music
of London, founded in 182a, which received a charter of incor-
poration in 1830, the Royal College of Music (1882), the Guildhall
school, and similar institutions. The chief public institution
for teaching music in the United States is the National Con-
servatory of Music of America, founded in New York in 1885.
The famous Dvorak was for a time its director. Other well-
known American establishments are the Peabody Conservatory
in Baltimore (1868), the Cincinnati College of Music (1878),
and the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston
(1867).
CONSERVATOR (Lat conscrvare, to preserve), one who
preserves from injury, a guardian or custodian. In the middle
ages the title of conservator was given to •various officers, such
as those appointed by the council of Wtirzburg in 1287 to
protect the privileges of certain religious persons, the guardians
of academic rights in the university of Paris, certain Roman
magistrates as late as the 16th century, or the conservator
Judacorum who was enjoined to look after the Jews of the county
of Provence in 1424. By the 1 Henry V. there was appointed a
conservator of truce and safe conducts in each English seaport
" to enquire of all offences done against the king's truce and safe
conducts, upon the main sea, out of the liberties of the cinque
ports." In Scotland the conservator of the realm (c. 1503) had
jurisdiction to settle the disputes and protect the rights of
Scottish merchants in foreign ports or places of trade. In
England the conservators of the peace {cuslodes pacts) were the
precursors of the modern justices of the peace. Stubbs traces
their origin to the assignment of knights, in 1105, to enforce the
oath to preserve the peace which Richard I. ordered to be taken
by all persons above the age of 15. By the z Edward III.
conservators of the peace were appointed for each county to
guard the peace and to hear and determine felonies. The office
was reconstituted by the parliament of 1327, and its powers were
extended in 1360. From the sovereign and the lord chancellor
down to the justice and the village constable, all who have to do
with the repression of crime are included within the general
term of conservators of the peace. As commonly used nowadays
in England, the term conservator is applied only to the guardian
of a museum or of a river (sec Thames).
CONSETT, an urban district in the north-western parlia-
mentary division of Durham, England, 20 m. S.E. of Newcastle-
upon-Tyne by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop.
(1001) 9694. It is the centre of a populous industrial district.
At Shottey Bridge (where there is a small spa) a colony of German
metal-workers, making swords and knives, was established in
the 17 th century; but this industry has now been replaced by
paper mills. There are extensive collieries and ironworks in the
district.
CONSHOHOCKEN, a borough of Montgomery county, Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A., on the Schuylkill river, 12 jn. N.W. of Phil-
adelphia. Pop. (1800) 5470; (1900) 576a (oj* being foreign-born);
(1910) 7480. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Phil-
adelphia k Reading railways. The borough is built on land which
rises gradually from the river-bank for about j m. and then
becomes quite level, but the surrounding country is for the most
part occupied by hills, several of which rise to considerable height.
It has a variety of manufacturing establishments, among which
are cotton and woollen mills, rolling mills, steel mills, foundries,
boiler shops, tube works, and works for making surgical instru-
ments and artificial stone. The place was first settled about
1820, and was for several years known as Matson's Ford; m
1830 it was laid out as a twwa *^ wttN«V**&v<" n "* & - x
(
«i
a
t
I
c
c
<
I
t
<
' pleasant valley." It was incorporated
to sis* Immediately across the Schuylkill is West Consho-
hocken (pop. to 1900, 1958), when carpets and woollen goods
are manufactured.
COJtSIDftRAJTT, VICTOR PROSPER (1808-1893), French
socialist, was born at Salins (Jura) on the 12th of October 1808.
Educated at the £cole Polytechnique in Paris, he entered
the French army as an engineer, rising to the rank of captain.
Becoming imbued, however, with the phalansterian ideas of
Francois Fourier, he resigned his commission in 1 831, in order
to devote himself to advancing the doctrines of his master.
On the death of Fourier in 1837 he became the acknowledged
head of the movement, and took charge of La Pkalanie, the organ
of Fourierism. He also established phalanges at Condt-sur-
Vesgres and elsewhere, but they had little success and soon died
of inanition. During this period he published his DcstinU
social* (1834-1838), undoubtedly the most able and most im-
portant work of the Fouricrist school. After the revolution of
1848 he was elected to the Constituent Assembly for the depart-
ment of Loiret, and in 1849 to the Legislative Assembly for the
department of the Seine. Considerant's share in the M demonstra-
tion " under the leadership of Ledru-Rollin on the 13th of June
1849 caused his compulsory flight to Belgium. Thence he went
(185a) to Texas, but soon returned to Brussels, where he suffered
a short imprisonment for alleged conspiracy against the peace
of a neighbouring state. On his release he again set out for Texas,
and founded at San Antonio the communistic colony of La
Reunion. This experiment met with little more success than his
former attempts, and in 1669 he returned to Paris, where he lived
in retirement, needy and forgotten, till his death in 1893. The
most important of Considerant's other writings were Exposition
dn systems do Fourier (1845), Principe* dn socialism* (1847),
Thtorie dm droit de propritU ft dn droit an travail ( 1848).
OOHSIDBRATION (from LaL considerate, to look at closely,
examine, generally taken to be from con- t and the base seen
in sidus,si4cru,i star, the word being supposed to be originally
an astrological or astronomical term), observation, attention,
regard or taking into account, hence the fact taken into account,
and especially something given as an equivalent or reward or
in payment; in the law of contract, an act or forbearance, or the
promise thereof, offered by one party to an agreement, and
accepted by the other as an inducement to that other's act or
promise (Pollock on Contract). Consideration in the legal sense
isessenlialtothe validity of every contract unless it is made in
writing under seal. The meaning of the word is quite accurately
expressed by a phrase used in one of the earliest cases on the
subject— it is strictly a quid pro qno. Something, whether it be
in the nature of an act or a forbearance, must move from one
of the parties in order to support a promise made by the other.
A mere promise by A to give something to B cannot be enforced
unless there is some consideration " moving from B." While
every contract requires a consideration, it is held that the court
will not inquire into the adequacy thereof, but it must be of some
value in the eye of the law. It must also be legal, and it must be
or jurisdiction (tee Do
uX
a
pression has now long bees exclusively appDeifefri
of ecclesiastical persons for the purpose of admmmjl
or transacting business. 1
In the Western Church the episcopal cossstar/^
the bishops' tribunal, the proceedings of which tain
less strictly judicial form. But the name k«6|
almost everywhere; the only episcopal consul
England (see Consistory Courts) which survmnil
and in certain dioceses of Bavaria and Gcrmurlml
Kirckcnrccht, \ 149). Thus the name consistory tea
applied almost exclusively to meetings of the adept's
with the pope as president, formerly for delibtfitnti
but nowadays purely formal. These meetings used totrl
but are now held very seldom, taking place only te
times a year.
The cardinals (f .?.) form the pope's coaxfl Hi
before it became the custom to entrust the nunsfenalf'
kinds of business, grouped according to. their natait.ni
sions composed of cardinals, the pope used to conacr:
cuss with the whole sacred college matters of {taenia
those which were specially referred to him, notably tk|
submitted to him by bishops from all parts of Qrii
To this are due a good number of the decretals wncaks
a place in the Corpus juris canon ici. In the mkkbaj
the cardinals were few in number, consistories vni
often. Thus the Cesto of Innocent III. tell us tan ■
pope " held publicly, three times a week, accordi&gHI
then established, a solemn consistory; in it he hens a
from all men, and examined in person even anand
importance with a prudence and perspicacity vhtk
admiration of all." Later we have recorded cat/
sistory a week; in the 16th century, according toCa
Luca, it usually took place only twice in a moats,
the consistories were held at still greater interon;'
held more or less regularly during the Fwiti^ vteta
they have no longer a 6xed date.
Whatever be their form, they are nowadays merely (
the business upon which they are supposed to meet
cussed and decided previously; consequently, they
a kind of solemn promulgation. The preparation of l
is entrusted to the commission of cardinals kne
Consistorial Congregation.
There are three kinds of consistory: the secret
in which only the cardinals take part; the public a
which are admitted persons from outside and a
audience; and finally, the semi-public consistory, i
bishops present in Rome take part wruh the cxrdis
allowed to state their opinion. The last form boor
case of the consistory preceding a canonization. Th
sistory is now only held for the ceremony of confer
on newly created cardinals; formerly th e popes ust
in public consistory sovereigns and certain other m
but in this case the consistorv was nor #4_i:i ..-._
CONSISTORY COURTS— CONSOLS
979
red in oHcr all the other--; on tru- It ft of the- pope stands
if cardinal deacon; the chief cardinal priest comes next
taut cardinal bishop, and the last cardinal priest next to
k K cardinal deacon. As in the old imperial consistorhixn,
* Jlnals assemble in the hall of the consistory, and there
r/ the pope, who takes his place upon his throne; in former
^^^^e used first to give audience to those cardinals who had to
^^^^: certain matters to him, after which the doors were shut
J~.« consistory became secret.
■a— _W©*IT!ES.— Bouix, De Curia romana, pt. ii. c I (Paris, 1859).;
m ~**fcjerg, Notitia comgregationum, cap. 3 (Hildesheim, 1693);
~— - ami die Luca, Theatrum veritatii, lib. xv. p. 2 (Rome, 1671).
(A. Ba # )
IZ WST8T0RY COURTS, those ecclesiastical courts wherein
"" *~lx±inary jurisdiction of the bishop is exercised (sec Con-
_ •fc'V). They exist in every diocese of England. Consistory
s -were established by a charter of William I., which ap-
"""* cd the cognizance of ecclesiastical causes in a distinct
._"* or court from the temporal. The officer who exercises
~~_ Jiction in a consistory court is known as the chancellor (7.*.),
2T "^*««£ is appointed by patent from the bishop or archbishop.
~__*^n*-«diction, both contentious and voluntary, is committed
J""^ cm under two separate offices, those of official principal and
— ge neral; the distinction between the two offices is that
_^-»*kacial principal usually exercises contentious jurisdiction
~* ^J'x.aV*.* vicar general voluntary jurisdiction. (In the province
"". ^ ^«*1t there is an official principal of the chancery court and
^^.ar-general of the diocese.) Since about the middle of the
_" ^ ^^ntury consistory courts have been shorn of much of their
J ^* *? fiance. Before the year 1858 consistory courts exorcised
IL^** rrently with the courts of their respective provinces
Taction over matrimonial and testamentary matters. This
liction was taken away by the Court of Probate Act 1857
'. _ • VHe Matrimonial Causes Act 1857. They had also corrective
_^ ^diction over criminous clerks, but this was abrogated by
"— ~ Church Discipline Act 1840. The principal business of con-
_ ri __ -^ty courts is now the dispensing of faculties. The procedure
""" Such is strictly forensic, for all applications for faculties,
_^ ~^Ugh they may be unopposed, are commenced by citation,
2r~ ^*ng on all who may have an interest to oppose. From the
^^"^sistory courts an appeal lies to the provincial courts, i.e. the
^ Jse *ihes court of Canterbury and the chancery court of York,
no, by the Clergy Discipline Act 1S92, a clergyman may be
** ^Mecuted and tried in a consistory court for immoral acts
^ ^ conduct. Under this act, either party may appeal either
** ' the provincial court or to the king in council against any
^^» * dgment of a consistory court.
^*- - CONSOLATION (Fr. consolation, Lai eonsolath, from con-
^"^ Jari, to assuage, comfort, console), in general, the soothing of
-^ isappointraent or grief. The word is applied equally to the
e .rrtion of consoling, to the state of being consoled, and to the
V»* tstruments by which comfort is brought. Thus we speak of
«s person making attempts at consolation, of receiving consola-
>=s ion, and e.g. of the consolations of religion. In the sense of
^compensation for loss, the word " consolation " has had a variety
^n ,f adaptations. Of its use in ecclesiastical Latin, in this sense,
*-Ou Cange gives various instances. Thus the synod of Angers
3r £ . 453) decreed that those clerics " qui sunt caclibcs, nonnisi a
jr stororibus aut amatis aut matribus consolcntur "; consolaiio
z=y aras also the name given ,e.g., to the evening meal given to monks
:» after the regular collation " by way of consolation " and to
KKsCertatn payments made to members of chapters over and above
^~4he revenues of their benefices. In an analogous sense we use
si the word in such combinations as "consolation prize," "con-
c isolation race," " consolation stakes," meaning such as arc open
* ^onJy to competitors who have not won in any preceding " event."
^^Consolation is also the name of a French gambling game, so
g^ called because it is usually played' on and about race-courses
^ after the races have been run and the players have presumably
lost The necessary implements are a board divided into
tg sections numbered from x to 6, upon which the players place
. their stakes, and a die which is shaken in a box and thrown on
the hoard. Tho banker, usually a professional gambler, pays
five times the money on the winning number and pockets the
rest. His chances of winning are overwhelming, as the die.
is never thrown until a stake has been placed upon aU six
compartments.
CONSOLE (a French form, supposed to be an abbreviation of
consolidl, from Lat. consolidate, to strengthen), the architectural
term given to a corbel (q.v.) placed on end, i.e. in which the
height is greater than the projection. The console brackets
which carry the cornice of a Roman doorway, and are described
by Vitruvius as ancones (see Ancon), are among the best
examples. The word is, however, more familiar in its connexion
with furniture. The console-table was originally so called
because the slab was supported upon a scroll-shaped bracket,
or upon legs which in form and contour answered roughly to
the idea of a bracket. A console-table has a front and two sides;
the back, which remains unornamented, always stands against
the wall. Since this piece of furniture was first introduced in
the 17th century it has undergone many mutations of form.
It has been flat and oblong, oval and bombe; but, save during
the Empire period, it has rarely been severe. The console-table
—the slab of which is often of marble — lends itself with peculiar
adaptability to ornament, and, especially during the first half
of the iSth century which was its most distinguished and,
artistically, its most satisfactory period, it was often of extreme
grace and elegance. France was always its natural home, and
the Mobilier National and the great French palaces still contain
many extremely ornate examples, in which fruits and flowers,
wreaths and scrolls, gildings and inlayings produce gorgeous
yet homogeneous effects. Until the reign of Louis XVI. console-
tables were almost invariably gilded, but they then began to
be painted usually in gris-pcrle, and by degrees they came to
be manufactured in rose-wood and mahogany. Although much
used in England the console has never been thoroughly acclima-
tized there; that it has always retained a foreign flavour is
indicated by the fact that, unlike most other pieces of furniture,
it has failed to commend itself to any but the richer classes.
CONSOLIDATION ACTS. To " consolidate " (Lat. consolidare,
from con- t together, and sol id us, firm) is to press compactly
together, put on a firm basis, and especially bring together into
one strong whole. The practice of legislating for small portions
of a subject only at a time, which is characteristic of the English
parliament, produces as a necessary consequence great confusion
in the statute law. The acts relating to any subject of importance
or difficulty will be found to be scattered over many years, and
through the operation of clauses partially repealing or amending
former acts, the final sense of the legislature becomes enveloped
in unintelligible or contradictory expressions. Where oppor-
tunity offers, the law thus expressed in many statutes is
sometimes recast in a single statute, called a Consolidation Act.
Among such are acts dealing with the customs, stamps and
stamp duties, public health, weights and measures, sheriffs,
coroners, county courts, housing, municipal corporations,
libraries, trustees, copyhold, diseases of animals, merchant
shipping, friendly societies, &c. These observations apply to
the public general acts of the legislature. On the other hand,
in settling private acts, such as those relating to railway and
canal enterprise, the legislature always inserted certain clauses
founded on reasons of public policy applicable to the business
in question. To avoid the necessity of constantly re-enacting
the same principles in private acts, their common clauses were
embodied in separate statutes, and their provisions are ordered
to be incorporated in any private act of the description mentioned
therein. Such are the Lands Clauses Acts, the Companies Clauses
Acts and the Railways Clauses Acts.
CONSOLS, an abbreviation of consolidated annuities, a form
of British government stock which originated in 175 1. Consols
now form the larger portion of the funded debt of the United
Kingdom. In the progress of the national debt it was deemed
expedient, on grounds which have been much questioned, instead
of borrowing at various rates of interest, accordUv^ta *3». ^\3*».
of the maAel ot \Yvt traA. *tA ur&x o\ ^d*. vnotswwn.^ *»«.
980
CONSORT— CONSPIRACY
a fixed rate of interest, usually 3 or 3}%, and as the market re-
quired to give the lenders an advantage in the principal funded.
Thus subscribers of £100 would sometimes receive £150 of 3%
*tock. In 18 1 s, at the close of the French wars, a large loan was
raised at as much as £174 3% stock for £100. The low rate of
interest was thus purely nominal, while the principal of the debt
was increased beyond all due proportion. This practice began
in the reign of George II •• when some portions of the debt on
which the interest had been successfully reduced were con-
solidated into 3% annuities, and consols, as the annuities were
called, and other stocksof nominally low interest, rapidly increased
under the same practice during the great wars. In times of peace,,
when the rate of money has enabled portions of the debt at a
higher interest to be commuted into stock of lower mterest,
it has usually been into consols that the conversion has been
effected. Temporary deficits of the revenue have been covered
by an issue of consols; exchequer bills when funded have taken
the same form, though not constantly or exclusively; and some
government loans for special purposes, such as the relief of the
Irish famine and the expenditure in the Crimean and Boer Wars
have been wholly or partly raised in consols. The consequence
has been to give this stock a pre-eminence in the amount of
the funded debt. See further under National Debt: United
Kingdom.
CONSORT (Lat. tensers, a companion), in general, a partner
or associate, but more particularly a husband or wife. The word
is also used in conjunction wiih some titles, as " queen consort,"
" prince consort." Under the law of. the United Kingdom, the
queen consort is a subject, but has certain privileges. By
the Treason Act 1351, the compassing and imagining her death
is high treason, as is also the commission of adultery with her.
With regard to the acquisition and disposal of property, the
incurring of rights and liabilities under contract, suing and being
sued, a queen consort is regarded as ifcmc sole (3' Henry VIII.
c 51. i$4°i Private Property of the Sovereign Act 1S00). The
queen consort has her own ceremonial officers and appears
in the courts by her attorney- and solicitor-general. At one
time »hc had a revenue out of the demesne lands of the crown
and a portion of any sum paid by a subject to the king in return
for a grant of any office or franchise; this was termed cur mm
ri-xiiur or qucongold. Provision is now made for the queen
consort by statute. When the husband of a queen consort dies
she becomes a queen dowager. A queen dowager is not under
the protection of the law of treason. It is said iBlackstone.
Commentaries) that she cannot many without the king's licence,
but this is doubtful. A queen regnant, holding the crown in
her o«n right, has all the prerogatives of a sovereign. In the
four cases of queens regnant in English history, the husbands*
positions have each been different. When Queen Mary I. married
Philip of Spain it was provided by every saicguard that words
could suggest that the queen alone should exercise all the powers
of the crown; official documents, however, were to issue in their
joint names. William III. occupied the throne jointly with
his wife. Mary II. The husband of Queen Anne, George of
Pcnmark. who was naturalised by act of parliament in itSo,
occupied no definite position, and differed "or.ly from other
subjects of the queen ir. the conditions of his naturalization.
The position of Prince Albert of Saxc-Coburg-Gotha, the husband
of Queen Victoria. was somewhat like that of rrir.ee George of
Denmark. A few days before his marriage he had been natural-
ised as a British subject, and immediately after his marriage
letters ruten; were issued, giving him precedence next to the
queen. He ha.!, however, r.o distinctive t:t"e. and the privileges
ar.d precede r ce he re.*< : ved w tre only by courtesy. As th e patea l
wVich gave hirr. pr*\-y\"er.ce was inoperative outside the United
Kir^lon. certain £ faculties occurred at foreign courts, ar.d is
etder 10 settle these, the formal title of " Prince Consort " was
CBcfrrtfd ujvr. hln by letters piter.t in t?5*.
CONWIRACY {from La:. ,.-*j»;»:v. "literacy to breathe
tB^Scr. to agree. cwb:r.e ;- J orv^aliy to fcrr= a secret r'ot' .
A E^c&jJk Ijw. an agree:-.— : Ut««3 t»o or rrxrre pcrs:-.s :c
4***ruia vax^ru/jt-Ut »i-ci zxy ot, however, be pv,riv v ibU
when committed by a single person, not acting in con-
others. The following are enumerated in text-books as tl
an agreement to do which, made between several pen
stitutes the offence of conspiracy:— (1) Falsely to charg
with a crime punishable by law, either from a mal
vindictive motive or feeling towards the party, or for th
of extorting money from him; (2) wrongfully to injui
judice a third person or any body of men in any othei
(3) to commit any offence punishable by law;- (4) to d
with intent to pervert the course of justice; (5) to effe
purpose, with a corrupt intent or by improper means;
are added (6) conspiracies or combinations among wo
raise wages.
The division is not a perfect one, but a few examp
each of the heads will indicate the nature of the offence i
law. First, a conspiracy to charge a man falsely
felony or misdemeanour is criminal; but an agrcemcx
secute a man who is guilty, or against whom there are n
grounds for suspicion, is not. Under the second head
books give a great variety of examples, — e.g. mock
where sham bidders cause the goods to go off at pric<
above their worth; a conspiracy to raise the price of
spreading false rumours; a conspiracy by persona
themselves to be reputed men of property, in order 1
tradesmen. These examples show how wide the law
its conception of criminal agreement. The third heac
no explanation. A conspiracy to murder is express
punishable by penal servitude and imprisonment v The
against the Person Act 1S61). A curious example of a
under the fourth head is the case in which several pen
convicted of conspiracy to procure another to rob or.e
so that by convicting the robber they might obtain :h
given in such cases. The combination to effect a Li . ;"■_
with corrupt intent or by improper means is eocznj
agreements to procure seduction, &c.
The most important question in the law of cor_sp:rs
from the statute law affecting labourers, is how f.ir th.r
may be lawfully done by individuals can become crlrr..
done by individuals acting in concert, and some !:^ht
thrown on it by a short statement of the history of th-
ine early period of the law down to the i;th century, c:
was denned by the Ordinance of Conspirators cf :_:?;:
spirators be they that do confedr or bind thcms<c..«
covenant, or other alliance, that every of them shall ali
falsely and maliciously to indite, or cause to incite or ;
move or maintain picas, and also such as cause c h:i izt
age to appeal men of felony, whereby they are irr.rri*
sore grieved, and such as retain men in the country wit.
or fees to maintain their malicious enterprises, ar. d this e
as well to the takers as to the givers." The crTer.ce
here is conspiracy to indict or to maintain suits falser
was held that a conspiracy under the act was not cc rr pic
some suit had been maintained or some pcrscr. Lai be*
indicted and acquitted. A doctrine, however, gr; - up
agreement was in itself criminal, although the ccrsjri
not actually completed ; Poulterer's case, 16: 1 1. This c
into the role that any agreement to commit a crime ;
prosecuted as a eor.sfiracy. A st31 further ce-. e. : - =*-
doctrine is that a combination might be cri.-^rj.:. a^
object apart from combination would nit h-= ::-—- ' r
cases bearing on this question waJ be found arrangs-i «
following heads, and in chronological order, in the
Crtiin^ Crvfiruic: znJ A£rea*e*ts, by R. S W r jh: .
iS;,;':— Combinations against government; com":,ii
deieat or pervert jus tire; ccm b'r .iLons a^nst r- v -*^
or decency'; ccmMnatioa to deiraui; comb. JiaLiw 1
otherwise than by :r*ui f trade comb izati ■jTJ. ' * I *. h cae
says the author. " that ca a review of ail tie c::.f_ccs
, a gr:it pre;<n^-nr.ce of authority is favour z: -J- • r<\
I that. £j - rue. an agreement or combtnatix: a z jc
. ur.rss it he :cr acts or orr.i\s*:ns »wh*irir as e-is «
1 «hj£\ woCi\< cnn. : -.i\ \iax\ '.sets, xg eem-zi ' A d
CONSTABLE, A.
981
Lord Denman's is often quoted as supplying a definition of
conspiracy. It is, he says, either a combination to procure an
unlawful object, or to procure a lawful object by unlawful means;
but the exact meaning to be given to the word " lawful " in this
antithesis has nowhere been precisely stated. A thing may be
unlawful in the sense that the law will not aid it, although it may
not expressly punish it. The extreme limit of the doctrine is
reached in the suggestion that a combination to hiss an actor
at a theatre is a punishable conspiracy.
The application of the wide conception of conspiracy to trade
disputes and to civil questions arising out of contracts for service
is dealt with under the headings Labour Legislation, Strikes
and Lock-outs and Trade Unions. The criminal side is
regulated by the Conspiracy and Protection to Property Act
1875, which enacted that ' an agreement or combination by
two or more persons to do, or procure to be done, any act
in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute between
employers and workmen shall not be indictable as a conspiracy, if
such act committed by one person would not be punishable as a
crime. When a person is convicted of any such agreement or com-
bination to do an act which is punishable only on summary con-
viction, and is sentenced to imprisonment , I he imprisonment shall
not exceed three months, or such longer period, if any, as may have
been prescribed by the statute for the punishment of the said
act when committed by one person." The effect of the act of
1875 hi conjunction with the Employers and Workmen Act of
the same year is that breach of contract between master and
workmen is to be dealt with as a civil and not as a criminal case,
with two exceptions. A person employed on the supply of gas
and water, breaking his contract with his employer, and knowing,
or having reasonable cause to believe, that the consequence of
his doing so, cither alone or in combination with others, will be
to deprive the inhabitants of the place wholly or to a great extent
of their supply of gas or water, shall be liable on conviction to a
penalty not exceeding £20, or a term of imprisonment not ex-
ceeding three months. And generally any person wilfully and
maliciously breaking a contract of service or hiring, knowing or
having reasonable cause to believe that the probable consequences
of his so doing cither alone or in combination with others will be
to endanger human life or cause serious bodily injury, or to expose
valuable property whether real or personal to destruction or
serious injury, shall be liable to the same penalty. By section 7
every person who, with a view to compel any other person to
abstain from doing or to do any act which such other person has
a legal right to do or abstain from doing, wrongfully and without
legal authority, (1) uses violence to or intimidates such other
person, or his wife and children, or injures his property; or
(2) persistently follows such other person about from place to
place; or (3) hides any took, clothes or other property owned
or used by such other person, or deprives him of or hinders him
in the use thereof; or (4) watches or besets the house or other
place where such other person resides, or works, or carries on
business, or happens to be, or the approach to such house or
place; or (5) follows such other person with two or more other
persons, in a disorderly manner, in or through any street or road,
shall be liable to the before-mentioned penalties. Of course a
combination to do any of these acts would be punishable as a
conspiracy, as mentioned in section 3 above.
Seamen are expressly exempted from the operation of this act.
The exceptions as to contracts of service for the supply of gas
and water, &c, were supported by the circumstances of the
London gas stokers' case in 1872.
Conspiracy at common law is a misdemeanour, and the
punishment is fine or imprisonment, or both, to which may be
added hard labour in the case of any conspiracy to cheat and
defraud, or to extort money or goods, or falsely to accuse of any
crime, and to obstruct, pervert, prevent or defeat the cause of
justice. Conspiracy to murder, whether the victim be a subject
of the king or resident in his dominions or not, is, by the Offences
against the Person Act 1861, punishable by penal servitude.
United States.— The most generally accepted definition of
conspiracy in the United States is " a combination of two or
more persons by some concerted action to accomplish some
criminal or unlawful purpose, or to accomplish some purpose
not in itself criminal or unlawful by criminal or unlawful
means"; though in some states, e.g. Colorado, it is not
conspiracy under the statute to do a lawful act in an unlawful
way {Lipschitz v. People [1898] 25 Col. 261). In some states
an overt act must be shown (N.Y. Pen. Code, % 171). This
is so in the Federal Courts, United Slates v. McCord (72 Fed.
R. 159). Conspiracy out of the slate to do any act which If
done within the state would be treason is punishable by im-
prisonment not exceeding ten years {ibid. % 160). The United
States Revised Statutes, § 5440, make any conspiracy to commit
an act, declared by any law of the United States to be a
crime, an offence against the United States, e.g. a conspiracy to
plunder a wrecked vessel within the admiralty and maritime
jurisdiction of the United States (t/«S. v. Sanche, 7 Fed. R. 715),
conspiracy to violate the postal laws (Re Renhle [1003] 125 Fed.
R. 996), to violate the revenue laws (U.S. v. Cohn [1904] 128 FccL
R. 615). It is not essential that the object be accomplished
( Radford v. U. S. [z 904] 1 29 Fed. R . 49). A conspiracy to depress
the market price of stock by circulating false reports that the
company was going into the hands of a -receiver is indictable
under N.Y. Pen. Code, § 168 (People v. Coslin I1901J 67 N.Y.
App. D. 16, affirmed 171 N.Y. 627).
CONSTABLE, ARCHIBALD (1 774-1827), Scottish publisher,
was born on the 24th of February 1774 at Carnbec, Fife. His
father was land steward to the carl of Kcllie. In 1 788 Archibald
was apprenticed to Peter Hill, bookseller, of Edinburgh, but
in 1795 he started in business for himself as a dealer in rare
and curious books. He bought the Scots Magazine in 1801,
and John Leydcn, the orientalist, became its editor. In 1800
Constable began the Farmer's Magazine, and in November 1803
he issued the first number of the Edinburgh Review, under the
nominal editorship of Sydney Smith; Lord Jeffrey, was, how-
ever, the guiding spirit of the review, having as his associates
Lord Breugham, Sir Walter Scott, Henry Hallam, John Playfair
and afterwards Macaulay* Constable made a new departure
in publishing by the generosity of his terms to authors. The
writers for the Edinburgh Review were paid at an unprecedented
rate, and Constable offered Scott 1000 guineas in advance for
Marmion. In 1804 A. G. Hunter joined Constable as partner,
bringing considerable capital into the firm, styled from that
time Archibald Constable & Co. In 1805, jointly with Long-
man & Co., Constable published Scott's Lay of the Last Minstrel,
and in 1807 Marmion. In 1808 a split took place between
Constable and Sir Walter Scott, who transferred his business
to the publishing firm of John Ballantyne & Co., for which he
supplied the greater part of the capital. In 1813, however, a
reconciliation took place. The publishing firm of Ballantyne
was in difficulties, and Constable again became Scott's publisher,
a condition being that the firm of John Ballantyne & Co. should
be wound up at an early date, though Scott retained his interest
in the printing business of James Ballantyne & Co. In 181 a
Constable, who had admitted Robert Cathcart and Robert
Cadell as partners on the retirement of A. G. Hunter, purchased
the copyright of the Encyclopaedia Britannico, adding the
supplement (6 vols., 1816-1824) to the 4th, 5th and 6th editions
(see Encyclopaedia). In 18 14 he bought the copyright of
Waverley. This was issued anonymously; but in a short time
12,000 copies were disposed of, Scott's other novels following m
quick succession. The firm also published the Annual Register.
Through over-speculation, complications in Constable's business
arose, and in 1826 a crash came.. Constable's London agents
stopped payment, and he failed for over £250,000, while James
Ballantyne & Co. also went bankrupt for nearly £90,000. Sit
Walter Scott was involved in the failure of both firms. Constable
started business afresh, and began in 1827 Constable's Miscellany
of original and selected works . . . consisting of a series of original
works, and of standard books republished in a cheap form, thus
making one of the earliest tfnd most famous attempts to popu-
larize wholesome literature. He died on the 21st of July iStv
After Constable's tankx^Vci % ^0o«v ^aifc^ Vv\<*»^a>v^v
982
CONSTABLE, HENRY-CONSTABLE, JOHN
bad been las partner, in conjunction with Sir Walter Scott,
bought from the various publishers in whose hands they were,
afl Scott's novels which had been issued up to that time, and
began the issue of the forty-eight volume edition (1829-1833).
The result of its publication was that the debt on Abbotsford
was redeemed, and that Cadell bought the estate of Ratho near
Edinburgh, which he owned till his death on the 21st of January
1840.
Archibald Constable's son .Thomas (18 1 2-1881), was appointed
in 1839 printer and publisher in Edinburgh to Queen Victoria,
and issued, among other notable scries, Constable's Educational
Series, and Constable's Foreign Miscellany. In 1865 his son
Archibald became a partner, and when he retired in 1803 tne
firm continued under the name of T. & A. Constable.
See alto Archibald Constable and his Literary Correspondents, by
his son Thomas Constable (3 vols., 1873). This book contains
numerous contemporary notices of Archibald Constable, and vindi-
cates him from the exaggeration of J. G. Lockhart and others.
CONSTABLE, HENRY (1562-1613), English poet, was born
in 156a. His father, Sir Robert Constable, was knighted by the
earl of Essex in Scotland in 1570, and was the author of a work
On Ike Ordering of a Camp. The poet went to St John's College,
Cambridge, where he took his degree of B.A. in 1580. lie was
(or now became) a Roman Catholic, and we hear of him next in
Paris, whence in 1584 and 1585 he wrote to Walsingham letters
which still exist, and which prove Constable to have been in the
secret service of the English government. A later correspondence
with Essex contains protestations of his loyalty. He was
probably still abroad, when, in the autumn of 1592, a London
publisher issued Diana, the praises of his Mistress in certain
sweet sonnets, by H. C, containing 23 poems. A reissue of this
pamphlet in 1594 (misprinted 1584) was greatly enlarged, not
merely by more sonnets which may or may not be Constable's,
but by eight poems which were certainly the work of Sir Philip
Sidney. Published a few weeks after the Delia of Daniel, the
original Diana of 1592 claims a very early place in the evolution
of the Elizabethan sonnet. In 1598 Constable was sent on a
mission from the Pope to Scotland, the idea being that James VI.
was to be supported in his claim to the English succession on
condition of his setting English Romanists free from the exist-
ing disabilities. Constable's mission came to nothing, and be
entered the service of the king of France. Later he asked for
permission to return to England, but it was refused. In con-
sequence of a surreptitious excursion to London, he was captured
and imprisoned in the Tower in 1604. After a manhood spent
in almost continuous exile, Henry Constable died at Liege on
the 9th of October 1613. The Diana was the only work printed
in the poet's life-time; it was augmented from MS. sources by
H. J. Todd, in 1813. His Spiritual Sonnets first appeared in
181 5, edited by Thomas Park. Almost the only known pieces by
Constable which are not sonnets are the song of " Diaphenia,"
and the beautiful pastoral canzone on " Venus and Adonis,"
contained in the England's Helicon of 1600. In 1594 he prefixed
four sonnets, addressed to the soul of Sir Philip Sidney, to that
writer's Apology of Poetry. A prose work of devotion, The
Catholic Moderator (1623), has been attributed to Constable.
Who Diana was has never been determined, but it has been
conjectured that she may have been Mary, countess of Shrews-
bury, who was a distant cousin of the poet. The body of
Constable's writing is so small, and its authenticity so little
supported by evidence, that it is rash to give a very definite
opinion as to its character. But it is evident, from his undoubted
productions, that he was much under the influence of the French
poets of his time, particularly of Desportes, as well as of Petrarch
and Sidney. That Shakespeare was acquain ted with Constable's
poetry and admired it seems to be certain, and that he borrowed
from it, "gives it," as Mr Sidney Lee has said, "its most lasting
interest." In the arrangement of his rhymes, Constable usually
keeps closer to the Petrarchan model than Daniel and the other
contemporary sonneteers are accustomed to do. (E. G.)
CONSTABLE, JOHN (1776-1837), English landscape painter,
was born at East Bergholt in Suffolk on the nth of June 1776.
His father was a man of some property, rndudttg
Dedham and Flatford, and two windmills, in »L
second son, was set to work at the age of seventeen,
Dedham grammar school. From boyhood he to
painting, which he studied in bis spare lime in
John Dunthorne, a local plumber and glazier,
thus he made the acquaintance of Sir George
ocre painter but a keen patron of the arts,
by the sight of Claude's " Hagar and Ishmad " *dl—
drawings of Girtin which Sir George possessed. Ha jhA bhO
art increasing, he was allowed by his father to iM
in 1 795 to consult the landscape-painter Joseph Fi
(1747-1821), who recognized his originality and gaw
technical hints. He also made the acquain lance of
J. T. Smith, who taught him etching, and
him during the next few years, which were spent .
London and partly in Suffolk. In 1797 he was reca&cflU
in his father's counting-house at Bergholt, and it
February 1799 that he definitely adopted the
painting, and became a student at the Royal Academy-
existing works of this period are heavy, clumsy and
Recognizing their faults, Constable worked hard at
masters " to acquire execution." The remedy was
for his sketches on a tour in Derbyshire in 1 So 1 show coos&s
freshness and accomplishment. In 1802 he exhibited U
Royal Academy, and was much helped and encouraged If 1
president, Benjamin West, who did him a further ta
preventing him from accepting a drawing -mastership
by Archdeacon Fisher, of Salisbury), and thereby
stimulating his efforts. The manner of West appeals
in thealtarpiece painted by Constable for Brant ham thnniV
1804, but Gainsborough, the Dutch masters and Girtin in *
predominant influences upon his landscape, especially Girta a
the year 1805, and in 1806, when he visited the Lake DctrC-
From 1806 to 1809 Constable was frequently engaged in Mktj
portraits or in copying portraits by Reynolds and Hoopxt
The effect on his landscape was great. He learned how to in-
struct an oil painting, and the efforts of the neat few- yean m
devoted to combining this knowledge with his, innate low? d
the fresh colour of nature.
With the year 181 1 began a* critical period. He exhibit
a large view of Dedham Vale, in which the characteristic feaiere
of his art appear for the first time almost fully developed, and it
became attached to Miss Maria Bicknell. His suit was opposed
by the lady's relatives, and Constable's apparently bopeka
prospects drove him again to portrait-paint ins, in which k
acquired considerable skill. It was not till the death of to
father in 1816 that he was able to marry and settle m No. 1
Keppel Street, Russell Square, where a succession of worii
now well known were painted: "Flatford Mill " (1S17K J 'A
Cottage in a Cornfield," and in 1819 " The White Horse/* which
was bought by his great friend Archdeacon Fisher for £105, ai
was the "Stratford Mill" of 182a In 1819 two legacies each
of £4000 diminished his domestic anxieties, and his talent tu
recognized by his election in November to the associairship
of the Royal Academy. The series of important works wis
continued by " The Haywain " (1821), " A View on the Stour "
(1822), " Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop's Garden " ( iSij),
and " The Lock " (1824). This last year was a memorable our
" The Haywain " was sold to a Frenchman, was exhibited it
the Louvre, and, after creating a profound sensation among
French artists, was awarded a gold medal. In the following
year " The White Horse " won a similar distinction at Lille*
In 1825 he exhibited " The Leaping Horse " (perhaps his master*
piece), in 1826 "The Cornfield," in 1827 " The Marine Parade
and Chain Pier, Brighton," and in 1828 " Dedham Vale."
In 1822 Constable had taken Farington's house, 35 Charlotte
Street, FiUroy Square, but his wife's failing health made bio
turn his attention to Hampstead, and after temporary occupa-
tion first of 2 Lower Terrace and then of a house on Downshiie
Hill, he took No. 6 Well Walk, in 1827, letting the greater part of
his London house. In i&i& bis fcftx&tal ^osvivoa <«raa made
CONSTABLE, SIR M.— CONSTABLE
983
c by a legacy of £;o.ooo (rum Mr Bickncll, hut the d«.ath
S wife towards the end of the year was a shock from which
r wholly recovered. His election to membership of the
^iJUny in the following year did not lessen his distress: he
^ «htt the honour had been delayed too long. His chief
lit In iSao was " Hadleigh Castle," and this was succeeded
t great " Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows " (1831),
k-2 An Opening of Waterloo Bridge " (1832), which had been
csxUDin 1817, " Englcfield House " (1833), " The Valley Farm "
s^ 35). " The Cenotaph " (1836), and " Arundel Mill and Castle"
1^2.-37). Constable had long suffered from rheumatism and
is— TVous depression, but his sudden death on the 31st of March
- ». 3^7 could be traced to no definite disease. He was buried in
- ^Tlju npstead churchyard, where his tomb may still be seen.
^J"^Xn May 1838 his remaining works were sold at auction, but
t^^lched very small prices. Many were bought in by his children,
-^-Od through their generosity have passed to the English nation,
l the national collections at Trafalgar Square, Millbank and
_ ~~Duth Kensington testify. Nowhere else can Constable's art
- _ e studied completely or safely, since forgeries and imitations
^~~"re common and have crept into the Louvre and other famous
Zl^jalleries. Much of the power of his work survives in the noble
mttmm " , avt% of mezzotints made after his sketches by David Lucas,
"^ md first issued in 1 833. Though a commercial failure at the time
**" >c jf publication, this English Landscape series is now deservedly
^ prized, as are the other plates which Lucas engraved after Con-
*""H table. Constable himself made a few desultory experiments in
■^■^etching, but they are of no importance.
^ As already indicated, the mature art of Constable did not
:sr develop till after the year 181 1, when he began to combine the
r» fresh colour of nature, which he had learned to depict by working
■Jp fn the open air, with the art of making a picture, which he had
— learned from painting portraits and copying those of other
=' masters. His development was unusually slow, and his finest
^* work, with but few exceptions, was done between his fortieth
5"* and fiftieth years (1816-1826). During the last twelve years of
* his life his manner became more free, and the palette knife was
r constantly used to apply spots and splashes of pure colour, so
'' that his technique often suggests that afterwards employed by
*•' the Impressionists. Yet his direct influence upon French
landscape has sometimes been overrated. When Constable
- first exhibited at the Salon in 182s Theodore Rousseau, the
•" pioneer of French naturalism, was only twelve years old, and the
: movement of 1830 was really originated in France by Gros and
Gencault, while in England the water-colour painters led the
way. Constable's death in 1837 removed the man and most of
his work from the public eye for another generation, and he
became a famous shadow rather than a living force. So Monet
and the Impressionists, when they sought after the secret of
painting air and sunshine, looked to Turner rather than to Con-
stable, and in England the eloquence of Ruskin pointed in the
same direction.
Since the British nation came into the possession of a large
portion of Constable's pictures and sketches, his work has been
better understood. Though limited in range of subject to the
scenery of Suffolk, Hampstead, Salisbury and Brighton, his
sketches express the tone, colour, movement and atmosphere
of the scenes represented with unrivalled force and truthfulness,
and modern criticism tends to rate their spontaneity above the
deliberate accomplishment of his large finished works. His
treatment of skies is specially notable. Here his early experience
as a miller told in his favour. No one has painted English
cloud e fleets so truthfully, or used them as a compositional
quantity with so much skill. Though in looking at nature he was
determined to see with his own eyes and not with those of any
former master, he found that the science of his predecessors
was necessary to him before his sketches could be translated
into large pictures. In these pictures his vivid tones and fresh
colour are grafted upon the formulae of Claude and Rubens,
and it is a common error to regard Constable as an opponent of
the great old masters. His pictures, like his writings and lectures,
prove just the reverse. His dislike was reserved for the painters
who took their ideas from other painters instead of getting them
directly from nature.
Authorities. — Among older books ace C. R. Leslie, Memoirs of
the Life of John Constable. R. A. (London, and ed. 184$, 3rd ed.
1896) (the classical work on the subject); and English Landscape
Scenery, a Series of Forty Mezzotint Engravings om Steel, by David
Lucas, from pictures painted by John Constable, R~A. (London, folio,
1 85$). The large work on Constable and his Influence on Landscape
Painting, by C. J. Holmes (1003), contains the only chronological
catalogue of Constable's paintings and sketches. Leslie's biography
has been admirably rendered into French by M. Leon Batalgette
(Paris. H. Floury, 1005)- (C J. H.)
CONSTABLE, SIR MARMADUKB (c. 1455-1518), English
soldier, was descended from a certain Robert (d. 1216), lord
of Flamborough, who was related to the Lacys, hereditary
constables of Chester, hence the surname of the family. A son
of Sir Robert Constable (d. 1488), Marmaduke was in France
with Edward IV. in 1475 and wiln Henry VII. in 149a. He was
sheriff of Staffordshire and Yorkshire, was in high favour with
Henry VII. and Henry VIII., and led bis kinsmen and retainers
to the battle of Floddcn in 15 13. He was twice married, and
left several sons when he died on the 20th of November 1518.
In Flamborough church one may still read a rhyming epitaph
describing Constable's life and prowess.
Sir Marmaduke 's eldest son, Sir Robert Constable (c. 1478-
i5J7)i helped Henry VII. to defeat the Cornish rebels at Black-
heath in 1497- In 1 536, when the rising known as the Pilgrimage
of Grace broke out in the north of England, Constable was one
of the insurgent leaders, but towards the close of the year he
submitted at Doncastcr and was pardoned. He did not sharo
in the renewal of the rising which took place in January 1537;
but he refused the king's invitation to proceed to London, and
was arrested. Tried for treason, he was hanged at Hull in the
following June.
Sir Marmadukc's second son, Sir Marmaduke Constable
(c. 1480-1545)1 was knighted after the battle of Flodden, and
was at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 152a He was a knight
of the shire for Yorkshire and then for Warwickshire, and was
a member of the Council of the North from 1 537 until his death.
Another noteworthy member of this family was the regicide,
Sir William Constable (d. 1655), who was created a baronet in
161 1. A member of the Long Parliament, he fought with
distinction among the parliamentarians at Edgehill; in 1644
his military enterprises in north Yorkshire were very successful,
and later he guarded the king at Carisbrooke, and was governor
of Gloucester. He was one of the king's judges, was a member
of the council of state under Cromwell, and died in London 00
the 15th of June 1655.
CONSTABLE (O. Fr. connestalU, Fr. connHabU, Med. LaL
cameslabilis, conestabilis, conslabularius, from the Lat. comes
stabuli, count of the stable), a title now confined to the lord
high constable of England, the lord constable of Scotland, the
constables of some royal castles in England, and to certain
executive legal officials of inferior rank in Great Britain and the
United States.
The history of the constable is closely analogous to that of
the marshal (q.v.); for just as the modern marshals, whatever
their rank or office, are traceable both as to their title and
functions to the marescalcus, or master of the horse, of the
Frankish kings, so the constable, whether he be a high dignitary
of the royal court or a " petty constable " in a village, is derived
by a logical evolution from the counts of the stable of the East
Roman Emperors.
The Byzantine comes stabuli (top*!* toO* oto/JXov) was in hit
origin simply the imperial master of the horse, the head of the
imperial stables, and a great officer of state. From the East the
title was borrowed by the Frankish kings, and during the
Carolingian epoch a comes stabuli was at the head of the royal
stud, the marshals (marescalci) being under his orders. The
office survived and expanded in France under the Capetian
dynasty; in the nth century the constable has not only the
general superintendence of the royal stud, but an important
command in the army — though still under the orders ol th*.
seneschal,— and cjextaAxw \ixax\Jtk yw*** ^ \s»»*K#a&s»» ^we»
984
CONSTANCE
this time onward the office of constable tended, in France,
continually to increase in importance. On the abolition of the
sencschalship by King Philip Augustus in 1191, the constable
succeeded to many of his powers and privileges. Thus in the
13th century he claimed as of right the privilege of leading the
vanguard of the army. Under Philip the Fair (1268-1314) he
begins to be invested with the military government of certain
provinces as lieutenant of the king (locum tenens regis); and,
finally, in the 14th century, owing to the confusion of his high
prerogatives as the royal lieutenant with his functions as con-
stable, he is, as constable, recognized as commander-in-chief
of the army. The French kings never allowed the office of
constable to become hereditary, and in January 1627, after the
death of Francois de Bonne, due de Lcsdiguieres, the office was
suppressed by royal edict. Napoleon created the office of grand
constable for his brother Louis, and that of vice-constable for
Marshal Berthier, but these were suppressed at the Restoration.
The jurisdiction of the constable, known as the connitablie el
marickaussle dc France, was held in fee until the abolition of the
office of constable, when it became a royal court, without,
however, changing its name. Henceforth it was nominally under
the senior marshal of France, and all marshals had the right of
sitting as judges; but actually it was presided over by the
lieutenant gintral with the lieutenant particulier and the procureur
dn rou&s assessors. At first peripatetic, its seat was ultimately
fixed at Paris, as part of the organization of the parlement. Its
jurisdiction, which included all military persons and causes,
was somewhat vaguely extended to embrace all crimes of violence,
&c, committed outside the jurisdiction of the towns; it thus
came often into conflict with that of the other royal courts.
The office of constable was not confined on the continent to
France. The Gothic kings of Spain had their comitcs stabuli;
so did, later on, the kings of Naples, where the functions of this
officer were much the same as in France. The great vassals of
the French crown, moreover, arranging their households on the
model of that of the king, had their constables, whose office
tended for the most part to become hereditary. Thus the
constableship of the county of Toulouse was hereditary in the
family of Sabran, that of Normandy in the house of Crespin.
In England the title of constable was unknown before the
Conquest, though the functions of the office were practically
those of the English staUer. In the laws of Edward the Confessor
the title constable is mentioned as the French equivalent for
the English ktrctoga, or military commander (ductor exercitus).
But among the great officers of the Norman-English court the
constable duly makes his appearance as " quartermaster-general
of the court and of the army." In England, however, where the
office soon became hereditary, the constable never attained the
same commanding position as in France, though the military
duties attached to his office prevented its sinking into a mere
grand serjeanty. He was not the superior of the marshal, the
functions of the two offices being in fact hardly distinguishable.
From the first, moreover, the title of constable was not confined
to the constable proper, whose office in the reign of Stephen was
made hereditary under the style of high constable (see Lord
High' Constable); for every command held under the supreme
c+nstabularia was designated by this name, and there were
constables of troops, of castles, of garrisons and even of ships
(conslabularia navigii regis). Under the Norman and Angevin
kings, then, the title had come to be loosely applied to any high
military command. Its extension to officials exercising civil
jurisdiction is not difficult to account for. In feudal society,
based as this was on a military organization, it is easy to see how
the military jurisdiction of the constables would tend to encroach
on that of the civil magistrates. The origin of the modern chief
and petty constables, however, is to be traced to the Statute of
Winchester of 1285, by which the national militia was organized
by a blending of the ir.ilitaiy system with the constitution of
the shires. Under this act a chief or high constable was appointed
in every hundred; while in the old tithings and villatae the
attage bailiff was genera))} appointed a petty constable, receiving
is addition to his old magisterial (uocthns a new military office.
From the time of Edward III. the old title of reeve or tithiag-oa
is lost in that of constable, which represents his character u u
officer of the peace as well as of the militia. The high and petty
constables continued to be the executive legal officers in the
counties until the County Police Acts of 1839 And 1840 re-
organized the county police. In /84s an important statute vss
passed enacting that for the future no appointment of a petty
constable, headborough, borsholder, tithing-rnan, or peace
officer of the like description should be made for arty parish at
any court lect, except for purposes unconnected with the prt»
servation of the peace, and providing, as a means of increasiaf.
the security of persons and property, for the appointment by
justices of the peace in divisional petty sessions of fit persons or
their substitutes to act as constables in the several parishes d
England, and giving vestries an optional power of providing
paid constables. Under the acts of 1839 and 1840 the establish-
ment of a paid county police force was optional with the justices.
With the Police Act of 1856 this optional power became com-
pulsory, and thenceforth the history of the petty constable is
England is that of the police. In 1869 provision was made for
the abolition of the old office of high constable (the High Coo-
stables Act 1869) and, as the establishment of an efficient police
force rendered the general appointment of parish constables
unnecessary, the appointment ceased, subject to the appointment
by vestries of paid constables under the chief constable of the
county (Parish Constables Act 1872). See further Pouce.
" Special constables " are peace officers appointed to act oa
occasional emergencies when the ordinary police force is thought
to be deficient. The appointment of special constables is for the
most part regulated by an act of 2831. In the absence of
volunteers the office is compulsory, on the appointment of two
justices. The lord-lieutenant may also appoint special constables
and the statutory exemptions may be disregarded, but voters
cannot be made to serve during a parliamentary election.
While in office special constables have all the powers of a common
law constable, and in London those of a metropolitan police
officer.
In the United States, outside the larger towns, the petty
constable retains much the same status as in England before
the act of 1842. Hs still has a limited judicial power as con-
servator of the peace, and often exercises various additional
functions, such as that of tax-collector or overseer of the roads
or other duties, as may be decided for him by the community
which appoints him. In the old colonial days the office, borrowed
from England, was of much importance. The office of high
constable existed also in Philadelphia and New York, in the
latter town until 1830, and in some towns the title has been
retained for the chief of the police force.
Sec Du Cange, Glossarium (cd. Niort, 1883), s. " Comes Stabuli ";
R. Gneist, Hist, of the Eng. Constitution (crs. London. 1891) ; W. L
Melville Lee', Hist, of Police in England (London, 1001); Encyd.
of the Lavs of England, s. " Constable " (London. 1907): \V. Scubbs,
Constitutional Hut. of England (Oxford. 1875-1878) ; A. Luchaire,
Manuel des institutions francaises (Paris, 1802). (\V. A. P.)
CONSTANCE (Ger. Konstanz or Costnitz) t a town in the grand-
duchy of Baden. It is built, at a height of 1303 ft. above the
sea, on the S. or left bank of the Rhine, just as it issues from
the Lake of Constance to form the Untcrsec. The town com*
municates by steamer with all the places situated on the shores
of the Lake of Constance, while by rail it is 30 or 31 m. by one
or other bank of the Rhine from Schaffhausen (on the W.)
and 22 J m. along the S.W. shore of the lake from Rorschach
(S.E.). In 1005 it numbered 24,818 inhabitants, mostly German-
speaking and Romanists. A fine bridge leads north over the
Rhine to one suburb, Pctershauscn, while to the south the town
gradually merges into the Swiss suburb of Kreuzlingcn. It is
a picturesque little town, with several noteworthy medieval
buildings. The former cathedral church was mainly built
1060-1080, but was later gothicized; near the west end of the
nave a plate in the floor marks the spot where Huss stood when
condemned to death, while in the midst of the choir is the brass
which covered the grave of Robert Ifallam, bishop of Salisbury,
who died here \n \av| , OMtvcviXta couxftSL. The, old Dominion
CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF
9«5
convent, on tn island east of the town, is now turned into a
hotel but the buildings (especially the cloisters) are well pre-
served. The 14th century Kaufkaut (warehouse for goods) was
the scene of the conclave that elected Martin V., but the council
really sat in the cathedral church. The town-hall dates from
1592, and has many points of interest. In the market-place,
tide by side, are two houses wherein two important historical
events are said to have taken place— in the " Gasthaus rum
Barbarossa " Frederick Barbarossa signed the peace of Constance
(1183), while in the house named "rum Hoben Hafen " the
emperor Sigismund invested Frederick of Hohenaollern with
the mark of Brandenburg (1417)* On the outskirts of the town,
to the west, in the Briihl suburb, a stone marks the spot where
Hus and Jerome of Prague were burnt to death. The Rosgarten
museum contains various interesting collections. Constance is
the centre of a brisk transit trade, while it has various factories
and other industrial establishments.
Constance owes its fame, not to the Roman station that
existed here, but to the fact that it was a bishop's see from the
6th century (when it was transferred hither from Vindonissa,
near Brugg, in the Aargau) till its suppression in 1821, after
having been secularized in 1803 and having lost, in 18x4-1815,
its Swiss portions. The bishop was a prince of the Holy Roman
Empire, while his diocese was one of the largest in Germany,
Including (shortly before the Reformation) most of Baden and
Wiintemberg, and 1 2 out of the 22 Swiss cantons (all the region
on the right bank of the Aar, save the portions included in
the diocese of Coirc) — in it were comprised 350 monasteries,
1760 benefices and 17.000 priests. It was owing to this im-
portant position that the see city of the diocese was selected
as the scene of the great reforming council, 1414-1418 (see below),
which deposed all three rival popes, elected a new one, Martin V.,
and condemned to death by fire John Huss (6th of July 141 5) and
Jerome of Prague (23rd of May r4i6). In 1102 (some writers
say in 1255) the city became an imperial free city, but the bishop
and his chapter practically ruled it till the time of the Reforma-
tion. Constance is the natural capital of the Thurgau, so that
when in 1460 the Swiss wrested that region from the Austrian!,
the town and the Swiss Confederation should have been naturally
drawn together. But Constance refused to give up to the Swiss
the right of exercising criminal jurisdiction in the Thurgau,
which it had obtained from the emperor in 14 17, while the
Austrian*, having bought Bregenz (in two parts, 1451 and 1523),
were very desirous of securing the well-placed city for themselves.
In 1530 Constance (whose bishop had been forced to flee in 1527
to Mecrsburg, on the other side of the lake, and from that time
the episcopal residence) joined, with Strassburg, Memmingen
and Lindau, the Schmalkalden League. But after the great
defeat of the Protestants in 1547, in the battle of Mtihlbcrg,
the city found itself quite isolated in southern Germany. The
Austrians had long tried to obtain influence in the town, especi-
ally when its support of the Protestant cause attracted the
sympathy of the Swiss. Hence Charles V. lost no time, and in
1548 forced it, after a bloody, though unsuccessful, fight on the
bridge over the Rhine, not merely to surrender to the imperial
authority and to receive the bishop again, but also to consent
to annexation to the. Austrian family dominions. Protestantism
was then vigorously stamped out. In 1633 Constance resisted
successfully an attempt of the Swedes to take it, and, in 1805,
by the treaty ol Pressburg, was handed over by Austria to
Baden.
See S. J. Capper, The Shores and Cities of Ike Bodensee (London,
1881). G. Gsell-FeK Der Bodensee (Munich, 1893); Brucknunn's
Ulustrierte Rciscfiihrer; E. lwel. Die Reformation in Konstanz
(Freiburg i/B., 1898); F. X. Kraus, Die KunstdenkmSler des Kreises
/Constant (Freiburg i/B., 1 887): J. Laible, CeschkkU der Stadt
Konstonu (Konstanz. 1896); A. Maurer, Der Vbertant der Stadt
KonUam an das Haus Ostemick (Frauenfeld, 1904). (W. A. B. C.)
CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF. This council, convoked at the
Instance of the emperor Sigis.nund by Pope John XXIII —
one of the three popes between whom Christendom was at the
time divided*-with the object of putting an end to the Great
Schism of the West and reforming the church, was opened on
the 5th of November 1414 and did not dose until the 22nd of
April 1418. In spite of his reluctance to go to Constance,
John XXIII., who succeeded Alexander V. (the pope elected
by the council of Pisa), hoped that the new council, while confirm-
ing the work of the council of Pisa, would proclaim him sole
legitimate pope and definitely condemn bis two rivals, Gregory
XII. and Benedict XIII. But he was soon forced to renounce
this hope. So urgent was the need of restoring union at any cost
that even prelates who had taken an active part in the work of
the council of Pisa, such as Pierre d'Ailly, cardinal bishop of
Cambrai, were forced to admit, in view of the fact that the
decisions of that council had been and were still contested, that
the only possible course was to reconsider the question of the
union de runo % entirely disregarding all previous deliberations
on the subject, and treating the claims of John and his two
competitors with the strictest impartiality. Feebly supported
by the Italians, by the majority of the cardinals, and by the
representatives of the king of France, John soon found himself
in danger of being driven to abdicate. With the connivance of
the duke of Austria he fled, first to SchafThauscn, then to Lauf en-
burg, Freiburg, and finally to Breisach, in the hope of escaping
in Burgundian territory the pressure exerted upon him by the
emperor and the fathers of the council. His flight, however,
only precipitated events. Sigismund declared war on the duke
of Austria, and the fathers, determined to have their will carried
out, drew up in their 4th and 5th sessions (30th of March and 6th
of April 14x5) a set of decrees with the intention of justifying
their attitude and putting the fugitive pope at their mercy.
Interpreted in the most general sense, these decrees, which
enacted that the council of Constance derived its power immedi-
ately from Jesus Christ, and that every one, even the pope, was
bound to obey it and every legitimately assembled general
council in all that concerned faith, reform, union, &c, were
tantamount to the overturning of the constitution of the church
by establishing the superiority of the council over the pope.
Their terms, however,could not fail to give rise to some ambiguity,
and their validity was especially contested on the ground that
the council was not ecumenical, since it represented at that
date the obedience of only one of three rival popes. Neverthe-
less, John, who had been abandoned by the duke of Austria and
imprisoned in the castle of Radolfzell, near Constance, was
arraigned, suspended and deposed (May 29th), and himself
ratified the sentence of the council.
Pope Gregory XII. was next required to renounce his rights,
and this he did, with as much independence as dignity, through
a legate, who previously convoked the council in the name of Us
master, and thus in some sort gave it the necessary confirmed
authority. This was the regular extinction of the line of pontHh
who, if the validity of the election of Urban VL on the 8th of
April 1378 be admitted, had held the legitimate papacy for thirty-
seven years.
All that remained was to obtain the abdication of Benedict
XIII., the successor of the Avignon pope Clement VII., but
the combined efforts of the council and the emperor were power-
less to overcome the obstinacy of the Aragonese pope. It was
in vain that Sigismund journeyed to Perpignan, and that the
kings of Aragon, Castile and Navarre ceased to obey lie aged
pontiff. Abandoned by almost all his adherents Benedict found
refuge in the castle of Peftiscola on an impregnable rock overlook-
ing the Mediterranean, and remained intractable. At the council
proceedings were instituted against him, which ended at last on
the 26th of July 14x7 in his deposition. In this sentence it is
to be noted that the council of Constance was careful not to bast
itself upon the former decision of the council of Pisa. The action
of the council of Constance in renewing the condemnation of
the doctrines of Wycliffc pronounced at Rome in 1413, and in
condemning and executing John Huss and Jerome of Prague,
is dealt with elsewhere (see Wyclifte; Huss; Jnora ot
Prague). Nor is it possible to mention here all the intrigues
and quarrels that arose during three and a ha]f years among
the crowd of prelates, monks, doctors, simple clerks, princes
and ambassadors composing this tumuLtuous v«at«W^— v^tsk^.
986
CONSTANCE, LAKE OF— CONSTANS
the greatest congress of people the world has ever seen. From
the outset, voting by count of heads had been superseded by
voting according to nations, i.e. all questions were deliberated
and settled in four distinct assemblies— the Italian, the French,
the German and the English, 1 — the decisions of the nations
being merely ratified afterwards pro forma by the council in
general congregation, and also, if occasion arose, in public session.
These four groups, however, were of unequal importance, and
thanks to this arrangement the English, although weakest in
point of numbers, were able to exercise the same influence in the
council as if they had formed a fourth of the voters — the same
influence, for instance, as the Italians, who had an imposing
numerical force. This anomaly aroused lively protests, especi-
ally in the French group, after the battle of Agincourt had
rekindled national animosity on both sides. The arrival of the
Spaniards at Constance necessitating the formation of a fifth
nation, Pierre d'Ailly availed himself of the opportunity to ask
either that the English nation might be merged in the German,
or that each great nation might be allowed to divide itself into
little groups each equivalent to the English nation. It is not
difficult to imagine the storms aroused by this indiscreet proposal ;
and had not the majority of the Frenchmen assembled at Con-
stance had the sagacity to refuse to uphold the cardinal of
Cambrai on this point, the upshot would have been a premature
dissolution of the council.
Another source of trouble was the attitude of the emperor
Sighunund, who, not content with protecting by his presence
and as far as possible directing the deliberations of the " Uni-
versal Church," followed on more than one occasion a policy
of violence and threats, a policy all the more irritating since,
weary of his previously assumed role of peacemaker between
the Christian powers, he had abruptly allied himself with the
king of England, and adopted an extremely hostile attitude
towards the king of France.
The reform which the council had set itself to effect was a
subject the fathers could not broach without stirring up dis-
tension: some stood out obstinately for preserving the status qua,
while others contemplated nothing less than the transformation
of the monarchical administration of the church into a parlia-
mentary democracy, the subordination of the sovereign pontiff,
And the annihilation of the Sacred College. In view of these
difficulties, the opinion which tended to assure the success of one
at least of the great tasks before the council, vis. the re-establish-
ment of unity by the election of a single pope, finally prevailed
In despite of Sigismund. The general reform on which the council
had failed to come to an understanding had to be adjourned, and
the council contented itself with promulgating, on the 9th of
October 14x7, the only reforming decrees on which an agreement
could be reached. The pi inciple of the periodicity of the councils
was admitted; the first was to assemble after the lapse of five
years, the second within the next seven years, and subsequent
councils were to meet decennially. In the event of a fresh
schism, the council, which bound itself to assemble immediately,
even without formal convocation, was to remain sole judge of
the conflict. After his election the pope had to make a pro-
fession of the Catholic faith, and give guarantees against arbitrary
translations. Finally, the council pronounced in favour of the
pope's renunciation of the right to the movable property of
deceased prelates (spolium) as well as of the right of procurations.
The execution of the surplus of the general reform of the church
in its head and members was left in the hands of the future
pope, who had to proceed conjointly with the council, or rather
with a commission appointed by the nations— in other words,
once the new pope was elected, the fathers, conscious of their
impotence, were disinclined to postpone their dispersion until
the laborious achievement of the reform. They were weary of the
business, and wished to be done with it.
In order to rebuild the see of St Peter on a basis now cleared
of obstacles, an attempt was made to surround the election of
■The English, who had hitherto been considered to form part
of the German '• nation," were r ec o gni s e d as a separate nation at
this council for the first time*
the future pope with all the necessary guarantees. Tie asnw>
of the cardinals, who were the only persons judicially
with the right of electing the pope, emerged from the
through which the church had just passed in far too feehkni
contested a condition to carry by its own weight the semi
assent. It was therefore decided that with the ^-fiwfc cm
nation should associate six delegates, and that the soecemti
candidate should be required to poll two-thirds of the snfnA
not only in the Sacred College, but also in each of these is
groups. The advantage of this arrangement was that the cWa
of the future pope would depend, not only on the vote of at
cardinals, thus safeguarding tradition, bat at the same tint a
the unanimous consent of the various nations, by which tk
adhesion of the whole Catholic world to the election wcaU k
guaranteed. There was, indeed, a danger lest the rivamtsa
the assembly might render it exceedingly difficult, not to say ia>
possible, to obtain such unanimity. But at the end of three dtp
the conclave resulted in the election of Cardinal Otto Coknm,
who took the name of Martin V. (nth of November 1417), sad
the Great Schism of the West was at an end.
To conform to the decrees of the council, the new pope drei
up a project of reform with the concurrence of the fathers stifl *•
maining at Constance, and subsequently made various l e fuiaua f,
treaties or concordats with the nations of the council, whkh
finally broke up after the 45th session, held on the sand of And
14x8. To all seeming the pope had admitted the canonicity of
several of the decrees of Constance— for instance, he had submitted
to the necessity of the periodical convocation of other councils;
but from his reticence on some points, as well as from his general
attitude and some of his constitutions, it appeared that the
whole of the decrees of Constance did not receive his unqualified
approval, and without any definite pronoiincement he made son*
reservations in the case of decrees which were detrimental to the
rights and pre-eminence of the Holy See.
See H. von der Hardt, Magnum at cuwunkmm Conttantien*
concilium (Frankfort, 1700); Ulrich von RichentaJ, Das Concilium-
buck mu Constant, ed. by Buck in the Bibliotkek das liter. Vetcm
(Stuttgart, 1882); H. Finke, Forsckungtu und QudUn our Ctsck.
dss Konstanmtr Kontils (Paderborn, 18891, and Acta amcilii Canstam-
tiensis, vol. i. (MQnster, 1896). N. Valou, La Franca at la rmi
sckumt d Occident, voL iv. (Paris, 1902). (N. V.)
CONSTANCE, LAKB OF (called by the Romans Locus Brigam*
linus or lake of Bregens, and now usually named in German
Bodensct, as well as the " Swabian Sea "), the most extensive
sheet of water in the Alpine region, after the Lake of Geneva.
It is situated on the north-east frontier of Switzerland, and b
formed by the Rhine. Its shape is oblong, while at its north-
western extremity it divides into two arms, the UnUrstc((rom Con-
stance to Stein-am-Rhein) and the Vbcrlingtrsee (running up to
Ludwigshafen). The length of the lake from Bregenz to Stein-
am-Rhein is 46} m., while that from Bregens to Ludwigshafen
is but 40 m. Its surface is 1309 ft. above sea-level, the greatest
width is xo} m., and the greatest depth 827 ft. The area of the
lake is 204} sq. m., of which 81 J sq. m. have belonged to Switzer-
land since 1803, the canton of Thurgau holding sof sq. m. and
that of St Gall ax} sq. m. Austria has held Bregens, at the
south-eastern angle of the lake, since 1451, while the north end
of the lake belongs to Baden (Constance held since 1805), and
bits of its eastern shore form part of Wurttemberg (Friedrichs-
hafen, formerly called Buchhorn, since 1810) and of Bavaria
(Lindau since 1805). The first steamer was placed on its waters in
1824. Numerous remains of lake-dwellings have been found on
the shores of this lake (see E. von Troltsch, Dit PfaklbauU*
des BodenseegebieUs, Stuttgart, xoos). (W. A. B. O
CONSTANS, JEAN ANTOINE ERNEST (1833- ), French
statesman, was born at Beziers. He began his career as professor
of law, and in 1876 was elected deputy for Toulouse. He sat
in the Left Centre and was one of the 363 of the 16th of May
1877. Re-elected in October 1877* he joined Freydnet as
minister of the interior in If ay 1880, holding this portfolio until
the 14th of November x88x. On the 22nd of February 1880 he
again assumed the same office in the Tirard cabinet. He became
prominent as a stalwart opponent of the Boulangist party.
CONSTANT— CONSTANT DE REBECQUE
987
constituting the senate a high court of justice, and taking police
measures against the Ligue des patriotes. He resigned on the
lit of March 1890, but his resignation involved the fall of the
cabinet, and he resumed his portfolio in the Freycinet cabinet
on the 17th of March. On the 29th of December 1889 he had
been elected senator by the department of the Haute-Garonnc.
He was violently attacked by the press and the Boulangist
deputies, but did not resign until the whole cabinet withdrew,
on the 26th of February 1892. In December 1898 he was
appointed ambassador at Constantinople.
CONSTANT. BENJAMIN (1845-1002), French painter, was
born in Paris, and studied under Cabanel. His first Salon picture,
" Hamlet et le Roi," was hung in 1869, and he became at once
one of the recognized modern masters in France. In addition
to a number of subject-pictures, such as " Trop Tard " (1870),
" Samson et Delilah " (1871), and others taken from Moroccan
studies, he was an eminent painter of portraits of some of the
most prominent men and women of the day, one of his last being
that of Queen Victoria (1900) He was a member of the Institut
de France and received several French and foreign decorations.
CONSTANT DB REBECQUE, HENRI BENJAMIN (1767-1830),
French writer and politician, was born at Lausanne on the
25th of October 1767 His mother, Henriette de Chandieu, died
at his birth, and his father, Juste Arnold de Constant, com-
manded a regiment in the Dutch service. After a good private
education at Brussels, he was sent to Oxford, and thence to
Erlangcn; a subsequent residence at Edinburgh and the relations
there formed with prominent Whigs profoundly influenced his
political views. He returned to Switzerland in 1786, and in
the next year visited Paris, where he met Madame de Charriere,
a Dutchwoman who had married into a Swiss family with which
his own was connected. Madame de Charriere, although twenty-
seven years older than Constant, became his mistress, and the
liaison, an affair possibly more of the intellect than of the heart,
lasted until 1796, when Constant became intimate with Madame
de Stael. After an escapade in England in 1787, he spent two
months with her at Colombier before becoming, in deference to
his father's wishes, chamberlain at the court of Charles William,
duke of Brunswick, where in 1789 he married one of the ladies-
in-waiting, Wilhelmina, Baroness Chramm. The duke's share
in the coalition against France made his service incompatible
with Constant's political opinions, which were already definitely
republican, and, on the dissolution of his marriage in 1794,
be resigned his post. Meanwhile his father had been accused
of malversation of the funds of his regiment; Benjamin helped
him with his defence, with the result that he was finally ex-
onerated and restored to the service with the rank of general.
Constant, who had met Madame de Stael at Lausanne in 1794,
followed her in the next year to Paris, where he rapidly became
a personage in the moderate republican circle which met in her
salon; and by 1796 he had established with her intimate
relations, which, in spite of many storms, endured for ten years.
In 1796 he published two pamphlets in defence of the Directory
and against the counter-revolution, " De la force du gouverne-
wunt actuel et de la nlccssiU de se railier " and " Da reactions
politique*." He was one of the promoters of the constitutional
dub of Salm, formed to counterbalance the royalist club of
Gichy, and he supported Barras in 1797 and 1799 in the coups
eVitat of 18 Fructidor, and of x8 Brumaire. In December 1799,
he was nominated a member of the Tribunate, where he showed
from the outset an independence quite unacceptable to Napoleon,
by whom he was removed in the " creaming " of that assembly
m, 1802. His incessant opposition was attributed partly to his
association with Madame de Stael, whose salon was a centre
for those disaffected from the Napoleonic regime, and in 1803
he followed her into exile. After M. de Stael 's death in 1802,
there was no longer any obstacle to their marriage, but Madame
de Stael was apparently unwilling to change her name. Much
of Constant's time was spent with her at Coppet, but he also
made long sojourns at Weimar, where he mixed in the Goethe-
Schiller circle, and accumulated material for the great work on
Tefigion which he had begun, so far back as 1787, at Colom-
bier. His relations with Madame de Stael became more and
more difficult, and in x 80S he secretly married Charlotte von
Hardenberg, whom he had known at Brunswick, and whose
divorce from her second husband. General Dutertre, he had
secured. Even his marriage, which did not prove a happy one,
was insufficient to cause an entire breach with Corinne, who
insisted on his return to Coppet for a short time. In 181 1, while
residing with his wife's relations at Hardenberg, near Gdttingen,
he was brought into contact with German mysticism, which
considerably modified his earlier sceptical views on religion.
The Napoleonic reverses of 1813 brought him back to politics,
and in November he published at Hanover his De V esprit de
conquUe et de ^usurpation dans lews rapports avec la civilisation
europienne, directed against Napoleon. He also entered into
relations with the crown prince of Sweden (Bernadotte), who
conferred on him the order of the Polar Star. On his return
to Paris, during its occupation by the allied sovereigns, he was
well received by the emperor Alexander I. of Russia, and resumed
his old place in the Liberal salon of Madame de Stael. In a series
of pamphlets he advocated the principles of a Liberal monarchy
and the freedom of the press. At this point began the second
great attachment of his life, his unfortunate infatuation for
Madame Recamier, under whose influence he committed the
worst blunder of his political career. At the beginning of the
Hundred Days he had violently asserted in the Journal des
debate his resolution not to be a political turncoat, and had left
Paris. Attracted by Madame Recamier, he soon returned, and
after an interview with Napoleon on the 10th of April, he became
a supporter of his government and drew up the Acle constitih
Itonnd. The return of Louis XVIII. drove him into exile. In
London in 18 x 5 he published Adotphe, one of the earliest examples
of the psychological novel. It had been written in 1807, and
is intrinsically autobiographical; that Adolphe represents
Constant himself there is no dispute, but EUenore probably
owes something both to Madame de Charriere and Madame
de Stael. In 1816 he was again in Paris, advocating Liberal
constitutional principles. He founded in 1818 with other
Liberal journalists the Uinerve francaise and in 1820 La
Renommle. In 1 8 1 9 he was returned to the Chamber of Deputies,
and proved so formidable an opponent that the government
made a vain attempt to exclude him from the Chamber on the
ground of his Swiss birth. Perhaps the greatest service he
rendered to his party was his consistent advocacy of the freedom
of the press. At the outbreak of the revolution of 1830 he was
absent from Paris, having undergone an operation, but he re-
turned at the request of Lafayette to take his share hi the
elevation of Louis PmTippe to the throne. On the 2 7th of August
he was made president of the council of state, but he died on
the 8th of December of the same year. During his later years
he had been a cripple in consequence of a fall in the Chamber
of Deputies, and he fought the last of his many duels sitting- in
a chair. After the death, in 181 7, of Madame de Stael, whom
he continued to visit daily until the end, he had ceased to go into
society, giving himself up to his passion for play. To pay his
gambling debts he accepted a gift of 200,000 francs from Louis
Philippe, thus affording a ready handle to his enemies. The
failure of his candidature for the Academy in 1830 is said to
have been a shock to his enfeebled health.
Constant's political career was spoiled by his liaison with
Madame de Stael, and at the Restoration was further disturbed
by his unreturned passion for Madame Recamier. His defects
as a debater were not compensated entirely by the excellence
of his set speeches; but his wide culture and powerful intellect
were bound to leave their mark on affairs. His political in-
consistencies were more apparent than real, for there was no
break in his advocacy of Liberal principles. His best writing
is to be found in his journalism and correspondence (only a
small part of which has been published), rather than in his more
pretentious political pamphlets.
In the most important of his writings, De la religion considirie
dans sa source, ses formes, et ses dieetoppements (5 vols., 1825-
1831), he traces the successive tjnj^«cDD»Ak^^ , fcftfc'«£&sfcp**,
988
CONSTANTIA— CONSTANTINE
sentiment imperishable under its varying farms. Besides
Adolphc, in Us way as Important as Chateaubriand's Reni w be
left two other sketches of novels in MS., which ate apparently
lost. His political tracts were collected by himself as, Cottution
complete des cuvmgrt pubtils wr . . . la France, formant v»e
espfce dc tours de politique tonstilutioanelle {4 vols,, tfiiS-tHro),
ma were his DiKcnri & ia Chamtre o'ej Diputis (2 vols., iS J7).
Authorities.-^ Set Constant - !. Cahier rcugt* published first in
1907, containing his autobiography from 1767 to 1 787 ^ Journal
imlime (iftoj-iHioJ, re-edited with the Letlres A xo famitle by D.
MeMgari in "Sos; the ecffH-autobiographitaJ Adotpht, his letter*
to Madame He Chamcre; to Madame Recamier, edited by Madame
Lenormant in 188?, His ordinary diary has disappeared, »iih his
let lets to hi* wife and to Madame de StaeL See further an article
by Loevc-Veimars in the Revue det deux mondes (rst January tSjj)
If. Castillc. B. Constant (1850); the Riminucerrtei of } % J. Couli
); Ed. Hcrriot h Madame de Rttamitr et iti
manrt
TO/ji); Sainte-Beuve in ZJfrjj«rj portrait* ItUfraire-i (B. Constant
and Madame de CharriAre), Camrrit* da iundt I vol. id.), Afrrnwa**
ittndis (vol,, i.) ; E. Faguet, Pttiitujuei et moral utea du XIX' liceie
(i*** t^rie, tSqi); P. Cadet, Madame de Chatriitre et hi anu
(Geneva,, 1905); L. Miction, Le Gvuvetrtemenl park mtniaite sous la
Reitauraiian (lootj). containing ait Analysis of the mure important
of Constant's political writinga; V* C lac ham. Benjamin Constant
soul I'ard ud gtat (1906). containing an account of hu relations wiih
the polke. alio hi* correspondence; with Fauriel; G, Ruuicr, la
Jcunaie de B. Comsat, and Bibiwgraphit critique [loooju
CONSTANT! A, 1 district of Cape Colony, in the Cape peninsula ,
noted for the excellent quality of its wines, the best produced
in South Africa. The government wine farm, Groot Cons tan lia +
lom. S. of Cape Town, contains over 150,000 vines. This and
the adjacent farm of High Constantia ire the only farms on
which the vines yielding the finest wines flourish. The district
1$ also celebrated for the excellence of the fruit it yields, Groot
Constantsa House is a good example of the Dutch colonial
dwelling -houses of the 17th century. It was built (&. 1684)
by the governor Simon van der Stell, and named in honour of
his wife Constance. Van der Stell also laid out the vineyard,
which soon attained a wide reputation. Old Cape Colony, by
Mrs A. F. Trotter (London, lyoj), contains a plan and sketches
of Croat Constant in.
CONST ANT I NE« the name of several Roman and Later Roman
emperors.
CONStattTiNE I. r known as t4 The Great ■* (288 ?-j37), Roman
emperor — FLavius Valerius Cons tanttnus,'^ was born on the 77th
of February, probably in a, D< iS8, 7 at Naissus (the modern Nish)
in Upper Moesis (Scrvia), He was the illegitimate son of Con-
stant! us L and Fbvia Helena (described by St Ambrose as an
inn keeper) , His father, already a distinguished officer, soon
afterwards became praefectus praetor to, and in 103 was raised to
the tank of Caesar and placed in comrAand of the western
provinces.' While still a boy, Constanlinc was sent— practically
as a hostage — to the Eastern court. He accompanied Diocletian
to the East in 303, was invested with ibe rank of tribunms primi
ordinis and served undct G ale r Jus on the Danube- In 30%
Diocletian and Marimianus Abdicated, and Constant! us and
GaJerius became August!, while Severus and Maximinus Daia
attained the rank of Cacsares. Constantius now demanded
from Gale ri us the restoration of his son, which was unwillingly
granted; indeed, we are told that Constantine only escaped from
the court of Galerius by flight, and evaded pursuit by carrying off
all tbe post-horses I He traversed Europe with the greatest
possible speed and found his father at Bononia (Boulogne), on the
point of crossing to Britain to repel an invasion or Picts and Scott.
After gaining a victory, Constants us died at Eboraium (York),
and on the J£th of July 306, the army acclaimed his son as
Augustus, Cons tan tine, how eve r t displayed lhat union of deter-
mination and prudence which the occasion required. He
accepted the nomination of the army with feigned reluctance and
wrote a carefully- worded letter to Galerius, disclaiming responsi-
* The prvrnamTtte Lucius, Marcus and Gam* are found in various
inscriptions. In reality Constantine, like his father and luccesfcon*
bore no proenamen, - ■ - ,
1 Hi! age at death is variously stated pi 62 (Aut. Viet), f>\ (Epit.
dtCacs), 64 (Eu*eb.) + 65 (Zonar.i* and Socrates) and 66 (butrop.)
•eini Stock An' fhown that tbeie itatement* are falic, and that
tLLa-rtjiffjuf 9as bwa ta or about the year j6o a it.
bility for the action of the troops, but requesting recognition o
Caesar— a position to which he might naturally aspire en tbe
elevation of Severus to the rank of Augustus. Galerius was act
in a position to refuse the request, in view of the temper of lie
western army, and for a year Constantine bore the title of Caesar
not only in his own provinces, but in those of the East as «*&.
He fought with success against the Franks and Alamanni. iad
reorganized the defences of the Rhine, building a bridge it
Colonia Agrippina (Cologne). The rising of Maxentius (c?)
at Rome (Oct. 28), supported by his father Maximianus (?».),
led to the defeat and capture of the western Augustus, Sevens
(q.v.). Maximianusthereupon recognized ConstantineasAugusttf
(a.d. 307), their alliance was confirmed by the marriage of
Constantine with Fausta, the daughter of Maximianus, and the
father and son-in-law held the consulship, which, however, was
not recognized in the East. Galerius now invaded Italy, bat
was forced by a mutiny of his troops to retire from the gates
of Rome. Maximianus urged Constantine to fail upon the flank
of his retreating army, but he once more showed his determina-
tion to tread the strict path of legitimacy. Maximianus, after the
failure of his attempt to depose his son Maxentius, was forced
to seek refuge with Constantine, and became a quanhU nSgttgeaNt.
In 308 Diocletian and Galerius held a conference at Carntrntun
and determined to annul tbe actions of the Western nuers.
Maximianus was set aside, Licinius invested with the purple
as Augustus of the West (Nov. xi), while the title JUius Augus-
tor urn was conferred upon Constantine and Maximums Daia, and
the former was destined for a first consulship (that of 307 being
passed over) for 309. Constantine, with his customary union
of prudence and decision, tacitly ignored this arrangement;
he continued to bear the title of Augustas, and in 309, when he
1 himself was proclaimed consul (with Licinius) in the East, no
consuls were recognized m his dominions. In 310, while Con*
stantine was engaged in repelling an inroad of the Franks,
Maximianus endeavoured to resume the purple at Arelate (Aries).
Constantine returned in haste from the Rhine, and pursued
Maximianus to Massilia, where he was captured and put to death.*
Since Consun tine's legal title to the Empire of the West rested
on his recognition by Maximianus, he had now to seek for a new
ground .of legitimacy, and found it in the assertion of his descent
from Claudius Gothicus (q.v.), who was represented as the father
of Constantius Chlorus. 4
Constantine's patience was soon rewarded. In 311 Galerius
died, and Maximinus Daia (who had assumed the style of
Augustus in 310) at once marched to the shores of the Bosporus
and at the same time entered into negotiations with Maxentius.
This threw Licinius into the arms of Constantine, who entered
into alliance with him and betrothed his half-sister Constantia
to him. In the spring of 3x2 Constantine crossed the Alps,
before Maxentius, who had been obliged to suppress the rebellion
of Domitius Alexander in Africa, had completed his preparations.
The force he crmmanded was of uncertain strength, according
to his Panegyrist (who may have underrated it) it consisted of
about 25,000, according to Zonaras of nearly 100,000 men.
He stormed Susa, defeated Maxentius's generals at Turin and
Verona, and marched straight tor Rome. This bold and almost
desperate move, which contrasted stronglywith Constantine's
usual caution, and seemed to court the failure which had befallen
Severus and Galerius, was, it would seem, the result of an event
which, as told in Eusebius's Life of Constantine, takes the form
of a conspicuous miracle-^-the Vision of the Flaming Cross
which appeared in the sky at noonday with the legend '& rovrv
ma (*' By this conquer "), and led to Constantine's conversion
to Christianity. Eusebius professes to have heard the'story from
the lips of Constantine; but he wrote after the emperor's
• The story told in the Dt mortibus berstcutonm (cap. 30) of a later
conspiracy of Maximianus, which failed owing to the fidelity of
Fausta, is most probably a fiction.
. • Such is the primary version of the story, implied in the Seventh
Panegyric of Eunemus, delivered at Trier in A.n. 310. ft would
teem that when Christian sentiment was offended by the illegitimate
origin ascribed to Constantius, the story was modified and Claudius
became hvs uncle.
CONSTANTINE I.
989
death, and it was evidently unknown to him in the shape given
above when he wrote the Ecclesiastical History. The author of
the Dc mortibus persecutarum, whether Lactantius or another,
was a well-informed contemporary, and he tells us that the
sign was seen by Constantine in a dream; and even Eusebius
supplements the vision by day with a dream in the following
night. In any case, Constantine, who may have been impressed
by the misfortunes which had befallen the more strenuous
opponents of Christianity, adopted the monogram^ as his
device 1 and staked his all on the issue.
Maxcntius, trusting in superiority of numbers,— he is said to
have had 170,000 infantry and 18,000 cavalry at his disposal,
but this total probably includes the forces defeated by Con-
stantine in Northern Italy— marched out of Rome and prepared
to dispute the passage of the Tiber at the Pons Mulvius (Ponte
Mollc), beside which a bridge of boats was constructed. Our
authorities give no satisfactory account of the battle which
followed, and Aurclius Victor places it at Saxa Rubra, a state-
ment accepted by Moltke and other modern authorities. It
is more probable, as Seeck has shown, that while the head of
Maxentius's column may have reached Saxa Rubra (which is some
miles to the north of the Mulvian Bridge on the Via Flaminia),
Constantine, by a rapid turning movement, reached the Via
Cassia and attacked Maxentius's rearguard at the bridge, 1
forcing him to fight in the narrow space between the hills and
the Tiber. The army which Constantine had been training for
six years at once proved its superiority. The Gallic cavalry
swept the left wing of the enemy into the Tiber, swollen with
autumn rains, and with it perished Maxcntius, owing, as was
said, to the collapse of the bridge of boats (Oct. 28). The
remainder of his troops surrendered at discretion and were
incorporated by Constantine in the ranks of his army, with the
exception of the praetorian guard, which was finally disbanded.
Thus Constantine became undisputed master of Rome and
the West, and Christianity, although not as yet adopted as the
official religion, secured by the edict of Milan toleration through-
out the Empire. This edict was the result of a conference
between Constantine and Licinius in 3x3 at Milan, where the
marriage of the latter with Constantia took place. Constantine
was forced to recognize Lidnius's natural son as his heir. In the
course of the same year Licinius defeated Maximinus Daia,
who perished at Tarsus by his own hand. In 3 14 war broke out
between the two August i f owing, as we are told, to the treachery
of Bassianus, the husband of Constantine's sister Anastasia,
for whom he had claimed the rank of Caesar. After two hard-
won victories Constantine made peace, Illyricum and Greece
being added to his dominions. Constantine and Licinius held
the consulship in 315, in which year the former celebrated his
dtctnnalia, and on the xst of March 317 Constantine's two sons
and Lidnius's bastard were proclaimed Caesars.
Peace was preserved for nearly nine years, during which
the wise government of Constantine strengthened his position,
while Licinius (who resumed the persecution of the Christians
in 321) steadily lost ground through his indolence and cruelty.
Great armaments, both military and naval, were called into
being by both emperors, and in the spring of 324* Licinius
(whose forces arc said to have been superior in numbers) declared
war. He was twice defeated, first at Adrianoplc (July 1) and
afterwards at Chrysopolis (Sept. 18), when endeavouring to
raise the siege of Byzantium, and was finally captured at Nico-
media. His life was spared on the intercession of Constantia
and he was interned at Thcssalonica, where he was executed in
the following year on the charge of treasonable correspondence
with the barbarians.
'The name lobar urn, given to the military standards bearing
the monogram, is of unexplained origin. Lactantius says that the
symbol was used on the shields of Constantine's troops.
1 That the battle was called after the Milvian bridge is indicated
by a relief and inscription from Cherchel (C.I.L. viii. 9356).
• It has been disputed whether the final struggle between Con-
stantine and Licinius tookpbee in ad. 323 or 324; but the formulas
f Egyptian papyri seem to point to the Utter
*s 44 Vacadimie des inscriptions, 1906, p.
employed in the dating of
yea* J
^c***^,
Constantine now reigned as sole emperor in East and West.
He presided at the council of Nicaea (see under Nicaea and
Council) in 325; in the same year he celebrated his Vicennalia
in the East, and in 326 repeated the celebration in Rome.
Whilst he was in Rome his eldest son, Crispus, was banished
to Pola and there put to death on a charge brought against him
by Fausta. Shortly afterwards, as it would seem, Constantine
became convinced of his innocence, and ordered Fausta to be
executed. The precise nature of the circumstances remains a
mystery.
In 326 Constantine determined to remove the seat of empire
from Rome to the East, and before the dose of the year the
foundation-stone of Constantinople was laid. At least two other
sites— Sardica and Troy— were considered before the emperor's
choice fell on Byzantium. It is very probable that this step
was connected with Constantine's decision to make Christianity
the official religion of the empire. Rome was naturally the
stronghold of paganism, to which the great majority of the
senate dung with fervent devotion. Constantine did not wish
to do open violence to this sentiment, and therefore resolved to
found a new capital for the new empire of his creation. He
announced that the site had been revealed to him in a dream;
the ceremony of inauguration was performed by Christian
ecclesiastics on the x xth of May 330, when the dty was dedicated
to the Blessed Virgin.
In 332 Constantine was called in to aid the Sarmatians against
the Goths over whom his son gained a great victory on the
20th of April. Two years later there was again fighting on
the Danube, when 300,000 Sarmatians were settled in Roman
territory. In 335 a rebellion in Cyprus gave Constantine aa
excuse for executing the younger Licinius. In the same year
he carried out a partition of the empire between his three sons
and his two nephews, Dclmatius and Hannibalianus. The last
nanfed received the vassal-kingdom of Pontus with the title of
rex rcgum, while the others ruled as Caesars in their several
provinces. Constantine, however, retained the supreme govern-
ment, and in 335 celebrated his tricennalia. Finally, in 337,
Shapur (Sapor) II. of Persia asserted his claim to the provinces
conquered by Diocletian, and war broke out. Constantine was
preparing to lead his army in person, when he was taken ill,
and after a vain trial of the baths at Helenopolis, died at Ancy-
rona, a suburb of Nicoracdia, on the 22nd of May, having received
Christian baptism shortly before at the hands of Eusebius. He,
was buried in the church of the Apostles at Constantinople.
It has been said by Stanley that Constantine was entitled to
be called " Great " in virtue rather of what be did than of what
he was; and it is true that neither his intellectual nor his moral
qualities were such as to earn the title. His claim to greatness
rests mainly on the fact that he divined the future which lay
before Christianity, and determined to enlist it in the service
of his empire, and also on his achievement in completing the
work begun by Aurclian and Diocletian, by which the quasi-
constitutional monarchy or " Principatc " of Augustus was
transformed into the naked absolutism sometimes called the
" Dominate." There is no reason to doubt the sincerity of
Constantine's conversion to Christianity, although we may not
attribute to him the fervent piety which Eusebius ascribes to
him, nor accept as genuine the discourses which pass under his
name. The moral precepts of the new religion were not without
influence upon his life, and he caused his sons to receive a
Christian education. Motives of political expediency, however,
caused him to delay the full recognition of Christianity as the
religion of the state until he became sole ruler of the empire,
although he not merely secured toleration for it immediately
after his victory over Maxcntius, but intervened in the Donatist
controversy as early as 313, and presided at the coundl of Aries
in the following year. By a series of enactments immunities
and privileges of various kinds were conferred on the Catholic
Church and clergy— heretics being specifically exduded —
and the emperor's attitude towards paganism gradually revealed
itself as one of contemptuous toleration. From being die
established religion of the state, to. *a&SlSx*a v Tfi*m.v»y»'£0B*»
99°
CONSTANTINE I.
At the lame time its rites were allowed to subsist except where
they were held to be subversive of morality, and even in the
dosing years of Constantine's reign we find legislation in favoui
of the municipal famines and collegia. In 333, or later, a cult
of the Gens FAroa, as the Imperial family was called, was
established at Hispcllum (Spcllo); the offering of sacrifices in?
the new temple was, however, strictly prohibited. Nor was it 1
until after Constantine's final triumph over Licinius that pagan!
symbols disappeared from the coinage and the Christian mono-
gram (which had already been used as a mint mark) became
a prominent device. From this time forward the Arian con-
troversy demanded the emperor's constant attention, and by
his action in presiding at the council of Nicaea and afterwards
pronouncing sentence of banishment against Athanasius he not
only identified himself more openly than ever with Christianity,
but showed a determination to assert his supremacy in eccle-
siastical affairs, holding no doubt that, as the office of pontifex
tnaximus gave him the supreme control of religious matters
throughout the empire, the regulation of Christianity fell within'
his province. In this matter his discernment failed him. It
had been comparatively easy to apply coercion to the Donatists,
whose resistance to the temporal power was not wholly due toi
spiritual considerations, 1 but was largely the result of less pure
motives; but the Arian controversy raised fundamental issues/
which to the mind of Constantino appeared capable of com-
promise, but in reality, as Athanasius rightly discerned, disclosed 1
vital differences of doctrine. The result foreshadowed the
process by which the church which Constantine hoped to mould
into an instrument of absolutism became its most determined
opponent It is.unnecessary to give more than a passing mention
to the legend according to which Constantine, smitten with
leprosy after the execution of Crispus and Fausta, received
absolution and' baptism from Silvester I. and by h>s Donation
to the bishop of Rome laid the foundation of the temporal
power of the papacy (see Donation op Constantine).
The political system of Constantine was the final result of
a process which, though it had lasted as long as the empire, had
assumed a marked form under Aurdian. It was Aurelian who
surrounded the imperial person with oriental pomp, wearing the
diadem and the jewelled robe, and assuming the style of dominus
and even dots, who assimilated Italy to the condition of the
provinces and gave official furtherance to the economic process
by which a regime of status replaced a regime of contract.
Diocletian endeavoured to secure the new despotism against
military usurpation by an elaborate system of co-regency with
two lines of succession, bearing the names of Jovii and Hcrculii,
but maintained by adoption and not by hereditary succession.
This artificial system was destroyed by Constantine, who]
established dynastic absolutism in favour of his own family,
the gens Flavia, evidence of whose cult is found both in Italy 1
and in Africa. To form a court he created a new official aristo-
cracy to replace the senatorial order, which the military emperors
of the 3rd century a.d. had reduced to practical insignificance.
Upon this aristocracy he showered titles and distinctions, such as
the revised patriciate, which carried with them the coveted
immunity from fiscal burdens. 1 As the senate was now a
quantiti nigligeable, Constantine could afford to readmit its
members freely to the career of provincial administration, which
had been almost dosed to them since the reign of Gallienus, and
to accord to it certain empty privileges such as the free election
of quaestors and praetors, while on the other hand the right of
the senator to be tried by his peers was taken away and he was
placed under the jurisdiction of the provincial governor.
In the administration of the empire Constantine completed
the work of Diodctian by effecting the separation of civil from
military functions. Under him the pracfecii practorio cease
entirely to perform military duties and become the heads of the
dvil administration, more especially in the matter of jurisiSdka:
in 331 thdr decisions were made final and no appeal to U*
emperor was permitted. The dvil governors of the provnea
(vuarii and praesides) had no control of the military forces,
which were commanded by duces; and not content with ik
security against usurpation which was afforded by this divisiot
of power, Constantine employed the comiits who formed a Unjt
element in the official aristocracy to supervise and report upoa
their conduct of affairs (see Count), as well as an army oi so-
called agenlcs in rebus who, under colour of inspecting the Im-
perial posting service, carried on a wholesale system of espiooafe.
In the organization of the army the creation of a field (brat
(comitalenses) beside the permanent frontier-garrisons (limitana)
was probably the work of Diodctian; to Constantine is due the
creation of the great commands under the magistri pedihm
and equitum. He also introduced the practice, afierwardi
increasingly common, of placing barbarians, especially Germans,
in posts of high responsibility.
The organization of society in strictly hereditary corporatioss
or professions was no doubt partly completed before the accesska
I of Constantine; but his legislation contributed to rivet 1st
fetters which bound each individual to the caste from which he
sprang. Such originates are mentioned in Constantine's earliest
laws, and in 33 2 the hereditary status of the agricultural colons
was recognized andenforced. Above all, the munidpal decuriena
on whom the responsibility for raising taxation rested saw every
avenue of escape dosed against them. In 326 they were for-
' bidden to acquire immunity by joining the ranks of the Christian
1 clergy. It was the interest of the government by such means
to secure the regular payment of the heavy fiscal burdens both
in money and in kind which had been laid on the subjects of
the empire by Diodetian and were certainly not dimini s hed by
Constantine. One of our andent authorities speaks of him as
having been for ten years an excellent ruler, for twdve a robber
and for ten a spendthrift, and he was constantly forced to have
recourse to fresh exactions in order to enrich his favourites and
to carry out such extravagant projects as the building of a new
capital. To him are due the taxes known as coliaiU gUbatis,
levied on the estates of senators, and coUatio lustralis, levied oa
the profits of trade.
In general legislation the reign of Constantine was a time of
feverish activity. Nearly three hundred of his enactments
arc preserved to us in the Codes, especially that of Theodoatus.
They display a genuine desire for reform and distinct traces of
Christian influence, e.g. in their humane provisions as to the
treatment of prisoners and slaves and the penalties imposed
on offences against morality. Nevertheless they are in many
instances singularly crude in conception as well as turgid in style,
and were manifestly drafted by official rhetoricians rather than
by trained legists. Like Diocletian, Constantine believed that
the time had come for society to be remodelled by the fiat of
despotic authority, and it is significant that from henceforth
we meet with the undisguised assertion that the will of the
emperor, in whatever form expressed, is the sole fountain of
law. Constantine, in fact, embodies the spirit of absolute
authority which, both in church and state, was to prevail for
many centuries.
Authorities.— The principal andent sources for the life of Con-
itantine are the biography 01 Euscbtus, which is, however, partial
and untrustworthy owing to the ecclesiastical bias of its author
(whose Ecclesiastical History is also of importance), the tract it
mortibus persecutorum ascribed to Lactantius, the orations of the
' The watchword Quid est imperaiori cum ectlesiaf belongs to a
later period.
* These t!t,e * werc *° k^y bestowed that in a.d. 326 Constantine
found it necessary in the interest of the treasury to enact that the .
omcsJ immunity which they carried should no longer be hereditary. I consulted.
Fanegvrici, Nos. vi.-x., the second book of the history of Zosiraus
(which is written from the paean standpoint), the so-called Exeertta
Valesiana and the writings of Aurclius Victor and Eutropiua. The
laws of Constantine contained in the Codex Tkeodosianns have been
treated chronologically by Otto K. Seeck, Zeitsekrift der Sariguy-
Sliflung (Romamsche Abteilunj). x. p. i. ff. and 177 ff. Amongst
modern books may be named J. C. F. Manso, Dae Ltben ConUanttns
ies Crossen (1817), Jacob Durckhardt, Die ZeU Canstantins des
Crossen (and ed., 1880), H. Schiller, Cesckickle der rdmiuhen Kaiser-
toil, ii. 2. 164 ff. (1887), and above all Seeck, Geuhiihte des Uu4*f
gangs der antihen Welt, vol. i (and ed., 1897). For a abort account
in English C H. Firth's Constantine ike. Great (1905) meg be
* CONSTANTINE II.— CONSTANTINE VII.
99*
Constantine II. (31 7-34o), son of Constantine the Great,
Roman emperor (337-340), was born at Arelatc (Aries) in
February 317. On the xst of March in the same year he was
created Caesar, and was consul in 320, 321, 324 and 320. The
fifth anniversary of his Caesarship was celebrated by the pane-
gyrist Nazarius (q.v.y. He gained the credit of the victories of
his generals over the Alamanni (331, for which he received the
title ALamannicus), and over the Goths (332). From 33s he
administered the Gallic portion of the empire as Caesar till his
father's death (22nd of May 337). On the 9th of September in
the same year he assumed the tide of Augustus, together with
his brothers Constant and Constantius, and in 338 a meeting
was held at Viminiacum, on the borders of Pannonia, to arrange
the distribution of the empire. In accordance with the arrange-
ments made by his father, Constantine received Britain, Spain
and the Gauls; Pontus, Asia, the East, and Egypt fell to
Constantius; Africa, Pannonia and the Italics to the youngest
brother Constans, whose dominions were further increased by
the addition of Macedonia, Dalmatia and Thrace, originally
intended for Delmatius, a nephew of Constantine I. and one of
the victims of the general massacre of that emperor's kinsmen.
By virtue of his seniority, Constantine claimed a kind of control
over his brothers. Constans, an ambitious youth encouraged
by intriguing advisers, declined to submit; and Constantine,
jealous of his prerogatives and dissatisfied with his share in
the empire, demanded from Constans the cession of Africa and
equal authority in Italy. After protracted but unavailing
negotiations, Constantine in 340 invaded Italy. He had advanced
as far as Aqufleia, when he fell into an ambuscade and lost
his life. His body was thrown into the little river Alsa, but
subsequently recovered and buried with royal honours.
See Zosimus ii. xii.; Aurelius Victor, Epit. 41; Euscbius, Vila
Constaniim, iv.; O. Seeck in Pauly-Wissowa's Reakncydoptdie,
hr. pC I (1900); Gibbon, Dtcline and Fall, ch. 18.
Constantine m., son of the emperor Heradius (d. 641) by
his first wife Eudoda, succeeded his father as joint-emperor
with Heradeonas, the son of Heradius by his second wife
. Martina. Court intrigues nearly led to a civil war, which was
prevented by the death of Constantine (May 641), after a brief
reign of 103 days. He was supposed to have been poisoned by
order of his step-mother Martina.
Constantine IV. Pogonatus (the " bearded "), son of Constans
II., was emperor from 668 to 685. After his father's death he
set out for Sicily, where an Armenian named Mizizius had been
declared emperor. Having defeated and put the usurper to
death, he returned to the capital. For six years (672-677) the
Arabs under the caliph Moawiya (see Caliphate) besieged
Constantinople, but the ravages caused amongst them by the
so-called " Greek fh*e," heavy losses by land and sea, and the
inroads of the Christian Mardaites (or Maronites, q.v.) of Mount
Lebanon, obliged Moawiya to make peace and agree to pay
tribute for thirty years. The attacks of the Slavs and Avars
upon Thessalonica were heroically repulsed by the inhabitants.
But Constantine, exhausted by the war with the Arabs, was
unable to prevent the Bulgars, a tribe of Finno-Ugrian race,
from crossing the Danube and settling in the district where
their name still survives. The Bulgarian kingdom was established
under its first king Isperich in 679. The tribute paid by the
Arabs was used to purchase the good will of the new settlers.
In order to restore peace in the church, Constantine summoned
an ecumenical council (the sixth) at Constantinople, which held
its sittings from the 7th of November 680 to the x6tb of
September 681. The result was the condemnation of the
Monothelites and a recognition of the doctrine that two wills,
neither opposed nor intermingled, were united in the person
of Christ, in accordance with his twofold nature (see under
Constantinople, Councils of).
Constantine V. Copronymus (Gr. jtorpoO, son of Leo III.
the iconoclast, was emperor 740-775- Immediately after his
accession, while he was engaged in a campaign against the Arabs,
his brotlier-in-law f an Armenian named Artavasdus, a supporter
of the image-worshippers, had been proclaimed emperor, and
It was not till the end of 743 that Constantine re-entered Con-
stantinople, When he fdt his position secure, he determined
to settle the religious controversy once for all. In 754 he
assembled at the palace of Hiereion 338 bishops, by whom the
worship of images was forbidden as opposed to all Christian
doctrine and a curse pronounced upon all those who upheld it.
But in spite of the severity with which the resolution was en*
forced, the resistance to iconoclasm continued, chiefly owing
to the attitude of the monks, who exercised great influence over
the common people. A vigorous campaign against monastidsm
took place; the monasteries were dosed, and many of them
pulled down or converted into barracks; monks and nuni
were compelled to marry, and exiled in large numbers to Cyprus;
the literary and artistic treasures were sold for the benefit of the
imperial treasury. One of the most important results of the
struggle was the defection of the pope, who sought and obtained
protection from Pippin, king of the Franks. All attempts to
induce Pippin to throw over his new protege* failed, and from
this time onward the nominal dependence of Rome and the
papacy on emperors at Constantinople ceased. Constantine
has been described by the orthodox historians of his time as a
monster of iniquity; but, in spite of the harshness and occasional
cruelty with which he treated his religious opponents, for which
an excuse may be found in the obstinate fanaticism of the monks,
it is now generally admitted that he was one of the most capable
rulers who ever occupied the Byzantine throne. He restored
the aqueduct built by Valens and destroyed by the barbarians
in the reign of Heradius, re-peopled Constantinople (after it
had been devastated by a great plague) and some of the dties
of Thrace, revived commercial prosperity, and carried on a
number of wars, in which, on the whole, he was successful,
against the Arabs, Slavs and Bulgarians. In the year of his
death he set out on an expedition against the last-named, but
a violent attack of fever obliged him to discontinue his journey.
He died on board his fleet on his way home.
Constantine VI., grandson of Constantine V., was emperor
780-797. At ten years of age he succeeded his father, Leo IV.,
under the guardianship of his mother Irene (?.*.), who hdd the
reins of government for ten years. In 782 the Arabs under
Harun al-Rashid penetrated as far as the Bosporus, and exacted
an annual tribute as the price of an inglorious peace (see
Caliphate, § C, 3 ad fin.). Even when Constantine came of age,
Irene practically retained the supreme power. At length
Constantine had her arrested, but foolishly pardoned her shortly
afterwards. Disastrous campaigns against the Bulgarians and
Arabs afforded her an opportunity of rousing the contempt and
hatred of the people against their ruler. On his return to
Constantinople, Constantine managed to escape to the Asiatic
coast, but being brought back practically by force he was seised
and blinded. According to some, he died on the same day;
according to others, he survived for several years. With
Constantine VI. the Syrian (Isaurian) dynasty became extinct
See Theophanes, and the biographies of the patriarch Tarariu*
and Theodore of Studium; also F. C. Schlosser, GeschickU der
bildersttirmenden Kaiser des ostrdmischtn Rticks (Frankfurt am
Main, 1812) ; other works s.v. Irene.
Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus (Gr. PorpkyrogentOtot,
" born in the purple ") (005-950), East Roman emperor, author
and patron of literature, was the son of Leo VI. the Wise;
Though nominally emperor from 9x2-959, it was not until
94 5 that Constantine could really be called sole ruler. During this
period be had been practically excluded from all real share in the
government by ambitious relatives. Though wanting in strength
of will, Constantine possessed intelligence and many other good
qualities, and his reign on the whole was not unsatisfactory.
He was poisoned by his son Romanus in 959. Constantine was
a painter and a patron of art, a literary man and a patron of
literature; and herein consists his real importance, since it is
to works written by or directly inspired by him that we are
indebted for our chief knowledge of his times. He was the
author or insptrer of several works of considerable length, (x)
Dt Tkamlibms, an account of the milfcari ^\*\x\ova. W»*w*afc*
992
CONSTANTINE
of the empire during the time of Justinian, chiefly borrowed
from Hierodes and Stephanua of Byzantium. (2) De admini-
strate imperio, an account of the condition of the empire,
and an exposition of the author's view of government, written
for the use of his son Romanus; it also contains most valuable
information as to the condition and history of various foreign
nations with which the Byzantine empire had been brought into
contact on the east, west and north. (3) De cerimoniis aula*
BytanliHae, which describes the customs of the Eastern Church
and court. (4) A life of Basilius I., bis grandfather, based on
the work of Genesius. (5) Two treatises on military subjects are
attributed to bim; one on tactics, which, as the title shows,
was really written by his grandson Constantino VIII., the other
a description of the different methods of fighting in fashion
amongst different peoples. (6) A speech on the despatch of an
image of Christ to Abgar, king of Edessa. Of works under-
taken by his instructions the most important were the Encyclo-
paedic Excerpts from all available treatises on various branches of
learning. (1) Hislorica, in 53 sections, each devoted to a special
subject; of these the sections De legationibus, De virtutibus et
viliis, De sententiis, De insidiis, have been wholly or partly
preserved, (2) Basilica, a compilation from the different parts
of the Justinian Corpus Juris, subsequently the text-book for
the study of law. (3) Gtoponica, agricultural treatises, for which
see Geoponici and Bassus, Cassianus. (4) lattice, a medical
handbook compiled by one Theophancs Nonnus, chiefly from
Oribasius. (5) Hippiatrica, on veterinary surgery, the connexion
of which with Constantino is, however, disputed. (6) Historic
animalium, a compilation from the epitome of Aristotle's work
on the subject by Aristophanes of Byzantium, with additions
from other writers such as Aelian and Timotheus of Gaaa.
On ComfcjntTrir VI L generally the most important WofV is A.
Rambaud, & Empire *ret at* dtifbmt tilrte {\&J*>);- *ee al*o
Gibbon, Decline and fail, ch. 53< s™J G. F inlay, lint, of Grtrcr, ii.
294 (i#77). Many of hit forks will bo found in Mignr, Patrologia
Gratca, ci*,, cxii«, tjtiiL: for edition* of the rtr^t, C T Krumbafhrr,
Crirhukit dtr byzatttittiirkcn Littratur (1(197),, and the article
by I'mIih in P^uly-Wiwujwa'^ Rtalauyttapnuiie dtt tiatiiuhtn
Alttriitfttswintnithiifi (1900) ihould be consuhed. The former
contains a valuable note on the " Gothic Chri&tnu* " described
in detail in the De t%timon\ii' t we also Bury in Eng. Hist. JZcv. jixii.
Constantine VIII. This title is given by Gibbon to the son
of Romanus I. Lccapenus, one of the colleagues of Constantino
VII. Porphyrogcnitus, but it is now generally bestowed upon
Constantino, the brother and colleague of Basil II. from 976-1025,
sole ruler 1025-1028. An absolute contrast to his brother, he
gave himself up to a life of pleasure and allowed the administra-
tion to fall into the hands of six eunuchs.
Constantxne IX. Monomochus, emperor 1042-^054, owed his
elevation to an old admirer, Zoe, the widow of Romanus III.
Argyrus (1028-1034) and of Michael IV. the Paphlagonian (1034-
1041), who, after the brief reign of Michael V. Calaphalcs
(December 104 1- April 1042), was proclaimed empress with her
sister, Theodora. Quarrels broke out between the sisters, and,
in order to secure her position, Zoe* married Constantino, with
whom she shared the throne till her death in 1050. In his old
age Constantine, who had once been a famous warrior, utterly
neglected the defences of the empire and reduced his army by
disbanding 50,000 of his best troops; on the other hand, he spent
extravagant sums on luxuries and the erection of magnificent
buildings. Rebellions broke out at home and abroad; the
Normans conquered Lombardy, which subsequently (1055)
became the duchy of Apulia, and thus Italy was lost to the
empire; the Pctchencgs (PaUinaks) crossed the Danube and
attacked Thrace and Macedonia; and the Scljuk Turks nai
their appearance on the Armenian frontier.
Constantine X. Duces, emperor 1059-1067. succeeded Isaad
Comnenus (q.v.). But the choice was not justified, for Cc>
stanline, who as the friend and minister of Isaac had shot:
himself a capable statesman and financier, proved incompcic:;
as an emperor. He devoted himself to philosophical triflri
petty administrative and judicial details, while his craze i:
economy developed into avarice. He reduced the army, cut do.-
the soldiers' pay, failed to keep up the supply of war mater.,
and neglected the frontier fortresses at a time when the Seii.
Turks were pressing hard upon the eastern portion of the era^L
Alp Arslan, the successor of Toghrul Beg, overran Armenia ::
1004, and destroyed its capital Ani. The Magyars occupied
Belgrade, the Petchenegs (Patzinaks) continued their inroad-
and in 1065 the Uzes (called by the Greeks Comani), a Turkui
tribe from the shores of the Euxine, crossed the Danube in vast
numbers, ravaged Thrace and Macedonia, and penetrated ^
far as Thessalonica. The empire was only saved by an outbreak
of plague amongst the invaders and the bravery of the Bulgarian
peasants. In the year before Constantine's death the remnant
of the Byzantine possessions in Italy was finally lost to the
empire, and the chief town, Bari, taken by the Normans.
For the later Constantine* references to general authorities w.1!
be found under Roman Empire, Later; see also Caliphate and
Seljuks for the wars of the period.
CONSTANTINE [Flavius Claudius Constantikus], usurper
in Britain, Gaul and Spain (aj>. 407-410) during the reign of
Honorius, was a common soldier, invested with the purple by
his comrades in Britain by reason of his alleged descent from
Constantine the Great. He at once crossed over to Bononia
(Boulogne), and with the support of the Gallic troops soon male
himself master of the country as far as the Alps and Pyrenees, and
established his capital at Arclale (Aries). In Spain two kinsmen
of Honorius, who offered considerable resistance, were finally
defeated by Constans, the son pf Constantine. The downfall
of Slilicho caused an alteration in the policy of Honorius, who,
hard pressed by the barbarians, pardoned Constantine, recognized
him as joint ruler, and permitted him to confer the title of Caesar
upon Constans. This gave Constantine his opportunity. With a
large army he marched into Italy, avowedly to assist Honorius,
in reality with the intention of making himself ruler of the West.
But his plans were upset by the revolt of Gcrontius. This
capable general, who had been appointed commander in Spain
during the absence of Constans on a visit to his father, indigrunt
at being superseded, set up one of his own adherents as emperor,
invaded Gaul, and put Constans to death at Vienna ( VUnnc).
He then besieged Constantine himself in Ardate.but the advance
of an Italian army under Constantius and Ulftlas forced him to
retire. The generals of Honorius themselves continued the siege
and completely defeated a body of German troops on their way
to assist Constantine. The latter, seeing that further resistance
was useless, took refuge in a church, laid down the imperial
insignia, took orders as a priest, and surrendered the city on
condition that his life should be spared. He and his younger
son Julian were sent to Honorius, by whose orders they Here
put to death on the way to Ravenna. The revolt of Constantine
materially influenced the subsequent history of Britain, since
the virtual abandonment by Honorius of any claim to sovereignty
over it cleared the way for the Saxon conquest of the island.
See Zosimus v. ad fin. and vi.; Sozomen, Ecclesiastical History,
ix. 11 foil.; Gibbon's Decline and Fall, ed. ). B. Bury, pp. 272, uo,
502: E. A. Freeman. "Tyrants of Britain, Gaul and Spain' in
English Historical Review, i. (1886); O. Sceck in Pauly-Wi$so*a's
END OF SIXTH VOLUME.
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